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diff --git a/old/2006-11-17-19846-8.txt b/old/2006-11-17-19846-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9dc7c07 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2006-11-17-19846-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,31781 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Part 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4 + "Bulgaria" to "Calgary" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 17, 2006 [EBook #19846] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of +public domain material from the Robinson Curriculum.) + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been +incorporated into the text of each page as: v.04 p.0001. + +In the article CALCITE, negative Miller Indices, e.g. "1-bar" in the +original are shown as "-1". + +In the article CALCULATING MACHINES, [Integral,a:b] indicates a definite +integral between lower limit a and upper limit b. [Integral] by itself +indicates an indefinite integral. [=x] and [=y] indicate x-bar and y-bar in +the original. + +[v.04 p.0773] [Illustration] + +the mean interval being 60 m.; the summits are, as a rule, rounded, and the +slopes gentle. The culminating points are in the centre of the range: +Yumrukchál (7835 ft.), Maragudúk (7808 ft.), and Kadimlía (7464 ft.). The +Balkans are known to the people of the country as the _Stara Planina_ or +"Old Mountain," the adjective denoting their greater size as compared with +that of the adjacent ranges: "Balkán" is not a distinctive term, being +applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the Turks, to all mountains. Closely +parallel, on the south, are the minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or "Middle +Mountains" (highest summit 5167 ft.) and the Karaja Dagh, enclosing +respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlyk. At its eastern +extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central +terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Eminé ("Haemus"), the northern forming +the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the rivers falling +directly into the Black Sea. The Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether +distinct from the Balkans, with which, however, it is connected by the +Malka Planina and the Ikhtiman hills, respectively west and east of Sofia; +it may be regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine system which +traverses the Peninsula from the Dinaric Alps and the Shar Planina on the +west to the Shabkhana Dagh near the Aegean coast; its sharper outlines and +pine-clad steeps reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than that of the +Balkans. The imposing summit of Musallá (9631 ft.), next to Olympus, the +highest in the Peninsula, forms the centre-point of the group; it stands +within the Bulgarian frontier at the head of the Mesta valley, on either +side of which the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and +south-east respectively towards the Aegean. The chain of Rhodope proper +radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already +mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the +Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytké (7179 ft.) and +Karlyk (6828 ft.), are within the frontier. From Musallá in a westerly +direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a +picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this +chain attain 7000 ft. Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the +Osogovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen (7392 ft.). To the north of the +Rilska Planina the almost isolated mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs +Sofia. Snow and ice remain in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the +Balkans throughout the summer. The fertile slope trending northwards from +the Balkans to the Danube is for the most part gradual and broken by hills; +the eastern portion known as the _Delí Orman_, or "Wild Wood," is covered +by forest, and thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes precipitous +character of the Bulgarian bank of the Danube contrasts with the swampy +lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side. Northern Bulgaria is watered by +the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern Lom, all, except the +Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing into the Danube. The channels +of these rivers are deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; irrigation is +consequently difficult and navigation impossible. The course of the Iskr is +remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into the basin +of Samakov, passing thence through a serpentine defile into the plateau of +Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a lake; it now forces its way +through the Balkans by the picturesque gorge of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly +the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik breaks the central chain of the Balkans near +their eastern extremity and, uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the +Black Sea. The Maritza, the ancient _Hebrus_, springs from the slopes of +Musallá, and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the wide +plain of Eastern Rumelia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek _Strymon_) +drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza, flows into the +Aegean. The elevated basins of Samakov (lowest altitude 3050 ft.), Trn +(2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia (1640 ft.), and +Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature of the western highlands. + +_Geology._--The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety, almost +all the systems being exemplified. The Archean, composed of gneiss and +crystalline schists, and traversed by eruptive veins, extends over the +greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina, Rhodope, +and the adjacent ranges. North of the Balkans it appears only in the +neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The other earlier Palaeozoic systems are +wanting, but the Carboniferous appears in the western Balkans with a +continental _facies_ (Kulm). Here anthracitiferous coal is found in beds of +argillite and sandstone. Red sandstone and conglomerate, representing the +Permian system, appear especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these, +in the western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper +Jurassic, also occurring in the central part of the range. The Cretaceous +system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears +throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the +Balkans to the Danube. Gosau beds are found on the southern declivity of +the chain. Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and Eocene systems, is +widely distributed. The Eocene, or older Tertiary, further appears with +nummulitic formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene +only near the Black Sea coast at Burgas. Of the Neogene, or younger +Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears near Pleven (Plevna) +in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between Varna and Burgas with beds +of spaniodons, as in the Crimea; the Sarmatian stage in the plain of the +Danube and in the districts of Silistria and Varna. A rich mammaliferous +deposit (_Hipparion_, _Rhinoceros_, _Dinotherium_, _Mastodon_, &c.) of this +period has been found near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more +limited space. The Quaternary era is represented by the typical loess, +which covers most of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the +alluvial deposits of the riparian districts with remains of the _Ursus_, +_Equus_, &c., found in bone-caverns. Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans +and Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern [v.04 +p.0774] ranges, presenting granite, syenite, diorite, diabase, +quartz-porphyry, melaphyre, liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt, &c. + +_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, although, with +the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited. The minerals which +are commercially valuable include gold (found in small quantities), silver, +graphite, galena, pyrite, marcasite, chalcosine, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, +bornite, cuprite, hematite, limonite, ochre, chromite, magnetite, azurite, +manganese, malachite, gypsum, &c. The combustibles are anthracitiferous +coal, coal, "brown coal" and lignite. The lignite mines opened by the +government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons. Coal beds have +been discovered at Trevna and elsewhere. Thermal springs, mostly +sulphureous, exist in forty-three localities along the southern slope of +the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of Sofia and Kiustendil; +maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near Dupnitza, 180.5° (Fahrenheit), at +Sofia 118.4°. Many of these are frequented now, as in Roman times, owing to +their valuable therapeutic qualities. The mineral springs on the north of +the Balkans are, with one exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), cold. + +_Climate._--The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison with that +of other European regions of the same latitude is attributable in part to +the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in part to the general +configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme heat in summer and cold in +winter, great local contrasts, and rapid transitions of temperature occur +here as in the adjoining countries. The local contrasts are remarkable. In +the districts extending from the Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed +to the bitter north wind, the winter cold is intense, and the river, +notwithstanding the volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently +frozen over; the temperature has been known to fall to 24° below zero. +Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans against hot southerly winds, +the summer heat in this region is not unbearable; its maximum is 99°. The +high tableland of Sofia is generally covered with snow in the winter +months; it enjoys, however, a somewhat more equable climate than the +northern district, the maximum temperature being 86°, the minimum 2°; the +air is bracing, and the summer nights are cool and fresh. In the eastern +districts the proximity of the sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold; +the sea is occasionally frozen at Varna. The coast-line is exposed to +violent north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the [Greek: pontos axeinos] or +"inhospitable sea" of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation for storms. +The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a comparatively warm +climate; spring begins six weeks earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and +the vegetation is that of southern Europe. In general the Bulgarian winter +is short and severe; the spring short, changeable and rainy; the summer +hot, but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (_yasen_, "the clear time") +magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month of December. The +mean temperature is 52°. The climate is healthy, especially in the +mountainous districts. Malarial fever prevails in the valley of the +Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the +upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage. The mean annual +rainfall is 25-59 in. (Gabrovo, 41-73; Sofia, 27-68; Varna, 18-50). + +_Fauna._--Few special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian fauna. Bears +are still abundant in the higher mountain districts, especially in the +Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian bear is small and of brown +colour, like that of the Carpathians. Wolves are very numerous, and in +winter commit great depredations even in the larger country towns and +villages; in hard weather they have been known to approach the outskirts of +Sofia. The government offers a reward for the destruction of both these +animals. The roe deer is found in all the forests, the red deer is less +common; the chamois haunts the higher regions of the Rilska Planina, +Rhodope and the Balkans. The jackal (_Canis aureus_) appears in the +district of Burgas; the lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild +boar, otter, fox, badger, hare, wild cat, marten, polecat (_Foetorius +putorius_; the rare tiger polecat, _Foetorius sarmaticus_, is also found), +weasel and shrewmouse (_Spermophilus citillus_) are common. The beaver +(Bulg. _bebr_) appears to have been abundant in certain localities, _e.g._ +Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently extinct. Snakes (_Coluber +natrix_ and other species), vipers (_Vipera berus_ and _V. ammodytes_), and +land and water tortoises are numerous. The domestic animals are the same as +in the other countries of southeastern Europe; the fierce shaggy grey +sheep-dog leaves a lasting impression on most travellers in the interior. +Fowls, especially turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of +geese may be seen in the Moslem villages. The ornithology of Bulgaria is +especially interesting. Eagles (_Aquila imperialis_ and the rarer _Aquila +fulva_), vultures (_Vultur monachus_, _Gyps fulvus_, _Neophron +percnopterus_), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of prey are +extraordinarily abundant; singing birds are consequently rare. The +lammergeier (_Gypaëtus barbatus_) is not uncommon. Immense flocks of wild +swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube and the +lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of the woods (_Tetrao urogallus_) +is found in the Balkan and Rhodope forests, the wild pheasant in the Tunja +valley, the bustard (_Otis tarda_) in the Eastern Rumelian plain. Among the +migratory birds are the crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley, +woodcock, snipe and quail; the great spotted cuckoo (_Coccystes +glandarius_) is an occasional visitant. The red starling (_Pastor roseus_) +sometimes appears in large flights. The stork, which is never molested, +adds a picturesque feature to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water fish, +the sturgeon (_Acipenser sturio_ and _A. huso_), sterlet, salmon (_Salmo +hucho_), and carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams abound in +trout. The Black Sea supplies turbot, mackerel, &c.; dolphins and flying +fish may sometimes be seen. + +_Flora._--In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (1) the +northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the southern +plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts adjoining the +Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov and Kiustendil, (5) +the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans and the southern mountain +group. In the first-mentioned region the vegetation resembles that of the +Russian and Rumanian steppes; in the spring the country is adorned with the +flowers of the crocus, orchis, iris, tulip and other bulbous plants, which +in summer give way to tall grasses, umbelliferous growths, _dianthi_, +_astragali_, &c. In the more sheltered district south of the Balkans the +richer vegetation recalls that of the neighbourhood of Constantinople and +the adjacent parts of Asia Minor. On the Black Sea coast many types of the +Crimean, Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora present +themselves. The plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish specimens of +sub-alpine plants, while the vine disappears; the hollow of Kiustendil, +owing to its southerly aspect, affords the vegetation of the Macedonian +valleys. The flora of the Balkans corresponds with that of the Carpathians; +the Rila and Rhodope group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with +those of the central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The +Alpine types are often represented by variants: _e.g._ the _Campanula +alpina_ by the _Campanula orbelica_, the _Primula farinosa_ by the _Primula +frondosa_ and _P. exigua_, the _Gentiana germanica_ by the _Gentiana +bulgarica_, &c. The southern mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the +unexplored highlands of Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown +elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases corresponding with those of the +Caucasus. Among the more characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are +the following:--_Centaurea_, _Cirsium_, _Linaria_, _Scrophularia_, +_Verbascum_, _Dianthus_, _Silene_, _Trifolium_, _Euphorbia_, _Cytisus_, +_Astragalus_, _Ornithogalum_, _Allium_, _Crocus_, _Iris_, _Thymus_, +_Umbellifera_, _Sedum_, _Hypericum_, _Scabiosa_, _Ranunculus_, _Orchis_, +_Ophrys_. + +_Forests._--The principal forest trees are the oak, beech, ash, elm, +walnut, cornel, poplar, pine and juniper. The oak is universal in the +thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnificent forests of +beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the +northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the +southern slope is bare. The walnut and chestnut are mainly confined to +eastern Rumelia. Conifers (_Pinus silvestris_, _Picea excelsa_, _Pinus +laricis_, _Pinus mughus_) are rare in the Balkans, but abundant in the +higher regions of the southern mountain group, where the _Pinus peuce_, +otherwise peculiar to the Himalayas, also flourishes. The wild lilac forms +a beautiful feature in the spring landscape. Wild fruit trees, such as the +apple, pear and plum, are common. The vast forests of the middle ages +disappeared under the supine Turkish administration, which took no measures +for their protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of +towns and highways in order to deprive brigands of shelter. A law passed in +1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting timber, and places +the state forests under the control of inspectors. According to official +statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of the whole superficies of the +kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion of this area is covered +only by brushwood and scrub. The beautiful forests of the Rila district are +rapidly disappearing under exploitation. + +_Agriculture._--Agriculture, the main source of wealth to the country, is +still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignorance and conservatism +of the peasantry, the habits engendered by widespread insecurity and the +fear of official rapacity under Turkish rule, insufficiency of +communications, want of capital, and in some districts sparsity of +population, have all tended to retard the development of this most +important industry. The peasants cling to traditional usage, and look with +suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of production. The +plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only partially +practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown. The government has +sedulously endeavoured to introduce more enlightened methods and ideas by +the establishment of agricultural schools, the appointment of itinerant +professors and inspectors, the distribution of better kinds of seeds, +improved implements, &c. Efforts have been made to improve the breeds of +native cattle and horses, and stallions have been introduced from Hungary +and distributed throughout the country. Oxen and buffaloes are the +principal animals of draught; the buffalo, which was apparently introduced +from Asia in remote times, is much prized by the peasants for its patience +and strength; it is, however, somewhat delicate and requires much care. In +[v.04 p.0775] the eastern districts camels are also employed. The Bulgarian +horses are small, but remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a +rule unfitted for draught and cavalry purposes. The best sheep are found in +the district of Karnobat in Eastern Rumelia. The number of goats in the +country tends to decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these +animals owing to the injury they inflict on young trees. The average price +of oxen is £5 each, draught oxen £12 the pair, buffaloes £14 the pair, cows +£2, horses £6, sheep, 7s., goats 5s., each. The principal cereals are +wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats and millet. The cultivation of maize is +increasing in the Danubian and eastern districts. Rice-fields are found in +the neighbourhood of Philippopolis. Cereals represent about 80% of the +total exports. Besides grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of +roses, silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could +the peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of +wine-making the Bulgarian vintages would rank among the best European +growths. The tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in +considerable quantities for home consumption and only an insignificant +amount is exported. The best tobacco-fields in Bulgaria are on the northern +slopes of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which produces the famous +Kavala growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The +rose-fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between +the Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh. +About 6000 lb of the rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from +£12 to £14 per lb. Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia. +Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to disease +among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with promise +of success. Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern Rumelia. + +Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averaging about 18 +acres each. There are scarcely any large estates owned by individuals, but +some of the monasteries possess considerable domains. The large +_tchifliks_, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish landowners, have been +divided among the peasants. The rural proprietors enjoy the right of +pasturing their cattle on the common lands belonging to each village, and +of cutting wood in the state forests. They live in a condition of rude +comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in the towns. A +peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricultural life is the +_zadruga_, or house-community, a patriarchal institution apparently dating +from prehistoric times. Family groups, sometimes numbering several dozen +persons, dwell together on a farm in the observance of strictly communistic +principles. The association is ruled by a house-father (_domakin_, +_stareïshina_), and a house-mother (_domakinia_), who assign to the members +their respective tasks. In addition to the farm work the members often +practise various trades, the proceeds of which are paid into the general +treasury. The community sometimes includes a priest, whose fees for +baptisms, &c., augment the common fund. The national aptitude for +combination is also displayed in the associations of market gardeners +(_gradinarski druzhini_, _taifi_), who in the spring leave their native +districts for the purpose of cultivating gardens in the neighbourhood of +some town, either in Bulgaria or abroad, returning in the autumn, when they +divide the profits of the enterprise; the number of persons annually thus +engaged probably exceeds 10,000. Associations for various agricultural, +mining and industrial undertakings and provident societies are numerous: +the handicraftsmen in the towns are organized in _esnafs_ or gilds. + +_Manufactures._--The development of manufacturing enterprise on a large +scale has been retarded by want of capital. The principal establishments +for the native manufactures of _aba_ and _shayak_ (rough and fine +homespuns), and of _gaitan_ (braided embroidery) are at Sliven and Gabrovo +respectively. The Bulgarian homespuns, which are made of pure wool, are of +admirable quality. The exportation of textiles is almost exclusively to +Turkey: value in 1806, £104,046; in 1898, £144,726; in 1904, £108,685. +Unfortunately the home demand for native fabrics is diminishing owing to +foreign competition; the smaller textile industries are declining, and the +picturesque, durable, and comfortable costume of the country is giving way +to cheap ready-made clothing imported from Austria. The government has +endeavoured to stimulate the home industry by ordering all persons in its +employment to wear the native cloth, and the army is supplied almost +exclusively by the factories at Sliven. A great number of small +distilleries exist throughout the country; there are breweries in all the +principal towns, tanneries at Sevlievo, Varna, &c., numerous corn-mills +worked by water and steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain torrents, +in the Balkans and Rhodope. A certain amount of foreign capital has been +invested in industrial enterprises; the most notable are sugar-refineries +in the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis, and a cotton-spinning mill +at Varna, on which an English company has expended about £60,000. + +_Commerce._--The usages of internal commerce have been considerably +modified by the development of communications. The primitive system of +barter in kind still exists in the rural districts, but is gradually +disappearing. The great fairs (_panaïri_, [Greek: panêgureis]) held at +Eski-Jumaia, Dobritch and other towns, which formerly attracted multitudes +of foreigners as well as natives, have lost much of their importance; a +considerable amount of business, however, is still transacted at these +gatherings, of which ninety-seven were held in 1898. The principal seats of +the export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on the Black Sea, and +Svishtov, Rustchuk, Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo, and Vidin on the Danube. +The chief centres of distribution for imports are Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk, +Philippopolis and Burgas. About 10% of the exports passes over the Turkish +frontier, but the government is making great efforts to divert the trade to +Varna and Burgas, and important harbour works have been carried out at both +these ports. The new port of Burgas was formally opened in 1904, that of +Varna in 1906. + +In 1887 the total value of Bulgarian foreign commerce was £4,419,589. The +following table gives the values for the six years ending 1904. The great +fluctuations in the exports are due to the variations of the harvest, on +which the prosperity of the country practically depends:-- + + Year. Exports. Imports. Total. + + £ £ £ + 1899 2,138,684 2,407,123 4,545,807 + 1900 2,159,305 1,853,684 4,012,989 + 1901 3,310,790 2,801,762 6,112,552 + 1902 4,147,381 2,849,059 7,996,440 + 1903 4,322,945 3,272,103 7,595,048 + 1904 6,304,756 5,187,583 11,492,339 + +The principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hides, cheese, +eggs, attar of roses. Exports to the United Kingdom in 1900 were valued at +£239,665; in 1904 at £989,127. The principal imports are textiles, metal +goods, colonial goods, implements, furniture, leather, petroleum. Imports +from the United Kingdom in 1900, £301,150; in 1904, £793,972. + +The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of £400,000, has its +central establishment at Sofia, and branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk, +Varna, Trnovo and Burgas. Besides conducting the ordinary banking +operations, it issues loans on mortgage. Four other banks have been founded +at Sofia by groups of foreign and native capitalists. There are several +private banks in the country. The Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Industrial +Bank of Kiev have branches at Philippopolis and Sofia respectively. The +agricultural chests, founded by Midhat Pasha in 1863, and reorganized in +1894, have done much to rescue the peasantry from the hands of usurers. +They serve as treasuries for the local administration, accept deposits at +interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage or the security of two +solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887 was £569,260; in 1904, +£1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been constituted as the "Bulgarian +Agricultural Bank"; the central direction is at Sofia. The post-office +savings bank, established 1896, had in 1905 a capital of £1,360,560. + +There are over 200 registered provident societies in the country. The legal +rate of interest is 10%, but much higher rates are not uncommon. + +Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has adopted the +metric system. Turkish weights and measures, however, are still largely +employed in local commerce. The monetary unit is the _lev_, or "lion" (pl. +_leva_), nominally equal to the franc, with its submultiple the _stotinka_ +(pl. _-ki_), or centime. The coinage consists of nickel and bronze coins +(2½, 5, 10 and 20 _stotinki_) and silver coins [v.04 p.0776] (50 +_stotinki_; 1, 2 and 5 _leva_). A gold coinage was struck in 1893 with +pieces corresponding to those of the Latin Union. The Turkish pound and +foreign gold coins are also in general circulation. The National Bank +issues notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 _leva_, payable in gold. Notes +payable in silver are also issued. + +_Finance._--It is only possible here to deal with Bulgarian finance prior +to the declaration of independence in 1908. At the outset of its career the +principality was practically unencumbered with any debt, external or +internal. The stipulations of the Berlin Treaty (Art. ix.) with regard to +the payment of a tribute to the sultan and the assumption of an "equitable +proportion" of the Ottoman Debt were never carried into effect. In 1883 the +claim of Russia for the expenses of the occupation (under Art. xx. of the +treaty) was fixed at 26,545,625 fr. (£1,061,820) payable in annual +instalments of 2,100,000 fr. (£84,000). The union with Eastern Rumelia in +1885 entailed liability for the obligations of that province consisting of +an annual tribute to Turkey of 2,951,000 fr. (£118,040) and a loan of +3,375,000 fr. (£135,000) contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank. In 1888 +the purchase of the Varna-Rustchuk railway was effected by the issue of +treasury bonds at 6% to the vendors. In 1889 a loan of 30,000,000 fr. +(£1,200,000) bearing 6% interest was contracted with the Vienna Länderbank +and Bankverein at 85½. In 1892 a further 6% loan of 142,780,000 fr. +(£5,711,200) was contracted with the Länderbank at 83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a +5% loan of 106,000,000 fr. (£4,240,000), secured on the tobacco dues and +the stamp-tax, was contracted with the Banque de l'État de Russie and the +Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas at 81½, for the purpose of consolidating +the floating debt, and in 1904 a 5% loan of 99,980,000 fr. (£3,999,200) at +82, with the same guarantees, was contracted with the last-named bank +mainly for the purchase of war material in France and the construction of +railways. In January 1906 the national debt stood as follows:--Outstanding +amount of the consolidated loans, 363,070,500 fr. (£14,522,820); internal +debt, 15,603,774 fr. (£624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208 +(£76,408). In February 1907 a 4½% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85, secured on +the surplus proceeds of the revenues already pledged to the loans of 1902 +and 1904, was contracted with the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas +associated with some German and Austrian banks for the conversion of the +loans of 1888 and 1889 (requiring about 53,000,000 fr.) and for railway +construction and other purposes. The total external debt was thus raised to +upwards of 450,000,000 fr. The Eastern Rumelian tribute and the rent of the +Sarambey-Belovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a further +sum of 50,919,100 fr. (£2,036,765). The national debt was not +disproportionately great in comparison with annual revenue. After the union +with Eastern Rumelia the budget receipts increased from 40,803,262 leva +(£1,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (£4,786,220) in 1904; the +estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva (£4,476,800), of which +41,179,000 (£1,647,160) were derived from direct and 38,610,000 +(£1,544,400) from indirect taxation; the estimated expenditure was +111,903,281 leva (£4,476,131), the principal items being: public debt, +31,317,346 (£1,252,693); army, 26,540,720 (£1,061,628); education, +10,402,470 (£416,098); public works, 14,461,171 (£578,446); interior, +7,559,517 (£302,380). The actual receipts in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. In +1895 direct taxation, which pressed heavily on the agricultural class, was +diminished and indirect taxation (import duties and excise) considerably +increased. In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c., indirect to 8 +fr. 58 c., per head of the population. The financial difficulties in which +the country was involved at the close of the 19th century were attributable +not to excessive indebtedness but to heavy outlay on public works, the +army, and education, and to the maintenance of an unnecessary number of +officials, the economic situation being aggravated by a succession of bad +harvests. The war budget during ten years (1888-1897) absorbed the large +sum of 275,822,017 leva (£11,033,300) or 35.77% of the whole national +income within that period. In subsequent years military expenditure +continued to increase; the total during the period since the union with +Eastern Rumelia amounting to 599,520,698 leva (£23,980,800). + +_Communications._--In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria was the +Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English company in 1867. In +Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to Philippopolis and the Turkish +frontier (122 m.), with a branch to Yamboli (66 m.), had been built by +Baron Hirsch in 1873, and leased by the Turkish government to the Oriental +Railways Company until 1958. It was taken over by the Bulgarian government +in 1908 (see _History_, below). The construction of a railway from the +Servian frontier at Tzaribrod to the Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel +was imposed on the principality by the Berlin Treaty, but political +difficulties intervened, and the line, which touches Sofia, was not +completed till 1888. In that year the Bulgarian government seized the short +connecting line Belovo-Sarambey belonging to Turkey, and railway +communication between Constantinople and the western capitals was +established. Since that time great progress has been made in railway +construction. In 1888, 240 m. of state railways were open to traffic; in +1899, 777 m.; in 1902, 880 m. Up to October 1908 all these lines were +worked by the state, and, with the exception of the Belovo-Sarambey line +(29 m.), which was worked under a convention with Turkey, were its +property. The completion of the important line Radomir-Sofia-Shumen +(November 1899) opened up the rich agricultural district between the +Balkans and the Danube and connected Varna with the capital. Branches to +Samovit and Rustchuk establish connexion with the Rumanian railway system +on the opposite side of the river. It was hoped, with the consent of the +Turkish government, to extend the line Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to Uskub, +and thus to secure a direct route to Salonica and the Aegean. Road +communication is still in an unsatisfactory condition. Roads are divided +into three classes: "state roads," or main highways, maintained by the +government; "district roads" maintained by the district councils; and +"inter-village roads" (_mezhduselski shosseta_), maintained by the +communes. Repairs are effected by the _corvée_ system with requisitions of +material. There are no canals, and inland navigation is confined to the +Danube. The Austrian _Donaudampschiffahrtsgesellschaft_ and the Russian +_Gagarine_ steamship company compete for the river traffic; the grain trade +is largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants. The coasting +trade on the Black Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian steamship company; the +steamers of the Austrian Lloyd, and other foreign companies call at Varna, +and occasionally at Burgas. + +The development of postal and telegraphic communication has been rapid. In +1886, 1,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 29,063,043. Receipts of posts +and telegraphs in 1886 were £40,975, in 1903 £134,942. In 1903 there were +3261 m. of telegraph lines and 531 m. of telephones. + +_Towns._--The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the capital (Bulgarian +_Sredetz_, a name now little used), pop. in January 1906, 82,187; +Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Rumelia (Bulg. _Plovdiv_), pop. +45,572; Varna, 37,155; Rustchuk (Bulg. _Russé_), 33,552; Sliven, 25,049; +Shumla (Bulg. _Shumen_), 22,290; Plevna (Bulg. _Pleven_), 21,208; +Stara-Zagora, 20,647; Tatar-Pazarjik, 17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek +_Hyampolis_), 15,708; Dobritch (Turkish _Hajiolu-Pazarjik_), 15,369; +Haskovo, 15,061; Vratza, 14,832; Stanimaka (Greek _Stenimachos_), 14,120; +Razgrad, 13,783; Sistova (Bulg. _Svishtov_), 13,408; Burgas, 12,846; +Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the ancient capital, 12,171. All these are +described in separate articles. + +_Population._--The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq. m.; of Eastern +Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240 sq. m. According to the +census of the 12th of January 1906, the population of northern Bulgaria was +2,853,704; of Eastern Rumelia, 1,174,535; of united Bulgaria, 4,028,239 or +88 per sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between Rumania and Portugal in regard to +area; between the Netherlands and Switzerland in regard to population: in +density of population it may be compared with Spain and Greece. + +The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave the total +population as 3,154,375. In January 1893 the population was 3,310,713; in +January 1901, 3,744,283. + +The movement of the population at intervals of five years has been as +follows:-- + + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + | Year. | Marriages. | Births | Still- | Deaths. | Natural | + | | |(living). | born. | |Increase.[1]| + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + | 1882 | 19,795 | 74,642 | 300 | 38,884 | 35,758 | + | 1887 | 20,089 | 83,179 | 144 | 39,396 | 43,783 | + | 1892 | 27,553 | 117,883 | 321 | 103,550 | 14,333 | + | 1897 | 29,227 | 149,631 | 858 | 90,134 | 59,497 | + | 1902 | 36,041 | 149,542 | 823 | 91,093 | 58,449 | + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[1] Excess of births over deaths. + +The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the five years 1882-1886 the +mean death-rate was 18.0 per 1000; in 1887-1891, 20.4; in 1892-1896, 27.0; +in 1897-1902, 23.92. Infant mortality is high, especially among the +peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely survive, the adult population +is in general robust, hardy and long-lived. The census of January 1901 +gives 2719 persons of 100 years and upwards. Young men, as a rule, marry +betore the age of twenty-five, girls before eighteen. The number of +illegitimate births is inconsiderable, averaging only 0.12 of the total. +The population according to sex in 1901 is given as 1,909,567 males and +1,834,716 females, or 51 males to 49 females. A somewhat similar disparity +may be observed in the other countries of the Peninsula. Classified +according to occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or 74.85% of the population, +are engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various productive industries; +118,824 in the service of the government or the exercise of liberal +professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population according to race +cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is approximately shown by +the census of 1901, which gives the various nationalities according to +language as follows:--Bulgars, 2,888,219; Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063; +Greeks, 66,635; Gipsies (Tziganes), 89,549; Jews (Spanish speaking), +33,661; Tatars, [v.04 p.0777] 18,884; Armenians, 14,581; other +nationalities, 30,451. The Bulgarian inhabitants of the Peninsula beyond +the limits of the principality may, perhaps, be estimated at 1,500,000 or +1,600,000, and the grand total of the race possibly reaches 5,500,000. + +_Ethnology._--The Bulgarians, who constitute 77.14% of the inhabitants of +the kingdom, are found in their purest type in the mountain districts, the +Ottoman conquest and subsequent colonization having introduced a mixed +population into the plains. + +The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish invasion resulted +in the extirpation or flight of a large proportion of the Bulgarian +inhabitants of the lowlands, who were replaced by Turkish colonists. The +mountainous districts, however, retained their original population and +sheltered large numbers of the fugitives. The passage of the Turkish armies +during the wars with Austria, Poland and Russia led to further Bulgarian +emigrations. The flight to the Banat, where 22,000 Bulgarians still remain, +took place in 1730. At the beginning of the 19th century the majority of +the population of the Eastern Rumelian plain was Turkish. The Turkish +colony, however, declined, partly in consequence of the drain caused by +military service, while the Bulgarian remnant increased, notwithstanding a +considerable emigration to Bessarabia before and after the Russo-Turkish +campaign of 1828. Efforts were made by the Porte to strengthen the Moslem +element by planting colonies of Tatars in 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The +advance of the Russian army in 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus of the +Turkish population, of which only a small proportion returned to settle +permanently. The emigration continued after the conclusion of peace, and is +still in progress, notwithstanding the efforts of the Bulgarian government +to arrest it. In twenty years (1879-1899), at least 150,000 Turkish +peasants left Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains +unoccupied. On the other hand, a considerable influx of Bulgarians from +Macedonia, the vilayet of Adrianople, Bessarabia, and the Dobrudja took +place within the same period, and the inhabitants of the mountain villages +show a tendency to migrate into the richer districts of the plains. + +The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to Elena are inhabited +almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in Eastern Rumelia the national element +is strongest in the Sredna Gora and Rhodope. Possibly the most genuine +representatives of the race are the Pomaks or Mahommedan Bulgarians, whose +conversion to Islam preserved their women from the licence of the Turkish +conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope and certain districts in +the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch) and Plevna. Retaining their +Bulgarian speech and many ancient national usages, they may be compared +with the indigenous Cretan, Bosnian and Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks in the +principality are estimated at 26,000, but their numbers are declining. In +the north-eastern district between the Yantra and the Black Sea the +Bulgarian race is as yet thinly represented; most of the inhabitants are +Turks, a quiet, submissive, agricultural population, which unfortunately +shows a tendency to emigrate. The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a variety +of races. The Greek element is strong in the maritime towns, and displays +its natural aptitude for navigation and commerce. The Gagäuzi, a peculiar +race of Turkish-speaking Christians, inhabit the littoral from Cape Eminé +to Cape Kaliakra: they are of Turanian origin and descend from the ancient +Kumani. The valleys of the Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed +population consisting of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the principal Greek +colonies are in Stanimaka, Kavakly and Philippopolis. The origin of the +peculiar Shôp tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of Sofia, Breznik +and Radomir is a mystery. The Shôps are conceivably a remnant of the +aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in its mountain home during the +Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions: they cling with much tenacity to their +distinctive customs, apparel and dialect. The considerable Vlach or Ruman +colony in the Danubian districts dates from the 18th century, when large +numbers of Walachian peasants sought a refuge on Turkish soil from the +tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the department of Vidin alone contains 36 +Ruman villages with a population of 30,550. Especially interesting is the +race of nomad shepherds from the Macedonian and the Aegean coast who come +in thousands every summer to pasture their flocks on the Bulgarian +mountains; they are divided into two tribes--the Kutzovlachs, or "lame +Vlachs," who speak Rumanian, and the Hellenized Karakatchans or "black +shepherds" (compare the Morlachs, or Mavro-vlachs, [Greek: mauroi blaches], +of Dalmatia), who speak Greek. The Tatars, a peaceable, industrious race, +are chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Varna and Silistria; they were +introduced as colonists by the Turkish government in 1861. They may be +reckoned at 12,000. The gipsies, who are scattered in considerable numbers +throughout the country, came into Bulgaria in the 14th century. They are +for the most part Moslems, and retain their ancient Indian speech. They +live in the utmost poverty, occupy separate cantonments in the villages, +and are treated as outcasts by the rest of the population. The Bulgarians, +being of mixed origin, possess few salient physical characteristics. The +Slavonic type is far less pronounced than among the kindred races; the +Ugrian or Finnish cast of features occasionally asserts itself in the +central Balkans. The face is generally oval, the nose straight, the jaw +somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are rather below middle height, +compactly built, and, among the peasantry, very muscular; the women are +generally deficient in beauty and rapidly grow old. The upper class, the +so-called _intelligenzia_, is physically very inferior to the rural +population. + +_National Character._--The character of the Bulgarians presents a singular +contrast to that of the neighbouring nations. Less quick-witted than the +Greeks, less prone to idealism than the Servians, less apt to assimilate +the externals of civilization than the Rumanians, they possess in a +remarkable degree the qualities of patience, perseverance and endurance, +with the capacity for laborious effort peculiar to an agricultural race. +The tenacity and determination with which they pursue their national aims +may eventually enable them to vanquish their more brilliant competitors in +the struggle for hegemony in the Peninsula. Unlike most southern races, the +Bulgarians are reserved, taciturn, phlegmatic, unresponsive, and extremely +suspicious of foreigners. The peasants are industrious, peaceable and +orderly; the vendetta, as it exists in Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia, +and the use of the knife in quarrels, so common in southern Europe, are +alike unknown. The tranquillity of rural life has, unfortunately, been +invaded by the intrigues of political agitators, and bloodshed is not +uncommon at elections. All classes practise thrift bordering on parsimony, +and any display of wealth is generally resented. The standard of sexual +morality is high, especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is +an object of public contempt, and in former times was punished with death. +Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the case in most +primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but usually take place with +the consent of the parents on both sides, in order to avoid the expense of +a regular wedding. The principal amusement on Sundays and holidays is the +_choró_ ([Greek: choros]), which is danced on the village green to the +strains of the _gaida_ or bagpipe, and the _gûsla_, a rudimentary fiddle. +The Bulgarians are religious in a simple way, but not fanatical, and the +influence of the priesthood is limited. Many ancient superstitions linger +among the peasantry, such as the belief in the vampire and the evil eye; +witches and necromancers are numerous and are much consulted. + +_Government._--Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by Art. iii. of the +Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the family of a prince "freely +elected by the population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the +assent of the powers." According to the constitution of Trnovo, voted by +the Assembly of Notables on the 29th of April 1879, revised by the Grand +Sobranye on the 27th of May 1893, and modified by the proclamation of a +Bulgarian kingdom on the 5th of October 1908, the royal dignity descends in +the direct male line. The king must profess the Orthodox faith, only the +first elected sovereign and his immediate heir being released from this +obligation. The legislative power is vested in the king in conjunction with +the [v.04 p.0778] national assembly; he is supreme head of the army, +supervises the executive power, and represents the country in its foreign +relations. In case of a minority or an interregnum, a regency of three +persons is appointed. The national representation is embodied in the +Sobranye, or ordinary assembly (Bulgarian, _Subranïe_, the Russian form +_Sobranye_ being usually employed by foreign writers), and the Grand +Sobranye, which is convoked in extraordinary circumstances. The Sobranye is +elected by manhood suffrage, in the proportion of 1 to 20,000 of the +population, for a term of five years. Every Bulgarian citizen who can read +and write and has completed his thirtieth year is eligible as a deputy. +Annual sessions are held from the 27th of October to the 27th of December. +All legislative and financial measures must first be discussed and voted by +the Sobranye and then sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The +government is responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether +deputies or not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which is elected +in the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants, is convoked to elect a +new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction a change in the constitution, +or to ratify an alteration in the boundaries of the kingdom. The executive +is entrusted to a cabinet of eight members--the ministers of foreign +affairs and religion, finance, justice, public works, the interior, +commerce and agriculture, education and war. Local administration, which is +organized on the Belgian model, is under the control of the minister of the +interior. The country is divided into twenty-two departments (_okrug_, pl. +_okruzi_), each administered by a prefect (_uprávitel_), assisted by a +departmental council, and eighty-four sub-prefectures (_okolía_), each +under a sub-prefect (_okoliiski natchálnik_). The number of these +functionaries is excessive. The four principal towns have each in addition +a prefect of police (_gradonatchalnik_) and one or more commissaries +(_pristav_). The gendarmery numbers about 4000 men, or 1 to 825 of the +inhabitants. The prefects and sub-prefects have replaced the Turkish +_mutessarifs_ and _kaimakams_; but the system of municipal government, left +untouched by the Turks, descends from primitive times. Every commune +(_obshtina_), urban or rural, has its _kmet_, or mayor, and council; the +commune is bound to maintain its primary schools, a public library or +reading-room, &c.; the kmet possesses certain magisterial powers, and in +the rural districts he collects the taxes. Each village, as a rule, forms a +separate commune, but occasionally two or more villages are grouped +together. + +_Justice._--The civil and penal codes are, for the most part, based on the +Ottoman law. While the principality formed a portion of the Turkish empire, +the privileges of the capitulations were guaranteed to foreign subjects +(Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.). The lowest civil and criminal court is that of +the village kmet, whose jurisdiction is confined to the limits of the +commune; no corresponding tribunal exists in the towns. Each sub-prefecture +and town has a justice of the peace--in some cases two or more; the number +of these officials is 130. Next follows the departmental tribunal or court +of first instance, which is competent to pronounce sentences of death, +penal servitude and deprivation of civil rights; in specified criminal +cases the judges are aided by three assessors chosen by lot from an +annually prepared panel of forty-eight persons. Three courts of appeal sit +respectively at Sofia, Rustchuk and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is +the court of cassation, sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president, two +vice-presidents and nine judges. There is also a high court of audit +(_vrkhovna smetna palata_), similar to the French _cour des comptes._ The +judges are poorly paid and are removable by the government. In regard to +questions of marriage, divorce and inheritance the Greek, Mahommedan and +Jewish communities enjoy their own spiritual jurisdiction. + +_Army and Navy._--The organization of the military forces of the +principality was undertaken by Russian officers, who for a period of six +years (1879-1885) occupied all the higher posts in the army. In Eastern +Rumelia during the same period the "militia" was instructed by foreign +officers; after the union it was merged in the Bulgarian army. The present +organization is based on the law of the 1st of January 1904. The army +consists of: (1) the active or field army (_deïstvuyushta armia_), divided +into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active army reserve; (2) the reserve +army (_reservna armia_); (3) the _opltchenïe_ or militia; the two former +may operate outside the kingdom, the latter only within the frontier for +purposes of defence. In time of peace the active army (i.) alone is on a +permanent footing. + +The peace strength in 1905 was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and 8000 horses, +the active army being composed of 9 divisions of infantry, each of 4 +regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together with 12 squadrons attached to +the infantry divisions, 9 regiments of artillery each of 3 groups of 3 +batteries, together with 2 groups of mountain artillery, each of 3 +batteries, and 3 battalions of siege artillery; 9 battalions of engineers +with 1 railway and balloon section and 1 bridging section. At the same date +the army was locally distributed in nine divisional areas with headquarters +at Sofia, Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, Vratza, Plevna, +Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area being subdivided into four +districts, from each of which one regiment of four battalions was recruited +and completed with reservists. In case of mobilization each of the nine +areas would furnish 20,106 men (16,000 infantry, 1200 artillery, 1000 +engineers, 300 divisional cavalry and 1606 transport and hospital services, +&c.). The war strength thus amounted to 180,954 of the active army and its +reserve, exclusive of the five regiments of cavalry. In addition the 36 +districts each furnished 3 battalions of the reserve army and one battalion +of opltchenïe, or 144,000 infantry, which with the cavalry regiments (3000 +men) and the reserves of artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry, &c. +(about 10,000), would bring the grand total in time of war to about 338,000 +officers and men with 18,000 horses. The men of the reserve battalions are +drafted into the active army as occasion requires, but the militia serves +as a separate force. Military service is obligatory, but Moslems may claim +exemption on payment of £20; the age of recruitment in time of peace is +nineteen, in time of war eighteen. Each conscript serves two years in the +infantry and subsequently eight years in the active reserve, or three years +in the other corps and six years in the active reserve; he is then liable +to seven years' service in the reserve army and finally passes into the +opltchenïe. The Bulgarian peasant makes an admirable soldier--courageous, +obedient, persevering, and inured to hardship; the officers are painstaking +and devoted to their duties. The active army and reserve, with the +exception of the engineer regiments, are furnished with the .315" +Mannlicher magazine rifle, the engineer and militia with the Berdan; the +artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of 8.7- and 7.5-cm. Krupp guns (field) +and 6.5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12 cm. Krupp and 15 cm. Creuzot (Schneider) +howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp and 12 cm. Creuzot siege guns, and 7.5 cm. Creuzot +quick-firing guns; total of all description, 1154. Defensive works were +constructed at various strategical points near the frontier and elsewhere, +and at Varna and Burgas. The naval force consisted of a flotilla stationed +at Rustchuk and Varna, where a canal connects Lake Devno with the sea. It +was composed in 1905 of 1 prince's yacht, 1 armoured cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3 +torpedo boats and 10 other small vessels, with a complement of 107 officers +and 1231 men. + +_Religion._--The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims to be an +indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, and asserts historic +continuity with the autocephalous Bulgarian church of the middle ages. It +was, however, declared schismatic by the Greek patriarch of Constantinople +in 1872, although differing in no point of doctrine from the Greek Church. +The Exarch, or supreme head of the Bulgarian Church, resides at +Constantinople; he enjoys the title of "Beatitude" (_negovo Blazhenstvo_), +receives an annual subvention of about £6000 from the kingdom, and +exercises jurisdiction over the Bulgarian hierarchy in all parts of the +Ottoman empire. The exarch is elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy +Synod, and a general assembly (_obshti sbor_), in which the laity is +represented; their choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian +independence, was subject to the sultan's approval. The occupant of the +dignity is titular metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The organization of +the church within the principality was regulated [v.04 p.0779] by statute +in 1883. There are eleven eparchies or dioceses in the country, each +administered by a metropolitan with a diocesan council; one diocese has +also a suffragan bishop. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, +consisting of four metropolitans, which assembles once a year. The laity +take part in the election of metropolitans and parish priests, only the +"black clergy," or monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All +ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the government. +There are 2106 parishes (_eporii_) in the kingdom with 9 archimandrites, +1936 parish priests and 21 deacons, 78 monasteries with 184 monks, and 12 +convents with 346 nuns. The celebrated monastery of Rila possesses a vast +estate in the Rilska Planina; its abbot or _hegumen_ owns no spiritual +superior but the exarch. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of +the minister of public worship; the clergy of all denominations are paid by +the state, being free, however, to accept fees for baptisms, marriages, +burials, the administering of oaths, &c. The census of January 1901 gives +3,019,999 persons of the Orthodox faith (including 66,635 Patriarchist +Greeks), 643,300 Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews, 28,569 Catholics, 13,809 +Gregorian Armenians, 4524 Protestants and 419 whose religion is not stated. +The Greek Orthodox community has four metropolitans dependent on the +patriarchate. The Mahommedan community is rapidly diminishing; it is +organized under 16 muftis who with their assistants receive a subvention +from the government. The Catholics, who have two bishops, are for the most +part the descendants of the medieval Paulicians; they are especially +numerous in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova. The Armenians +have one bishop. The Protestants are mostly Methodists; since 1857 Bulgaria +has been a special field of activity for American Methodist missionaries, +who have established an important school at Samakov. The Berlin Treaty +(Art. V.) forbade religious disabilities in regard to the enjoyment of +civil and political rights, and guaranteed the free exercise of all +religions. + +_Education._--No educational system existed in many of the rural districts +before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance, and the older generation +remained totally illiterate. In the towns the schools were under the +superintendence of the Greek clergy, and Greek was the language of +instruction. The first Bulgarian school was opened at Gabrovo in 1835 by +the patriots Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski. After the Crimean War, Bulgarian +schools began to appear in the villages of the Balkans and the +south-eastern districts. The children of the wealthier class were generally +educated abroad. The American institution of Robert College on the Bosporus +rendered an invaluable service to the newly created state by providing it +with a number of well-educated young men fitted for positions of +responsibility. In 1878, after the liberation of the country, there were +1658 schools in the towns and villages. Primary education was declared +obligatory from the first, but the scarcity of properly qualified teachers +and the lack of all requisites proved serious impediments to educational +organization. The government has made great efforts and incurred heavy +expenditure for the spread of education; the satisfactory results obtained +are largely due to the keen desire for learning which exists among the +people. The present educational system dates from 1891. Almost all the +villages now possess "national" (_narodni_) primary schools, maintained by +the communes with the aid of a state subvention and supervised by +departmental and district inspectors. The state also assists a large number +of Turkish primary schools. The penalties for non-attendance are not very +rigidly enforced, and it has been found necessary to close the schools in +the rural districts during the summer, the children being required for +labour in the fields. + +The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890, 47.01% of the +boys and 16.11% of the girls attended the primary schools; in 1898, 85% of +the boys and 40% of the girls. In 1904 there were 4344 primary schools, of +which 3060 were "national," or communal, and 1284 denominational (Turkish, +Greek, Jewish, &c.), attended by 340,668 pupils, representing a proportion +of 9.1 per hundred inhabitants. In addition to the primary schools, 40 +infant schools for children of 3 to 6 years of age were attended by 2707 +pupils. In 1888 only 327,766 persons, or 11% of the population, were +literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to 19.88%; in 1901 to 23.9%. + +In the system of secondary education the distinction between the classical +and "real" or special course of study is maintained as in most European +countries; in 1904 there were 175 secondary schools and 18 gymnasia (10 for +boys and 8 for girls). In addition to these there are 6 technical and 3 +agricultural schools; 5 of pedagogy, 1 theological, 1 commercial, 1 of +forestry, 1 of design, 1 for surgeons' assistants, and a large military +school at Sofia. Government aid is given to students of limited means, both +for secondary education and the completion of their studies abroad. The +university of Sofia, formerly known as the "high school," was reorganized +in 1904; it comprises 3 faculties (philology, mathematics and law), and +possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 lecturers. The number of students +in 1905 was 943. + +POLITICAL HISTORY + +The ancient Thraco-Illyrian race which inhabited the district between the +Danube and the Aegean was expelled, or more probably absorbed, by the great +Slavonic immigration which took place at various intervals between the end +of the 3rd century after Christ and the beginning of the 6th. The numerous +tumuli which are found in all parts of the country (see Herodotus v. 8) and +some stone tablets with bas-reliefs remain as monuments of the aboriginal +population; and certain structural peculiarities, which are common to the +Bulgarian and Rumanian languages, may conceivably be traced to the +influence of the primitive Illyrian speech, now probably represented by the +Albanian. The Slavs, an agricultural people, were governed, even in those +remote times, by the democratic local institutions to which they are still +attached; they possessed no national leaders or central organization, and +their only political unit was the _pleme_, or tribe. They were considerably +influenced by contact with Roman civilization. It was reserved for a +foreign race, altogether distinct in origin, religion and customs, to give +unity and coherence to the scattered Slavonic groups, and to weld them into +a compact and powerful state which for some centuries played an important +part in the history of eastern Europe and threatened the existence of the +Byzantine empire. + +_The Bulgars._--The Bulgars, a Turanian race akin to the Tatars, Huns, +Avars, Petchenegs and Finns, made their appearance on the banks of the +Pruth in the latter part of the 7th century. They were a horde of wild +horsemen, fierce and barbarous, practising polygamy, and governed +despotically by their _khans_ (chiefs) and _boyars_ or _bolyars_ (nobles). +Their original abode was the tract between the Ural mountains and the +Volga, where the kingdom of Great (or Black) Bolgary existed down to the +13th century. In 679, under their khan Asparukh (or Isperikh), they crossed +the Danube, and, after subjugating the Slavonic population of Moesia, +advanced to the gates of Constantinople and Salonica. The East Roman +emperors were compelled to cede to them the province of Moesia and to pay +them an annual tribute. The invading horde was not numerous, and during the +next two centuries it became gradually merged in the Slavonic population. +Like the Franks in Gaul the Bulgars gave their name and a political +organization to the more civilized race which they conquered, but adopted +its language, customs and local institutions. Not a trace of the Ugrian or +Finnish element is to be found in the Bulgarian speech. This complete +assimilation of a conquering race may be illustrated by many parallels. + +_Early Dynasties._--The history of the early Bulgarian dynasties is little +else than a record of continuous conflicts with the Byzantine emperors. The +tribute first imposed on the Greeks by Asparukh was again exacted by Kardam +(791-797) and Krum (802-815), a sovereign noted alike for his cruelty and +his military and political capacity. Under his rule the Bulgarian realm +extended from the Carpathians to the neighbourhood of Adrianople; Serdica +(the present Sofia) was taken, and the valley of the Struma conquered. +Prêslav, the Bulgarian capital, was attacked and burned by the emperor +Nicephorus, but the Greek army on its return was annihilated in one of the +Balkan passes; the emperor was slain, and his skull was converted by Krum +into a goblet. The reign of Boris (852-884) is memorable [v.04 p.0780] for +the introduction of Christianity into Bulgaria. Two monks of Salonica, SS. +Cyril and Methodius, are generally reverenced as the national apostles; the +scene of their labours, however, was among the Slavs of Moravia, and the +Bulgars were evangelized by their disciples. Boris, finding himself +surrounded by Christian states, decided from political motives to abandon +paganism. He was baptized in 864, the emperor Michael III. acting as his +sponsor. It was at this time that the controversies broke out which ended +in the schism between the Churches of the East and West. Boris long wavered +between Constantinople and Rome, but the refusal of the pope to recognize +an autocephalous Bulgarian church determined him to offer his allegiance to +the Greek patriarch. The decision was fraught with momentous consequences +for the future of the race. The nation altered its religion in obedience to +its sovereign, and some of the boyars who resisted the change paid with +their lives for their fidelity to the ancient belief. The independence of +the Bulgarian church was recognized by the patriarchate, a fact much dwelt +upon in recent controversies. The Bulgarian primates subsequently received +the title of patriarch; their see was transferred from Prêslav to Sofia, +Voden and Prespa successively, and finally to Ochrida. + +_The First Empire._--The national power reached its zenith under Simeon +(893-927), a monarch distinguished in the arts of war and peace. In his +reign, says Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a rank among the civilized powers of +the earth." His dominions extended from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, and +from the borders of Thessaly to the Save and the Carpathians. Having become +the most powerful monarch in eastern Europe, Simeon assumed the style of +"Emperor and Autocrat of all the Bulgars and Greeks" (_tsar i samodrzhetz +vsêm Blgarom i Grkom_), a title which was recognized by Pope Formosus. +During the latter years of his reign, which were spent in peace, his people +made great progress in civilization, literature nourished, and Prêslav, +according to contemporary chroniclers, rivalled Constantinople in +magnificence. After the death of Simeon the Bulgarian power declined owing +to internal dissensions; the land was distracted by the Bogomil heresy (see +BOGOMILS), and a separate or western empire, including Albania and +Macedonia, was founded at Ochrida by Shishman, a boyar from Trnovo. A +notable event took place in 967, when the Russians, under Sviatoslav, made +their first appearance in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian tsar, Boris II., with the +aid of the emperor John Zimisces, expelled the invaders, but the Greeks +took advantage of their victory to dethrone Boris, and the first Bulgarian +empire thus came to an end after an existence of three centuries. The +empire at Ochrida, however, rose to considerable importance under Samuel, +the son of Shishman (976-1014), who conquered the greater part of the +Peninsula, and ruled from the Danube to the Morea. After a series of +campaigns this redoubtable warrior was defeated at Bêlasitza by the emperor +Basil II., surnamed Bulgaroktonos, who put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners +taken in the fight, and sent them into the camp of his adversary. The +Bulgarian tsar was so overpowered by the spectacle that he died of grief. A +few years later his dynasty finally disappeared, and for more than a +century and a half (1018-1186) the Bulgarian race remained subject to the +Byzantine emperors. + +_The Second Empire._--In 1186, after a general insurrection of Vlachs and +Bulgars under the brothers Ivan and Peter Asên of Trnovo, who claimed +descent from the dynasty of the Shishmanovtzi, the nation recovered its +independence, and Ivan Asên assumed the title of "Tsar of the Bulgars and +Greeks." The seat of the second, or "Bulgaro-Vlach" empire was at Trnovo, +which the Bulgarians regard as the historic capital of their race. Kaloyan, +the third of the Asên monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nish +and Skopïe (Uskub); he acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope, +and received the royal crown from a papal legate. The greatest of all +Bulgarian rulers was Ivan Asên II. (1218-1241), a man of humane and +enlightened character. After a series of victorious campaigns he +established his sway over Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace, and +governed his wide dominions with justice, wisdom and moderation. In his +time the nation attained a prosperity hitherto unknown: commerce, the arts +and literature flourished; Trnovo, the capital, was enlarged and +embellished; and great numbers of churches and monasteries were founded or +endowed. The dynasty of the Asêns became extinct in 1257, and a period of +decadence began. Two other dynasties, both of Kuman origin, followed--the +Terterovtzi, who ruled at Trnovo, and the Shishmanovtzi, who founded an +independent state at Vidin, but afterwards reigned in the national capital. +Eventually, on the 28th June 1330, a day commemorated with sorrow in +Bulgaria, Tsar Michael Shishman was defeated and slain by the Servians, +under Stephen Urosh III., at the battle of Velbûzhd (Kiustendil). Bulgaria, +though still retaining its native rulers, now became subject to Servia, and +formed part of the short-lived empire of Stephen Dushan (1331-1355). The +Servian hegemony vanished after the death of Dushan, and the Christian +races of the Peninsula, distracted by the quarrels of their petty princes, +fell an easy prey to the advancing might of the Moslem invader. + +_The Turkish Conquest._--In 1340 the Turks had begun to ravage the valley +of the Maritza; in 1362 they captured Philippopolis, and in 1382 Sofia. In +1366 Ivan Shishman III., the last Bulgarian tsar, was compelled to declare +himself the vassal of the sultan Murad I., and to send his sister to the +harem of the conqueror. In 1389 the rout of the Servians, Bosnians and +Croats on the famous field of Kossovo decided the fate of the Peninsula. +Shortly afterwards Ivan Shishman was attacked by the Turks; and Trnovo, +after a siege of three months, was captured, sacked and burnt in 1393. The +fate of the last Bulgarian sovereign is unknown: the national legend +represents him as perishing in a battle near Samakov. Vidin, where Ivan's +brother, Strazhimir, had established himself, was taken in 1396, and with +its fall the last remnant of Bulgarian independence disappeared. + +The five centuries of Turkish rule (1396-1878) form a dark epoch in +Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and sword through the land; +towns, villages and monasteries were sacked and destroyed, and whole +districts were converted into desolate wastes. The inhabitants of the +plains fled to the mountains, where they founded new settlements. Many of +the nobles embraced the creed of Islam, and were liberally rewarded for +their apostasy; others, together with numbers of the priests and people, +took refuge across the Danube. All the regions formerly ruled by the +Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and Thrace, were placed under the +administration of a governor-general, styled the beylerbey of Rum-ili, +residing at Sofia; Bulgaria proper was divided into the sanjaks of Sofia, +Nikopolis, Vidin, Silistria and Kiustendil. Only a small proportion of the +people followed the example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity; the +conversion of the isolated communities now represented by the Pomaks took +place at various intervals during the next three centuries. A new kind of +feudal system replaced that of the boyars, and fiefs or _spahiliks_ were +conferred on the Ottoman chiefs and the renegade Bulgarian nobles. The +Christian population was subjected to heavy imposts, the principal being +the _haratch_, or capitation-tax, paid to the imperial treasury, and the +tithe on agricultural produce, which was collected by the feudal lord. +Among the most cruel forms of oppression was the requisitioning of young +boys between the ages of ten and twelve, who were sent to Constantinople as +recruits for the corps of janissaries. Notwithstanding the horrors which +attended the Ottoman conquest, the condition of the peasantry during the +first three centuries of Turkish government was scarcely worse than it had +been under the tyrannical rule of the boyars. The contemptuous indifference +with which the Turks regarded the Christian _rayas_ was not altogether to +the disadvantage of the subject race. Military service was not exacted from +the Christians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either their +religion or their language, and within certain limits they were allowed to +retain their ancient local administration and the jurisdiction of their +clergy in regard to inheritances and family affairs. At the time of the +conquest certain towns and villages, known as the _voïnitchki sela_, +obtained important privileges which were not infringed till the 18th +century; on condition of [v.04 p.0781] furnishing contingents to the +Turkish army or grooms for the sultan's horses they obtained exemption from +most of the taxes and complete self-government under their _voïvodi_ or +chiefs. Some of them, such as Koprivshtitza in the Sredna Gora, attained +great prosperity, which has somewhat declined since the establishment of +the principality. While the Ottoman power was at its height the lot of the +subject-races was far less intolerable than during the period of decadence, +which began with the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683. Their rights and +privileges were respected, the law was enforced, commerce prospered, good +roads were constructed, and the great caravans of the Ragusan merchants +traversed the country. Down to the end of the 18th century there appears to +have been only one serious attempt at revolt--that occasioned by the +advance of Prince Sigismund Báthory into Walachia in 1595. A kind of +guerilla warfare was, however, maintained in the mountains by the +_kaiduti_, or outlaws, whose exploits, like those of the Greek _klepkts_, +have been highly idealized in the popular folk-lore. As the power of the +sultans declined anarchy spread through the Peninsula. In the earlier +decades of the 18th century the Bulgarians suffered terribly from the +ravages of the Turkish armies passing through the land during the wars with +Austria. Towards its close their condition became even worse owing to the +horrors perpetrated by the Krjalis, or troops of disbanded soldiers and +desperadoes, who, in defiance of the Turkish authorities, roamed through +the country, supporting themselves by plunder and committing every +conceivable atrocity. After the peace of Belgrade (1737), by which Austria +lost her conquests in the Peninsula, the Servians and Bulgarians began to +look to Russia for deliverance, their hopes being encouraged by the treaty +of Kuchuk Kaïnarji (1774), which foreshadowed the claim of Russia to +protect the Orthodox Christians in the Turkish empire. In 1794 Pasvanoglu, +one of the chiefs of the Krjalis, established himself as an independent +sovereign at Vidin, putting to flight three large Turkish armies which were +despatched against him. This adventurer possessed many remarkable +qualities. He adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained order, +levied taxes and issued a separate coinage. He died in 1807. The memoirs of +Sofronii, bishop of Vratza, present a vivid picture of the condition of +Bulgaria at this time. "My diocese," he writes, "was laid desolate; the +villages disappeared--they had been burnt by the Krjalis and Pasvan's +brigands; the inhabitants were scattered far and wide over Walachia and +other lands." + +_The National Revival._--At the beginning of the 19th century the existence +of the Bulgarian race was almost unknown in Europe, even to students of +Slavonic literature. Disheartened by ages of oppression, isolated from +Christendom by their geographical position, and cowed by the proximity of +Constantinople, the Bulgarians took no collective part in the +insurrectionary movement which resulted in the liberation of Servia and +Greece. The Russian invasions of 1810 and 1828 only added to their +sufferings, and great numbers of fugitives took refuge in Bessarabia, +annexed by Russia under the treaty of Bucharest. But the long-dormant +national spirit now began to awake under the influence of a literary +revival. The precursors of the movement were Paisii, a monk of Mount Athos, +who wrote a history of the Bulgarian tsars and saints (1762), and Bishop +Sofronii, whose memoirs have been already mentioned. After 1824 several +works written in modern Bulgarian began to appear, but the most important +step was the foundation, in 1835, of the first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo. +Within ten years at least 53 Bulgarian schools came into existence, and +five Bulgarian printing-presses were at work. The literary movement led the +way to a reaction against the influence and authority of the Greek clergy. +The spiritual domination of the Greek patriarchate had tended more +effectually than the temporal power of the Turks to the effacement of +Bulgarian nationality. After the conquest of the Peninsula the Greek +patriarch became the representative at the Sublime Porte of the +_Rûm-millet_, the Roman nation, in which all the Christian nationalities +were comprised. The independent patriarchate of Trnovo was suppressed; that +of Ochrida was subsequently Hellenized. The Phanariot clergy--unscrupulous, +rapacious and corrupt--succeeded in monopolizing the higher ecclesiastical +appointments and filled the parishes with Greek priests, whose schools, in +which Greek was exclusively taught, were the only means of instruction open +to the population. By degrees Greek became the language of the upper +classes in all the Bulgarian towns, the Bulgarian language was written in +Greek characters, and the illiterate peasants, though speaking the +vernacular, called themselves Greeks. The Slavonic liturgy was suppressed +in favour of the Greek, and in many places the old Bulgarian manuscripts, +images, testaments and missals were committed to the flames. The patriots +of the literary movement, recognizing in the patriarchate the most +determined foe to a national revival, directed all their efforts to the +abolition of Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy and the restoration of the +Bulgarian autonomous church. Some of the leaders went so far as to open +negotiations with Rome, and an archbishop of the Uniate Bulgarian church +was nominated by the pope. The struggle was prosecuted with the utmost +tenacity for forty years. Incessant protests and memorials were addressed +to the Porte, and every effort was made to undermine the position of the +Greek bishops, some of whom were compelled to abandon their sees. At the +same time no pains were spared to diffuse education and to stimulate the +national sentiment. Various insurrectionary movements were attempted by the +patriots Rakovski, Panayot Khitoff, Haji Dimitr, Stephen Karaja and others, +but received little support from the mass of the people. The recognition of +Bulgarian nationality was won by the pen, not the sword. The patriarchate +at length found it necessary to offer some concessions, but these appeared +illusory to the Bulgarians, and long and acrimonious discussions followed. +Eventually the Turkish government intervened, and on the 28th of February +1870 a firman was issued establishing the Bulgarian exarchate, with +jurisdiction over fifteen dioceses, including Nish, Pirot and Veles; the +other dioceses in dispute were to be added to these in case two-thirds of +the Christian population so desired. The election of the first exarch was +delayed till February 1872, owing to the opposition of the patriarch, who +immediately afterwards excommunicated the new head of the Bulgarian church +and all his followers. The official recognition now acquired tended to +consolidate the Bulgarian nation and to prepare it for the political +developments which were soon to follow. A great educational activity at +once displayed itself in all the districts subjected to the new +ecclesiastical power. + +_The Revolt of 1876._--Under the enlightened administration of Midhat Pasha +(1864-1868) Bulgaria enjoyed comparative prosperity, but that remarkable +man is not remembered with gratitude by the people owing to the severity +with which he repressed insurrectionary movements. In 1861, 12,000 Crimean +Tatars, and in 1864 a still larger number of Circassians from the Caucasus, +were settled by the Turkish government on lands taken without compensation +from the Bulgarian peasants. The Circassians, a lawless race of +mountaineers, proved a veritable scourge to the population in their +neighbourhood. In 1875 the insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina produced +immense excitement throughout the Peninsula. The fanaticism of the Moslems +was aroused, and the Bulgarians, fearing a general massacre of Christians, +endeavoured to anticipate the blow by organizing a general revolt. The +rising, which broke out prematurely at Koprìvshtitza and Panagurishté in +May 1876, was mainly confined to the sanjak of Philippopolis. Bands of +bashi-bazouks were let loose throughout the district by the Turkish +authorities, the Pomaks, or Moslem Bulgarians, and the Circassian colonists +were called to arms, and a succession of horrors followed to which a +parallel can scarcely be found in the history of the middle ages. The +principal scenes of massacre were Panagurishté, Perushtitza, Bratzigovo and +Batak; at the last-named town, according to an official British report, +5000 men, women and children were put to the sword by the Pomaks under +Achmet Aga, who was decorated by the sultan for this exploit. Altogether +some 15,000 persons were massacred in the [v.04 p.0782] district of +Philippopolis, and fifty-eight villages and five monasteries were +destroyed. Isolated risings which took place on the northern side of the +Balkans were crushed with similar barbarity. These atrocities, which were +first made known by an English journalist and an American consular +official, were denounced by Gladstone in a celebrated pamphlet which +aroused the indignation of Europe. The great powers remained inactive, but +Servia declared war in the following month, and her army was joined by 2000 +Bulgarian volunteers. A conference of the representatives of the powers, +held at Constantinople towards the end of the year, proposed, among other +reforms, the organization of the Bulgarian provinces, including the greater +part of Macedonia, in two vilayets under Christian governors, with popular +representation. These recommendations were practically set aside by the +Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS, and +PLEVNA). In the campaign which followed the Bulgarian volunteer contingent +in the Russian army played an honourable part; it accompanied Gourko's +advance over the Balkans, behaved with great bravery at Stara Zagora, where +it lost heavily, and rendered valuable services in the defence of Shipka. + +_Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin._--The victorious advance of the +Russian army to Constantinople was followed by the treaty of San Stefano +(3rd March 1878), which realized almost to the full the national +aspirations of the Bulgarian race. All the provinces of European Turkey in +which the Bulgarian element predominated were now included in an autonomous +principality, which extended from the Black Sea to the Albanian mountains, +and from the Danube to the Aegean, enclosing Ochrida, the ancient capital +of the Shishmans, Dibra and Kastoria, as well as the districts of Vranya +and Pirot, and possessing a Mediterranean port at Kavala. The Dobrudja, +notwithstanding its Bulgarian population, was not included in the new +state, being reserved as compensation to Rumania for the Russian annexation +of Bessarabia; Adrianople, Salonica and the Chalcidian peninsula were left +to Turkey. The area thus delimited constituted three-fifths of the Balkan +Peninsula, with a population of 4,000,000 inhabitants. The great powers, +however, anticipating that this extensive territory would become a Russian +dependency, intervened; and on the 13th of July of the same year was signed +the treaty of Berlin, which in effect divided the "Big Bulgaria" of the +treaty of San Stefano into three portions. The limits of the principality +of Bulgaria, as then defined, and the autonomous province of Eastern +Rumelia, have been already described; the remaining portion, including +almost the whole of Macedonia and part of the vilayet of Adrianople, was +left under Turkish administration. No special organization was provided for +the districts thus abandoned; it was stipulated that laws similar to the +organic law of Crete should be introduced into the various parts of Turkey +in Europe, but this engagement was never carried out by the Porte. Vranya, +Pirot and Nish were given to Servia, and the transference of the Dobrudja +to Rumania was sanctioned. This artificial division of the Bulgarian nation +could scarcely be regarded as possessing elements of permanence. It was +provided that the prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the +population, and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the +powers, and that, before his election, an assembly of Bulgarian notables, +convoked at Trnovo, should draw up the organic law of the principality. The +drafting of a constitution for Eastern Rumelia was assigned to a European +commission. + +_The Constitution of Trnovo._--Pending the completion of their political +organization, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia were occupied by Russian troops +and administered by Russian officials. The assembly of notables, which met +at Trnovo in 1879, was mainly composed of half-educated peasants, who from +the first displayed an extremely democratic spirit, in which they proceeded +to manipulate the very liberal constitution submitted to them by Prince +Dondukov-Korsakov, the Russian governor-general. The long period of Turkish +domination had effectually obliterated all social distinctions, and the +radical element, which now formed into a party under Tzankoff and +Karaveloff, soon gave evidence of its predominance. Manhood suffrage, a +single chamber, payment of deputies, the absence of property qualification +for candidates, and the prohibition of all titles and distinctions, formed +salient features in the constitution now elaborated. The organic statute of +Eastern Rumelia was largely modelled on the Belgian constitution. The +governor-general, nominated for five years by the sultan with the +approbation of the powers, was assisted by an assembly, partly +representative, partly composed of _ex-officio_ members; a permanent +committee was entrusted with the preparation of legislative measures and +the general supervision of the administration, while a council of six +"directors" fulfilled the duties of a ministry. + +_Prince Alexander._--On the 29th of April 1879 the assembly at Trnovo, on +the proposal of Russia, elected as first sovereign of Bulgaria Prince +Alexander of Battenberg, a member of the grand ducal house of Hesse and a +nephew of the tsar Alexander II. Arriving in Bulgaria on the 7th of July, +Prince Alexander, then in his twenty-third year, found all the authority, +military and civil, in Russian hands. The history of the earlier portion of +his reign is marked by two principal features--a strong Bulgarian reaction +against Russian tutelage and a vehement struggle against the autocratic +institutions which the young ruler, under Russian guidance, endeavoured to +inaugurate. Both movements were symptomatic of the determination of a +strong-willed and egoistic race, suddenly liberated from secular +oppression, to enjoy to the full the moral and material privileges of +liberty. In the assembly at Trnovo the popular party had adopted the +watchword "Bulgaria for the Bulgarians," and a considerable anti-Russian +contingent was included in its ranks. Young and inexperienced, Prince +Alexander, at the suggestion of the Russian consul-general, selected his +first ministry from a small group of "Conservative" politicians whose views +were in conflict with those of the parliamentary majority, but he was soon +compelled to form a "Liberal" administration under Tzankoff and Karaveloff. +The Liberals, once in power, initiated a violent campaign against +foreigners in general and the Russians in particular; they passed an alien +law, and ejected foreigners from every lucrative position. The Russians +made a vigorous resistance, and a state of chaos ensued. Eventually the +prince, finding good government impossible, obtained the consent of the +tsar to a change of the constitution, and assumed absolute authority on the +9th of May 1881. The Russian general Ernroth was appointed sole minister, +and charged with the duty of holding elections for the Grand Sobranye, to +which the right of revising the constitution appertained. So successfully +did he discharge his mission that the national representatives, almost +without debate, suspended the constitution and invested the prince with +absolute powers for a term of seven years (July 1881). A period of Russian +government followed under Generals Skobelev and Kaulbars, who were +specially despatched from St Petersburg to enhance the authority of the +prince. Their administration, however, tended to a contrary result, and the +prince, finding himself reduced to impotence, opened negotiations with the +Bulgarian leaders and effected a coalition of all parties on the basis of a +restoration of the constitution. The generals, who had made an unsuccessful +attempt to remove the prince, withdrew; the constitution of Trnovo was +restored by proclamation (19th September 1883), and a coalition ministry +was formed under Tzankoff. Prince Alexander, whose relations with the court +of St Petersburg had become less cordial since the death of his uncle, the +tsar Alexander II., in 1881, now incurred the serious displeasure of +Russia, and the breach was soon widened by the part which he played in +encouraging the national aspirations of the Bulgarians. + +_Union with Eastern Rumelia._--In Eastern Rumelia, where the Bulgarian +population never ceased to protest against the division of the race, +political life had developed on the same lines as in the principality. +Among the politicians two parties had come into existence--the +Conservatives or self-styled "Unionists," and the Radicals, derisively +called by their opponents [v.04 p.0783] "Kazioni" or treasury-seekers; both +were equally desirous of bringing about the union with the principality. +Neither party, however, while in power would risk the sweets of office by +embarking in a hazardous adventure. It was reserved for the Kazioni, under +their famous leader Zakharia Stoyánoff, who in early life had been a +shepherd, to realize the national programme. In 1885 the Unionists were in +office, and their opponents lost no time in organizing a conspiracy for the +overthrow of the governor-general, Krstovitch Pasha. Their designs were +facilitated by the circumstance that Turkey had abstained from sending +troops into the province. Having previously assured themselves of Prince +Alexander's acquiescence, they seized the governor-general and proclaimed +the union with Bulgaria (18th September). The revolution took place without +bloodshed, and a few days later Prince Alexander entered Philippopolis amid +immense enthusiasm. His position now became precarious. The powers were +scandalized at the infraction of the Berlin Treaty; Great Britain alone +showed sympathy, while Russia denounced the union and urged the Porte to +reconquer the revolted province--both powers thus reversing their +respective attitudes at the congress of Berlin. + +_War with Servia._--The Turkish troops were massed at the frontier, and +Servia, hoping to profit by the difficulties of her neighbour, suddenly +declared war (14th November). At the moment of danger the Russian officers, +who filled all the higher posts in the Bulgarian army, were withdrawn by +order of the tsar. In these critical circumstances Prince Alexander +displayed considerable ability and resource, and the nation gave evidence +of hitherto unsuspected qualities. Contrary to general expectation, the +Bulgarian army, imperfectly equipped and led by subaltern officers, +successfully resisted the Servian invasion. After brilliant victories at +Slivnitza (19th November) and Tsaribrod, Prince Alexander crossed the +frontier and captured Pirot (27th November), but his farther progress was +arrested by the intervention of Austria (see SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR). The +treaty of Bucharest followed (3rd of March 1886), declaring, in a single +clause, the restoration of peace. Servia, notwithstanding her aggression, +escaped a war indemnity, but the union with Eastern Rumelia was practically +secured. By the convention of Top-Khané (5th April) Prince Alexander was +recognized by the sultan as governor-general of eastern Rumelia; a personal +union only was sanctioned, but in effect the organic statute disappeared +and the countries were administratively united. These military and +diplomatic successes, which invested the prince with the attributes of a +national hero, quickened the decision of Russia to effect his removal. An +instrument was found in the discontent of several of his officers, who +considered themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards, and a +conspiracy was formed in which Tzankoff, Karaveloff (the prime minister), +Archbishop Clement, and other prominent persons were implicated. On the +night of the 21st of August the prince was seized in his palace by several +officers and compelled, under menace of death, to sign his abdication; he +was then hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo and transported to Russian soil +at Reni. This violent act met with instant disapproval on the part of the +great majority of the nation. Stamboloff, the president of the assembly, +and Colonel Mutkuroff, commandant of the troops at Philippopolis, initiated +a counter-revolution; the provisional government set up by the conspirators +immediately fell, and a few days later the prince, who had been liberated +by the Russian authorities, returned to the country amid every +demonstration of popular sympathy and affection. His arrival forestalled +that of a Russian imperial commissioner, who had been appointed to proceed +to Bulgaria. He now committed the error of addressing a telegram to the +tsar in which he offered to resign his crown into the hands of Russia. This +unfortunate step, by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and +represented Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern +rebuff, and fatally compromised his position. The national leaders, after +obtaining a promise from the Russian representative at Sofia that Russia +would abstain from interference in the internal affairs of the country, +consented to his departure; on the 8th of September he announced his +abdication, and on the following day he left Bulgaria. + +_The Regency._--A regency was now formed, in which the prominent figure was +Stamboloff, the most remarkable man whom modern Bulgaria has produced. A +series of attempts to throw the country into anarchy were firmly dealt +with, and the Grand Sobranye was summoned to elect a new prince. The +candidature of the prince of Mingrelia was now set up by Russia, and +General Kaulbars was despatched to Bulgaria to make known to the people the +wishes of the tsar. He vainly endeavoured to postpone the convocation of +the Grand Sobranye in order to gain time for the restoration of Russian +influence, and proceeded on an electoral tour through the country. The +failure of his mission was followed by the withdrawal of the Russian +representatives from Bulgaria. The Grand Sobranye, which assembled at +Trnovo, offered the crown to Prince Valdemar of Denmark, brother-in-law of +the tsar, but the honour was declined, and an anxious period ensued, during +which a deputation visited the principal capitals of Europe with the +twofold object of winning sympathy for the cause of Bulgarian independence +and discovering a suitable candidate for the throne. + +_Prince Ferdinand._--On the 7th of July 1887, the Grand Sobranye +unanimously elected Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a grandson, +maternally, of King Louis Philippe. The new prince, who was twenty-six +years of age, was at this time a lieutenant in the Austrian army. +Undeterred by the difficulties of the international situation and the +distracted condition of the country, he accepted the crown, and took over +the government on the 14th of August at Trnovo. His arrival, which was +welcomed with enthusiasm, put an end to a long and critical interregnum, +but the dangers which menaced Bulgarian independence were far from +disappearing. Russia declared the newly-elected sovereign a usurper; the +other powers, in deference to her susceptibilities, declined to recognize +him, and the grand vizier informed him that his presence in Bulgaria was +illegal. Numerous efforts were made by the partisans of Russia to disturb +internal tranquillity, and Stamboloff, who became prime minister on the 1st +of September, found it necessary to govern with a strong hand. A raid led +by the Russian captain Nabokov was repulsed; brigandage, maintained for +political purposes, was exterminated; the bishops of the Holy Synod, who, +at the instigation of Clement, refused to pay homage to the prince, were +forcibly removed from Sofia; a military conspiracy organized by Major +Panitza was crushed, and its leader executed. An attempt to murder the +energetic prime minister resulted in the death of his colleague, Beltcheff, +and shortly afterwards Dr Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian representative at +Constantinople, was assassinated. While contending with unscrupulous +enemies at home, Stamboloff pursued a successful policy abroad. Excellent +relations were established with Turkey and Rumania, valuable concessions +were twice extracted from the Porte in regard to the Bulgarian episcopate +in Macedonia, and loans were concluded with foreign financiers on +comparatively favourable terms. His overbearing character, however, +increased the number of his opponents, and alienated the goodwill of the +prince. + +In the spring of 1893 Prince Ferdinand married Princess Marie-Louise of +Bourbon-Parma, whose family insisted on the condition that the issue of the +marriage should be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith. In view of the +importance of establishing a dynasty, Stamboloff resolved on the unpopular +course of altering the clause of the constitution which required that the +heir to the throne should belong to the Orthodox Church, and the Grand +Sobranye, which was convoked at Trnovo in the summer, gave effect to this +decision. The death of Prince Alexander, which took place in the autumn, +and the birth of an heir, tended to strengthen the position of Prince +Ferdinand, who now assumed a less compliant attitude towards the prime +minister. In 1894 Stamboloff resigned office; a ministry was formed under +Dr Stoïloff, and Prince Ferdinand inaugurated a policy of conciliation +towards Russia with a view to obtaining his recognition by the powers. A +Russophil [v.04 p.0784] reaction followed, large numbers of political +refugees returned to Bulgaria, and Stamboloff, exposed to the vengeance of +his enemies, was assassinated in the streets of Sofia (15th July 1895). + +The prince's plans were favoured by the death of the tsar Alexander III. in +November 1894, and the reconciliation was practically effected by the +conversion of his eldest son, Prince Boris, to the Orthodox faith (14th +February 1896). The powers having signified their assent, he was nominated +by the sultan prince of Bulgaria and governor-general of Eastern Rumelia +(14th March). Russian influence now became predominant in Bulgaria, but the +cabinet of St Petersburg wisely abstained from interfering in the internal +affairs of the principality. In February 1896 Russia proposed the +reconciliation of the Greek and Bulgarian churches and the removal of the +exarch to Sofia. The project, which involved a renunciation of the exarch's +jurisdiction in Macedonia, excited strong opposition in Bulgaria, and was +eventually dropped. The death of Princess Marie-Louise (30th January 1899), +caused universal regret in the country. In the same month the Stoïloff +government, which had weakly tampered with the Macedonian movement (see +MACEDONIA) and had thrown the finances into disorder, resigned, and a +ministry under Grekoff succeeded, which endeavoured to mend the economic +situation by means of a foreign loan. The loan, however, fell through, and +in October a new government was formed under Ivanchoff and Radoslavoff. +This, in its turn, Was replaced by a _cabinet d'affaires_ under General +Petroff (January 1901). + +In the following March Karaveloff for the third time became prime minister. +His efforts to improve the financial situation, which now became alarming, +proved abortive, and in January 1902 a Tzankovist cabinet was formed under +Daneff, who succeeded in obtaining a foreign loan. Russian influence now +became predominant, and in the autumn the grand-duke Nicholas, General +Ignatiev, and a great number of Russian officers were present at the +consecration of a Russian church and monastery in the Shipka pass. But the +appointment of Mgr. Firmilian, a Servian prelate, to the important see of +Uskub at the instance of Russia, the suspected designs of that power on the +ports of Varna and Burgas, and her unsympathetic attitude in regard to the +Macedonian Question, tended to diminish her popularity and that of the +government. A cabinet crisis was brought about in May 1903, by the efforts +of the Russian party to obtain control of the army, and the Stambolovists +returned to power under General Petroff. A violent recrudescence of the +Macedonian agitation took place in the autumn of 1902; at the suggestion of +Russia the leaders were imprisoned, but the movement nevertheless gained +force, and in August 1903 a revolt broke out in the vilayet of Monastir, +subsequently spreading to the districts of northern Macedonia and +Adrianople (see MACEDONIA). The barbarities committed by the Turks in +repressing the insurrection caused great exasperation in the principality; +the reserves were partially mobilized, and the country was brought to the +brink of war. In pursuance of the policy of Stamboloff, the Petroff +government endeavoured to inaugurate friendly relations with Turkey, and a +Turco-Bulgarian convention was signed (8th April 1904) which, however, +proved of little practical value. + +The outrages committed by numerous Greek bands in Macedonia led to +reprisals on the Greek population in Bulgaria in the summer of 1906, and +the town of Anchialo was partially destroyed. On the 6th of November in +that year Petroff resigned, and Petkoff, the leader of the Stambolovist +party, formed a ministry. The prime minister, a statesman of undoubted +patriotism but of overbearing character, was assassinated on the 11th of +March 1907 by a youth who had been dismissed from a post in one of the +agricultural banks, and the cabinet was reconstituted under Gudeff, a +member of the same party. + +_Declaration of Independence._--During the thirty years of its existence +the principality had made rapid and striking progress. Its inhabitants, +among whom a strong sense of nationality had grown up, were naturally +anxious to escape from the restrictions imposed by the treaty of Berlin. +That Servia should be an independent state, while Bulgaria, with its +greater economic and military resources, remained tributary to the Sultan, +was an anomaly which all classes resented; and although the Ottoman +suzerainty was little more than a constitutional fiction, and the tribute +imposed in 1878 was never paid, the Bulgarians were almost unanimous in +their desire to end a system which made their country the vassal of a +Moslem state notorious for its maladministration and corruption. This +desire was strengthened by the favourable reception accorded to Prince +Ferdinand when he visited Vienna in February 1908, and by the so-called +"Geshoff incident," _i.e._ the exclusion of M. Geshoff, the Bulgarian +agent, from a dinner given by Tewfik Pasha, the Ottoman minister for +foreign affairs, to the ministers of all the sovereign states represented +at Constantinople (12th of September 1908). This was interpreted as an +insult to the Bulgarian nation, and as the explanation offered by the grand +vizier was unsatisfactory, M. Geshoff was recalled to Sofia. At this time +the bloodless revolution in Turkey seemed likely to bring about a +fundamental change in the settled policy of Bulgaria. For many years past +Bulgarians had hoped that their own orderly and progressive government, +which had contrasted so strongly with the evils of Turkish rule, would +entitle them to consideration, and perhaps to an accession of territory, +when the time arrived for a definite settlement of the Macedonian Question. +Now, however, the reforms introduced or foreshadowed by the Young Turkish +party threatened to deprive Bulgaria of any pretext for future +intervention; there was nothing to be gained by further acquiescence in the +conditions laid down at Berlin. An opportunity for effective action +occurred within a fortnight of M. Geshoff's recall, when a strike broke out +on those sections of the Eastern Rumelian railways which were owned by +Turkey and leased to the Oriental Railways Company. The Bulgarians alleged +that during the strike Turkish troops were able to travel on the lines +which were closed to all other traffic, and that this fact constituted a +danger to their own autonomy. The government therefore seized the railway, +in defiance of European opinion, and in spite of the protests of the +suzerain power and the Oriental Railways Company. The bulk of the Turkish +army was then in Asia, and the new régime was not yet firmly established, +while the Bulgarian government were probably aware that Russia would not +intervene, and that Austria-Hungary intended to annex Bosnia and +Herzegovina, and thus incidentally to divert attention from their own +violation of the treaty of Berlin. On the 5th of October Prince Ferdinand +publicly proclaimed Bulgaria, united since the 6th of September 1885 +(_i.e._ including Eastern Rumelia), an independent kingdom. This +declaration was read aloud by the king in the church of the Forty Martyrs +at Trnovo, the ancient capital of the Bulgarian tsars. The Porte +immediately protested to the powers, but agreed to accept an indemnity. In +February 1909 the Russian government proposed to advance to Bulgaria the +difference between the £4,800,000 claimed by Turkey and the £1,520,000 +which Bulgaria undertook to pay. A preliminary Russo-Turkish protocol was +signed on the 16th of March, and in April, after the final agreement had +been concluded, the independence of Bulgaria was recognized by the powers. +Of the indemnity, £1,680,000 was paid on account of the Eastern Rumelian +railways; the allocation of this sum between Turkey and the Oriental +railways was submitted to arbitration. (See TURKEY: _History_.) + +LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE + +_Language._--The Bulgarian is at once the most ancient and the most modern +of the languages which constitute the Slavonic group. In its groundwork it +presents the nearest approach to the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, the +liturgical language common to all the Orthodox Slavs, but it has undergone +more important modifications than any of the sister dialects in the +simplification of its grammatical forms; and the analytical character of +its development may be compared with that of the neo-Latin and Germanic +languages. The introduction of the definite article, which appears in the +form of a suffix, and the almost total disappearance of the ancient +declensions, for which the use of [v.04 p.0785] prepositions has been +substituted, distinguish the Bulgarian from all the other members of the +Slavonic family. Notwithstanding these changes, which give the language an +essentially modern aspect, its close affinity with the ecclesiastical +Slavonic, the oldest written dialect, is regarded as established by several +eminent scholars, such as Safarik, Schleicher, Leskien and Brugman, and by +many Russian philologists. These authorities agree in describing the +liturgical language as "Old Bulgarian." A different view, however, is +maintained by Miklosich, Kopitar and some others, who regard it as "Old +Slovene." According to the more generally accepted theory, the dialect +spoken by the Bulgarian population in the neighbourhood of Salonica, the +birthplace of SS. Cyril and Methodius, was employed by the Slavonic +apostles in their translations from the Greek, which formed the model for +subsequent ecclesiastical literature. This view receives support from the +fact that the two nasal vowels of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and +lesser _ûs_), which have been modified in all the cognate languages except +Polish, retain their original pronunciation locally in the neighbourhood of +Salonica and Castoria; in modern literary Bulgarian the _rhinesmus_ has +disappeared, but the old nasal vowels preserve a peculiar pronunciation, +the greater _ûs_ changing to _u_, as in English "but," the lesser to _e_, +as in "bet," while in Servian, Russian and Slovene the greater _ûs_ becomes +_u_ or _o_, the lesser _e_ or _ya_. The remnants of the declensions still +existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pronominal and adverbial forms) show a +close analogy to those of the old ecclesiastical language. + +The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died in 869, St +Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have not been preserved. +The oldest existing copies, which date from the 10th century, already +betray the influence of the contemporary vernacular speech, but as the +alterations introduced by the copyists are neither constant nor regular, it +is possible to reconstruct the original language with tolerable certainty. +The "Old Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an inflexional language of +the synthetic type, containing few foreign elements in its vocabulary. The +Christian terminology was, of course, mainly Greek; the Latin or German +words which occasionally occur were derived from Moravia and Pannonia, +where the two saints pursued their missionary labours. In course of time it +underwent considerable modifications, both phonetic and structural, in the +various Slavonic countries in which it became the liturgical language, and +the various MSS. are consequently classified as "Servian-Slavonic," +"Croatian-Slavonic," "Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the different +recensions. The "Russian-Slavonic" is the liturgical language now in +general use among the Orthodox Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula owing to the +great number of ecclesiastical books introduced from Russia in the 17th and +18th centuries; until comparatively recent times it was believed to be the +genuine language of the Slavonic apostles. Among the Bulgarians the spoken +language of the 9th century underwent important changes during the next +three hundred years. The influence of these changes gradually asserts +itself in the written language; in the period extending from the 12th to +the 15th century the writers still endeavoured to follow the archaic model, +but it is evident that the vernacular had already become widely different +from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language of the MSS. of +this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands midway between +the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern speech. + +In the first half of the 16th century the characteristic features of the +modern language became apparent in the literary monuments. These features +undoubtedly displayed themselves at a much earlier period in the oral +speech; but the progress of their development has not yet been completely +investigated. Much light may be thrown on this subject by the examination +of many hitherto little-known manuscripts and by the scientific study of +the folk-songs. In addition to the employment of the article, the loss of +the noun-declensions, and the modification of the nasal vowels above +alluded to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the final vowels +_yer-golêm_ and _yer-malúk_, the loss of the infinitive, and the increased +variety of the conjugations, distinguish the modern from the ancient +language. The suffix-article, which is derived from the demonstrative +pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the Bulgarian among Slavonic and to the +Rumanian among Latin languages. This and other points of resemblance +between these remotely related members of the Indo-European group are +shared by the Albanian, probably the representative of the old Illyrian +language, and have consequently been attributed to the influence of the +aboriginal speech of the Peninsula. A demonstrative suffix, however, is +sometimes found in Russian and Polish, and traces of the article in an +embryonic state occur in the "Old Bulgarian" MSS. of the 10th and 11th +centuries. In some Bulgarian dialects it assumes different forms according +to the proximity or remoteness of the object mentioned. Thus _zhena-ta_ is +"the woman"; _zhena-va_ or _zhena-sa_, "the woman close by"; _zhena-na_, +"the woman yonder." In the borderland between the Servian and Bulgarian +nationalities the local use of the article supplies the means of drawing an +ethnological frontier; it is nowhere more marked than in the immediate +neighbourhood of the Servian population, as, for instance, at Dibra and +Prilep. The modern Bulgarian has admitted many foreign elements. It +contains about 2000 Turkish and 1000 Greek words dispersed in the various +dialects; some Persian and Arabic words have entered through the Turkish +medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian words are found. Most of these are +rejected by the purism of the literary language, which, however, has been +compelled to borrow the phraseology of modern civilization from the +Russian, French and other European languages. The dialects spoken in the +kingdom may be classed in two groups--the eastern and the western. The main +point of difference is the pronunciation of the letter _yedvoìno_, which in +the eastern has frequently the sound of _ya_, in the western invariably +that of _e_ in "pet." The literary language began in the western dialect +under the twofold influence of Servian literature and the Church Slavonic. +In a short time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and the influence +of Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Russian reaction was +initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been maintained by numerous +writers educated in the German and Austrian universities. Since the +foundation of the university of Sofia the literary language has taken a +middle course between the ultra-Russian models of the past generation and +the dialectic Bulgarian. Little uniformity, however, has yet been attained +in regard to diction, orthography or pronunciation. + +The Bulgarians of pagan times are stated by the monk Khrabr, a contemporary +of Tsar Simeon, to have employed a peculiar writing, of which inscriptions +recently found near Kaspitchan may possibly be specimens. The earliest +manuscripts of the "Old Bulgarian" are written in one or other of the two +alphabets known as the glagolitic and Cyrillic (see SLAVS). The former was +used by Bulgarian writers concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th +century. Among the orthodox Slavs the Cyrillic finally superseded the +glagolitic; as modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian alphabet, +which, with the revival of literature, was introduced into Servia and +Bulgaria. Some Russian letters which are superfluous in Bulgarian have been +abandoned by the native writers, and a few characters have been restored +from the ancient alphabet. + +_Literature._--The ancient Bulgarian literature, originating in the works +of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, consisted for the most part +of theological works translated from the Greek. From the conversion of +Boris down to the Turkish conquest the religious character predominates, +and the influence of Byzantine literature is supreme. Translations of the +gospels and epistles, lives of the saints, collections of sermons, exegetic +religious works, translations of Greek chronicles, and miscellanies such as +the _Sbornik_ of St Sviatoslav, formed the staple of the national +literature. In the time of Tsar Simeon, himself an author, considerable +literary activity prevailed; among the more remarkable works of this period +was the _Shestodnev_, or Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account of the +creation. A little later the heresy of the Bogomils gave an impulse to +controversial writing. The principal champions of orthodoxy were St Kosmâs +and the monk Athanas of Jerusalem; among the Bogomils the _Questions of St +Ivan Bogosloff_, a work containing a description of the beginning and the +end of the world, was held in high esteem. Contemporaneously with the +spread of this sect a number of apocryphal works, based on the Scripture +narrative, but embellished with Oriental legends of a highly imaginative +character, obtained great popularity. Together with these religious +writings works of fiction, also of Oriental origin, made their appearance, +such as the life of Alexander the Great, the story of Troy, the tales of +_Stephanit and Ichnilat_ and _Barlaam and Josaphat_, the latter founded on +the biography of Buddha. These were for the most part reproductions or +variations of the fantastical romances which circulated through Europe in +the middle ages, and many of them have left traces in the national legends +and folk-songs. In the 13th century, under the Asên dynasty, numerous +historical works or chronicles (_lêtopisi_) were composed. State records +appear to have existed, but none of them have been preserved. With the +Ottoman conquest literature disappeared; the manuscripts became the food of +moths and worms, or fell a prey to the fanaticism of the Phanariot clergy. +The library of the patriarchs of Trnovo was committed to the flames by the +Greek metropolitan Hilarion in 1825. + +The monk Paisii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii (1739-1815) have +already been mentioned as the precursors of the literary [v.04 p.0786] +revival. The _Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska_ (1762) of Païsii, written in the +solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of little historical value, but its +influence upon the Bulgarian race was immense. An ardent patriot, Païsii +recalls the glories of the Bulgarian tsars and saints, rebukes his +fellow-countrymen for allowing themselves to be called Greeks, and +denounces the arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot prelates. The _Life +and Sufferings of sinful Sofronii_ (1804) describes in simple and touching +language the condition of Bulgaria at the beginning of the 19th century. +Both works were written in a modified form of the church Slavonic. The +first printed work in the vernacular appears to have been the +_Kyriakodromion_, a translation of sermons, also by Sofronii, published in +1806. The Servian and Greek insurrections quickened the patriotic +sentiments of the Bulgarian refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia +and southern Russia, and Bucharest became the centre of their political and +literary activity. A modest _bukvar_, or primer, published at Kronstadt by +Berovitch in 1824, was the first product of the new movement. Translations +of the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories and various +elementary treatises now appeared. With the multiplication of books came +the movement for establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the monk Neophyt +Rilski (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the author of the first +Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational works, and translated the +New Testament into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary +renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the +patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national zeal, Liuben +Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff +(1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend Haji Dimitr, +an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language, and Petko +Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical and erotic, +moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a great influence over +the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly governor-general of eastern +Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have written +historical works. Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of +revolutionary and satirical ballads; his friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d. +1889), who began life as a shepherd, has left some interesting memoirs. The +most distinguished Bulgarian man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose +epic and lyric poems and prose works form the best specimens of the modern +literary language. His novel _Pod Igoto_ (Under the Yoke) has been +translated into several European languages. The best dramatic work is +_Ivanko_, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote some +novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological +treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and Urumoff to +Velnovski's _Flora Bulgarica_, no original works on natural science have as +yet been produced; a like dearth is apparent in the fields of philosophy, +criticism and fine art, but it must be remembered that the literature is +still in its infancy. The ancient folk-songs have been preserved in several +valuable collections; though inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they +deserve scientific attention. Several periodicals and reviews have been +founded in modern times. Of these the most important are the +_Perioditchesko Spisanie_, issued since 1869 by the Bulgarian Literary +Society, and the _Sbornik_, a literary and scientific miscellany, formerly +edited by Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published +by the government at irregular intervals. + +AUTHORITIES.--C.J. Jirecek, _Das Furstenthum Bulgarien_ (Prague, 1891), and +_Cesty po Bulharsku_ (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works of +the first importance; Léon Lamouche, _La Bulgarie dans le passé et le +présent_ (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, _Die +Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgarians_ (Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz, +_Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan_ (Leipzig, 1882); A.G. Drander, _Événements +politiques en Bulgarie_ (Paris, 1896); and _Le Prince Alexandre de +Battenberg_ (Paris, 1884); A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipzig, 1898); A. +Tuma, _Die östliche Balkanhalbinsel_ (Vienna, 1886); A. de Gubernatis, _La +Bulgarie et les Bulgares_ (Florence, 1899); E. Blech, _Consular Report on +Bulgaria in 1889_ (London, 1890); _La Bulgarie contemporaine_ (issued by +the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905). +Geology: F. Toula, _Reisen und geologische Untersuchungen in Bulgarien_ +(Vienna, 1890); J. Cvijic, "Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," in _C.R. IX. +Cong. géol. intern. de Vienne_, pp. 348-370, with map, 1904. History: C.J. +Jirecek, _Geschichte der Bulgaren_ (Prague, 1876); (a summary in _The +Balkans_, by William Miller, London, 1896); Sokolov, _Iz drevneì istorii +Bolgar_ (Petersburg, 1879); Uspenski, _Obrazovanïe vtorago Bolgarskago +tsarstva_ (Odessa, 1879); _Acta Bulgariae ecclesiastica_, published by the +South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887). Language: F. Miklosich, +_Vergleichende Grammatik_ (Vienna, 1879); and _Geschichte d. +Lautbezeichnung im Bulgarischen_ (Vienna, 1883); A. Leskien, _Handbuch d. +altbulgarischen Sprache_ (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich, +_Staroblgarska Gramatika_ (Sofia, 1896); _Das Ostbulgarische_ (Vienna, +1903); Labrov, _Obzor zvulkovikh i formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago +yesika_ (Moscow, 1893); W.R. Morfill, _A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian +Language_ (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, _Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache +leicht und schnell zu erlernen_ (Vienna, 1888). Literature: L.A.H. Dozon, +_Chansons populaires bulgares inédites_ (with French translations), (Paris, +1875); A. Strausz, _Bulgarische Volksdichtungen_ (translations with a +preface and notes), (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, _Légendes +religieuses bulgares_ (Paris, 1896); Pypin and Spasovich, _History of the +Slavonic Literature_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French +translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, _Bulgarian Chrestomathy_ +(Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov, _Blgarska Literatura_ (Philippopolis, +1896); Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov +(Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882), +Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveïkov (Sofia, +1899). See also _The Shade of the Balkans_, by Pencho Slaveïkov, H. Bernard +and E.J. Dillon (London, 1904). + +(J. D. B.) + +BULGARIA, EASTERN, formerly a powerful kingdom which existed from the 5th +to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present territory of the +provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and N. Astrakhan, perhaps extending +also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzañ, surrounded by numerous +graves in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made, +occupies the site of one of the cities--perhaps the capital--of that +extinct kingdom. The history, _Tarikh Bulgar_, said to have been written in +the 12th century by an Arabian cadi of the city Bolgari, has not yet been +discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid +Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited the +kingdom, beginning with the 10th century, have left descriptions of it. The +Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have assimilated +Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the 5th century they attacked +the Russians in the Black Sea prairies, and afterwards made raids upon the +Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them +not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and houses +in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by Arabian architects. Ibn +Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides cattle breeding. Trade with +Persia and India, as also with the Khazars and the Russians, and +undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation, +their main riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After +their conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which are +mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod +(Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often raided by the Russians. In +the 13th century it was conquered by the Mongols, and became for a time the +seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. In the second half of the 15th +century Bolgari became part of the Kazañ kingdom, lost its commercial and +political importance, and was annexed to Russia after the fall of Kazañ. + +(P. A. K.) + +BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna, sometimes +erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of +the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors" +of the law school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of +the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden +Mouth" (_os aureum_). He died in 1166 A.D., at a very advanced age. Popular +tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo +de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (_q.v._), +but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting +this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general +tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus +were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many +respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being +at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents +styled the equity of "the purse" (_aequitas bursalis_), whilst Bulgarus +adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus +ultimately prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes +Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a +commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus +took the leading part amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in +1158, and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. +His most celebrated work is his commentary _De Regulis Juris_, which was at +one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly +reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence +contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the +pen of Placentinus. This [v.04 p.0787] _Commentary_, which is the earliest +extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Gloss-writers, is, +according to Savigny, a model specimen of the excellence of the method +introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results +which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and +exclusive study of the sources of law. + +BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on the 25th of +March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter +College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his +refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained +privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was that of St +George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively to be rector of +Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary of Gloucester (1678), +archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on +the 17th of February 1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered +to the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached +strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display great erudition +and powerful thinking. The _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1670) is an attempt to +show the fundamental agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with +regard to justification. The _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ (1685), his greatest +work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the +ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a +thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church +literature. The _Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (1694) and _Primitiva et +Apostolica Traditio_ (1710) won high praise from Bossuet and other French +divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of the _Judicium_, Bull wrote a +treatise on _The Corruptions of the Church of Rome_, which became very +popular. + +The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at Oxford by +the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This +edition contains the _Life_ by Robert Nelson. The _Harmonia, Defensio_ and +_Judicium_ are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology +(Oxford, 1842-1855). + +BULL, JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist, was born in +Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he +joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of +Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in +succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education. +In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University; +and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he +was unable to lecture in Latin according to the foundation-rules of that +college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his +favour by permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture +on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and +Germany, and was everywhere received with the respect due to his talents. +Anthony Wood tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed +the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition +already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him +by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to +England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in +1606. He played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on the +16th of July 1607, in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been +appointed one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he +resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 he +again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post as +one of the organists in the arch-duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was +appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died +in that city on the 12th or 13th of March 1628. Little of his music has +been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its merits +(see Dr Willibald Nagel's _Geschichte der Musik in England_, ii. (1897), p. +155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's _Geschichte der Klaviermusik_ (1899), p. 54, +&c.). Contemporary writers speak in the highest terms of Bull's skill as a +performer on the organ and the virginals, and there is no doubt that he +contributed much to the development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck +(1562-1621), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on +composition as complete without placing in it a canon by John Bull, and the +latter wrote a fantasia upon a fugue of Swielinck. For the ascription to +Bull of the composition of the British national anthem, see NATIONAL +ANTHEMS. Good modern reprints, _e.g._ of the Fitzwilliam _Virginal-Book_, +"The King's Hunting Jig," and one or two other pieces, are in the +repertories of modern pianists from Rubinstein onwards. + +BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist, was born in Bergen, +Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At first a pupil of the violinist +Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught, he was intended for the church, but +failed in his examinations in 1828 and became a musician, directing the +philharmonic and dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he went to Cassel, +on a visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He now began to study +law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence of Paganini, and +definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso. He made his first +appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin at a concert of his own in +Paris in 1832. Successful tours in Italy and England followed soon +afterwards, and he was not long in obtaining European celebrity by his +brilliant playing of his own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to +the United States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he +formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in Bergen; this +became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in consequence of harassing +business complications he went again to America. During this visit +(1852-1857) he bought 125,000 acres in Potter county, Pennsylvania, for a +Norwegian colony, which was to have been called Oleana after his name; but +his title turned out to be fraudulent, and the troubles he went through in +connexion with the undertaking were enough to affect his health very +seriously, though not to hinder him for long from the exercise of his +profession. Another attempt to found an academy of music in Christiania had +no permanent result. In 1836 he had married Alexandrine Félicie Villeminot, +the grand-daughter of a lady to whom he owed much at the beginning of his +musical career in Paris; she died in 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C. +Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he confined himself to the career of a +violinist. He died at Lysö, near Bergen, on the 17th of August 1880. Ole +Bull's "polacca guerriera" and many of his other violin pieces, among them +two concertos, are interesting to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his +prodigious technique. The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains +many illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives a +picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression in a +somewhat boisterous form of practical humour. + +There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the Ole Bulls +Plads in Bergen. + +BULL, (1) The male of animals belonging to the section _Bovina_ of the +family _Bovidae_ (_q.v._), particularly the uncastrated male of the +domestic ox (_Bos taurus_). (See CATTLE.) The word, which is found in M.E. +as _bole, bolle_ (cf. Ger. _Bulle_, and Dutch _bul_ or _bol_), is also used +of the males of other animals of large size, _e.g._ the elephant, whale, +&c. The O.E. diminutive form _bulluc_, meaning originally a young bull, or +bull calf, survives in bullock, now confined to a young castrated male ox +kept for slaughter for beef. + +On the London and New York stock exchanges "bull" and "bear" are +correlative technical slang terms. A "bull" is one who "buys for a rise," +_i.e._ he buys stocks or securities, grain or other commodities (which, +however, he never intends to take up), in the hope that before the date on +which he must take delivery he will be able to sell the stocks, &c., at a +higher price, taking as a profit the difference between the buying and +selling price. A "bear" is the reverse of a "bull." He is one who "sells +for a fall," _i.e._ he sells stock, &c., which he does not actually +possess, in the hope of buying it at a lower price before the time at which +he has contracted to deliver (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE). The word +"bull," according to the _New English Dictionary_, was used in this sense +as early as the beginning of the 18th century. The origin of the use is not +known, though it is tempting to connect it with the fable of the frog and +the bull. + +[v.04 p.0788] The term "bull's eye" is applied to many circular objects, +and particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of a sheet +of blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used for windows in small +leaded panes. The French term _oeil de boeuf_ is used of a circular window. +Other circular objects to which the word is applied are the centre of a +target or a shot that hits the central division of the target, a +plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex glass in it, a +thick circular piece of glass let into the deck or side of a ship, &c., for +lighting the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge, +and with a hole through the centre through which a rope can be passed, and +also a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes presages a hurricane. + +(2) The use of the word "bull," for a verbal blunder, involving a +contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense it is used +with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Milton's _True +Religion_, "and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Roman Catholick, +it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope's Bulls, as if he should say a +universal particular, a Catholick schismatick." Probably this use may be +traced to a M.E. word _bul_, first found in the _Cursor Mundi_, c. 1300, in +the sense of falsehood, trickery, deceit; the _New English Dictionary_ +compares an O.Fr. _boul_, _boule_ or _bole_, in the same sense. Although +modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, possibly +owing to the many famous "bulls" attributed to Sir Boyle Roche (_q.v._), +the early quotations show that in the 17th century, when the meaning now +attached to the word begins, no special country was credited with them. + +(3) _Bulla_ (Lat for "bubble"), which gives us another "bull" in English, +was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on +doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes. It was applied, however, more +particularly to an ornament, generally of gold, a round or heart-shaped box +containing an amulet, worn suspended from the neck by children of noble +birth until they assumed the _toga virilis_, when it was hung up and +dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing the bulla, which was +regarded as a charm against sickness and the evil eye, was of Etruscan +origin. After the Second Punic War all children of free birth were +permitted to wear it; but those who did not belong to a noble or wealthy +family were satisfied with a bulla of leather. Its use was only permitted +to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrated a triumph. Young +girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and even favourite +animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, _La Bolla d' Oro_, 1732; Yates, +_Archaeological Journal_, vi., 1849; viii., 1851). In ecclesiastical and +medieval Latin, _bulla_ denotes the seal of oval or circular form, bearing +the name and generally the image of its owner, which was attached to +official documents. A metal was used instead of wax in the warm countries +of southern Europe. The best-known instances are the papal _bullae_, which +have given their name to the documents (bulls) to which they are attached. +(See DIPLOMATIC; SEALS; CURIA ROMANA; GOLDEN BULL.) + +BULLER, CHARLES (1806-1848), English politician, son of Charles Buller (d. +1848), a member of a well-known Cornish family (see below), was born in +Calcutta on the 6th of August 1806; his mother, a daughter of General +William Kirkpatrick, was an exceptionally talented woman. He was educated +at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and afterwards at +Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1831. Before this date, +however, he had succeeded his father as member of parliament for West Looe; +after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 and the consequent +disenfranchisement of this borough, he was returned to parliament by the +voters of Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died in London on the +29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles Greville says, "a +memory cherished for his delightful social qualities and a vast credit for +undeveloped powers." An eager reformer and a friend of John Stuart Mill, +Buller voted for the great Reform Bill, favoured other progressive +measures, and presided over the committee on the state of the records and +the one appointed to inquire into the state of election law in Ireland in +1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord Durham as private secretary, and +after rendering conspicuous service to his chief, returned with him to +England in the same year. After practising as a barrister, Buller was made +judge-advocate-general in 1846, and became chief commissioner of the poor +law about a year before his death. For a long time it was believed that +Buller wrote Lord Durham's famous "Report on the affairs of British North +America." However, this is now denied by several authorities, among them +being Durham's biographer, Stuart J. Reid, who mentions that Buller +described this statement as a "groundless assertion" in an article which he +wrote for the _Edinburgh Review_. Nevertheless it is quite possible that +the "Report" was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly bears +traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man, witty, popular and +generous, and is described by Carlyle as "the genialest radical I have ever +met." Among his intimate friends were Grote, Thackeray, Monckton Milnes and +Lady Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster Abbey, and another was +unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote "A Sketch of Lord Durham's mission +to Canada," which has not been printed. + +See T. Carlyle, _Reminiscences_ (1881); and S.J. Reid, _Life and Letters of +the 1st earl of Durham_ (1906). + +BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY (1839-1908), British general, son of James +Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton, Devonshire, and the descendant of an +old Cornish family, long established in Devonshire, tracing its ancestry in +the female line to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated at Eton. He +entered the army in 1858, and served with the 60th (King's Royal Rifles) in +the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became captain, and went on the Red +River expedition, where he was first associated with Colonel (afterwards +Lord) Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee +campaign as head of the Intelligence Department, and was slightly wounded +at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in despatches, made a C.B., and +raised to the rank of major. In 1874 he inherited the family estates. In +the Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an +intrepid and popular leader, and acquired a reputation for courage and +dogged determination. In particular his conduct of the retreat at Inhlobane +(March 28, 1879) drew attention to these qualities, and on that occasion he +earned the V.C.; he was also created C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and +A.D.C. to the queen. In the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief +of staff; and thus added to his experience of South African conditions of +warfare. In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence department in the +Egyptian campaign, and was knighted for his services. Two years later he +commanded an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was +at the battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for +distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord +Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of the desert column +when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his +conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu Klea +(February 16-17), and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland +to inquire into the "moonlighting" outrages, and for a short time he acted +as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was appointed +quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890 to 1897 he held the +office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank of lieutenant-general in +1891. At the war office his energy and ability inspired the belief that he +was fitted for the highest command, and in 1895, when the duke of Cambridge +was about to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's cabinet +intended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a scheme of +reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's commission. On the eve of +this change, however, the government was defeated, and its successors +appointed Lord Wolseley to the command under the old title of +commander-in-chief. In 1896 he was made a full general. + +In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer War +broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African Field Force +(see TRANSVAAL), and landed [v.04 p.0789] at Cape Town on the 31st of +October. Owing to the Boer investment of Ladysmith and the consequent +gravity of the military situation in Natal, he unexpectedly hurried thither +in order to supervise personally the operations, but on the 15th of +December his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso (see LADYSMITH) +was repulsed. The government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic +tone of Buller's messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the +chief command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal +force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27) proved +another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (January 24) +causing consternation in England. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, February +5-7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task in +the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill and +the relief of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Buller +remained in command of the Natal army till October 1900, when he returned +to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the meanwhile slowly done a +great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15), +forcing Lang's Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). But +though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his reputation +for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence of his own +men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and difficult +operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, therefore, in +1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command met with a +vigorous press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his +conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly to a message +to Sir George White in which he seriously contemplated and provided for the +contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On the 10th of October +1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer +to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of discipline, +and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. For the remaining years of +his life he played an active part as a country gentleman, accepting in +dignified silence the prolonged attacks on his failures in South Africa; +among the public generally, and particularly in his own county, he never +lost his popularity. He died on the 2nd of June 1908. He had married in +1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him +with one daughter. + +A _Memoir_, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909. + +BULLET (Fr. _boulet_, diminutive of _boule_, ball). The original meaning (a +"small ball") has, since the end of the 16th century, been narrowed down to +the special case of the projectile used with small arms of all kinds, +irrespective of its size or shape. (For details see AMMUNITION; GUN; RIFLE, +&c.) + +BULL-FIGHTING, the national Spanish sport. The Spanish name is +_tauromaquia_ (Gr. [Greek: tauros], bull, and [Greek: machê], combat). +Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the +amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature of +worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting formerly common in England. +The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it is probable +that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered that province. +It is certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman +amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and other places, and +that these constituted the favourite sport of the Moorish chieftains. +Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid himself as the original +Spanish bull-fighter, it is probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull +in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the +lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in the sport, +proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish knights. A spirited +rivalry in the art between the Christian and Moorish warriors resulted, in +which even the kings of Castile and other Spanish princes took an ardent +interest. After the Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II., +bull-fighting continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the +method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the time of the +accession of the house of Austria it had become an indispensable accessory +of every court function, and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the +people by killing a bull with his own lance on the birthday of his son, +Philip II. Philip IV. is also known to have taken a personal part in +bull-fights. During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the +short spear (_rejoncillo_), and the leg armour still worn by the +_picadores_ was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon witnessed +a radical transformation in the character of the bullfight, which the +aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the combats +professional subordinates who, by the end of the 17th century, had become +the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great professional +_espada_ (_i.e._ swordsman, the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the +bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who +introduced the _estoque_, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the +_muleta_, the red flag carried by the _espada_ (see below), the spear +falling into complete disuse. + +For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed gradually +into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish bull-fights have +been repeatedly introduced into France and Italy, but the cruelty of the +sport has prevented its taking firm root. In Portugal a kind of +bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the +bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never being killed. In +Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the sport, by Ferdinand +II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella, by Charles III., by Ferdinand +VI., and by Charles IV.; and several popes placed its devotees under the +ban of excommunication with no perceptible effect upon its popularity. +Before the introduction of railways there were comparatively few bull-rings +(_plazas de toros_) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied in recent +years, in both Spain and Spanish America. At the present day nearly every +larger town and city in Spain has its _plaza de toros_ (about 225 +altogether), built in the form of the Roman circuses with an oval open +arena covered with sand, surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high. +Between this and the seats of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where +those bull-fighters who are not at the moment engaged take their stations. +The _plazas de toros_ are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds +more than 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two or three +thousand. Every bull-ring has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel +where the _toreros_ (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist. + +The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and are +reared in special establishments (_vacádas_), the most celebrated of which +is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When quite young they are +branded with the emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of +their courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained +further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character of horns, +and action in attack are all objects of the keenest observation and study. +The best bulls are worth from £40 to £60. About 1300 bulls are killed +annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians, +consist of _espadas_ (or _matadores_), _banderilleros_ and _picadores_, in +addition to whom there are numbers of assistants (_chulos_), drivers and +other servants. For each bull-fight two or three _espadas_ are engaged, +each providing his own quadrille (_cuadrilla_), composed of several +_banderilleros_ and _picadores_. Six bulls are usually killed during one +_corrida_ (bull-fight), the _espadas_ engaged taking them in turn. The +_espada_ must have passed through a trying novitiate in the art at the +royal school of bull-fighting, after which he is given his _alternativa_, +or licence. + +The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters with +_alguaciles_, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head, followed, +in three rows, by the _espadas, banderilleros, picadores, chulos_ and the +richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from the arena the +carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest possible brilliance +of costume and accoutrements is aimed at, and the picture presented is one +of dazzling colour. The _espadas_ and _banderilleros_ wear short jackets +and small-clothes of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with +[v.04 p.0790] light silk stockings and heelless shoes; the _picadores_ +(pikemen on horseback) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in +steel armour covered with leather as a protection against the horns of the +bull. + +The fight is divided into three divisions (_suertes_). When the opening +procession has passed round the arena the president of the _corrida_, +usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the _alguaciles_ the key +to the _toril_, or bull-cells. As soon as the supernumeraries have left the +ring, and the _picadores_, mounted upon blindfolded horses in wretched +condition, have taken their places against the barrier, the door of the +_toril_ is opened, and the bull, which has been goaded into fury by the +affixing to his shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of the colours of +his breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the _suerte de picar_, +or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the mounted _picadores_, +ripping up and wounding the horses, often to the point of complete +disembowelment. As the bull attacks the horse, the _picador_, who is armed +with a short-pointed, stout pike (_garrocha_), thrusts this into the bull's +back with all his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its +attention to another _picador_. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the +bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both +animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger by the +_chulos_ and _banderilleros_, who, by means of their red cloaks (_capas_), +divert the bull from the fallen _picador_, who either escapes from the ring +or mounts a fresh horse. The number of horses killed in this manner is one +of the chief features of the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned +accordingly. About 6000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound +of a trumpet the _picadores_ retire from the ring, the dead horses are +dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the _suerte de +banderillear_, or planting the darts, begins. The _banderillas_ are barbed +darts about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper, one being held in +each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30 yds. from the bull, +draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull +charges, the _banderillero_ steps towards him, dexterously plants both +darts in the beast's neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its +horns. Four pairs of _banderillas_ are planted in this way, rendering the +bull mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardly nature +and refuse to attack repeatedly, _banderillas de fuego_ (fire) are used. +These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which explode with terrific +noise as the bull careers about the ring. During this division numerous +manoeuvres are sometimes indulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull +out, such as leaping between his horns, vaulting over his back with the +_garrocha_ as he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate +flauntings of the cloak (_floréos_, flourishes). + +Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of the fight, +the _suerte de matár_ (killing). This is carried out by the _espada_, +alone, his assistants being present only in the case of emergency or to get +the bull back to the proper part of the ring, should he bolt to a distance. +The _espada_, taking his stand before the box of the president, holds aloft +in his left hand sword and _muleta_ and in his right his hat, and in set +phrases formally dedicates (_brinde_) the death of the bull to the +president or some other personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat +behind his back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull. +This is a process accompanied by much formality. The _espada_, armed with +the _estoque_, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the +proper position by means of passes with the _muleta_, a small red silk flag +mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a single thrust, +delivered through the back of the neck close to the head and downward into +the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one, requiring long practice as +well as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object, +the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The stroke +(_estocada_) is usually given _á volapié_ (half running), the _espada_ +delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull usually standing +still. Another method is _recibiéndo_ (receiving), the _espada_ receiving +the onset of the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need a +_coup de grâce_, it is given by a _chulo_, called _puntilléro_, with a +dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out +of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the _espada_ makes a tour of +honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the most +extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is +introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such as a +coronation, a _corrida_ in the ancient style is given by amateurs, who are +clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and mounted upon steeds +of good breed and condition. They are armed with sharp lances, with which +they essay to kill the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds +from his horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened by +many wounds and tired out by much running, the performances of the +gentlemen fighters are remarkable for pluck and dexterity. + +See Moratin, _Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros_; Bedoya's _Historia +del Toreo_; J.S. Lozano, _Manual de Tauromaquia_ (Seville, 1882); A. +Chapman and W.T. Buck, _Wild Spain_ (London, 1893). + +BULLFINCH (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_), the ancient English name given to a bird +belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), of a bluish-grey and +black colour above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female +differing chiefly in having its under-parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy +bird, not associating with other species, and frequents well-wooded +districts, being very rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds +a shallow nest composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or +thick underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four or five +eggs of a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with purple. The young +remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring, not +building their nests, however, till May. In spring and summer they feed on +the buds of trees and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as contain +the incipient blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards and +gardens. In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits and on +seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and pleasant, +but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses, however, great powers +of imitation, and considerable memory, and can thus be taught to whistle a +variety of tunes. Bullfinches are very abundant in the forests of Germany, +and it is there that most of the piping bullfinches are trained. They are +taught continuously for nine months, and the lesson is repeated throughout +the first moulting, as during that change the young birds are apt to forget +all that they have previously acquired. The bullfinch is a native of the +northern countries of Europe, occurring in Italy and other southern parts +only as a winter visitor. White and black varieties are occasionally met +with; the latter are often produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on +hempseed, when its plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely breeds in +confinement, and hybrids between it and the canary have been produced on +but few occasions. + +BULLI, a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Australia, 59 m. by rail +S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the headquarters of the Bulli Mining +Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked +by a tunnel, 2 m. long, driven into the heart of the mountain. From this +tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for 1½ m. to a pier, whence it is +shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet of steam colliers. The +beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea, over the Illawarra range, is +one of the most attractive tourist resorts in Australia. + +BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son of Dean Heinrich +Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, on +the 18th of July 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the +teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to +first-hand study of the Bible. Next the writings of Luther and Melanchthon +appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in the cloister school of Cappel, +he lectured on Melanchthon's _Loci Communes_ (1521). He heard Zwingli at +Zürich in 1527, and next year accompanied him to the disputation at Berne. +He was made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a +nun, by whom he had eleven children. After the battle [v.04 p.0791] of +Cappel (11th of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten. +On the 9th of December 1531 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief +pastor of Zürich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially +unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little +sympathy. His controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his +correspondence with Lelio Sozini (see SOCINUS), exhibit, in different +connexions, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he +concluded (1549) the _Consensus Tigurinus_ on the Lord's Supper. The +(second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in Switzerland, Hungary, +Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of the _Zurich Letters_, +published by the Parker Society, testify to his influence on the English +reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into +English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and +polemical, have not been collected. He died at Zürich on the 17th of +September 1575. + +See Carl Pestalozzi, _Leben_ (1858); Raget Christoffel, _H. Bullinger_ +(1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897). + +(A. GO.*) + +BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a +standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the +French form "puissent sauvement porter à les exchanges ou bullion ... +argent en plate, vessel d'argent, &c."; and apparently it is connected with +_bouillon_, the sense of "boiling" being transferred in English to the +melting of metal, so that _bullion_ in the passage quoted meant +"melting-house" or "mint." The first recorded instance of the use of the +word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the +use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they +should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and +though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in +silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to +infinitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime +element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and other articles +of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and +ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not +only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value. + +BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740), English actor, "of great glee and much +comic vivacity," was the original Clincher in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_ +(1699), Boniface in _The Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall +in Pavener's _Artful Wife_ (1717). He played at all the London theatres of +his time, and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three +sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (c. +1690-1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln's Inn Fields +displayed "a considerable versatility of talent." Christopher created a few +original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or +adapter:--_A Woman's Revenge_ (1715); _Slip_; _Adventures of Half an Hour_ +(1716); _The Cobbler of Preston_; _Woman's a Riddle_; _The Perjurer_ +(1717); and _The Traitor_ (1718). + +BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made of a small flat slip of +wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round +rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by +Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and +sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia, +where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the +utmost awe by the "blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or sacred "tunduns," +are of two types, the "grandfather" or "man tundun," distinguished by its +deep tone, and the "woman tundun," which, being smaller, gives forth a +weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are +never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the +bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice of the "Great Spirit," and on +hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the +British Museum, and travellers in Africa state that it is known and held +sacred there. Thus among the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed +"Voice of Oro," their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which +is actually worshipped as the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer +has been shown to be very widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus +[Greek: rhombos] which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among +North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the +procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The +instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians +(J.G. Bourke, _Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._, 1892), +among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, "Social Organization, &c., +of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_), +and in Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres +Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is used +as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), and in +Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a +woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as +among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man +renowned for his bravery. + +See A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (1884); J.D.E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_ +(Hamburg, 1896); A.C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_, and in the _Journ. +Anthrop. Instit._ xix., 1890; G.M.C. Theal, _Kaffir Folk-Lore_; A.B. Ellis, +_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_ (1894); R.C. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ +(1891). + +BULL RUN, a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the name to two +famous battles in the American Civil War. + +(1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) was +fought on the 21st of July 1861 between the Union forces under +Brigadier-General Irvin McDowell and the Confederates under General Joseph +E. Johnston. Both armies were newly raised and almost untrained. After a +slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies prepared for +a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding all the +passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway bridge. McDowell's +forces rendezvoused around Centreville, and both commanders, sensible of +the temper of their troops, planned a battle for the 21st. On his part +McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to attack the Stone Bridge, two +to make a turning movement via Sudley Springs, the remaining division +(partly composed of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to watch the +lower fords. The local Confederate commander, Brigadier-General P.G.T. +Beauregard, had also intended to advance, and General Johnston, who arrived +by rail on the evening of the 20th with the greater part of a fresh army, +and now assumed command of the whole force, approved an offensive movement +against Centreville for the 21st; but orders miscarried, and the Federal +attack opened before the movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then +decided to fight a defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the +single brigade of Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no +serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day. + +[Illustration] + +The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions [v.04 +p.0792] engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary checks. +At 6 A.M., when the troops told off for the frontal attack appeared before +the Stone Bridge, the turning movement was by no means well advanced. Evans +had time to change position so as to command both the Stone Bridge and +Sudley Springs, and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee, +Bartow and T.J. Jackson. About 9.30 the leading Federal brigade from Sudley +Springs came into action, and two hours later Evans, Bee and Bartow had +been driven off the Matthews hill in considerable confusion. But on the +Henry House hill Jackson's brigade stood, as General Bee said to his men, +"like a stone wall," and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were +continually reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very +severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusiastic +volunteers, continued to attack. About 1.30 P.M. he brought up two regular +batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being mistaken +for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns by close +rifle fire, and from that time, though the hill was taken and retaken +several times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At 2.45 more of +Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade charged with the +bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in flank by the +last brigades of Johnston's army, which arrived at the critical moment from +the railway. They gave way at once, tired out, and conscious that the day +was lost, and after one rally melted away slowly to the rear, the handful +of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, at the defile of the Cub +Run, they came under shell fire the retreat became a panic flight to the +Potomac. The victors were too much exhausted to pursue, and the U.S. +regulars of the reserve division formed a strong and steady rearguard. The +losses were--Federals, 2896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates, +1982 men out of 18,000. + +(2) The operations of the last days of August 1862, which include the +second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are amongst the most +complicated of the war. At the outset the Confederate general Lee's army +(Longstreet's and Jackson's corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the +Federal Army of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be +reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength of 150,000 +men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon forced Lee to move, +though not to retreat, and his plan for attacking Pope was one of the most +daring in all military history. Jackson with half the army was despatched +on a wide turning movement which was to bring him via Salem and +Thoroughfare Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's task +was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the same route. +Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his march round the right of +Pope's army; on the 26th the column passed Thoroughfare Gap, and Bristoe +Station, directly in Pope's rear, was reached on the same evening, while a +detachment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. On the 27th the +immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed. On his side Pope had soon +discovered Jackson's departure, and had arranged for an immediate attack on +Longstreet. When, however, the direction of Jackson's march on Thoroughfare +Gap became clear, Pope fell back in order to engage him, at the same time +ordering his army to concentrate on Warrenton, Greenwich and Gainesville. +He was now largely reinforced. On the evening of the 27th one of his +divisions, marching to its point of concentration, met a division of +Jackson's corps, near Bristoe Station; after a sharp fight the Confederate +general, Ewell, retired on Manassas. Pope now realized that he had +Jackson's corps in front of him at the Junction, and at once took steps to +attack Manassas with all his forces. He drew off even the corps at +Gainesville for his intended battle of the 28th; McDowell, however, its +commander, on his own responsibility, left Ricketts's division at +Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in the air. When he arrived at +Manassas on the 28th he found nothing but the ruins of his magazines, and +one of McDowell's divisions (King's) marching from Gainesville on Manassas +Junction met Jackson's infantry near Groveton. The situation had again +changed completely. Jackson had no intention of awaiting Pope at Manassas, +and after several feints made with a view to misleading the Federal scouts +he finally withdrew to a hidden position between Groveton and Sudley +Springs, to await the arrival of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as +Jackson had done, arrived on the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap and, engaging +Ricketts's division, finally drove it back to Gainesville. On the evening +of this day Jackson's corps held the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his +right wing near Groveton opposing King's division; and Longstreet held +Thoroughfare Gap, facing Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was +King near Groveton, and the line was continued thence by McDowell's +remaining division and by Sigel's corps to the Stone Bridge. At +Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope with three divisions, a fourth was +north-east of Manassas Junction, and Porter's corps at Bristoe Station. +Thus, while Ricketts continued at Gainesville to mask Longstreet, Pope +could concentrate a superior force against Jackson, whom he now believed to +be meditating a retreat to the Gap. But a series of misunderstandings +resulted in the withdrawal of Ricketts and King, so that nothing now +intervened between Longstreet and Jackson; while Sigel and McDowell's other +division alone remained to face Jackson until such time as Pope could bring +up the rest of his scattered forces. Jackson now closed on his left and +prepared for battle, and on the morning of the 29th the Confederates, +posted behind a high railway embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by +Sigel. Pope arrived at noon with the divisions from Centreville, which, led +by the general himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the bravest officers +in the Union army, made a third and most desperate attack on Jackson's +line. The latter, repulsing it with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke +too far and was in turn repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division. +Grover then made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss. +The last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under Kearny and +Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; but a Confederate +counter-attack, led by the brave Jubal Early, dislodged the assailants with +the bayonet. + +In the meanwhile events had taken place near Groveton which were, for +twenty years after the war, the subject of controversy and recrimination +(see PORTER, FITZ-JOHN). When Porter's and part of McDowell's corps, acting +on various orders sent by Pope, approached Gainesville from the south-east, +Longstreet had already reached that place, and the Federals thus +encountered a force of unknown strength at the moment when Sigel's guns to +the northward showed him to be closely engaged with Jackson. The two +generals consulted, and McDowell marched off to join Sigel, while Porter +remained to hold the new enemy in check. In this he succeeded; Longstreet, +though far superior in numbers, made no forward move, and his advanced +guard alone came into action. On the night of the 29th Lee reunited the +wings of his army on the field of battle. He had forced Pope back many +miles from the Rappahannock, and expecting that the Federals would retire +to the line of Bull Run before giving battle, he now decided to wait for +the last divisions of Longstreet's corps, which were still distant. But +Pope, still sanguine, ordered a "general pursuit" of Jackson for the 30th. +There was some ground for his suppositions, for Jackson had retired a short +distance and Longstreet's advanced guard had also fallen back. McDowell, +however, who was in general charge of the Federal right on the 30th, soon +saw that Jackson was not retreating and stopped the "pursuit," and the +attack on Jackson's right, which Pope had ordered Porter to make, was +repulsed by Longstreet's overwhelming forces. Then Lee's whole line, 4 m. +long, made its grand counter-stroke (4 P.M.). There was now no hesitation +in Longstreet's attack; the Federal left was driven successively from every +position it took up, and Longstreet finally captured Bald Hill. Jackson, +though opposed by the greater part of Pope's forces, advanced to the +Matthews hill, and his artillery threatened the Stone Bridge. The Federals, +driven back to the banks of Bull Run, were only saved by the gallant +defence of the Henry House hill by the Pennsylvanian division of Reynolds +and the regulars [v.04 p.0793] under Sykes. Pope withdrew under cover of +night to Centreville. Here he received fresh reinforcements, but Jackson +was already marching round his new right, and after the action of Chantilly +(1st of September) the whole Federal army fell back to Washington. The +Union forces present on the field on the 29th and 30th numbered about +63,000, the strength of Lee's army being on the same dates about 54,000. +Besides their killed and wounded the Federals lost very heavily in +prisoners. + +BULLY (of uncertain origin, but possibly connected with a Teutonic word +seen in many compounds, as the Low Ger. _bullerjaan_, meaning "noisy"; the +word has also, with less probability, been derived from the Dutch _boel_, +and Ger. _Buhle_, a lover), originally a fine, swaggering fellow, as in +"Bully Bottom" in _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, later an overbearing +ruffian, especially a coward who abuses his strength by ill-treating the +weak; more technically a _souteneur_, a man who lives on the earnings of a +prostitute. The term in its early use of "fine" or "splendid" survives in +American slang. + +BÜLOW, BERNHARD ERNST VON (1815-1879), Danish and German statesman, was the +son of Adolf von Bülow, a Danish official, and was born at Cismar in +Holstein on the 2nd of August 1815. He studied law at the universities of +Berlin, Göttingen and Kiel, and began his political career in the service +of Denmark, in the chancery of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen, +and afterwards in the foreign office. In 1842 he became councillor of +legation, and in 1847 Danish _chargé d'affaires_ in the Hanse towns, where +his intercourse with the merchant princes led to his marriage in 1848 with +a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Rücker. When the insurrection broke out +in the Elbe duchies (1848) he left the Danish service, and offered his +services to the provisional government of Kiel, an offer that was not +accepted. In 1849, accordingly, he re-entered the service of Denmark, was +appointed a royal chamberlain and in 1850 sent to represent the duchies of +Schleswig and Holstein at the restored federal diet of Frankfort. Here he +came into intimate touch with Bismarck, who admired his statesmanlike +handling of the growing complications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. +With the radical "Eider-Dane" party he was utterly out of sympathy; and +when, in 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was recalled from +Frankfort. He now entered the service of the grand-duke of +Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and remained at the head of the grand-ducal +government until 1867, when he became plenipotentiary for the two +Mecklenburg duchies in the council of the German Confederation (Bundesrat), +where he distinguished himself by his successful defence of the medieval +constitution of the duchies against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck, who +was in thorough sympathy with his views, persuaded him to enter the service +of Prussia as secretary of state for foreign affairs, and from this time +till his death he was the chancellor's most faithful henchman. In 1875 he +was appointed Prussian plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became +Bismarck's lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the +Empire; and in 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian +plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort on the 20th +of October 1879, his end being hastened by his exertions in connexion with +the political crisis of that year. Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard +Heinrich Karl (see below), became chancellor of the Empire. + +See the biography of H. von Petersdorff in _Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie_, Band 47, p. 350. + +BÜLOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE VON (1849- ), German +statesman, was born on the 3rd of May 1849, at Klein-Flottbeck, in +Holstein. The Bülow family is one very widely extended in north Germany, +and many members have attained distinction in the civil and military +service of Prussia, Denmark and Mecklenburg. Prince Bülow's great-uncle, +Heinrich von Bülow, who was distinguished for his admiration of England and +English institutions, was Prussian ambassador in England from 1827 to 1840, +and married a daughter of Wilhelm von Humboldt (see the letters of +Gabrielle von Bülow). His father, Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, is separately +noticed above. + +Prince Bülow must not be confused with his contemporary Otto v. Bülow +(1827-1901), an official in the Prussian foreign office, who in 1882 was +appointed German envoy at Bern, from 1892 to 1898 was Prussian envoy to the +Vatican, and died at Rome on the 22nd of November 1901. + +Bernhard von Bülow, after serving in the Franco-Prussian War, entered the +Prussian civil service, and was then transferred to the diplomatic service. +In 1876 he was appointed attaché to the German embassy in Paris, and after +returning for a while to the foreign office at Berlin, became second +secretary to the embassy in Paris in 1880. From 1884 he was first secretary +to the embassy at St Petersburg, and acted as _chargé d'affaires_; in 1888 +he was appointed envoy at Bucharest, and in 1893 to the post of German +ambassador at Rome. In 1897, on the retirement of Baron Marshall von +Bieberstein, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs (the +same office which his father had held) under Prince Hohenlohe, with a seat +in the Prussian ministry. The appointment caused much surprise at the time, +as Bülow was little known outside diplomatic circles. The explanations +suggested were that he had made himself very popular at Rome and that his +appointment was therefore calculated to strengthen the loosening bonds of +the Triple Alliance, and also that his early close association with +Bismarck would ensure the maintenance of the Bismarckian tradition. As +foreign secretary Herr von Bülow was chiefly responsible for carrying out +the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor had identified +himself, and in 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the +negotiations by which the Caroline Islands were acquired by Germany, he was +raised to the rank of count. On the resignation of Hohenlohe in 1900 he was +chosen to succeed him as chancellor of the empire and president of the +Prussian ministry. + +The _Berliner Neueste Nachrichten_, commenting on this appointment, very +aptly characterized the relations of the new chancellor to the emperor, in +contrast to the position occupied by Bismarck. "The Germany of William +II.," it said, "does not admit a Titan in the position of the highest +official of the Empire. A cautious and versatile diplomatist like Bernhard +von Bülow appears to be best adapted to the personal and political +necessities of the present situation." Count Bülow, indeed, though, like +Bismarck, a "realist," utilitarian and opportunist in his policy, made no +effort to emulate the masterful independence of the great chancellor. He +was accused, indeed, of being little more than the complacent executor of +the emperor's will, and defended himself in the Reichstag against the +charge. The substance of the relations between the emperor and himself, he +declared, rested on mutual good-will, and added: "I must lay it down most +emphatically that the prerogative of the emperor's personal initiative must +not be curtailed, and will not be curtailed, by any chancellor.... As +regards the chancellor, however, I say that no imperial chancellor worthy +of the name ... would take up any position which in his conscience he did +not regard as justifiable." It is clear that the position of a chancellor +holding these views in relation to a ruler so masterful and so impulsive as +the emperor William II. could be no easy one; and Bülow's long continuance +in office is the best proof of his genius. His first conspicuous act as +chancellor was a masterly defence in the Reichstag of German action in +China, a defence which was, indeed, rendered easier by the fact that Prince +Hohenlohe had--to use his own words--"dug a canal" for the flood of +imperial ambition of which warning had been given in the famous "mailed +fist" speech. Such incidents as this, however, though they served to +exhibit consummate tact and diplomatic skill, give little index to the +fundamental character of his work as chancellor. Of this it may be said, in +general, that it carried on the best traditions of the Prussian service in +whole-hearted devotion to the interests of the state. The accusation that +he was an "agrarian" he thought it necessary to rebut in a speech delivered +on the 18th of February 1906 to the German Handelstag. He was an agrarian, +he declared, in so far as he came of a land-owning family, and was +interested in the prosperity of agriculture; but as chancellor, whose +function it is to watch over the welfare [v.04 p.0794] of all classes, he +was equally concerned with the interests of commerce and industry +(_Kölnische Zeitung_, Feb. 20, 1906). Some credit for the immense material +expansion of Germany under his chancellorship is certainly due to his zeal +and self-devotion. This was generously recognized by the emperor in a +letter publicly addressed to the chancellor on the 21st of May 1906, +immediately after the passage of the Finance Bill. "I am fully conscious," +it ran, "of the conspicuous share in the initiation and realization of this +work of reform... which must be ascribed to the statesmanlike skill and +self-sacrificing devotion with which you have conducted and promoted those +arduous labours." Rumours had from time to time been rife of a "chancellor +crisis" and Bülow's dismissal; in the _Berliner Tageblatt_ this letter was +compared to the "Never!" with which the emperor William I. had replied to +Bismarck's proffered resignation. + +On the 6th of June 1905 Count Bülow was raised to the rank of prince +(_Fürst_), on the occasion of the marriage of the crown prince. The +coincidence of this date with the fall of M. Delcassé, the French minister +for foreign affairs--a triumph for Germany and a humiliation for +France--was much commented on at the time (see _The Times_, June 7, 1905); +and the elevation of Bismarck to the rank of prince in the Hall of Mirrors +at Versailles was recalled. Whatever element of truth there may have been +in this, however, the significance of the incident was much exaggerated. + +On the 5th of April 1906, while attending a debate in the Reichstag, Prince +Bülow was seized with illness, the result of overwork and an attack of +influenza, and was carried unconscious from the hall. At first it was +thought that the attack would be fatal, and Lord Fitzmaurice in the House +of Lords compared the incident with that of the death of Chatham, a +compliment much appreciated in Germany. The illness, however, quickly took +a favourable turn, and after a month's rest the chancellor was able to +resume his duties. In 1907 Prince Bülow was made the subject of a +disgraceful libel, which received more attention than it deserved because +it coincided with the Harden-Moltke scandals; his character was, however, +completely vindicated, and the libeller, a journalist named Brand, received +a term of imprisonment. + +The parliamentary skill of Prince Bülow in holding together the +heterogeneous elements of which the government majority in the Reichstag +was composed, no less than the diplomatic tact with which he from time to +time "interpreted" the imperial indiscretions to the world, was put to a +rude test by the famous "interview" with the German emperor, published in +the London _Daily Telegraph_ of the 28th of October 1908 (see WILLIAM II., +German emperor), which aroused universal reprobation in Germany. Prince +Bülow assumed the official responsibility, and tendered his resignation to +the emperor, which was not accepted; but the chancellor's explanation in +the Reichstag on the 10th of November showed how keenly he felt his +position. He declared his conviction that the disastrous results of the +interview would "induce the emperor in future to observe that strict +reserve, even in private conversations, which is equally indispensable in +the interest of a uniform policy and for the authority of the crown," +adding that, in the contrary case, neither he nor any successor of his +could assume the responsibility (_The Times_, Nov. 11, 1908, p. 9). The +attitude of the emperor showed that he had taken the lesson to heart. It +was not the imperial indiscretions, but the effect of his budget proposals +in breaking up the Liberal-Conservative _bloc_, on whose support he +depended in the Reichstag, that eventually drove Prince Bülow from office +(see GERMANY: _History_). At the emperor's request he remained to pilot the +mutilated budget through the House; but on the 14th of July 1909 the +acceptance of his resignation was announced. + +Prince Bülow married, on the 9th of January 1886, Maria Anna Zoe Rosalia +Beccadelli di Bologna, Princess Camporeale, whose first marriage with Count +Karl von Dönhoff had been dissolved and declared null by the Holy See in +1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil at Liszt, was a +step-daughter of the Italian statesman Minghetti. + +See J. Penzler, _Graf Bülows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beiträgen zu seiner +Politik_ (Leipzig, 1903). + +BÜLOW, DIETRICH HEINRICH, FREIHERR VON (1757-1807), Prussian soldier and +military writer, and brother of General Count F.W. Bülow, entered the +Prussian army in 1773. Routine work proved distasteful to him, and he read +with avidity the works of the chevalier Folard and other theoretical +writers on war, and of Rousseau. After sixteen years' service he left +Prussia, and endeavoured without success to obtain a commission in the +Austrian army. He then returned to Prussia, and for some time managed a +theatrical company. The failure of this undertaking involved Bülow in heavy +losses, and soon afterwards he went to America, where he seems to have been +converted to, and to have preached, Swedenborgianism. On his return to +Europe he persuaded his brother to engage in a speculation for exporting +glass to the United States, which proved a complete failure. After this for +some years he made a precarious living in Berlin by literary work, but his +debts accumulated, and it was under great disadvantages that he produced +his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1799) and _Der Feldzug +1800_ (Berlin, 1801). His hopes of military employment were again +disappointed, and his brother, the future field marshal, who had stood by +him in all his troubles, finally left him. After wandering in France and +the smaller German states, he reappeared at Berlin in 1804, where he wrote +a revised edition of his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1805), +_Lehrsätze des Neueren Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1805), _Geschichte des Prinzen +Heinrich von Preussen_ (Berlin, 1805), _Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein +sollte_ (Leipzig, 1805), and _Der Feldzug 1805_ (Leipzig, 1806). He also +edited, with G.H. von Behrenhorst (1733-1814) and others, _Annalen des +Krieges_ (Berlin, 1806). These brilliant but unorthodox works, +distinguished by an open contempt of the Prussian system, cosmopolitanism +hardly to be distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a +disappointed man, brought upon Bülow the enmity of the official classes and +of the government. He was arrested as insane, but medical examination +proved him sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he +was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his +condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga +in 1807, probably as a result of ill-treatment. + +In Bülow's writings there is evident a distinct contrast between the spirit +of his strategical and that of his tactical ideas. As a strategist (he +claimed to be the first of strategists) he reduces to mathematical rules +the practice of the great generals of the 18th century, ignoring +"friction," and manoeuvring his armies _in vacuo_. At the same time he +professes that his system provides working rules for the armies of his own +day, which in point of fact were "armed nations," infinitely more affected +by "friction" than the small dynastic and professional armies of the +preceding age. Bülow may therefore be considered as anything but a reformer +in the domain of strategy. With more justice he has been styled the "father +of modern tactics." He was the first to recognize that the conditions of +swift and decisive war brought about by the French Revolution involved +wholly new tactics, and much of his teaching had a profound influence on +European warfare of the 19th century. His early training had shown him +merely the pedantic _minutiae_ of Frederick's methods, and, in the absence +of any troops capable of illustrating the real linear tactics, he became an +enthusiastic supporter of the methods, which (more of necessity than from +judgment) the French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in +small columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were won by +skirmishers. "We must organize disorder," he said; indeed, every argument +of writers of the modern "extended order" school is to be found _mutatis +mutandis_ in Bülow, whose system acquired great prominence in view of the +mechanical improvements in armament. But his tactics, like his strategy, +were vitiated by the absence of "friction," and their dependence on the +realization of an unattainable standard of bravery. + +See von Voss, _H. von Bülow_ (Köln, 1806); P. von Bülow, _Familienbuch der +v. Bülow_ (Berlin, 1859); Ed. von Bülow, _Aus dem Leben Dietrichs v. +Bülow_, also _Vermischte Schriften aus dem Nachlass von Behrenhorst_ +(1845); Ed. von Bülow and von Rüstow, _Militärische und vermischte +Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. Bülow_ (Leipzig, 1853); Memoirs by +Freiherr v. Meerheimb in _Allgemeine deutsche [v.04 p.0795] Biographie_, +vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1876), and "Behrenhorst und Bülow" (_Historische +Zeitschrift_, 1861, vi.); Max Jähns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_, +vol. iii. pp. 2133-2145 (Munich, 1891); General von Cämmerer (transl. von +Donat), _Development of Strategical Science_ (London, 1905), ch. i. + +BÜLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, FREIHERR VON, count of Dennewitz (1755-1816), +Prussian general, was born on the 16th of February 1755, at Falkenberg in +the Altmark; he was the elder brother of the foregoing. He received an +excellent education, and entered the Prussian army in 1768, becoming ensign +in 1772, and second lieutenant in 1775. He took part in the "Potato War" of +1778, and subsequently devoted himself to the study of his profession and +of the sciences and arts. He was throughout his life devoted to music, his +great musical ability bringing him to the notice of Frederick William II., +and about 1790 he was conspicuous in the most fashionable circles of +Berlin. He did not, however, neglect his military studies, and in 1792 he +was made military instructor to the young prince Louis Ferdinand, becoming +at the same time full captain. He took part in the campaigns of 1792-93-94 +on the Rhine, and received for signal courage during the siege of Mainz the +order _pour le mérite_ and promotion to the rank of major. After this he +went to garrison duty at Soldau. In 1802 he married the daughter of Colonel +v. Auer, and in the following year he became lieutenant-colonel, remaining +at Soldau with his corps. The vagaries and misfortunes of his brother +Dietrich affected his happiness as well as his fortune. The loss of two of +his children was followed in 1806 by the death of his wife, and a further +source of disappointment was the exclusion of his regiment from the field +army sent against Napoleon in 1806. The disasters of the campaign aroused +his energies. He did excellent service under Lestocq's command in the +latter part of the war, was wounded in action, and finally designated for a +brigade command in Blücher's force. In 1808 he married the sister of his +first wife, a girl of eighteen. He was made a major-general in the same +year, and henceforward he devoted himself wholly to the regeneration of +Prussia. The intensity of his patriotism threw him into conflict even with +Blücher and led to his temporary retirement; in 1811, however, he was again +employed. In the critical days preceding the War of Liberation he kept his +troops in hand without committing himself to any irrevocable step until the +decision was made. On the 14th of March 1813 he was made a +lieutenant-general. He fought against Oudinot in defence of Berlin (see +NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), and in the summer came under the command of +Bernadotte, crown prince of Sweden. At the head of an army corps Bülow +distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Gross Beeren, a victory +which was attributed almost entirely to his leadership. A little later he +won the great victory of Dennewitz, which for the third time checked +Napoleon's advance on Berlin. This inspired the greatest enthusiasm in +Prussia, as being won by purely Prussian forces, and rendered Bülow's +popularity almost equal to that of Blücher. Bülow's corps played a +conspicuous part in the final overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig, and he was +then entrusted with the task of evicting the French from Holland and +Belgium. In an almost uniformly successful campaign he won a signal victory +at Hoogstraaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he invaded France from the +north-west, joined Blücher, and took part in the brilliant victory of Laon +in March. He was now made general of infantry and received the title of +Count Bülow von Dennewitz. In the short peace of 1814-1815 he was at +Konigsberg as commander-in-chief in Prussia proper. He was soon called to +the field again, and in the Waterloo campaign commanded the IV. corps of +Blücher's army. He was not present at Ligny, but his corps headed the flank +attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, and bore the heaviest part in the +fighting of the Prussian troops. He took part in the invasion of France, +but died suddenly on the 25th of February 1816, a month after his return to +the Königsberg command. + +See _General Graf Bülow von Dennewitz, 1813-1814_ (Leipzig, 1843); +Varnhagen von Ense, _Leben des G. Grafen B. von D._ (Berlin, 1854). + +BÜLOW, HANS GUIDO VON (1830-1894), German pianist and conductor, was born +at Dresden, on the 8th of January 1830. At the age of nine he began to +study music under Friedrich Wieck as part of a genteel education. It was +only after an illness while studying law at Leipzig University in 1848 that +he determined upon music as a career. At this time he was a pupil of Moritz +Hauptmann. In 1849 revolutionary politics took possession of him. In the +Berlin _Abendpost_, a democratic journal, the young aristocrat poured forth +his opinions, which were strongly coloured by Wagner's _Art and +Revolution_. Wagner's influence was musical no less than political, for a +performance of _Lohengrin_ under Liszt at Weimar in 1850 completed von +Bülow's determination to abandon a legal career. From Weimar he went to +Zürich, where the exile Wagner instructed him in the elements of +conducting. But he soon returned to Weimar and Liszt; and in 1853 he made +his first concert tour, which extended from Vienna to Berlin. Next he +became principal professor of the piano at the Stern Academy, and married +in his twenty-eighth year Liszt's daughter Cosima. For the following nine +years von Bülow laboured incessantly in Berlin as pianist, conductor and +writer of musical and political articles. Thence he removed to Munich, +where, thanks to Wagner, he had been appointed _Hofkapellmeister_ to Louis +II., and chief of the Conservatorium. There, too, he organized model +performances of _Tristan_ and _Die Meistersinger_. In 1869 his marriage was +dissolved, his wife subsequently marrying Wagner, an incident which, while +preventing Bülow from revisiting Bayreuth, never dimmed his enthusiasm for +Wagner's dramas. After a temporary stay in Florence, Bülow set out on tour +again as a pianist, visiting most European countries as well as the United +States of America, before taking up the post of conductor at Hanover, and, +later, at Meiningen, where he raised the orchestra to a pitch of excellence +till then unparalleled. In 1885 he resigned the Meiningen office, and +conducted a number of concerts in Russia and Germany. At Frankfort he held +classes for the higher development of piano-playing. He constantly visited +England, for the last time in 1888, in which year he went to live in +Hamburg. Nevertheless he continued to conduct the Berlin Philharmonic +Concerts. He died at Cairo, on the 13th of February 1894. Bülow was a +pianist of the highest order of intellectual attainment, an artist of +remarkably catholic tastes, and a great conductor. A passionate hater of +humbug and affectation, he had a ready pen, and a biting, sometimes almost +rude wit, yet of his kindness and generosity countless tales were told. His +compositions are few and unimportant, but his annotated editions of the +classical masters are of great value. Bülow's writings and letters (_Briefe +und Schriften_), edited by his widow, have been published in 8 vols. +(Leipzig, 1895-1908). + +BULRUSH, a name now generally given to _Typha latifolia_, the reed-mace or +club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges of rivers and similar +localities, with a creeping underground stem, narrow, nearly flat leaves, 3 +to 6 ft. long, arranged in opposite rows, and a tall stem ending in a +cylindrical spike, half to one foot long, of closely packed male (above) +and female (below) flowers. The familiar brown spike is a dense mass of +minute one-seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk and covered with +long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and readily carried by +the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied to _Scirpus +lacustris_, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae), a common plant in +wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless stems, bearing a tuft of +many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for matting, &c. The bulrush of +Scripture, associated with the hiding of Moses, was the _Papyrus_ (_q.v._), +also a member of the order Cyperaceae, which was abundant in the Nile. + +BULSTRODE, SIR RICHARD (1610-1711), English author and soldier, was a son +of Edward Bulstrode (1588-1659), and was educated at Pembroke College, +Cambridge; after studying law in London he joined the army of Charles I. on +the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642. In 1673 he became a resident agent +of Charles II. at Brussels; in 1675 he was knighted; then following James +II. into exile he died at St Germain on the 3rd of October 1711. Bulstrode +is chiefly known by his _Memoirs and Reflections upon the Reign and +Government of King Charles I. and King Charles II._, published after his +death in 1721. He also [v.04 p.0796] wrote _Life of James II._, and +_Original Letters written to the Earl of Arlington_ (1712). The latter +consists principally of letters written from Brussels giving an account of +the important events which took place in the Netherlands during 1674. + +His second son, WHITELOCKE BULSTRODE (1650-1724), remained in England after +the flight of James II.; he held some official positions, and in 1717 wrote +a pamphlet in support of George I. and the Hanoverian succession. He +published _A Discourse of Natural Philosophy_, and was a prominent +Protestant controversialist. He died in London on the 27th of November +1724. + +BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from _bol_ or _bole_, a +tree-trunk, and _werk_, work, in Ger. _Bollwerk_, which has also been +derived from an old German _bolen_, to throw, and so a machine for throwing +missiles), a barricade of beams, earth, &c., a work in 15th and 16th +century fortifications designed to mount artillery (see BOULEVARD). On +board ship the term is used of the woodwork running round the ship above +the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence. + +BUMBOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions, &c., to ships +lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably connected with the +Dutch _bumboat_ or _boomboot_, a broad Dutch fishing-boat, the derivation +of which is either from _boom_, cf. Ger. _baum_, a tree, or from _bon_, a +place in which fish is kept alive, and _boot_, a boat. It appears first in +English in the Trinity House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging +boats attending ships lying in the Thames. + +BUMBULUM, BOMBULUM or BUNIBULOM, a fabulous musical instrument described in +an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to Dardanus,[1] and illustrated in a +series of illuminated MSS. of the 9th to the 11th century, together with +other instruments described in the same letter. These MSS. are the _Psalter +of Emmeran_, 9th century, described by Martin Gerbert,[2] who gives a few +illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. _Tiberius C. VI._ in the British +Museum, 11th century; the famous _Boulogne Psalter_, A.D. 1000; and the +_Psalter of Angers_, 9th century.[3] In the Cotton MS. the instrument +consists of an angular frame, from which depends by a chain a rectangular +metal plate having twelve bent arms attached in two rows of three on each +side, one above the other. The arms appear to terminate in small +rectangular bells or plates, and it is supposed that the standard frame was +intended to be shaken like a sistrum in order to set the bells jangling. +Sebastian Virdung[4] gives illustrations of these instruments of Jerome, +and among them of the one called bumbulum in the Cotton MS., which Virdung +calls _Fistula Hieronimi_. The general outline is the same, but instead of +metal arms there is the same number of bent pipes with conical bore. +Virdung explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand +resembling the draughtsman's square represents the Holy Cross, the +rectangular object dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the Cross, and +the twelve pipes are the twelve apostles. Virdung's illustration, probably +copied from an older work in manuscript, conforms more closely to the text +of the letter than does the instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no +evidence whatever of the actual existence of such an instrument during the +middle ages, with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn +to illustrate an instrument known from description only. The word +_bombulum_ was probably derived from the same root as the [Greek: +bombaulios] of Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 866) ([Greek: bombos] and +[Greek: aulos]), a comic compound for a bag-pipe with a play on [Greek: +bombulios], an insect that hums or buzzes (see BAG-PIPE). The original +described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an early type of +organ. + +(K. S.) + +[1] _Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum._ + +[2] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774). + +[3] For illustrations see _Annales archéologiques_, iii. p. 82 et seq. + +[4] _Musica getutscht und aussgezogen_ (Basle, 1511). + +BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the word is used +for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north of Ireland for a round +loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word has been much disputed. +It has been affiliated to the old provincial French _bugne_, "swelling," in +the sense of a "fritter," but the _New English Dictionary_ doubts the usage +of the word. It is quite as probable that it has a far older and more +interesting origin, as is suggested by an inquiry into the origin of hot +cross buns. These cakes, which are now solely associated with the Christian +Good Friday, are traceable to the remotest period of pagan history. Cakes +were offered by ancient Egyptians to their moon-goddess; and these had +imprinted on them a pair of horns, symbolic of the ox at the sacrifice of +which they were offered on the altar, or of the horned moon-goddess, the +equivalent of Ishtar of the Assyro-Babylonians. The Greeks offered such +sacred cakes to Astarte and other divinities. This cake they called _bous_ +(ox), in allusion to the ox-symbol marked on it, and from the accusative +_boun_ it is suggested that the word "bun" is derived. Diogenes Laertius +(c. A.D. 200), speaking of the offering made by Empedocles, says "He +offered one of the sacred liba, called a _bouse_, made of fine flour and +honey." Hesychrus (c. 6th century) speaks of the _boun_, and describes it +as a kind of cake with a representation of two horns marked on it. In time +the Greeks marked these cakes with a cross, possibly an allusion to the +four quarters of the moon, or more probably to facilitate the distribution +of the sacred bread which was eaten by the worshippers. Like the Greeks, +the Romans eat cross-bread at public sacrifices, such bread being usually +purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them,--a custom +alluded to by St Paul in I Cor. x. 28. At Herculaneum two small loaves +about 5 in. in diameter, and plainly marked with a cross, were found. In +the Old Testament a reference is made in Jer. vii. 18-xliv. 19, to such +sacred bread being offered to the moon goddess. The cross-bread was eaten +by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eoster, their goddess of light. The +Mexicans and Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. The custom, +in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church adroitly adopted +the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist. The _boun_ with its +Greek cross became akin to the Eucharistic bread or cross-marked wafers +mentioned in St Chrysostom's _Liturgy_. In the medieval church, buns made +from the dough for the consecrated Host were distributed to the +communicants after Mass on Easter Sunday. In France and other Catholic +countries, such blessed bread is still given in the churches to +communicants who have a long journey before they can break their fast. The +Holy Eucharist in the Greek church has a cross printed on it. In England +there seems to have early been a disposition on the part of the bakers to +imitate the church, and they did a good trade in buns and cakes stamped +with a cross, for as far back as 1252 the practice was forbidden by royal +proclamation; but this seems to have had little effect. With the rise of +Protestantism the cross bun lost its sacrosanct nature, and became a mere +eatable associated for no particular reason with Good Friday. Cross-bread +is not, however, reserved for that day; in the north of England people +usually crossmark their cakes with a knife before putting them in the oven. +Many superstitions cling round hot cross buns. Thus it is still a common +belief that one bun should be kept for luck's sake to the following Good +Friday. In Dorsetshire it is thought that a cross-loaf baked on that day +and hung over the chimneypiece prevents the bread baked in the house during +the year from "going stringy." + +BUNBURY, HENRY WILLIAM (1750-1811), English caricaturist, was the second +son of Sir William Bunbury, 5th baronet, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, and came +of an old Norman family. He was educated at Westminster school and St +Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for drawing, and +especially for humorous subjects. His more serious efforts did not rise to +a high level, but his caricatures are as famous as those of his +contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being his "Country +Club" (1788), "Barber's Shop" (1811) and "A Long Story" (1782.) He was a +popular character, and the friend of most of the notabilities of his day, +whom he never offended by attempting political satire; and his easy +circumstances and social position (he was colonel of the West Suffolk +Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787) enabled him +to exercise his talents in comfort. + +[v.04 p.0797] His son Sir HENRY EDWARD BUNBURY, Bart. (1778-1860), who +succeeded to the family title on the death of his uncle, was a +distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general; he was an +active member of parliament, and the author of several historical works of +value; and the latter's second son, Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, also a +member of parliament, was well known as a geographer and archaeologist, and +author of a _History of Ancient Geography._ + +BUNBURY, a seaport and municipal town of Wellington county, Western +Australia, 112 m. by rail S. by W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2455. The harbour, +known as Koombanah Bay, is protected by a breakwater built on a coral reef. +Coal is worked on the Collie river, 30 m. distant, and is shipped from this +port, together with tin, timber, sandal-wood and agricultural produce. + +BUNCOMBE, or BUNKUM (from Buncombe county, North Carolina, United States), +a term used for insincere political action or speaking to gain support or +the favour of a constituency, and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase +"to talk for (or to) Buncombe" arose in 1820, during the debate on the +Missouri Compromise in Congress; the member for the district containing +Buncombe county confessed that his long and much interrupted speech was +only made because his electors expected it, and that he was "speaking for +Buncombe." + +BUNCRANA, a market-town and watering-place of Co. Donegal, Ireland, in the +north parliamentary division on the east shore of Lough Swilly, on the +Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. Pop. (1901) 1316. There +is a trade in agricultural produce, a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and a +manufacture of linen. The town is beautifully situated, being flanked on +the east and south by hills exceeding 1000 ft. The picturesque square keep +of an ancient castle remains, but the present Buncrana Castle is a +residence erected in 1717. The golf-links are well known. + +BUNDABERG, a municipal town and river port of Cook county, Queensland, +Australia, 10 m. from the mouth of the river Burnett, and 217 m. by rail N. +by W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 5200. It lies on both sides of the river, +and connexion between the two ports is maintained by road and railway +bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and distilleries in +the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity, notably at +Millaquin, on the river below the town. There are wharves on both sides of +the river, and the staple exports are sugar, golden-syrup and timber. The +climate is remarkably healthy. + +BUNDELKHAND, a tract of country in Central India, lying between the United +and the Central Provinces. Historically it includes the five British +districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Banda, which now form +part of the Allahabad division of the United Provinces, but politically it +is restricted to a collection of native states, under the Bundelkhand +agency. There are 9 states, 13 estates and the pargana of Alampur belonging +to Indore state, with a total area of 9851 sq. m. and a total population +(1901) of 1,308,326, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the +effects of famine. The most important of the states are Orchha, Panna, +Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Bijawar and Ajaigarh. A branch of +the Great Indian Peninsula railway traverses the north of the country. A +garrison of all arms is stationed at Nowgong. + +The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the north-east +part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines scooped out by +torrents during the periodical rains. The plains of Bundelkhand are +intersected by three mountain ranges, the Bindhachal, Panna and Bander +chains, the highest elevation not exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level. +Beyond these ranges the country is further diversified by isolated hills +rising abruptly from a common level, and presenting from their steep and +nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and strongholds, +whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently set at defiance the +most powerful of the native states of India. The general slope of the +country is towards the north-east, as indicated by the course of the rivers +which traverse or bound the territory, and finally discharge themselves +into the Jumna. + +The principal rivers are the Sind, Betwa, Ken, Baighin, Paisuni, Tons, +Pahuj, Dhasan, Berma, Urmal and Chandrawal. The Sind, rising near Sironj in +Malwa, marks the frontier line of Bundelkhand on the side of Gwalior. +Parallel to this river, but more to the eastward, is the course of the +Betwa. Still farther to the east flows the Ken, followed in succession by +the Baighin, Paisuni and Tons. The Jumna and the Ken are the only two +navigable rivers. Notwithstanding the large number of streams, the +depression of their channels and height of their banks render them for the +most part unsuitable for the purposes of irrigation,--which is conducted by +means of _jhils_ and tanks. These artificial lakes are usually formed by +throwing embankments across the lower extremities of valleys, and thus +arresting and accumulating the waters flowing through them. Some of the +tanks are of great capacity; the Barwa Sagar, for instance, is 2½ m. in +diameter. Diamonds are found, particularly near the town of Panna, in a +range of hills called by the natives Band-Ahil. + +The mines of Maharajpur, Rajpur, Kimera and Gadasia have been famous for +magnificent diamonds; and a very large one dug from the last was kept in +the fort of Kalinjar among the treasures of Raja Himmat Bahadur. In the +reign of the emperor Akbar the mines of Panna produced diamonds to the +amount of £100,000 annually, and were a considerable source of revenue, but +for many years they have not been so profitable. + +The tree vegetation consists rather of jungle or copse than forest, +abounding in game which is preserved by the native chiefs. There are also +within these coverts several varieties of wild animals, such as the tiger, +leopard, hyena, wild boar, _nilgái_ and jackal. + +The people represent various races. The Bundelas--the race who gave the +name to the country--still maintain their dignity as chieftains, by +disdaining to cultivate the soil, although by no means conspicuous for +lofty sentiments of honour or morality. An Indian proverb avers that "one +native of Bundelkhand commits as much fraud as a hundred Dandis" (weighers +of grain and notorious rogues). About Datia and Jhansi the inhabitants are +a stout and handsome race of men, well off and contented. The prevailing +religion in Bundelkhand is Hinduism. + +The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand were the +Garhwas, who were succeeded by the Parihars; but nothing is known of +either. About A.D. 800 the Parihars are said to have been ousted by the +Chandels, and Dangha Varma, chief of the Chandel Rajputs, appears to have +established the earliest paramount power in Bundelkhand towards the close +of the 10th century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its +greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its raja, +whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the +head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with 640 elephants, to oppose the +invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by +Prithwi Raj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country remained +in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the Bundelas, +a spurious offshoot of the Garhwa tribe of Rajputs, established themselves +on the right bank of the Jumna. One of these took possession of Orchha by +treacherously poisoning its chief. His successor succeeded in further +aggrandizing the Bundela state, but he is represented to have been a +notorious plunderer, and his character is further stained by the +assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and historian +of Akbar. Jajhar Singh, the third Bundela chief, unsuccessfully revolted +against the court of Delhi, and his country became incorporated for a short +time with the empire. The struggles of the Bundelas for independence +resulted in the withdrawal of the royal troops, and the admission of +several petty states as feudatories of the empire on condition of military +service. The Bundelas, under Champat Rai and his son. Chhatar Sal, offered +a successful resistance to the proselytizing efforts of Aurangzeb. On the +occasion of a Mahommedan invasion in 1732, Chhatar Sal asked and obtained +the assistance of the Mahratta Peshwa, whom he adopted as his son, giving +him a third of his dominions. The Mahrattas gradually extended their +influence over Bundelkhand, [v.04 p.0798] and in 1792 the peshwa was +acknowledged as the lord paramount of the country. The Mahratta power was, +however, on the decline; the flight of the peshwa from his capital to +Bassein before the British arms changed the aspect of affairs, and by the +treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British government, the +districts of Banda and Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. Two chiefs +then held the ceded districts, Himmat Bahadur, the leader of the Sanyasis, +who promoted the views of the British, and Shamsher, who made common cause +with the Mahrattas. In September 1803, the united forces of the English and +Himmat Bahadur compelled Shamsher to retreat with his army. In 1809 +Ajaigarh was besieged by a British force, and again three years later +Kalinjar was besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In 1817, by the treaty +of Poona, the British government acquired from the peshwa all his rights, +interests and pretensions, feudal, territorial or pecuniary, in +Bundelkhand. In carrying out the provisions of the treaty, an assurance was +given by the British government that the rights of those interested in the +transfer should be scrupulously respected, and the host of petty native +principalities in the province is the best proof of the sincerity and good +faith with which this clause has been carried out. During the mutiny of +1857, however, many of the chiefs rose against the British, the rani of +Jhansi being a notable example. + +BUNDI, or BOONDEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, lying +on the north-east of the river Chambal, in a hilly tract historically known +as Haraoti, from the Hara sept of the great clan of Chauhan Rajputs, to +which the maharao raja of Bundi belongs. It has an area of 2220 sq. m. Many +parts of the state are wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina +population, formerly notorious as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the +Chambia and the Mej, water the state; the former is navigable by boats. In +1901 the population was 171,227, showing a decrease of 42% due to the +effects of famine. The estimated revenue is £46,000, the tribute £8000. +There is no railway, but the metalled road from Kotah to the British +cantonment of Deoli passes through the state. The town of Bundi had a +population in 1901 of 19,313. A school for the education of boys of high +rank was opened in 1897. + +The state of Bundi was founded about A.D. 1342 by the Hara chief Rao Dewa, +or Deoraj, who captured the town from the Minas. Its importance, however, +dates from the time of Rao Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in +1554 and by throwing in his lot with the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi +(1569) received a considerable accession of territory. From this time the +rulers of Bundi bore the title of rao raja. In the 17th century their power +was curtailed by the division of Haraoti into the two states of Kotah and +Bundi; but they continued to play a prominent part in Indian history, and +the title of maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played +by him in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after the death +of Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja Bishan Singh gave valuable +assistance to Colonel Monson in his disastrous retreat before Holkar, in +revenge for which the Mahratas and Pindaris continually ravaged his state +up to 1817. On the 10th of February 1818, by a treaty concluded with Bishan +Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In 1821 Bishan Singh was +succeeded by his son Ram Singh, who ruled till 1889. He is described as a +grand specimen of the Rajput gentleman, and "the most conservative prince +in conservative Rajputana." His rule was popular and beneficent; and though +during the mutiny of 1857 his attitude was equivocal, he continued to enjoy +the favour of the British government, being created G.C.S.I. and a +counsellor of the empire in 1877 and C.I.E. in 1878. He was succeeded by +his son Raghubir Singh, who was made a K.C.S.I. in 1897 and a G.C.I.E. in +1901. + +BUNER, a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier Province +of India. It is a small mountain valley, dotted with villages and divided +into seven sub-divisions. The Mora Hills and the Ilam range divide it from +Swat, the Sinawar range from Yusafzai, the Guru mountains from the Chamla +valley, and the Duma range from the Puran Valley. It is inhabited by the +Iliaszai and Malizai divisions of the Pathan tribe of Yusafzais, who are +called after their country the Bunerwals. There is no finer race on the +north-west frontier of India than the Bunerwals. Simple and austere in +their habits, religious and truthful in their ways, hospitable to all who +seek shelter amongst them, free from secret assassinations, they are bright +examples of the Pathan character at its best. They are a powerful and +warlike tribe, numbering 8000 fighting men. The Umbeyla Expedition of 1863 +under Sir Neville Chamberlain was occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with +the Hindostani Fanatics, who had settled down at Malka in their territory. +In the end the Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9000 British troops, +and Malka was destroyed, but they made so fierce a resistance, in +particular in their attack upon the "Crag" picket, that the Indian medal +with a clasp for "Umbeyla" was granted in 1869 to the survivors of the +expedition. The government of India refrained from interfering with the +tribe again until the Buner campaign of 1897 under Sir Bindon Blood. Many +Bunerwals took part in the attack of the Swatis on the Malakand fort, and a +force of 3000 British troops was sent to punish them; but the tribe made +only a feeble resistance at the passes into their country, and speedily +handed in the arms demanded of them and made complete submission. + +BUNGALOW (an Anglo-Indian word from the Hindustani _bangla_, belonging to +Bengal), a one-storeyed house with a verandah and a projecting roof, the +typical dwelling for Europeans in India; the name is also used for similar +buildings which have become common for seaside and summer residences in +America and Great Britain. Dak or dawk bungalows (from _dak_ or _dawk_, a +post, a relay of men for carrying the mails, &c.) are the government +rest-houses established at intervals for the use of travellers on the high +roads of India. + +BUNGAY, a market-town in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, +England; 113 m. N.E. from London on a branch from Beccles of the Great +Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 3314. It is picturesquely placed in a deep +bend of the river Waveney, the boundary with Norfolk. Of the two parish +churches that of St Mary has a fine Perpendicular tower, and that of Holy +Trinity a round tower of which the lower part is Norman. St Mary's was +attached to a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1160. The ruins of the castle +date from 1281. They are fragmentary though massive; and there are traces +of earth-works of much earlier date. The castle was a stronghold of the +powerful family of Bigod, being granted to Roger Bigod, a Norman follower +of the Conqueror, in 1075. A grammar school was founded in 1592. There are +large printing-works, and founding and malting are prosecuted. There is a +considerable carrying trade on the Waveney. + +BUNION (a word usually derived from the Ital. _bugnone_, a swelling, but, +according to the _New English Dictionary_, the late and rare literary use +of the word makes an Italian derivation unlikely; there is an O. Eng. word +"bunny," also meaning a swelling, and an O. Fr. _buigne_, modern _bigne_, +showing a probable common origin now lost, cf. also "bunch"), an inflamed +swelling of the _bursa mucosa_, the sac containing synovial fluid on the +metatarsal joint of the big toe, or, more rarely, of the little toe. This +may be accompanied by corns or suppuration, leading to an ulcer or even +gangrene. The cause is usually pressure; removal of this, and general +palliative treatment by dressings, &c. are usually effective, but in severe +and obstinate cases a surgical operation may be necessary. + +BUNKER HILL, the name of a small hill in Charlestown (Boston), +Massachusetts, U.S.A., famous as the scene of the first considerable +engagement in the American War of Independence (June 17, 1775). Bunker Hill +(110 ft.) was connected by a ridge with Breed's Hill (75 ft.), both being +on a narrow peninsula a short distance to the north of Boston, joined by a +causeway with the mainland. Since the affair of Lexington (April 19, 1775) +General Gage, who commanded the British forces, had remained inactive at +Boston awaiting reinforcements from England; the headquarters of the +Americans were at Cambridge, with advanced posts occupying much of the 4 m. +separating [v.04 p.0799] Cambridge from Bunker Hill. When Gage received his +reinforcements at the end of May, he determined to repair his strange +neglect by which the hills on the peninsula had been allowed to remain +unoccupied and unfortified. As soon as the Americans became aware of Gage's +intention they determined to frustrate it, and accordingly, on the night of +the 16th of June, a force of about 1200 men, under Colonel William Prescott +and Major-General Israel Putnam, with some engineers and a few field-guns, +occupied Breed's Hill--to which the name Bunker Hill is itself now +popularly applied--and when daylight disclosed their presence to the +British they had already strongly entrenched their position. Gage lost no +time in sending troops across from Boston with orders to assault. The +British force, between 2000 and 3000 strong, under (Sir) William Howe, +supported by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and floating batteries +stationed in the anchorage on either side of the peninsula, were fresh and +well disciplined. The American force consisted for the most part of +inexperienced volunteers, numbers of whom were already wearied by the +trench work of the night. As communication was kept up with their camp the +numbers engaged on the hill fluctuated during the day, but at no time +exceeded about 1500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which a galling +musketry fire was directed against the British, was by General Howe's +orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot during the attack. Instead of +attempting to cut off the Americans by occupying the neck to the rear of +their position, Gage ordered the advance to be made up the steep and +difficult ascent facing the works on the hill. Whether or not in +obedience--as tradition asserts--to an order to reserve fire until they +could see the whites of their assailants' eyes, the American volunteers +with admirable steadiness waited till the attack was on the point of being +driven home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and deadly that the +British line broke in disorder. A second assault, made like the first, with +the precision and discipline of the parade-ground met the same fate, but +Gage's troops had still spirit enough for a third assault, and this time +they carried the position with the bayonet, capturing five pieces of +ordnance and putting the enemy to flight. The loss of the British was 1054 +men killed and wounded, among whom were 89 commissioned officers; while the +American casualties amounted to 420 killed and wounded, including General +Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners. (See AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.) + +The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however, to be gauged +by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in proportion to the +numbers engaged, nor by its purely military results, but by the moral +effect which it produced; and when it is considered from this standpoint +its far-reaching consequences can hardly be over-estimated. "It roused at +once the fierce instinct of combat in America ..., and dispelled ... the +almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering regular +troops with hastily levied volunteers ... No one questioned the conspicuous +gallantry with which the provincial troops had supported a long fire from +the ships and awaited the charge of the enemy, and British soldiers had +been twice driven back in disorder before their fire."[1] The pride which +Americans naturally felt in such an achievement, and the self-confidence +which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that the small force on +Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced, and that their ammunition was +running short before they were dislodged from their position.[2] Had the +character of the fighting on that day been other than it was; had the +American volunteers been easily, and at the first assault, driven from +their fortified position by the troops of George III., it is not impossible +that the resistance to the British government would have died out in the +North American colonies through lack of confidence in their own power on +the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it may have to teach the +student of war, taught the American colonists in 1775 that the odds against +them in the enterprise in which they had embarked were not so overwhelming +as to deny them all prospect of ultimate success. + +In 1843 a monument, 221 ft. high, in the form of an obelisk, of Quincy +granite, was completed on Breed's Hill (now Bunker Hill) to commemorate the +battle, when an address was delivered by Daniel Webster, who had also +delivered the famous dedicatory oration at the laying of the corner-stone +in 1825. Bunker Hill day is a state holiday. + +See R. Frothingham, _The Centennial: Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1895), +and _Life and Times of Joseph Warren_ (Boston, 1865); Boston City Council, +_Celebration of Centen. Aniv. of Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1875); +G.E. Ellis, _Hist. of Battle of Bunker's_ (Breed's) _Hill_ (Boston, 1875); +S. Sweet, _Who was the Commander at Bunker Hill?_ (Boston, 1850); W.E.H. +Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. iii (London, +1883); Sir George O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (London, 1899); +Fortescue, _History of the British Army_, vol. iii. pp. 153 seq. (London, +1902). + +(R. J. M.) + +[1] W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, iii. 428. + +[2] General Gage's despatch. _American Remembrancer_, 1776, part 11, p. +132. + +BUNN, ALFRED (1796-1860), English theatrical manager, was appointed +stage-manager of Drury Lane theatre, London, in 1823. In 1826 he was +managing the Theatre Royal, Birmingham, and in 1833 he undertook the joint +management of Drury Lane and Covent Garden, London. In this undertaking he +met with vigorous opposition. A bill for the abolition of the patent +theatres was passed in the House of Commons, but on Bunn's petition was +thrown out by the House of Lords. He had difficulties first with his +company, then with the lord chamberlain, and had to face the keen rivalry +of the other theatres. A longstanding quarrel with Macready resulted in the +tragedian assaulting the manager. In 1840 Bunn was declared a bankrupt, but +he continued to manage Drury Lane till 1848. Artistically his control of +the two chief English theatres was highly successful. Nearly every leading +English actor played under his management, and he made a courageous attempt +to establish English opera, producing the principal works of Balfe. He had +some gift for writing, and most of the libretti of these operas were +translated by himself. In _The Stage Before and Behind the Curtain_ (3 +vols., 1840) he gave a full account of his managerial experiences. He died +at Boulogne on the 20th of December 1860. + +BUNNER, HENRY CUYLER (1855-1896), American writer, was born in Oswego, New +York, on the 3rd of August 1855. He was educated in New York City. From +being a clerk in an importing house, he turned to journalism, and after +some work as a reporter, and on the staff of the _Arcadian_ (1873), he +became in 1877 assistant editor of the comic weekly _Puck_. He soon assumed +the editorship, which he held until his death in Nutley, N.J., on the 11th +of May 1896. He developed _Puck_ from a new struggling periodical into a +powerful social and political organ. In 1886 he published a novel, _The +Midge_, followed in 1887 by _The Story of a New York House_. But his best +efforts in fiction were his short stories and sketches--_Short Sixes_ +(1891), _More Short Sixes_ (1894), _Made in France_ (1893), _Zadoc Pine and +Other Stories_ (1891), _Love in Old Cloathes and Other Stories_ (1896), and +_Jersey Street and Jersey Lane_ (1896). His verses--_Airs from Arcady and +Elsewhere_ (1884), containing the well-known poem, _The Way to Arcady; +Rowen_ (1892); and _Poems_ (1896), edited by his friend Brander +Matthews--display a light play of imagination and a delicate workmanship. +He also wrote clever _vers de société_ and parodies. Of his several plays +(usually written in collaboration), the best was _The Tower of Babel_ +(1883). + +BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BARON VON (1791-1860), Prussian +diplomatist and scholar, was born on the 25th of August 1791 at Korbach, an +old town in the little German principality of Waldeck. His father was a +farmer who was driven by poverty to become a soldier. Having studied at the +Korbach grammar school and Marburg university, Bunsen went in his +nineteenth year to Göttingen, where he supported himself by teaching and +later by acting as tutor to W.B. Astor, the American merchant. He won the +university prize essay of the year 1812 by a treatise on the _Athenian Law +of Inheritance_, and a few months later the university of Jena granted him +the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. During 1813 he travelled with +Astor in South Germany, and then turned to the study of the religion, laws, +language and literature of the Teutonic [v.04 p.0800] races. He had read +Hebrew when a boy, and now worked at Arabic at Munich, Persian at Leiden, +and Norse at Copenhagen. At the close of 1815 he went to Berlin, to lay +before Niebuhr the plan of research which he had mapped out. Niebuhr was so +impressed with Bunsen's ability that, two years later, when he became +Prussian envoy to the papal court, he made the young scholar his secretary. +The intervening years Bunsen spent in assiduous labour among the libraries +and collections of Paris and Florence. In July 1817 he married Frances +Waddington, eldest daughter and co-heiress of B. Waddington of Llanover, +Monmouthshire. + +As secretary to Niebuhr, Bunsen was brought into contact with the Vatican +movement for the establishment of the papal church in the Prussian +dominions, to provide for the largely increased Catholic population. He was +among the first to realize the importance of this new vitality on the part +of the Vatican, and he made it his duty to provide against its possible +dangers by urging upon the Prussian court the wisdom of fair and impartial +treatment of its Catholic subjects. In this object he was at first +successful, and both from the Vatican and from Frederick William III., who +put him in charge of the legation on Niebuhr's resignation, he received +unqualified approbation. Owing partly to the wise statesmanship of Count +Spiegel, archbishop of Cologne, an arrangement was made by which the thorny +question of "mixed" marriages (_i.e._ between Catholic and Protestant) +would have been happily solved; but the archbishop died in 1835, the +arrangement was never ratified, and the Prussian king was foolish enough to +appoint as Spiegel's successor the narrow-minded partisan Baron Droste. The +pope gladly accepted the appointment, and in two years the forward policy +of the Jesuits had brought about the strife which Bunsen and Spiegel had +tried to prevent. Bunsen rashly recommended that Droste should be seized, +but the _coup_ was so clumsily attempted, that the incriminating documents +were, it is said, destroyed in advance. The government, in this _impasse_, +took the safest course, refused to support Bunsen, and accepted his +resignation in April 1838. + +After leaving Rome, where he had become intimate with all that was most +interesting in the cosmopolitan society of the papal capital, Bunsen went +to England, where, except for a short term as Prussian ambassador to +Switzerland (1830-1841), he was destined to pass the rest of his official +life. The accession to the throne of Prussia of Frederick William IV., on +June 7th, 1840, made a great change in Bunsen's career. Ever since their +first meeting in 1828 the two men had been close friends and had exchanged +ideas in an intimate correspondence, published under Ranke's editorship in +1873. Enthusiasm for evangelical religion and admiration for the Anglican +Church they held in common, and Bunsen was the instrument naturally +selected for realizing the king's fantastic scheme of setting up at +Jerusalem a Prusso-Anglican bishopric as a sort of advertisement of the +unity and aggressive force of Protestantism. The special mission of Bunsen +to England, from June to November 1841, was completely successful, in spite +of the opposition of English high churchmen and Lutheran extremists. The +Jerusalem bishopric, with the consent of the British government and the +active encouragement of the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of +London, was duly established, endowed with Prussian and English money, and +remained for some forty years an isolated symbol of Protestant unity and a +rock of stumbling to Anglican Catholics. + +During his stay in England Bunsen had made himself very popular among all +classes of society, and he was selected by Queen Victoria, out of three +names proposed by the king of Prussia, as ambassador to the court of St +James's. In this post he remained for thirteen years. His tenure of the +office coincided with the critical period in Prussian and European affairs +which culminated in the revolutions of 1848. With the visionary schemes of +Frederick William, whether that of setting up a strict episcopal +organization in the Evangelical Church, or that of reviving the defunct +ideal of the medieval Empire, Bunsen found himself increasingly out of +sympathy. He realized the significance of the signs that heralded the +coming storm, and tried in vain to move the king to a policy which would +have placed him at the head of a Germany united and free. He felt bitterly +the humiliation of Prussia by Austria after the victory of the reaction; +and in 1852 he set his signature reluctantly to the treaty which, in his +view, surrendered the "constitutional rights of Schleswig and Holstein." +His whole influence was now directed to withdrawing Prussia from the +blighting influence of Austria and Russia, and attempting to draw closer +the ties that bound her to Great Britain. On the outbreak of the Crimean +War he urged Frederick William to throw in his lot with the western powers, +and create a diversion in the north-east which would have forced Russia at +once to terms. The rejection of his advice, and the proclamation of +Prussia's attitude of "benevolent neutrality," led him in April 1854 to +offer his resignation, which was accepted. + +Bunsen's life as a public man was now practically at an end. He retired +first to a villa on the Neckar near Heidelberg and later to Bonn. He +refused to stand for a seat, in the Liberal interest, in the Lower House of +the Prussian diet, but continued to take an active interest in politics, +and in 1855 published in two volumes a work, _Die Zeichen der Zeit: Briefe, +&c._, which exercised an immense influence in reviving the Liberal movement +which the failure of the revolution had crushed. In September 1857 Bunsen +attended, as the king's guest, a meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at +Berlin; and one of the last papers signed by Frederick William, before his +mind gave way in October, was that which conferred upon him the title of +baron and a peerage for life. In 1858, at the special request of the regent +(afterwards the emperor) William, he took his seat in the Prussian Upper +House, and, though remaining silent, supported the new ministry, of which +his political and personal friends were members. + +Literary work was, however, his main preoccupation during all this period. +Two discoveries of ancient MSS. made during his stay in London, the one +containing a shorter text of the _Epistles of St Ignatius_, and the other +an unknown work _On all the Heresies_, by Bishop Hippolytus, had already +led him to write his _Hippolytus and his Age: Doctrine and Practice of Rome +under Commodus and Severus_ (1852). He now concentrated all his efforts +upon a translation of the Bible with commentaries. While this was in +preparation he published his _God in History_, in which he contends that +the progress of mankind marches parallel to the conception of God formed +within each nation by the highest exponents of its thought. At the same +time he carried through the press, assisted by Samuel Birch, the concluding +volumes of his work (published in English as well as in German) _Egypt's +Place in Universal History_--containing a reconstruction of Egyptian +chronology, together with an attempt to determine the relation in which the +language and the religion of that country stand to the development of each +among the more ancient non-Aryan and Aryan races. His ideas on this subject +were most fully developed in two volumes published in London before he +quitted England--_Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History as +applied to Language and Religion_ (2 vols., 1854). + +In 1858 Bunsen's health began to fail; visits to Cannes in 1858 and 1859 +brought no improvement, and he died on November 28th, 1860. One of his last +requests having been that his wife would write down recollections of their +common life, she published his _Memoirs_ in 1868, which contain much of his +private correspondence. The German translation of these _Memoirs_ has added +extracts from unpublished documents, throwing a new light upon the +political events in which he played a part. Baron Humboldt's letters to +Bunsen were printed in 1869. + +Bunsen's English connexion, both through his wife (d. 1876) and through his +own long residence in London, was further increased in his family. He had +ten children, including five sons, Henry (1818-1855), Ernest (1810-1903), +Karl (1821-1887), Georg (1824-1896) and Theodor (1832-1892). Of these Karl +(Charles) and Theodor had careers in the German diplomatic service; and +Georg, who for some time was an active politician in Germany, eventually +retired to live in London; Henry, who was an English clergyman, became a +naturalized Englishman, [v.04 p.0801] and Ernest, who in 1845 married an +Englishwoman, Miss Gurney, subsequently resided and died in London. The +form of "de" Bunsen was adopted for the surname in England. Ernest de +Bunsen was a scholarly writer, who published various works both in German +and in English, notably on Biblical chronology and other questions of +comparative religion. His son, Sir Maurice de Bunsen (b. 1852), entered the +English diplomatic service in 1877, and after a varied experience became +minister at Lisbon in 1905. + +See also L. von Ranke, _Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit +Bunsen_ (Berlin, 1873). The biography in the 9th edition of this +encyclopaedia, which has been drawn upon above, was by Georg von Bunsen. + +BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM VON (1811-1899), German chemist, was born at +Göttingen on the 31st of March 1811, his father, Christian Bunsen, being +chief librarian and professor of modern philology at the university. He +himself entered the university in 1828, and in 1834 became _Privat-docent_. +In 1836 he became teacher of chemistry at the Polytechnic School of Cassel, +and in 1839 took up the appointment of professor of chemistry at Marburg, +where he remained till 1851. In 1852, after a brief period in Breslau, he +was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Heidelberg, where he spent the +rest of his life, in spite of an urgent invitation to migrate to Berlin as +successor to E. Mitscherlich. He retired from active work in 1889, and died +at Heidelberg on the 16th of August 1899. The first research by which +attention was drawn to Bunsen's abilities was concerned with the cacodyl +compounds (see ARSENIC), though he had already, in 1834, discovered the +virtues of freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide as an antidote to +arsenical poisoning. It was begun in 1837 at Cassel, and during the six +years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one eye through an +explosion, but nearly killed himself by arsenical poisoning. It represents +almost his only excursion into organic chemistry, and apart from its +accuracy and completeness it is of historical interest in the development +of that branch of the science as being the forerunner of the fruitful +investigations on the organo-metallic compounds subsequently carried out by +his English pupil, Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his work on +cacodyl, he was studying the composition of the gases given off from blast +furnaces. He showed that in German furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by +the fuel was being allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he came +to England, and in conjunction with Lyon Playfair investigated the +conditions obtaining in English furnaces, he found the waste to amount to +over 80%. These researches marked a stage in the application of scientific +principles to the manufacture of iron, and they led also to the elaboration +of Bunsen's famous methods of measuring gaseous volumes, &c., which form +the subject of the only book he ever published (_Gasometrische Methoden_, +1857). In 1841 he invented the carbon-zinc electric cell which is known by +his name, and which conducted him to several important achievements. He +first employed it to produce the electric arc, and showed that from 44 +cells a light equal to 1171.3 candles could be obtained with the +consumption of one pound of zinc per hour. To measure this light he +designed in 1844 another instrument, which in various modifications has +come into extensive use--the grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began to +carry out electrolytical decompositions by the aid of the battery. By means +of a very ingenious arrangement he obtained magnesium for the first time in +the metallic state, and studied its chemical and physical properties, among +other things demonstrating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the +flame it gives when burnt in air. From 1855 to 1863 he published with +Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measurements, which W. +Ostwald has called the "classical example for all future researches in +physical chemistry." Perhaps the best known of the contrivances which the +world owes to him is the "Bunsen burner" which he devised in 1855 when a +simple means of burning ordinary coal gas with a hot smokeless flame was +required for the new laboratory at Heidelberg. Other appliances invented by +him were the ice-calorimeter (1870), the vapour calorimeter (1887), and the +filter pump (1868), which was worked out in the course of a research on the +separation of the platinum metals. Mention must also be made of another +piece of work of a rather different character. Travelling was one of his +favourite relaxations, and in 1846 he paid a visit to Iceland. There he +investigated the phenomena of the geysers, the composition of the gases +coming off from the fumaroles, their action on the rocks with which they +came into contact, &c., and on his observations was founded a noteworthy +contribution to geological theory. But the most far-reaching of his +achievements was the elaboration, about 1859, jointly with G.R. Kirchhoff, +of spectrum analysis, which has put a new weapon of extraordinary power +into the hands both of chemists and astronomers. It led Bunsen himself +almost immediately to the isolation of two new elements of the alkali +group, caesium and rubidium. Having noticed some unknown lines in the +spectra of certain salts he was examining, he set to work to obtain the +substance or substances to which these were due. To this end he evaporated +large quantities of the Dürkheim mineral water, and it says much both for +his perseverance and powers of manipulation that he dealt with 40 tons of +the water to get about 17 grammes of the mixed chlorides of the two +substances, and that with about one-third of that quantity of caesium +chloride was able to prepare the most important compounds of the element +and determine their characteristics, even making goniometrical measurements +of their crystals. + +Bunsen founded no school of chemistry; that is to say, no body of chemical +doctrine is associated with his name. Indeed, he took little or no part in +discussions of points of theory, and, although he was conversant with the +trend of the chemical thought of his day, he preferred to spend his +energies in the collection of experimental data. One fact, he used to say, +properly proved is worth all the theories that can be invented. But as a +teacher of chemistry he was almost without rival, and his success is +sufficiently attested by the scores of pupils who flocked from every part +of the globe to study under him, and by the number of those pupils who +afterwards made their mark in the chemical world. The secret of this +success lay largely in the fact that he never delegated his work to +assistants, but was constantly present with his pupils in the laboratory, +assisting each with personal direction and advice. He was also one of the +first to appreciate the value of practical work to the student, and he +instituted a regular practical course at Marburg so far back as 1840. +Though alive to the importance of applied science, he considered truth +alone to be the end of scientific research, and the example he set his +pupils was one of single-hearted devotion to the advancement of knowledge. + +See Sir Henry Roscoe's "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," _Trans. Chem. Soc._, +1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary notices in an +edition of Bunsen's collected works published by Ostwald and Bodenstein in +3 vols. at Leipzig in 1904. + +BUNTER, the name applied by English geologists to the lower stage or +subdivision of the Triassic rocks in the United Kingdom. The name has been +adapted from the German _Buntsandstein, Der bunte Sandstein_, for it was in +Germany that this continental type of Triassic deposit was first carefully +studied. In France, the Bunter is known as the _Grès bigarré_. In northern +and central Germany, in the Harz, Thuringia and Hesse, the Bunter is +usually conformable with the underlying Permian formation; in the +south-west and west, however, it transgresses on to older rocks, on to Coal +Measures near Saarbruck, and upon the crystalline schists of Odenwald and +the Black Forest. + +The German subdivisions of the Bunter are as follows:--(1) _Upper +Buntsandstein_, or _Röt_, mottled red and green marls and clays with +occasional beds of shale, sandstone, gypsum, rocksalt and dolomite. In +Hesse and Thuringia, a quartzitic sandstone prevails in the lower part. The +"Rhizocorallium Dolomite" (_R. Jenense_, probably a sponge) of the latter +district contains the only Bunter fauna of any importance. In Lorraine and +the Eifel and Saar districts there are micaceous clays and sandstones with +plant remains--the _Voltzia_ sandstone. The lower beds in the Black Forest, +Vosges, Odenwald and Lorraine very generally contain strings of dolomite +and carnelian--the so-called "Carneol bank." (2) _Middle +Buntsandstein-Hauptbuntsandstein_ (900 ft.), the bulk [v.04 p.0802] of this +subdivision is made up of weakly-cemented, coarse-grained sandstones, +oblique lamination is very prevalent, and occasional conglomeratic beds +make their appearance. The uppermost bed is usually fine-grained and bears +the footprints of _Cheirotherium_. In the Vosges district, this subdivision +of the Bunter is called the _Grès des Vosges, _or the _Grès principal_, +which comprises: (i.) red micaceous and argillaceous sandstone; (ii.) the +_conglomérat principal_; and (iii.) _Grès bigarré principal_ (=_grès des +Vosges_, properly so-called). (3) _Lower Buntsandstein_, fine-grained +clayey and micaceous sandstones, red-grey, yellow, white and mottled. The +cement of the sandstones is often felspathic; for this reason they yield +useful porcelain clays in the Thuringerwald. Clay galls are common in the +sandstones of some districts, and in the neighbourhood of the Harz an +oolitic calcareous sandstone, _Rogenstein_, occurs. In eastern Hesse, the +lowest beds are crumbly, shaly clays, _Brockelschiefern_. + +The following are the subdivisions usually adopted in England:--(1) Upper +Mottled Sandstone, red variegated sandstones, soft and generally free from +pebbles. (2) Bunter Pebble Beds, harder red and brown sandstones with +quartzose pebbles, very abundant in some places. (3) Lower Mottled +Sandstone, very similar to the upper division. The Bunter beds occupy a +large area in the midland counties where they form dry, healthy ground of +moderate elevation (Cannock Chase, Trentham, Sherwood Forest, Sutton +Coldfield, &c.). Southward they may be followed through west Somerset to +the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in Devon; while northward they pass +through north Staffordshire, Cheshire and Lancashire to the Vale of Eden +and St Bees, reappearing in Elgin and Arran. A deposit of these rocks lies +in the Vale of Clwyd and probably flanks the eastern side of the Pennine +Hills, although here it is not so readily differentiated from the Keuper +beds. The English Bunter rests with a slight unconformity upon the older +formations. It is generally absent in the south-eastern counties, but +thickens rapidly in the opposite direction, as is shown by the following +table:-- + + +----------------+----------------+---------------------+ + | Lancashire and | | Leicestershire and | + | W. Cheshire. | Staffordshire. | Warwickshire. | + +----------------+----------------+---------------------+ + |(1) 500 ft. | 50-200 ft. | Absent | + |(2) 500-750 ft. | 100-300 ft. | 0-100 ft. | + |(3) 200-500 ft. | 0-100 ft. | Absent | + +----------------+----------------+---------------------+ + +The material forming the Bunter beds of England came probably from the +north-west, but in Devonshire there are indications which point to an +additional source. + +In the Alpine region, most of the Trias differs markedly from that of +England and northern Germany, being of distinctly marine origin; here the +Bunter is represented by the _Werfen beds_ (from Werfen in Salzburg) in the +northern Alps, a series of red and greenish-grey micaceous shales with +gypsum, rock salt and limestones in the upper part; while in the southern +Alps (S. Tirol) there is an upper series of red clays, the _Campil beds_, +and a lower series of thin sandstones, the _Seis beds_. Mojsisovics von +Mojsvar has pointed out that the Alpine Bunter belongs to the single zone +of _Natica costata_ and _Tirolites cassianus_. + +Fossils in the Bunter are very scarce; in addition to the footprints of +_Cheirotherium_, direct evidence of amphibians is found in such forms as +_Trematosaurus_ and _Mastodonsaurus. Myophoria costata_ and _Gervillea +Murchisoni_ are characteristic fossils. Plants are represented by _Voltzia_ +and by equisetums and ferns. + +In England, the Bunter sandstones frequently act as valuable reservoirs of +underground water; sometimes they are used for building stone or for +foundry sand. In Germany some of the harder beds have yielded building +stones, which were much used in the middle ages in the construction of +cathedrals and castles in southern Germany and on the Rhine. In the +northern Eifel region, at Mechernich and elsewhere, this formation contains +lead ore in the form of spots and patches (_Knotenerz_) in the sandstone; +some of the lead ore was worked by the Romans. + +For a consideration of the relationship of the Bunter beds to formations of +the like age in other parts of the world, see TRIASSIC SYSTEM. + +(J. A. H.) + +BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858), English Wesleyan divine, was born of humble +parentage at Manchester on the 13th of May 1779. He was educated at +Manchester grammar school, and at the age of nineteen began to preach, +being received into full connexion in 1803. He continued to minister for +upwards of fifty-seven years in Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool, +London and elsewhere. In 1835 he was appointed president of the first +Wesleyan theological college (at Hoxton), and in this position he succeeded +in materially raising the standard of education among Wesleyan ministers. +He was four times chosen to be president of the conference, was repeatedly +secretary of the "Legal Hundred," and for eighteen years was secretary to +the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Under him Methodism ceased to be a society +based upon Anglican foundation, and became a distinct church. He favoured +the extension of lay power in committees, and was particularly zealous in +the cause of foreign missions. Bunting was a popular preacher, and an +effective platform speaker; in 1818 he was given the degree of M.A. by +Aberdeen University, and in 1834 that of D.D. by Wesleyan University of +Middletown, Conn., U.S.A. He died on the 16th of June 1858. His eldest son, +William Maclardie Bunting (1805-1866), was also a distinguished Wesleyan +minister; and his grandson Sir Percy William Bunting (b. 1836), son of T.P. +Bunting, became prominent as a liberal nonconformist and editor of the +_Contemporary Review_ from 1882, being knighted in 1908. + +See _Lives_ of Jabez Bunting (1859) and W.M. Bunting (1870) by Thomas +Percival Bunting. + +BUNTING, properly the common English name of the bird called by Linnaeus +_Emberiza miliaria_, but now used in a general sense for all members of the +family _Emberizidae_, which are closely allied to the finches +(_Fringillidae_), though, in Professor W.K. Parker's opinion, to be easily +distinguished therefrom--the _Emberizidae_ possessing what none of the +_Fringillidae_ do, an additional pair of palatal bones, +"palato-maxillaries." It will probably follow from this diagnosis that some +forms of birds, particularly those of the New World, which have hitherto +been commonly assigned to the latter, really belong to the former, and +among them the genera _Cardinalis_ and _Phrygilus_. The additional palatal +bones just named are also found in several other peculiarly American +families, namely, _Tanagridae_, _Icteridae_ and _Mniotiltidae_--whence it +may be perhaps inferred that the _Emberizidae_ are of Transatlantic origin. +The buntings generally may be also outwardly distinguished from the finches +by their angular gape, the posterior portion of which is greatly deflected; +and most of the Old-World forms, together with some of those of the New +World, have a bony knob on the palate--a swollen outgrowth of the dentary +edges of the bill. Correlated with this peculiarity the maxilla usually has +the tomia sinuated, and is generally concave, and smaller and narrower than +the mandible, which is also concave to receive the palatal knob. In most +other respects the buntings greatly resemble the finches, but their eggs +are generally distinguishable by the irregular hair-like markings on the +shell. In the British Islands by far the commonest species of bunting is +the yellow-hammer (_E. citrinella_), but the true bunting (or corn-bunting, +or bunting-lark, as it is called in some districts) is a very well-known +bird, while the reed-bunting (_E. schoeniclus_) frequents marshy soils +almost to the exclusion of the two former. In certain localities in the +south of England the cirl-bunting (_E. cirlus_) is also a resident; and in +winter vast flocks of the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_), at once +recognizable by its pointed wings and elongated hind-claws, resort to our +shores and open grounds. This last is believed to breed sparingly on the +highest mountains of Scotland, but the majority of the examples which visit +us come from northern regions, for it is a species which in summer inhabits +the whole circumpolar area. The ortolan (_E. hortulana_), so highly prized +for its delicate flavour, occasionally appears in England, but the British +Islands seem to lie outside its proper range. On the continent of Europe, +in Africa and throughout Asia, many other species are found, while in +America the number belonging to the family cannot at present be computed. +The beautiful and melodious cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), commonly +called the Virginian nightingale, must be included in this family. + +(A. N.) + +BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with _bunt_, to +sift, or with the Ger. _bunt_, of varied colour), a loosely woven woollen +cloth for making flags; the term is also used of a collection of flags, and +particularly those of a ship. + +[v.04 p.0803] BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688), English religious writer, was born +at Elstow, about a mile from Bedford, in November 1628. His father, Thomas +Bunyan,[1] was a tinker, or, as he described himself, a "brasier." The +tinkers then formed a hereditary caste, which was held in no high +estimation. Bunyan's father had a fixed residence, and was able to send his +son to a village school where reading and writing were taught. + +The years of John's boyhood were those during which the Puritan spirit was +in the highest vigour all over England; and nowhere had that spirit more +influence than in Bedfordshire. It is not wonderful, therefore, that a lad +to whom nature had given a powerful imagination and sensibility which +amounted to a disease, should have been early haunted by religious terrors. +Before he was ten his sports were interrupted by fits of remorse and +despair; and his sleep was disturbed by dreams of fiends trying to fly away +with him. As he grew older his mental conflicts became still more violent. +The strong language in which he described them strangely misled all his +earlier biographers except Southey. It was long an ordinary practice with +pious writers to cite Bunyan as an instance of the supernatural power of +divine grace to rescue the human soul from the lowest depths of wickedness. +He is called in one book the most notorious of profligates; in another, the +brand plucked from the burning. Many excellent persons, whose moral +character from boyhood to old age has been free from any stain discernible +to their fellow-creatures, have, in their autobiographies and diaries, +applied to themselves, and doubtless with sincerity, epithets as severe as +could be applied to Titus Oates or Mrs Brownrigg. It is quite certain that +Bunyan was, at eighteen, what, in any but the most austerely puritanical +circles, would have been considered as a young man of singular gravity and +innocence. Indeed, it may be remarked that he, like many other penitents +who, in general terms, acknowledge themselves to have been the worst of +mankind, fired up, and stood vigorously on his defence, whenever any +particular charge was brought against him by others. He declares, it is +true, that he had let loose the reins on the neck of his lusts, that he had +delighted in all transgressions against the divine law, and that he had +been the ringleader of the youth of Elstow in all manner of vice. But when +those who wished him ill accused him of licentious amours, he called on God +and the angels to attest his purity. No woman, he said, in heaven, earth or +hell, could charge him with having ever made any improper advances to her. +Not only had he been strictly faithful to his wife; but he had, even before +his marriage, been perfectly spotless. It does not appear from his own +confessions, or from the railings of his enemies, that he ever was drunk in +his life. One bad habit he contracted, that of using profane language; but +he tells us that a single reproof cured him so effectually that he never +offended again. The worst that can be laid to his charge is that he had a +great liking for some diversions, quite harmless in themselves, but +condemned by the rigid precisians among whom he lived, and for whose +opinion he had a great respect. The four chief sins of which he was guilty +were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church, playing at tipcat and +reading the history of Sir Bevis of Southampton. A rector of the school of +Laud would have held such a young man up to the whole parish as a model. +But Bunyan's notions of good and evil had been learned in a very different +school; and he was made miserable by the conflict between his tastes and +his scruples. + +When he was about seventeen the ordinary course of his life was interrupted +by an event which gave a lasting colour to his thoughts. He enlisted in the +Parliamentary army,[2] and served during the Decisive campaign of 1645. All +that we know of his military career is, that, at the siege of some town,[3] +one of his comrades, who had marched with the besieging army instead of +him, was killed by a shot. Bunyan ever after considered himself as having +been saved from death by the special interference of Providence. It may be +observed that his imagination was strongly impressed by the glimpse which +he had caught of the pomp of war. To the last he loved to draw his +illustrations of sacred things from camps and fortresses, from guns, drums, +trumpets, flags of truce, and regiments arrayed each under its own banner. +His Greatheart, his Captain Boanerges and his Captain Credence are +evidently portraits, of which the originals were among those martial saints +who fought and expounded in Fairfax's army. + +In 1646 Bunyan returned home and married about two years later. His wife +had some pious relations, and brought him as her only portion some pious +books. His mind, excitable by nature, very imperfectly disciplined by +education, and exposed to the enthusiasm which was then epidemic in +England, began to be fearfully disordered. The story of the struggle is +told in Bunyan's _Grace Abounding_. + +In outward things he soon became a strict Pharisee. He was constant in +attendance at prayers and sermons. His favourite amusements were, one after +another, relinquished, though not without many painful struggles. In the +middle of a game at tipcat he paused, and stood staring wildly upwards with +his stick in his hand. He had heard a voice asking him whether he would +leave his sins and go to heaven, or keep his sins and go to hell; and he +had seen an awful countenance frowning on him from the sky. The odious vice +of bell-ringing he renounced; but he still for a time ventured to go to the +church tower and look on while others pulled the ropes. But soon the +thought struck him that, if he persisted in such wickedness, the steeple +would fall on his head; and he fled in terror from the accursed place. To +give up dancing on the village green was still harder; and some months +elapsed before he had the fortitude to part with his darling sin. When this +last sacrifice had been made, he was, even when tried by the maxims of that +austere time, faultless. All Elstow talked of him as an eminently pious +youth. But his own mind was more unquiet than ever. Having nothing more to +do in the way of visible reformation, yet finding in religion no pleasures +to supply the place of the juvenile amusements which he had relinquished, +he began to apprehend that he lay under some special malediction; and he +was tormented by a succession of fantasies which seemed likely to drive him +to suicide or to Bedlam. At one time he took it into his head that all +persons of Israelite blood would be saved, and tried to make out that he +partook of that blood; but his hopes were speedily destroyed by his father, +who seems to have had no ambition to be regarded as a Jew. At another time +Bunyan was disturbed by a strange dilemma: "If I have not faith, I am lost; +if I have faith, I can work miracles." He was tempted to cry to the puddles +between Elstow and Bedford, "Be ye dry," and to stake his eternal hopes on +the event. Then he took up a notion that the day of grace for Bedford and +the neighbouring villages was past; that all who were to be saved in that +part of England were already converted; and that he had begun to pray and +strive some months too late. Then he was harassed by doubts whether the +Turks were not in the right and the Christians in the wrong. Then he was +troubled by a maniacal impulse which prompted him to pray to the trees, to +a broomstick, to the parish bull. + +As yet, however, he was only entering the valley of the shadow of death. +Soon the darkness grew thicker. Hideous forms floated before him. Sounds of +cursing and wailing were in his ears. His way ran through stench and fire, +close to the mouth of the bottomless pit. He began to be haunted by a +strange curiosity about the unpardonable sin, and by a morbid longing to +commit it. But the most frightful of all the forms which [v.04 p.0804] his +disease took was a propensity to utter blasphemy, and especially to +renounce his share in the benefits of the redemption. Night and day, in +bed, at table, at work, evil spirits, as he imagined, were repeating close +to his ear the words, "Sell him, sell him." He struck at the hobgoblins; he +pushed them from him; but still they were ever at his side. He cried out in +answer to them, hour after hour, "Never, never; not for thousands of +worlds; not for thousands." At length, worn out by this long agony, he +suffered the fatal words to escape him, "Let him go if he will." Then his +misery became more fearful than ever. He had done what could not be +forgiven. He had forfeited his part of the great sacrifice. Like Esau, he +had sold his birthright; and there was no longer any place for repentance. +"None," he afterwards wrote, "knows the terrors of those days but myself." +He has described his sufferings with singular energy, simplicity and +pathos. He envied the brutes; he envied the very stones on the street, and +the tiles on the houses. The sun seemed to withhold its light and warmth +from him. His body, though cast in a sturdy mould, and though still in the +highest vigour of youth, trembled whole days together with the fear of +death and judgment. He fancied that this trembling was the sign set on the +worst reprobates, the sign which God had put on Cain. The unhappy man's +emotion destroyed his power of digestion. He had such pains that he +expected to burst asunder like Judas, whom he regarded as his prototype. + +Neither the books which Bunyan read, nor the advisers whom he consulted, +were likely to do much good in a case like his. His small library had +received a most unseasonable addition, the account of the lamentable end of +Francis Spira. One ancient man of high repute for piety, whom the sufferer +consulted, gave an opinion which might well have produced fatal +consequences. "I am afraid," said Bunyan, "that I have committed the sin +against the Holy Ghost." "Indeed," said the old fanatic, "I am afraid that +you have." + +At length the clouds broke; the light became clearer and clearer; and the +enthusiast who had imagined that he was branded with the mark of the first +murderer, and destined to the end of the arch-traitor, enjoyed peace and a +cheerful confidence in the mercy of God. Years elapsed, however, before his +nerves, which had been so perilously overstrained, recovered their tone. +When he had joined a Baptist society at Bedford, and was for the first time +admitted to partake of the eucharist, it was with difficulty that he could +refrain from imprecating destruction on his brethren while the cup was +passing from hand to hand. After he had been some time a member of the +congregation he began to preach; and his sermons produced a powerful +effect. He was indeed illiterate; but he spoke to illiterate men. The +severe training through which he had passed had given him such an +experimental knowledge of all the modes of religious melancholy as he could +never have gathered from books; and his vigorous genius, animated by a +fervent spirit of devotion, enabled him not only to exercise a great +influence over the vulgar, but even to extort the half-contemptuous +admiration of scholars. Yet it was long before he ceased to be tormented by +an impulse which urged him to utter words of horrible impiety in the +pulpit.[4] Bunyan was finally relieved from the internal sufferings which +had embittered his life by sharp persecution from without. He had been five +years a preacher when the Restoration put it in the power of the Cavalier +gentlemen and clergymen all over the country to oppress the dissenters. In +November 1660 he was flung into Bedford gaol; and there he remained, with +some intervals of partial and precarious liberty, during twelve years. The +authorities tried to extort from him a promise that he would abstain from +preaching; but he was convinced that he was divinely set apart and +commissioned to be a teacher of righteousness, and he was fully determined +to obey God rather than man. He was brought before several tribunals, +laughed at, caressed, reviled, menaced, but in vain. He was facetiously +told that he was quite right in thinking that he ought not to hide his +gift; but that his real gift was skill in repairing old kettles. He was +compared to Alexander the coppersmith. He was told that if he would give up +preaching he should be instantly liberated. He was warned that if he +persisted in disobeying the law he would be liable to banishment, and that +if he were found in England after a certain time his neck would be +stretched. His answer was, "If you let me out to-day, I will preach again +to-morrow." Year after year he lay patiently in a dungeon, compared with +which the worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace.[5] His +fortitude is the more extraordinary because his domestic feelings were +unusually strong. Indeed, he was considered by his stern brethren as +somewhat too fond and indulgent a parent. He had four small children, and +among them a daughter who was blind, and whom he loved with peculiar +tenderness. He could not, he said, bear even to let the wind blow on her; +and now she must suffer cold and hunger; she must beg; she must be beaten; +"yet," he added, "I must, I must do it." + +His second wife, whom he had married just before his arrest, tried in vain +for his release; she even petitioned the House of Lords on his behalf. +While he lay in prison he could do nothing in the way of his old trade for +the support of his family. He determined, therefore, to take up a new +trade. He learned to make long-tagged thread laces; and many thousands of +these articles were furnished by him to the hawkers. While his hands were +thus busied he had other employments for his mind and his lips. He gave +religious instruction to his fellow-captives, and formed from among them a +little flock, of which he was himself the pastor. He studied indefatigably +the few books which he possessed. His two chief companions were the Bible +and Fox's _Book of Martyrs_. His knowledge of the Bible was such that he +might have been called a living concordance; and on the margin of his copy +of the _Book of Martyrs_ are still legible the ill-spelt lines of doggerel +in which he expressed his reverence for the brave sufferers, and his +implacable enmity to the mystical Babylon. + +Prison life gave him leisure to write, and during his first imprisonment he +wrote, in addition to several tracts and some verse, _Grace Abounding to +the Chief of Sinners_, the narrative of his own religious experience. The +book was published in 1666. A short period of freedom was followed by a +second offence and a further imprisonment. Bunyan's works were coarse, +indeed, but they showed a keen mother wit, a great command of the homely +mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the English Bible, and a vast and +dearly bought spiritual experience. They therefore, when the corrector of +the press had improved the syntax and the spelling, were well received. + +Much of Bunyan's time was spent in controversy. He wrote sharply against +the Quakers, whom he seems always to have held in utter abhorrence. He +wrote against the liturgy of the Church of England. No two things, +according to him, had less affinity than the form of prayer and the spirit +of prayer. Those, he said with much point, who have most of the spirit of +prayer are all to be found in gaol; and those who have most zeal for the +form of prayer are all to be found at the alehouse. The doctrinal Articles, +on the other hand, he warmly praised and defended. The most acrimonious of +all his works is his _Defence of Justification by Faith_, an answer to what +Bunyan calls "the brutish and beastly latitudinarianism" of Edward Fowler, +afterwards bishop of Gloucester, an excellent man, but not free from the +taint of Pelagianism. + +Bunyan had also a dispute with some of the chiefs of the sect to which he +belonged. He doubtless held with perfect sincerity [v.04 p.0805] the +distinguishing tenet of that sect, but he did not consider that tenet as +one of high importance, and willingly joined in communion with pious +Presbyterians and Independents. The sterner Baptists, therefore, loudly +pronounced him a false brother. A controversy arose which long survived the +original combatants. The cause which Bunyan had defended with rude logic +and rhetoric against Kiffin and Danvers has since been pleaded by Robert +Hall with an ingenuity and eloquence such as no polemical writer has ever +surpassed. + +During the years which immediately followed the Restoration, Bunyan's +confinement seems to have been strict. But as the passions of 1660 cooled, +as the hatred with which the Puritans had been regarded while their reign +was recent gave place to pity, he was less and less harshly treated. The +distress of his family, and his own patience, courage and piety, softened +the hearts of his judges. Like his own Christian in the cage, he found +protectors even among the crowd at Vanity Fair. The bishop of the diocese, +Dr Barlow, is said to have interceded for him. At length the prisoner was +suffered to pass most of his time beyond the walls of the gaol, on +condition, as it should seem, that he remained within the town of Bedford. + +He owed his complete liberation to one of the worst acts of one of the +worst governments that England has ever seen. In 1671 the Cabal was in +power. Charles II. had concluded the treaty by which he bound himself to +set up the Roman Catholic religion in England. The first step which he took +towards that end was to annul, by an unconstitutional exercise of his +prerogative, all the penal statutes against the Roman Catholics; and in +order to disguise his real design, he annulled at the same time the penal +statutes against Protestant nonconformists. Bunyan was consequently set at +large.[6] In the first warmth of his gratitude he published a tract, in +which he compared Charles to that humane and generous Persian king, who, +though not himself blest with the light of the true religion, favoured the +chosen people, and permitted them, after years of captivity, to rebuild +their beloved temple. + +Before he left his prison he had begun the book which has made his name +immortal.[7] The history of that book is remarkable. The author was, as he +tells us, writing a treatise, in which he had occasion to speak of the +stages of the Christian progress. He compared that progress, as many others +had compared it, to a pilgrimage. Soon his quick wit discovered innumerable +points of similarity which had escaped his predecessors. Images came +crowding on his mind faster than he could put them into words, quagmires +and pits, steep hills, dark and horrible glens, soft vales, sunny pastures, +a gloomy castle, of which the courtyard was strewn with the skulls and +bones of murdered prisoners, a town all bustle and splendour, like London +on the Lord Mayor's Day, and the narrow path, straight as a rule could make +it, running on up hill and down hill, through city and through wilderness, +to the Black River and the Shining Gate. He had found out, as most people +would have said, by accident, as he would doubtless have said, by the +guidance of Providence, where his powers lay. He had no suspicion, indeed, +that he was producing a masterpiece. He could not guess what place his +allegory would occupy in English literature; for of English literature he +knew nothing. Those who suppose him to have studied the _Faery Queen_ might +easily be confuted, if this were the proper place for a detailed +examination of the passages in which the two allegories have been thought +to resemble each other. The only work of fiction, in all probability, with +which he could compare his _Pilgrim_ was his old favourite, the legend of +Sir Bevis of Southampton. He would have thought it a sin to borrow any time +from the serious business of his life, from his expositions, his +controversies and his lace tags, for the purpose of amusing himself with +what he considered merely as a trifle. It was only, he assures us, at spare +moments that he returned to the House Beautiful, the Delectable Mountains +and the Enchanted Ground. He had no assistance. Nobody but himself saw a +line till the whole was complete. He then consulted his pious friends. Some +were pleased. Others were much scandalized. It was a vain story, a mere +romance, about giants, and lions, and goblins, and warriors, sometimes +fighting with monsters, and sometimes regaled by fair ladies in stately +palaces. The loose atheistical wits at Will's might write such stuff to +divert the painted Jezebels of the court; but did it become a minister of +the gospel to copy the evil fashions of the world? There had been a time +when the cant of such fools would have made Bunyan miserable. But that time +was past; and his mind was now in a firm and healthy state. He saw that in +employing fiction to make truth clear and goodness attractive, he was only +following the example which every Christian ought to propose to himself; +and he determined to print. + +The _Pilgrim's Progress_ was published in February 1678. Soon the +irresistible charm of a book which gratified the imagination of the reader +with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale, which exercised his +ingenuity by setting him to discover a multitude of curious analogies, +which interested his feelings for human beings, frail like himself, and +struggling with temptations from within and from without, which every +moment drew a smile from him by some stroke of quaint yet simple +pleasantry, and nevertheless left on his mind a sentiment of reverence for +God and of sympathy for man, began to produce its effect. In puritanical +circles, from which plays and novels were strictly excluded, that effect +was such as no work of genius, though it were superior to the _Iliad_, to +_Don Quixote_ or to _Othello_, can ever produce on a mind accustomed to +indulge in literary luxury. A second edition came out in the autumn with +additions; and the demand became immense. The eighth edition, which +contains the last improvements made by the author, was published in 1682, +the ninth in 1684, the tenth in 1685. The help of the engraver had early +been called in; and tens of thousands of children looked with terror and +delight on execrable copperplates, which represented Christian thrusting +his sword into Apollyon, or writhing in the grasp of Giant Despair. In +Scotland, and in some of the colonies, the _Pilgrim_ was even more popular +than in his native country. Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable +vanity, that in New England his dream was the daily subject of the +conversation of thousands, and was thought worthy to appear in the most +superb binding. He had numerous admirers in Holland, and amongst the +Huguenots of France. + +He continued to work the gold-field which he had discovered, and to draw +from it new treasures, not indeed with quite such ease and in quite such +abundance as when the precious soil was still virgin, but yet with success, +which left all competition far behind. In 1680 appeared the _Life and Death +of Mr Badman_; in 1684 the second part of the _Pilgrim's Progress_. In 1682 +appeared the _Holy War_, which if the _Pilgrim's Progress_ did not exist, +would be the best allegory that ever was written. + +Bunyan's place in society was now very different from what it had been. +There had been a time when many dissenting ministers, who could talk Latin +and read Greek, had affected to treat him with scorn. But his fame and +influence now far exceeded theirs. He had so great an authority among the +Baptists that he was popularly called Bishop Bunyan. His episcopal +visitations were annual. From Bedford he rode every year to London, and +preached there to large and attentive congregations. From London he went +his circuit through the country, animating the zeal of his brethren, +collecting and distributing alms and making up quarrels. The magistrates +seem in general to have given him little trouble. But there is reason to +believe that, in the year 1685, he was in some danger of again occupying +his old quarters in Bedford gaol. In that year the rash and wicked +enterprise of Monmouth gave the government a pretext for prosecuting the +nonconformists; and scarcely one eminent divine of the Presbyterian. +Independent [v.04 p.0806] or Baptist persuasion remained unmolested. Baxter +was in prison: Howe was driven into exile: Henry was arrested. + +Two eminent Baptists, with whom Bunyan had been engaged in controversy, +were in great peril and distress. Danvers was in danger of being hanged; +and Kiffin's grandsons were actually hanged. The tradition is that, during +those evil days, Bunyan was forced to disguise himself as a wagoner, and +that he preached to his congregation at Bedford in a smock-frock, with a +cart-whip in his hand. But soon a great change took place. James II. was at +open war with the church, and found it necessary to court the dissenters. +Some of the creatures of the government tried to secure the aid of Bunyan. +They probably knew that he had written in praise of the indulgence of 1672, +and therefore hoped that he might be equally pleased with the indulgence of +1687. But fifteen years of thought, observation and commerce with the world +had made him wiser. Nor were the cases exactly parallel. Charles was a +professed Protestant; James was a professed Papist. The object of Charles's +indulgence was disguised; the object of James's indulgence was patent. +Bunyan was not deceived. He exhorted his hearers to prepare themselves by +fasting and prayer for the danger which menaced their civil and religious +liberties, and refused even to speak to the courtier who came down to +remodel the corporation of Bedford, and who, as was supposed, had it in +charge to offer some municipal dignity to the bishop of the Baptists. + +Bunyan did not live to see the Revolution.[8] In the summer of 1688 he +undertook to plead the cause of a son with an angry father, and at length +prevailed on the old man not to disinherit the young one. This good work +cost the benevolent intercessor his life. He had to ride through heavy +rain. He came drenched to his lodgings on Snow Hill, was seized with a +violent fever, and died in a few days (August 31). He was buried in Bunhill +Fields; and many Puritans, to whom the respect paid by Roman Catholics to +the reliques and tombs of saints seemed childish or sinful, are said to +have begged with their dying breath that their coffins might be placed as +near as possible to the coffin of the author of the _Pilgrim's Progress_. + +The fame of Bunyan during his life, and during the century which followed +his death, was indeed great, but was almost entirely confined to religious +families of the middle and lower classes. Very seldom was he during that +time mentioned with respect by any writer of great literary eminence. Young +coupled his prose with the poetry of the wretched D'Urfey. In the +_Spiritual Quixote_, the adventures of Christian are ranked with those of +Jack the Giant-Killer and John Hickathrift. Cowper ventured to praise the +great allegorist, but did not venture to name him. It is a significant +circumstance that, for a long time all the numerous editions of the +_Pilgrim's Progress_ were evidently meant for the cottage and the servants' +hall. The paper, the printing, the plates, were all of the meanest +description. In general, when the educated minority and the common people +differ about the merit of a book, the opinion of the educated minority +finally prevails. The _Pilgrim's Progress_ is perhaps the only book about +which the educated minority has come over to the opinion of the common +people. + +The attempts which have been made to improve and to imitate this book are +not to be numbered. It has been done into verse; it has been done into +modern English. The Pilgrimage of Tender Conscience, the Pilgrimage of Good +Intent, the Pilgrimage of Seek Truth, the Pilgrimage of Theophilus, the +Infant Pilgrim, the Hindoo Pilgrim, are among the many feeble copies of the +great original. But the peculiar glory of Bunyan is that those who most +hated his doctrines have tried to borrow the help of his genius. A Catholic +version of his parable may be seen with the head of the virgin in the +title-page. On the other hand, those Antinomians for whom his Calvinism is +not strong enough, may study the Pilgrimage of Hephzibah, in which nothing +will be found which can be construed into an admission of free agency and +universal redemption. But the most extraordinary of all the acts of +Vandalism by which a fine work of art was ever defaced was committed in the +year 1853. It was determined to transform the _Pilgrim's Progress_ into a +Tractarian book. The task was not easy; for it was necessary to make two +sacraments the most prominent objects in the allegory, and of all Christian +theologians, avowed Quakers excepted, Bunyan was the one in whose system +the sacraments held the least prominent place. However, the Wicket Gate +became a type of baptism, and the House Beautiful of the eucharist. The +effect of this change is such as assuredly the ingenious person who made it +never contemplated. For, as not a single pilgrim passes through the Wicket +Gate in infancy, and as Faithful hurries past the House Beautiful without +stopping, the lesson which the fable in its altered shape teaches, is that +none but adults ought to be baptized, and that the eucharist may safely be +neglected. Nobody would have discovered from the original _Pilgrim's +Progress_ that the author was not a Paedobaptist. To turn his book into a +book against Paedobaptism, was an achievement reserved for an +Anglo-Catholic divine. Such blunders must necessarily be committed by every +man who mutilates parts of a great work, without taking a comprehensive +view of the whole. + +(M.) + +The above article has been slightly corrected as to facts, as compared with +its form in the 9th edition. Bunyan's works were first partially collected +in a folio volume (1692) by his friend Charles Doe. A larger edition (2 +vols., 1736-1737) was edited by Samuel Wilson of the Barbican. In 1853 a +good edition (3 vols., Glasgow) was produced by George Offer. Southey's +edition (1830) of the _Pilgrim's Progress_ contained his _Life_ of Bunyan. +Since then various editions of the _Pilgrim's Progress_, many illustrated +(by Cruikshank, Byam Shaw, W. Strang and others), have appeared. An +interesting life by "the author of _Mark Rutherford_" (W. Hale White) was +published in 1904. Other lives are by J.A. Froude (1880) in the "English +Men of Letters" series, and E. Venables (1888); but the standard work on +the subject is _John Bunyan; his Life, Times and Work_ (1885), by the Rev. +J. Brown of Bedford. A bronze statue, by Boehm, was presented to the town +by the duke of Bedford in 1874. + +[1] The name, in various forms as Buignon, Buniun, Bonyon or Binyan, +appears in the local records of Elstow and the neighbouring parishes at +intervals from as far back as 1199. They were small freeholders, but all +the property except the cottage had been lost in the time of Bunyan's +grandfather. Bunyan's own account of his family as the "meanest and most +despised of all the families of the land" must be put down to his habitual +self-depreciation. Thomas Bunyan had a forge and workshop at Elstow. + +[2] There is no direct evidence to show on which side he fought, but the +balance of probability justifies this view. + +[3] There is no means of identifying the place besieged. It has been +assumed to be Leicester, which was captured by the Royalists in May 1645, +and recovered by Fairfax in the next month. + +[4] Bunyan had joined, in 1653, the nonconformist community which met under +a certain Mr Gifford at St John's church, Bedford. This congregation was +not Baptist, properly so called, as the question of baptism, with other +doctrinal points, was left open. When Bunyan removed to Bedford in 1655, he +became a deacon of this church, and two years later he was formally +recognized as a preacher, his fame soon spreading through the neighbouring +counties. His wife died soon after their removal to Bedford, and he also +lost his friend and pastor, Mr Gifford. His earliest work was directed +against Quaker mysticism and appeared in 1656. It was entitled _Some Gospel +Truths Opened_; it was followed in the same year by a second tract in the +same sense, _A Vindication of Gospel Truths_. + +[5] He was not, however, as has often been stated, confined in the old gaol +which stood on the bridge over the Ouse, but in the county gaol. + +[6] His formal pardon is dated the 13th of September 1672; but five months +earlier he had received a royal licence to preach, and acted for the next +three years as pastor of the nonconformist body to which he belonged, in a +barn on the site of which stands the present Bunyan Meeting. + +[7] It is now generally supposed that Bunyan wrote his _Pilgrim's +Progress_, not during his twelve years' imprisonment, but during a short +period of incarceration in 1675, probably in the old gaol on the bridge. + +[8] He had resumed his pastorate in Bedford after his imprisonment of 1675, +and, although he frequently preached in London to crowded congregations, +and is said in the last year of his life to have been, of course +unofficially, chaplain to Sir John Shorter, lord mayor of London, he +remained faithful to his own congregation. + +BUNZLAU, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, on the right bank of the +Bober, 27 m. from Liegnitz on the Berlin-Breslau railway, which crosses the +river by a great viaduct. Pop. (1900) 14,590. It has a handsome market +square, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and monuments to the +Russian field marshal Kutusov, who died here, and to the poet Martin Opitz +von Boberfeld. The Bunzlau pottery is famous; woollen and linen cloth are +manufactured, and there is a considerable trade in grain and cattle. +Bunzlau (Boleslavia) received its name in the 12th century from Duke +Boleslav, who separated it from the duchy of Glogau. Its importance was +increased by numerous privileges and the possession of extensive mining +works. It was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars of the 17th +century, and in 1739 was completely destroyed by fire. On the 30th of +August 1813 the French were here defeated on the retreat from the Katzbach +by the Silesian army of the allies. + +BUONAFEDE, APPIANO (1716-1793), Italian philosopher, was born at Comachio, +in Ferrara, and died in Rome. He became professor of theology at Naples in +1740, and, entering the religious body of the Celestines, rose to be +general of the order. His principal works, generally published under the +assumed name of "Agatopisto Cromazione," are on the history of +philosophy:--_Della Istoria e delle Indole di ogni Filosofia_, 7 vols., +1772 seq.; and _Della Restaurazione di ogni Filosofia ne' Secoli_, xvi., +xvii., xviii., 3 vols., 1789 (German trans. by C. Heydenreich). The latter +gives a valuable account of 16th-century Italian philosophy. His other +works are _Istoria critica e filosofica del suicidio_ (1761); _Delle +conquiste celebri esaminate col naturale diritto delle genti_ (1763); +_Storia critica del moderno diritto di natura e delle genti_ (1789); and a +few poems and philosophic comedies. + +BUOY (15th century "boye"; through O.Fr. or Dutch, from Lat. _boia_, +fetter; the word is now usually pronounced as "boy," and it has been spelt +in that form; but Hakluyt's [v.04 p.0807] _Voyages_ spells it "bwoy," and +this seems to indicate a different pronunciation, which is also given in +some modern dictionaries), a floating body employed to mark the navigable +limits of channels, their fairways, sunken dangers or isolated rocks, mined +or torpedo grounds, telegraph cables, or the position of a ship's anchor +after letting go; buoys are also used for securing a ship to instead of +anchoring. They vary in size and construction from a log of wood to steel +mooring buoys for battleships or a steel gas buoy. + +In 1882 a conference was held upon a proposal to establish a uniform system +of buoyage. It was under the presidency of the then duke of Edinburgh, and +consisted of representatives from the various bodies interested. The +questions of colour, visibility, shape and size were considered, and any +modifications necessary owing to locality. The committee proposed the +following uniform system of buoyage, and it is now adopted by the general +lighthouse authorities of the United Kingdom:-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +(1) The mariner when approaching the coast must determine his position on +the chart, and note the direction of flood tide. (2) The term +"starboard-hand" shall denote that side which would be on the right hand of +the mariner either going with the main stream of the flood, or entering a +harbour, river or estuary from seaward; the term "port-hand" shall denote +the left hand of the mariner in the same circumstances. (3)[1] Buoys +showing the pointed top of a cone above water shall be called conical (fig. +1) and shall always be starboard-hand buoys, as above defined. (4)[1] Buoys +showing a flat top above water shall be called can (fig. 2) and shall +always be port-hand buoys, as above defined. (5) Buoys showing a domed top +above water shall be called spherical (fig. 3) and shall mark the ends of +middle grounds. (6) Buoys having a tall central structure on a broad face +shall be called pillar buoys (fig. 4), and like all other special buoys, +such as bell buoys, gas buoys, and automatic sounding buoys, shall be +placed to mark special positions either on the coast or in the approaches +to harbours. (7) Buoys showing only a mast above water shall be called +spar-buoys (fig. 5).[2] (8) Starboard-hand buoys shall always be painted in +one colour only. (9) Port-hand buoys shall be painted of another +characteristic colour, either single or parti-colour. (10) Spherical buoys +(fig. 3) at the ends of middle grounds shall always be distinguished by +horizontal stripes of white colour, (11) Surmounting beacons, such as staff +and globe and others,[3] shall always be painted of one dark colour. (12) +Staff and globe (fig. 1) shall only be used on starboard-hand buoys, staff +and cage (fig. 2) on port hand; diamonds (fig. 7) at the outer ends of +middle grounds; and triangles (fig. 3) at the inner ends. (13) Buoys on the +same side of a channel, estuary or tideway may be distinguished from each +other by names, numbers or letters, and where necessary by a staff +surmounted with the appropriate beacon. (14) Buoys intended for moorings +(fig. 6) may be of shape and colour according to the discretion of the +authority within whose jurisdiction they are laid, but for marking +submarine telegraph cables the colour shall be green with the word +"Telegraph" painted thereon in white letters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Buoying and Marking of Wrecks._--(15) Wreck buoys in the open sea, or in +the approaches to a harbour or estuary, shall be coloured green, with the +word "Wreck" painted in white letters on them. (16) When possible, the buoy +should be laid near to the side of the wreck next to mid-channel. (17) When +a wreck-marking vessel is used, it shall, if possible, have its top sides +coloured green, with the word "Wreck" in white letters thereon, and shall +exhibit by day, three balls on a yard 20 ft. above the sea, two placed +vertically at one end and one at the other, the single ball being on the +side nearer to the wreck; in fog a gong or bell is rung in quick succession +at intervals not exceeding one minute (wherever practicable); by night, +three white fixed lights are similarly arranged as the balls in daytime, +but the ordinary riding lights are not shown. (18) In narrow waters or in +rivers and harbours under the jurisdiction of local authorities, the same +rules may be adopted, or at discretion, varied as follows:--When a +wreck-marking vessel is used she shall carry a cross-yard on a mast with +two balls by day, placed horizontally not less than 6 nor more than 12 ft. +apart, and by night two lights similarly placed. When a barge or open boat +only is used, a flag or ball may be shown in the daytime. (19) The position +in which the marking vessel is placed with reference to the wreck shall be +at the discretion of the local authority having jurisdiction. A uniform +system by shape has been adopted by the Mersey Dock and Harbour Board, to +assist a mariner by night, and, in addition, where practicable, a uniform +colour; the fairway buoys are specially marked by letter, shape and colour. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +British India has practically adopted the British system, United States and +Canada have the same uniform system; in the majority of European maritime +countries and China various uniform systems have been adopted. In Norway +and Russia the compass system is used, the shape, colour and surmountings +of the buoys indicating the compass bearing of the danger from the buoy; +this method is followed in the open sea by Sweden. An international uniform +system of buoyage, although desirable, appears impracticable. Germany +employs yellow buoys to mark boundaries of quarantine stations. The +question of shape versus colour, irrespective of size, is a disputed one; +the shape is a better guide at night and colour in the daytime. All +markings (figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11) should be subordinate to the main colour +of the buoy; the varying backgrounds and atmospheric conditions render the +question a complex one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +London Trinity House buoys are divided into five classes, their use +depending on whether the spot to be marked is in the open sea or otherwise +exposed position, or in a sheltered harbour, or according to the depth of +water and weight of moorings, or the importance of the danger. Buoys are +moored with specially tested cables; the eye at the base of the buoy is of +wrought iron to prevent it becoming "reedy" and the cable is secured to +blocks (see ANCHOR) or mushroom anchors according to the nature of the +ground. London Trinity House buoys are [v.04 p.0808] built of steel, with +bulkheads to lessen the risk of their sinking by collision, and, with the +exception of bell buoys, do not contain water ballast. In 1878 gas buoys, +with fixed and occulting lights of 10-candle power, were introduced. In +1896 Mr T. Matthews, engineer-in-chief in the London Trinity Corporation, +developed the present design (fig. 12). It is of steel, the lower plates +being 5/8 in. and the upper 7/16 in. in thickness, thus adding to the +stability. The buoy holds 380 cub. ft. of gas, and exhibits an occulting +light for 2533 hours. This light is placed 10 ft. above the sea, and, with +an intensity of 50 candles, is visible 8 m. It occults every ten seconds, +and there is seven seconds' visibility, with three seconds' obscuration. +The occultations are actuated by a double valve arrangement. In the body of +the apparatus there is a gas chamber having sufficient capacity, in the +case of an occulting light, for maintaining the flame in action for seven +seconds, and by means of a by-pass a jet remains alight in the centre of +the burner. During the period of three seconds' darkness the gas chamber is +re-charged, and at the end of that period is again opened to the main +burner by a tripping arrangement of the valve, and remains in action seven +seconds. The gas chamber of the buoy, charged to five atmospheres, is +replenished from a steamer fitted with a pump and transport receivers +carrying indicating valves, the receivers being charged to ten atmospheres. +Practically no inconvenience has resulted from saline or other deposits, +the glazing (glass) of the lantern being thoroughly cleaned when +re-charging the buoy. Acetylene, generated from calcium carbide inside the +buoy, is also used. Electric light is exhibited from some buoys in the +United States. In England an automatic electric buoy has been suggested, +worked by the motion of the waves, which cause a stream of water to act on +a turbine connected with a dynamo generating electricity. Boat-shaped buoys +are also used (river Humber) for carrying a light and bell. The Courtenay +whistling buoy (fig. 13) is actuated by the undulating movement of the +waves. A hollow cylinder extends from the lower part of the buoy to still +water below the movement of the waves, ensuring that the water inside keeps +at mean level, whilst the buoy follows the movements of the waves. By a +special apparatus the compressed air is forced through the whistle at the +top of the buoy, and the air is replenished by two tubes at the upper part +of the buoy. It is fitted with a rudder and secured in the usual manner. +Automatic buoys cannot be relied on in calm days with a smooth sea. The nun +buoy (fig. 14) for indicating the position of an anchor after letting go, +is secured to the crown of the anchor by a buoy rope. It is usually made of +galvanized iron, and consists of two cones joined together at the base. It +is painted red for the port anchor and green for the starboard. + +Mooring buoys (fig. 6) for battleships are built of steel in four +watertight compartments, and have sufficient buoyancy to keep afloat should +a compartment be pierced; they are 13 ft. long with a diameter of 6½ ft. +The mooring cable (bridle) passes through a watertight 16-in. trunk pipe, +built vertically in the centre of the buoy, and is secured to a "rocking +shackle" on the upper surface of the buoy. Large mooring buoys are usually +protected by horizontal wooden battens and are fitted with life chains. + +(J. W. D.) + +[1] In carrying out the above system the Northern Lights Commissioners have +adopted a red colour for conical or starboard-hand buoys, and black colour +for can or port-hand buoys, and this system is applicable to the whole of +Scotland. + +[2] Useful where floating ice is encountered. + +[3] St George and St Andrew crosses are principally employed to surmount +shore beacons. + +BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, sons of Archermus, and members of the celebrated +school of sculpture in marble which flourished in Chios in the 6th century +B.C. They were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax (about 540 B.C.), whom +they were said to have caricatured. Their works consisted almost entirely +of draped female figures, Artemis, Fortune, the Graces, whence the Chian +school has been well called a school of Madonnas. Augustus brought many of +the works of Bupalus and Athenis to Rome, and placed them on the gable of +the temple of Apollo Palatinus. + +BUPHONIA, in Greek antiquities, a sacrificial ceremony, forming part of the +Diipolia, a religious festival held on the 14th of the month Skirophorion +(June-July) at Athens, when a labouring ox was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus +as protector of the city in accordance with a very ancient custom. The ox +was driven forward to the altar, on which grain was spread, by members of +the family of the Kentriadae (from [Greek: kentron], a goad), on whom this +duty devolved hereditarily. When it began to eat, one of the family of the +Thaulonidae advanced with an axe, slew the ox, then immediately threw away +the axe and fled. The axe, as being polluted by murder, was now carried +before the court of the Prytaneum (which tried inanimate objects for +homicide) and there charged with having caused the death of the ox, for +which it was thrown into the sea. Apparently this is an early instance +analogous to deodand (_q.v._). Although the slaughter of a labouring ox was +forbidden, it was considered excusable in the exceptional circumstances; +none the less it was regarded as a murder. + +Porphyrius, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 29; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Schol. +Aristoph. _Nubes_, 485; Pausanias, i. 24, 28; see also Band, _De +Diipoliorum Sacro Atheniensium_ (1873). + +BUR, or BURR (apparently the same word as Danish _borre_, burdock, cf. +Swed. _kard-boore_), a prickly fruit or head of fruits, as of the burdock. +In the sense of a woody outgrowth on the trunk of a tree, or "gnaur," the +effect of a crowded bud-development, the word is probably adapted from the +Fr. _bourre_, a vine-bud. + +BURANO, a town of Venetia, in the province of Venice, on an island in the +lagoons, 6 m. N.E. of Venice by sea. Pop. (1901) 8169. It is a fishing +town, with a large royal school of lace-making employing some 500 girls. It +was founded, like all the towns in the lagoons, by fugitives from the +mainland cities at the time of the barbarian invasions. Torcello is a part +of the commune of Burano. + +BURAUEN, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine +Islands, on the Dagitan river, 21 m. S. by W. of Tacloban, the capital. +Pop. (1903) 18,197. Burauen is situated in a rich hemp-growing region, and +hemp is its only important product. The language is Visayan. + +BURBAGE, JAMES (d. 1597), English actor, is said to have been born at +Stratford-on-Avon. He was a member of the earl of Leicester's players, +probably for several years before he is first mentioned (1574) as being at +the head of the company. In 1576, having secured the lease of land at +Shoreditch, Burbage erected there the successful house which was known for +twenty years as _The_ Theatre from the fact that it was the first ever +erected in London. He seems also to have been concerned in the erection of +a second theatre in the same locality, the Curtain, and later, in spite of +all difficulties and a great deal of local opposition, he started what +became the most celebrated home of the rising drama,--the Blackfriars +theatre, built in 1596 near the old Dominican friary. + +His son RICHARD BURBAGE (c. 1567-1619), more celebrated than his father, +was the Garrick of the Elizabethan stage, and acted all the great parts in +Shakespeare's plays. He, too, is said to have been born at +Stratford-on-Avon, and made his first appearance at an early age at one of +his father's theatres. He had established a reputation by the time he was +twenty, and in the next dozen years was the most popular English actor, the +"Roscius" of his day. At the time of his father's death, a lawsuit was in +progress against the lessor from whom James Burbage held the land on which +The Theatre stood. This suit was continued by Richard and his brother +Cuthbert, and in 1569 they pulled down the Shoreditch house and used the +materials to erect the Globe theatre, famous for its connexion with +Shakespeare. They occupied it as a summer playhouse, retaining the +Blackfriars, which was roofed in, for winter performances. In this venture +Richard Burbage had Shakespeare and others [v.04 p.0809] as his partners, +and it was in one or the other of these houses that he gained his greatest +triumphs, taking the leading part in almost every new play. He was +specially famous for his impersonation of Richard III. and other +Shakespearian characters, and it was in tragedy that he especially +excelled. Every playwright of his day endeavoured to secure his services. +He died on the 13th of March 1619. Richard Burbage was a painter as well as +an actor. The Felton portrait of Shakespeare is attributed to him, and +there is a portrait of a woman, undoubtedly by him, preserved at Dulwich +College. + +BURBOT, or EEL-POUT (_Lota vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which +differs from the ling in the dorsal and anal fins reaching the caudal, and +in the small size of all the teeth. It exceeds a length of 3 ft. and is a +freshwater fish, although examples are exceptionally taken in British +estuaries and in the Baltic; some specimens are handsomely marbled with +dark brown, with black blotches on the back and dorsal fins. It is very +locally distributed in central and northern Europe, and an uncommon fish in +England. Its flesh is excellent. The American burbot (_Lota maculosa_) is +coarser, and not favoured for the table. + +BURCKHARDT, JAKOB (1818-1897), Swiss writer on art, was born at Basel on +the 25th of May 1818; he was educated there and at Neuchâtel, and till 1839 +was intended to be a pastor. In 1838 he made his first journey to Italy, +and also published his first important articles _Bemerkungen über +schweizerische Kathedralen_. In 1839 he went to the university of Berlin, +where he studied till 1843, spending part of 1841 at Bonn, where he was a +pupil of Franz Kugler, the art historian, to whom his first book, _Die +Kunstwerke D. belgischen Städte_ (1842), was dedicated. He was professor of +history at the university of Basel (1845-1847, 1849-1855 and 1858-1893) and +at the federal polytechnic school at Zurich (1855-1858). In 1847 he brought +out new editions of Kugler's two great works, _Geschichte der Malerei_ and +_Kunstgeschichte_, and in 1853 published his own work, _Die Zeit +Constantins des Grossen_. He spent the greater part of the years 1853-1854 +in Italy, where he collected the materials for one of his most famous +works, _Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung sum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens_, +which was dedicated to Kugler and appeared in 1855 (7th German edition, +1899; English translation of the sections relating to paintings, by Mrs +A.H. Clough, London, 1873). This work, which includes sculpture and +architecture, as well as painting, has become indispensable to the art +traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition was devoted to the +art of the Renaissance, so that Burckhardt was naturally led on to the +preparation of his two other celebrated works, _Die Cultur der Renaissance +in Italien_ (1860, 5th German edition 1896, and English translation, by +S.G.C. Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and the _Geschichte der +Renaissance in Italien_ (1867, 3rd German edition 1891). In 1867 he refused +a professorship at Tübingen, and in 1872 another (that left vacant by +Ranke) at Berlin, remaining faithful to Basel. He died in 1897. + +See Life by Hans Trog in the _Basler Jahrbuch_ for 1898, pp. 1-172. + +(W. A. B. C.) + +BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS [JOHANN LUDWIG] (1784-1817), Swiss traveller and +orientalist, was born at Lausanne on the 24th of November 1784. After +studying at Leipzig and Göttingen he visited England in the summer of 1806, +carrying a letter of introduction from the naturalist Blumenbach to Sir +Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the African Association, +accepted his offer to explore the interior of Africa. After studying in +London and Cambridge, and inuring himself to all kinds of hardships and +privations, Burckhardt left England in March 1809 for Malta, whence he +proceeded, in the following autumn, to Aleppo. In order to obtain a better +knowledge of oriental life he disguised himself as a Mussulman, and took +the name of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah. After two years passed in the +Levant he had thoroughly mastered Arabic, and had acquired such accurate +knowledge of the Koran, and of the commentaries upon its religion and laws, +that after a critical examination the most learned Mussulmans entertained +no doubt of his being really what he professed to be, a learned doctor of +their law. During his residence in Syria he visited Palmyra, Damascus, +Lebanon and thence journeyed via Petra to Cairo with the intention of +joining a caravan to Fezzan, and of exploring from there the sources of the +Niger. In 1812, whilst waiting for the departure of the caravan, he +travelled up the Nile as far as Dar Mahass; and then, finding it impossible +to penetrate westward, he made a journey through the Nubian desert in the +character of a poor Syrian merchant, passing by Berber and Shendi to +Suakin, on the Red Sea, whence he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca by way +of Jidda. At Mecca he stayed three months and afterwards visited Medina. +After enduring privations and sufferings of the severest kind, he returned +to Cairo in June 1815 in a state of great exhaustion; but in the spring of +1816 he travelled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned to Cairo in June, and +there again made preparations for his intended journey to Fezzan. Several +hindrances prevented his prosecuting this intention, and finally, in April +1817, when the long-expected caravan prepared to depart, he was seized with +illness and died on the 15th of October. He had from time to time carefully +transmitted to England his journals and notes, and a very copious series of +letters, so that nothing which appeared to him to be interesting in the +various journeys he made has been lost. He bequeathed his collection of 800 +vols. of oriental MSS. to the library of Cambridge University. + +His works were published by the African Association in the following +order:--_Travels in Nubia_ (to which is prefixed a biographical memoir) +(1819); _Travels in Syria and the Holy Land_ (1822); _Travels in Arabia_ +(1829); _Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and Customs of the Modern +Egyptians_ (1830); _Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys_ (1831). + +BURDEAU, AUGUSTE LAURENT (1851-1894), French politician, was the son of a +labourer at Lyons. Forced from childhood to earn his own living, he was +enabled to secure an education by bursarships at the Lycée at Lyons and at +the Lycée Louis Le Grand in Paris. In 1870 he was at the École Normale +Supérieure in Paris, but enlisted in the army, and was wounded and made +prisoner in 1871. In 1874 he became professor of philosophy, and translated +several works of Herbert Spencer and of Schopenhauer into French. His +extraordinary aptitude for work secured for him the position of _chef de +cabinet _under Paul Bert, the minister of education, in 1881. In 1885 he +was elected deputy for the department of the Rhone, and distinguished +himself in financial questions. He was several times minister, and became +minister of finance in the cabinet of Casimir-Périer (from the 3rd of +November 1893 to the 22nd of May 1894). On the 5th of July 1894 he was +elected president of the chamber of deputies. He died on the 12th of +December 1894, worn out with overwork. + +BURDEN, or BURTHEN, (1) (A.S. _byrthen_, from _beran_, to bear), a load, +both literally and figuratively; especially the carrying capacity of a +ship; in mining and smelting, the tops or heads of stream-work which lie +over the stream of tin, and the proportion of ore and flux to fuel in the +charge of a blast-furnace. In Scots and English law the term is applied to +an encumbrance on real or personal property. (2) (From the Fr. _bourdon_, a +droning, humming sound) an accompaniment to a song, or the refrain of a +song; hence a chief or recurrent topic, as "the burden of a speech." + +BURDER, GEORGE (1752-1832), English Nonconformist divine, was born in +London on the 5th of June 1752. In early manhood he was an engraver, but in +1776 he began preaching, and was minister of the Independent church at +Lancaster from 1778 to 1783. Subsequently he held charges at Coventry +(1784-1803) and at Fetter Lane, London (1803-1832). He was one of the +founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Religious Tract +Society, and the London Missionary Society, and was secretary to the +last-named for several years. As editor of the _Evangelical Magazine_ and +author of _Village Sermons_, he commanded a wide influence. He died on the +29th of May 1832, and a Life (by H. Burder) appeared in 1833. + +BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS (1770-1844), English politician, was the son of +Francis Burdett by his wife Eleanor, daughter of William Jones of Ramsbury +manor, Wiltshire, and grandson of [v.04 p.0810] Sir Robert Burdett, Bart. +Born on the 25th of January 1770, he was educated at Westminster school and +Oxford, and afterwards travelled in France and Switzerland. He was in Paris +during the earlier days of the French Revolution, a visit which doubtless +influenced his political opinions. Returning to England he married in 1793 +Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker, and this lady brought him a +large fortune. In 1796 he became member of parliament for Boroughbridge, +having purchased this seat from the representatives of the 4th duke of +Newcastle, and in 1797 succeeded his grandfather as fifth baronet. In +parliament he soon became prominent as an opponent of Pitt, and as an +advocate of popular rights. He denounced the war with France, the +suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the proposed exclusion of John Horne +Tooke from parliament, and quickly became the idol of the people. He was +instrumental in securing an inquiry into the condition of Coldbath Fields +prison, but as a result of this step he was for a time prevented by the +government from visiting any prison in the kingdom. In 1797 he made the +acquaintance of Horne Tooke, whose pupil he became, not only in politics, +but also in philology. At the general election of 1802 Burdett was a +candidate for the county of Middlesex, but his return was declared void in +1804, and in the subsequent contest he was defeated. In 1805 this return +was amended in his favour, but as this was again quickly reversed, Burdett, +who had spent an immense sum of money over the affair, declared he would +not stand for parliament again. + +At the general election of 1806 Burdett was a leading supporter of James +Paull, the reform candidate for the city of Westminster; but in the +following year a misunderstanding led to a duel between Burdett and Paull +in which both combatants were wounded. At the general election in 1807 +Burdett, in spite of his reluctance, was nominated for Westminster, and +amid great enthusiasm was returned at the top of the poll. He took up again +the congenial work of attacking abuses and agitating for reform, and in +1810 came sharply into collision with the House of Commons. A radical named +John Gale Jones had been committed to prison by the House, a proceeding +which was denounced by Burdett, who questioned the power of the House to +take this step, and vainly attempted to secure the release of Jones. He +then issued a revised edition of his speech on this occasion, and it was +published by William Cobbett in the _Weekly Register_. The House voted this +action a breach of privilege, and the speaker issued a warrant for +Burdett's arrest. Barring himself in his house, he defied the authorities, +while the mob gathered in his defence. At length his house was entered, and +under an escort of soldiers he was conveyed to the Tower. Released when +parliament was prorogued, he caused his supporters much disappointment by +returning to Westminster by water, and so avoiding a demonstration in his +honour. He then brought actions against the speaker and the +serjeant-at-arms, but the courts upheld the action of the House. In +parliament Burdett denounced corporal punishment in the army, and supported +all attempts to check corruption, but his principal efforts were directed +towards procuring a reform of parliament, and the removal of Roman Catholic +disabilities. In 1809 he had proposed a scheme of parliamentary reform, and +returning to the subject in 1817 and 1818 he anticipated the Chartist +movement by suggesting universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts, +vote by ballot, and annual parliaments; but his motions met with very +little support. He succeeded, however, in carrying a resolution in 1825 +that the House should consider the laws concerning Roman Catholics. This +was followed by a bill embodying his proposals, which passed the Commons +but was rejected by the Lords. In 1827 and 1828 he again proposed +resolutions on this subject, and saw his proposals become law in 1829. In +1820 Burdett had again come into serious conflict with the government. +Having severely censured its action with reference to the "Manchester +massacre," he was prosecuted at Leicester assizes, fined £1000, and +committed to prison for three months. After the passing of the Reform Bill +in 1832 the ardour of the veteran reformer was somewhat abated, and a +number of his constituents soon took umbrage at his changed attitude. +Consequently he resigned his seat early in 1837, but was re-elected. +However, at the general election in the same year he forsook Westminster +and was elected member for North Wiltshire, which seat he retained, acting +in general with the Conservatives, until his death on the 23rd of January +1844. He left a son, Robert, who succeeded to the baronetcy, and five +daughters, the youngest of whom became the celebrated Baroness +Burdett-Coutts. Impetuous and illogical, Burdett did good work as an +advocate of free speech, and an enemy of corruption. He was exceedingly +generous, and spent money lavishly in furthering projects of reform. + +See A. Stephens, _Life of Horne Tooke_ (London, 1813); Spencer Walpole, +_History of England_ (London, 1878-1886); C. Abbot, Baron Colchester, +_Diary and Correspondence_ (London, 1861). + +(A. W. H.*) + +BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA BURDETT-COUTTS, BARONESS (1814-1906), +English philanthropist, youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born +on the 21st of April 1814. When she was three-and-twenty, she inherited +practically the whole of the immense wealth of her grandfather Thomas +Coutts (approaching two millions sterling, a fabulous sum in those days), +by the will of the duchess of St Albans, who, as the actress Henrietta +Mellon, had been his second wife and had been left it on his death in 1821. +Miss Burdett then took the name of Coutts in addition to her own. "The +faymale heiress, Miss Anjaley Coutts," as the author of the _Ingoldsby +Legends_ called her in his ballad on the queen's coronation in that year +(1837), at once became a notable subject of public curiosity and private +cupidity; she received numerous offers of marriage, but remained resolutely +single, devoting herself and her riches to philanthropic work, which made +her famous for well-applied generosity. In May 1871 she was created a +peeress, as Baroness Burdett-Coutts of Highgate and Brookfield, Middlesex. +On the 18th of July 1872 she was presented at the Guildhall with the +freedom of the city of London, the first case of a woman being admitted to +that fellowship. It was not till 1881 that, when sixty-seven years old, she +married William Lehman Ashmead-Bartlett, an American by birth, and brother +of Sir E.A. Ashmead-Bartlett, the Conservative member of parliament; and he +then took his wife's name, entering the House of Commons as member for +Westminster, 1885. Full of good works, and of social interest and +influence, the baroness lived to the great age of ninety-two, dying at her +house in Stratton Street, Piccadilly, on the 30th of December 1906, of +bronchitis. She was buried in Westminster Abbey. + +The extent of her benefactions during her long and active life can only be +briefly indicated; but the baroness must remain a striking figure in the +social history of Victorian England, for the thoughtful and conscientious +care with which she "held her wealth in trust" for innumerable good +objects. It was her aim to benefit the working-classes in ways involving no +loss of independence or self-respect. She carefully avoided taking any side +in party politics, but she was actively interested in phases of Imperial +extension which were calculated to improve the condition of the black +races, as in Africa, or the education and relief of the poor or suffering +in any part of the world. Though she made no special distinction of creed +in her charities, she was a notable benefactor of the Church of England, +building and endowing churches and church schools, endowing the bishoprics +of Cape Town and of Adelaide (1847), and founding the bishopric of British +Columbia (1857). Among her many educational endowments may be specified the +St Stephen's Institute in Vincent Square, Westminster (1846); she started +sewing schools in Spitalfields when the silk trade began to fail; helped to +found the shoe-black brigade; and placed hundreds of destitute boys in +training-ships for the navy and merchant service. She established Columbia +fish market (1869) in Bethnal Green, and presented it to the city, but +owing to commercial difficulties this effort, which cost her over £200,000, +proved abortive. She supported various schemes of emigration to the +colonies; and in Ireland helped to promote the fishing industry by starting +schools, and providing boats, besides [v.04 p.0811] advancing £250,000 in +1880 for supplying seed to the impoverished tenants. She was devoted to the +protection of animals and prevention of cruelty, and took up with +characteristic zeal the cause of the costermongers' donkeys, building +stables for them on her Columbia market estate, and giving prizes for the +best-kept animals. She helped to inaugurate the society for the prevention +of cruelty to children, and was a keen supporter of the ragged school +union. Missionary efforts of all sorts; hospitals and nursing; industrial +homes and refuges; relief funds, &c., found in her a generous supporter. +She was associated with Louisa Twining and Florence Nightingale; and in +1877-1878 raised the Turkish compassionate fund for the starving peasantry +and fugitives in the Russo-Turkish War (for which she obtained the order of +the Medjidieh, a solitary case of its conference on a woman). She relieved +the distressed in far-off lands as well as at home, her helping hand being +stretched out to the Dyaks of Borneo and the aborigines of Australia. She +was a liberal patroness of the stage, literature and the arts, and +delighted in knowing all the cultured people of the day. In short, her +position in England for half a century may well be summed up in words +attributed to King Edward VII., "after my mother (Queen Victoria) the most +remarkable woman in the kingdom." + +BURDON-SANDERSON, SIR JOHN SCOTT, Bart. (1828-1905), English physiologist, +was born at West Jesmand, near Newcastle, on the 21st of December 1828. A +member of a well-known Northumbrian family, he received his medical +education at the university of Edinburgh and at Paris. Settling in London, +he became medical officer of health for Paddington in 1856 and four years +later physician to the Middlesex and the Brompton Consumption hospitals. +When diphtheria appeared in England in 1858 he was sent to investigate the +disease at the different points of outbreak, and in subsequent years he +carried out a number of similar inquiries, _e.g._ into the cattle plague +and into cholera in 1866. He became first principal of the Brown +Institution at Lambeth in 1871, and in 1874 was appointed Jodrell professor +of physiology at University College, London, retaining that post till 1882. +When the Waynflete chair of physiology was established at Oxford in 1882, +he was chosen to be its first occupant, and immediately found himself the +object of a furious anti-vivisectionist agitation. The proposal that the +university should spend £10,000 in providing him with a suitable +laboratory, lecture-rooms, &c., in which to carry on his work, was strongly +opposed, by some on grounds of economy, but largely because he was an +upholder of the usefulness and necessity of experiments upon animals. It +was, however, eventually carried by a small majority (88 to 85), and in the +same year the Royal Society awarded him a royal medal in recognition of his +researches into the electrical phenomena exhibited by plants and the +relations of minute organisms to disease, and of the services he had +rendered to physiology and pathology. In 1885 the university of Oxford was +asked to vote £500 a year for three years for the purposes of the +laboratory, then approaching completion. This proposal was fought with the +utmost bitterness by Sanderson's opponents, the anti-vivisectionists +including E.A. Freeman, John Ruskin and Bishop Mackarness of Oxford. +Ultimately the money was granted by 412 to 244 votes. In 1895 Sanderson was +appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, resigning the post in +1904; in 1899 he was created a baronet. His attainments, both in biology +and medicine, brought him many honours. He was Croonian lecturer to the +Royal Society in 1867 and 1877 and to the Royal College of Physicians in +1891; gave the Harveian oration before the College of Physicians in 1878; +acted as president of the British Association at Nottingham in 1893; and +served on three royal commissions--Hospitals (1883), Tuberculosis, Meat and +Milk (1890), and University for London (1892). He died at Oxford on the +23rd of November 1905. + +BURDWAN, or BARDWAN, a town of British India, in Bengal, which gives its +name to a district and to a division. It has a station on the East Indian +railway, 67 m. N.W. from Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 35,022. The town consists +really of numerous villages scattered over an area of 9 sq. m., and is +entirely rural in character. It contains several interesting ancient tombs, +and at Nawab Hat, some 2 m. distant, is a group of 108 Siva _lingam_ +temples built in 1788. The place was formerly very unhealthy, but this has +been to a large extent remedied by the establishment of water-works, a good +supply of water being derived from the river Banka. Within the town, the +principal objects of interest are the palaces and gardens of the maharaja. +The chief educational institution is the Burdwan Raj college, which is +entirely supported out of the maharaja's estate. + +The town owes its importance entirely to being the headquarters of the +maharaja of Burdwan, the premier nobleman of lower Bengal, whose rent-roll +is upwards of £300,000. The _raj_ was founded in 1657 by Abu Ra Kapur, of +the Kapur Khatri family of Kotli in Lahore, Punjab, whose descendants +served in turn the Mogul emperors and the British government. The great +prosperity of the _raj_ was due to the excellent management of Maharaja +Mahtab Chand (d. 1879), whose loyalty to the government--especially during +the Santal rebellion of 1855 and the mutiny of 1857--was rewarded with the +grant of a coat of arms in 1868 and the right to a personal salute of 13 +guns in 1877. Maharaja Bijai Chand Mahtab (b. 1881), who succeeded his +adoptive father in 1888, earned great distinction by the courage with which +he risked his life to save that of Sir Andrew Fraser, the +lieutenant-governor of Bengal, on the occasion of the attempt to +assassinate him made by Bengali malcontents on the 7th of November 1908. + +The DISTRICT OF BURDWAN lies along the right bank of the river Bhagirathi +or Hugli. It has an area of 2689 sq. m. It is a flat plain, and its scenery +is uninteresting. Chief rivers are the Bhagirathi, Damodar, Ajai, Banka, +Kunur and Khari, of which only the Bhagirathi is navigable by country cargo +boats throughout the year. The district was acquired by the East India +Company under the treaty with Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760, and confirmed by the +emperor Shah Alam in 1765. The land revenue was fixed in perpetuity with +the zemindar in 1793. In 1901 the population was 1,532,475, showing an +increase of 10% in the decade. There are several indigo factories. The +district suffered from drought in 1896-1897. The Eden Canal, 20 m. long, +has been constructed for irrigation. The weaving of silk is the chief +native industry. As regards European industries, Burdwan takes the first +place in Bengal. It contains the great coal-field of Raniganj, first opened +in 1874, with an output of more than three million tons. The Barrakur +ironworks produce pig-iron, which is reported to be as good as that of +Middlesbrough. Apart from Burdwan town and Raniganj, the chief places are +the river-marts of Katwa and Kalna. The East Indian railway has several +lines running through the district. + +The DIVISION OF BURDWAN comprises the six districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, +Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli and Howrah, with a total area of 13,949 sq. m., +and a population in 1901 of 8,240,076. + +BUREAU (a Fr. word from _burel_ or _bureau_, a coarse cloth used for +coverings), a writing-table or desk (_q.v._), also in America a low chest +of drawers. From the meaning of "desk," the word is applied to an office or +place of business, and particularly a government department; in the United +States the term is used of certain subdivisions of the executive +departments, as the bureau of statistics, a division of the treasury +department. The term "bureaucracy" is often employed to signify the +concentration of administrative power in bureaux or departments, and the +undue interference by officials not only in the details of government, but +in matters outside the scope of state interference. The word is also +frequently used in the sense of "red-tapism." + +BURFORD, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division of +Oxfordshire, England, 18 m. W.N.W. of Oxford. Pop. (1901) 1146. It is +pleasantly situated in the valley of the Windrush, the broad, picturesque +main street sloping upward from the stream, beside which stands the fine +church, to the summit of the ridge flanking the valley on the south, along +which runs the high road from Oxford. The church of St John the Baptist has +a nave and aisles, mainly Perpendicular in appearance owing to alterations +in that period, but actually of [v.04 p.0812] earlier construction, the +south aisle flanked by two beautiful chapels and an ornate porch; transepts +and a central tower, and choir with flanking chapels. The massive Norman +tower contrasts strongly with the delicate Perpendicular spire rising upon +it. The church contains many interesting memorials, and, in the nave, a +Perpendicular shrine dedicated to St Peter. Near the church is the +half-ruined priory house, built in the 17th century, and containing much +fine plaster ornament characteristic of the period; a curious chapel +adjoins it. William Lenthall, speaker of the Long Parliament, was granted +this mansion, died here in 1662, and is buried in the church. In the High +Street nearly every house is of some antiquity. The Tolsey or old town hall +is noteworthy among them; and under one of the houses is an Early English +crypt. Burford is mentioned as the scene of a synod in 705; in 752 Cuthred, +king of the West Saxons, fighting for independence, here defeated +Æthelbald, king of Mercia; and in 1649 the town and district were the scene +of victorious operations by Cromwell. + +BURG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the river Ihle, and the +railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 m. N.E. of the latter. Pop. (1900) +22,432. It is noted for its cloth manufactures and boot-making, which +afford employment to a great part of its population. The town belonged +originally to the lordship of Querfurt, passed with this into the +possession of the archbishops of Magdeburg in 1496, and was ceded in 1635 +with other portions of the Magdeburg territories to Saxony; in 1687 it was +ceded to Brandenburg. It owes its prosperity to the large influx of +industrious French, Palatinate and Walloon refugees, which took place about +the end of the 17th century. + +BURGAGE (from Lat. _burgus_, a borough), a form of tenure, both in England +and Scotland, applicable to the property connected with the old municipal +corporations and their privileges. In England, it was a tenure whereby +houses or tenements in an ancient borough were held of the king or other +person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less practical importance +in the English than in the Scottish system, where it held an important +place in the practice of conveyancing, real property having been generally +divided into feudal-holding and burgage-holding. Since the Conveyancing +(Scotland) Act 1874, there is, however, not much distinction between +burgage tenure and free holding. It is usual to speak of the English +burgage-tenure as a relic of Saxon freedom resisting the shock of the +Norman conquest and its feudalism, but it is perhaps more correct to +consider it a local feature of that general exemption from feudality +enjoyed by the _municipia_ as a relic of their ancient Roman constitution. +The reason for the system preserving for so long its specifically distinct +form in Scottish conveyancing was because burgage-holding was an exception +to the system of subinfeudation which remained prevalent in Scotland when +it was suppressed in England. While other vassals might hold of a graduated +hierarchy of overlords up to the crown, the burgess always held directly of +the sovereign. It is curious that while in England the burgage-tenure was +deemed a species of socage, to distinguish it from the military holdings, +in Scotland it was strictly a military holding, by the service of watching +and warding for the defence of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed +by burgesses, freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies in burghs, +were dependent on the character of the burgage-tenure. Tenure by burgage +was subject to a variety of customs, the principal of which was +Borough-English (_q.v._). + +See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898). + +BURGAS (sometimes written _Burghaz, Bourgas_ or _Borgas_, and, in the +middle ages, _Pyrgos_), a seaport, and capital of the department of Burgas, +in Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), on the gulf of Burgas, an inlet of the Black +Sea, in 42° 27' N. and 27° 35' E. Pop. (1906) 12,846. Burgas is built on a +low foreland, between the lagoons of Ludzha, on the north, and Kara-Yunus, +on the west; it faces towards the open sea on the east, and towards its own +harbour on the south. The principal approach is a broad isthmus on the +north-west, along which runs the railway to Philippopolis and Adrianople. +Despite its small population and the rivalry of Varna and the Turkish port +of Dedeagatch, Burgas has a considerable transit trade. Its fine harbour, +formally opened in 1904, has an average depth of five fathoms; large +vessels can load at the quays, and the outer waters of the gulf are well +lit by lighthouses on the islets of Hagios Anastasios and Megalo-Nisi. In +1904, the port accommodated over 1400 ships, of about 700,000 tons. These +included upwards of 800 Bulgarian and Turkish sailing-vessels, engaged in +the coasting trade. Fuel, machinery and miscellaneous goods are imported, +chiefly from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom; the +exports include grain, wool, tallow, cheese, butter, attar of roses, &c. +Pottery and pipes are manufactured from clay obtained in the neighbourhood. + +BURGDORF (Fr. _Berthoud_), an industrial town in the Swiss canton of Bern. +It is built on the left bank of the Emme and is 14 m. by rail N.E. of Bern. +The lower (or modern) town is connected by a curious spiral street with the +upper (or old) town. The latter is picturesquely perched on a hill, at a +height of 1942 ft. above sea-level (or 167 ft. above the river); it is +crowned by the ancient castle and by the 15th-century parish church, in the +former of which Pestalozzi set up his educational establishment between +1798 and 1804. A large trade is carried on at Burgdorf in the cheese of the +Emmenthal, while among the industrial establishments are railway works, and +factories of cloth, white lead and tinfoil. In 1900 the population was +8404, practically all Protestants and German-speaking. A fine view of the +Bernese Alps is obtained from the castle, while a still finer one may be +enjoyed from the Lueg hill (2917 ft.), north-east of the town. The castle +dates from the days of the dukes of Zäringen (11th-12th centuries), the +last of whom (Berchtold V.) built walls round the town at its foot, and +granted it a charter of liberties. On the extinction (1218) of that dynasty +both castle and town passed to the counts of Kyburg, and from them, with +the rest of their possessions, in 1272 by marriage to the cadet line of the +Habsburgs. By that line they were sold in 1384, with Thun, to the town of +Bern, whose bailiffs ruled in the castle till 1798. + +(W. A. B. C.) + +BURGEE (of unknown origin), a small three-cornered or swallow-tailed flag +or pennant used by yachts or merchant vessels; also a kind of small coal +burnt in engine furnaces. + +BÜRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST (1748-1794), German poet, was born on the 1st of +January 1748 at Molmerswende near Halberstadt, of which village his father +was the Lutheran pastor. He was a backward child, and at the age of twelve +was practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, Bauer, at +Aschersleben, who sent him to the _Pädagogium_ at Halle. Hence in 1764 he +passed to the university, as a student of theology, which, however, he soon +abandoned for the study of jurisprudence. Here he fell under the influence +of C.A. Klotz (1738-1771), who directed Bürger's attention to literature, +but encouraged rather than discouraged his natural disposition to a wild +and unregulated life. In consequence of his dissipated habits, he was in +1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on promising to reform was in 1768 +allowed to enter the university of Göttingen as a law student. As he +continued his wild career, however, his grandfather withdrew his support +and he was left to his own devices. Meanwhile he had made fair progress +with his legal studies, and had the good fortune to form a close friendship +with a number of young men of literary tastes. In the Göttingen +_Musenalmanach_, edited by H. Boie and F.W. Gotter, Bürger's first poems +were published, and by 1771 he had already become widely known as a poet. +In 1772, through Boie's influence, Bürger obtained the post of "_Amtmann_" +or district magistrate at Altengleichen near Göttingen. His grandfather was +now reconciled to him, paid his debts and established him in his new sphere +of activity. Meanwhile he kept in touch with his Göttingen friends, and +when the "Göttinger Bund" or "Hain" was formed, Bürger, though not himself +a member, kept in close touch with it. In 1773 the ballad _Lenore_ was +published in the _Musenalmanach_. This poem, which in dramatic force and in +its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural remains without a +rival, made his name a household word in Germany. In 1774 Bürger married +Dorette Leonhart, the [v.04 p.0813] daughter of a Hanoverian official; but +his passion for his wife's younger sister Auguste (the "Molly" of his poems +and elegies) rendered the union unhappy and unsettled his life. In 1778 +Bürger became editor of the _Musenalmanach_, and in the same year published +the first collection of his poems. In 1780 he took a farm at Appenrode, but +in three years lost so much money that he had to abandon the venture. +Pecuniary troubles oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his +official duties, and feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official +position and removed in 1784 to Göttingen, where he established himself as +_Privat-docent_. Shortly before his removal thither his wife died (30th of +July 1784), and on the 29th of June in the next year he married his +sister-in-law "Molly." Her death on the 9th of January 1786 affected him +deeply. He appeared to lose at once all courage and all bodily and mental +vigour. He still continued to teach in Göttingen; at the jubilee of the +foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary doctor of +philosophy, and in 1789 was appointed extraordinary professor in that +faculty, though without a stipend. In the following year he married a third +time, his wife being a certain Elise Hahn, who, enchanted with his poems, +had offered him her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of married life with +his "Schwabenmädchen" sufficed to prove his mistake, and after two and a +half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded by Schiller's criticism, in the +14th and 15th part of the _Allgemeine Literaturzeitung_ of 1791, of the 2nd +edition of his poems, disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Bürger +eked out a precarious existence as a teacher in Göttingen until his death +there on the 8th of June 1794. + +Bürger's character, in spite of his utter want of moral balance, was not +lacking in noble and lovable qualities. He was honest in purpose, generous +to a fault, tender-hearted and modest. His talent for popular poetry was +very considerable, and his ballads are among the finest in the German +language. Besides _Lenore, Das Lied vom braven Manne, Die Kuh, Der Kaiser +und der Abt_ and _Der wilde Jäger_ are famous. Among his purely lyrical +poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but mention may be made of +_Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Lied an den lieben Mond_, and a few love songs. +His sonnets, particularly the elegies, are of great beauty. + +Editions of Bürger's _Samtliche Schriften_ appeared at Göttingen, 1817 +(incomplete); 1829-1833 (8 vols.), and 1835 (one vol.); also a selection by +E. Grisebach (5th ed., 1894). The _Gedichte_ have been published in +innumerable editions, the best being that by A. Sauer (2 vols., 1884). +_Briefe von und an Burger_ were edited by A. Strodtmann in 4 vols. (1874). +On Bürger's life see the biography by H. Prohle (1856), the introduction to +Sauer's edition of the poems, and W. von Wurzbach, _G.A. Burger_ (1900). + +BURGERS, THOMAS FRANÇOIS (1834-1881), president of the Transvaal Republic, +was born in Cape Colony on the 15th of April 1834, and was educated at +Utrecht, Holland, where he took the degree of doctor of theology. On his +return to South Africa he was ordained minister of the Dutch Reformed +Church, and stationed at Hanover in Cape Colony, where he exercised his +ministrations for eight years. In 1862 his preaching attracted attention, +and two years later an ecclesiastical tribunal suspended him for heretical +opinions. He appealed, however, to the colonial government, which had +appointed him, and obtained judgment in his favour, which was confirmed by +the privy council of England on appeal in 1865. On the resignation of M.W. +Pretorius and the refusal of President Brand of the Orange Free State to +accept the office, Burgers was elected president of the Transvaal, taking +the oath on the 1st of July 1872. In 1873 he endeavoured to persuade +Montsioa to agree to an alteration in the boundary of the Barolong +territory as fixed by the Keate award, but failed (see BECHUANALAND). In +1875 Burgers, leaving the Transvaal in charge of Acting-President Joubert, +went to Europe mainly to promote a scheme for linking the Transvaal to the +coast by a railway from Delagoa Bay, which was that year definitely +assigned to Portugal by the MacMahon award. With the Portuguese Burgers +concluded a treaty, December 1875, providing for the construction of the +railway. After meeting with refusals of financial help in London, Burgers +managed to raise £90,000 in Holland, and bought a quantity of railway +plant, which on its arrival at Delagoa Bay was mortgaged to pay freight, +and this, so far as Burgers was concerned, was the end of the matter. In +June 1876 he induced the raad to declare war against Sikukuni (Secocoeni), +a powerful native chief in the eastern Transvaal. The campaign was +unsuccessful, and with its failure the republic fell into a condition of +lawlessness and insolvency, while a Zulu host threatened invasion. Burgers +in an address to the raad (3rd of March 1877) declared "I would rather be a +policeman under a strong government than the president of such a state. It +is you---you members of the raad and the Boers--who have lost the country, +who have sold your independence for a drink." Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who +had been sent to investigate the condition of affairs in the Transvaal, +issued on the 12th of April a proclamation annexing the Transvaal to Great +Britain. Burgers fully acquiesced in the necessity for annexation. He +accepted a pension from the British government, and settled down to farming +in Hanover, Cape Colony. He died at Richmond in that colony on the 9th of +December 1881, and in the following year a volume of short stories, +_Tooneelen uit ons dorp_, originally written by him for the Cape +_Volksblad_, was published at the Hague for the benefit of his family. A +patriot, a fluent speaker both in Dutch and in English, and possessed of +unbounded energy, the failure of Burgers was due to his fondness for large +visionary plans, which he attempted to carry out with insufficient means +(see TRANSVAAL: _History_). + +For the annexation period see John Martineau, _The Life of Sir Bartle +Frere_, vol. ii. chap, xviii. (London, 1895). + +BURGERSDYK, or BUROERSDICIUS, FRANCIS (1590-1629), Dutch logician, was born +at Lier, near Delft, and died at Leiden. After a brilliant career at the +university of Leiden, he studied theology at Saumur, where while still very +young he became professor of philosophy. After five years he returned to +Leiden, where he accepted the chair of logic and moral philosophy, and +afterwards that of natural philosophy. His _Logic_ was at one time widely +used, and is still valuable. He wrote also _Idea Philosophiae Moralis_ +(1644). + +BURGES, GEORGE (1786-1864), English classical scholar, was born in India. +He was educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Cambridge, +taking his degree in 1807, and obtaining one of the members' prizes both in +1808 and 1809. He stayed up at Cambridge and became a most successful +"coach." He had a great reputation as a Greek scholar, and was a somewhat +acrimonious critic of rival scholars, especially Bishop Blomfield. +Subsequently he fell into embarrassed circumstances through injudicious +speculation, and in 1841 a civil list pension of £100 per annum was +bestowed upon him. He died at Ramsgate, on the 11th of January 1864. Burges +was a man of great learning and industry, but too fond of introducing +arbitrary emendations into the text of classical authors. His chief works +are: Euripides' _Troades_ (1807) and _Phoenissae_ (1809); Aeschylus' +_Supplices_ (1821), _Eumenides_ (1822) and _Prometheus_ (1831); Sophocles' +_Philoctetes_ (1833); E.F. Poppo's _Prolegomena to Thucydides_ (1837), an +abridged translation with critical remarks; _Hermesianactis Fragmenta_ +(1839). He also edited some of the dialogues of Plato with English notes, +and translated nearly the whole of that author and the Greek anthology for +Bohn's Classical library. He was a frequent contributor to the _Classical +Journal_ and other periodicals, and dedicated to Byron a play called _The +Son of Erin_, or, _The Cause of the Greeks_ (1823). + +BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713), English Presbyterian divine, was born at +Staines, in Middlesex, where his father was minister. He was educated under +Busby at Westminster school, and in 1660 was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford, +but not being able conscientiously to subscribe the necessary formulae he +quitted the university without taking his degree. In 1667, after taking +orders, he was appointed by Roger Boyle, first Lord Orrery, to the +headmastership of a school recently established by that nobleman at +Charleville, Co. Cork, and soon after he became private chaplain to Lady +Mervin, near Dublin. There he was [v.04 p.0814] ordained by the local +presbytery, and on returning to England was imprisoned for preaching at +Marlborough. He soon regained his liberty, and went to London, where he +speedily gathered a large and influential congregation, as much by the +somewhat excessive fervour of his piety as by the vivacious illustrations +which he frequently employed in his sermons. He was a master of epigram, +and theologically inclined to Calvinism. The Sacheverell mob gutted his +chapel in 1710, but the government repaired the building. Besides +preaching, he gave instruction to private pupils, of whom the most +distinguished was Henry St John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke. His son, +Daniel Burgess (d. 1747), was secretary to the princess of Wales, and in +1723 obtained a _regium donum_ or government grant of £500 half-yearly for +dissenting ministers. + +BURGESS, THOMAS (1756-1837), English divine, was born at Odiham, in +Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester, and at Corpus Christi College, +Oxford. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of John Burton's +_Pentalogia_. In 1781 he brought out an annotated edition of Richard +Dawes's _Miscellanea Critica_ (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). In 1783 he became +a fellow of his college, and in 1785 was appointed chaplain to Shute +Barrington, bishop of Salisbury, through whose influence he obtained a +prebendal stall, which he held till 1803. In 1788 he published his +_Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery_, in which he advocated the +principle of gradual emancipation. In 1791 he accompanied Barrington to +Durham, where he did evangelistic work among the poorer classes. In 1803 he +was appointed to the vacant bishopric of St David's, which he held for +twenty years with great success. He founded the Society for Promoting +Christian Knowledge in the diocese, and also St David's College at +Lampeter, which he liberally endowed. In 1820 he was appointed first +president of the recently founded Royal Society of Literature; and three +years later he was promoted to the see of Salisbury, over which he presided +for twelve years, prosecuting his benevolent designs with unwearied +industry. As at St David's, so at Salisbury, he founded a Church Union +Society for the assistance of infirm and distressed clergymen. He +strenuously opposed both Unitarianism and Catholic emancipation. He died on +the 19th of February 1837. + +A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his +biography by J.S. Harford (2nd ed., 1841). In addition to those already +referred to may be mentioned his _Essay on the Study of Antiquities_, _The +First Principles of Christian Knowledge_; _Reflections on the Controversial +Writings of Dr Priestley_, _Emendationes in Suidam et Hesychium et alios +Lexicographos Graecos_; _The Bible, and nothing but the Bible, the Religion +of the Church of England_. + +BURGESS (Med. Lat. _burgensis_, from _burgus_, a borough, a town), a term, +in its earliest sense, meaning an inhabitant of a borough, one who occupied +a tenement therein, but now applied solely to a registered parliamentary, +or more strictly, municipal voter. An early use of the word was to denote a +member elected to parliament by his fellow citizens in a borough. In some +of the American colonies (_e.g._ Virginia), a "burgess" was a member of the +legislative body, which was termed the "House of Burgesses." Previously to +the Municipal Reform Act 1835, burgess was an official title in some +English boroughs, and in this sense is still used in some of the states of +the United States, as in Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. _The +Burgess-roll_ is the register or official list of burgesses in a borough. + +BURGH [BOURKE, BURKE], the name of an historic Irish house, associated with +Connaught for more than seven centuries. It was founded by William de +Burgh, brother of Hubert de Burgh (_q.v._). Before the death of Henry II. +(1189) he received a grant of lands from John as lord of Ireland. At John's +accession (1199) he was installed in Thomond and was governor of Limerick. +In 1199-1201 he was supporting in turn Cathal Carrach and Cathal Crovderg +for the native throne, but he was expelled from Limerick in 1203, and, +losing his Connaught, though not his Munster estates, died in 1205. His son +Richard, in 1227, received the land of "Connok" [Connaught], as forfeited +by its king, whom he helped to fight. From 1228 to 1232 he held the high +office of justiciar of Ireland. In 1234 he sided with the crown against +Richard, earl marshal, who fell in battle against him. Dying in 1243, he +was succeeded as lord of Connaught by his son Richard, and then (1248) by +his younger son Walter, who carried on the family warfare against the +native chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining (c. +1255) from Prince Edward a grant of "the county of Ulster," in consequence +of which he was styled later earl of Ulster. At his death in 1271, he was +succeeded by his son Richard as 2nd earl. In 1286 Richard ravaged and +subdued Connaught, and deposed Bryan O'Neill as chief native king, +substituting a nominee of his own. The native king of Connaught was also +attacked by him, in favour of that branch of the O'Conors whom his own +family supported. He led his forces from Ireland to support Edward I. in +his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315 +Richard marched against him, but he had given his daughter Elizabeth in +marriage to Robert Bruce, afterwards king of Scotland, about 1304. +Occasionally summoned to English parliaments, he spent most of his forty +years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of his day, +usually fighting the natives or his Anglo-Norman rivals. The patent roll of +1290 shows that in addition to his lands in Ulster, Connaught and Munster, +he had held the Isle of Man, but had surrendered it to the king. + +His grandson and successor William, the 3rd earl (1326-1333), was the son +of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare, sister and co-heir of the +last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314). He married a daughter of Henry, earl +of Lancaster, and was appointed lieutenant of Ireland in 1331, but was +murdered in his 21st year, leaving a daughter, the sole heiress, not only +of the de Burgh possessions, but of vast Clare estates. She was married in +childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III., who was recognized in her right as +earl of Ulster, and their direct representative, the duke of York, ascended +the throne in 1461 as Edward IV., since when the earldom of Ulster has been +only held by members of the royal family. + +On the murder of the 3rd earl (1333), his male kinsmen, who had a better +right, by native Irish ideas, to the succession than his daughter, adopted +Irish names and customs, and becoming virtually native chieftains succeeded +in holding the bulk of the de Burgh territories. Their two main branches +were those of "MacWilliam Eighter" in southern Connaught, and "MacWilliam +Oughter" to the north of them, in what is now Mayo. The former held the +territory of Clanricarde, lying in the neighbourhood of Galway, and in 1543 +their chief, as Ulick "Bourck, _alias_ Makwilliam," surrendered it to Henry +VIII., receiving it back to hold, by English custom, as earl of Clanricarde +and Lord Dunkellin. The 4th earl (1601-1635) distinguished himself on the +English side in O'Neill's rebellion and afterwards, and obtained the +English earldom of St Albans in 1628, his son Ulick receiving further the +Irish marquessate of Clanricarde (1646). His cousin and heir, the 6th earl +(1657-1666) was uncle of the 8th and 9th earls (1687-1722), both of whom +fought for James II. and paid the penalty for doing so in 1691, but the 9th +earl was restored in 1702, and his great-grandson, the 12th earl, was +created marquess of Clanricarde in 1789. He left no son, but the +marquessate was again revived in 1825, for his nephew the 14th earl, whose +heir is the present marquess. The family, which changed its name from +Bourke to de Burgh in 1752, and added that of Canning in 1862, still own a +vast estate in County Galway. + +In 1603 "the MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke, similarly resigned his +territory in Mayo, and received it back to hold by English tenure. In 1627 +he was created Viscount Mayo. The 2nd and 3rd viscounts (1629-1663) +suffered at Cromwell's hands, but the 4th was restored to his estates (some +50,000 acres) in 1666. The peerage became extinct or dormant on the death +of the 8th viscount in 1767. In 1781 John Bourke, a Mayo man, believed to +be descended from the line of "MacWilliam Oughter," was created Viscount +Mayo, and four years later earl of Mayo, a peerage still extant. In 1872 +the 6th earl was murdered in the Andaman Islands when viceroy of India. + +The baronies of Bourke of Connell (1580) and Bourke of Brittas (1618), both +forfeited in 1691, were bestowed on branches [v.04 p.0815] of the family +which has also still representatives in the baronetage and landed gentry of +Ireland. + +The lords Burgh or Borough of Gainsborough (1487-1599) were a Lincolnshire +family believed to be descended from a younger son of Hubert de Burgh. The +5th baron was lord deputy of Ireland in 1597, and his younger brother, Sir +John (d. 1594), a distinguished soldier and sailor. + +(J. H. R.) + +BURGH, HUBERT DE (d. 1243), chief justiciar of England in the reign of John +and Henry III., entered the royal service in the reign of Richard I. He +traced his descent from Robert of Mortain, half brother of the Conqueror +and first earl of Cornwall; he married about 1200 the daughter of William +de Vernon, earl of Devon; and thus, from the beginning of his career, he +stood within the circle of the great ruling families. But he owed his high +advancement to exceptional ability as an administrator and a soldier. +Already in 1201 he was chamberlain to King John, the sheriff of three +shires, the constable of Dover and Windsor castles, the warden of the +Cinque Ports and of the Welsh Marches. He served with John in the +continental wars which led up to the loss of Normandy. It was to his +keeping that the king first entrusted the captive Arthur of Brittany. +Coggeshall is our authority for the tale, which Shakespeare has +immortalized, of Hubert's refusal to permit the mutilation of his prisoner; +but Hubert's loyalty was not shaken by the crime to which Arthur +subsequently fell a victim. In 1204 Hubert distinguished himself by a long +and obstinate defence of Chinon, at a time when nearly the whole of Poitou +had passed into French hands. In 1213 he was appointed seneschal of Poitou, +with a view to the invasion of France which ended disastrously for John in +the next year. + +Both before and after the issue of the Great Charter Hubert adhered loyally +to the king; he was rewarded, in June 1215, with the office of chief +justiciar. This office he retained after the death of John and the election +of William, the earl marshal, as regent. But, until the expulsion of the +French from England, Hubert was entirely engaged with military affairs. He +held Dover successfully through the darkest hour of John's fortunes; he +brought back Kent to the allegiance of Henry III.; he completed the +discomfiture of the French and their allies by the naval victory which he +gained over Eustace the Monk, the noted privateer and admiral of Louis, in +the Straits of Dover (Aug. 1217). The inferiority of the English fleet has +been much exaggerated, for the greater part of the French vessels were +transports carrying reinforcements and supplies. But Hubert owed his +success to the skill with which he manoeuvred for the weather-gage, and his +victory was not less brilliant than momentous. It compelled Louis to accept +the treaty of Lambeth, under which he renounced his claims to the crown and +evacuated England. As the saviour of the national cause the justiciar +naturally assumed after the death of William Marshal (1219) the leadership +of the English loyalists. He was opposed by the legate Pandulf (1218-1221), +who claimed the guardianship of the kingdom for the Holy See; by the +Poitevin Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester, who was the young king's +tutor; by the foreign mercenaries of John, among whom Falkes de Bréauté +took the lead; and by the feudal party under the earls of Chester and +Albemarle. On Pandulf's departure the pope was induced to promise that no +other legate should be appointed in the lifetime of Archbishop Stephen +Langton. Other opponents were weakened by the audacious stroke of 1223, +when the justiciar suddenly announced the resumption of all the castles, +sheriffdoms and other grants which had been made since the king's +accession. A plausible excuse was found in the next year for issuing a +sentence of confiscation and banishment against Falkes de Bréauté. Finally +in 1227, Hubert having proclaimed the king of age, dismissed the bishop of +Winchester from his tutorship. + +Hubert now stood at the height of his power. His possessions had been +enlarged by four successive marriages, particularly by that which he +contracted in 1221 with Margaret, the sister of Alexander II. of Scotland; +in 1227 he received the earldom of Kent, which had been dormant since the +disgrace of Odo of Bayeux. But the favour of Henry III. was a precarious +foundation on which to build. The king chafed against the objections with +which his minister opposed wild plans of foreign conquest and inconsiderate +concessions to the papacy. They quarrelled violently in 1229, at +Portsmouth, when the king was with difficulty prevented from stabbing +Hubert, because a sufficient supply of ships was not forthcoming for an +expedition to France. In 1231 Henry lent an ear to those who asserted that +the justiciar had secretly encouraged armed attacks upon the aliens to whom +the pope had given English benefices. Hubert was suddenly disgraced and +required to render an account of his long administration. The blow fell +suddenly, a few weeks after his appointment as justiciar of Ireland. It was +precipitated by one of those fits of passion to which the king was prone; +but the influence of Hubert had been for some time waning before that of +Peter des Roches and his nephew Peter des Rievaux. Some colour was given to +their attacks by Hubert's injudicious plea that he held a charter from King +John which exempted him from any liability to produce accounts. But the +other charges, far less plausible than that of embezzlement, which were +heaped upon the head of the fallen favourite, are evidence of an intention +to crush him at all costs. He was dragged from the sanctuary at Bury St +Edmunds, in which he had taken refuge, and was kept in strait confinement +until Richard of Cornwall, the king's brother, and three other earls +offered to be his sureties. Under their protection he remained in +honourable detention at Devizes Castle. On the outbreak of Richard +Marshal's rebellion (1233), he was carried off by the rebels to the Marshal +stronghold of Striguil, in the hope that his name would add popularity to +their cause. In 1234 he was admitted, along with the other supporters of +the fallen Marshal, to the benefit of a full pardon. He regained his +earldom and held it till his death, although he was once in serious danger +from the avarice of the king (1239), who was tempted by Hubert's enormous +wealth to revive the charge of treason. + +In his lifetime Hubert was a popular hero; Matthew Paris relates how, at +the time of his disgrace, a common smith refused with an oath to put +fetters on the man "who restored England to the English." Hubert's ambition +of founding a great family was not realized. His earldom died with him, +though he left two sons. In constitutional history he is remembered as the +last of the great justiciars. The office, as having become too great for a +subject, was now shorn of its most important powers and became politically +insignificant. + +See Roger of Wendover's _Flores Historiarum_, edited for the English +Historical Society by H.O. Coxe (4 vols., 1841-1844); the _Chronica Majora_ +of Matthew Paris, edited by H.R. Luard for the Rolls Series (7 vols., +1872-1883); the _Histoire des ducs de Normandie_, edited by F. Michel for +the Soc. de l'Hist. de France (Paris, 1840); the _Histoire de Guillaume le +Marechal_, edited by Paul Meyer for the same society (3 vols., Paris, 1891, +&c.); J.E. Doyle's _Official Baronage of England_, ii. pp. 271-274; R. +Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol. iii.; W. Stubbs's _Constitutional +History of England_, vol. ii. + +(H. W. C. D.) + +BURGHERSH, HENRY (1292-1340), English bishop and chancellor, was a younger +son of Robert, Baron Burghersh (d. 1305), and a nephew of Bartholomew, Lord +Badlesmere, and was educated in France. In 1320 owing to Badlesmere's +influence Pope John XXII. appointed him bishop of Lincoln in spite of the +fact that the chapter had already made an election to the vacant bishopric, +and he secured the position without delay. After the execution of +Badlesmere in 1322 Burghersh's lands were seized by Edward II., and the +pope was urged to deprive him; about 1326, however, his possessions were +restored, a proceeding which did not prevent him from joining Edward's +queen, Isabella, and taking part in the movement which led to the +deposition and murder of the king. Enjoying the favour of the new king, +Edward III., the bishop became chancellor of England in 1328; but he failed +to secure the archbishopric of Canterbury which became vacant about the +same time, and was deprived of his office of chancellor and imprisoned when +Isabella lost her power in 1330. But he was soon released and again in a +position of influence. He was treasurer of England from 1334 to 1337, and +high in the favour and often in the company of Edward III.; he was sent on +several important [v.04 p.0816] errands, and entrusted with important +commissions. He died at Ghent on the 4th of December 1340. + +The bishop's brother, Bartholomew Burghersh (d. 1355), became Baron +Burghersh on the death of his brother Stephen in 1310. He acted as +assistant to Badlesmere until the execution of the latter; and then, +trusted by Edward III., was constable of Dover Castle and warden of the +Cinque Ports. He filled other important positions, served Edward III. both +as a diplomatist and a soldier, being present at the battle of Crecy in +1346; and retaining to the last the royal confidence, died in August 1355. +His son and successor, Bartholomew (d. 1369), was one of the first knights +of the order of the Garter, and earned a great reputation as a soldier, +specially distinguishing himself at the battle of Poitiers in 1356. + +BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (1521-1508), was born, according to his own +statement, on the 13th of September 1521 at the house of his mother's +father at Bourne, Lincolnshire. Pedigrees, elaborated by Cecil himself with +the help of Camden, the antiquary, associated him with the Cecils or +Sitsyllts of Altyrennes in Herefordshire, and traced his descent from an +Owen of the time of King Harold and a Sitsyllt of the reign of Rufus. The +connexion with the Herefordshire family is not so impossible as the descent +from Sitsyllt; but the earliest authentic ancestor of the lord treasurer is +his grandfather, David, who, according to Burghley's enemies, "kept the +best inn" in Stamford. David somehow secured the favour of Henry VII., to +whom he seems to have been yeoman of the guard. He was serjeant-at-arms to +Henry VIII. in 1526, sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532, and a justice of +the peace for Rutland. His eldest son, Richard, yeoman of the wardrobe (d. +1554), married Jane, daughter of William Heckington of Bourne, and was +father of three daughters and Lord Burghley. + +William, the only son, was put to school first at Grantham and then at +Stamford. In May 1535, at the age of fourteen, he went up to St John's +College, Cambridge, where he was brought into contact with the foremost +educationists of the time, Roger Ascham and John Cheke, and acquired an +unusual knowledge of Greek. He also acquired the affections of Cheke's +sister, Mary, and was in 1541 removed by his father to Gray's Inn, without, +after six years' residence at Cambridge, having taken a degree. The +precaution proved useless, and four months later Cecil committed one of the +rare rash acts of his life in marrying Mary Cheke. The only child of this +marriage, Thomas, the future earl of Exeter, was born in May 1542, and in +February 1543 Cecil's first wife died. Three years later he married (21st +of December 1546) Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who was ranked by +Ascham with Lady Jane Grey as one of the two most learned ladies in the +kingdom, and whose sister, Anne, became the wife of Sir Nicholas, and the +mother of Sir Francis, Bacon. + +Cecil, meanwhile, had obtained the reversion to the office of _custos +rotulorum brevium_, and, according to his autobiographical notes, sat in +parliament in 1543; but his name does not occur in the imperfect +parliamentary returns until 1547, when he was elected for the family +borough of Stamford. Earlier in that year he had accompanied Protector +Somerset on his Pinkie campaign, being one of the two "judges of the +Marshalsea," _i.e._ in the courts-martial. The other was William Patten, +who states that both he and Cecil began to write independent accounts of +the campaign, and that Cecil generously communicated his notes for Patten's +narrative, which has been reprinted more than once. + +In 1548 he is described as the protector's master of requests, which +apparently means that he was clerk or registrar of the court of requests +which the protector, possibly at Latimer's instigation, illegally set up in +Somerset House "to hear poor men's complaints." He also seems to have acted +as private secretary to the protector, and was in some danger at the time +of the protector's fall (October 1549). The lords opposed to Somerset +ordered his detention on the 10th of October, and in November he was in the +Tower. On the 25th of January 1550 he was bound over in recognizances to +the value of a thousand marks. However, he soon ingratiated himself with +Warwick, and on the 15th of September 1550 he was sworn one of the king's +two secretaries. He was knighted on the 11th of October 1551, on the eve of +Somerset's second fall, and was congratulated on his success in escaping +his benefactor's fate. In April he became chancellor of the order of the +Garter. But service under Northumberland was no bed of roses, and in his +diary Cecil recorded his release in the phrase _ex misero aulico factus +liber et mei juris_. His responsibility for Edward's illegal "devise" of +the crown has been studiously minimized by Cecil himself and by his +biographers. Years afterwards, he pretended that he had only signed the +"devise" as a witness, but in his apology to Queen Mary he did not venture +to allege so flimsy an excuse; he preferred to lay stress on the extent to +which he succeeded in shifting the responsibility on to the shoulders of +his brother-in-law, Sir John Cheke, and other friends, and on his intrigues +to frustrate the queen to whom he had sworn allegiance. There is no doubt +that he saw which way the wind was blowing, and disliked Northumberland's +scheme; but he had not the courage to resist the duke to his face. As soon, +however, as the duke had set out to meet Mary, Cecil became the most active +intriguer against him, and to these efforts, of which he laid a full +account before Queen Mary, he mainly owed his immunity. He had, moreover, +had no part in the divorce of Catherine or in the humiliation of Mary in +Henry's reign, and he made no scruple about conforming to the religious +reaction. He went to mass, confessed, and out of sheer zeal and in no +official capacity went to meet Cardinal Pole on his pious mission to +England in December 1554, again accompanying him to Calais in May 1555. It +was rumoured in December 1554 that Cecil would succeed Sir William Petre as +secretary, an office which, with his chancellorship of the Garter, he had +lost on Mary's accession. Probably the queen had more to do with the +falsification of this rumour than Cecil, though he is said to have opposed +in the parliament of 1555--in which he represented Lincolnshire--a bill for +the confiscation of the estates of the Protestant refugees. But the story, +even as told by his biographer (Peck, _Desiderata Curiosa_, i. 11), does +not represent Cecil's conduct as having been very courageous; and it is +more to his credit that he found no seat in the parliament of 1558, for +which Mary had directed the return of "discreet and good Catholic members." + +By that time Cecil had begun to trim his sails to a different breeze. He +was in secret communication with Elizabeth before Mary died, and from the +first the new queen relied on Cecil as she relied on no one else. Her +confidence was not misplaced; Cecil was exactly the kind of minister +England then required. Personal experience had ripened his rare natural +gift for avoiding dangers. It was no time for brilliant initiative or +adventurous politics; the need was to avoid Scylla and Charybdis, and a +_via media_ had to be found in church and state, at home and abroad. Cecil +was not a political genius; no great ideas emanated from his brain. But he +was eminently a safe man, not an original thinker, but a counsellor of +unrivalled wisdom. Caution was his supreme characteristic; he saw that +above all things England required time. Like Fabius, he restored the +fortunes of his country by deliberation. He averted open rupture until +England was strong enough to stand the shock. There was nothing heroic +about Cecil or his policy; it involved a callous attitude towards +struggling Protestants abroad. Huguenots and Dutch Were aided just enough +to keep them going in the struggles which warded danger off from England's +shores. But Cecil never developed that passionate aversion from decided +measures which became a second nature to his mistress. His intervention in +Scotland in 1559-1560 showed that he could strike on occasion; and his +action over the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, proved that he was +willing to take responsibility from which Elizabeth shrank. Generally he +was in favour of more decided intervention on behalf of continental +Protestants than Elizabeth would admit, but it is not always easy to +ascertain the advice he gave. He has left endless memoranda lucidly setting +forth the pros and cons of every course of action; but there are few +indications of the line which he actually recommended when it came to a +decision. How far he was personally responsible for the Anglican +Settlement, the Poor Laws, and the foreign policy of the reign, how far he +was [v.04 p.0817] thwarted by the baleful influence of Leicester and the +caprices of the queen, remains to a large extent a matter of conjecture. +His share in the settlement of 1559 was considerable, and it coincided +fairly with his own somewhat indeterminate religious views. Like the mass +of the nation, he grew more Protestant as time wore on; he was readier to +persecute Papists than Puritans; he had no love for ecclesiastical +jurisdiction, and he warmly remonstrated with Whitgift over his persecuting +Articles of 1583. The finest encomium was passed on him by the queen +herself, when she said, "This judgment I have of you, that you will not be +corrupted with any manner of gifts, and that you will be faithful to the +state." + +From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost +indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth and from the history of England. +Of personal incident, apart from his mission to Scotland in 1560, there is +little. He represented Lincolnshire in the parliament of 1559, and +Northamptonshire in that of 1563, and he took an active part in the +proceedings of the House of Commons until his elevation to the peerage; but +there seems no good evidence for the story that he was proposed as speaker +in 1563. In January 1561 he was given the lucrative office of master of the +court of wards in succession to Sir Thomas Parry, and he did something to +reform that instrument of tyranny and abuse. In February 1559 he was +elected chancellor of Cambridge University in succession to Cardinal Pole; +he was created M.A. of that university on the occasion of Elizabeth's visit +in 1564, and M.A. of Oxford on a similar occasion in 1566. On the 25th of +February 1571 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Burghley of Burghley[1] +(or Burleigh); the fact that he continued to act as secretary after his +elevation illustrates the growing importance of that office, which under +his son became a secretaryship of state. In 1572, however, the marquess of +Winchester, who had been lord high treasurer under Edward, Mary and +Elizabeth, died, and Burghley succeeded to his post. It was a signal +triumph over Leicester; and, although Burghley had still to reckon with +cabals in the council and at court, his hold over the queen strengthened +with the lapse of years. Before he died, Robert, his only surviving son by +his second wife, was ready to step into his shoes as the queen's principal +adviser. Having survived all his rivals, and all his children except Robert +and the worthless Thomas, Burghley died at his London house on the 4th of +August 1598, and was buried in St Martin's, Stamford. + +Burghley's private life was singularly virtuous; he was a faithful husband, +a careful father and a considerate master. A book-lover and antiquary, he +made a special hobby of heraldry and genealogy. It was the conscious and +unconscious aim of the age to reconstruct a new landed aristocracy on the +ruins of the old, and Burghley was a great builder and planter. All the +arts of architecture and horticulture were lavished on Burghley House and +Theobalds, which his son exchanged for Hatfield. His public conduct does +not present itself in quite so amiable a light. As the marquess of +Winchester said of himself, he was sprung from the willow rather than the +oak, and he was not the man to suffer for convictions. The interest of the +state was the supreme consideration, and to it he had no hesitation in +sacrificing individual consciences. He frankly disbelieved in toleration; +"that state," he said, "could never be in safety where there was a +toleration of two religions. For there is no enmity so great as that for +religion; and therefore they that differ in the service of their God can +never agree in the service of their country." With a maxim such as this, it +was easy for him to maintain that Elizabeth's coercive measures were +political and not religious. To say that he was Machiavellian is +meaningless, for every statesman is so more or less; especially in the 16th +century men preferred efficiency to principle. On the other hand, +principles are valueless without law and order; and Burghley's craft and +subtlety prepared a security in which principles might find some scope. + +The sources and authorities for Burghley's life are endless. The most +important collection of documents is at Hatfield, where there are some ten +thousand papers covering the period down to Burghley's death; these have +been calendared in 8 volumes by the Hist. MSS. Comm. At least as many +others are in the Record Office and British Museum, the Lansdowne MSS. +especially containing a vast mass of his correspondence; see the catalogues +of Cotton, Harleian, Royal, Sloane, Egerton and Additional MSS. in the +British Museum, and the Calendars of Domestic, Foreign, Spanish, Venetian, +Scottish and Irish State Papers. + +Other official sources are the _Acts of the Privy Council_ (vols. +i.-xxix.); Lords' and Commons' Journals, D'Ewes' Journals, Off. Ret. +M.P.'s; Rymer's _Foedera_; Collins's _Sydney State Papers_; Nichols's +_Progresses of Elizabeth_. See also Strype's Works (26 vols.), Parker, Soc. +Publ. (56 vols.); Camden's _Annales_; Holinshed, Stow and Speed's _Chron._; +Hayward's _Annals_; Machyn's _Diary_, Leycester Corr., Egerton Papers +(Camden Soc.). For Burghley's early life, see Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._; +Baker's _St John's Coll., Camb._, ed. Mayor; _Letters and. Papers of Henry +VIII._; Tytler's _Edward VI._; Nichols's _Lit. Remains of Edward VI._; +Leadam's _Court of Requests, Chron. of Queen Jane_ (Camden Soc.) and +throughout Froude's _Hist_. No satisfactory life of Burghley has yet +appeared; some valuable anonymous notes, probably by Burghley's servant +Francis Alford, were printed in Peck's _Desiderata Curiosa_ (1732), i. +1-66; other notes are in Naunton's _Fragmenta Regalia_. Lives by Collins +(1732), Charlton and Melvil (1738), were followed by Nares's biography in +three of the most ponderous volumes (1828-1831) in the language; this +provoked Macaulay's brilliant but misleading essay. M.A.S. Hume's _Great +Lord Burghley_ (1898) is largely a piecing together of the references to +Burghley in the same author's _Calendar of Simancas MSS._ The life by Dr +Jessopp (1904) is an expansion of his article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; it +is still only a sketch, though the volume contains a mass of genealogical +and other incidental information by other hands. + +(A. F. P.) + +[1] This was the form always used by Cecil himself. + +BURGKMAIR, HANS or JOHN (1473-? 1531), German painter and engraver on wood, +believed to have been a pupil of Albrecht Dürer, was born at Augsburg. +Professor Christ ascribes to him about 700 woodcuts, most of them +distinguished by that spirit and freedom which we admire in the works of +his supposed master. His principal work is the series of 135 prints +representing the triumphs of the emperor Maximilian I. They are of large +size, executed in chiaroscuro, from two blocks, and convey a high idea of +his powers. Burgkmair was also an excellent painter in fresco and in +distemper, specimens of which are in the galleries of Munich and Vienna, +carefully and solidly finished in the style of the old German school. + +BURGLARY (_burgi latrocinium_; in ancient English law, _hamesucken_[1]), at +common law, the offence of breaking and entering the dwelling-house of +another with intent to commit a felony. The offence and its punishment are +regulated in England by the Larceny Act 1861. The four important points to +be considered in connexion with the offence of burglary are (1) the time, +(2) the place, (3) the manner and (4) the intent. The _time_, which is now +the essence of the offence, was not considered originally to have been very +material, the gravity of the crime lying principally in the invasion of the +sanctity of a man's domicile. But at some period before the reign of Edward +VI. it had become settled that time was essential to the offence, and it +was not adjudged burglary unless committed by night. The day was then +accounted as beginning at sunrise, and ending immediately after sunset, but +it was afterwards decided that if there were left sufficient daylight or +twilight to discern the countenance of a person, it was no burglary. This, +again, was superseded by the Larceny Act 1861, for the purpose of which +night is deemed to commence at nine o'clock in the evening of each day, and +to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the next succeeding day. + +The _place_ must, according to Sir E. Coke's definition, be a +mansion-house, _i.e._ a man's dwelling-house or private residence. No +building, although within the same curtilage as the dwelling-house, is +deemed to be a part of the dwelling-house for the purposes of burglary, +unless there is a communication between such building and dwelling-house +either immediate or by means of a covered and enclosed passage leading from +the one to the other. Chambers in a college or in an inn of court are the +dwelling-house of the owner; so also are rooms or lodgings in a private +house, provided the owner dwells elsewhere, or enters by a different outer +door from his lodger, otherwise the lodger is merely an inmate and his +apartment a parcel of the one dwelling-house. + +[v.04 p.0818] As to the _manner_, there must be both a breaking and an +entry. Both must be at night, but not necessarily on the same night, +provided that in the breaking and in the entry there is an intent to commit +a felony. The breaking may be either an actual breaking of any external +part of a building; or opening or lifting any closed door, window, shutter +or lock; or entry by means of a threat, artifice or collusion with persons +inside; or by means of such a necessary opening as a chimney. If an entry +is obtained through an open window, it will not be burglary, but if an +inner door is afterwards opened, it immediately becomes so. Entry includes +the insertion through an open door or window, or any aperture, of any part +of the body or of any instrument in the hand to draw out goods. The entry +may be before the breaking, for the Larceny Act 1861 has extended the +definition of burglary to cases in which a person enters another's dwelling +with intent to commit felony, or being in such house commits felony +therein, and in either case _breaks out_ of such dwelling-house by night. + +Breaking and entry must be with the _intent_ to commit a felony, otherwise +it is only trespass. The felony need not be a larceny, it may be either +murder or rape. The punishment is penal servitude for life, or any term not +less than three years, or imprisonment not exceeding two years, with or +without hard labour. + +_Housebreaking_ in English law is to be distinguished from burglary, in +that it is not essential that it should be committed at night, nor in a +dwelling-house. It may, according to the Larceny Act 1861, be committed in +a school-house, shop, warehouse or counting-house. Every burglary involves +housebreaking, but every housebreaking does not amount to burglary. The +punishment for housebreaking is penal servitude for any term not exceeding +fourteen years and not less than three years, or imprisonment for any term +not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour. + +In the United States the common-law definition of burglary has been +modified by statute in many states, so as to cover what is defined in +England as housebreaking; the maximum punishment nowhere exceeds +imprisonment for twenty years. + +AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen, +_History of Criminal Law_; Archbold, _Pleading and Evidence in Criminal +Cases_; Russell, _On Crimes and Misdemeanours_; Stephen, _Commentaries_. + +[1] In Scots law, the word _hamesucken_ meant the feloniously beating or +assaulting a man in his own house. + +BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM (1813-1888), English divine, was born at Smyrna on the +21st of August 1813, the son of a Turkey merchant, who was a skilled +numismatist and afterwards became an assistant in the antiquities +department of the British Museum. His mother was a Greek. After a few years +of business life, Burgon went to Worcester College, Oxford, in 1841, gained +the Newdigate prize, took his degree in 1845, and won an Oriel fellowship +in 1846. He was much influenced by his brother-in-law, the scholar and +theologian Henry John Rose (1800-1873), a churchman of the old conservative +type, with whom he used to spend his long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his +headquarters, while holding a living at some distance. In 1863 he was made +vicar of St Mary's, having attracted attention by his vehement sermons +against _Essays and Reviews_. In 1867 he was appointed Gresham professor of +divinity. In 1871 he published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve +last verses of St Mark's Gospel. He now began an attack on the proposal for +a new lectionary for the Church of England, based largely upon his +objections to the principles for determining the authority of MS. readings +adopted by Westcott and Hort, which he assailed in a memorable article in +the _Quarterly Review_ for 1881. This, with his other articles, was +reprinted in 1884 under the title of _The Revision Revised_. His +biographical essays on H.L. Mansel and others were also collected, and +published under the title of _Twelve Good Men_ (1888). Protests against the +inclusion of Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the nomination of +Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the university of Oxford, and against +the address in favour of toleration in the matter of ritual, followed in +succession. In 1876 Burgon was made dean of Chichester. He died on the 4th +of August 1888. His life was written by Dean E.M. Goulburn (1892). Vehement +and almost passionate in his convictions, Burgon nevertheless possessed a +warm and kindly heart. He may be described as a high churchman of the type +prevalent before the rise of the Tractarian school. His extensive +collection of transcripts from the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of +the New Testament, was bequeathed to the British Museum. + +BURGONET, or BURGANET (from Fr. _bourguignote_, Burgundian helmet), a form +of light helmet or head-piece, which was in vogue in the 16th and 17th +centuries. In its normal form the burgonet was a large roomy cap with a +brim shading the eyes, cheek-pieces or flaps, a comb, and a guard for the +back of the neck. In many cases a vizor, or other face protection, and a +chin-piece are found in addition, so that this piece of armour is sometimes +mistaken for an armet (_q.v._), but it can always be distinguished by the +projecting brim in front. The morion and cabasset have no face, cheek or +neck protection. The typical head-piece of the 17th-century soldier in +England and elsewhere is a burgonet skull-cap with a straight brim, +neck-guard and often, in addition, a fixed vizor of three thin iron bars +which are screwed into, and hang down from, the brim in front of the eyes. + +BURGOS, a province of northern Spain; bounded on the N.E. by Biscay and +Álava, E. by Logroño, S.E. by Soria, S. by Segovia, S.W. by Valladolid, W. +by Palencia, and N.W. by Santander. Pop. (1900) 338,828; area, 5480 sq. m. +Burgos includes the isolated county of Treviño, which is shut in on all +sides by territory belonging to Álava. The northern and north-eastern +districts of the province are mountainous, and the central and southern +form part of the vast and elevated plateau of Old Castile. The extreme +northern region is traversed by part of the great Cantabrian chain. +Eastwards are the highest peaks of the province in the Sierra de la Demanda +(with the Cerro de San Millan, 6995 ft. high) and in the Sierra de Neila. +On the eastern frontier, midway between these highlands and the Cantabrian +chain, two comparatively low ranges, running east and west of Pancorbo, +kave a gap through which run the railway and roads connecting Castile with +the valley of the Ebro. This Pancorbo Pass has often been called the "Iron +Gates of Castile," as a handful of men could hold it against an army. South +and west of this spot begins the plateau, generally covered with snow in +winter, and swept by such cold winds that Burgos is considered, with Soria +and Segovia, one of the coldest regions of the peninsula. The Ebro runs +eastwards through the northern half of the province, but is not navigable. +The Douro, or Duero, crosses the southern half, running west-north-west; it +also is unnavigable in its upper valley. The other important streams are +the Pisuerga, flowing south towards Palencia and Valladolid, and the +Arlanzón, which flows through Burgos for over 75m. + +The variations of temperature are great, as from 9° to 20° of frost have +frequently been recorded in winter, while the mean summer temperature is +64° (Fahr.). As but little rain falls in summer, and the soil is poor, +agriculture thrives only in the valleys, especially that of the Ebro. In +live-stock, however, Burgos is one of the richest of Spanish provinces. +Horses, mules, asses, goats, cattle and pigs are bred in considerable +numbers, but the mainstay of the peasantry is sheep-farming. Vast ranges of +almost uninhabited upland are reserved as pasture for the flocks, which at +the beginning of the 20th century contained more than 500,000 head of +sheep. Coal, china-clay and salt are obtained in small quantities, but, out +of more than 150 mines registered, only 4 were worked in 1903. The other +industries of the province are likewise undeveloped, although there are +many small potteries, stone quarries, tanneries and factories for the +manufacture of linen and cotton of the coarsest description. The ancient +cloth and woollen industries, for which Burgos was famous in the past, have +almost disappeared. Trade is greatly hindered by the lack of adequate +railway communication, and even of good roads. The Northern railways from +Madrid to the French frontier cross the province in the central districts; +the Valladolid-Bilbao line traverses the Cantabrian mountains, in the +north; and the Valladolid-Saragossa line skirts the Douro valley, in the +south. The only [v.04 p.0819] important town in the province is Burgos, the +capital (pop. 30,167). Few parts of Spain are poorer; education makes +little progress, and least of all in the thinly peopled rural districts, +with their widely scattered hamlets. The peasantry have thus every +inducement to migrate to the Basque Provinces, Catalonia and other +relatively prosperous regions; and consequently the population does not +increase, despite the excess of births over deaths. + +BURGOS, the capital formerly of Old Castile, and since 1833 of the Spanish +province of Burgos, on the river Arlanzón, and on the Northern railways +from Madrid to the French frontier. Pop. (1900) 30,167. Burgos, in the form +of an amphitheatre, occupies the lower slopes of a hill crowned by the +ruins of an ancient citadel. It faces the Arlanzón, a broad and swift +stream, with several islands in mid-channel. Three stone bridges lead to +the suburb of La Vega, on the opposite bank. On all sides, except up the +castle hill, fine avenues and public gardens are laid out, notably the +Paseo de la Isla, extending along the river to the west. Burgos itself was +originally surrounded by a wall, of which few fragments remain; but +although its streets and broad squares, such as the central Plaza Mayór, or +Plaza de la Constitucion, have often quite a modern appearance, the city +retains much of its picturesque character, owing to the number and beauty +of its churches, convents and palaces. Unaffected by the industrial +activity of the neighbouring Basque Provinces, it has little trade apart +from the sale of agricultural produce and the manufacture of paper and +leathern goods. + +But it is rich in architectural and antiquarian interest. The citadel was +founded in 884 by Diego Rodriguez Porcelos, count of Castile; in the 10th +century it was held against the kings of Leon by Count Fernan Gonzalez, a +mighty warrior; and even in 1812 it was successfully defended by a French +garrison against Lord Wellington and his British troops. Within its walls +the Spanish national hero, the Cid Campeador, was wedded to Ximena of +Oviedo in 1074; and Prince Edward of England (afterwards King Edward I.) to +Eleanor of Castile in 1254. Statues of Porcelos, Gonzalez and the Cid, of +Nuño Rasura and Lain Calvo, the first elected magistrates of Burgos, during +its brief period of republican rule in the 10th century, and of the emperor +Charles V., adorn the massive Arco de Santa Maria, which was erected +between 1536 and 1562, and commemorates the return of the citizens to their +allegiance, after the rebellion against Charles V. had been crushed in +1522. The interior of this arch serves as a museum. Tradition still points +to the site of the Cid's birthplace; and a reliquary preserved in the town +hall contains his bones, and those of Ximena, brought hither after many +changes, including a partial transference to Sigmaringen in Germany. + +Other noteworthy buildings in Burgos are the late 15th century Casa del +Cordón, occupied by the captain-general of Old Castile; the Casa de +Miranda, which worthily represents the best domestic architecture of Spain +in the 16th century; and the barracks, hospitals and schools. Burgos is the +see of an archbishop, whose province comprises the diocese of Palencia, +Pamplona, Santander and Tudela. The cathedral, founded in 1221 by Ferdinand +III. of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of Burgos, is a fine example +of florid Gothic, built of white limestone (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate II. +fig. 65). It was not completed until 1567, and the architects principally +responsible for its construction were a Frenchman in the 13th century and a +German in the 15th. Its cruciform design is almost hidden by the fifteen +chapels added at all angles to the aisles and transepts, by the beautiful +14th-century cloister on the north-west and the archiepiscopal palace on +the south-west. Over the three central doorways of the main or western +façade rise two lofty and graceful towers. Many of the monuments within the +cathedral are of considerable artistic and historical interest. The chapel +of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid is said to have filled +with sand and subsequently pawned for a large sum to the credulous Jews of +Burgos. The legend adds that he redeemed his pledge. In the aisleless +Gothic church of Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadéa, tradition relates that the +Cid compelled Alphonso VI. of Leon, before his accession to the throne of +Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the murder of Sancho his +brother and predecessor on the throne. San Estéban, completed between 1280 +and 1350, and San Nicolás, dating from 1505, are small Gothic churches, +each with a fine sculptured doorway. Many of the convents of Burgos have +been destroyed, and those which survive lie chiefly outside the city. At +the end of the Paseo de la Isla stands the nunnery of Santa Maria la Real +de las Huelgas, originally a summer palace (_huelga_, "pleasure-ground") of +the kings of Castile. In 1187 it was transformed into a Cistercian convent +by Alphonso VIII., who invested the abbess with almost royal prerogatives, +including the power of life and death, and absolute rule over more than +fifty villages. Alphonso and his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry II. of +England, are buried here. The Cartuja de Miraflores, a Carthusian convent, +founded by John II. of Castile (1406-1454), lies 2 m. south-east of Burgos. +Its church contains a monument of exceptional beauty, carved by Gil de +Siloë in the 15th century, for the tomb of John and his second wife, +Isabella of Portugal. The convent of San Pedro de Cardeña, 7 m. south-east +of Burgos, was the original burial-place of the Cid, in 1099, and of +Ximena, in 1104. About 50 m. from the city is the abbey of Silos, which +appears to have been founded under the Visigothic kings, as early as the +6th century. It was restored in 919 by Fernan Gonzalez, and in the 11th +century became celebrated throughout Europe, under the rule of St Dominic +or Domingo. It was reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks. + +The known history of Burgos begins in 884 with the foundation of the +citadel. From that time forward it steadily increased in importance, +reaching the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, when, +alternately with Toledo, it was occupied as a royal residence, but rapidly +declining when the court was finally removed to Madrid in 1560. Being on +one of the principal military roads of the kingdom, it suffered severely +during the Peninsular War. In 1808 it was the scene of the defeat of the +Spanish army by the French under Marshal Soult. It was unsuccessfully +besieged by Wellington in 1812, but was surrendered to him at the opening +of the campaign of the following year. + +Of the extensive literature relating to Burgos, much remains unedited and +in manuscript. A general description of the city and its monuments is given +by A. Llacayo y Santa Maria in _Burgos, &c._ (Burgos, 1889). See also +_Architectural, Sculptural and Picturesque Studies in Burgos and its +Neighbourhood_, a valuable series of architectural drawings in folio, by +J.B. Waring (London, 1852). The following are monographs on particular +buildings:--_Historia de la Catedral de Burgos, &c._, by P. Orcajo (Burgos, +1856); _El Castillo de Burgos_, by E. de Oliver-Copons (Barcelona, 1893); +_La Real Cartuja de Miraflores_, by F. Tarin y Juaneda (Burgos, 1896). For +the history of the city see _En Burgos_, by V. Balaguér (Burgos, 1895); +_Burgos en las comunidades de Castilla_ and _Cosas de la vieja Burgos_, +both by A. Salvá (Burgos, 1895 and 1892). The following relate both to the +city and to the province of Burgos:--_Burgos, &c._, by R. Amador de los +Ríos, in the series entitled _España_ (Barcelona, 1888); _Burgos y su +provincia_, anon. (Vitoria, 1898); _Intento de un diccionario biográfico y +bibliográfico de autores de la prov. de Burgos_, by M. Anibarro and M. +Rives (Madrid, 1890). + +BURGOYNE, JOHN (1722-1792), English general and dramatist, entered the army +at an early age. In 1743 he made a runaway marriage with a daughter of the +earl of Derby, but soon had to sell his commission to meet his debts, after +which he lived abroad for seven years. By Lord Derby's interest Burgoyne +was then reinstated at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and in 1758 he +became captain and lieutenant-colonel in the foot guards. In 1758-1759 he +participated in expeditions made against the French coast, and in the +latter year he was instrumental in introducing light cavalry into the +British army. The two regiments then formed were commanded by Eliott +(afterwards Lord Heathfield) and Burgoyne. In 1761 he sat in parliament for +Midhurst, and in the following year he served as brigadier-general in +Portugal, winning particular distinction by his capture of Valencia +d'Alcantara and of Villa Velha. In 1768 he became M.P. for Preston, and for +the next few years he occupied himself chiefly with his parliamentary +duties, in which he was remarkable for his general outspokenness [v.04 +p.0820] and, in particular, for his attacks on Lord Clive. At the same time +he devoted much attention to art and drama (his first play, _The Maid of +the Oaks_, being produced by Garrick in 1775), and gambled recklessly. In +the army he had by this time become a major-general, and on the outbreak of +the American War of Independence he was appointed to a command. In 1777 he +was at the head of the British reinforcements designed for the invasion of +the colonies from Canada. In this disastrous expedition he gained +possession of Ticonderoga (for which he was made a lieutenant-general) and +Fort Edward; but, pushing on, was detached from his communications with +Canada, and hemmed in by a superior force at Saratoga (_q.v._). On the 17th +of October his troops, about 3500 in number, laid down their arms. The +success was the greatest the colonists had yet gained, and it proved the +turning-point in the war. The indignation in England against Burgoyne was +great, but perhaps unjust. He returned at once, with the leave of the +American general, to defend his conduct, and demanded, but never obtained, +a trial. He was deprived of his regiment and a governorship which he held. +In 1782, however, when his political friends came into office, he was +restored to his rank, given a colonelcy, and made commander-in-chief in +Ireland and a privy councillor. After the fall of the Rockingham government +in 1783, Burgoyne withdrew more and more into private life, his last public +service being his participation in the impeachment of Warren Hastings. In +his latter years he was principally occupied in literary and dramatic work. +His comedy, _The Heiress_, which appeared in 1786, ran through ten editions +within a year, and was translated into several foreign tongues. He died +suddenly on the 4th of June 1792. General Burgoyne, whose wife died in June +1776 during his absence in Canada, had several natural children (born +between 1782 and 1788) by Susan Caulfield, an opera singer, one of whom +became Field Marshal Sir J.F. Burgoyne. His _Dramatic and Poetical Works_ +appeared in two vols., 1808. + +See E.B. de Fonblanque, _Political and Military Episodes from the Life and +Correspondence of Right Hon. J. Burgoyne_ (1876); and W.L. Stone, _Campaign +of Lieut.-Gen. J. Burgoyne, &c._ (Albany, N.Y., 1877). + +BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN FOX, Bart. (1782-1871), British field marshal, was an +illegitimate son of General John Burgoyne (_q.v._). He was educated at Eton +and Woolwich, obtained his commission in 1798, and served in 1800 in the +Mediterranean. In 1805, when serving on the staff of General Fox in Sicily, +he was promoted second captain. He accompanied the unfortunate Egyptian +expedition of 1807, and was with Sir John Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in +Portugal in 1808-9. In the Corunna campaign Burgoyne held the very +responsible position of chief of engineers with the rear-guard of the +British army (see PENINSULAR WAR). He was with Wellesley at the Douro in +1809, and was promoted captain in the same year, after which he was engaged +in the construction of the lines of Torres Vedras in 1810. He blew up Fort +Concepcion on the river Turones, and was present at Busaco and Torres +Vedras. In 1811 he was employed in the unsuccessful siege of Badajoz, and +in 1812 he won successively the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel, +for his skilful performance of engineer duties at the historic sieges of +Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. He was present in the same year (1812) at the +siege and battle of Salamanca, and after the battle of Vittoria in 1813 he +became commanding engineer on Lord Wellington's staff. At the close of the +war he received the C.B., a reward which, he justly considered, was not +commensurate with his services. In 1814-1815 he served at New Orleans and +Mobile. Burgoyne was largely employed, during the long peace which followed +Waterloo, in other public duties as well as military work. He sat on +numerous commissions, and served for fifteen years as chairman of the Irish +board of public works. He became a major-general and K.C.B. in 1838, and +inspector-general of fortifications in 1845. In 1851 he was promoted +lieutenant-general, and in the following year received the G.C.B. When the +Crimean War broke out he accompanied Lord Raglan's headquarters to the +East, superintended the disembarkation at Old Fort, and was in effect the +principal engineer adviser to the English commander during the first part +of the siege of Sevastopol. He was recalled early in 1855, and though he +was at first bitterly criticized by the public for his part in the earlier +and unsuccessful operations against the fortress the wisdom of his advice +was ultimately recognized. In 1856 he was created a baronet, and promoted +to the full rank of general. In 1858 he was present at the second funeral +of Napoleon I. as Queen Victoria's representative, and in 1865 he was made +constable of the Tower of London. Three years later, on resigning his post +as inspector-general of fortifications, he was made a field marshal. +Parliament granted him, at the same time, a pension of £1500. He died on +the 7th of October 1871, a year after the tragic death of his only son, +Captain Hugh Talbot Burgoyne, V.C. (1833-1870), who was in command of +H.M.S. "Captain" when that vessel went down in the Bay of Biscay (September +7, 1870). + +See _Life and Correspondence of F.M. Sir John Fox Burgoyne_ (edited by +Lt.-Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, R.E., London, 1873); Sir Francis Head, _A +Sketch of the Life and Death of F.M. Sir John Burgoyne_ (London, 1872); +_Military Opinions of General Sir John Burgoyne_ (ed. Wrottesley, London, +1859), a collection of the most important of Burgoyne's contributions to +military literature. + +BURGRAVE, the Eng. form, derived through the Fr., of the Ger. _Burggraf_ +and Flem. _burg_ or _burch-graeve_ (med. Lat. _burcgravius_ or +_burgicomes_), _i.e._ count of a castle or fortified town. The title is +equivalent to that of castellan (Lat. _castellanus_) or, _châtelain_ +(_q.v._). In Germany, owing to the peculiar conditions of the Empire, +though the office of burgrave had become a sinecure by the end of the 13th +century, the title, as borne by feudal nobles having the status of princes +of the Empire, obtained a quasi-royal significance. It is still included +among the subsidiary titles of several sovereign princes; and the king of +Prussia, whose ancestors were burgraves of Nuremberg for over 200 years, is +still styled burgrave of Nuremberg. + +BURGRED, king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 852, and in 852 or 853 +called upon Æthelwulf of Wessex to aid him in subduing the North Welsh. The +request was granted and the campaign proved successful, the alliance being +sealed by the marriage of Burgred to Æthelswith, daughter of Æthelwulf. In +868 the Mercian king appealed to Æthelred and Alfred for assistance against +the Danes, who were in possession of Nottingham. The armies of Wessex and +Mercia did no serious fighting, and the Danes were allowed to remain +through the winter. In 874 the march of the Danes from Lindsey to Repton +drove Burgred from his kingdom. He retired to Rome and died there. + +See _Saxon Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), years 852-853,868,874. + +BURGUNDIO, sometimes erroneously styled BURGUNDIUS, an Italian jurist of +the 12th century. He was a professor at the university of Paris, and +assisted at the Lateran Council in 1179, dying at a very advanced age in +1194. He was a distinguished Greek scholar, and is believed on the +authority of Odofredus to have translated into Latin, soon after the +Pandects were brought to Bologna, the various Greek fragments which occur +in them, with the exception of those in the 27th book, the translation of +which has been attributed to Modestinus. The Latin translations ascribed to +Burgundio were received at Bologna as an integral part of the text of the +Pandects, and form part of that known as _The Vulgate_ in distinction from +the Florentine text. + +BURGUNDY. The name of Burgundy (Fr. _Bourgogne_, Lat. _Burgundia_) has +denoted very diverse political and geographical areas at different periods +of history and as used by different writers. The name is derived from the +Burgundians (_Burgundi, Burgondiones_), a people of Germanic origin, who at +first settled between the Oder and the Vistula. In consequence of wars +against the Alamanni, in which the latter had the advantage, the +Burgundians, after having taken part in the great invasion of Radagaisus in +407, were obliged in 411 to take refuge in Gaul, under the leadership of +their chief Gundicar. Under the title of allies of the Romans, they +established themselves in certain cantons of the Sequani and of upper +Germany, receiving a part of the lands, houses and serfs that belonged to +the inhabitants. Thus was founded the first kingdom of Burgundy, the +boundaries of which were widened at different times by Gundicar and his son +[v.04 p.0821] Gunderic; its chief towns being Vienne, Lyons, Besançon, +Geneva, Autun and Mâcon. Gundibald (d. 516), grandson of Gunderic, is +famous for his codification of the Burgundian law, known consequently as +_Lex Gundobada, _in French _Loi Gombette_. His son Sigismund, who was +canonized by the church, founded the abbey of St Maurice at Agaunum. But, +incited thereto by Clotilda, the daughter of Chilperic (a brother of +Gundibald, and assassinated by him), the Merovingian kings attacked +Burgundy. An attempt made in 524 by Clodomer was unsuccessful; but in 534 +Clotaire (Chlothachar) and his brothers possessed themselves of the lands +of Gundimar, brother and successor of Sigismund, and divided them between +them. In 561 the kingdom of Burgundy was reconstructed by Guntram, son of +Clotaire I., and until 613 it formed a separate state under the government +of a prince of the Merovingian family. + +After 613 Burgundy was one of the provinces of the Frankish kingdom, but in +the redistributions that followed the reign of Charlemagne the various +parts of the ancient kingdom had different fortunes. In 843, by the treaty +of Verdun, Autun, Chalon, Mâcon, Langres, &c., were apportioned to Charles +the Bald, and Lyons with the country beyond the Saône to Lothair I. On the +death of the latter the duchy of Lyons (Lyonnais and Viennois) was given to +Charles of Provence, and the diocese of Besançon with the country beyond +the Jura to Lothair, king of Lorraine. In 879 Boso founded the kingdom of +Provence, wrongly called the kingdom of Cisjuran Burgundy, which extended +to Lyons, and for a short time as far as Mâcon (see PROVENCE). + +In 888 the kingdom of Juran Burgundy was founded by Rudolph I., son of +Conrad, count of Auxerre, and the German king Arnulf could not succeed in +expelling the usurper, whose authority was recognized in the diocese of +Besançon, Basel, Lausanne, Geneva and Sion. For a short time his son and +successor Rudolph II. (912-937) disputed the crown of Italy with Hugh of +Provence, but finally abandoned his claims in exchange for the ancient +kingdom of Provence, _i.e._ the country bounded by the Rhône, the Alps and +the Mediterranean. His successor, Conrad the Peaceful (93 7-993), whose +sister Adelaide married Otto the Great, was hardly more than a vassal of +the German kings. The last king of Burgundy, Rudolph III. (993-1032), being +deprived of all but a shadow of power by the development of the secular and +ecclesiastical aristocracy--especially by that of the powerful feudal +houses of the counts of Burgundy (see FRANCHE-COMTÉ), Savoy and +Provence--died without issue, bequeathing his lands to the emperor Conrad +II. Such was the origin of the imperial rights over the kingdom designated +after the 13th century as the kingdom of Arles, which extended over a part +of what is now Switzerland (from the Jura to the Aar), and included +Franche-Comté, Lyonnais, Dauphiné, Savoy and Provence. + +The name of Burgundy now gradually became restricted to the countship of +that name, which included the district between the Jura and the Saône, in +later times called Franche-Comté, and to the _duchy_ which had been created +by the Carolingian kings in the portion of Burgundy that had remained +French, with the object of resisting Boso. This duchy had been granted to +Boso's brother, Richard the Justiciary, count of Autun. It comprised at +first the countships of Autun, Mâcon, Chalon-sur-Saône, Langres, Nevers, +Auxerre and Sens, but its boundaries and designations changed many times in +the course of the 10th century. Duke Henry died in 1002; and in 1015, after +a war which lasted thirteen years, the French king Robert II. reunited the +duchy to his kingdom, despite the opposition of Otto William, count of +Burgundy, and gave it to his son Henry, afterwards King Henry I. As king of +France, the latter in 1032 bestowed the duchy upon his brother Robert, from +whom sprang that first ducal house of Burgundy which flourished until 1361. +A grandson of this Robert, who went to Spain to fight the Arabs, became the +founder of the kingdom of Portugal; but in general the first Capet dukes of +Burgundy were pacific princes who took little part in the political events +of their time, or in that religious movement which was so marked in +Burgundy, at Cluny to begin with, afterwards among the disciples of William +of St Bénigne of Dijon, and later still among the monks of Cîteaux. In the +12th and 13th centuries we may mention Duke Hugh III. (1162-1193), who +played an active part in the wars that marked the beginning of Philip +Augustus's reign; Odo (Eudes) III. (1193-1218), one of Philip Augustus's +principal supporters in his struggle with King John of England; Hugh IV. +(1218-1272), who acquired the countships of Châlon and Auxonne, Robert II. +(1272-1309), one of whose daughters, Margaret, married Louis X. of France, +and another, Jeanne, Philip of Valois; Odo (Eudes) IV. (1315-1350), who +gained the countship of Artois in right of his wife, Jeanne of France, +daughter of Philip V. the Tall and of Jeanne, countess of Burgundy. + +In 1361, on the death of Duke Philip de Rouvres, son of Jeanne of Auvergne +and Boulogne, who had married the second time John II. of France, surnamed +the Good, the duchy of Burgundy returned to the crown of France. In 1363 +John gave it, with hereditary rights, to his son Philip, surnamed the Bold, +thus founding that second Capet house of Burgundy which filled such an +important place in the history of France during the 14th and 15th +centuries, acquiring as it did a territorial power which proved redoubtable +to the kingship itself. By his marriage with Margaret of Flanders Philip +added to his duchy, on the death of his father-in-law, Louis of Male, in +1384, the countships of Burgundy and Flanders; and in the same year he +purchased the countship of Charolais from John, count of Armagnac. On the +death of Charles V. in 1380 Philip and his brothers, the dukes of Anjou and +Berry, had possessed themselves of the regency, and it was he who led +Charles VI. against the rebellious Flemings, over whom the young king +gained the victory of Roosebeke in 1382. Momentarily deprived of power +during the period of the "Marmousets'" government, he devoted himself to +the administration of his own dominions, establishing in 1386 an +audit-office (_chambre des comptes_) at Dijon and another at Lille. In 1396 +he refused to take part personally in the expedition against the Turks +which ended in the disaster of Nicopolis, and would only send his son John, +then count of Nevers. In 1392 the king's madness caused Philip's recall to +power along with the other princes of the blood, and from this time dates +that hostility between the party of Burgundy and the party of Orleans which +was to become so intense when in May 1404 Duke Philip had been succeeded by +his son, John the Fearless. + +In 1407 the latter caused the assassination of his political rival, Louis +of Orleans, the king's brother. Forced to quit Paris for a time, he soon +returned, supported in particular by the gild of the butchers and by the +university. The monk Jean Petit pronounced an apology for the murder +(1408). + +The victory of Hasbain which John achieved on the 23rd of September 1408 +over the Liégeois, who had attacked his brother-in-law, John of Bavaria, +bishop of Liége, still further strengthened his power and reputation, and +during the following years the struggle between the Burgundians and the +partisans of the duke of Orleans--or Armagnacs, as they were called--went +on with varying results. In 1413 a reaction took place in Paris; John the +Fearless was once more expelled from the capital, and only returned there +in 1418, thanks to the treason of Perrinet Leclerc, who yielded up the town +to him. In 1419, just when he was thinking of making advances towards the +party of the dauphin (Charles VII.), he was assassinated by members of that +party, during an interview between himself and the dauphin at the bridge of +Montereau. + +This event inclined the new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, towards an +alliance with England. In 1420 he signed the treaty of Troyes, which +recognized Henry V. as the legitimate successor of Charles VI.; in 1423 he +gave his sister Anne in marriage to John, duke of Bedford; and during the +following years the Burgundian troops supported the English pretender. But +a dispute between him and the English concerning the succession in Hainaut, +their refusal to permit the town of Orleans to place itself under his rule, +and the defeats sustained by them, all combined to embroil him with his +allies, and in 1435 he concluded the treaty of Arras with Charles VII. The +king relieved the duke of all homage for his estates during his lifetime, +[v.04 p.0822] and gave up to him the countships of Mâcon, Auxerre, +Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu; and, reserving the right of redemption, the +towns of the Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Péronne, &c.). Besides this Philip +had acquired Brabant and Holland in 1433 as the inheritance of his mother. +He gave an asylum to the dauphin Louis when exiled from Charles VII.'s +court, but refused to assist him against his father, and henceforth rarely +intervened in French affairs. He busied himself particularly with the +administration of his state, founding the university of Dôle, having +records made of Burgundian customs, and seeking to develop the commerce and +industries of Flanders. A friend to letters and the arts, he was the +protector of writers like Olivier de la Marche, and of sculptors of the +school of Dijon. He also desired to revive ancient chivalry as he conceived +it, and in 1429 founded the order of the Golden Fleece; while during the +last years of his life he devoted himself to the preparation of a crusade +against the Turks. Neither these plans, however, nor his liberality, +prevented his leaving a well-filled treasury and enlarged dominions when he +died in 1467. + +Philip's successor was his son by his third wife, Isabel of Portugal, +Charles, surnamed the Bold, count of Charolois, born in 1433. To him his +father had practically abandoned his authority during his last years. +Charles had taken an active part in the so-called wars "for the public +weal," and in the coalitions of nobles against the king which were so +frequent during the first years of Louis XI.'s reign. His struggle against +the king is especially marked by the interview at Péronne in 1468, when the +king had to confirm the duke in his possession of the towns of the Somme, +and by a fruitless attempt which Charles the Bold made on Beauvais in 1472. +Charles sought above all to realize a scheme already planned by his father. +This was to annex territory which would reunite Burgundy with the northern +group of her possessions (Flanders, Brabant, &c.), and to obtain the +emperor's recognition of the kingdom of "Belgian Gaul." In 1469 he bought +the landgraviate of Alsace and the countship of Ferrette from the archduke +Sigismund of Austria, and in 1473 the aged duke Arnold ceded the duchy of +Gelderland to him. In the same year he had an interview at Trier with the +emperor Frederick III., when he offered to give his daughter and heiress, +Mary of Burgundy, in marriage to the emperor's son Maximilian in exchange +for the concession of the royal title. But the emperor, uneasy at the +ambition of the "grand-duke of the West," did not pursue the negotiations. + +Meanwhile the tyranny of the duke's lieutenant Peter von Hagenbach, who was +established at Ferrette as governor (_grand bailli_ or _Landvogt_) of Upper +Alsace, had brought about an insurrection. The Swiss supported the cause of +their allies, the inhabitants of the free towns of Alsace, and Duke René +II. of Lorraine also declared war against Charles. In 1474 the Swiss +invaded Franche-Comté and achieved the victory of Hericourt. In 1475 +Charles succeeded in conquering Lorraine, but an expedition against the +Swiss ended in the defeat of Grandson (February 1476). In the same year the +duke was again beaten at Morat, and the Burgundian nobles had to abandon to +the victors a considerable amount of booty. Finally the duke of Lorraine +returned to his dominions; Charles advanced against him, but on the 6th of +January 1477 he was defeated and killed before Nancy. + +By his wife, Isabella of Bourbon, he only left a daughter, Mary, and Louis +XI. claimed possession of her inheritance as guardian to the young +princess. He succeeded in getting himself acknowledged in the duchy and +countship of Burgundy, which were occupied by French garrisons. But Mary, +alarmed by this annexation, and by the insurrection at Ghent (secretly +fomented by Louis), decided to marry the archduke Maximilian of Austria, to +whom she had already been promised (August 1477), and hostilities soon +broke out between the two princes. Mary died through a fall from her horse +in March 1482, and in the same year the treaty of Arras confirmed Louis XI. +in possession of the duchy. Franche-Comté and Artois were to form the dowry +of the little Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Mary and Maximilian, who +was promised in marriage to the dauphin. As to the lands proceeding from +the succession of Charles the Bold, which had returned to the Empire +(Brabant, Hainaut, Limburg, Namur, Gelderland, &c.), they constituted the +"Circle of Burgundy" from 1512 onward. + +We know that the title of duke of Burgundy was revived in 1682 for a short +time by Louis XIV. in favour of his grandson Louis, the pupil of Fénelon. +But from the 16th to the 18th century Burgundy constituted a military +government bounded on the north by Champagne, on the south by Lyonnais, on +the east by Franche-Comté, on the west by Bourbonnais and Nivernais. It +comprised Dijonnais, Autunois, Auxois, and the _pays de la montagne_ or +Country of the Mountain (Châtillon-sur-Seine), with the "counties" of +Chalonnais, Mâconnais, Auxerrois and Bar-sur-Seine, and, so far as +administration went, the annexes of Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the country +of Gex. Burgundy was a _pays d'états_. The estates, whose privileges the +dukes at first, and later Louis XI., had to swear to maintain, had their +assembly at Dijon, usually under the presidency of the governor of the +province, the bishop of Autun as representing the clergy, and the mayor of +Dijon representing the third estate. In the judiciary point of view the +greater part of Burgundy depended on the parlement of Dijon; but Auxerrois +and Mâconnais were amenable to the parlement of Paris. + +See also U. Plancher, _Histoire générale et particulière de Bourgogne_ +(Dijon, 1739--1781, 4 vols. 8vo); Courtépée, _Description générale et +particulière du duché de Bourgogne_ (Dijon, 1774-1785, 7 vols. 8vo); O. +Jahn. _Geschichte der Burgundionen_ (Halle, 1874, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Petit de +Vausse, _Histoire des dues de Bourgogne de la race capétienne_ (Paris, +1885-1905, 9 vols. 8vo); B. de Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de +la maison de Valois_ (Paris, 1833--1836, 13 vols. 8vo); the marquis Léon +E.S.J. de Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne: Études sur les lettres, les arts +et l'industrie pendant le XV siècle_ (Paris, 1849-1851, 3 vols. 8vo). + +(R. PO.) + +BURHANPUR, a town of British India in the Nimar district of the Central +Provinces, situated on the north bank of the river Tapti, 310 m. N.E. of +Bombay, and 2 m. from the Great Indian Peninsula railway station of +Lalbagh. It was founded in A.D. 1400 by a Mahommedan prince of the Farukhi +dynasty of Khandesh, whose successors held it for 200 years, when the +Farukhi kingdom was annexed to the empire of Akbar. It formed the chief +seat of the government of the Deccan provinces of the Mogul empire till +Shah Jahan removed the capital to Aurangabad in 1635. Burhanpur was +plundered in 1685 by the Mahrattas, and repeated battles were fought in its +neighbourhood in the struggle between that race and the Mussulmans for the +supremacy of India. In 1739 the Mahommedans finally yielded to the demand +of the Mahrattas for a fourth of the revenue, and in 1760 the Nizam of the +Deccan ceded Burhanpur to the peshwa, who in 1778 transferred it to +Sindhia. In the Mahratta War the army under General Wellesley, afterwards +the duke of Wellington, took Burhanpur (1803), but the treaty of the same +year restored it to Sindhia. It remained a portion of Sindhia's dominions +till 1860-1861, when, in consequence of certain territorial arrangements, +the town and surrounding estates were ceded to the British government. +Under the Moguls the city covered an area of about 5 sq. m., and was about +10½ m. in circumference. In the _Ain-í-Akbari_ it is described as a "large +city, with many gardens, inhabited by all nations, and abounding with +handicraftsmen." Sir Thomas Roe, who visited it in 1614, found that the +houses in the town were "only mud cottages, except the prince's house, the +chan's and some few others." In 1865-1866 the city contained 8000 houses, +with a population of 34,137, which had decreased to 33,343 in 1901. +Burhanpur is celebrated for its muslins, flowered silks, and brocades, +which, according to Tavernier, who visited it in 1668, were exported in +great quantities to Persia, Egypt, Turkey, Russia and Poland. The gold and +silver wires used in the manufacture of these fabrics are drawn with +considerable care and skill; and in order to secure the purity of the +metals employed for their composition, the wire-drawing under the native +rule was done under government inspection. The town of Burhanpur and its +manufactures were long on the decline, but during recent times have made a +slight recovery. The buildings of interest [v.04 p.0823] in the town are a +palace, built by Akbar, called the Lal Kila or the Red Fort, and the Jama +Masjid or Great Mosque, built by Ali Khan, one of the Farukhi dynasty, in +1588. A considerable number of Boras, a class of commercial Mahommedans, +reside here. + +BURI, or BURE, in Norse mythology, the grandfather of Odin. In the creation +of the world he was born from the rocks, licked by the cow Andhumla +(darkness). He was the father of Bor, and the latter, wedded to Bestla, the +daughter of the giant Bolthorn (evil), became the father of Odin, the +Scandinavian Jove. + +BURIAL and BURIAL ACTS (in O. Eng. _byrgels_, whence _byriels_, wrongly +taken as a plural, and so Mid. Eng. _buryel_, from O. Eng. _byrgan_, +properly to protect, cover, to bury). The main lines of the law of burial +in England may be stated very shortly. Every person has the right to be +buried in the churchyard or burial ground of the parish where he dies, with +the exception of executed felons, who are buried in the precincts of the +prison or in a place appointed by the home office. At common law the person +under whose roof a death takes place has a duty to provide for the body +being carried to the grave decently covered; and the executors or legal +representatives of the deceased are bound to bury or dispose of the body in +a manner becoming the estate of the deceased, according to their +discretion, and they are not bound to fulfil the wishes he may have +expressed in this respect. The disposal must be such as will not expose the +body to violation, or offend the feelings or endanger the health of the +living; and cremation under proper restrictions is allowable. In the case +of paupers dying in a parish house, or shipwrecked persons whose bodies are +cast ashore, the overseers or guardians are responsible for their burial; +and in the case of suicides the coroner has a similar duty. The expenses of +burial are payable out of the deceased's estate in priority to all other +debts. A husband liable for the maintenance of his wife is liable for her +funeral expenses; the parents for those of their children, if they have the +means of paying. Legislation has principally affected (1) places of burial, +(2) mode of burial, (3) fees for burial, and (4) disinterment. + +1. The overcrowded state of churchyards and burial grounds gradually led to +the passing of a group of statutes known as the Burial Acts, extending from +1852 up to 1900. By these acts a general system was set up, the aim of +which was to remedy the existing deficiencies of accommodation by providing +new burial grounds and closing old ones which should be dangerous to +health, and to establish a central authority, the home office (now for most +purposes the Local Government Board) to superintend all burial grounds with +a view to the protection of the public health and the maintenance of public +decency in burials. The Local Government Board thus has the power to obtain +by order in council the closing of any burial ground it thinks fit, while +its consent is necessary to the opening of any new burial ground; and it +also has power to direct inspection of any burial ground or cemetery, and +to regulate burials in common graves in statutory cemeteries and to compel +persons in charge of vaults or places of burial to take steps necessary for +preventing their becoming dangerous or injurious to health. The vestry of +any parish, whether a common-law or ecclesiastical one, was thus authorized +to provide itself with a new burial ground, if its existing one was no +longer available; such ground might be wholly or partly consecrated, and +chapels might be provided for the performance of burial service. The ground +was put under the management of a burial board, consisting of ratepayers +elected by the vestry, and the consecrated portion of it took the place of +the churchyard in all respects. Disused churchyards and burial grounds in +the metropolis may be used as open spaces for recreation, and only +buildings for religious purposes can be built on them (1881, 1884, 1887). +The Local Government Act 1894 introduced a change into the government of +burial grounds (consequent on the general change made in parochial +government) by transferring, or allowing to be transferred, the powers, +duties, property and liabilities of the burial boards in urban districts to +the district councils, and in rural parishes to the parish councils and +parish meetings; and by allowing rural parishes to adopt the Burials Acts, +and provide and manage new burial grounds by the parish council, or a +burial board elected by the parish meeting. + +2. The mode of burial is a matter of ecclesiastical cognizance; in the case +of churchyards and elsewhere it is in the discretion of the owners of the +burial ground. The Local Government Board now makes regulations for burials +in burial grounds provided under the Burial Acts; for cemeteries provided +under the Public Health Act 1879. Private cemeteries and burial grounds +make their own regulations. Burial may now take place either with or +without a religious service in consecrated ground. Before 1880 no body +could be buried in consecrated ground except with the service of the +Church, which the incumbent of the parish or a person authorized by him was +bound to perform; but the canons and prayer-book refused the use of the +office for excommunicated persons, _majori excommunicatione_, for some +grievous and notorious crime, and no person able to testify of his +repentance, unbaptized persons, and persons against whom a verdict of _felo +de se_ had been found. But by the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880, the +bodies of persons entitled to be buried in parochial burial grounds, +whether churchyards or graveyards, may be buried there, on proper notice +being given to the minister, without the performance of the service of the +Church of England, and either without any religious service or with a +Christian and orderly religious service at the grave, which may be +conducted by any person invited to do so by the person in charge of the +funeral. Clergymen of the Church of England are also by the act allowed, +but are not obliged, to use the burial service in any unconsecrated burial +ground or cemetery, or building therein, in any case in which it could be +used in consecrated ground. In cases where it may not be so used, and where +such is the wish of those in charge of the service, the clergy may use a +form of service approved by the bishop without being liable to any +ecclesiastical or temporal penalty. Except as altered by this act, it is +still the law that "the Church knows no such indecency as putting a body +into consecrated ground without the service being at the same time +performed"; and nothing in the act authorizes the use of the service on the +burial of a _felo de se_, which, however, may take place in any way allowed +by the act of 1880. The proper performance of the burial office is provided +for by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874. Statutory provision is made +by the criminal law in this act for the preservation of order in burial +grounds and protection of funeral services. + +3. Fees are now payable by custom or under statutory powers on all burials. +In a churchyard the parson must perform the office of burial for +parishioners, even if the customary fee is denied, and it is doubtful who +is liable to pay it. The custom must be immemorial and invariable. If not +disputed, its payment can be enforced in the ecclesiastical court; if +disputed, its validity must be tried by a temporal court. A special +contract for the payment of an annual fee in the case of a non-parishioner +can be enforced in the latter court. In the case of paupers and shipwrecked +persons the fees are payable by the parish. In other parochial burial +grounds and cemeteries the duties and rights to fees of the incumbents, +clerks and sextons of the parishes for which the ground has been provided +are the same as in burials in the churchyard. Burial authorities may fix +the fees payable in such grounds, subject to the approval of the home +secretary; but the fees for services rendered by ministers of religion and +sextons must be the same in the consecrated as in the unconsecrated part of +the burial ground, and no incumbent of a parish or a clerk may receive any +fee upon burials except for services rendered by them (act of 1900). On +burials under the act of 1880 the same fees are payable as if the burial +had taken place with the service of the Church. + +4. A corpse is not the subject of property, nor capable of holding +property. If interred in consecrated ground, it is under the protection of +the ecclesiastical court; if in unconsecrated, it is under that of the +temporal court. In the former case it is an ecclesiastical offence, and in +either case it is a misdemeanour, to disinter or remove it without proper +authority, [v.04 p.0824] whatever the motive for such an act may be. Such +proper authority is (1) a faculty from the ordinary, where it is to be +removed from one consecrated place of burial to another, and this is often +done on sanitary grounds or to meet the wishes of relatives, and has been +done for secular purposes, _e.g._ widening a thoroughfare, by allowing part +of the burial ground (disused) to be thrown into it; but it has been +refused where the object was to cremate the remains, or to transfer them +from a churchyard to a Roman Catholic burial ground; (2) a licence from the +home secretary, where it is desired to transfer remains from one +unconsecrated place of burial to another; (3) by order of the coroner, in +cases of suspected crime. There has been considerable discussion as to the +boundary line of jurisdiction between (1) and (2), and whether the +disinterment of a body from consecrated ground for purposes of +identification falls within, (1) only or within both (1) and (2); and an +attempt by the ecclesiastical court to enforce a penalty for that purpose +without a licence has been prohibited by the temporal court. + +See also CHURCHYARD; and, for methods of disposal of the dead, CEMETERY; +CREMATION, and FUNERAL RITES. + +AUTHORITIES.--Baker, _Law of Burials_ (6th ed. by Thomas, London, 1898); +Phillimore, _Ecclestastical Law_ (2nd ed., London, 1895); Cripps, _Law of +Church and Clergy_ (6th ed., London, 1886). + +(G. G. P.*) + +BURIAL SOCIETIES, a form of friendly societies, existing mainly in England, +and constituted for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions, +for insuring money to be paid on the death of a member, or for the funeral +expenses of the husband, wife or child of a member, or of the widow of a +deceased member. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.) + +BURIATS, a Mongolian race, who dwell in the vicinity of the Baikal Lake, +for the most part in the government of Irkutsk and the Trans-Baikal +Territory. They are divided into various tribes or clans, which generally +take their names from the locality they frequent. These tribes are +subdivided according to kinship. The Buriats are a broad-shouldered race +inclined to stoutness, with small slanting eyes, thick lips, high +cheekbones, broad and flat noses and scanty beards. The men shave their +heads and wear a pigtail like the Chinese. In summer they dress in silk and +cotton gowns, in winter in furs and sheepskins. Their principal occupation +is the rearing of cattle and horses. The Buriat horse is famous for its +power of endurance, and the attachment between master and animal is very +great. At death the horse should, according to their religion, be +sacrificed at its owner's grave; but the frugal Buriat heir usually +substitutes an old hack, or if he has to tie up the valuable steed to the +grave to starve he does so only with the thinnest of cords so that the +animal soon breaks his tether and gallops off to join the other horses. In +some districts the Buriats have learned agriculture from the Russians, and +in Irkutsk are really better farmers than the latter. They are +extraordinarily industrious at manuring and irrigation. They are also +clever at trapping and fishing. In religion the Buriats are mainly +Buddhists; and their head lama (Khambo Lama) lives at the Goose Lake +(Guisinoe Ozero). Others are Shamanists, and their most sacred spot is the +Shamanic stone at the mouth of the river Angar. Some thousands of them +around Lake Baikal are Christians. A knowledge of reading and writing is +common, especially among the Trans-Baikal Buriats, who possess books of +their own, chiefly translated from the Tibetan. Their own language is +Mongolian, and of three distinct dialects. It was in the 16th century that +the Russians first came in touch with the Buriats, who were long known by +the name of Bratskiye, "Brotherly," given them by the Siberian colonists. +In the town of Bratskiyostrog, which grew up around the block-house built +in 1631 at the confluence of the Angara and Oka to bring them into +subjection, this title is perpetuated. The Buriats made a vigorous +resistance to Russian aggression, but were finally subdued towards the end +of the 17th century, and are now among the most peaceful of Russian +peoples. + +See J.G. Gruelin, _Siberia_; Pierre Simon Pallas, _Sammlungen historischer +Nachrichten über die mongolischen Volkerschaften_ (St Petersburg, +1776-1802); M.A. Castrén, _Versuch einer buriatischen Sprachlehre_ (1857); +Sir H.H. Howorth, _History of the Mongols_ (1876-1888). + +BURIDAN, JEAN [JOANNES BURIDANUS] (c. 1297-c. 1358), French philosopher, +was born at Béthune in Artois. He studied in Paris under William of Occam. +He was professor of philosophy in the university of Paris, was rector in +1327, and in 1345 was deputed to defend its interests before Philip of +Valois and at Rome. He was more than sixty years old in 1358, but the year +of his death is not recorded. The tradition that he was forced to flee from +France along with other nominalists, and founded the university of Vienna +in 1356, is unsupported and in contradiction to the fact that the +university was founded by Frederick II. in 1237. An ordinance of Louis XI., +in 1473, directed against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of his +works. In philosophy Buridan was a rationalist, and followed Occam in +denying all objective reality to universals, which he regarded as mere +words. The aim of his logic is represented as having been the devising of +rules for the discovery of syllogistic middle terms; this system for aiding +slow-witted persons became known as the _pons asinorum_. The parts of logic +which he treated with most minuteness are modal propositions and modal +syllogisms. In commenting on Aristotle's _Ethics_ he dealt in a very +independent manner with the question of free will, his conclusions being +remarkably similar to those of John Locke. The only liberty which he admits +is a certain power of suspending the deliberative process and determining +the direction of the intellect. Otherwise the will is entirely dependent on +the view of the mind, the last result of examination. The comparison of the +will unable to act between two equally balanced motives to an ass dying of +hunger between two equal and equidistant bundles of hay is not found in his +works, and may have been invented by his opponents to ridicule his +determinism. That he was not the originator of the theory known as "liberty +of indifference" (_liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_) is shown in G. +Fonsegrive's _Essai sur le libre arbitre_, pp. 119, 199 (1887). + +His works are:--_Summula de dialectica_ (Paris, 1487); _Compendium logicae_ +(Venice, 1489); _Quaestiones in viii. libros physicorum_ (Paris, 1516); _In +Aristotelis Metaphysica_ (1518); _Quaestiones in x. libros ethicorum +Aristotelis_ (Paris, 1489; Oxford, 1637); _Quaestiones in viii. libros +politicorum Aristotelis_ (1500). See K. Prantl's _Geschichte der Logik_, +bk. iv. 14-38; Stöckl's _Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters_, ii. +1023-1028; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. (1897). + +BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797), British statesman and political writer. His is +one of the greatest names in the history of political literature. There +have been many more important statesmen, for he was never tried in a +position of supreme responsibility. There have been many more effective +orators, for lack of imaginative suppleness prevented him from penetrating +to the inner mind of his hearers; defects in delivery weakened the +intrinsic persuasiveness of his reasoning; and he had not that commanding +authority of character and personality which has so often been the secret +of triumphant eloquence. There have been many subtler, more original and +more systematic thinkers about the conditions of the social union. But no +one that ever lived used the general ideas of the thinker more successfully +to judge the particular problems of the statesman. No one has ever come so +close to the details of practical politics, and at the same time remembered +that these can only be understood and only dealt with by the aid of the +broad conceptions of political philosophy. And what is more than all for +perpetuity of fame, he was one of the great masters of the high and +difficult art of elaborate composition. + +A certain doubtfulness hangs over the circumstances of Burke's life +previous to the opening of his public career. The very date of his birth is +variously stated. The most probable opinion is that he was born at Dublin +on the 12th of January 1729, new style. Of his family we know little more +than his father was a Protestant attorney, practising in Dublin, and that +his mother was a Catholic, a member of the family of Nagle. He had at least +one sister, from whom descended the only existing representatives of +Burke's family; and he had at least two brothers, Garret Burke and Richard +Burke, the one older and the other younger than Edmund. The sister, +afterwards Mrs French, was brought up and remained throughout life in the +religious faith of her [v.04 p.0825] mother; Edmund and his brothers +followed that of their father. In 1741 the three brothers were sent to +school at Ballitore in the county of Kildare, kept by Abraham Shackleton, +an Englishman, and a member of the Society of Friends. He appears to have +been an excellent teacher and a good and pious man. Burke always looked +back on his own connexion with the school at Ballitore as among the most +fortunate circumstances of his life. Between himself and a son of his +instructor there sprang up a close and affectionate friendship, and, unlike +so many of the exquisite attachments of youth, this was not choked by the +dust of life, nor parted by divergence of pursuit. Richard Shackleton was +endowed with a grave, pure and tranquil nature, constant and austere, yet +not without those gentle elements that often redeem the drier qualities of +his religious persuasion. When Burke had become one of the most famous men +in Europe, no visitor to his house was more welcome than the friend with +whom long years before he had tried poetic flights, and exchanged all the +sanguine confidences of boyhood. And we are touched to think of the +simple-minded guest secretly praying, in the solitude of his room in the +fine house at Beaconsfield, that the way of his anxious and overburdened +host might be guided by a divine hand. + +In 1743 Burke became a student at Trinity College, Dublin, where Oliver +Goldsmith was also a student at the same time. But the serious pupil of +Abraham Shackleton would not be likely to see much of the wild and squalid +sizar. Henry Flood, who was two years younger than Burke, had gone to +complete his education at Oxford. Burke, like Goldsmith, achieved no +academic distinction. His character was never at any time of the academic +cast. The minor accuracies, the limitation of range, the treading and +re-treading of the same small patch of ground, the concentration of +interest in success before a board of examiners, were all uncongenial to a +nature of exuberant intellectual curiosity and of strenuous and +self-reliant originality. His knowledge of Greek and Latin was never +thorough, nor had he any turn for critical niceties. He could quote Homer +and Pindar, and he had read Aristotle. Like others who have gone through +the conventional course of instruction, he kept a place in his memory for +the various charms of Virgil and Horace, of Tacitus and Ovid; but the +master whose page by night and by day he turned with devout hand, was the +copious, energetic, flexible, diversified and brilliant genius of the +declamations for Archias the poet and for Milo, against Catiline and +against Antony, the author of the disputations at Tusculum and the orations +against Verres. Cicero was ever to him the mightiest of the ancient names. +In English literature Milton seems to have been more familiar to him than +Shakespeare, and Spenser was perhaps more of a favourite with him than +either. + +It is too often the case to be a mere accident that men who become eminent +for wide compass of understanding and penetrating comprehension, are in +their adolescence unsettled and desultory. Of this Burke is a signal +illustration. He left Trinity in 1748, with no great stock of well-ordered +knowledge. He neither derived the benefits nor suffered the drawbacks of +systematic intellectual discipline. + +After taking his degree at Dublin he went in the year 1750 to London to +keep terms at the Temple. The ten years that followed were passed in +obscure industry. Burke was always extremely reserved about his private +affairs. All that we know of Burke exhibits him as inspired by a resolute +pride, a certain stateliness and imperious elevation of mind. Such a +character, while free from any weak shame about the shabby necessities of +early struggles, yet is naturally unwilling to make them prominent in after +life. There is nothing dishonourable in such an inclination. "I was not +swaddled and rocked and dandled into a legislator," wrote Burke when very +near the end of his days: "_Nitor in adversum_ is the motto for a man like +me. At every step of my progress in life (for in every step I was traversed +and opposed), and at every turnpike I met, I was obliged to show my +passport. Otherwise no rank, no toleration even, for me." + +All sorts of whispers have been circulated by idle or malicious gossip +about Burke's first manhood. He is said to have been one of the numerous +lovers of his fascinating countrywoman, Margaret Woffington. It is hinted +that he made a mysterious visit to the American colonies. He was for years +accused of having gone over to the Church of Rome, and afterwards +recanting. There is not a tittle of positive evidence for these or any of +the other statements to Burke's discredit. The common story that he was a +candidate for Adam Smith's chair of moral philosophy at Glasgow, when Hume +was rejected in favour of an obscure nobody (1751), can be shown to be +wholly false. Like a great many other youths with an eminent destiny before +them, Burke conceived a strong distaste for the profession of the law. His +father, who was an attorney of substance, had a distaste still stronger for +so vagrant a profession as letters were in that day. He withdrew the annual +allowance, and Burke set to work to win for himself by indefatigable +industry and capability in the public interest that position of power or +pre-eminence which his detractors acquired either by accident of birth and +connexions or else by the vile arts of political intrigue. He began at the +bottom of the ladder, mixing with the Bohemian society that haunted the +Temple, practising oratory in the free and easy debating societies of +Covent Garden and the Strand, and writing for the booksellers. + +In 1756 he made his first mark by a satire upon Bolingbroke entitled _A +Vindication of Natural Society_. It purported to be a posthumous work from +the pen of Bolingbroke, and to present a view of the miseries and evils +arising to mankind from every species of artificial society. The imitation +of the fine style of that magnificent writer but bad patriot is admirable. +As a satire the piece is a failure, for the simple reason that the +substance of it might well pass for a perfectly true, no less than a very +eloquent statement of social blunders and calamities. Such acute critics as +Chesterfield and Warburton thought the performance serious. Rousseau, whose +famous discourse on the evils of civilization had appeared six years +before, would have read Burke's ironical vindication of natural society +without a suspicion of its irony. There have indeed been found persons who +insist that the _Vindication_ was a really serious expression of the +writer's own opinions. This is absolutely incredible, for various reasons. +Burke felt now, as he did thirty years later, that civil institutions +cannot wisely or safely be measured by the tests of pure reason. His +sagacity discerned that the rationalism by which Bolingbroke and the +deistic school believed themselves to have overthrown revealed religion, +was equally calculated to undermine the structure of political government. +This was precisely the actual course on which speculation was entering in +France at that moment. His _Vindication_ is meant to be a reduction to an +absurdity. The rising revolutionary school in France, if they had read it, +would have taken it for a demonstration of the theorem to be proved. The +only interest of the piece for us lies in the proof which it furnishes, +that at the opening of his life Burke had the same scornful antipathy to +political rationalism which flamed out in such overwhelming passion at its +close. + +In the same year (1756) appeared the _Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin +of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful_, a crude and narrow performance +in many respects, yet marked by an independent use of the writer's mind, +and not without fertile suggestion. It attracted the attention of the +rising aesthetic school in Germany. Lessing set about the translation and +annotation of it, and Moses Mendelssohn borrowed from Burke's speculation +at least one of the most fruitful and important ideas of his own +influential theories on the sentiments. In England the _Inquiry_ had +considerable vogue, but it has left no permanent trace in the development +of aesthetic thought. + +Burke's literary industry in town was relieved by frequent excursions to +the western parts of England, in company with William Burke. There was a +lasting intimacy between the two namesakes, and they seem to have been +involved together in some important passages of their lives; but we have +Edmund Burke's authority for believing that they were probably not kinsmen. +The seclusion of these rural sojourns, originally dictated by delicate +health, was as wholesome to the mind as to [v.04 p.0826] the body. Few men, +if any, have ever acquired a settled mental habit of surveying human +affairs broadly, of watching the play of passion, interest, circumstance, +in all its comprehensiveness, and of applying the instruments of general +conceptions and wide principles to its interpretation with respectable +constancy, unless they have at some early period of their manhood resolved +the greater problems of society in independence and isolation. By 1756 the +cast of Burke's opinions was decisively fixed, and they underwent no +radical change. + +He began a series of _Hints on the Drama_. He wrote a portion of an +_Abridgment of the History of England_, and brought it down as far as the +reign of John. It included, as was natural enough in a warm admirer of +Montesquieu, a fragment on law, of which he justly said that it ought to be +the leading science in every well-ordered commonwealth. Burke's early +interest in America was shown by an _Account of the European Settlements_ +on that continent. Such works were evidently a sign that his mind was +turning away from abstract speculation to the great political and economic +fields, and to the more visible conditions of social stability and the +growth of nations. This interest in the concrete phenomena of society +inspired him with the idea of the _Annual Register_ (1759), which he +designed to present a broad grouping of the chief movements of each year. +The execution was as excellent as the conception, and if we reflect that it +was begun in the midst of that momentous war which raised England to her +climax of territorial greatness in East and West, we may easily realize how +the task of describing these portentous and far-reaching events would be +likely to strengthen Burke's habits of wide and laborious observation, as +well as to give him firmness and confidence in the exercise of his own +judgment. Dodsley gave him £100 for each annual volume, and the sum was +welcome enough, for towards the end of 1756 Burke had married. His wife was +the daughter of a Dr Nugent, a physician at Bath. She is always spoken of +by his friends as a mild, reasonable and obliging person, whose amiability +and gentle sense did much to soothe the too nervous and excitable +temperament of her husband. She had been brought up, there is good reason +to believe, as a Catholic, and she was probably a member of that communion +at the time of her marriage. Dr Nugent eventually took up his residence +with his son-in-law in London, and became a popular member of that famous +group of men of letters and artists whom Boswell has made so familiar and +so dear to all later generations. Burke, however, had no intention of being +dependent. His consciousness of his own powers animated him with a most +justifiable ambition, if ever there was one, to play a part in the conduct +of national affairs. Friends shared this ambition on his behalf; one of +these was Lord Charlemont. He introduced Burke to William Gerard Hamilton +(1759), now only remembered by the nickname "single-speech," derived from +the circumstance of his having made a single brilliant speech in the House +of Commons, which was followed by years of almost unbroken silence. +Hamilton was by no means devoid of sense and acuteness, but in character he +was one of the most despicable men then alive. There is not a word too many +nor too strong in the description of him by one of Burke's friends, as "a +sullen, vain, proud, selfish, cankered-hearted, envious reptile." The +reptile's connexion, however, was for a time of considerable use to Burke. +When he was made Irish secretary, Burke accompanied him to Dublin, and +there learnt Oxenstiern's eternal lesson, that awaits all who penetrate +behind the scenes of government, _quam parva sapientia mundus regitur_. + +The penal laws against the Catholics, the iniquitous restrictions on Irish +trade and industry, the selfish factiousness of the parliament, the jobbery +and corruption of administration, the absenteeism of the landlords, and all +the other too familiar elements of that mischievous and fatal system, were +then in full force. As was shown afterwards, they made an impression upon +Burke that was never effaced. So much iniquity and so much disorder may +well have struck deep on one whose two chief political sentiments were a +passion for order and a passion for justice. He may have anticipated with +something of remorse the reflection of a modern historian, that the +absenteeism of her landlords has been less of a curse to Ireland than the +absenteeism of her men of genius. At least he was never an absentee in +heart. He always took the interest of an ardent patriot in his unfortunate +country; and, as we shall see, made more than one weighty sacrifice on +behalf of the principles which he deemed to be bound up with her welfare. + +When Hamilton retired from his post, Burke accompanied him back to London, +with a pension of £300 a year on the Irish Establishment. This modest +allowance he hardly enjoyed for more than a single year. His patron having +discovered the value of so laborious and powerful a subaltern, wished to +bind Burke permanently to his service. Burke declined to sell himself into +final bondage of this kind. When Hamilton continued to press his odious +pretensions they quarrelled (1765), and Burke threw up his pension. He soon +received a more important piece of preferment than any which he could ever +have procured through Hamilton. + +The accession of George III. to the throne in 1760 had been followed by the +disgrace of Pitt, the dismissal of Newcastle, and the rise of Bute. These +events marked the resolution of the court to change the political system +which had been created by the Revolution of 1688. That system placed the +government of the country in the hands of a territorial oligarchy, composed +of a few families of large possessions, fairly enlightened principles, and +shrewd political sense. It had been preserved by the existence of a +Pretender. The two first kings of the house of Hanover could only keep the +crown on their own heads by conciliating the Revolution families and +accepting Revolution principles. By 1760 all peril to the dynasty was at an +end. George III., or those about him, insisted on substituting for the +aristocratic division of political power a substantial concentration of it +in the hands of the sovereign. The ministers were no longer to be the +members of a great party, acting together in pursuance of a common policy +accepted by them all as a united body; they were to become nominees of the +court, each holding himself answerable not to his colleagues but to the +king, separately, individually and by department. George III. had before +his eyes the government of his cousin the great Frederick; but not every +one can bend the bow of Ulysses, and, apart from difference of personal +capacity and historic tradition, he forgot that a territorial and +commercial aristocracy cannot be dealt with in the spirit of the barrack +and the drill-ground. But he made the attempt, and resistance to that +attempt supplies the keynote to the first twenty-five years of Burke's +political life. + +Along with the change in system went high-handed and absolutist tendencies +in policy. The first stage of the new experiment was very short. Bute, in a +panic at the storm of unpopularity that menaced him, resigned in 1763. +George Grenville and the less enlightened section of the Whigs took his +place. They proceeded to tax the American colonists, to interpose +vexatiously against their trade, to threaten the liberty of the subject at +home by general warrants, and to stifle the liberty of public discussion by +prosecutions of the press. Their arbitrary methods disgusted the nation, +and the personal arrogance of the ministers at last disgusted the king. The +system received a temporary check. Grenville fell, and the king was forced +to deliver himself into the hands of the orthodox section of the Whigs. The +marquess of Rockingham (July 10, 1765) became prime minister, and he was +induced to make Burke his private secretary. Before Burke had begun his +duties, an incident occurred which illustrates the character of the two +men. The old duke of Newcastle, probably desiring a post for some nominee +of his own, conveyed to the ear of the new minister various absurd rumours +prejudicial to Burke,--that he was an Irish papist, that his real name was +O'Bourke, that he had been a Jesuit, that he was an emissary from St +Omer's. Lord Rockingham repeated these tales to Burke, who of course denied +them with indignation. His chief declared himself satisfied, but Burke, +from a feeling that the indispensable confidence between them was impaired, +at once expressed a strong desire to resign his post. Lord Rockingham +prevailed upon him to reconsider his resolve, and from that day until Lord +Rockingham's death in [v.04 p.0827] 1782, their relations were those of the +closest friendship and confidence. + +The first Rockingham administration only lasted a year and a few days, +ending in July 1766. The uprightness and good sense of its leaders did not +compensate for the weakness of their political connexions. They were unable +to stand against the coldness of the king, against the hostility of the +powerful and selfish faction of Bedford Whigs, and, above all, against the +towering predominance of William Pitt. That Pitt did not join them is one +of the many fatal miscarriages of history, as it is one of the many serious +reproaches to be made against that extraordinary man's chequered and uneven +course. An alliance between Pitt and the Rockingham party was the surest +guarantee of a wise and liberal policy towards the colonies. He went +further than they did, in holding, like Lord Camden, the doctrine that +taxation went with representation, and that therefore parliament had no +right to tax the unrepresented colonists. The ministry asserted, what no +competent jurist would now think of denying, that parliament is sovereign; +but they went heartily with Pitt in pronouncing the exercise of the right +of taxation in the case of the American colonists to be thoroughly +impolitic and inexpedient. No practical difference, therefore, existed upon +the important question of the hour. But Pitt's prodigious egoism, +stimulated by the mischievous counsels of men of the stamp of Lord +Shelburne, prevented the fusion of the only two sections of the Whig party +that were at once able, enlightened and disinterested enough to carry on +the government efficiently, to check the arbitrary temper of the king, and +to command the confidence of the nation. Such an opportunity did not +return. + +The ministerial policy towards the colonies was defended by Burke with +splendid and unanswerable eloquence. He had been returned to the House of +Commons for the pocket borough of Wendover, and his first speech (January +27, 1766) was felt to be the rising of a new light. For the space of a +quarter of a century, from this time down to 1790, Burke was one of the +chief guides and inspirers of a revived Whig party. The "age of small +factions" was now succeeded by an age of great principles, and selfish ties +of mere families and persons were transformed into a union resting on +common conviction and patriotic aims. It was Burke who did more than any +one else to give to the Opposition, under the first half of the reign of +George III., this stamp of elevation and grandeur. Before leaving office +the Rockingham government repealed the Stamp Act; confirmed the personal +liberty of the subject by forcing on the House of Commons one resolution +against general warrants, and another against the seizure of papers; and +relieved private houses from the intrusion of officers of excise, by +repealing the cider tax. Nothing so good was done in an English parliament +for nearly twenty years to come. George Grenville, whom the Rockinghams had +displaced, and who was bitterly incensed at their formal reversal of his +policy, printed a pamphlet to demonstrate his own wisdom and statesmanship. +Burke replied in his _Observations on a late Publication on the Present +State of the Nation_ (1769), in which he showed for the first time that he +had not only as much knowledge of commerce and finance, and as firm a hand, +in dealing with figures as Grenville himself, but also a broad, general and +luminous way of conceiving and treating politics, in which neither then nor +since has he had any rival among English publicists. + +It is one of the perplexing points in Burke's private history to know how +he lived during these long years of parliamentary opposition. It is +certainly not altogether mere impertinence to ask of a public man how he +gets what he lives upon, for independence of spirit, which is so hard to +the man who lays his head on the debtor's pillow, is the prime virtue in +such men. Probity in money is assuredly one of the keys to character, +though we must be very careful in ascertaining and proportioning all the +circumstances. Now, in 1769, Burke bought an estate at Beaconsfield, in the +county of Buckingham. It was about 600 acres in extent, was worth some £500 +a year, and cost £22,000. People have been asking ever since how the +penniless man of letters was able to raise so large a sum in the first +instance, and how he was able to keep up a respectable establishment +afterwards. The suspicions of those who are never sorry to disparage the +great have been of various kinds. Burke was a gambler, they hint, in Indian +stock, like his kinsmen Richard and William, and like Lord Verney, his +political patron at Wendover. Perhaps again, his activity on behalf of +Indian princes, like the raja of Tanjore, was not disinterested and did not +go unrewarded. The answer to all these calumnious innuendoes is to be found +in documents and title-deeds of decisive authority, and is simple enough. +It is, in short, this. Burke inherited a small property from his elder +brother, which he realized. Lord Rockingham advanced him a certain sum +(£6000). The remainder, amounting to no less than two-thirds of the +purchase-money, was raised on mortgage, and was never paid off during +Burke's life. The rest of the story is equally simple, but more painful. +Burke made some sort of income out of his 600 acres; he was for a short +time agent for New York, with a salary of £700; he continued to work at the +_Annual Register_ down to 1788. But, when all is told, he never made as +much as he spent; and in spite of considerable assistance from Lord +Rockingham, amounting it is sometimes said to as much as £30,000, Burke, +like the younger Pitt, got every year deeper into debt. Pitt's debts were +the result of a wasteful indifference to his private affairs. Burke, on the +contrary, was assiduous and orderly, and had none of the vices of +profusion. But he had that quality which Aristotle places high among the +virtues--the noble mean of Magnificence, standing midway between the two +extremes of vulgar ostentation and narrow pettiness. He was indifferent to +luxury, and sought to make life, not commodious nor soft, but high and +dignified in a refined way. He loved art, filled his house with statues and +pictures, and extended a generous patronage to the painters. He was a +collector of books, and, as Crabbe and less conspicuous men discovered, a +helpful friend to their writers. Guests were ever welcome at his board; the +opulence of his mind and the fervid copiousness of his talk naturally made +the guests of such a man very numerous. _Non invideo equidem, miror magis_, +was Johnson's good-natured remark, when he was taken over his friend's fine +house and pleasant gardens. Johnson was of a very different type. There was +something in this external dignity which went with Burke's imperious +spirit, his spacious imagination, his turn for all things stately and +imposing. We may say, if we please, that Johnson had the far truer and +loftier dignity of the two; but we have to take such men as Burke with the +defects that belong to their qualities. And there was no corruption in +Burke's outlay. When the Pitt administration was formed in 1766, he might +have had office, and Lord Rockingham wished him to accept it, but he +honourably took his fate with the party. He may have spent £3000 a year, +where he would have been more prudent to spend only £2000. But nobody was +wronged; his creditors were all paid in time, and his hands were at least +clean of traffic in reversions, clerkships, tellerships and all the rest of +the rich sinecures which it was thought no shame in those days for the +aristocracy of the land and the robe to wrangle for, and gorge themselves +upon, with the fierce voracity of famishing wolves. The most we can say is +that Burke, like Pitt, was too deeply absorbed in beneficent service in the +affairs of his country, to have for his own affairs the solicitude that +would have been prudent. + +In the midst of intense political preoccupations, Burke always found time +to keep up his intimacy with the brilliant group of his earlier friends. He +was one of the commanding figures at the club at the Turk's Head, with +Reynolds and Garrick, Goldsmith and Johnson. The old sage who held that the +first Whig was the Devil, was yet compelled to forgive Burke's politics for +the sake of his magnificent gifts. "I would not talk to him of the +Rockingham party," he used to say, "but I love his knowledge, his genius, +his diffusion and affluence of conversation." And everybody knows Johnson's +vivid account of him: "Burke, Sir, is such a man that if you met him for +the first time in the street, where you were stopped by a drove of oxen, +and you and he stepped aside to take shelter but for five minutes, he'd +talk [v.04 p.0828] to you in such a manner that when you parted you would +say, 'This is an extraordinary man.'" They all grieved that public business +should draw to party what was meant for mankind. They deplored that the +nice and difficult test of answering Berkeley had not been undertaken, as +was once intended, by Burke, and sighed to think what an admirable display +of subtlety and brilliance such a contention would have afforded them, had +not politics "turned him from active philosophy aside." There was no +jealousy in this. They did not grudge Burke being the first man in the +House of Commons, for they admitted that he would have been the first man +anywhere. + +With all his hatred for the book-man in politics, Burke owed much of his +own distinction to that generous richness and breadth of judgment which had +been ripened in him by literature and his practice in it. He showed that +books are a better preparation for statesmanship than early training in the +subordinate posts and among the permanent officials of a public department. +There is no copiousness of literary reference in his work, such as +over-abounded in the civil and ecclesiastical publicists of the 17th +century. Nor can we truly say that there is much, though there is certainly +some, of that tact which literature is alleged to confer on those who +approach it in a just spirit and with the true gift. The influence of +literature on Burke lay partly in the direction of emancipation from the +mechanical formulae of practical politics; partly in the association which +it engendered, in a powerful understanding like his, between politics and +the moral forces of the world, and between political maxims and the old and +great sentences of morals; partly in drawing him, even when resting his +case on prudence and expediency, to appeal to the widest and highest +sympathies; partly, and more than all, in opening his thoughts to the many +conditions, possibilities and "varieties of untried being," in human +character and situation, and so giving an incomparable flexibility to his +methods of political approach. + +This flexibility is not to be found in his manner of composition. That +derives its immense power from other sources; from passion, intensity, +imagination, size, truth, cogency of logical reason. Those who insist on +charm, on winningness in style, on subtle harmonies and fine exquisiteness +of suggestion, are disappointed in Burke: they even find him stiff and +over-coloured. And there are blemishes of this kind. His banter is nearly +always ungainly, his wit blunt, as Johnson said, and often unseasonable. As +is usual with a man who has not true humour, Burke is also without true +pathos. The thought of wrong or misery moved him less to pity for the +victim than to anger against the cause. Again, there are some gratuitous +and unredeemed vulgarities; some images that make us shudder. But only a +literary fop can be detained by specks like these. + +The varieties of Burke's literary or rhetorical method are very striking. +It is almost incredible that the superb imaginative amplification of the +description of Hyder Ali's descent upon the Carnatic should be from the +same pen as the grave, simple, unadorned _Address to the King_ (1777), +where each sentence falls on the ear with the accent of some golden-tongued +oracle of the wise gods. His stride is the stride of a giant, from the +sentimental beauty of the picture of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, or the +red horror of the tale of Debi Sing in Rungpore, to the learning, +positiveness and cool judicial mastery of the _Report on the Lords' +Journals_ (1794), which Philip Francis, no mean judge, declared on the +whole to be the "most eminent and extraordinary" of all his productions. +But even in the coolest and driest of his pieces there is the mark of +greatness, of grasp, of comprehension. In all its varieties Burke's style +is noble, earnest, deep-flowing, because his sentiment was lofty and +fervid, and went with sincerity and ardent disciplined travail of judgment. +He had the style of his subjects; the amplitude, the weightiness, the +laboriousness, the sense, the high flight, the grandeur, proper to a man +dealing with imperial themes, with the fortunes of great societies, with +the sacredness of law, the freedom of nations, the justice of rulers. Burke +will always be read with delight and edification, because in the midst of +discussions on the local and the accidental, he scatters apophthegms that +take us into the regions of lasting wisdom. In the midst of the torrent of +his most strenuous and passionate deliverances, he suddenly rises aloof +from his immediate subject, and in all tranquillity reminds us of some +permanent relation of things, some enduring truth of human life or human +society. We do not hear the organ tones of Milton, for faith and freedom +had other notes in the 18th century. There is none of the complacent and +wise-browed sagacity of Bacon, for Burke's were days of personal strife and +fire and civil division. We are not exhilarated by the cheerfulness, the +polish, the fine manners of Bolingbroke, for Burke had an anxious +conscience, and was earnest and intent that the good should triumph. And +yet Burke is among the greatest of those who have wrought marvels in the +prose of our English tongue. + +Not all the transactions in which Burke was a combatant could furnish an +imperial theme. We need not tell over again the story of Wilkes and the +Middlesex election. The Rockingham ministry had been succeeded by a +composite government, of which it was intended that Pitt, now made Lord +Chatham and privy seal, should be the real chief. Chatham's health and mind +fell into disorder almost immediately after the ministry had been formed. +The duke of Grafton was its nominal head, but party ties had been broken, +the political connexions of the ministers were dissolved, and, in truth, +the king was now at last a king indeed, who not only reigned but governed. +The revival of high doctrines of prerogative in the crown was accompanied +by a revival of high doctrines of privilege in the House of Commons, and +the ministry was so smitten with weakness and confusion as to be unable to +resist the current of arbitrary policy, and not many of them were even +willing to resist it. The unconstitutional prosecution of Wilkes was +followed by the fatal recourse to new plans for raising taxes in the +American colonies. These two points made the rallying ground of the new +Whig opposition. Burke helped to smooth matters for a practical union +between the Rockingham party and the powerful triumvirate, composed of +Chatham, whose understanding had recovered from its late disorder, and of +his brothers-in-law, Lord Temple and George Grenville. He was active in +urging petitions from the freeholders of the counties, protesting against +the unconstitutional invasion of the right of election. And he added a +durable masterpiece to political literature in a pamphlet which he called +_Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents_ (1770). The immediate +object of this excellent piece was to hold up the court scheme of weak, +divided and dependent administrations in the light of its real purpose and +design; to describe the distempers which had been engendered in parliament +by the growth of royal influence and the faction of the king's friends; to +show that the newly formed Whig party had combined for truly public ends, +and was no mere family knot like the Grenvilles and the Bedfords; and, +finally, to press for the hearty concurrence both of public men and of the +nation at large in combining against "a faction ruling by the private +instructions of a court against the general sense of the people." The +pamphlet was disliked by Chatham on the one hand, on no reasonable grounds +that we can discover; it was denounced by the extreme popular party of the +Bill of Rights, on the other hand, for its moderation and conservatism. In +truth, there is as strong a vein of conservative feeling in the pamphlet of +1770 as in the more resplendent pamphlet of 1790. "Our constitution," he +said, "stands on a nice equipoise, with steep precipices and deep waters +upon all sides of it. In removing it from a dangerous leaning towards one +side, there may be a risk of oversetting it on the other. Every project of +a material change in a government so complicated as ours is a matter full +of difficulties; in which a considerate man will not be too ready to +decide, a prudent man too ready to undertake, or an honest man too ready to +promise." Neither now nor ever had Burke any other real conception of a +polity for England than government by the territorial aristocracy in the +interests of the nation at large, and especially in the interests of +commerce, to the vital importance of which in our economy he was always +keenly and wisely alive. The policy of George III., and the support which +it found among [v.04 p.0829] men who were weary of Whig factions, disturbed +this scheme, and therefore Burke denounced both the court policy and the +court party with all his heart and all his strength. + +Eloquence and good sense, however, were impotent in the face of such forces +as were at this time arrayed against a government at once strong and +liberal. The court was confident that a union between Chatham and the +Rockinghams was impossible. The union was in fact hindered by the +waywardness and the absurd pretences of Chatham, and the want of force in +Lord Rockingham. In the nation at large, the late violent ferment had been +followed by as remarkable a deadness and vapidity, and Burke himself had to +admit a year or two later that any remarkable robbery at Hounslow Heath +would make more conversation than all the disturbances of America. The duke +of Grafton went out, and Lord North became the head of a government, which +lasted twelve years (1770-1782), and brought about more than all the +disasters that Burke had foretold as the inevitable issue of the royal +policy. For the first six years of this lamentable period Burke was +actively employed in stimulating, informing and guiding the patrician +chiefs of his party. "Indeed, Burke," said the duke of Richmond, "you have +more merit than any man in keeping us together." They were well-meaning and +patriotic men, but it was not always easy to get them to prefer politics to +fox-hunting. When he reached his lodgings at night after a day in the city +or a skirmish in the House of Commons, Burke used to find a note from the +duke of Richmond or the marquess of Rockingham, praying him to draw a +protest to be entered on the Journals of the Lords, and in fact he drew all +the principal protests of his party between 1767 and 1782. The accession of +Charles James Fox to the Whig party, which took place at this time, and was +so important an event in its history, was mainly due to the teaching and +influence of Burke. In the House of Commons his industry was almost +excessive. He was taxed with speaking too often, and with being too +forward. And he was mortified by a more serious charge than murmurs about +superfluity of zeal. Men said and said again that he was Junius. His very +proper unwillingness to stoop to deny an accusation, that would have been +so disgraceful if it had been true, made ill-natured and silly people the +more convinced that it was not wholly false. But whatever the London world +may have thought of him, Burke's energy and devotion of character impressed +the better minds in the country. In 1774 he received the great distinction +of being chosen as one of its representatives by Bristol, then the second +town in the kingdom. + +In the events which ended in the emancipation of the American colonies from +the monarchy, Burke's political genius shone with an effulgence that was +worthy of the great affairs over which it shed so magnificent an +illumination. His speeches are almost the one monument of the struggle on +which a lover of English greatness can look back with pride and a sense of +worthiness, such as a churchman feels when he reads Bossuet, or an Anglican +when he turns over the pages of Taylor or of Hooker. Burke's attitude in +these high transactions is really more impressive than Chatham's, because +he was far less theatrical than Chatham; and while he was no less nobly +passionate for freedom and justice, in his passion was fused the most +strenuous political argumentation and sterling reason of state. On the +other hand he was wholly free from that quality which he ascribed to Lord +George Sackville, a man "apt to take a sort of undecided, equivocal, narrow +ground, that evades the substantial merits of the question, and puts the +whole upon some temporary, local, accidental or personal consideration." He +rose to the full height of that great argument. Burke here and everywhere +else displayed the rare art of filling his subject with generalities, and +yet never intruding commonplaces. No publicist who deals as largely in +general propositions has ever been as free from truisms; no one has ever +treated great themes with so much elevation, and yet been so wholly secured +against the pitfalls of emptiness and the vague. And it is instructive to +compare the foundation of all his pleas for the colonists with that on +which they erected their own theoretic declaration of independence. The +American leaders were impregnated with the metaphysical ideas of rights +which had come to them from the rising revolutionary school in France. +Burke no more adopted the doctrines of Jefferson in 1776 than he adopted +the doctrines of Robespierre in 1793. He says nothing about men being born +free and equal, and on the other hand he never denies the position of the +court and the country at large, that the home legislature, being sovereign, +had the right to tax the colonies. What he does say is that the exercise of +such a right was not practicable; that if it were practicable, it was +inexpedient; and that, even if this had not been inexpedient, yet, after +the colonies had taken to arms, to crush their resistance by military force +would not be more disastrous to them than it would be unfortunate for the +ancient liberties of Great Britain. Into abstract discussion he would not +enter. "Show the thing you contend for to be reason; show it to be common +sense; show it to be the means of attaining some useful end." "The question +with me is not whether you have a right to render your people miserable, +but whether it is not your interest to make them happy." There is no +difference in social spirit and doctrine between his protests against the +maxims of the English common people as to the colonists, and his protests +against the maxims of the French common people as to the court and the +nobles; and it is impossible to find a single principle either asserted or +implied in the speeches on the American revolution which was afterwards +repudiated in the writings on the revolution in France. + +It is one of the signs of Burke's singular and varied eminence that hardly +any two people agree precisely which of his works to mark as the +masterpiece. Every speech or tract that he composed on a great subject +becomes, as we read it, the rival of every other. But the _Speech on +Conciliation_ (1775) has, perhaps, been more universally admired than any +of his other productions, partly because its maxims are of a simpler and +less disputable kind than those which adorn the pieces on France, and +partly because it is most strongly characterized by that deep ethical +quality which is the prime secret of Burke's great style and literary +mastery. In this speech, moreover, and in the only less powerful one of the +preceding year upon American taxation, as well as in the _Letter to the +Sheriffs of Bristol_ in 1777, we see the all-important truth conspicuously +illustrated that half of his eloquence always comes of the thoroughness +with which he gets up his case. No eminent man has ever done more than +Burke to justify the definition of genius as the consummation of the +faculty of taking pains. Labour incessant and intense, if it was not the +source, was at least an inseparable condition of his power. And magnificent +rhetorician though he was, his labour was given less to his diction than to +the facts; his heart was less in the form than the matter. It is true that +his manuscripts were blotted and smeared, and that he made so many +alterations in the proofs that the printer found it worth while to have the +whole set up in type afresh. But there is no polish in his style, as in +that of Junius for example, though there is something a thousand times +better than polish. "Why will you not allow yourself to be persuaded," said +Francis after reading the _Reflections_, "that polish is material to +preservation?" Burke always accepted the rebuke, and flung himself into +vindication of the sense, substance and veracity of what he had written. +His writing is magnificent, because he knew so much, thought so +comprehensively, and felt so strongly. + +The succession of failures in America, culminating in Cornwallis's +surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, wearied the nation, and at length +the persistent and powerful attacks of the opposition began to tell. "At +this time," wrote Burke, in words of manly self-assertion, thirteen years +afterwards, "having a momentary lead (1780-1782), so aided and so +encouraged, and as a feeble instrument in a mighty hand--I do not say I +saved my country--I am sure I did my country important service. There were +few indeed at that time that did not acknowledge it. It was but one voice, +that no man in the kingdom better deserved an honourable provision should +be made for him." In the spring of 1782 Lord North resigned. It seemed as +if the court system which Burke had been denouncing [v.04 p.0830] for a +dozen years was now finally broken, and as if the party which he had been +the chief instrument in instructing, directing and keeping together must +now inevitably possess power for many years to come. Yet in a few months +the whole fabric had fallen, and the Whigs were thrown into opposition for +the rest of the century. The story cannot be omitted in the most summary +account of Burke's life. Lord Rockingham came into office on the fall of +North. Burke was rewarded for services beyond price by being made paymaster +of the forces, with the rank of a privy councillor. He had lost his seat +for Bristol two years before, in consequence of his courageous advocacy of +a measure of tolerance for the Catholics, and his still more courageous +exposure of the enormities of the commercial policy of England towards +Ireland. He sat during the rest of his parliamentary life (to 1794) for +Malton, a pocket borough first of Lord Rockingham's, then of Lord +Fitzwilliam's. Burke's first tenure of office was very brief. He had +brought forward in 1780 a comprehensive scheme of economical reform, with +the design of limiting the resources of jobbery and corruption which the +crown was able to use to strengthen its own sinister influence in +parliament. Administrative reform was, next to peace with the colonies, the +part of the scheme of the new ministry to which the king most warmly +objected. It was carried out with greater moderation than had been +foreshadowed in opposition. But at any rate Burke's own office was not +spared. While Charles Fox's father was at the pay-office (1765-1778) he +realized as the interest of the cash balances which he was allowed to +retain in his hands, nearly a quarter of a million of money. When Burke +came to this post the salary was settled at £4000 a year. He did not enjoy +the income long. In July 1782 Lord Rockingham died; Lord Shelburne took his +place; Fox, who inherited from his father a belief in Lord Shelburne's +duplicity, which his own experience of him as a colleague during the last +three months had made stronger, declined to serve under him. Burke, though +he had not encouraged Fox to take this step, still with his usual loyalty +followed him out of office. This may have been a proper thing to do if +their distrust of Shelburne was incurable, but the next step, coalition +with Lord North against him, was not only a political blunder, but a shock +to party morality, which brought speedy retribution. Either they had been +wrong, and violently wrong, for a dozen years, or else Lord North was the +guiltiest political instrument since Strafford. Burke attempted to defend +the alliance on the ground of the substantial agreement between Fox and +North in public aims. The defence is wholly untenable. The Rockingham Whigs +were as substantially in agreement on public affairs with the Shelburne +Whigs as they were with Lord North. The movement was one of the worst in +the history of English party. It served its immediate purpose, however, for +Lord Shelburne found himself (February 24, 1783) too weak to carry on the +government, and was succeeded by the members of the coalition, with the +duke of Portland for prime minister (April 2, 1783). Burke went back to his +old post at the pay-office and was soon engaged in framing and drawing the +famous India Bill. This was long supposed to be the work of Fox, who was +politically responsible for it. We may be sure that neither he nor Burke +would have devised any government for India which they did not honestly +believe to be for the advantage both of that country and of England. But it +cannot be disguised that Burke had thoroughly persuaded himself that it was +indispensable in the interests of English freedom to strengthen the party +hostile to the court. As we have already said, dread of the peril to the +constitution from the new aims of George III. was the main inspiration of +Burke's political action in home affairs for the best part of his political +life. The India Bill strengthened the anti-court party by transferring the +government of India to seven persons named in the bill, and neither +appointed nor removable by the crown. In other words, the bill gave the +government to a board chosen directly by the House of Commons; and it had +the incidental advantage of conferring on the ministerial party patronage +valued at £300,000 a year, which would remain for a fixed term of years out +of reach of the king. In a word, judging the India Bill from a party point +of view, we see that Burke was now completing the aim of his project of +economic reform. That measure had weakened the influence of the crown by +limiting its patronage. The measure for India weakened the influence of the +crown by giving a mass of patronage to the party which the king hated. But +this was not to be. The India Bill was thrown out by means of a royal +intrigue in the Lords, and the ministers were instantly dismissed (December +18, 1783). Young William Pitt, then only in his twenty-fifth year, had been +chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Shelburne's short ministry, and had +refused to enter the coalition government from an honourable repugnance to +join Lord North. He was now made prime minister. The country in the +election of the next year ratified the king's judgment against the Portland +combination; and the hopes which Burke had cherished for a political +lifetime were irretrievably ruined. + +The six years that followed the great rout of the orthodox Whigs were years +of repose for the country, but it was now that Burke engaged in the most +laborious and formidable enterprise of his life, the impeachment of Warren +Hastings for high crimes and misdemeanours in his government of India. His +interest in that country was of old date. It arose partly from the fact of +William Burke's residence there, partly from his friendship with Philip +Francis, but most of all, we suspect, from the effect which he observed +Indian influence to have in demoralizing the House of Commons. "Take my +advice for once in your life," Francis wrote to Shee; "lay aside 40,000 +rupees for a seat in parliament: in this country that alone makes all the +difference between somebody and nobody." The relations, moreover, between +the East India Company and the government were of the most important kind, +and occupied Burke's closest attention from the beginning of the American +war down to his own India Bill and that of Pitt and Dundas. In February +1785 he delivered one of the most famous of all his speeches, that on the +nabob of Arcot's debts. The real point of this superb declamation was +Burke's conviction that ministers supported the claims of the fraudulent +creditors in order to secure the corrupt advantages of a sinister +parliamentary interest. His proceedings against Hastings had a deeper +spring. The story of Hastings's crimes, as Macaulay says, made the blood of +Burke boil in his veins. He had a native abhorrence of cruelty, of +injustice, of disorder, of oppression, of tyranny, and all these things in +all their degrees marked Hastings's course in India. They were, moreover, +concentrated in individual cases, which exercised Burke's passionate +imagination to its profoundest depths, and raised it to such a glow of +fiery intensity as has never been rivalled in our history. For it endured +for fourteen years, and was just as burning and as terrible when Hastings +was acquitted in 1795, as in the select committee of 1781 when Hastings's +enormities were first revealed. "If I were to call for a reward," wrote +Burke, "it would be for the services in which for fourteen years, without +intermission, I showed the most industry and had the least success, I mean +in the affairs of India; they are those on which I value myself the most; +most for the importance; most for the labour; most for the judgment; most +for constancy and perseverance in the pursuit." Sheridan's speech in the +House of Commons upon the charge relative to the begums of Oude probably +excelled anything that Burke achieved, as a dazzling performance abounding +in the most surprising literary and rhetorical effects. But neither +Sheridan nor Fox was capable of that sustained and overflowing indignation +at outraged justice and oppressed humanity, that consuming moral fire, +which burst forth again and again from the chief manager of the +impeachment, with such scorching might as drove even the cool and intrepid +Hastings beyond all self-control, and made him cry out with protests and +exclamations like a criminal writhing under the scourge. Burke, no doubt, +in the course of that unparalleled trial showed some prejudice; made some +minor overstatements of his case; used many intemperances; and suffered +himself to be provoked into expressions of heat and impatience by the +cabals of the defendant and his party, and the intolerable incompetence of +the tribunal. It is one of the inscrutable perplexities of human affairs, +that in the logic of practical [v.04 p.0831] life, in order to reach +conclusions that cover enough for truth, we are constantly driven to +premises that cover too much, and that in order to secure their right +weight to justice and reason good men are forced to fling the two-edged +sword of passion into the same scale. But these excuses were mere trifles, +and well deserve to be forgiven, when we think that though the offender was +in form acquitted, yet Burke succeeded in these fourteen years of laborious +effort in laying the foundations once for all of a moral, just, +philanthropic and responsible public opinion in England with reference to +India, and in doing so performed perhaps the most magnificent service that +any statesman has ever had it in his power to render to humanity. + +Burke's first decisive step against Hastings was a motion for papers in the +spring of 1786; the thanks of the House of Commons to the managers of the +impeachment were voted in the summer of 1794. But in those eight years some +of the most astonishing events in history had changed the political face of +Europe. Burke was more than sixty years old when the states-general met at +Versailles in the spring of 1789. He had taken a prominent part on the side +of freedom in the revolution which stripped England of her empire in the +West. He had taken a prominent part on the side of justice, humanity and +order in dealing with the revolution which had brought to England new +empire in the East. The same vehement passion for freedom, justice, +humanity and order was roused in him at a very early stage of the third +great revolution in his history--the revolution which overthrew the old +monarchy in France. From the first Burke looked on the events of 1789 with +doubt and misgiving. He had been in France in 1773, where he had not only +the famous vision of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, "glittering like the +morning star, full of life, and splendour and joy," but had also supped and +discussed with some of the destroyers, the encyclopaedists, "the +sophisters, economists and calculators." His first speech on his return to +England was a warning (March 17, 1773) that the props of good government +were beginning to fail under the systematic attacks of unbelievers, and +that principles were being propagated that would not leave to civil society +any stability. The apprehension never died out in his mind; and when he +knew that the principles and abstractions, the un-English dialect and +destructive dialectic, of his former acquaintances were predominant in the +National Assembly, his suspicion that the movement would end in disastrous +miscarriage waxed into certainty. + +The scene grew still more sinister in his eyes after the march of the mob +from Paris to Versailles in October, and the violent transport of the king +and queen from Versailles to Paris. The same hatred of lawlessness and +violence which fired him with a divine rage against the Indian malefactors +was aroused by the violence and lawlessness of the Parisian insurgents. The +same disgust for abstractions and naked doctrines of right that had stirred +him against the pretensions of the British parliament in 1774 and 1776, was +revived in as lively a degree by political conceptions which he judged to +be identical in the French assembly of 1789. And this anger and disgust +were exasperated by the dread with which certain proceedings in England had +inspired him, that the aims, principles, methods and language which he so +misdoubted or abhorred in France were likely to infect the people of Great +Britain. + +In November 1790 the town, which had long been eagerly expecting a +manifesto from Burke's pen, was electrified by the _Reflections on the +Revolution in France, and on the proceedings in certain societies in London +relative to that event_. The generous Windham made an entry in his diary of +his reception of the new book. "What shall be said," he added, "of the +state of things, when it is remembered that the writer is a man decried, +persecuted and proscribed; not being much valued even by his own party, and +by half the nation considered as little better than an ingenious madman?" +But the writer now ceased to be decried, persecuted and proscribed, and his +book was seized as the expression of that new current of opinion in Europe +which the more recent events of the Revolution had slowly set flowing. Its +vogue was instant and enormous. Eleven editions were exhausted in little +more than a year, and there is probably not much exaggeration in the +estimate that 30,000 copies were sold before Burke's death seven years +afterwards. George III. was extravagantly delighted; Stanislaus of Poland +sent Burke words of thanks and high glorification and a gold medal. +Catherine of Russia, the friend of Voltaire and the benefactress of +Diderot, sent her congratulations to the man who denounced French +philosophers as miscreants and wretches. "One wonders," Romilly said, by +and by, "that Burke is not ashamed at such success." Mackintosh replied to +him temperately in the _Vindiciae Gallicae_, and Thomas Paine replied to +him less temperately but far more trenchantly and more shrewdly in the +_Rights of Man_. Arthur Young, with whom he had corresponded years before +on the mysteries of deep ploughing and fattening hogs, added a cogent +polemical chapter to that ever admirable work, in which he showed that he +knew as much more than Burke about the old system of France as he knew more +than Burke about soils and roots. Philip Francis, to whom he had shown the +proof-sheets, had tried to dissuade Burke from publishing his performance. +The passage about Marie Antoinette, which has since become a stock piece in +books of recitation, seemed to Francis a mere piece of foppery; for was she +not a Messalina and a jade? "I know nothing of your story of Messalina," +answered Burke; "am I obliged to prove judicially the virtues of all those +I shall see suffering every kind of wrong and contumely and risk of life, +before I endeavour to interest others in their sufferings?... Are not high +rank, great splendour of descent, great personal elegance and outward +accomplishments ingredients of moment in forming the interest we take in +the misfortunes of men?... I tell you again that the recollection of the +manner in which I saw the queen of France in 1774, and the contrast between +that brilliancy, splendour and beauty, with the prostrate homage of a +nation to her, and the abominable scene of 1780 which I was describing, +_did_ draw tears from me and wetted my paper. These tears came again into +my eyes almost as often as I looked at the description,--they may again. +You do not believe this fact, nor that these are my real feelings; but that +the whole is affected, or as you express it, downright foppery. My friend, +I tell you it is truth; and that it is true and will be truth when you and +I are no more; and will exist as long as men with their natural feelings +shall exist" (_Corr._ iii. 139). + +Burke's conservatism was, as such a passage as this may illustrate, the +result partly of strong imaginative associations clustering round the more +imposing symbols of social continuity, partly of a sort of corresponding +conviction in his reason that there are certain permanent elements of human +nature out of which the European order had risen and which that order +satisfied, and of whose immense merits, as of its mighty strength, the +revolutionary party in France were most fatally ignorant. When Romilly saw +Diderot in 1783, the great encyclopaedic chief assured him that submission +to kings and belief in God would be at an end all over the world in a very +few years. When Condorcet described the Tenth Epoch in the long development +of human progress, he was sure not only that fulness of light and +perfection of happiness would come to the sons of men, but that they were +coming with all speed. Only those who know the incredible rashness of the +revolutionary doctrine in the mouths of its most powerful professors at +that time; only those who know their absorption in ends and their +inconsiderateness about means, can feel how profoundly right Burke was in +all this part of his contention. Napoleon, who had begun life as a disciple +of Rousseau, confirmed the wisdom of the philosophy of Burke when he came +to make the Concordat. That measure was in one sense the outcome of a mere +sinister expediency, but that such a measure was expedient at all sufficed +to prove that Burke's view of the present possibilities of social change +was right, and the view of the Rousseauites and too sanguine +Perfectibilitarians wrong. As we have seen, Burke's very first niece, the +satire on Bolingbroke, sprang from his conviction that merely rationalistic +or destructive criticism, applied to the vast complexities of man [v.04 +p.0832] in the social union, is either mischievous or futile, and +mischievous exactly in proportion as it is not futile. + +To discuss Burke's writings on the Revolution would be to write first a +volume upon the abstract theory of society, and then a second volume on the +history of France. But we may make one or two further remarks. One of the +most common charges against Burke was that he allowed his imagination and +pity to be touched only by the sorrows of kings and queens, and forgot the +thousands of oppressed and famine-stricken toilers of the land. "No tears +are shed for nations," cried Francis, whose sympathy for the Revolution was +as passionate as Burke's execration of it. "When the provinces are scourged +to the bone by a mercenary and merciless military power, and every drop of +its blood and substance extorted from it by the edicts of a royal council, +the case seems very tolerable to those who are not involved in it. When +thousands after thousands are dragooned out of their country for the sake +of their religion, or sent to row in the galleys for selling salt against +law,--when the liberty of every individual is at the mercy of every +prostitute, pimp or parasite that has access to power or any of its basest +substitutes,--my mind, I own, is not at once prepared to be satisfied with +gentle palliatives for such disorders" (_Francis to Burke_, November 3, +1790). This is a very terse way of putting a crucial objection to Burke's +whole view of French affairs in 1789. His answer was tolerably simple. The +Revolution, though it had made an end of the Bastille, did not bring the +only real practical liberty, that is to say, the liberty which comes with +settled courts of justice, administering settled laws, undisturbed by +popular fury, independent of everything but law, and with a clear law for +their direction. The people, he contended, were no worse off under the old +monarchy than they will be in the long run under assemblies that are bound +by the necessity of feeding one part of the community at the grievous +charge of other parts, as necessitous as those who are so fed; that are +obliged to flatter those who have their lives at their disposal by +tolerating acts of doubtful influence on commerce and agriculture, and for +the sake of precarious relief to sow the seeds of lasting want; that will +be driven to be the instruments of the violence of others from a sense of +their own weakness, and, by want of authority to assess equal and +proportioned charges upon all, will be compelled to lay a strong hand upon +the possessions of a part. As against the moderate section of the +Constituent Assembly this was just. + +One secret of Burke's views of the Revolution was the contempt which he had +conceived for the popular leaders in the earlier stages of the movement. In +spite of much excellence of intention, much heroism, much energy, it is +hardly to be denied that the leaders whom that movement brought to the +surface were almost without exception men of the poorest political +capacity. Danton, no doubt, was abler than most of the others, yet the +timidity or temerity with which he allowed himself to be vanquished by +Robespierre showed that even he was not a man of commanding quality. The +spectacle of men so rash, and so incapable of controlling the forces which +they seemed to have presumptuously summoned, excited in Burke both +indignation and contempt. And the leaders of the Constituent who came first +on the stage, and hoped to make a revolution with rose-water, and hardly +realized any more than Burke did how rotten was the structure which they +had undertaken to build up, almost deserved his contempt, even if, as is +certainly true, they did not deserve his indignation. It was only by +revolutionary methods, which are in their essence and for a time as +arbitrary as despotic methods, that the knot could be cut. Burke's vital +error was his inability to see that a root and branch revolution was, under +the conditions, inevitable. His cardinal position, from which he deduced so +many important conclusions, namely, that, the parts and organs of the old +constitution of France were sound, and only needed moderate invigoration, +is absolutely mistaken and untenable. There was not a single chamber in the +old fabric that was not crumbling and tottering. The court was frivolous, +vacillating, stone deaf and stone blind; the gentry were amiable, but +distinctly bent to the very last on holding to their privileges, and they +were wholly devoid both of the political experience that only comes of +practical responsibility for public affairs, and of the political sagacity +that only comes of political experience. The parliaments or tribunals were +nests of faction and of the deepest social incompetence. The very sword of +the state broke short in the king's hand. If the king or queen could either +have had the political genius of Frederick the Great, or could have had the +good fortune to find a minister with that genius, and the good sense and +good faith to trust and stand by him against mobs of aristocrats and mobs +of democrats; if the army had been sound and the states-general had been +convoked at Bourges or Tours instead of at Paris, then the type of French +monarchy and French society might have been modernized without convulsion. +But none of these conditions existed. + +When he dealt with the affairs of India Burke passed over the circumstances +of our acquisition of power in that continent. "There is a sacred veil to +be drawn over the beginnings of all government," he said. "The first step +to empire is revolution, by which power is conferred; the next is good +laws, good order, good institutions, to give that power stability." Exactly +on this broad principle of political force, revolution was the first step +to the assumption by the people of France of their own government. Granted +that the Revolution was inevitable and indispensable, how was the nation to +make the best of it? And how were surrounding nations to make the best of +it? This was the true point of view. But Burke never placed himself at such +a point. He never conceded the postulate, because, though he knew France +better than anybody in England except Arthur Young, he did not know her +condition well enough. "Alas!" he said, "they little know how many a weary +step is to be taken before they can form themselves into a mass which has a +true political personality." + +Burke's view of French affairs, however consistent with all his former +political conceptions, put an end to more than one of his old political +friendships. He had never been popular in the House of Commons, and the +vehemence, sometimes amounting to fury, which he had shown in the debates +on the India Bill, on the regency, on the impeachment of Hastings, had made +him unpopular even among men on his own side. In May 1789--that memorable +month of May in which the states-general marched in impressive array to +hear a sermon at the church of Notre Dame at Versailles--a vote of censure +had actually been passed on him in the House of Commons for a too severe +expression used against Hastings. Fox, who led the party, and Sheridan, who +led Fox, were the intimates of the prince of Wales; and Burke would have +been as much out of place in that circle of gamblers and profligates as +Milton would have been out of place in the court of the Restoration. The +prince, as somebody said, was like his father in having closets within +cabinets and cupboards within closets. When the debates on the regency were +at their height we have Burke's word that he was not admitted to the +private counsels of the party. Though Fox and he were on friendly terms in +society, yet Burke admits that for a considerable period before 1790 there +had been between them "distance, coolness and want of confidence, if not +total alienation on his part." The younger Whigs had begun to press for +shorter parliaments, for the ballot, for redistribution of political power. +Burke had never looked with any favour on these projects. His experience of +the sentiment of the populace in the two greatest concerns of his +life,--American affairs and Indian affairs,--had not been likely to +prepossess him in favour of the popular voice as the voice of superior +political wisdom. He did not absolutely object to some remedy in the state +of representation (_Corr._ ii. 387), still he vigorously resisted such +proposals as the duke of Richmond's in 1780 for manhood suffrage. The +general ground was this:--"The machine itself is well enough to answer any +good purpose, provided the materials were sound. But what signifies the +arrangement of rottenness?" + +Bad as the parliaments of George III. were, they contained their full share +of eminent and capable men; and, what is more, their very defects were the +exact counterparts of what we now look back upon as the prevailing +stupidity in the country. [v.04 p.0833] What Burke valued was good +government. His _Report on the Causes of the Duration of Mr Hastings's +Trial_ shows how wide and sound were his views of law reform. His _Thoughts +on Scarcity_ attest his enlightenment on the central necessities of trade +and manufacture, and even furnished arguments to Cobden fifty years +afterwards. Pitt's parliaments were competent to discuss, and willing to +pass, all measures for which the average political intelligence of the +country was ripe. Burke did not believe that altered machinery was at that +time needed to improve the quality of legislation. If wiser legislation +followed the great reform of 1832, Burke would have said this was because +the political intelligence of the country had improved. + +Though averse at all times to taking up parliamentary reform, he thought +all such projects downright crimes in the agitation of 1791-1792. This was +the view taken by Burke, but it was not the view of Fox, nor of Sheridan, +nor of Francis, nor of many others of his party, and difference of opinion +here was naturally followed by difference of opinion upon affairs in +France. Fox, Grey, Windham, Sheridan, Francis, Lord Fitzwilliam, and most +of the other Whig leaders, welcomed the Revolution in France. And so did +Pitt, too, for some time. "How much the greatest event it is that ever +happened in the world," cried Fox, with the exaggeration of a man ready to +dance the carmagnole, "and how much the best!" The dissension between a man +who felt so passionately as Burke, and a man who spoke so impulsively as +Charles Fox, lay in the very nature of things. Between Sheridan and Burke +there was an open breach in the House of Commons upon the Revolution so +early as February 1790, and Sheridan's influence with Fox was strong. This +divergence of opinion destroyed all the elation that Burke might well have +felt at his compliments from kings, his gold medals, his twelve editions. +But he was too fiercely in earnest in his horror of Jacobinism to allow +mere party associations to guide him. In May 1791 the thundercloud burst, +and a public rupture between Burke and Fox took place in the House of +Commons. + +The scene is famous in English parliamentary annals. The minister had +introduced a measure for the division of the province of Canada and for the +establishment of a local legislature in each division. Fox in the course of +debate went out of his way to laud the Revolution, and to sneer at some of +the most effective passages in the _Reflections_. Burke was not present, +but he announced his determination to reply. On the day when the Quebec +Bill was to come on again, Fox called upon Burke, and the pair walked +together from Burke's house in Duke Street down to Westminster. The Quebec +Bill was recommitted, and Burke at once rose and soon began to talk his +usual language against the Revolution, the rights of man, and Jacobinism +whether English or French. There was a call to order. Fox, who was as sharp +and intolerant in the House as he was amiable out of it, interposed with +some words of contemptuous irony. Pitt, Grey, Lord Sheffield, all plunged +into confused and angry debate as to whether the French Revolution was a +good thing, and whether the French Revolution, good or bad, had anything to +do with the Quebec Bill. At length Fox, in seconding a motion for confining +the debate to its proper subject, burst into the fatal question beyond the +subject, taxing Burke with inconsistency, and taunting him with having +forgotten that ever-admirable saying of his own about the insurgent +colonists, that he did not know how to draw an indictment against a whole +nation. Burke replied in tones of firm self-repression; complained of the +attack that had been made upon him; reviewed Fox's charges of +inconsistency; enumerated the points on which they had disagreed, and +remarked that such disagreements had never broken their friendship. But +whatever the risk of enmity, and however bitter the loss of friendship, he +would never cease from the warning to flee from the French constitution. +"But there is no loss of friends," said Fox in an eager undertone. "Yes," +said Burke, "there _is_ a loss of friends. I know the penalty of toy +conduct. I have done my duty at the price of my friend--our friendship is +at an end." Fox rose, but was so overcome that for some moments he could +not speak. At length, his eyes streaming with tears, and in a broken voice, +he deplored the breach of a twenty years' friendship on a political +question. Burke was inexorable. To him the political question was so vivid, +so real, so intense, as to make all personal sentiment no more than dust in +the balance. Burke confronted Jacobinism with the relentlessness of a +Jacobin. The rupture was never healed, and Fox and he had no relations with +one another henceforth beyond such formal interviews as took place in the +manager's box in Westminster Hall in connexion with the impeachment. + +A few months afterwards Burke published the _Appeal from the New to the Old +Whigs_, a grave, calm and most cogent vindication of the perfect +consistency of his criticisms upon the English Revolution of 1688 and upon +the French Revolution of 1789, with the doctrines of the great Whigs who +conducted and afterwards defended in Anne's reign the transfer of the crown +from James to William and Mary. The _Appeal_ was justly accepted as a +satisfactory performance for the purpose with which it was written. Events, +however, were doing more than words could do, to confirm the public opinion +of Burke's sagacity and foresight. He had always divined by the instinct of +hatred that the French moderates must gradually be swept away by the +Jacobins, and now it was all coming true. The humiliation of the king and +queen after their capture at Varennes; the compulsory acceptance of the +constitution; the plain incompetence of the new Legislative Assembly; the +growing violence of the Parisian mob, and the ascendency of the Jacobins at +the Common Hall; the fierce day of the 20th of June (1792), when the mob +flooded the Tuileries, and the bloodier day of the loth of August, when the +Swiss guard was massacred and the royal family flung into prison; the +murders in the prisons in September; the trial and execution of the king in +January (1793); the proscription of the Girondins in June, the execution of +the queen in October--if we realize the impression likely to be made upon +the sober and homely English imagination by such a heightening of horror by +horror, we may easily understand how people came to listen to Burke's voice +as the voice of inspiration, and to look on his burning anger as the holy +fervour of a prophet of the Lord. + +Fox still held to his old opinions as stoutly as he could, and condemned +and opposed the war which England had declared against the French republic. +Burke, who was profoundly incapable of the meanness of letting personal +estrangement blind his eyes to what was best for the commonwealth, kept +hoping against hope that each new trait of excess in France would at length +bring the great Whig leader to a better mind. He used to declaim by the +hour in the conclaves at Burlington House upon the necessity of securing +Fox; upon the strength which his genius would lend to the administration in +its task of grappling with the sanguinary giant; upon the impossibility, at +least, of doing either with him or without him. Fox's most important +political friends who had long wavered, at length, to Burke's great +satisfaction, went over to the side of the government. In July 1794 the +duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, Windham and Grenville took office under +Pitt. Fox was left with a minority which was satirically said not to have +been more than enough to fill a hackney coach. "That is a calumny," said +one of the party, "we should have filled two." The war was prosecuted with +the aid of both the great parliamentary parties of the country, and with +the approval of the great bulk of the nation. Perhaps the one man in +England who in his heart approved of it less than any other was William +Pitt. The difference between Pitt and Burke was nearly as great as that +between Burke and Fox. Burke would be content with nothing short of a +crusade against France, and war to the death with her rulers. "I cannot +persuade myself," he said, "that this war bears any the least resemblance +to any that has ever existed in the world. I cannot persuade myself that +any examples or any reasonings drawn from other wars and other politics are +at all applicable to it" (_Corr._ iv. 219). Pitt, on the other hand, as +Lord Russell truly says, treated Robespierre and Carnot as he would have +treated any other French rulers, whose ambition was to be resisted, and +whose interference in the affairs of other nations was to be checked. And +he entered upon the matter [v.04 p.0834] in the spirit of a man of +business, by sending ships to seize some islands belonging to France in the +West Indies, so as to make certain of repayment of the expenses of the war. + +In the summer of 1794 Burke was struck to the ground by a blow to his +deepest affection in life, and he never recovered from it. His whole soul +was wrapped up in his only son, of whose abilities he had the most +extravagant estimate and hope. All the evidence goes to show that Richard +Burke was one of the most presumptuous and empty-headed of human beings. +"He is the most impudent and opiniative fellow I ever knew," said Wolfe +Tone. Gilbert Elliot, a very different man, gives the same account. +"Burke," he says, describing a dinner party at Lord Fitzwilliam's in 1793, +"has now got such a train after him as would sink anybody but himself: his +son, who is quite _nauseated_ by all mankind; his brother, who is liked +better than his son, but is rather oppressive with animal spirits and +brogue; and his cousin, William Burke, who is just returned unexpectedly +from India, as much ruined as when he went years ago, and who is a fresh +charge on any prospects of power Burke may ever have. Mrs Burke has in her +train Miss French [Burke's niece], the most perfect _She Paddy_ that ever +was caught. Notwithstanding these disadvantages Burke is in himself a sort +of power in the state. It is not too much to say that he is a sort of power +in Europe, though totally without any of those means or the smallest share +in them which give or maintain power in other men." Burke accepted the +position of a power in Europe seriously. Though no man was ever more free +from anything like the egoism of the intellectual coxcomb, yet he abounded +in that active self-confidence and self-assertion which is natural in men +who are conscious of great powers, and strenuous in promoting great causes. +In the summer of 1791 he despatched his son to Coblenz to give advice to +the royalist exiles, then under the direction of Calonne, and to report to +him at Beaconsfield their disposition and prospects. Richard Burke was +received with many compliments, but of course nothing came of his mission, +and the only impression that remains with the reader of his prolix story is +his tale of the two royal brothers, who afterwards became Louis XVIII. and +Charles X., meeting after some parting, and embracing one another with many +tears on board a boat in the middle of the Rhine, while some of the +courtiers raised a cry of "Long live the king"--the king who had a few +weeks before been carried back in triumph to his capital with Mayor Pétion +in his coach. When we think of the pass to which things had come in Paris +by this time, and of the unappeasable ferment that boiled round the court, +there is a certain touch of the ludicrous in the notion of poor Richard +Burke writing to Louis XVI. a letter of wise advice how to comport himself. + +At the end of the same year, with the approval of his father he started for +Ireland as the adviser of the Catholic Association. He made a wretched +emissary, and there was no limit to his arrogance, noisiness and +indiscretion. The Irish agitators were glad to give him two thousand +guineas and to send him home. The mission is associated with a more +important thing, his father's _Letters to Sir Hercules Langrishe_, +advocating the admission of the Irish Catholics to the franchise. This +short piece abounds richly in maxims of moral and political prudence. And +Burke exhibited considerable courage in writing it; for many of its maxims +seem to involve a contradiction, first, to the principles on which he +withstood the movement in France, and second, to his attitude upon the +subject of parliamentary reform. The contradiction is in fact only +superficial. Burke was not the man to fall unawares into a trap of this +kind. His defence of Catholic relief--and it had been the conviction of a +lifetime--was very properly founded on propositions which were true of +Ireland, and were true neither of France nor of the quality of +parliamentary representation in England. Yet Burke threw such breadth and +generality over all he wrote that even these propositions, relative as they +were, form a short manual of statesmanship. + +At the close of the session of 1794 the impeachment of Hastings had come to +an end, and Burke bade farewell to parliament. Richard Burke was elected in +his father's place at Malton. The king was bent on making the champion of +the old order of Europe a peer. His title was to be Lord Beaconsfield, and +it was designed to annex to the title an income for three lives. The patent +was being made ready, when all was arrested by the sudden death of the son +who was to Burke more than life. The old man's grief was agonizing and +inconsolable. "The storm has gone over me," he wrote in words which are +well known, but which can hardly be repeated too often for any who have an +ear for the cadences of noble and pathetic speech,--"The storm has gone +over me, and I lie like one of those old oaks which the late hurricane has +scattered about me. I am stripped of all my honours; I am torn up by the +roots and lie prostrate on the earth.... I am alone. I have none to meet my +enemies in the gate.... I live in an inverted order. They who ought to have +succeeded me have gone before me. They who should have been to me as +posterity are in the place of ancestors." + +A pension of £2500 was all that Burke could now be persuaded to accept. The +duke of Bedford and Lord Lauderdale made some remarks in parliament upon +this paltry reward to a man who, in conducting a great trial on the public +behalf, had worked harder for nearly ten years than any minister in any +cabinet of the reign. But it was not yet safe to kick up heels in face of +the dying lion. The vileness of such criticism was punished, as it deserved +to be, in the _Letter to a Noble Lord_ (1796), in which Burke showed the +usual art of all his compositions in shaking aside the insignificances of a +subject. He turned mere personal defence and retaliation into an occasion +for a lofty enforcement of constitutional principles, and this, too, with a +relevancy and pertinence of consummate skilfulness. There was to be one +more great effort before the end. + +In the spring of 1796 Pitt's constant anxiety for peace had become more +earnest than ever. He had found out the instability of the coalition and +the power of France. Like the thrifty steward he was, he saw with growing +concern the waste of the national resources and the strain upon commerce, +with a public debt swollen to what then seemed the desperate sum of +£400,000,000. Burke at the notion of negotiation flamed out in the _Letters +on a Regicide Peace_, in some respects the most splendid of all his +compositions. They glow with passion, and yet with all their rapidity is +such steadfastness, the fervour of imagination is so skilfully tempered by +close and plausible reasoning, and the whole is wrought with such strength +and fire, that we hardly know where else to look either in Burke's own +writings or elsewhere for such an exhibition of the rhetorical resources of +our language. We cannot wonder that the whole nation was stirred to the +very depths, or that they strengthened the aversion of the king, of Windham +and other important personages in the government against the plans of Pitt. +The prudence of their drift must be settled by external considerations. +Those who think that the French were likely to show a moderation and +practical reasonableness in success, such as they had never shown in the +hour of imminent ruin, will find Burke's judgment full of error and +mischief. Those, on the contrary, who think that the nation which was on +the very eve of surrendering itself to the Napoleonic absolutism was not in +a hopeful humour for peace and the European order, will believe that +Burke's protests were as perspicacious as they were powerful, and that +anything which chilled the energy of the war was as fatal as he declared it +to be. + +When the third and most impressive of these astonishing productions came +into the hands of the public, the writer was no more. Burke died on the 8th +of July 1797. Fox, who with all his faults was never wanting in a fine and +generous sensibility, proposed that there should be a public funeral, and +that the body should lie among the illustrious dead in Westminster Abbey. +Burke, however, had left strict injunctions that his burial should be +private; and he was laid in the little church at Beaconsfield. It was the +year of Campo Formio. So a black whirl and torment of rapine, violence and +fraud was encircling the Western world, as a life went out which, +notwithstanding some eccentricities [v.04 p.0835] and some aberrations, had +made great tides in human destiny very luminous. + +(J. MO.) + +AUTHORITIES.--Of the _Collected Works_, there are two main editions--the +quarto and the octavo. (1) Quarto, in eight volumes, begun in 1792, under +the editorship of Dr F. Lawrence; vols. i.-iii. were published in 1792; +vols. iv.-viii., edited by Dr Walter King, sometime bishop of Rochester, +were completed in 1827. (2) Octavo in sixteen volumes. This was begun at +Burke's death, also by Drs Lawrence and King; vols. i.-viii. were published +in 1803 and reissued in 1808, when Dr Lawrence died; vols. ix.-xii. were +published in 1813 and the remaining four vols. in 1827. A new edition of +vols. i.-viii. was published in 1823 and the contents of vols. i.-xii. in 2 +vols. octavo in 1834. An edition in nine volumes was published in Boston, +Massachusetts, in 1839. This contains the whole of the English edition in +sixteen volumes, with a reprint of the _Account of the European Settlements +in America_ which is not in the English edition. + +Among the numerous editions published later may be mentioned that in +_Bohn's British Classics_, published in 1853. This contains the fifth +edition of Sir James Prior's life; also an edition in twelve volumes, +octavo, published by J.C. Nimmo, 1898. There is an edition of the _Select +Works_ of Burke with introduction and notes by E.J. Payne in the Clarendon +Press series, new edition, 3 vols., 1897. _The Correspondence of Edmund +Burke_, edited by Earl Fitzwilliam and Sir R. Bourke, with appendix, +detached papers and notes for speeches, was published in 4 vols., 1844. +_The Speeches of Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons and Westminster +Hall_, were published in 4 vols., 1816. Other editions of the speeches are +those _On Irish Affairs_, collected and arranged by Matthew Arnold, with a +preface (1881), _On American Taxation, On Conciliation with America_, +together with the _Letter to the Sheriff of Bristol_, edited with +introduction and notes by F.G. Selby (1895). + +The standard life of Burke is that by Sir James Prior, _Memoir of the Life +and Character of Edmund Burke with Specimens of his Poetry and Letters_ +(1824). The lives by C. MacCormick (1798) by R. Bisset (1798, 1800) are of +little value. Other lives are those by the Rev. George Croly (2 vols., +1847), and by T. MacKnight (3 vols., 1898). Of critical estimates of +Burke's life the _Edmund Burke_ of John Morley, "English Men of Letters" +series (1879), is an elaboration of the above article; see also his _Burke, +a Historical Study_ (1867); "Three Essays on Burke," by Sir James Fitzjames +Stephen in _Horae Sabbaticae_, series iii. (1892); and _Peptographia +Dublinensis, Memorial Discourses preached in the Chapel of Trinity College, +Dublin_, 1895-1902; _Edmund Burke_, by G. Chadwick, bishop of Derry (1902). + +BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD (1814-1892), British genealogist, was born in +London, on the 5th of January 1814, and was educated in London and in +France. His father, John Burke (1787-1848), was also a genealogist, and in +1826 issued a _Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and +Baronetage of the United Kingdom_. This work, generally known as _Burke's +Peerage_, has been issued annually since 1847. While practising as a +barrister Bernard Burke assisted his father in his genealogical work, and +in 1848 took control of his publications. In 1853 he was appointed Ulster +king-at-arms; in 1854 he was knighted; and in 1855 he became keeper of the +state papers in Ireland. After having devoted his life to genealogical +studies he died in Dublin on the 12th of December 1892. In addition to +editing _Burke's Peerage_ from 1847 to his death, Burke brought out several +editions of a companion volume, _Burke's Landed Gentry_, which was first +published between 1833 and 1838. In 1866 and 1883 he published editions of +his father's _Dictionary of the Peerages of England, Scotland and Ireland, +extinct, dormant and in abeyance_ (earlier editions, 1831, 1840, 1846); in +1855 and 1876 editions of his _Royal Families of England, Scotland and +Wales_ (1st edition, 1847-1851); and in 1878 and 1883 enlarged editions of +his _Encyclopaedia of Heraldry, or General Armoury of England, Scotland and +Ireland_. Burke's own works include _The Roll of Battle Abbey_ (1848); _The +Romance of the Aristocracy_ (1855); _Vicissitudes of Families_ (1883 and +several earlier editions); and _The Rise of Great Families_ (1882). He was +succeeded as editor of _Burke's Peerage_ and _Landed Gentry_ by his fourth +son, Ashworth Peter Burke. + +BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA (1820-1861), Australian explorer, was born at St +Cleram, Co. Galway, Ireland, in 1820. Descended from a branch of the family +of Clanricarde, he was educated in Belgium, and at twenty years of age +entered the Austrian army, in which he attained the rank of captain. In +1848 he left the Austrian service, and became a member of the Royal Irish +Constabulary. Five years later he emigrated to Tasmania, and shortly +afterwards crossed to Melbourne, where he became an inspector of police. +When the Crimean War broke out he went to England in the hope of securing a +commission in the army, but peace had meanwhile been signed, and he +returned to Victoria and resumed his police duties. At the end of 1857 the +Philosophical Institute of Victoria took up the question of the exploration +of the interior of the Australian continent, and appointed a committee to +inquire into and report upon the subject. In September 1858, when it became +known that John McDouall Stuart had succeeded in penetrating as far as the +centre of Australia, the sum of £1000 was anonymously offered for the +promotion of an expedition to cross the continent from south to north, on +condition that a further sum of £2000 should be subscribed within a +twelvemonth. The amount having been raised within the time specified, the +Victorian parliament supplemented it by a vote of £6000, and an expedition +was organized under the leadership of Burke, with W.J. Wills as surveyor +and astronomical observer. The story of this expedition, which left +Melbourne on the 21st of August 1860, furnishes perhaps the most painful +episode in Australian annals. Ten Europeans and three Sepoys accompanied +the expedition, which was soon torn by internal dissensions. Near Menindie +on the Darling, Landells, Burke's second in command, became insubordinate +and resigned, his example being followed by the doctor--a German. On the +11th of November Burke, with Wills and five assistants, fifteen horses and +sixteen camels, reached Cooper's Creek in Queensland, where a depot was +formed near good grass and abundance of water. Here Burke proposed waiting +the arrival of his third officer, Wright, whom he had sent back from +Torowoto to Menindie to fetch some camels and supplies. Wright, however, +delayed his departure until the 26th of January 1861. Meantime, weary of +waiting, Burke, with Wills, King and Gray as companions, determined on the +16th of December to push on across the continent, leaving an assistant +named Brahe to take care of the depot until Wright's arrival. On the 4th of +February 1861 Burke and his party, worn down by famine, reached the estuary +of the Flinders river, not far from the present site of Normantown on the +Gulf of Carpentaria. On the 26th of February began their return journey. +The party suffered greatly from famine and exposure, and but for the rainy +season, thirst would have speedily ended their miseries. In vain they +looked for the relief which Wright was to bring them. On the 16th of April +Gray died, and the emaciated survivors halted a day to bury his body. That +day's delay, as it turned out, cost Burke and Wills their lives; they +arrived at Cooper's Creek to find the depot deserted. But a few hours +before Brahe, unrelieved by Wright, and thinking that Burke had died or +changed his plans, had taken his departure for the Darling. With such +assistance as they could get from the natives, Burke, and his two +companions struggled on, until death overtook Burke and Wills at the end of +June. King sought the natives, who cared for him until his relief by a +search party in September. No one can deny the heroism of the men whose +lives were sacrificed in this ill-starred expedition. But it is admitted +that the leaders were not bushmen and had had no experience in exploration. +Disunion and disobedience to orders, from the highest to the lowest, +brought about the worst results, and all that now remains to tell the story +of the failure of this vast undertaking is a monument to the memory of the +foolhardy heroes, from the chisel of Charles Summers, erected on a +prominent site in Melbourne. + +BURKE, WILLIAM (1792-1829), Irish criminal, was born in Ireland in 1792. +After trying his hand at a variety of trades there, he went to Scotland +about 1817 as a navvy, and in 1827 was living in a lodging-house in +Edinburgh kept by William Hare, another Irish labourer. Towards the end of +that year one of Hare's lodgers, an old army pensioner, died. This was the +period of the body-snatchers or Resurrectionists, and Hare and Burke, aware +that money could always be obtained for a corpse, sold the body to Dr +Robert Knox, a leading Edinburgh anatomist, for £7, 10s. The price obtained +and the simplicity of the transaction suggested to Hare an easy method of +making a [v.04 p.0836] profitable livelihood, and Burke at once fell in +with the plan. The two men inveigled obscure travellers to Hare's or some +other lodging-house, made them drunk and then suffocated them, taking care +to leave no marks of violence. The bodies were sold to Dr Knox for prices +averaging from £8 to £14. At least fifteen victims had been disposed of in +this way when the suspicions of the police were aroused, and Burke and Hare +were arrested. The latter turned king's evidence, and Burke was found +guilty and hanged at Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1829. Hare found it +impossible, in view of the strong popular feeling, to remain in Scotland. +He is believed to have died in England under an assumed name. From Burke's +method of killing his victims has come the verb "to burke," meaning to +suffocate, strangle or suppress secretly, or to kill with the object of +selling the body for the purposes of dissection. + +See George Macgregor, _History of Burke and Hare and of the Resurrectionist +Times_ (Glasgow, 1884). + +BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES (1694-1748), Swiss publicist, was born at Geneva +on the 24th of June 1694. At the age of twenty-five he was designated +honorary professor of ethics and the law of nature at the university of +Geneva. Before taking up the appointment he travelled through France and +England, and made the acquaintance of the most eminent writers of the +period. On his return he began his lectures, and soon gained a wide +reputation, from the simplicity of his style and the precision of his +views. He continued to lecture for fifteen years, when he was compelled on +account of ill-health to resign. His fellow-citizens at once elected him a +member of the council of state, and he gained as high a reputation for his +practical sagacity as he had for his theoretical knowledge. He died at +Geneva on the 3rd of April 1748. His works were _Principes du droit +naturel_ (1747), and _Principes du droit politique_ (1751). These have +passed through many editions, and were very extensively used as text-books. +Burlamaqui's style is simple and clear, and his arrangement of the material +good. His fundamental principle may be described as rational +utilitarianism, and in many ways it resembles that of Cumberland. + +BURLESQUE (Ital. _burlesco_, from _burla_, a joke, fun, playful trick), a +form of the comic in art, consisting broadly in an imitation of a work of +art with the object of exciting laughter, by distortion or exaggeration, by +turning, for example, the highly rhetorical into bombast, the pathetic into +the mock-sentimental, and especially by a ludicrous contrast between the +subject and the style, making gods speak like common men and common men +like gods. While parody (_q.v._), also based on imitation, relies for its +effect more on the close following of the style of its counterpart, +burlesque depends on broader and coarser effects. Burlesque may be applied +to any form of art, and unconsciously, no doubt, may be found even in +architecture. In the graphic arts it takes the form better known as +"caricature" (_q.v._). Its particular sphere is, however, in literature, +and especially in drama. The _Batrachomachia_, or Battle of the Frogs and +Mice, is the earliest example in classical literature, being a travesty of +the Homeric epic. There are many true burlesque parts in the comedies of +Aristophanes, _e.g._ the appearance of Socrates in the _Clouds_. The +Italian word first appears in the _Opere Burlesche_ of Francesco Berni +(1497-1535). In France during part of the reign of Louis XIV., the +burlesque attained to great popularity; burlesque Aeneids, Iliads and +Odysseys were composed, and even the most sacred subjects were not left +untravestied. Of the numerous writers of these, P. Scarron is most +prominent, and his _Virgile Travesti_ (1648-1653) was followed by numerous +imitators. In English literature Chaucer's _Rime of Sir Thopas_ is a +burlesque of the long-winded medieval romances. Among the best-known true +burlesques in English dramatic literature may be mentioned the 2nd duke of +Buckingham's _The Rehearsal_, a burlesque of the heroic drama; Gay's +_Beggar's Opera_, of the Italian opera; and Sheridan's _The Critic_. In the +later 19th century the name "burlesque" was given to a form of musical +dramatic composition in which the true element of burlesque found little or +no place. These musical burlesques, with which the Gaiety theatre, London, +and the names of Edward Terry, Fred Leslie and Nellie Farren are +particularly connected, developed from the earlier extravaganzas of J.R. +Planché, written frequently round fairy tales. The Gaiety type of burlesque +has since given place to the "musical comedy," and its only survival is to +be found in the modern pantomime. + +BURLINGAME, ANSON (1820-1870), American legislator and diplomat, was born +in New Berlin, Chenango county, New York, on the 14th of November 1820. In +1823 his parents took him to Ohio, and about ten years afterwards to +Michigan. In 1838-1841 he studied in one of the "branches" of the +university of Michigan, and in 1846 graduated at the Harvard law school. He +practised law in Boston, and won a wide reputation by his speeches for the +Free Soil party in 1848. He was a member of the Massachusetts +constitutional convention in 1853, of the state senate in 1853-1854, and of +the national House of Representatives from 1855 to 1861, being elected for +the first term as a "Know Nothing" and afterwards as a member of the new +Republican party, which he helped to organize in Massachusetts. He was an +effective debater in the House, and for his impassioned denunciation (June +21, 1856) of Preston S. Brooks (1819-1857), for his assault upon Senator +Charles Sumner, was challenged by Brooks. Burlingame accepted the challenge +and specified rifles as the weapons to be used; his second chose Navy +Island, above the Niagara Falls, and in Canada, as the place for the +meeting. Brooks, however, refused these conditions, saying that he could +not reach the place designated "without running the gauntlet of mobs and +assassins, prisons and penitentiaries, bailiffs and constables." To +Burlingame's appointment as minister to Austria (March 22, 1861) the +Austrian authorities objected because in Congress he had advocated the +recognition of Sardinia as a first-class power and had championed Hungarian +independence. President Lincoln thereupon appointed him (June 14, 1861) +minister to China. This office he held until November 1867, when he +resigned and was immediately appointed (November 26) envoy extraordinary +and minister plenipotentiary to head a Chinese diplomatic mission to the +United States and the principal European nations. The embassy, which +included two Chinese ministers, an English and a French secretary, six +students from the Tung-wan Kwang at Peking, and a considerable retinue, +arrived in the United States in March 1868, and concluded at Washington +(28th of July 1868) a series of articles, supplementary to the Reed Treaty +of 1858, and later known as "The Burlingame Treaty." Ratifications of the +treaty were not exchanged at Peking until November 23, 1869. The +"Burlingame Treaty" recognizes China's right of eminent domain over all her +territory, gives China the right to appoint at ports in the United States +consuls, "who shall enjoy the same privileges and immunities as those +enjoyed by the consuls of Great Britain and Russia"; provides that +"citizens of the United States in China of every religious persuasion and +Chinese subjects in the United States shall enjoy entire liberty of +conscience and shall be exempt from all disability or persecution on +account of their religious faith or worship in either country"; and grants +certain privileges to citizens of either country residing in the other, the +privilege of naturalization, however, being specifically withheld. After +leaving the United States, the embassy visited several continental +capitals, but made no definite treaties. Burlingame's speeches did much to +awaken interest in, and a more intelligent appreciation of, China's +attitude toward the outside world. He died suddenly at St Petersburg, on +the 23rd of February 1870. + +His son Edward Livermore Burlingame (b. 1848) was educated at Harvard and +at Heidelberg, was a member of the editorial staff of the New York +_Tribune_ in 1871-1872 and of the _American Cyclopaedia_ in 1872-1876, and +in 1886 became the editor of _Scribner's Magazine_. + +BURLINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Des Moines county, Iowa, U.S.A., +on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) +22,565; (1900) 23,201; (1905, state census) 25,318 (4492 foreign-born); +(1910) 24,324. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy (which has +extensive [v.04 p.0837] construction and repair shops here), the Chicago, +Rock Island & Pacific, and the Toledo, Peoria & Western (Pennsylvania +system) railways; and has an extensive river commerce. The river is spanned +here by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway bridge. Many of the +residences are on bluffs commanding beautiful views of river scenery; and +good building material has been obtained from the Burlington limestone +quarries. Crapo Park, of 100 acres, along the river, is one of the +attractions of the city. Among the principal buildings are the county court +house, the free public library, the Tama building, the German-American +savings bank building and the post office. Burlington has three +well-equipped hospitals. Among the city's manufactures are lumber, +furniture, baskets, pearl buttons, cars, carriages and wagons, Corliss +engines, waterworks pumps, metallic burial cases, desks, boxes, crackers, +flour, pickles and beer. The factory product in 1905 was valued at +$5,779,337, or 29.9% more than in 1900. The first white man to visit the +site of Burlington seems to have been Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, who came +in 1805 and recommended the erection of a fort. The American Fur Company +established a post here in 1829 or earlier, but settlement really began in +1833, after the Black Hawk War, and the place had a population of 1200 in +1838. It was laid out as a town and named Flint Hills (a translation of the +Indian name, _Shokokon_) in 1834; but the name was soon changed to +Burlington, after the city of that name in Vermont. Burlington was +incorporated as a town in 1837, and was chartered as a city in 1838 by the +territory of Wisconsin, the city charter being amended by the territory of +Iowa in 1839 and 1841. The territorial legislature of Wisconsin met here +from 1836 to 1838 and that of Iowa from 1838 to 1840. In 1837 a newspaper, +the _Wisconsin Territorial Gazette_, now the Burlington _Evening Gazette_, +and in 1839 another, the Burlington _Hawk Eye_, were founded; the latter +became widely known in the years immediately following 1872 from the +humorous sketches contributed to it by Robert Jones Burdette (b. 1844), an +associate editor, known as the "Burlington Hawk Eye Man," who in 1903 +entered the Baptist ministry and became pastor of the Temple Baptist church +in Los Angeles, California, and among whose publications are _Hawkeyetems_ +(1877), _Hawkeyes_ (1879), and _Smiles Yoked with Sighs_ (1900). + +BURLINGTON, a city of Burlington county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the E. bank +of the Delaware river, 18 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 7264; (1900) +7392, of whom 636 were foreign-born and 590 were of negro descent; (1905) +8038; (1910) 8336. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway, and by +passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Delaware river, connecting +with river and Atlantic coast ports. Burlington is a pleasant residential +city with a number of interesting old mansions long antedating the War of +Independence, some of them the summer homes of old Philadelphia families. +The Burlington Society library, established in 1757 and still conducted +under its original charter granted by George II., is one of the oldest +public libraries in America. At Burlington are St Mary's Hall (1837; +Protestant Episcopal), founded by Bishop G.W. Doane, one of the first +schools for girls to be established in the country, Van Rensselaer Seminary +and the New Jersey State Masonic home. In the old St Mary's church +(Protestant Episcopal), which was built in 1703 and has been called St +Anne's as well as St Mary's, Daniel Coxe (1674-1739), first provincial +grand master of the lodge of Masons in America, was buried; a commemorative +bronze tablet was erected in 1907. Burlington College, founded by Bishop +Doane in 1864, was closed as a college in 1877, but continued as a church +school until 1900; the buildings subsequently passed into the hands of an +iron manufacturer. Burlington's principal industries are the manufacture of +shoes and cast-iron water and gas pipes. Burlington was settled in 1677 by +a colony of English Quakers. The settlement was first known as New Beverly, +but was soon renamed after Bridlington (Burlington), the Yorkshire home of +many of the settlers. In 1682 the assembly of West Jersey gave to +Burlington "Matinicunk Island," above the town, "for the maintaining of a +school for the education of youth"; revenues from a part of the island are +still used for the support of the public schools, and the trust fund is one +of the oldest for educational purposes in the United States. Burlington was +incorporated as a town in 1693 (re-incorporated, 1733), and became the seat +of government of West Jersey. On the union of East and West Jersey in 1702, +it became one of the two seats of government of the new royal province, the +meetings of the legislature generally alternating between Burlington and +Perth Amboy, under both the colonial and the state government, until 1790. +In 1777 the _New Jersey Gazette_, the first newspaper in New Jersey, was +established here; it was published (here and later in Trenton) until 1786, +and was an influential paper, especially during the War of Independence. +Burlington was chartered as a city in 1784. + +See Henry Armitt Brown, _The Settlement of Burlington_ (Burlington, 1878); +George M. Hills, _History of the Church in Burlington_ (Trenton, 1885); and +Mrs A.M. Gummère, _Friends in Burlington_ (Philadelphia, 1884). + +BURLINGTON, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of Chittenden county, +Vermont, U.S.A., on the E. shore of Lake Champlain, in the N.W. part of the +state, 90 m. S.E. of Montreal, and 300 m. N. of New York. It is the largest +city in the state. Pop. (1880) 11,365; (1890) 14,590; (1900) 18,640, of +whom 3726 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 20,468. It is served by the +Central Vermont and the Rutland railways, and by lines of passenger and +freight steamboats on Lake Champlain. The city is attractively situated on +an arm of Lake Champlain, being built on a strip of land extending about 6 +m. south from the mouth of the Winooski river along the lake shore and +gradually rising from the water's edge to a height of 275 ft.; its +situation and its cool and equable summer climate have given it a wide +reputation as a summer resort, and it is a centre for yachting, canoeing +and other aquatic sports. During the winter months it has ice-boat +regattas. Burlington is the seat of the university of Vermont (1791; +non-sectarian and co-educational), whose official title in 1865 became "The +University of Vermont and State Agricultural College." The university is +finely situated on a hill (280 ft. above the lake) commanding a charming +view of the city, lake, the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains. It has +departments of arts, sciences and medicine, and a library of 74,800 volumes +and 32,936 pamphlets housed in the Billings Library, designed by H.H. +Richardson. The university received the Federal grants under the Morrill +acts of 1862 and 1890, and in connexion with it the Vermont agricultural +experiment station is maintained. At Burlington are also the Mt St Mary's +academy (1889, Roman Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Mercy; and two +business colleges. Among the principal buildings are the city hall, the +Chittenden county court house, the Federal and the Y.M.C.A. buildings, the +Masonic temple, the Roman Catholic cathedral and the Edmunds high school. +Burlington's charitable institutions include the Mary Fletcher hospital, +the Adams mission home, the Lousia Howard mission, the Providence orphan +asylum, and homes for aged women, friendless women and destitute children. +The Fletcher free public library (47,000 volumes in 1908) is housed in a +Carnegie building. In the city are two sanitariums. The city has two parks +(one, Ethan Allen Park, is on a bluff in the north-west part of the city, +and commands a fine view) and four cemeteries; in Green Mount Cemetery, +which overlooks the Winooski valley, is a monument over the grave of Ethan +Allen, who lived in Burlington from 1778 until his death. Fort Ethan Allen, +a United States military post, is about 3 m. east of the city, with which +it is connected by an electric line. Burlington is the most important +manufacturing centre in the state; among its manufactures are sashes, doors +and blinds, boxes, furniture and wooden-ware, cotton and woollen goods, +patent medicines, refrigerators, house furnishings, paper and machinery. In +1905 the city's factory products were valued at $6,355,754, three-tenths of +which was the value of lumber and planing mill products, including sashes, +doors and blinds. The Winooski river, which forms the boundary between +Burlington and the township of Colchester and which enters Lake Champlain +N.W. of the city, [v.04 p.0838] furnishes valuable water-power, but most of +the manufactories are operated by steam. Quantities of marble were formerly +taken from quarries in the vicinity. The city is a wholesale distributing +centre for all northern Vermont and New Hampshire, and is one of the +principal lumber markets in the east, most of the lumber being imported +from Canada. It is the port of entry for the Vermont customs district, +whose exports and imports were valued respectively in 1907 at $8,333,024 +and $5,721,034. A charter for a town to be founded here was granted by the +province of New Hampshire in 1763, but no settlement was made until 1774. +Burlington was chartered as a city in 1865. + +BURMA, a province of British India, including the former kingdom of +independent Burma, as well as British Burma, acquired by the British Indian +government in the two wars of 1826 and 1852. It is divided into Upper and +Lower Burma, the former being the territory annexed on 1st January 1886. +The province lies to the east of the Bay of Bengal, and covers a range of +country extending from the Pakchan river in 9° 55' north latitude to the +Naga and Chingpaw, or Kachin hills, lying roughly between the 27th and 28th +degrees of north latitude; and from the Bay of Bengal on the west to the +Mekong river, the boundary of the dependent Shan States on the east, that +is to say, roughly, between the 92nd and 100th degrees of east longitude. +The extreme length from north to south is almost 1200 m., and the broadest +part, which is in about latitude 21° north, is 575 m. from east to west. On +the N. it is bounded by the dependent state of Manipur, by the Mishmi +hills, and by portions of Chinese territory; on the E. by the Chinese Shan +States, portions of the province of Yunnan, the French province of +Indo-China, and the Siamese Shan, or Lao States and Siam; on the S. by the +Siamese Malay States and the Bay of Bengal; and on the W. by the Bay of +Bengal and Chittagong. The coast-line from Taknaf, the mouth of the Naaf, +in the Akyab district on the north, to the estuary of the Pakchan at +Maliwun on the south, is about 1200 m. The total area of the province is +estimated at 238,738 sq.m., of which Burma proper occupies 168,573 sq.m., +the Chin hills 10,250 sq.m., and the Shan States, which comprise the whole +of the eastern portion of the province, some 59,915 sq.m. + +_Natural Divisions._--The province falls into three natural divisions: +Arakan with the Chin hills, the Irrawaddy basin, and the old province of +Tenasserim, together with the portion of the Shan and Karen-ni states in +the basin of the Salween, and part of Kengtung in the western basin of the +Mekong. Of these Arakan is a strip of country lying on the seaward slopes +of the range of hills known as the Arakan Yomas. It stretches from Cape +Negrais on the south to the Naaf estuary, which divides it from the +Chittagong division of Eastern Bengal and Assam on the north, and includes +the districts of Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, Akyab and northern Arakan, an area of +some 18,540 sq.m. The northern part of this tract is barren hilly country, +but in the west and south are rich alluvial plains containing some of the +most fertile lands of the province. Northwards lie the Chin and some part +of the Kachin hills. To the east of the Arakan division, and separated from +it by the Arakan Yornas, lies the main body of Burma in the basin of the +Irrawaddy. This tract falls into four subdivisions. First, there is the +highland tract including the hilly country at the sources of the Chindwin +and the upper waters of the Irrawaddy, the Upper Chindwin, Katha, Bhamo, +Myitkyina and Ruby Mines districts, with the Kachin hills and a great part +of the Northern Shan states. In the Shan States there are a few open +plateaus, fertile and well populated, and Maymyo in the Mandalay district, +the hill-station to which in the hot weather the government of Burma +migrates, stands in the Pyin-u-lwin plateau, some 3500 ft. above the sea. +But the greater part of this country is a mass of rugged hills cut deep +with narrow gorges, within which even the biggest rivers are confined. The +second tract is that known as the dry zone of Burma, and includes the whole +of the lowlands lying between the Arakan Yomas and the western fringe of +the Southern Shan States. It stretches along both sides of the Irrawaddy +from the north of Mandalay to Thayetmyo, and embraces the Lower Chindwin, +Shwebo, Sagaing, Mandalay, Kyauksè, Meiktila, Yamèthin, Myingyan, Magwe, +Pakôkku and Minbu districts. This tract consists mostly of undulating +lowlands, but it is broken towards the south by the Pegu Yomas, a +considerable range of hills which divides the two remaining tracts of the +Irrawaddy basin. On the west, between the Pegu and the Arakan Yomas, +stretches the Irrawaddy delta, a vast expanse of level plain 12,000 sq.m. +in area falling in a gradual unbroken slope from its apex not far south of +Prome down to the sea. This delta, which includes the districts of Bassein, +Myaungmya, Thôngwa, Henzada, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Rangoon +town, consists almost entirely of a rich alluvial deposit, and the whole +area, which between Cape Negrais and Elephant Point is 137 m. wide, is +fertile in the highest degree. To the east lies a tract of country which, +though geographically a part of the Irrawaddy basin, is cut off from it by +the Yomas, and forms a separate system draining into the Sittang river. The +northern portion of this tract, which on the east touches the basin of the +Salween river, is hilly; the remainder towards the confluence of the +Salween, Gyaing and Attaran rivers consists of broad fertile plains. The +whole is comprised in the districts of Toungoo and Thaton, part of the +Karen-ni hills, with the Salween hill tract and the northern parts of +Amherst, which form the northern portion of the Tenasserim administrative +division. The third natural division of Burma is the old province of +Tenasserim, which, constituted in 1826 with Moulmein as its capital, formed +the nucleus from which the British supremacy throughout Burma has grown. It +is a narrow strip of country lying between the Bay of Bengal and the high +range of hills which form the eastern boundary of the province towards +Siam. It comprises the districts of Mergui and Tavoy and a part of Amherst, +and includes also the Mergui Archipelago. The surface of this part of the +country is mountainous and much intersected with streams. Northward from +this lies the major portion of the Southern Shan States and Karen-ni and a +narrowing strip along the Salween of the Northern Shan States. + +_Mountains._--Burma proper is encircled on three sides by a wall of +mountain ranges. The Arakan Yomas starting from Cape Negrais extend +northwards more or less parallel with the coast till they join the Chin and +Naga hills. They then form part of a system of ranges which curve north of +the sources of the Chindwin river, and with the Kumon range and the hills +of the Jade and Amber mines, make up a highland tract separated from the +great Northern Shan plateau by the gorges of the Irrawaddy river. On the +east the Kachin, Shan and Karen hills, extending from the valley of the +Irrawaddy into China far beyond the Salween gorge, form a continuous +barrier and boundary, and tail off into a narrow range which forms the +eastern watershed of the Salween and separates Tenasserim from Siam. The +highest peak of the Arakan Yomas, Liklang, rises nearly 10,000 ft. above +the sea, and in the eastern Kachin hills, which run northwards from the +state of Möng Mit to join the high range dividing the basins of the +Irrawaddy and the Salween, are two peaks, Sabu and Worang, which rise to a +height of 11,200 ft. above the sea. The Kumon range running down from the +Hkamti country east of Assam to near Mogaung ends in a peak known as +Shwedaunggyi, which reaches some 5750 ft. There are several peaks in the +Ruby Mines district which rise beyond 7000 ft. and Loi Ling in the Northern +Shan States reaches 9000 ft. Compared with these ranges the Pegu Yomas +assume the proportions of mere hills. Popa, a detached peak in the Myingyan +district, belongs to this system and rises to a height of nearly 5000 ft., +but it is interesting mainly as an extinct volcano, a landmark and an +object of superstitious folklore, throughout the whole of Central Burma. +Mud volcanoes occur at Minbu, but they are not in any sense mountains, +resembling rather the hot springs which are found in many parts of Burma. +They are merely craters raised above the level of the surrounding country +by the gradual accretion of the soft oily mud, which overflows at frequent +intervals whenever a discharge of gas occurs. Spurs of the Chin hills run +down the whole length of the Lower Chindwin district, almost to Sagaing, +and one hill, Powindaung, is particularly noted on account of its +innumerable cave temples, which are said to hold no fewer than 446,444 +images of Buddha. Huge caves, of which the most noted are the Farm Caves, +occur in the hills near Moulmein, and they too are full of relics of their +ancient use as temples, though now they are chiefly visited in connexion +with the bats, whose flight viewed from a distance, as they issue from the +caves, resembles a cloud of smoke. + +_Rivers._--Of the rivers of Burma the Irrawaddy is the most important. It +rises possibly beyond the confines of Burma in the unexplored regions, +where India, Tibet and China meet, and seems to be formed by the junction +of a number of considerable streams of no great length. Two rivers, the +Mali and the N'mai, meeting about latitude 25° 45' some 150 m. north of +Bhamo, contribute chiefly to its volume, and during the dry weather it is +navigable for steamers up to their confluence. Up to Bhamo, a distance of +900 m. from the sea, it is navigable throughout the year, and its chief +tributary in Burma, the Chindwin, is also navigable for steamers for 300 m. +from its junction with the Irrawaddy at Pakôkku. The Chindwin, called in +its upper reaches the Tanai, rises in the hills south-west of Thama, and +flows due north till it enters the south-east corner of the Hukawng valley, +where it turns north-west and continues in that direction cutting the +valley into two almost equal parts until it reaches its north-west range, +when it turns almost due south and takes the name of the Chindwin. It is a +swift clear river, fed in its upper reaches by numerous mountain streams. +The Mogaung river, rising in the watershed which divides the Irrawaddy and +the Chindwin drainages, flows south and south-east for 180 m. before it +joins the Irrawaddy, and is navigable for steamers as far as Kamaing for +about four months in the year. South of Thayetmyo, where arms of the Arakan +Yomas approach the river and almost meet that spur of the Pegu Yomas which +formed till 1886 the [v.04 p.0839] northern boundary of British Burma, the +valley of the Irrawaddy opens out again, and at Yegin Mingyi near Myanaung +the influence of the tide is first felt, and the delta may be said to +begin. The so-called rivers of the delta, the Ngawun, Pyamalaw, Panmawaddy, +Pyinzalu and Pantanaw, are simply the larger mouths of the Irrawaddy, and +the whole country towards the sea is a close network of creeks where there +are few or no roads and boats take the place of carts for every purpose. +There is, however, one true river of some size, the Hlaing, which rises +near Prome, flows southwards and meets the Pegu river and the Pazundaung +creek near Rangoon, and thus forms the estuary which is known as the +Rangoon river and constitutes the harbour of Rangoon. East of the Rangoon +river and still within the deltaic area, though cut off from the main delta +by the southern end of the Pegu Yomas, lies the mouth of the Sittang. This +river, rising in the Sham-Karen hills, flows first due north and then +southward through the Kyauksè, Yamèthin and Toungoo districts, its line +being followed by the Mandalay-Rangoon railway as far south as Nyaunglèbin +in the Pegu district. At Toungoo it is narrow, but below Shwegyin it +widens, and at Sittang it is half a mile broad. It flows into the Gulf of +Martaban, and near its mouth its course is constantly changing owing to +erosion and corresponding accretions. The second river in the province in +point of size is the Salween, a huge river, believed from the volume of its +waters to rise in the Tibetan mountains to the north of Lhasa. It is in all +probability actually longer than the Irrawaddy, but it is not to be +compared to that river in importance. It is, in fact, walled in on either +side, with banks varying in British territory from 3000 to 6000 ft. high +and at present unnavigable owing to serious rapids in Lower Burma and at +one or two places in the Shan States, but quite open to traffic for +considerable reaches in its middle course. The Gyaing and the Attaran +rivers meet the Salween at its mouth, and the three rivers form the harbour +of Moulmein, the second seaport of Burma. + +_Lakes._--The largest lake in the province is Indawgyi in the Myitkyina +district. It has an area of nearly 100 sq. m. and is surrounded on three +sides by ranges of hills, but is open to the north where it has an outlet +in the Indaw river. In the highlands of the Shan hills there are the Inle +lakes near Yawnghwe, and in the Katha district also there is another Indaw +which covers some 60 sq. m. Other lakes are the Paunglin lake in Minbu +district, the Inma lake in Prome, the Tu and Duya in Henzada, the Shahkègyi +and the Inyègyi in Bassein, the sacred lake at Ye in Tenasserim, and the +Nagamauk, Panzemyaung and Walonbyan in Arakan. The Meiktila lake covers an +area of some 5 sq. m., but it is to some extent at least an artificial +reservoir. In the heart of the delta numerous large lakes or marshes +abounding in fish are formed by the overflow of the Irrawaddy river during +the rainy season, but these either assume very diminutive proportions or +disappear altogether in the dry season. + +_Climate._--The climate of the delta is cooler and more temperate than in +Upper Burma, and this is shown in the fairer complexion and stouter +physique of the people of the lower province as compared with the +inhabitants of the drier and hotter upper districts as far as Bhamo, where +there is a great infusion of other types of the Tibeto-Burman family. North +of the apex of the delta and the boundary between the deltaic and inland +tracts, the rainfall gradually lessens as far as Minbu, where what was +formerly called the rainless zone commences and extends as far as Katha. +The rainfall in the coast districts varies from about 200 in. in the Arakan +and Tenasserim divisions to an average of 90 in Rangoon and the adjoining +portion of the Irrawaddy delta. In the extreme north of Upper Burma the +rainfall is rather less than in the country adjoining Rangoon, and in the +dry zone the annual average falls as low as 20 and 30 in. + +The temperature varies almost as much as the rainfall. It is highest in the +central zone, the mean of the maximum readings in such districts as Magwe, +Myingyan, Kyauksè, Mandalay and Shwebo in the month of May being close on +100° F., while in the littoral and sub-montane districts it is nearly ten +degrees less. The mean of the minimum readings in December in the central +zone districts is a few degrees under 60° F. and in the littoral districts +a few degrees over that figure. In the hilly district of Mogôk (Ruby Mines) +the December mean minimum is 36.8° and the mean maximum 79°. The climate of +the Chin and Kachin hills and also of the Shan States is temperate. In the +shade and off the ground the thermometer rarely rises above 80° F. or falls +below 25° F. In the hot season and in the sun as much as 150° F. is +registered, and on the grass in the cold weather ten degrees of frost are +not uncommon. Snow is seldom seen either in the Chin or Shan hills, but +there are snow-clad ranges in the extreme north of the Kachin country. In +the narrow valleys of the Shan hills, and especially in the Salween valley, +the shade maximum reaches 100° F. regularly for several weeks in April. The +rainfall in the hills varies very considerably, but seems to range from +about 60 in. in the broader valleys to about 300 in. on the higher +forest-clad ranges. + +_Geology._--Geologically, British Burma consists of two divisions, an +eastern and a western. The dividing line runs from the mouth of the Sittang +river along the railway to Mandalay, and thence continues northward, with +the same general direction but curving slightly towards the east. West of +this line the rocks are chiefly Tertiary and Quaternary; east of it they +are mostly Palaeozoic or gneissic. In the western mountain ranges the beds +are thrown into a series of folds which form a gentle curve running from +south to north with its convexity facing westward. There is an axial zone +of Cretaceous and Lower Eocene, and this is flanked on each side by the +Upper Eocene and the Miocene, while the valley of the Irrawaddy is occupied +chiefly by the Pliocene. Along the southern part of the Arakan coast the +sea spreads over the western Miocene zone. The Cretaceous beds have not yet +been separated from the overlying Eocene, and the identification of the +system rests on the discovery of a single Cenomanian ammonite. The Eocene +beds are marine and contain nummulites. The Miocene beds are also marine +and are characterized by an abundant molluscan fauna. The Pliocene, on the +other hand, is of freshwater origin, and contains silicified wood and +numerous remains of Mammalia. Flint chips, which appear to have been +fashioned by hand, are said to have been found in the Miocene beds, but to +prove the existence of man at so early a period would require stronger +evidence than has yet been brought forward. + +The older rocks of eastern Burma are very imperfectly known. Gneiss and +granite occur; Ordovician fossils have been found in the Upper Shan States, +and Carboniferous fossils in Tenasserim and near Moulmein. Volcanic rocks +are not common in any part of Burma, but about 50 m. north-north-east of +Yenangyaung the extinct volcano of Popa rises to a height of 3000 ft. above +the surrounding Pliocene plain. Intrusions of a serpentine-like rock break +through the Miocene strata north of Bhamo, and similar intrusions occur in +the western ranges. Whether the mud "volcanoes" of the Irrawaddy valley +have any connexion with volcanic activity may be doubted. The petroleum of +Burma occurs in the Miocene beds, one of the best-known fields being that +of Yenangyaung. Coal is found in the Tertiary deposits in the valley of the +Irrawaddy and in Tenasserim. Tin is abundant in Tenasserim, and lead and +silver have been worked extensively in the Shan States. The famous ruby +mines of Upper Burma are in metamorphic rock, while the jadeite of the +Bhamo neighbourhood is associated with the Tertiary intrusions of +serpentine-like rock already noticed.[1] + +_Population._--The total population of Burma in 1901 was 10,490,624 as +against 7,722,053 in 1891; but a considerable portion of this large +increase was due to the inclusion of the Shan States and the Chin hills in +the census area. Even in Burma proper, however, there was an increase +during the decade of 1,530,822, or 19.8%. The density of population per +square mile is 44 as compared with 167 for the whole of India and 552 for +the Bengal Delta. England and Wales have a population more than twelve +times as dense as that of Burma, so there is still room for expansion. The +chief races of Burma are Burmese (6,508,682), Arakanese (405,143), Karens +(717,859), Shans (787,087), Chins (179,292), Kachins (64,405) and Talaings +(321,898); but these totals do not include the Shan States and Chin hills. +The Burmese in person have the Mongoloid characteristics common to the +Indo-Chinese races, the Tibetans and tribes of the Eastern Himalaya. They +may be generally described as of a stout, active, well-proportioned form; +of a brown but never of an intensely dark complexion, with black, coarse, +lank and abundant hair, and a little more beard than is possessed by the +Siamese. Owing to their gay and lively disposition the Burmese have been +called "the Irish of the East," and like the Irish they are somewhat +inclined to laziness. Since the advent of the British power, the +immigration of Hindus with a lower standard of comfort and of Chinamen with +a keener business instinct has threatened the economic independence of the +Burmese in their own country. As compared with the Hindu, the Burmese wear +silk instead of cotton, and eat rice instead of the cheaper grains; they +are of an altogether freer and less servile, but also of a less practical +character. The Burmese women have a keener business instinct than the men, +and serve in some degree to redress the balance. The Burmese children are +adored by their parents, and are said to be the happiest and merriest +children in the world. + +_Language and Literature._--The Burmese are supposed by modern philologists +to have come, as joint members of a vast Indo-Chinese immigration swarm, +from western China to the head waters of the Irrawaddy and then separated, +some to people Tibet and Assam, the others to press southwards into the +[v.04 p.0840] plains of Burma. The indigenous tongues of Burma are divided +into the following groups:-- + + A. Indo-Chinese (1) Tibet-Burman (a) The Burmese group. + family sub-family (b) The Kachin group. + (c) The Kuki-Chin group. + + (2) Siamese-Chinese (d) The Tai group. + sub-family (e) The Karen group. + + (3) Môn-Annam (f) The Upper Middle + sub-family Mekong or Wa Palaung + group. + (g) The North Cambodian + group. + B. Malay family (h) The Selung language. + +Burmese, which was spoken by 7,006,495 people in the province in 1901, is a +monosyllabic language, with, according to some authorities, three different +tones; so that any given syllable may have three entirely different +meanings only distinguishable by the intonation when spoken, or by accents +or diacritical marks when written. There are, however, very many weighty +authorities who deny the existence of tones in the language. The Burmese +alphabet is borrowed from the Aryan Sanskrit through the Pali of Upper +India. The language is written from left to right in what appears to be an +unbroken line. Thus Burma possesses two kinds of literature, Pali and +Burmese. The Pali is by far the more ancient, including as it does the +Buddhist scriptures that originally found their way to Burma from Ceylon +and southern India. The Burmese literature is for the most part metrical, +and consists of religious romances, chronological histories and songs. The +_Maha Yazawin_ or "Royal Chronicle," forms the great historical work of +Burma. This is an authorized history, in which everything unflattering to +the Burmese monarchs was rigidly suppressed. After the Second Burmese War +no record was ever made in the _Yazawin_ that Pegu had been torn away from +Burma by the British. The folk songs are the truest and most interesting +national literature. The Burmese are fond of stage-plays in which great +licence of language is permitted, and great liberty to "gag" is left to the +wit or intelligence of the actors. + +_Government._--The province as a division of the Indian empire is +administered by a lieutenant-governor, first appointed 1st May 1897, with a +legislative council of nine members, five of whom are officials. There are, +besides, a chief secretary, revenue secretary, secretary and two +under-secretaries, a public works department secretary with two assistants. +The revenue administration of the province is superintended by a financial +commissioner, assisted by two secretaries, and a director of land records +and agriculture, with a land records departmental staff. There is a chief +court for the province with a chief justice and three justices, established +in May 1900. Other purely judicial officers are the judicial commissioner +for Upper Burma, and the civil judges of Mandalay and Moulmein. There are +four commissioners of revenue and circuit, and nineteen deputy +commissioners in Lower Burma, and four commissioners and seventeen deputy +commissioners in Upper Burma. There are two superintendents of the Shan +States, one for the northern and one for the southern Shan States, and an +assistant superintendent in the latter; a superintendent of the Arakan hill +tracts and of the Chin hills, and a Chinese political adviser taken from +the Chinese consular service. The police are under the control of an +inspector-general, with deputy inspector-general for civil and military +police, and for supply and clothing. The education department is under a +director of public instruction, and there are three circles--eastern, +western and Upper Burma, each under an inspector of schools. + +The Burma forests are divided into three circles each under a conservator, +with twenty-one deputy conservators. There are also a deputy +postmaster-general, chief superintendent and four superintendents of +telegraphs, a chief collector of customs, three collectors and four port +officers, and an inspector-general of jails. At the principal towns benches +of honorary magistrates, exercising powers of various degrees, have been +constituted. There are forty-one municipal towns, fourteen of which are in +Upper Burma. The commissioners of division are _ex officio_ sessions judges +in their several divisions, and also have civil powers, and powers as +revenue officers. They are responsible to the lieutenant-governor, each in +his own division, for the working of every department of the public +service, except the military department, and the branches of the +administration directly under the control of the supreme government. The +deputy commissioners perform the functions of district magistrates, +district judges, collectors and registrars, besides the miscellaneous +duties which fall to the principal district officer as representative of +government. Subordinate to the deputy commissioners are assistant +commissioners, extra-assistant commissioners and myoôks, who are invested +with various magisterial, civil and revenue powers, and hold charge of the +townships, as the units of regular civil and revenue jurisdiction are +called, and the sub-divisions of districts, into which most of these +townships are grouped. Among the salaried staff of officials, the townships +officers are the ultimate representatives of government who come into most +direct contact with the people. Finally, there are the village headmen, +assisted in Upper Burma by elders, variously designated according to old +custom. Similarly in the towns, there are headmen of wards and elders of +blocks. In Upper Burma these headmen have always been revenue collectors. +The system under which in towns headmen of wards and elders of blocks are +appointed is of comparatively recent origin, and is modelled on the village +system. + +The Shan States were declared to be a part of British India by notification +in 1886. The Shan States Act of 1888 vests the civil, [Sidenote: The Shan +States.] criminal and revenue administration in the chief of the state, +subject to the restrictions specified in the _sanad_ or patent granted to +him. The law to be administered in each state is the customary law of the +state, so far as it is in accordance with the justice, equity and good +conscience, and not opposed to the spirit of the law in the rest of British +India. The superintendents exercise general control over the administration +of criminal justice, and have power to call for cases, and to exercise wide +revisionary powers. Criminal jurisdiction in cases in which either the +complainant or the defendant is a European, or American, or a government +servant, or a British subject not a native of a Shan State, is withdrawn +from the chiefs and vested in the superintendents and assistant +superintendents. Neither the superintendents nor the assistant +superintendents have power to try civil suits, whether the parties are +Shans or not. In the Myelat division of the southern Shan States, however, +the criminal law is practically the same as the in force in Upper Burma, +and the ngwegunhmus, or petty chiefs, have been appointed magistrates of +the second class. The chiefs of the Shan States are of three classes:--(1) +sawbwas; (2) myosas; (3) ngwegunhmus. The last are found only in the +_Myelat_, or border country between the southern Shan States and Burma. +There are fifteen sawbwas, sixteen myosas and thirteen ngwegunhmus in the +Shan States proper. Two sawbwas are under the supervision of the +commissioner of the Mandalay division, and two under the commissioner of +the Sagaing division. The states vary enormously in size, from the 12,000 +sq. m. of the Trans-Salween State of Kêng Tung, to the 3.95 sq. m. of Nam +Hkôm in the Myelat. The latter contained only 41 houses with 210 +inhabitants in 1897 and has since been merged in the adjoining state. There +are five states, all sawbwaships, under the supervision of the +superintendent of the northern Shan States, besides an indeterminate number +of Wa States and communities of other races beyond the Salween river. The +superintendent of the southern Shan States supervises thirty-nine, of which +ten are sawbwaships. The headquarters of the northern Shan States are at +Lashio, of the southern Shan States at Taung-gyi. + +The states included in eastern and western Karen-ni are not part of British +India, and are not subject to any of the laws in force in the Shan States, +but they are under the supervision of the superintendent of the southern +Shan States. + +[Illustration] + +The northern portion of the Karen hills is at present dealt with on the +principle of political as distinguished from administrative control. The +tribes are not interfered with as long as they keep the peace. What is +specifically known as the Kachin hills, the country taken under +administration in the Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, is divided into forty +tracts. Beyond these tracts there are many Kachins in Katha, Möng-Mit, and +the northern Shan States, but though they are often the preponderating, +they are not the exclusive population. The country within the forty tracts +may be considered the Kachin hills proper, and it lies between 23° 30' and +26° 30' N. lat. and 96° and 98° E. long. Within this area the petty chiefs +have appointment orders, the people are disarmed, and the rate of tribute +per household is fixed in each case. Government is regulated by the [v.04 +p.0841] Kachin hills regulation. Since 1894 the country has been +practically undisturbed, and large numbers of Kachins are enlisted, and +ready to enlist in the military police, and seem likely to form as good +troops as the Gurkhas of Nepal. + +The Chin hills were not declared an integral part of Burma until 1895, but +they now form a scheduled district. The chiefs, however, are allowed to +administer their own affairs, as far as may be, in accordance with their +own customs, subject to the supervision of the superintendent of the Chin +hills. + +_Religion._--Buddhists make up more than 88.6%; Mussulmans 3.28; +spirit-worshippers 3.85; Hindus 2.76, and Christians 1.42 of the total +population of the province. The large nominal proportion of Buddhists is +deceptive. The Burmese are really as devoted to demonolatry as the +hill-tribes who are labelled plain spirit-worshippers. The actual figures +of the various religions, according to the census of 1901, are as +follows:-- + + Buddhists 9,184,121 + Spirit-worshippers 399,390 + Hindus 285,484 + Mussulmans 339,446 + Christians 147,525 + Sikhs 6,596 + Jews 685 + Parsees 245 + Others 28 + +The chief religious principle of the Burmese is to acquire merit for their +next incarnation by good works done in this life. The bestowal of alms, +offerings of rice to priests, the founding of a monastery, erection of +pagodas, with which the country is crowded, the building of a bridge or +rest-house for the convenience of travellers are all works of religious +merit, prompted, not by love of one's fellow-creatures, but simply and +solely for one's own future advantage. + +An analysis shows that not quite two in every thousand Burmese profess +Christianity, and there are about the same number of Mahommedans among +them. It is admitted by the missionaries themselves that Christianity has +progressed very slowly among the Burmese in comparison with the rapid +progress made amongst the Karens. It is amongst the Sgaw Karens that the +greatest progress in Christianity has been made, and the number of +spirit-worshippers among them is very much smaller. The number of Burmese +Christians is considerably increased by the inclusion among them of the +Christian descendants of the Portuguese settlers of Syriam deported to the +old Burmese Tabayin, a village now included in the Ye-u subdivision of +Shwebo. These Christians returned themselves as Burmese. The forms of +Christianity which make most converts in Burma are the Baptist and Roman +Catholic faiths. Of recent years many conversions to Christianity have been +made by the American Baptist missionaries amongst the Lahu or Muhsö hill +tribesmen. + +_Education._--Compared with other Indian provinces, and even with some of +the countries of Europe, Burma takes a very high place in the returns of +those able to both read and write. Taking the sexes apart, though women +fall far behind men in the matter of education, still women are better +educated in Burma than in the rest of India. The average number of each sex +in Burma per thousand is:--literates, male 378; female, 45; illiterates, +male, 622; female, 955. The number of literates per thousand in Bengal +is:--male, 104; female, 5. The proportion was greatly reduced in the 1901 +census by the inclusion of the Shan States and the Chin hills, which mostly +consist of illiterates. + +The fact that in Upper Burma the proportion of literates is nearly as high +as, and the proportion of those under instruction even higher than, that of +the corresponding classes in Lower Burma, is a clear proof that in primary +education, at least, the credit for the superiority of the Burman over the +native of India is due to indigenous schools. In almost every village in +the province there is a monastery, where the most regular occupation of one +or more of the resident _pongyis_, or Buddhist monks, is the instruction +free of charge of the children of the village. The standard of instruction, +however, is very low, consisting only of reading and writing, though this +is gradually being improved in very many monasteries. The absence of all +prejudice in favour of the seclusion of women also is one of the main +reasons why in this province the proportion who can read and write is +higher than in any other part of India, Cochin alone excepted. It was not +till 1890 that the education department took action in Upper Burma. It was +then ascertained that there were 684 public schools with 14,133 pupils, and +1664 private schools with 8685 pupils. It is worthy of remark that of these +schools 29 were Mahommedan, and that there were 176 schools for girls in +which upwards of 2000 pupils were taught. There are three circles--Eastern, +Central and Upper Burma. For the special supervision and encouragement of +indigenous primary education in monastic and in lay schools, each circle of +inspection is divided into sub-circles corresponding with one or more of +the civil districts, and each sub-circle is placed under a deputy-inspector +or a sub-inspector of schools. There are nine standards of instruction, and +the classes in schools correspond with these standards. In Upper Burma all +educational grants are paid from imperial funds; there is no cess as in +Lower Burma. Grants-in-aid are given according to results. There is only +one college, at Rangoon, which is affiliated to the Calcutta University. +There are missionary schools amongst the Chins, Kachins and Shans, and a +school for the sons of Shan chiefs at Taung-gyi in the southern Shan +States. A _Patamabyan_ examination for marks in the Pali language was first +instituted in 1896 and is held annually. + +_Finance._--The gross revenue of Lower Burma from all sources in 1871-1872 +was Rs.1,36,34,520, of which Rs.1,21,70,530 was from imperial taxation, +Rs.3,73,200 from provincial services, and Rs.10,90,790 from local funds. +The land revenue of the province was Rs.34,45,230. In Burma the cultivators +themselves continue to hold the land from government, and the extent of +their holdings averages about five acres. The land tax is supplemented by a +poll tax on the male population from 18 to 60 years of age, with the +exception of immigrants during the first five years of their residence, +religious teachers, schoolmasters, government servants and those unable to +obtain their own livelihood. In 1890-1891 the revenue of Lower Burma has +risen to Rs.2,08,38,872 from imperial taxation, Rs.1,55,51,897 for +provincial services, and Rs.12,14,596 from incorporated local funds. The +expenditure on the administration of Lower Burma in 1870-1871 was +Rs.49,70,020. In 1890-1891 it was Rs.1,58,48,041. In Upper Burma the chief +source of revenue is the _thathameda_, a tithe or income tax which was +instituted by King Mindon, and was adopted by the British very much as they +found it. For the purpose of the assessment every district and town is +classified according to its general wealth and prosperity. As a rule the +basis of calculation was 100 rupees from every ten houses, with a 10% +deduction for those exempted by custom. When the total amount payable by +the village was thus determined, the village itself settled the amount to +be paid by each individual householder. This was done by _thamadis_, +assessors, usually appointed by the villagers themselves. Other important +sources of revenue are the rents from state lands, forests, and +miscellaneous items such as fishery, revenue and irrigation taxes. In +1886-1887, the year after the annexation, the amount collected in Upper +Burma from all sources was twenty-two lakhs of rupees. In the following +year it had risen to fifty lakhs. Much of Upper Burma, however, remained +disturbed until 1890. The figures for 1890-1891, therefore, show the first +really regular collection. The amount then collected was Rs.87,47,020. + +The total revenue of Burma in the year ending March 31, 1900 was +Rs.7,04,36,240 and in 1905, Rs.9,65,62,298. The total expenditure in the +same years respectively was Rs.4,30,81,000 and Rs.5,66,60,047. The +principal items of revenue in the budget are the land revenue, railways, +customs, forests and excise. + +_Defence._--Burma is garrisoned by a division of the Indian army, +consisting of two brigades, under a lieutenant-general. Of the native +regiments seven battalions are Burma regiments specially raised for +permanent service in Burma by transformation from military police. These +regiments, consisting of Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans, are distributed +throughout the Shan States and the northern part of Burma. In addition to +these there are about 13,500 civil police and 15,000 military police. The +military police are in reality a regular military force with only two +European officers in command of each battalion; and they are recruited +entirely from among the warlike races of northern India. A small battalion +of Karens enlisted as sappers and miners proved a failure and had to be +disbanded. Experiments have also been made with the Kachin hillmen and with +the Shans; but the Burmese character is so averse to discipline and control +in petty matters that it is impossible to get really suitable men to enlist +even in the civil police. The volunteer forces consist of the Rangoon Port +Defence Volunteers, comprising artillery, naval, and engineer corps, the +Moulmein artillery, the Moulmein, Rangoon, Railway and Upper Burma rifles. + +_Minerals and Mining._--In its three chief mineral products, earth-oil, +coal and gold, Burma offers a fair field for enterprise and nothing more. +Without yielding fortunes for speculators, like South Africa or Australia, +it returns a fair percentage upon genuine hard work. Coal is found in the +Thayetmyo, Upper Chindwin and Shwebo districts, and in the Shan States; it +also occurs in Mergui, but the deposits which have been so far discovered +have been either of inferior quality or too far from their market to be +worked to advantage. The tin mines in Lower Burma are worked by natives, +but a company at one time worked mines in the Maliwun township of Mergui by +European methods. The chief mines and minerals are in Upper Burma. The jade +mines of Upper Burma are now practically the only source of supply of that +mineral, which is in great demand over all China. The mines are situated +beyond Kamaing, north of Mogaung in the Myitkyina district. The miners are +all Kachins, and the right to collect the jade duty of 33-1/3 is farmed out +by government to a lessee, who has hitherto always been a Chinaman. The +amount obtained has varied considerably. In 1887-1888 the rent was +Rs.50,000. This dwindled to Rs.36,000 in 1892-1893, but the system was then +adopted of letting for a term of three years and a higher rent was +obtained. The value varies enormously according to colour, which should be +a particular shade of dark green. Semi-transparency, brilliancy and +hardness are, however, also essentials. The old river mines produced the +best quality. The quarry mines on the top of the hill near Tawmaw produce +enormous quantities, but the quality is not so good. + +The most important ruby-bearing area is the Mogôk stone tract, in the hills +about 60 m. east of the Irrawaddy and 90 m. north-north-west of Mandalay. +The right to mine for rubies by European methods and to levy royalties from +persons working by native methods was leased to the Burma Ruby Mines +Company, Limited, in 1889, and the lease was renewed in 1896 for 14 years +at a rent of Rs.3,15,000 a year plus a share of the profits. The rent was +[v.04 p.0842] reduced permanently in 1898 to Rs.2,00,000 a year, but the +share of the profits taken by government was increased from 20 to 30%. +There are other ruby mines at Nanyaseik in the Myitkyina district and at +Sagyin in the Mandalay district, where the mining is by native methods +under licence-fees of Rs.5 and Rs.10 a month. They are, however, only +moderately successful. Gold is found in most of the rivers in Upper Burma, +but the gold-washing industry is for the most part spasmodic in the +intervals of agriculture. There is a gold mine at Kyaukpazat in the +Mawnaing circle of the Kathra district, where the quartz is crushed by +machinery and treated by chemical processes. Work was begun in 1895, and +the yield of gold in that year was 274 oz., which increased to 893 oz. in +1896-1897. This, however, proved to be merely a pocket, and the mine is now +shut down. Dredging for gold, however, seems likely to prove very +profitable and gold dust is found in practically every river in the hills. + +The principal seats of the petroleum industry are Yenangyaung in the Magwe, +and Yenangyat in the Pakôkku districts. The wells have been worked for a +little over a century by the natives of the country. The Burma Oil Company +since 1889 has worked by drilled wells on the American or cable system, and +the amount produced is yearly becoming more and more important. + +Amber is extracted by Kachins in the Hukawng valley beyond the +administrative border, but the quality of the fossil resin is not very +good. The amount exported varies considerably. Tourmaline or rubellite is +found on the borders of the Ruby Mines district and in the Shan State of +Möng Löng. Steatite is extracted from the Arakan hill quarries. Salt is +manufactured at various places in Upper Burma, notably in the lower +Chindwin, Sagaing, Shwebo, Myingyan and Yamethin districts, as well as at +Mawhkio in the Shan State of Thibaw. Iron is found in many parts of the +hills, and is worked by inhabitants of the country. A good deal is +extracted and manufactured into native implements at Pang Lông in the Legya +(Laihka) Shan State. Lead is extracted by a Chinese lessee from the mines +at Bawzaing (Maw-son) in the Myelat, southern Shan States. The ore is rich +in silver as well as in lead. + +_Agriculture._--The cultivation of the land is by far the most important +industry in Burma. Only 9.4% of the people were classed as urban in the +census of 1901, and a considerable proportion of this number were natives +of India and not Burmese. Nearly two-thirds of the total population are +directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture and kindred occupations. +Throughout most of the villages in the rural tracts men, women and children +all take part in the agricultural operations, although in riverine villages +whole families often support themselves from the sale of petty commodities +and eatables. The food of the people consists as a rule of boiled rice with +salted fresh or dried fish, salt, sessamum-oil, chillies, onions, turmeric, +boiled vegetables, and occasionally meat of some sort from elephant flesh +down to smaller animals, fowls and almost everything except snakes, by way +of condiment. + +The staple crop of the province in both Upper and Lower Burma is rice. In +Lower Burma it is overwhelmingly the largest crop; in Upper Burma it is +grown wherever practicable. Throughout the whole of the moister parts of +the province the agricultural season is the wet period of the south-west +monsoon, lasting from the middle of May until November. In some parts of +Lower Burma and in the dry districts of Upper Burma a hot season crop is +also grown with the assistance of irrigation during the spring months. Oxen +are used for ploughing the higher lands with light soil, and the heavier +and stronger buffaloes for ploughing wet tracts and marshy lands. As rice +has to be transplanted as well as sown and irrigated, it needs a +considerable amount of labour expended on it; and the Burman has the +reputation of being a somewhat indolent cultivator. The Karens and Shans +who settle in the plains expend much more care in ploughing and weeding +their crops. Other crops which are grown in the province, especially in +Upper Burma, comprise maize, tilseed, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, wheat, +millet, other food grains including pulse, condiments and spices, tea, +barley, sago, linseed and other oil-seeds, various fibres, indigo and other +dye crops, besides orchards and garden produce. At the time of the British +annexation of Burma there were some old irrigation systems in the Kyauksè +and Minbu districts, which had been allowed to fall into disrepair, and +these have now been renewed and extended. In addition to this the Mandalay +Canal, 40 m. in length, with fourteen distributaries was opened in 1902; +the Shwebo canal, 27 m. long, was opened in 1906, and a beginning had been +made of two branches 29 and 20 m. in length, and of the Môn canal, begun in +1904, 53 m. in length. In all upwards of 300,000 acres are subject to +irrigation under these schemes. On the whole the people of Burma are +prosperous and contented. Taxes and land revenue are light; markets for the +disposal of produce are constant and prices good; while fresh land is still +available in most districts. Compared with the congested districts in the +other provinces of India, with the exception of Assam, the lot of the +Burman is decidedly enviable. + +_Forests._---The forests of Burma are the finest in British India and one +of the chief assets of the wealth of the country; it is from Burma that the +world draws its main supply of teak for shipbuilding, and indeed it was the +demand for teak that largely led to the annexation of Burma. At the close +of the First Burmese War in 1826 Tenasserim was annexed because it was +supposed to contain large supplies of this valuable timber; and it was +trouble with a British forest company that directly led to the Third +Burmese War of 1885. Since the introduction of iron ships teak has +supplanted oak, because it contains an essential oil which preserves iron +and steel, instead of corroding them like the tannic acid contained in oak. +The forests of Burma, therefore, are now strictly preserved by the +government, and there is a regular forest department for the conservation +and cutting of timber, the planting of young trees for future generations, +the prevention of forest fires, and for generally supervising their +treatment by the natives. In the reserves the trees of commercial value can +only be cut under a licence returning a revenue to the state, while +unreserved trees can be cut by the natives for home consumption. There are +naturally very many trees in these forests besides the teak. In Lower Burma +alone the enumeration of the trees made by Sulpiz Kurz in his _Forest Flora +of British Burma_ (1877) includes some 1500 species, and the unknown +species of Upper Burma and the Shan States would probably increase this +total very considerably. In addition to teak, which provides the bulk of +the revenue, the most valuable woods are _sha_ or cutch, india rubber, +_pyingado_, or ironwood for railway sleepers, and _padauk_. Outside these +reserves enormous tracts of forest and jungle still remain for clearance +and cultivation, reservation being mostly confined to forest land +unsuitable for crops. In 1870-1871 the state reserved forests covered only +133 sq.m., in all the Rangoon division. The total receipts from the forests +then amounted to Rs.7,72,400. In 1889-1890 the total area of reserved +forests in Lower Burma was 5574 sq.m., and the gross revenue was +Rs.31,34,720, and the expenditure was Rs.13,31,930. The work of the forest +department did not begin in Upper Burma till 1891. At the end of 1892 the +reserved forests in Upper Burma amounted to 1059 sq.m. On 30th June 1896 +the reserved area amounted to 5438 sq.m. At the close of 1899 the area of +the reserved forests in the whole province amounted to 15,669 sq.m., and in +1903-1904 to 20,038 sq.m. with a revenue of Rs.85,19,404 and expenditure +amounting to Rs.35,00,311. In 1905-1906 there were 20,545 sq.m. of reserved +forest, and it is probable that when the work of reservation is complete +there will be 25,000 sq.m. of preserves or 12% of the total area. + +_Fisheries._--Fisheries and fish-curing exist both along the sea-coast of +Burma and in inland tracts, and afforded employment to 126,651 persons in +1907. The chief seat of the industry is in the Thongwa and Bassein +districts, where the income from the leased fisheries on individual streams +sometimes amounts to between £6000 and £7000 a year. Net fisheries, worked +by licence-holders in the principal rivers and along the sea-shore, are not +nearly so profitable as the closed fisheries--called _In_--which are from +time to time sold by auction for fixed periods of years. Salted fish forms, +along with boiled rice, one of the chief articles of food among the +Burmese; and as the price of salted fish is gradually rising along with the +prosperity and purchasing power of the population, this industry is on a +very sound basis. There are in addition some pearling grounds in the Mergui +Archipelago, which have a very recent history; they were practically +unknown before 1890; in the early 'nineties they were worked by Australian +adventurers, most of whom have since departed; and now they are leased in +blocks to a syndicate of Chinamen, who grant sub-leases to individual +adventurers at the rate of £25 a pump for the pearling year. The chief +harvest is of mother of pearl, which suffices to pay the working expenses; +and there is over and above the chance of finding a pearl of price. Some +pearls worth £1000 and upwards have recently been discovered. + +_Manufactures and Art._--The staple industry of Burma is agriculture, but +many cultivators are also artisans in the by-season. In addition to +rice-growing and the felling and extraction of timber, and the fisheries, +the chief occupations are rice-husking, silk-weaving and dyeing. The +introduction of cheap cottons and silk fabrics has dealt a blow to +hand-weaving, while aniline dyes are driving out the native vegetable +product; but both industries still linger in the rural tracts. The best +silk-weavers are to be found at Amarapura. There large numbers of people +follow this occupation as their sole means of livelihood, whereas silk and +cotton weaving throughout the province generally is carried on by girls and +women while unoccupied by other domestic duties. The Burmese are fond of +bright colours, and pink and yellow harmonize well with their dark olive +complexion, but even here the influence of western civilization is being +felt, and in the towns the tendency now is towards maroon, brown, olive and +dark green for the women's skirts. The total number of persons engaged in +the production of textile fabrics in Burma according to the census of 1901 +was 419,007. The chief dye-product of Burma is cutch, a brown dye obtained +from the wood [v.04 p.0843] of the _sha_ tree. Cutch-boiling forms the +chief means of livelihood of a large number of the poorer classes in the +Prome and Thayetmyo districts of Lower Burma, and a subsidiary means of +subsistence elsewhere. Cheroot making and smoking is universal among both +sexes. The chief arts of Burma are wood-carving and silver work. The floral +wood-carving is remarkable for its freedom and spontaneity. The carving is +done in teak wood when it is meant for fixtures, but teak has a coarse +grain, and otherwise _yamane_ clogwood, said to be a species of gmelina, is +preferred. The tools employed are chisel, gouge and mallet. The design is +traced on the wood with charcoal, gouged out in the rough, and finished +with sharp fine tools, using the mallet for every stroke. The great bulk of +the silver work is in the form of bowls of different sizes, in shape +something like the lower half of a barrel, only more convex, of betel +boxes, cups and small boxes for lime. Both in the wood-carving and silver +work the Burmese character displays itself, giving boldness, breadth and +freedom of design, but a general want of careful finish. Unfortunately the +national art is losing its distinctive type through contact with western +civilization. + +_Commerce._--The chief articles of export from Burma are rice and timber. +In 1805 the quantity of rice exported in the foreign and coastal trade +amounted to 1,419,173 tons valued at Rs.9,77,66,132, and in 1905 the +figures were 2,187,764 tons, value Rs.15,67,28,288. England takes by far +the greatest share of Burma's rice, though large quantities are also +consumed in Germany, while France, Italy, Belgium and Holland also consume +a considerable amount. The regular course of trade is apt to be deflected +by famines in India or Japan. In 1900 over one million tons of rice were +shipped to India during the famine there. The rice-mills, almost all +situated at the various seaports, secure the harvest from the cultivator +through middlemen. The value of teak exported in 1895 was Rs.1,34,64,303, +and in 1905, Rs.1,31,03,401. Subordinate products for exports include cutch +dye, caoutchouc or india-rubber, cotton, petroleum and jade. By far the +largest of the imports are cotton, silk and woollen piece-goods, while +subordinate imports include hardware, gunny bags, sugar, tobacco and +liquors. + +The following table shows the progressive value of the trade of Burma since +1871-1872:-- + + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | Year. | Imports. | Exports. | Total. | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | Rs. | Rs. | Rs. | + | 1871-1872 | 3,15,79,860 | 3,78,02,170 | 6,93,82,030 | + | 1881-1882 | 6,38,49,840 | 8,05,71 410 | 14,44,21,250 | + | 1801-1892 | 10,50,06,247 | 12,67,21,878 | 23,17,28,125 | + | 1961-1902 | 12,78,46,636 | 18,74,47,200 | 31,52,93,836 | + | 1904-1905 | 17,06,20,796 | 23.94.69.114 | 41,00,89,910 | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + +_Internal Communications._--In 1871-1872 there were 814 m. of road in Lower +Burma, but the chief means of internal communication was by water. Steamers +plied on the Irrawaddy as far as Thayetmyo. The vessels of the Irrawaddy +Flotilla Company now ply to Bassein and to all points on the Irrawaddy as +far north as Bhamo, and in the dry weather to Myitkyina, and also on the +Chindwin as far north as Kindat, and to Homalin during the rains. The +Arakan Flotilla Company has also helped to open up the Arakan division. The +length of roads has not greatly increased in Lower Burma, but there has +been a great deal of road construction in Upper Burma. At the end of the +year 1904-1905 there were in the whole province 7486 m. of road, 1516 m. of +which were metalled and 3170 unmetalled, with 2799 m. of other tracks. But +the chief advance in communications has been in railway construction. The +first railway from Rangoon to Prome, 161 m., was opened in 1877, and that +from Rangoon to Toungoo, 166 m., was opened in 1884. Since the annexation +of Upper Burma this has been extended to Mandalay, and the Mu Valley +railway has been constructed from Sagaing to Myitkyina, a distance of 752 +m. from Rangoon. The Mandalay-Lashio railway has been completed, and trains +run from Mandalay to Lashio, a distance of 178 m. The Sagaing-Mônywa-Alôn +branch and the Meiktila-Myingyan branch were opened to traffic during 1900. +In 1902 a railway from Henzada to Bassein was formed and a connecting link +with the Prome line from Henzada to Letpadan was opened in 1903. Railways +were also constructed from Pegu to Martaban, 121 m. in length, and from +Henzada to Kyang-in, 66 m. in length; and construction was contemplated of +a railway from Thazi towards Taung-gyi, the headquarters of the southern +Shan States. The total length of lines open in 1904-1905 was 1340 m., but +railway communication in Burma is still very incomplete. Five of the eight +commissionerships and Lashio, the capital of the northern Shan States, have +communication with each other by railway, but Taung-gyi and the southern +Shan States can still only be reached by a hill-road through difficult +country for cart traffic, and the headquarters of three commissionerships, +Moulmein, Akyab and Minbu, have no railway communication with Rangoon. +Arakan is in the worst position of all, for it is connected with Burma by +neither railway nor river, nor even by a metalled road, and the only way to +reach Akyab from Rangoon is once a week by sea. + +_Law._--The British government has administered the law in Burma on +principles identical with those which have been adopted elsewhere in the +British dominions in India. That portion of the law which is usually +described as Anglo-Indian law (see INDIAN LAW) is generally applicable to +Burma, though there are certain districts inhabited by tribes in a backward +state of civilization which are excepted from its operation. Acts of the +British parliament relating to India generally would be applicable to +Burma, whether passed before or after its annexation, these acts being +considered applicable to all the dominions of the crown in India. As +regards the acts of the governor-general in council passed for India +generally--they, too, were from the first applicable to Lower Burma; and +they have all been declared applicable to Upper Burma also by the Burma +Laws Act of 1898. That portion of the English law which has been introduced +into India without legislation, and all the rules of law resting upon the +authority of the courts, are made applicable to Burma by the same act. But +consistently with the practice which has always prevailed in India, there +is a large field of law in Burma which the British government has not +attempted to disturb. It is expressly directed by the act of 1898 above +referred to, that in regard to succession, inheritance, marriage, caste or +any religious usage or institution, the law to be administered in Burma is +(_a_) the Buddhist law in cases where the parties are Buddhists, (_b_) the +Mahommedan law in cases where the parties are Mahommedans, (_c_) the Hindu +law in cases where the parties are Hindus, except so far as the same may +have been modified by the legislature. The reservation thus made in favour +of the native laws is precisely analogous to the similar reservation made +in India (see INDIAN LAW, where the Hindu law and the Mahommedan Law are +described). The Buddhist law is contained in certain sacred books called +_Dhammathats_. The laws themselves are derived from one of the collections +which Hindus attribute to Manu, but in some respects they now widely differ +from the ancient Hindu law so far as it is known to us. There is no +certainty as to the date or method of their introduction. The whole of the +law administered now in Burma rests ultimately upon statutory authority; +and all the Indian acts relating to Burma, whether of the governor-general +or the lieutenant-governor of Burma in council, will be found in the Burma +Code (Calcutta, 1899), and in the supplements to that volume which are +published from time to time at Rangoon. There is no complete translation of +the _Dhammathats_, but a good many of them have been translated. An account +of these translations will be found in _The Principles of Buddhist Law_ by +Chan Toon (Rangoon, 1894), which is the first attempt to present those +principles in something approaching to a systematic form. + +_History._--It is probable that Burma is the _Chryse Regio_ of Ptolemy, a +name parallel in meaning to _Sonaparanta_, the classic Pali title assigned +to the country round the capital in Burmese documents. The royal history +traces the lineage of the kings to the ancient Buddhist monarchs of India. +This no doubt is fabulous, but it is hard to say how early communication +with Gangetic India began. From the 11th to the 13th century the old Burman +empire was at the height of its power, and to this period belong the +splendid remains of architecture at Pagan. The city and the dynasty were +destroyed by a Chinese (or rather Mongol) invasion (1284 A.D.) in the reign +of Kublai Khan. After that the empire fell to a low ebb, and Central Burma +was often subject to Shan dynasties. In the early part of the 16th century +the Burmese princes of Toungoo, in the north-east of Pegu, began to rise to +power, and established a dynasty which at one time held possession of Pegu, +Ava and Arakan. They made their capital at Pegu, and to this dynasty belong +the gorgeous [v.04 p.0844] descriptions of some of the travellers of the +16th century. Their wars exhausted the country, and before the end of the +century it was in the greatest decay. A new dynasty arose in Ava, which +subdued Pegu, and maintained their supremacy throughout the 17th and during +the first forty years of the 18th century. The Peguans or Talaings then +revolted, and having taken the capital Ava, and made the king prisoner, +reduced the whole country to submission. Alompra, left by the conqueror in +charge of the village of Môtshobo, planned the deliverance of his country. +He attacked the Peguans at first with small detachments; but when his +forces increased, he suddenly advanced, and took possession of the capital +in the autumn of 1753. + +In 1754 the Peguans sent an armament of war-boats against Ava, but they +were totally defeated by Alompra; while in the districts of Prome, Donubyu, +&c., the Burmans revolted, and expelled all the Pegu garrisons in their +towns. In 1754 Prome was besieged by the king of Pegu, who was again +defeated by Alompra, and the war was transferred from the upper provinces +to the mouths of the navigable rivers, and the numerous creeks and canals +which intersect the lower country. In 1755 the yuva raja, the king of +Pegu's brother, was equally unsuccessful, after which the Peguans were +driven from Bassein and the adjacent country, and were forced to withdraw +to the fortress of Syriam, distant 12 m. from Rangoon. Here they enjoyed a +brief repose, Alompra being called away to quell an insurrection of his own +subjects, and to repel an invasion of the Siamese; but returning +victorious, he laid siege to the fortress of Syriam and took it by +surprise. In these wars the French sided with the Peguans, the English with +the Burmans. Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry, had sent two ships to +the aid of the former; but the master of the first was decoyed up the river +by Alompra, where he was massacred along with his whole crew. The other +escaped to Pondicherry. Alompra was now master of all the navigable rivers; +and the Peguans, shut out from foreign aid, were finally subdued. In 1757 +the conqueror laid siege to the city of Pegu, which capitulated, on +condition that their own king should govern the country, but that he should +do homage for his kingdom, and should also surrender his daughter to the +victorious monarch. Alompra never contemplated the fulfilment of the +condition; and having obtained possession of the town, abandoned it to the +fury of his soldiers. In the following year the Peguans vainly endeavoured +to throw off the yoke. Alompra afterwards reduced the town and district of +Tavoy, and finally undertook the conquest of the Siamese. His army advanced +to Mergui and Tenasserim, both of which towns were taken; and he was +besieging the capital of Siam when he was taken ill. He immediately ordered +his army to retreat, in hopes of reaching his capital alive; but he expired +on the way, in 1760, in the fiftieth year of his age, after he had reigned +eight years. In the previous year he had massacred the English of the +establishment of Negrais, whom he suspected of assisting the Peguans. He +was succeeded by his eldest son Noungdaugyi, whose reign was disturbed by +the rebellion of his brother Sin-byu-shin, and afterwards by one of his +father's generals. He died in little more than three years, leaving one son +in his infancy; and on his decease the throne was seized by his brother +Sin-byu-shin. The new king was intent, like his predecessors, on the +conquest of the adjacent states, and accordingly made war in 1765 on the +Manipur kingdom, and also on the Siamese, with partial success. In the +following year he defeated the Siamese, and, after a long blockade, +obtained possession of their capital. But while the Burmans were extending +their conquests in this quarter, they were invaded by a Chinese army of +50,000 men from the province of Yunnan. This army was hemmed in by the +skill of the Burmans; and, being reduced by the want of provisions, it was +afterwards attacked and totally destroyed, with the exception of 2500 men, +who were sent in fetters to work in the Burmese capital at their several +trades. In the meantime the Siamese revolted, and while the Burman army was +marching against them, the Peguan soldiers who had been incorporated in it +rose against their companions, and commencing an indiscriminate massacre, +pursued the Burman army to the gates of Rangoon, which they besieged, but +were unable to capture. In 1774 Sin-byu-shin was engaged in reducing the +marauding tribes. He took the district and fort of Martaban from the +revolted Peguans; and in the following year he sailed down the Irrawaddy +with an army of 50,000 men, and, arriving at Rangoon, put to death the aged +monarch of Pegu, along with many of his nobles, who had shared with him in +the offence of rebellion. He died in 1776, after a reign of twelve years, +during which he had extended the Burmese dominions on every side. He was +succeeded by his son, a youth of eighteen, called Singumin (Chenguza of +Symes), who proved himself a bloodthirsty despot, and was put to death by +his uncle, Bodawpaya or Mentaragyi, in 1781, who ascended the vacant +throne. In 1783 the new king effected the conquest of Arakan. In the same +year he removed his residence from Ava, which, with brief interruptions, +had been the capital for four centuries, to the new city of Amarapura, "the +City of the Immortals." + +The Siamese who had revolted in 1771 were never afterwards subdued by the +Burmans; but the latter retained their dominion over the sea-coast as far +as Mergui. In the year 1785 they attacked the island of Junkseylon with a +fleet of boats and an army, but were ultimately driven back with loss; and +a second attempt by the Burman monarch, who in 1786 invaded Siam with an +army of 30,000 men, was attended with no better success. In 1793 peace was +concluded between these two powers, the Siamese yielding to the Burmans the +entire possession of the coast of Tenasserim on the Indian Ocean, and the +two important seaports of Mergui and Tavoy. + +In 1795 the Burmese were involved in a dispute with the British in India, +in consequence of their troops, to the amount of 5000 men, entering the +district of Chittagong in pursuit of three robbers who had fled from +justice across the frontier. Explanations being made and terms of +accommodation offered by General Erskine, the commanding officer, the +Burmese commander retired from the British territories, when the fugitives +were restored, and all differences for the time amicably arranged. + +But it was evident that the gradual extension of the British and Burmese +territories would in time bring the two powers into close contact along a +more extended line of frontier, and in all probability lead to a war +between them. It happened, accordingly, that the Burmese, carrying their +arms into Assam and Manipur, penetrated to the British border near Sylhet, +on the north-east frontier of Bengal, beyond which were the possessions of +the chiefs of Cachar, under the protection of the British government. The +Burmese leaders, arrested in their career of conquest, were impatient to +measure their strength with their new neighbours. It appears from the +evidence of Europeans who resided in Ava, that they were entirely +unacquainted with the discipline and resources of the Europeans. They +imagined that, like other nations, they would fall before their superior +tactics and valour; and their cupidity was inflamed by the prospect of +marching to Calcutta and plundering the country. At length their chiefs +ventured on the open violation of the British territories. They attacked a +party of sepoys within the frontier, and seized and carried off British +subjects, while at all points their troops, moving in large bodies, assumed +the most menacing positions. In the south encroachments were made upon the +British frontier of Chittagong. The island of Shahpura, at the mouth of the +Naaf river, had been occupied by a small guard of British troops. These +were attacked on the 23rd of September 1823 by the Burmese, and driven from +their post with the loss of several lives; and to the repeated demands of +the British for redress no answer was returned. Other outrages ensued; and +at length, on March 5th, 1824, war was declared by the British government. +The military operations, which will be found described under BURMESE WARS, +ended in the treaty of Yandaboo on the 24th of February 1826, which +conceded the British terms and enabled their army to be withdrawn. + +For some years the relations of peace continued undisturbed. Probably the +feeling of amity on the part of the Burmese government was not very strong; +but so long as the prince by whom the treaty was concluded continued in +power, no attempt was [v.04 p.0845] made to depart from its main +stipulations. That monarch, Ba-ggi-daw, however, was obliged in 1837 to +yield the throne to a usurper who appeared in the person of his brother, +Tharrawaddi (Tharawadi). The latter, at an early period, manifested not +only that hatred of British connexion which was almost universal at the +Burmese court, but also the extremest contempt. For several years it had +become apparent that the period was approaching when war between the +British and the Burmese governments would again become inevitable. The +British resident, Major Burney, who had been appointed in 1830, finding his +presence at Ava agreeable neither to the king nor to himself, removed in +1837 to Rangoon, and shortly afterwards retired from the country. +Ultimately it became necessary to forego even the pretence of maintaining +relations of friendship, and the British functionary at that time, Captain +Macleod, was withdrawn in 1840 altogether from a country where his +continuance would have been but a mockery. The state of sullen dislike +which followed was after a while succeeded by more active evidences of +hostility. Acts of violence were committed on British ships and British +seamen. Remonstrance was consequently made by the British government, and +its envoys were supported by a small naval force. The officers on whom +devolved the duty of representing the wrongs of their fellow-countrymen and +demanding redress, proceeded to Rangoon, the governor of which place had +been a chief actor in the outrages complained of; but so far were they from +meeting with any signs of regret, that they were treated with indignity and +contempt, and compelled to retire without accomplishing anything beyond +blockading the ports. A series of negotiations followed; nothing was +demanded of the Burmese beyond a very moderate compensation for the +injuries inflicted on the masters of two British vessels, an apology for +the insults offered by the governor of Rangoon to the representatives of +the British government, and the re-establishment of at least the appearance +of friendly relations by the reception of a British agent by the Burmese +government. But the obduracy of King Pagan, who had succeeded his father in +1846, led to the refusal alike of atonement for past wrongs, of any +expression of regret for the display of gratuitous insolence, and of any +indication of a desire to maintain friendship for the future. Another +Burmese war was the result, the first shot being fired in January 1852. As +in the former, though success was varying, the British finally triumphed, +and the chief towns in the lower part of the Burmese kingdom fell to them +in succession. The city of Pegu, the capital of that portion which, after +having been captured, had again passed into the hands of the enemy, was +recaptured and retained, and the whole province of Pegu was, by +proclamation of the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie, declared to be +annexed to the British dominions on the 20th of December 1852. No treaty +was obtained or insisted upon,--the British government being content with +the tacit acquiescence of the king of Burma without such documents; but its +resolution was declared, that any active demonstration of hostility by him +would be followed by retribution. + +About the same time a revolution broke out which resulted in King Pagan's +dethronement. His tyrannical and barbarous conduct had made him obnoxious +at home as well as abroad, and indeed many of his actions recall the worst +passages of the history of the later Roman emperors. The Mindôn prince, who +had become apprehensive for his own safety, made him prisoner in February +1853, and was himself crowned king of Burma towards the end of the year. +The new monarch, known as King Mindôn, showed himself sufficiently arrogant +in his dealings with the European powers, but was wise enough to keep free +from any approach towards hostility. The loss of Pegu was long a matter of +bitter regret, and he absolutely refused to acknowledge it by a formal +treaty. In the beginning of 1855 he sent a mission of compliment to Lord +Dalhousie, the governor-general; and in the summer of the same year Major +(afterwards Sir Arthur) Phayre, _de facto_ governor of the new province of +Pegu, was appointed envoy to the Burmese court. He was accompanied by +Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Yule as secretary, and Mr Oldham as +geologist, and his mission added largely to our knowledge of the state of +the country; but in its main object of obtaining a treaty it was +unsuccessful. It was not till 1862 that the king at length yielded, and his +relations with Britain were placed on a definite diplomatic basis. + +In that year the province of British Burma, the present Lower Burma, was +formed, with Sir Arthur Phayre as chief commissioner. In 1867 a treaty was +concluded at Mandalay providing for the free intercourse of trade and the +establishment of regular diplomatic relations. King Mindôn died in 1878, +and was succeeded by his son King Thibaw. Early in 1879 he excited much +horror by executing a number of the members of the Burmese royal family, +and relations became much strained. The British resident was withdrawn in +October 1879. The government of the country rapidly became bad. Control +over many of the outlying districts was lost, and the elements of disorder +on the British frontier were a standing menace to the peace of the country. +The Burmese court, in contravention of the express terms of the treaty of +1869, created monopolies to the detriment of the trade of both England and +Burma; and while the Indian government was unrepresented at Mandalay, +representatives of Italy and France were welcomed, and two separate +embassies were sent to Europe for the purpose of contracting new and, if +possible, close alliances with sundry European powers. Matters were brought +to a crisis towards the close of 1885, when the Burmese government imposed +a fine of £230,000 on the Bombay-Burma Trading Corporation, and refused to +comply with a suggestion of the Indian government that the cause of +complaint should be investigated by an impartial arbitrator. An ultimatum +was therefore despatched on the 22nd of October 1885. On the 9th of +November a reply was received in Rangoon amounting to an unconditional +refusal. The king on the 7th of November issued a proclamation calling upon +his subjects to drive the British into the sea. On the 14th of November +1885 the British field force crossed the frontier, and advanced to Mandalay +without incurring any serious resistance (see BURMESE WARS). It reached Ava +on the 26th of November, and an envoy from the king signified his +submission. On the 28th of November the British occupied Mandalay, and next +day King Thibaw was sent down the river to Rangoon, whence he was +afterwards transferred to Ratnagiri on the Bombay coast. Upper Burma was +formally annexed on the 1st of January 1886, and the work of restoring the +country to order and introducing settled government commenced. This was a +more serious task than the overthrow of the Burmese government, and +occupied four years. This was in part due to the character of the country, +which was characterized as one vast military obstacle, and in part to the +disorganization which had been steadily growing during the six years of +King Thibaw's reign. By the close of 1889 all the larger bands of marauders +were broken up, and since 1890 the country has enjoyed greater freedom from +violent crime than the province formerly known as British Burma. By the +Upper Burma Village Regulations and the Lower Burma Village Act, the +villagers themselves were made responsible for maintaining order in every +village, and the system has worked with the greatest success. During the +decade 1891-1901 the population increased by 19-8% and cultivation by 53%. +With good harvests and good markets the standard of living in Burma has +much improved. Large areas of cultivable waste have been brought under +cultivation, and the general result has been a contented people. The +boundary with Siam was demarcated in 1893, and that with China was +completed in 1900. + +AUTHORITIES.--_Official_: Col. Horace Spearman, _British Burma Gazetteer_ +(2 vols., Rangoon, 1879); Sir J. George Scott, _Upper Burma Gazetteer_ (5 +vols., Rangoon, 1900-1901). _Non-official_: Right Rev. Bishop Bigandet, +_Life or Legend of Gautama_ (3rd ed., London, 1881); G.W. Bird, _Wanderings +in Burma_ (London, 1897); E.D. Cuming, _In the Shadow of the Pagoda_ +(London, 1893), _With the Jungle Folk_ (Condon, 1897); Max and Bertha +Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900); H. Fielding, _The Soul of a People +(Buddhism in Burma)_ (London, 1898), _Thibaw's Queen_ (London, 1899), _A +People at School_ (1906); Capt. C.J. Forbes, F.S., _Burma_ (London, 1878), +_Comparative Grammar of the Languages of Farther India_ (London, 1881), +_Legendary History of Burma and Arakan_ (Rangoon, 1882); J. Gordon, _Burma +and its Inhabitants_ (London, 1876); Mrs E. Hart, [v.04 p.0846] +_Picturesque Burma_ (London, 1897); Gen. R. Macmahon, _Far Cathay and +Farther India_ (London, 1892); Rev. F. Mason, D.D., _Burma_ (Rangoon, +1860); E.H. Parker, _Burma_ (Rangoon, 1892); Sir Arthur Phayre, _History of +Burma_ (London, 1883); G.C. Rigby, _History of the Operations in Northern +Arakan and the Yawdwin Chin Hills_ (Rangoon, 1897), Sir J. George Scott, +_Burma, As it is, As it was, and As it will be_ (London, 1886); Shway Yoe, +_The Burman, His Life and Notions_ (2nd ed., London, 1896); D.M. Smeaton, +_The Karens of Burma_ (London, 1887); Sir Henry Yule, _A Mission to Ava_ +(London, 1858); J. Nisbet, _Burma under British Rule and Before_ (London, +1901); V.D. Scott O'Connor, _The Silken East_ (London, 1904); Talbot Kelly, +_Burma_ (London, 1905); an exhaustive account of the administration is +contained in Dr Alleyne Ireland's _The Province of Burma_, Report prepared +on behalf of the university of Chicago (Boston, U.S.A., 2 vols., 1907). + +(J. G. SC.) + +[1] See also, for geology, W. Theobald, "On the Geology of Pegu," _Mem. +Geol. Surv. India_, vol. x. pt. ii. (1874); F. Noetling, "The Development +and Subdivision of the Tertiary System in Burma," _Rec. Geol. Sun. India_, +vol. xxviii. (1895), pp. 59-86, pl. ii.; F. Noetling, "The Occurrence of +Petroleum in Burma, and its Technical Exploitation," _Mem. Geol. Surv. +India_, vol. xxvii. pt. ii. (1898). + +BURMANN, PIETER (1668-1741), Dutch classical scholar, known as "the Elder," +to distinguish him from his nephew, was born at Utrecht. At the age of +thirteen he entered the university where he studied under Graevius and +Gronovius. He devoted himself particularly to the study of the classical +languages, and became unusually proficient in Latin composition. As he was +intended for the legal profession, he spent some years in attendance on the +law classes. For about a year he studied at Leiden, paying special +attention to philosophy and Greek. On his return to Utrecht he took the +degree of doctor of laws (March 1688), and after travelling through +Switzerland and part of Germany, settled down to the practice of law, +without, however, abandoning his classical studies. In December 1691 he was +appointed receiver of the tithes which were originally paid to the bishop +of Utrecht, and five years later was nominated to the professorship of +eloquence and history. To this chair was soon added that of Greek and +politics. In 1714 he paid a short visit to Paris and ransacked the +libraries. In the following year he was appointed successor to the +celebrated Perizonius, who had held the chair of history, Greek language +and eloquence at Leiden. He was subsequently appointed professor of history +for the United Provinces and chief librarian. His numerous editorial and +critical works spread his fame as a scholar throughout Europe, and engaged +him in many of the stormy disputes which were then so common among men of +letters. Burmann was rather a compiler than a critic; his commentaries show +immense learning and accuracy, but are wanting in taste and judgment. He +died on the 31st of March 1741. + +Burmann edited the following classical authors:--Phaedrus (1698); Horace +(1699); Valerius Flaccus (1702); Petronius Arbiter (1709); Velleius +Paterculus (1719); Quintilian (1720); Justin (1722); Ovid (1727); _Poetae +Latini minores_ (1731); Suetonius (1736); Lucan (1740). He also published +an edition of Buchanan's works, continued Graevius's great work, _Thesaurus +Antiquitatum et Historiarum Italiae_, and wrote a treatise _De Vectigalibus +populi Romani_ (1694) and a short manual of Roman antiquities, +_Antiquitatum Romanarum Brevis Descriptio_ (1711). His _Sylloge epistolarum +a viris illustribus scriptarum_ (1725) is of importance for the history of +learned men. The list of his works occupies five pages in Saxe's +_Onomasticon_. His poems and orations were published after his death. There +is an account of his life in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for April (1742) by +Dr Samuel Johnson. + +BURMANN, PIETER (1714-1778), called by himself "the Younger" (Secundus), +Dutch philologist, nephew of the above, was born at Amsterdam on the 13th +of October 1714. He was brought up by his uncle in Leiden, and afterwards +studied law and philology under C.A. Duker and Arnold von Drakenborch at +Utrecht. In 1735 he was appointed professor of eloquence and history at +Franeker, with which the chair of poetry was combined in 1741. In the +following year he left Franeker for Amsterdam to become professor of +history and philology at the Athenaeum. He was subsequently professor of +poetry (1744), general librarian (1752), and inspector of the gymnasium +(1753). In 1777 he retired, and died on the 24th of June 1778 at Sandhorst, +near Amsterdam. He resembled his more famous uncle in the manner and +direction of his studies, and in his violent disposition, which involved +him in quarrels with contemporaries, notably Saxe and Klotz. He was a man +of extensive learning, and had a great talent for Latin poetry. His most +valuable works are: _Anthologia Veterum Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum_ +(1759-1773); _Aristophanis Comoediae Novem_ (1760); _Rhetorica ad +Herennium_ (1761). He completed the editions of Virgil (1746) and Claudian +(1760), which had been left unfinished by his uncle, and commenced an +edition of Propertius, one of his best works, which was only half printed +at the time of his death. It was completed by L. van Santen and published +in 1780. + +BURMESE WARS. Three wars were fought between Burma and the British during +the 19th century (see BURMA: _History_), which resulted in the gradual +extinction of Burmese independence. + +_First Burmese War, 1823-26._--On the 23rd of September 1823 an armed party +of Burmese attacked a British guard on Shapura, an island close to the +Chittagong side, killing and wounding six of the guard. Two Burmese armies, +one from Manipur and another from Assam, also entered Cachar, which was +under British protection, in January 1824. War with Burma was formally +declared on the 5th of March 1824. On the 17th of May a Burmese force +invaded Chittagong and drove a mixed sepoy and police detachment from its +position at Ramu, but did not follow up its success. The British rulers in +India, however, had resolved to carry the war into the enemy's country; an +armament, under Commodore Charles Grant and Sir Archibald Campbell, entered +the Rangoon river, and anchored off the town on the 10th of May 1824. After +a feeble resistance the place, then little more than a large stockaded +village, was surrendered, and the troops were landed. The place was +entirely deserted by its inhabitants, the provisions were carried off or +destroyed, and the invading force took possession of a complete solitude. +On the 28th of May Sir A. Campbell ordered an attack on some of the nearest +posts, which were all carried after a steadily weakening defence. Another +attack was made on the 10th of June on the stockades at the village of +Kemmendine. Some of these were battered by artillery from the war vessels +in the river, and the shot and shells had such effect on the Burmese that +they evacuated them, after a very unequal resistance. It soon, however, +became apparent that the expedition had been undertaken with very imperfect +knowledge of the country, and without adequate provision. The devastation +of the country, which was part of the defensive system of the Burmese, was +carried out with unrelenting rigour, and the invaders were soon reduced to +great difficulties. The health of the men declined, and their ranks were +fearfully thinned. The monarch of Ava sent large reinforcements to his +dispirited and beaten army; and early in June an attack was commenced on +the British line, but proved unsuccessful. On the 8th the British +assaulted. The enemy were beaten at all points; and their strongest +stockaded works, battered to pieces by a powerful artillery, were in +general abandoned. With the exception of an attack by the prince of +Tharrawaddy in the end of August, the enemy allowed the British to remain +unmolested during the months of July and August. This interval was employed +by Sir A. Campbell in subduing the Burmese provinces of Tavoy and Mergui, +and the whole coast of Tenasserim. This was an important conquest, as the +country was salubrious and afforded convalescent stations to the sick, who +were now so numerous in the British army that there were scarcely 3000 +soldiers fit for duty. An expedition was about this time sent against the +old Portuguese fort and factory of Syriam, at the mouth of the Pegu river, +which was taken; and in October the province of Martaban was reduced under +the authority of the British. + +The rainy season terminated about the end of October; and the court of Ava, +alarmed by the discomfiture of its armies, recalled the veteran legions +which were employed in Arakan, under their renowned leader Maha Bandula. +Bandula hastened by forced marches to the defence of his country; and by +the end of November an army of 60,000 men had surrounded the British +position at Rangoon and Kemmendine, for the defence of which Sir Archibald +Campbell had only 5000 efficient troops. The enemy in great force made +repeated attacks on Kemmendine without success, and on the 7th of December +Bandula was defeated in a counter attack made by Sir A. Campbell. The +fugitives retired to a strong position on the river, which they again +entrenched; and here they were attacked by the British on the 15th, and +driven in complete confusion from the field. + +Sir Archibald Campbell now resolved to advance on Prome, [v.04 p.0847] +about 100 m. higher up the Irrawaddy river. He moved with his force on the +13th of February 1825 in two divisions, one proceeding by land, and the +other, under General Willoughby Cotton, destined for the reduction of +Danubyu, being embarked on the flotilla. Taking the command of the land +force, he continued his advance till the 11th of March, when intelligence +reached him of the failure of the attack upon Danubyu. He instantly +commenced a retrograde march; on the 27th he effected a junction with +General Cotton's force, and on the 2nd of April entered the entrenchments +at Danubyu without resistance, Bandula having been killed by the explosion +of a bomb. The English general entered Prome on the 25th, and remained +there during the rainy season. On the 17th of September an armistice was +concluded for one month. In the course of the summer General Joseph +Morrison had conquered the province of Arakan; in the north the Burmese +were expelled from Assam; and the British had made some progress in Cachar, +though their advance was finally impeded by the thick forests and jungle. + +The armistice having expired on the 3rd of November, the army of Ava, +amounting to 60,000 men, advanced in three divisions against the British +position at Prome, which was defended by 3000 Europeans and 2000 native +troops. But the British still triumphed, and after several actions, in +which the Burmese were the assailants and were partially successful, Sir A. +Campbell, on the 1st of December, attacked the different divisions of their +army, and successively drove them from all their positions, and dispersed +them in every direction. The Burmese retired on Malun, along the course of +the Irrawaddy, where they occupied, with 10,000 or 12,000 men, a series of +strongly fortified heights and a formidable stockade. On the 26th they sent +a flag of truce to the British camp; and negotiations having commenced, +peace was proposed to them on the following conditions:--(1) The cession of +Arakan, together with the provinces of Mergui, Tavoy and Ye; (2) the +renunciation by the Burmese sovereign of all claims upon Assam and the +contiguous petty states; (3) the Company to be paid a crore of rupees as an +indemnification for the expenses of the war; (4) residents from each court +to be allowed, with an escort of fifty men; while it was also stipulated +that British ships should no longer be obliged to unship their rudders and +land their guns as formerly in the Burmese ports. This treaty was agreed to +and signed, but the ratification of the king was still wanting; and it was +soon apparent that the Burmese had no intention to sign it, but were +preparing to renew the contest. On the 19th of January, accordingly, Sir A. +Campbell attacked and carried the enemy's position at Malun. Another offer +of peace was here made by the Burmese, but it was found to be insincere; +and the fugitive army made at the ancient city of Pagan a final stand in +defence of the capital. They were attacked and overthrown on the 9th of +February 1826; and the invading force being now within four days' march of +Ava, Dr Price, an American missionary, who with other Europeans had been +thrown into prison when the war commenced, was sent to the British camp +with the treaty (known as the treaty of Yandaboo) ratified, the prisoners +of war released, and an instalment of 25 lakhs of rupees. The war was thus +brought to a successful termination, and the British army evacuated the +country. + +_Second Burmese War, 1852._--On the 15th of March 1852 Lord Dalhousie sent +an ultimatum to King Pagan, announcing that hostile operations would be +commenced if all his demands were not agreed to by the ist of April. +Meanwhile a force consisting of 8100 troops had been despatched to Rangoon +under the command of General H.T. Godwin, C.B., while Commodore Lambert +commanded the naval contingent. No reply being given to this letter, the +first blow of the Second Burmese War was struck by the British on the 5th +of April 1852, when Martaban was taken. Rangoon town was occupied on the +12th, and the Shwe Dagôn pagoda on the 14th, after heavy fighting, when the +Burmese army retired northwards. Bassein was seized on the 19th of May, and +Pegu was taken on the 3rd of June, after some sharp fighting round the +Shwe-maw-daw pagoda. During the rainy season the approval of the East India +Company's court of directors and of the British government was obtained to +the annexation of the lower portion of the Irrawaddy Valley, including +Prome. Lord Dalhousie visited Rangoon in July and August, and discussed the +whole situation with the civil, military and naval authorities. In +consequence General Godwin occupied Prome on the 9th of October after but +slight resistance. Early in December Lord Dalhousie informed King Pagan +that the province of Pegu would henceforth form part of the British +dominions, and that if his troops resisted the measure his whole kingdom +would be destroyed. The proclamation of annexation was issued on the 20th +of January 1853, and thus the Second Burmese War was brought to an end +without any treaty being signed. + +_Third Burmese War, 1885-86._--The imposition of an impossible fine on the +Bombay-Burma Trading Company, coupled with the threat of confiscation of +all their rights and property in case of non-payment, led to the British +ultimatum of the 22nd of October 1885; and by the 9th of November a +practical refusal of the terms having been received at Rangoon, the +occupation of Mandalay and the dethronement of King Thibaw were determined +upon. At this time, beyond the fact that the country was one of dense +jungle, and therefore most unfavourable for military operations, little was +known of the interior of Upper Burma; but British steamers had for years +been running on the great river highway of the Irrawaddy, from Rangoon to +Mandalay, and it was obvious that the quickest and most satisfactory method +of carrying out the British campaign was an advance by water direct on the +capital. Fortunately a large number of light-draught river steamers and +barges (or "flats"), belonging to the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company, were +available at Rangoon, and the local knowledge of the company's officers of +the difficult river navigation was at the disposal of the government. +Major-General, afterwards Sir, H.N.D. Prendergast, V.C., K.C.B., R.E., was +placed in command of the expedition. As was only to be expected in an +enterprise of this description, the navy as well as the army was called in +requisition; and as usual the services rendered by the seamen and guns were +most important. The total effective of the force was 9034 fighting men, +2810 native followers and 67 guns, and for river service, 24 machine guns. +The river fleet which conveyed the troops and stores was composed of a +total of no less than 55 steamers, barges, launches, &c. + +Thayetmyo was the British post on the river nearest to the frontier, and +here, by 14th November, five days after Thibaw's answer had been received, +practically the whole expedition was assembled. On the same day General +Prendergast received instructions to commence operations. The Burmese king +and his country were taken completely by surprise by the unexampled +rapidity of the advance. There had been no time for them to collect and +organize the stubborn resistance of which the river and its defences were +capable. They had not even been able to block the river by sinking +steamers, &c., across it, for, on the very day of the receipt of orders to +advance, the armed steamers, the "Irrawaddy" and "Kathleen," engaged the +nearest Burmese batteries, and brought out from under their guns the king's +steamer and some barges which were lying in readiness for this very +purpose. On the 16th the batteries themselves on both banks were taken by a +land attack, the enemy being evidently unprepared and making no resistance. +On the 17th of November, however, at Minhla, on the right bank of the +river, the Burmans in considerable force held successively a barricade, a +pagoda and the redoubt of Minhla. The attack was pressed home by a brigade +of native infantry on shore, covered by a bombardment from the river, and +the enemy were defeated with a loss of 170 killed and 276 prisoners, +besides many more drowned in the attempt to escape by the river. The +advance was continued next day and the following days, the naval brigade +and heavy artillery leading and silencing in succession the enemy's river +defences at Nyaungu, Pakôkku and Myingyan. On the 26th of November, when +the flotilla was approaching the ancient capital of Ava, envoys from King +Thibaw met General Prendergast with offers of surrender; and on the 27th, +when the ships [v.04 p.0848] were lying off that city and ready to commence +hostilities, the order of the king to his troops to lay down their arms was +received. There were three strong forts here, full at that moment with +thousands of armed Burmans, and though a large number of these filed past +and laid down their arms by the king's command, still many more were +allowed to disperse with their weapons; and these, in the time that +followed, broke up into dacoit or guerrilla bands, which became the scourge +of the country and prolonged the war for years. Meanwhile, however, the +surrender of the king of Burma was complete; and on the 28th of November, +in less than a fortnight from the declaration of war, Mandalay had fallen, +and the king himself was a prisoner, while every strong fort and town on +the river, and all the king's ordnance (1861 pieces), and thousands of +rifles, muskets and arms had been taken. Much valuable and curious "loot" +and property was found in the palace and city of Mandalay, which, when +sold, realized about 9 lakhs of rupees (£60,000). + +From Mandalay, General Prendergast seized Bhamo on the 28th of December. +This was a very important move, as it forestalled the Chinese, who were +preparing to claim the place. But unfortunately, although the king was +dethroned and deported, and the capital and the whole of the river in the +hands of the British, the bands of armed soldiery, unaccustomed to +conditions other than those of anarchy, rapine and murder, took advantage +of the impenetrable cover of their jungles to continue a desultory armed +resistance. Reinforcements had to be poured into the country, and it was in +this phase of the campaign, lasting several years, that the most difficult +and most arduous work fell to the lot of the troops. It was in this jungle +warfare that the losses from battle, sickness and privation steadily +mounted up; and the troops, both British and native, proved once again +their fortitude and courage. + +Various expeditions followed one another in rapid succession, penetrating +to the remotest corners of the land, and bringing peace and protection to +the inhabitants, who, it must be mentioned, suffered at least as much from +the dacoits as did the troops. The final, and now completely successful, +pacification of the country, under the direction of Sir Frederick +(afterwards Earl) Roberts, was only brought about by an extensive system of +small protective posts scattered all over the country, and small lightly +equipped columns moving out to disperse the enemy whenever a gathering came +to a head, or a pretended prince or king appeared. + +No account of the Third Burmese War would be complete without a reference +to the first, and perhaps for this reason most notable, land advance into +the enemy's country. This was carried out in November 1885 from Toungoo, +the British frontier post in the east of the country, by a small column of +all arms under Colonel W.P. Dicken, 3rd Madras Light Infantry, the first +objective being Ningyan. The operations were completely successful, in +spite of a good deal of scattered resistance, and the force afterwards +moved forward to Yamethin and Hlaingdet. As inland operations developed, +the want of mounted troops was badly felt, and several regiments of cavalry +were brought over from India, while mounted infantry was raised locally. It +was found that without these most useful arms it was generally impossible +to follow up and punish the active enemy. + +BURN, RICHARD (1700-1785), English legal writer, was born at Winton, +Westmorland, in 1709. Educated at Queen's College, Oxford, he entered the +Church, and in 1736 became vicar of Orton in Westmorland. He was a justice +of the peace for the counties of Westmorland and Cumberland, and devoted +himself to the study of law. He was appointed chancellor of the diocese of +Carlisle in 1765, an office which he held till his death at Orton on the +12th of November 1785. Burn's _Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer_, +first published in 1755, was for many years the standard authority on the +law relating to justices of the peace. It has passed through innumerable +editions. His _Ecclesiastical Law_ (1760), a work of much research, was the +foundation upon which were built many modern commentaries on ecclesiastical +law. The best edition is that by R. Phillimore (4 vols., 1842). Burn also +wrote _Digest of the Militia Laws_ (1760), and _A New Law Dictionary_ (2 +vols., 1792). + +BURNABY, FREDERICK GUSTAVUS (1842-1885), English traveller and soldier, was +born on the 3rd of March 1842, at Bedford, the son of a clergyman. Educated +at Harrow and in Germany, he entered the Royal Horse Guards in 1859. +Finding no chance for active service, his spirit of adventure sought +outlets in balloon-ascents and in travels through Spain and Russia. In the +summer of 1874 he accompanied the Carlist forces as correspondent of _The +Times_, but before the end of the war he was transferred to Africa to +report on Gordon's expedition to the Sudan. This took Burnaby as far as +Khartum. Returning to England in March 1875, he matured his plans for a +journey on horseback to Khiva through Russian Asia, which had just been +closed to travellers. His accomplishment of this task, in the winter of +1875-1876, described in his book _A Ride to Khiva_, brought him immediate +fame. His next leave of absence was spent in another adventurous journey on +horseback, through Asia Minor, from Scutari to Erzerum, with the object of +observing the Russian frontier, an account of which he afterwards +published. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, Burnaby (who soon afterwards +became lieut.-colonel) acted as travelling agent to the Stafford House (Red +Cross) Committee, but had to return to England before the campaign was +over. At this point began his active interest in politics, and in 1880 he +unsuccessfully contested a seat at Birmingham in the Tory-Democrat +interest. In 1882 he crossed the Channel in a balloon. Having been +disappointed in his hope of seeing active service in the Egyptian campaign +of 1882, he participated in the Suakin campaign of 1884 without official +leave, and was wounded at El Teb when acting as an intelligence officer +under General Valentine Baker. This did not deter him from a similar course +when a fresh expedition started up the Nile. He was given a post by Lord +Wolseley, and met his death in the hand-to-hand fighting of the battle of +Abu Klea (17th January 1885). + +BURNAND, SIR FRANCIS COWLEY (1836- ), English humorist, was born in London +on the 29th of November 1836. His father was a London stockbroker, of +French-Swiss origin; his mother Emma Cowley, a direct descendant of Hannah +Cowley (1743-1809), the English poet and dramatist. He was educated at Eton +and Cambridge, and originally studied first for the Anglican, then for the +Roman Catholic Church; but eventually took to the law and was called to the +bar. From his earliest days, however, the stage had attracted him--he +founded the Amateur Dramatic Club at Cambridge,--and finally he abandoned +the church and the law, first for the stage and subsequently for dramatic +authorship. His first great dramatic success was made with the burlesque +_Black-Eyed Susan_, and he wrote a large number of other burlesques, +comedies and farces. One of his early burlesques came under the favourable +notice of Mark Lemon, then editor of _Punch_, and Burnand, who was already +writing for the comic paper _Fun_, became in 1862 a regular contributor to +_Punch_. In 1880 he was appointed editor of _Punch_, and only retired from +that position in 1906. In 1902 he was knighted. His literary reputation as +a humorist depends, apart from his long association with _Punch_, on his +well-known book _Happy Thoughts_, originally published in _Punch_ in +1863-1864 and frequently reprinted. + +See _Recollections and Reminiscences_, by Sir F.C. Burnand (London, 1904). + +BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD BURNE, Bart. (1833-1898), English painter and +designer, was born on the 28th of August 1833 at Birmingham. His father was +a Welsh descent, and the idealism of his nature and art has been attributed +to this Celtic strain. An only son, he was educated at King Edward's +school, Birmingham, and destined for the Church. He retained through life +an interest in classical studies, but it was the mythology of the classics +which fascinated him. He went into residence as a scholar at Exeter +College, Oxford, in January 1853. On the same day William Morris entered +the same college, having also the intention of taking orders. The two were +thrown together, and grew close friends. Their similar tastes and +enthusiasms were [v.04 p.0849] mutually stimulated. Burne-Jones resumed his +early love of drawing and designing. With Morris he read _Modern Painters_ +and the _Morte d'Arthur_. He studied the Italian pictures in the University +galleries, and Dürer's engravings; but his keenest enthusiasm was kindled +by the sight of two works by a living man, Rossetti. One of these was a +woodcut in Allingham's poems, "The Maids of Elfinmere"; the other was the +water-colour "Dante drawing an Angel," then belonging to Mr Coombe, of the +Clarendon Press, and now in the University collection. Having found his +true vocation, Burne-Jones, like his friend Morris, determined to +relinquish his thoughts of the Church and to become an artist. Rossetti, +although not yet seen by him, was his chosen master; and early in 1856 he +had the happiness, in London, of meeting him. At Easter he left college +without taking a degree. This was his own decision, not due (as often +stated) to Rossetti's persuasion; but on settling in London, where Morris +soon joined him at 17 Red Lion Square, he began to work under Rossetti's +friendly instruction and encouraging guidance. + +As Burne-Jones once said, he "found himself at five-and-twenty what he +ought to have been at fifteen." He had had no regular training as a +draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. But his extraordinary +faculty of invention as a designer was already ripening; his mind, rich in +knowledge of classical story and medieval romance, teemed with pictorial +subjects; and he set himself to complete his equipment by resolute labour, +witnessed by innumerable drawings. The works of this first period are all +more or less tinged by the influence of Rossetti; but they are already +differentiated from the elder master's style by their more facile though +less intensely felt elaboration of imaginative detail. Many are pen-and-ink +drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which the "Waxen Image" is one +of the earliest and best examples; it is dated 1856. Although subject, +medium and manner derive from Rossetti's inspiration, it is not the hand of +a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti +himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him. +Burne-Jones's first sketch in oils dates from this same year, 1856; and +during 1857 he made for Bradfield College the first of what was to be an +immense series of cartoons for stained glass. In 1858 he decorated a +cabinet with the "Prioress's Tale" from Chaucer, his first direct +illustration of the work of a poet whom he especially loved and who +inspired him with endless subjects. Thus early, therefore, we see the +artist busy in all the various fields in which he was to labour. + +In the autumn of 1857 Burne-Jones joined in Rossetti's ill-fated scheme to +decorate theh walls of the Oxford Union. None of the painters had mastered +the technique of fresco, and their pictures had begun to peel from the +walls before they were completed. In 1859 Burne-Jones made his first +journey to Italy. He saw Florence, Pisa, Siena, Venice and other places, +and appears to have found the gentle and romantic Sienese more attractive +than any other school. Rossetti's influence still persisted; and its +impress is visible, more strongly perhaps than ever before, in the two +water-colours "Sidonia von Bork" and "Clara von Bork," painted in 1860. +These little masterpieces have a directness of execution rare with the +artist. In powerful characterization, combined with a decorative motive, +they rival Rossetti at his best. In June of this year Burne-Jones was +married to Miss Georgiana Macdonald, two of whose sisters were the wives of +Sir E. Poynter and Mr J.L. Kipling, and they settled in Bloomsbury. Five +years later he moved to Kensington Square, and shortly afterwards to the +Grange, Fulham, an old house with a garden, where he resided till his +death. In 1862 the artist and his wife accompanied Ruskin to Italy, +visiting Milan and Venice. + +In 1864 he was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in +Water-Colours, and exhibited, among other works, "The Merciful Knight," the +first picture which fully revealed his ripened personality as an artist. +The next six years saw a series of fine water-colours at the same gallery; +but in 1870, owing to a misunderstanding, Burne-Jones resigned his +membership of the society. He was re-elected in 1886. During the next seven +years, 1870-1877, only two works of the painter's were exhibited. These +were two water-colours, shown at the Dudley Gallery in 1873, one of them +being the beautiful "Love among the Ruins," destroyed twenty years later by +a cleaner who supposed it to be an oil painting, but afterwards reproduced +in oils by the painter. This silent period was, however, one of unremitting +production. Hitherto Burne-Jones had worked almost entirely in +water-colours. He now began a number of large pictures in oils, working at +them in turn, and having always several on hand. The "Briar Rose" series, +"Laus Veneris," the "Golden Stairs," the "Pygmalion" series, and "The +Mirror of Venus" are among the works planned and completed, or carried far +towards completion, during these years. At last, in May 1877, the day of +recognition came, with the opening of the first exhibition of the Grosvenor +Gallery, when the "Days of Creation," the "Beguiling of Merlin," and the +"Mirror of Venus" were all shown. Burne-Jones followed up the signal +success of these pictures with "Laus Veneris," the "Chant d'Amour," "Pan +and Psyche," and other works, exhibited in 1878. Most of these pictures are +painted in gay and brilliant colours. A change is noticeable next year, +1879, in the "Annunciation" and in the four pictures called "Pygmalion and +the Image"; the former of these, one of the simplest and most perfect of +the artist's works, is subdued and sober; in the latter a scheme of soft +and delicate tints was attempted, not with entire success. A similar +temperance of colours marks the "Golden Stairs," first exhibited in 1880. +In 1884, following the almost sombre "Wheel of Fortune" of the preceding +year, appeared "King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid," in which Burne-Jones +once more indulged his love of gorgeous colour, refined by the period of +self-restraint. This masterpiece is now in the National collection. He next +turned to two important sets of pictures, "The Briar Rose" and "The Story +of Perseus," though these were not completed for some years to come. In +1886, having been elected A.R.A. the previous year, he exhibited (for the +only time) at the Royal Academy "The Depths of the Sea," a mermaid carrying +down with her a youth whom she has unconsciously drowned in the impetuosity +of her love. This picture adds to the habitual haunting charm a tragic +irony of conception and a felicity of execution which give it a place apart +among Burne-Jones's works. He resigned his Associateship in 1893. One of +the "Perseus" series was exhibited in 1887, two more in 1888, with "The +Brazen Tower," inspired by the same legend. In 1890 the four pictures of +"The Briar Rose" were exhibited by themselves, and won the widest +admiration. The huge tempera picture, "The Star of Bethlehem," painted for +the corporation of Birmingham, was exhibited in 1891. A long illness for +some time checked the painter's activity, which, when resumed, was much +occupied with decorative schemes. An exhibition of his work was held at the +New Gallery in the winter of 1892-1893. To this period belong several of +his comparatively few portraits. In 1894 Burne-Jones was made a baronet. +Ill-health again interrupted the progress of his works, chief among which +was the vast "Arthur in Avalon." In 1898 he had an attack of influenza, and +had apparently recovered, when he was again taken suddenly ill, and died on +the 17th of June. In the following winter a second exhibition of his works +was held at the New Gallery, and an exhibition of his drawings (including +some of the charmingly humorous sketches made for children) at the +Burlington Fine Arts Club. + +His son and successor in the baronetcy, Sir Philip Burne-Jones (b. 1861), +also became well known as an artist. The only daughter, Margaret, married +Mr J.W. Mackail. + +Burne-Jones's influence has been exercised far less in painting than in the +wide field of decorative design. Here it has been enormous. His first +designs for stained glass, 1857-1861, were made for Messrs Powell, but +after 1861 he worked exclusively for Morris & Co. Windows executed from his +cartoons are to be found all over England; others exist in churches abroad. +For the American Church in Rome he designed a number of mosaics. Reliefs in +metal, tiles, gesso-work, decorations for [v.04 p.0850] pianos and organs, +and cartoons for tapestry represent his manifold activity. In all works, +however, which were only designed and not carried out by him, a decided +loss of delicacy is to be noted. The colouring of the tapestries (of which +the "Adoration of the Magi" at Exeter College is the best-known) is more +brilliant than successful. The range and fertility of Burne-Jones as a +decorative inventor can be perhaps most conveniently studied in the +sketch-book, 1885-1895, which he bequeathed to the British Museum. The +artist's influence on book-illustration must also be recorded. In early +years he made a few drawings on wood for Dalziel's Bible and for _Good +Words_; but his later work for the Kelmscott Press, founded by Morris in +1891, is that by which he is best remembered. Besides several illustrations +to other Kelmscott books, he made eighty-seven designs for the _Chaucer_ of +1897. + +Burne-Jones's aim in art is best given in some of his own words, written to +a friend: "I mean by a picture a beautiful, romantic dream of something +that never was, never will be--in a light better than any light that ever +shone--in a land no one can define or remember, only desire--and the forms +divinely beautiful--and then I wake up, with the waking of Brynhild." No +artist was ever more true to his aim. Ideals resolutely pursued are apt to +provoke the resentment of the world, and Burne-Jones encountered, endured +and conquered an extraordinary amount of, angry criticism. In so far as +this was directed against the lack of realism in his pictures, it was +beside the point. The earth, the sky, the rocks, the trees, the men and +women of Burne-Jones are not those of this world; but they are themselves a +world, consistent with itself, and having therefore its own reality. +Charged with the beauty and with the strangeness of dreams, it has nothing +of a dream's incoherence. Yet it is a dreamer always whose nature +penetrates these works, a nature out of sympathy with struggle and +strenuous action. Burne-Jones's men and women are dreamers too. It was this +which, more than anything else, estranged him from the age into which he +was born. But he had an inbred "revolt from fact" which would have +estranged him from the actualities of any age. That criticism seems to be +more justified which has found in him a lack of such victorious energy and +mastery over his materials as would have enabled him to carry out his +conceptions in their original intensity. Representing the same kind of +tendency as distinguished his French contemporary, Puvis de Chavannes, he +was far less in the main current of art, and his position suffers +accordingly. Often compared with Botticelli, he had nothing of the fire and +vehemence of the Florentine. Yet, if aloof from strenuous action, +Burne-Jones was singularly strenuous in production. His industry was +inexhaustible, and needed to be, if it was to keep pace with the constant +pressure of his ideas. Invention, a very rare excellence, was his +pre-eminent gift. Whatever faults his paintings may have, they have always +the fundamental virtue of design; they are always pictures. His fame might +rest on his purely decorative work. But his designs were informed with a +mind of romantic temper, apt in the discovery of beautiful subjects, and +impassioned with a delight in pure and variegated colour. These splendid +gifts were directed in a critical and fortunate moment by the genius of +Rossetti. Hence a career which shows little waste or misdirection of power, +and, granted the aim proposed, a rare level of real success. + +AUTHORITIES.--In 1904 was published _Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones_, by +his widow, two volumes of extreme interest and charm. _The Work of +Burne-Jones_, a collection of ninety-one photogravures, appeared in 1900. + +See also _Catalogue to Burlington Club Exhibition of Drawings by +Burne-Jones_, with Introduction by Cosmo Monkhouse (1899); _Sir E. +Burne-Jones: a Record and a Review_, by Malcolm Belt (1898); _Sir E. +Burne-Jones, his Life and Work_, by Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady) (1894); _The +Life of William Morris_, by J.W. Mackail (1899). + +(L. B.) + +BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE (1840-1882), English Sanskrit scholar, was born at St +Briavels, Gloucestershire, in 1840. His father was an official of the East +India Company, and in 1860 he himself went out to Madras as a member of the +Indian civil service. Here he utilized every available opportunity to +acquire or copy Sanskrit manuscripts. In 1870 he presented his collection +of 350 MSS. to the India library. In 1874 he published a _Handbook of South +Indian Palaeography_, characterized by Max Müller as "indispensable to +every student of Indian literature," and in 1880 issued for the Madras +government his greatest work, the _Classified Index to the Sanskrit MSS. in +the Palace at Tanjore_. He was also the author of a large number of +translations from, and commentaries on, various other Sanskrit manuscripts, +being particularly successful in grouping and elucidating the essential +principles of Hindu law. In addition to his exhaustive acquaintance with +Sanskrit, and the southern India vernaculars, he had some knowledge of +Tibetan, Arabic, Kawi, Javanese and Coptic. Burnell originated with Sir +Henry Yule the well-known dictionary of Anglo-Indian words and phrases, +_Hobson-Jobson_. His constitution, never strong, broke down prematurely +through the combined influence of overwork and the Madras climate, and he +died at West Stratton, Hampshire, on the 12th of October 1882. A further +collection of Sanskrit manuscripts was purchased from his heirs by the +India library after his death. + +BURNELL, ROBERT (d. 1292), English bishop and chancellor, was born at Acton +Burnell in Shropshire, and began his public life probably as a clerk in the +royal chancery. He was soon in the service of Edward, the eldest son of +King Henry III., and was constantly in attendance on the prince, whose +complete confidence he appears to have enjoyed. Having received some +ecclesiastical preferments, he acted as one of the regents of the kingdom +from the death of Henry III. in November 1272 until August 1274, when the +new king, Edward I., returned from Palestine and made him his chancellor. +In 1275 Burnell was elected bishop of Bath and Wells, and three years later +Edward repeated the attempt which he had made in 1270 to secure the +archbishopric of Canterbury for his favourite. The bishop's second failure +to obtain this dignity was due, doubtless, to his irregular and unclerical +manner of life, a fact which also accounts, in part at least, for the +hostility which existed between his victorious rival, Archbishop Peckham, +and himself. As the chief adviser of Edward I. during the earlier part of +his reign, and moreover as a trained and able lawyer, the bishop took a +prominent part in the legislative acts of the "English Justinian," whose +activity in this direction coincides practically with Burnell's tenure of +the office of chancellor. The bishop also influenced the king's policy with +regard to France, Scotland and Wales; was frequently employed on business +of the highest moment; and was the royal mouthpiece on several important +occasions. In 1283 a council, or, as it is sometimes called, a parliament, +met in his house at Acton Burnell, and he was responsible for the +settlement of the court of chancery in London. In spite of his numerous +engagements, Burnell found time to aggrandize his bishopric, to provide +liberally for his nephews and other kinsmen, and to pursue his cherished +but futile aim of founding a great family. Licentious and avaricious, he +amassed great wealth; and when he died on the 25th of October 1292 he left +numerous estates in Shropshire, Worcestershire, Somerset, Kent, Surrey and +elsewhere. He was, however, genial and kind-hearted, a great lawyer and a +faithful minister. + +See R.W. Eyton, _Antiquities of Shropshire_ (London, 1854-1860); and E. +Foss, _The Judges of England_, vol. iii. (London, 1848-1864). + +BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER (1805-1841), British traveller and explorer, was born +at Montrose, Scotland, in 1805. While serving in India, in the army of the +East India Company, which he had joined in his seventeenth year, he made +himself acquainted with Hindustani and Persian, and thus obtained an +appointment as interpreter at Surat in 1822. Transferred to Cutch in 1826 +as assistant to the political agent, he turned his attention more +particularly to the history and geography of north-western India and the +adjacent countries, at that time very imperfectly known. His proposal in +1829 to undertake a journey of exploration through the valley of the Indus +was not carried out owing to political apprehensions; but in 1831 he was +sent to Lahore with a present of horses from King William IV. to Maharaja +Ranjit Singh and took advantage of the opportunity for extensive +investigations. In the following years his travels were extended through +Afghanistan across the Hindu Kush to [v.04 p.0851] Bokhara and Persia. The +narrative which he published on his visit to England in 1834 added +immensely to contemporary knowledge of the countries traversed, and was one +of the most popular books of the time. The first edition brought the author +the sum of £800, and his services were recognized not only by the Royal +Geographical Society of London, but also by that of Paris. Soon after his +return to India in 1835 he was appointed to the court of Sind to secure a +treaty for the navigation of the Indus; and in 1836 he undertook a +political mission to Dost Mahommed at Kabul. He advised Lord Auckland to +support Dost Mahommed on the throne of Kabul, but the viceroy preferred to +follow the opinion of Sir William Macnaghten and reinstated Shah Shuja, +thus leading up to the disasters of the first Afghan War. On the +restoration of Shah Shuja in 1839, he became regular political agent at +Kabul, and remained there till his assassination in 1841 (on the 2nd of +November), during the heat of an insurrection. The calmness with which he +continued at his post, long after the imminence of his danger was apparent, +gives an heroic colouring to the close of an honourable and devoted life. +It came to light in 1861 that some of Burnes' despatches from Kabul in 1839 +had been altered, so as to convey opinions opposite to his, but Lord +Palmerston refused after such a lapse of time to grant the inquiry demanded +in the House of Commons. A narrative of his later labours was published in +1842 under the title of _Cabool_. + +See Sir J.W. Kaye, _Lives of Indian Officers_ (1889). + +BURNET, GILBERT (1643-1715), English bishop and historian, was born in +Edinburgh on the 18th of September 1643, of an ancient and distinguished +Scottish house. He was the youngest son of Robert Burnet (1592-1661), who +at the Restoration became a lord of session with the title of Lord Crimond. +Robert Burnet had refused to sign the Scottish Covenant, although the +document was drawn up by his brother-in-law, Archibald Johnstone, Lord +Warristoun. He therefore found it necessary to retire from his profession, +and twice went into exile. He disapproved of the rising of the Scots, but +was none the less a severe critic of the government of Charles I. and of +the action of the Scottish bishops. This moderate attitude he impressed on +his son Gilbert, whose early education he directed. The boy entered +Marischal College at the age of nine, and five years later graduated M.A. +He then spent a year in the study of feudal and civil law before he +resolved to devote himself to theology. He became a probationer for the +Scottish ministry in 1661 just before episcopal government was +re-established in Scotland. His decision to accept episcopal orders led to +difficulties with his family, especially with his mother, who held rigid +Presbyterian views. From this time dates his friendship with Robert +Leighton (1611-1684), who greatly influenced his religious opinions. +Leighton had, during a stay in the Spanish Netherlands, assimilated +something of the ascetic and pietistic spirit of Jansenism, and was devoted +to the interests of peace in the church. Burnet wisely refused to accept a +benefice in the disturbed state of church affairs, but he wrote an +audacious letter to Archbishop Sharp asking him to take measures to restore +peace. Sharp sent for Burnet, and dismissed his advice without apparent +resentment. He had already made valuable acquaintances in Edinburgh, and he +now visited London, Oxford and Cambridge, and, after a short visit to +Edinburgh in 1663, when he sought to secure a reprieve for his uncle +Warristoun, he proceeded to travel in France and Holland. At Cambridge he +was strongly influenced by the philosophical views of Ralph Cudworth and +Henry More, who proposed an unusual degree of toleration within the +boundaries of the church and the limitations imposed by its liturgy and +episcopal government; and his intercourse in Holland with foreign divines +of different Protestant sects further encouraged his tendency to +latitudinarianism. + +When he returned to England in 1664 he established intimate relations with +Sir Robert Moray and with John Maitland, earl and afterwards first duke of +Lauderdale, both of whom at that time advocated a tolerant policy towards +the Scottish covenanters. Burnet became a member of the Royal Society, of +which Moray was the first president. On his father's death he had been +offered a living by a relative, Sir Alexander Burnet, and in 1663 the +living of Saltoun, East Lothian, had been kept open for him by one of his +father's friends. He was not formally inducted at Saltoun until June 1665, +although he had served there since October 1664. For the next five years he +devoted himself to his parish, where he won the respect of all parties. In +1666 he alienated the Scottish bishops by a bold memorial (printed in vol. +ii. of the _Miscellanies_ of the Scottish Historical Society), in which he +pointed out that they were departing from the custom of the primitive +church by their excessive pretensions, and yet his attitude was far too +moderate to please the Presbyterians. In 1669 he resigned his parish to +become professor of divinity in the university of Glasgow, and in the same +year he published an exposition of his ecclesiastical views in his _Modest +and Free Conference between a Conformist and a Nonconformist_ (by "a lover +of peace"). He was Leighton's right hand in the efforts at a compromise +between the episcopal and the presbyterian principle. Meanwhile he had +begun to differ from Lauderdale, whose policy after the failure of the +scheme of "Accommodation" moved in the direction of absolutism and +repression, and during Lauderdale's visit to Scotland in 1672 the +divergence rapidly developed into opposition. He warily refused the offer +of a Scottish bishopric, and published in 1673 his four "conferences," +entitled _Vindication of the Authority, Constitution and Laws of the Church +and State of Scotland_, in which he insisted on the duty of passive +obedience. It was partly through the influence of Anne (d. 1716), duchess +of Hamilton in her own right, that he had been appointed at Glasgow, and he +made common cause with the Hamiltons against Lauderdale. The duchess had +made over to him the papers of her father and uncle, from which he compiled +the _Memoirs of the Lives and Actions of James and William, dukes of +Hamilton and Castleherald. In which an Account is given of the Rise and +Progress of the Civil Wars of Scotland ... together with many letters ... +written by King Charles I._ (London, 1677; Univ. Press, Oxford, 1852), a +book which was published as the second volume of a _History of the Church +of Scotland_, Spottiswoode's _History_ forming the first. This work +established his reputation as an historian. Meanwhile he had clandestinely +married in 1671 a cousin of Lauderdale, Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of +John Kennedy, 6th earl of Cassilis, a lady who had already taken an active +part in affairs in Scotland, and was eighteen years older than Burnet. The +marriage was kept secret for three years, and Burnet renounced all claim to +his wife's fortune. + +Lauderdale's ascendancy in Scotland and the failure of the attempts at +compromise in Scottish church affairs eventually led Burnet to settle in +England. He was favourably received by Charles II. in 1673, when he went up +to London to arrange for the publication of the Hamilton _Memoirs_, and he +was treated with confidence by the duke of York. On his return to Scotland +Lauderdale refused to receive him, and denounced him to Charles II. as one +of the chief centres of Scottish discontent. Burnet found it wiser to +retire to England on the plea of fulfilling his duties as royal chaplain. +Once in London he resigned his professorship (September 1674) at Glasgow; +but, although James remained his friend, Charles struck him off the roll of +court chaplains in 1674, and it was in opposition to court influence that +he was made chaplain to the Rolls Chapel by the master, Sir Harbottle +Grimston, and appointed lecturer at St Clement's. He was summoned in April +1675 before a committee of the House of Commons to give evidence against +Lauderdale, and disclosed, without reluctance according to his enemies, +confidences which had passed between him and the minister. He himself +confesses in his autobiography that "it was a great error in me to appear +in this matter," and his conduct cost him the patronage of the duke of +York. In ecclesiastical matters he threw in his lot with Thomas Tillotson +and John Tenison, and at the time of the Revolution had written some +eighteen polemics against encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. At +the suggestion of Sir William Jones, the attorney-general, he began his +_History of the Reformation in England_, based on original documents. [v.04 +p.0852] In the necessary research he received some pecuniary help from +Robert Boyle, but he was hindered in the preparation of the first part +(1679) through being refused access to the Cotton library, possibly by the +influence of Lauderdale. For this volume he received the thanks of +parliament, and the second and third volumes appeared in 1681 and 1715. In +this work he undertook to refute the statements of Nicholas Sanders, whose +_De Origine et progressu schismatis Anglicani libri tres_ (Cologne, 1585) +was still, in the French translation of Maucroix, the commonly accepted +account of the English reformation. Burnet's contradictions of Sanders must +not, however, be accepted without independent investigation. At the time of +the Popish Plot in 1678 he displayed some moderation, refusing to believe +the charges made against the duke of York, though he chose this time to +publish some anti-Roman pamphlets. He tried, at some risk to himself, to +save the life of one of the victims, William Staly, and visited William +Howard, Viscount Stafford, in the Tower. To the Exclusion Bill he opposed a +suggestion of compromise, and it is said that Charles offered him the +bishopric of Chichester, "if he would come entirely into his interests." +Burnet's reconciliation with the court was short-lived. In January 1680 he +addressed to the king a long letter on the subject of his sins; he was +known to have received the dangerous confidence of Wilmot, earl of +Rochester, in his last illness; and he was even suspected, unjustly, in +1683, of having composed the paper drawn up on the eve of death by William +Russell, Lord Russell, whom he attended to the scaffold. On the 5th of +November 1684 he preached, at the express wish of his patron Grimston, and +against his own desire, the usual anti-Catholic sermon. He was consequently +deprived of his appointments by order of the court, and on the accession of +James II. retired to Paris. He had already begun the writing of his +memoirs, which were to develop into the _History of His Own Time_. + +Burnet now travelled in Italy, Germany and Switzerland, finally settling in +Holland at the Hague, where he won from the princess of Orange a confidence +which proved enduring. He rendered a signal service to William by inducing +the princess to offer to leave the whole political power in her husband's +hands in the event of their succession to the English crown. A prosecution +against him for high treason was now set on foot both in England and in +Scotland, and he took the precaution of naturalizing himself as a Dutch +subject. Lady Margaret Burnet was dying when he left England, and n Holland +he married a Dutch heiress of Scottish descent, Mary Scott. He returned to +England with William and Mary, and drew up the English text of their +declaration. His earlier views on the doctrine of non-resistance had been +sensibly modified by what he saw in France after the revocation of the +edict of Nantes and by the course of affairs at home, and in 1688 he +published an _Inquiry into the Measures of Submission to the Supreme +Authority_ in defence of the revolution. He was consecrated to the see of +Salisbury on the 31st of March 1689 by a commission of bishops to whom +Archbishop Sancroft had delegated his authority, declining personally to +perform the office. In his pastoral letter to his clergy urging them to +take the oath of allegiance, Burnet grounded the claim of William and Mary +on the right of conquest, a view which gave such offence that the pamphlet +was burnt by the common hangman three years later. As bishop he proved an +excellent administrator, and gave the closest attention to his pastoral +duties. He discouraged plurality of livings, and consequent non-residence, +established a school of divinity as Salisbury, and spent much time himself +in preparing candidates for confirmation, and in the examination of those +who wished to enter the priesthood. Four discourses delivered to the clergy +of his diocese were printed in 1694. During Queen Mary's lifetime +ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands, but after her death +William III. appointed an ecclesiastical commission on which Burnet was a +prominent member, for the disposal of vacant benefices. In 1696 and 1697 he +presented memorials to the king suggesting that the first-fruits and tenths +raised by the clergy should be devoted to the augmentation of the poorer +livings, and though his suggestions were not immediately accepted, they +were carried into effect under Queen Anne by the provision known as Queen +Anne's Bounty. His second wife died of smallpox in 1698, and in 1700 Burnet +married again, his third wife being Elizabeth (1661-1709), widow of Robert +Berkeley and daughter of Sir Richard Blake, a rich and charitable woman, +known by her _Method of Devotion_, posthumously published in 1710. In 1699 +he was appointed tutor to the royal duke of Gloucester, son of the Princess +Anne, an appointment which he accepted somewhat against his will. His +influence at court had declined after the death of Queen Mary; William +resented his often officious advice, placed little confidence in his +discretion, and soon after his accession is even said to have described him +as _ein rechter Tartuffe_. Burnet made a weighty speech against the bill +(1702-1703) directed against the practice of occasional conformity, and was +a consistent exponent of Broad Church principles. He devoted five years' +labour to his _Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles_ (1699; ed. J.R. +Page, 1837), which was severely criticized by the High Church clergy. But +his hopes for a comprehensive scheme which might include nonconformists in +the English Church were necessarily destroyed on the accession of Queen +Anne. He died on the 17th of March 1715, and was buried in the parish of St +James's, Clerkenwell. + +Burnet directed in his will that his most important work, the _History of +His Own Time_, should appear six years after his death. It was published (2 +vols., 1724-1734) by his sons, Gilbert and Thomas, and then not without +omissions. It was attacked in 1724 by John Cockburn in _A Specimen of some +free and impartial Remarks_. Burnet's book naturally aroused much +opposition, and there were persistent rumours that the MS. had been unduly +tampered with. He has been freely charged with gross misrepresentation, an +accusation to which he laid himself open, for instance, in the account of +the birth of James, the Old Pretender. His later intimacy with the +Marlboroughs made him very lenient where the duke was concerned. The +greatest value of his work naturally lies in his account of transactions of +which he had personal knowledge, notably in his relation of the church +history of Scotland, of the Popish Plot, of the proceedings at the Hague +previous to the expedition of William and Mary, and of the personal +relations between the joint sovereigns. + +Of his children by his second wife, William (d. 1729) became a colonial +governor in America; Gilbert (d. 1726) became prebendary of Salisbury in +1715, and chaplain to George I. in 1718; and Sir Thomas (1694-1753), his +literary executor and biographer, became in 1741 judge in the court of +common pleas. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief authorities for Bishop Burnet's life are the +autobiography "Rough Draft of my own Life" (ed. H.C. Foxcroft, Oxford, +1902, in the _Supplement to Burnet's History_), the Life by Sir Thomas +Burnet in the _History of His Own Time_ (Oxford, 1823, vol. vi.), and the +_History_ itself. A rather severe but detailed and useful criticism is +given in L. v. Ranke's _History of England_ (Eng. ed., Oxford, 1875), vol. +vi. pp. 45-101. Burnet's letters to his friend, George Savile, marquess of +Halifax, were published by the Royal Historical Society (_Camden +Miscellany_, vol. xi.). The _History of His Own Time_ (2 vols. fol., +1724-1734) ran through many editions before it was reprinted at the +Clarendon Press (6 vols., 1823, and supplementary volume, 1833) with the +suppressed passages of the first volume and notes by the earls of Dartmouth +and Hardwicke, with the remarks of Swift. This edition, under the direction +of M.J. Routh, was enlarged in a second Oxford edition of 1833. A new +edition, based on this, but making use of the Bodleian MS., which differs +very considerably from the printed version, was edited by Osmund Airy +(Oxford, 1897, &c.). In 1902 (Clarendon Press, Oxford) Miss H.C. Foxcroft +edited _A Supplement to Burnet's History of His Own Time_, to which is +prefixed an account of the relation between the different versions of the +History--the Bodleian MS., the fragmentary Harleian MS. in the British +Museum and Sir Thomas Burnet's edition; the book contains the remaining +fragments of Burnet's original memoirs, his autobiography, his letters to +Admiral Herbert and his private meditations. The chief differences between +Burnet's original draft as represented by the Bodleian MS. and the printed +history consist in a more lenient view generally of individuals, a +modification of the censure levelled at the Anglican clergy, changes +obviously dictated by a general variation in his point of view, and a more +cautious account of personal matters such as his early relations with +Lauderdale. He also cut out much minor detail, and information relating to +himself and to members of his family. His [v.04 p.0853] _History of the +Reformation of the Church of England_ was edited (Clarendon Press, Oxford, +7 vols., 1865) by N. Pocock. + +Besides the works mentioned above may be noticed: _Some Passages of the +Life and Death of John, Earl of Rochester_ (Lond., 1680; facsimile reprint, +with introduction by Lord Ronald Gower, 1875); _The Life and Death of Sir +Matthew Hale, Kt., sometime Lord Chief-Justice of his Majesties Court of +Kings Bench_ (Lond., 1682), which is included in C. Wordsworth's +_Ecclesiastical Biography_ (vol. vi., 1818); _The History of the Rights of +Princes in disposing of Ecclesiastical Benefices and Church Lands_ (Lond., +1682, 8vo); _The Life of William Bedell, D.D., Bishop of Kilmore in +Ireland_ (1685), containing the correspondence between Bedell and James +Waddesdon of the Holy Inquisition on the subject of the Roman obedience; +_Reflections on Mr Varillas's "History of the Revolutions that have +happened in Europe in matters of Religion," and more particularly on his +Ninth Book, that relates to England_ (Amst., 1686), appended to the account +of his travels entitled _Some Letters_, which was originally published at +Rotterdam (1686); _A Discourse of the Pastoral Care_ (1692, 14th ed., +1821); _An Essay on the Memory of the late Queen_ (1695); _A Collection of +various Tracts and Discourses written in the Years 1677 to 1704_ (3 vols., +1704); and _A Collection of Speeches, Prefaces, Letters, with a Description +of Geneva and Holland_ (1713). Of his shorter religious and polemical works +a catalogue is given in vol. vi. of the Clarendon Press edition of his +_History_, and in Lowndes's _Bibliographer's Manual_. The following +translations deserve to be mentioned:--_Utopia, written in Latin by Sir +Thomas More, Chancellor of England: translated into English_ (1685); _A +Relation of the Death of the Primitive Persecutors, written originally in +Latin, by L.C.F. Lactantius: Englished by Gilbert Burnet, D.D., to which he +hath made a large preface concerning Persecution_ (Amst., 1687). + +See also _A Life of Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury_ (1907), by T.E.S. +Clarke and H.C. Foxcroft, with an introduction by C.H. Firth, which +contains a chronological list of Burnet's published works. Of Burnet's +personal character there are well-known descriptions in chapter vii. of +Macaulay's _History of England_, and in W.E.H. Lecky's _History of England +in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. i. pp. 80 seq. + +BURNET, THOMAS (1635-1715), English divine, was born at Croft in Yorkshire +about the year 1635. He was educated at Northallerton, and at Clare Hall, +Cambridge. In 1657 he was made fellow of Christ's, and in 1667 senior +proctor of the university. By the interest of James, duke of Ormonde, he +was chosen master of the Charterhouse in 1685, and took the degree of D.D. +As master he made a noble stand against the illegal attempts to admit +Andrew Popham as a pensioner of the house, strenuously opposing an order of +the 26th of December 1686, addressed by James II. to the governors +dispensing with the statutes for the occasion. + +Burnet published his famous _Telluris Theoria Sacra_, or _Sacred Theory of +the Earth_,[1] at London in 1681. This work, containing a fanciful theory +of the earth's structure,[2] attracted much attention, and he was +afterwards encouraged to issue an English translation, which was printed in +folio, 1684-1689. Addison commended the author in a Latin ode, but his +theory was attacked by John Keill, William Whiston and Erasmus Warren, to +all of whom he returned answers. His reputation obtained for him an +introduction at court by Archbishop Tillotson, whom he succeeded as clerk +of the closet to King William. But he suddenly marred his prospects by the +publication, in 1692, of a work entitled _Archaeologiae Philosophicae: sive +Doctrina antiqua de Rerum Originibus_, in which he treated the Mosaic +account of the fall of man as an allegory. This excited a great clamour +against him; and the king was obliged to remove him from his office at +court. Of this book an English translation was published in 1729. Burnet +published several other minor works before his death, which took place at +the Charterhouse on the 27th September 1715. Two posthumous works appeared +several years after his death--_De Fide et Officiis Christianorum_ (1723), +and _De Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium Tractatus_ (1723); in which he +maintained the doctrine of a middle state, the millennium, and the limited +duration of future punishment. A _Life of Dr Burnet_, by Heathcote, +appeared in 1759. + +[1] "Which," says Samuel Johnson, "the critick ought to read for its +elegance, the philosopher for its arguments, and the saint for its piety" +(_Lives of English Poets_, vol. i. p. 303). + +[2] Burnet held that at the deluge the earth was crushed like an egg, the +internal waters rushing out, and the fragments of shell becoming the +mountains. + +BURNET, known botanically as _Poterium_, a member of the rose family. The +plants are perennial herbs with pinnate leaves and small flowers arranged +in dense long-stalked heads. Great burnet (_Poterium officinale_) is found +in damp meadows; salad burnet (_P. Sanguisorba_) is a smaller plant with +much smaller flower-heads growing in dry pastures. + +BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON (1849- ), Anglo-American novelist, whose +maiden name was Hodgson, was born in Manchester, England, on the 24th of +November 1849; she went to America with her parents, who settled in +Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1865. Miss Hodgson soon began to write stories for +magazines. In 1873 she married Dr L.M. Burnett of Washington, whom she +afterwards (1898) divorced. Her reputation as a novelist was made by her +remarkable tale of Lancashire life, _That Lass o' Lowrie's_ (1877), and a +number of other volumes followed, of which the best were _Through one +Administration_ (1883) and _A Lady of Quality_ (1896). In 1886 she attained +a new popularity by her charming story of _Little Lord Fauntleroy_, and +this led to other stories of child-life. _Little Lord Fauntleroy_ was +dramatized (see COPYRIGHT for the legal questions involved) and had a great +success on the stage; and other dramas by her were also produced. In 1900 +she married a second time, her husband being Mr Stephen Townesend, a +surgeon, who (as Will Dennis) had taken to the stage and had collaborated +with her in some of her plays. + +BURNEY, CHARLES (1726-1814), English musical historian, was born at +Shrewsbury on the 12th of April 1726. He received his earlier education at +the free school of that city, and was afterwards sent to the public school +at Chester. His first music master was Edmund Baker, organist of Chester +cathedral, and a pupil of Dr John Blow. Returning to Shrewsbury when about +fifteen years old, he continued his musical studies for three years under +his half-brother, James Burney, organist of St Mary's church, and was then +sent to London as a pupil of the celebrated Dr Arne, with whom he remained +three years. Burney wrote some music for Thomson's _Alfred_, which was +produced at Drury Lane theatre on the 30th of March 1745. In 1749 he was +appointed organist of St Dionis-Backchurch, Fenchurch Street, with a salary +of £30 a year; and he was also engaged to take the harpsichord in the "New +Concerts" then recently established at the King's Arms, Cornhill. In that +year he married Miss Esther Sleepe, who died in 1761; in 1769 he married +Mrs Stephen Allen of Lynn. Being threatened with a pulmonary affection he +went in 1751 to Lynn in Norfolk, where he was elected organist, with an +annual salary of £100, and there he resided for the next nine years. During +that time he began to entertain the idea of writing a general history of +music. His _Ode for St Cecilia's Day_ was performed at Ranelagh Gardens in +1759; and in 1760 he returned to London in good health and with a young +family; the eldest child, a girl of eight years of age, surprised the +public by her attainments as a harpsichord player. The concertos for the +harpsichord which Burney published soon after his return to London were +regarded with much admiration. In 1766 he produced, at Drury Lane, a free +English version and adaptation of J.J. Rousseau's operetta _Le Devin du +village_, under the title of _The Cunning Man_. The university of Oxford +conferred upon him, on the 23rd of June 1769, the degrees of Bachelor and +Doctor of Music, on which occasion he presided at the performance of his +exercise for these degrees. This consisted of an anthem, with an overture, +solos, recitatives and choruses, accompanied by instruments, besides a +vocal anthem in eight parts, which was not performed. In 1769 he published +_An Essay towards a History of Comets_. + +Amidst his various professional avocations, Burney never lost sight of his +favorite object--his _History of Music_--and therefore resolved to travel +abroad for the purpose of collecting materials that could not be found in +Great Britain. Accordingly, he left London in June 1770, furnished with +numerous letters of introduction, and proceeded to Paris, and thence to +Geneva, Turin, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome and Naples. +The results of his observations he published in _The Present State of Music +in France and Italy_ (1771). Dr Johnson [v.04 p.0854] thought so well of +this work that, alluding to his own _Journey to the Western Islands of +Scotland_, he said, "I had that clever dog Burney's Musical Tour in my +eye." In July 1772 Burney again visited the continent, to collect further +materials, and, after his return to London, published his tour under the +title of _The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and United +Provinces_ (1773). In 1773 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. In +1776 appeared the first volume (in 4to) of his long-projected _History of +Music_. In 1782 Burney published his second volume; and in 1789 the third +and fourth. Though severely criticized by Forkel in Germany and by the +Spanish ex-Jesuit, Requeno, who, in his Italian work _Saggj sul +Ristabilimento dell' Arte Armonica de' Greci e Romani Cantori_ (Parma, +1798), attacks Burney's account of the ancient Greek music, and calls him +_lo scompigliato Burney_, the _History of Music_ was generally recognized +as possessing great merit. The least satisfactory volume is the fourth, the +treatment of Handel and Bach being quite inadequate. Burney's first tour +was translated into German by Ebeling, and printed at Hamburg in 1772; and +his second tour, translated into German by Bode, was published at Hamburg +in 1773. A Dutch translation of his second tour, with notes by J.W. Lustig, +organist at Groningen, was published there in 1786. The Dissertation on the +Music of the Ancients, in the first volume of Burney's _History_, was +translated into German by J.J. Eschenburg, and printed at Leipzig, 1781. +Burney derived much aid from the first two volumes of Padre Martini's very +learned _Storia della Musica_ (Bologna, 1757-1770). One cannot but admire +his persevering industry, and his sacrifices of time, money and personal +comfort, in collecting and preparing materials for his _History_, and few +will be disposed to condemn severely errors and oversights in a work of +such extent and difficulty. + +In 1774 he had written _A Plan for a Music School_. In 1779 he wrote for +the Royal Society an account of the infant Crotch, whose remarkable musical +talent excited so much attention at that time. In 1784 he published, with +an Italian title-page, the music annually performed in the pope's chapel at +Rome during Passion Week. In 1785 he published, for the benefit of the +Musical Fund, an account of the first commemoration of Handel in +Westminster Abbey in the preceding year, with an excellent life of Handel. +In 1796 he published _Memoirs and Letters of Metastasio_. Towards the close +of his life Burney was paid £1000 for contributing to Rees's _Cyclopaedia_ +all the musical articles not belonging to the department of natural +philosophy and mathematics. In 1783, through the treasury influence of his +friend Edmund Burke, he was appointed organist to the chapel of Chelsea +Hospital, and he moved his residence from St Martin's Street, Leicester +Square, to live in the hospital for the remainder of his life. He was made +a member of the Institute of France, and nominated a correspondent in the +class of the fine arts, in the year 1810. From 1806 until his death he +enjoyed a pension of £300 granted by Fox. He died at Chelsea College on the +12th of April 1814, and was interred in the burying-ground of the college. +A tablet was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. + +Burney's portrait was painted by Reynolds, and his bust was cut by +Nollekens in 1805. He had a wide circle of acquaintance among the +distinguished artists and literary men of his day. At one time he thought +of writing a life of his friend Dr Samuel Johnson, but he retired before +the crowd of biographers who rushed into that field. His character in +private as well as in public life appears to have been very amiable and +exemplary. Dr Burney's eldest son, James, was a distinguished officer in +the royal navy, who died a rear-admiral in 1821; his second son was the +Rev. Charles Burney, D.D. (1757-1817), a well-known classical scholar, +whose splendid collection of rare books, and MSS. was ultimately bought by +the nation for the British Museum; and his second daughter was Frances +(Madame D'Arblay, _q.v._). + +The _Diary and Letters_ of Madame D'Arblay contain many minute and +interesting particulars of her father's public and private life, and of his +friends and contemporaries. A life of Burney by Madame D'Arblay appeared in +1832. + +Besides the operatic music above mentioned, Burney's known compositions +consist of:--(1) _Six Sonatas for the harpsichord_; (2) _Two Sonatas for +the harp or piano, with accompaniments for violin and violoncello_; (3) +_Sonatas for two violins and a bass: two sets_; (4) _Six Lessons for the +harpsichord_; (5) _Six Duets for two German flutes_; (6) _Three Concertos +for the harpsichord_; (7) _Six concert pieces with an introduction and +fugue for the organ_; (8) _Six Concertos for the violin, &c., in eight +parts_; (9) _Two Sonatas for pianoforte, violin and violoncello_; (10) _A +Cantata, &c._; (11) _Anthems, &c._; (12) _XII. Canzonetti a due voci in +Canone, poesia dell' Abate Metastasio_. + +BURNHAM BEECHES, a wooded tract of 375 acres in Buckinghamshire, England, +acquired in 1879 by the Corporation of the city of London, and preserved +for public use. This tract, the remnant of an ancient forest, the more +beautiful because of the undulating character of the land, lies west of the +road between Slough and Beaconsfield, and 2 m. north of Burnham Beeches +station on the Great Western railway. The poet Thomas Gray, who stayed +frequently at Stoke Poges in the vicinity, is enthusiastic concerning the +beauty of the Beeches ina letter to Horace Walpole in 1737. Near the +township of Burnham are slight Early English remains of an abbey founded in +1265. Burnham is an urban district with a population (1901) of 3245. + +BURNHAM-ON-CROUCH, an urban district in the southeastern parliamentary +division of Essex, England, 43 m. E. by N. from London on a branch of the +Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2919. The church of St Mary is +principally late Perpendicular, a good example; it has Decorated portions +and a Norman font. There are extensive oyster beds in the Crouch estuary. +Burnham lies 6 m. from the North Sea; below it the Crouch is joined on the +south side by the Roch, which branches into numerous creeks, and, together +with the main estuary, forms Foulness, Wallasea, Potton and other low, flat +islands, embanked and protected from incursions of the sea. Burnham is in +some repute as a watering-place, and is a favourite yachting station. There +is considerable trade in corn and coal, and boat-building is carried on. + +BURNING TO DEATH. As a legal punishment for various crimes burning alive +was formerly very wide-spread. It was common among the Romans, being given +in the XII. Tables as the special penalty for arson. Under the Gothic codes +adulterers were so punished, and throughout the middle ages it was the +civil penalty for certain heinous crimes, _e.g._ poisoning, heresy, +witchcraft, arson, bestiality and sodomy, and so continued in some cases, +nominally at least, till the beginning of the 19th century. In England, +under the common law, women condemned for high treason or petty treason +(murder of husband, murder of master or mistress, certain offences against +the coin, &c.) were burned, this being considered more "decent" than +hanging and exposure on a gibbet. In practice the convict was strangled +before being burnt. The last woman burnt in England suffered in 1789, the +punishment being abolished in 1790. + +Burning was not included among the penalties for heresy under the Roman +imperial codes; but the burning of heretics by orthodox mobs had long been +sanctioned by custom before the edicts of the emperor Frederick II. (1222, +1223) made it the civil-law punishment for heresy. His example was followed +in France by Louis IX. in the Establishments of 1270. In England, where the +civil law was never recognized, the common law took no cognizance of +ecclesiastical offences, and the church courts had no power to condemn to +death. There were, indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries isolated +instances of the burning of heretics. William of Newburgh describes the +burning of certain foreign sectaries in 1169, and early in the 13th century +a deacon was burnt by order of the council of Oxford (Foxe ii. 374; cf. +Bracton, _de Corona_, ii. 300), but by what legal sanction is not obvious. +The right of the crown to issue writs _de haeretico comburendo_, claimed +for it by later jurists, was based on that issued by Henry IV. in 1400 for +the burning of William Sawtre; but Sir James Stephen (_Hist. Crim. Law_) +points out that this was issued "with the assent of the lords temporal," +which seems to prove that the crown had no right under the common law to +issue such writs. The burning of heretics was actually made legal in +England by the statute _de haeretico comburendo_ (1400), passed ten days +after the issue of the above writ. This was repealed in 1533, but the Six +Articles Act of 1539 revived burning as a penalty [v.04 p.0855] for denying +transubstantiation. Under Queen Mary the acts of Henry IV. and Henry V. +were revived; they were finally abolished in 1558 on the accession of +Elizabeth. Edward VI., Elizabeth and James I., however, burned heretics +(illegally as it would appear) under their supposed right of issuing writs +for this purpose. The last heretics burnt in England were two Arians, +Bartholomew Legate at Smithfield, and Edward Wightman at Lichfield, both in +1610. As for witches, countless numbers were burned in most European +countries, though not in England, where they were hanged. In Scotland in +Charles II.'s day the law still was that witches were to be "worried at the +stake and then burnt"; and a witch was burnt at Dornoch so late as 1708. + +BURNLEY, a market town and municipal, county and parliamentary borough of +Lancashire, England, at the junction of the rivers Brun and Calder, 213 m. +N.N.W. of London and 29 m. N. of Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire +railway and the Leeds & Liverpool Canal. Pop. (1891) 87,016; (1901) 97,043. +The church of St Peter dates from the 14th century, but is largely +modernized; among a series of memorials of the Towneley family is one to +Charles Towneley (d. 1805), who collected the series of antique marbles, +terra-cottas, bronzes, coins and gems which are named after him and +preserved in the British Museum. In 1902 Towneley Hall and Park were +acquired by the corporation, the mansion being adapted to use as a museum +and art gallery, and in 1903 a summer exhibition was held here. There are a +large number of modern churches and chapels, a handsome town-hall, market +hall, museum and art gallery, school of science, municipal technical +school, various benevolent institutions, and pleasant public parks and +recreation grounds. The principal industries are cotton-weaving, +worsted-making, iron-founding, coal-mining, quarrying, brick-burning and +the making of sanitary wares. It has been suggested that Burnley may +coincide with Brunanburh, the battlefield on which the Saxons conquered the +Dano-Celtic force in 937. During the cotton famine consequent upon the +American war of 1861-65 it suffered severely, and the operatives were +employed on relief works embracing an extensive system of improvements. The +parliamentary borough (1867), which returns one member, falls within the +Clitheroe division of the county. The county borough was created in 1888. +The town was incorporated in 1861. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 +aldermen and 36 councillors. By act of parliament in 1890 Burnley was +created a suffragan bishopric of the diocese of Manchester. Area of the +municipal borough, 4005 acres. + +BURNOUF, EUGÈNE (1801-1852), French orientalist, was born in Paris on the +8th of April 1801. His father, Prof. Jean Louis Burnouf (1775-1844), was a +classical scholar of high reputation, and the author, among other works, of +an excellent translation of Tacitus (6 vols., 1827-1833). Eugene Burnouf +published in 1826 an _Essai sur le Pâli ..._, written in collaboration with +Christian Lassen; and in the following year _Observations grammaticales sur +quelques passages de l'essai sur le Pâli_. The next great work he undertook +was the deciphering of the Zend manuscripts brought to France by Anquetil +du Perron. By his labours a knowledge of the Zend language was first +brought into the scientific world of Europe. He caused the _Vendidad Sade_, +part of one of the books bearing the name of Zoroaster, to be lithographed +with the utmost care from the Zend MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, and +published it in folio parts, 1829-1843. From 1833 to 1835 he published his +_Commentaire sur le Yaçna, l'un des livres liturgiques des Parses_; he also +published the Sanskrit text and French translation of the _Bhâgavata Purâna +ou histoire poétique de Krichna_ in three folio volumes (1840-1847). His +last works were _Introduction à l'histoire du Bouddhisme indien_ (1844), +and a translation of _Le lotus de la bonne loi_ (1852). Burnouf died on the +28th of May 1852. He had been for twenty years a member of the Académie des +Inscriptions and professor of Sanskrit in the Collège de France. + +See a notice of Burnouf's works by Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, prefixed to +the second edition (1876) of the _Introd. à l'histoire du Bouddhisme +indien_; also Naudet, "Notice historique sur M.M. Burnouf, père et fils," +in _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, xx. A list of his valuable +contributions to the _Journal asiatique_, and of his MS. writings, is given +in the appendix to the _Choix de lettres d'Eugène Burnouf_ (1891). + +BURNOUS (from the Arab. _burnus_), a long cloak of coarse woollen stuff +with a hood, usually white in colour, worn by the Arabs and Berbers +throughout North Africa. + +BURNS, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1705-1890), English shipowner, was born in +Glasgow on the 10th of December 1795, the son of the Rev. John Burns. In +partnership with a brother, James, he began as a Glasgow general merchant +about 1818, and in 1824 in conjunction with a Liverpool partner, Hugh +Matthie, started a line of small sailing ships which ran between Glasgow +and Liverpool. As business increased the vessels were also sailed to +Belfast, and steamers afterwards replaced the sailing ships. In 1830 a +partnership was entered into with the McIvers of Liverpool, in which George +Burns devoted himself specially to the management of the ships. In 1838 +with Samuel Cunard, Robert Napier and other capitalists, the partners +(McIver and Burns) started the "Cunard" Atlantic line of steamships. They +secured the British government's contract for the carrying of the mails to +North America. The sailings were begun with four steamers of about 1000 +tons each, which made the passage in 15 days at some 8½ knots per hour. +George Burns retired from the Glasgow management of the line in 1860. He +was made a baronet in 1889, but died on the 2nd of June 1890 at Castle +Wemyss, where he had spent the latter years of his life. + +John Burns (1829-1901), his eldest son, who succeeded him in the baronetcy, +and became head of the Cunard Company, was created a peer, under the title +of Baron Inverclyde, in 1897; he was the first to suggest to the government +the use of merchant vessels for war purposes. George Arbuthnot Burns +(1861-1905) succeeded his father in the peerage, as 2nd baron Inverclyde, +and became chairman of the Cunard Company in 1902. He conducted the +negotiations which resulted in the refusal of the Cunard Company to enter +the shipping combination, the International Mercantile Marine Company, +formed by Messrs J.P. Morgan & Co., and took a leading part in the +application of turbine engines to ocean liners. + +BURNS, JOHN (1858- ), English politician, was born at Vauxhall, London, in +October 1858, the second son of Alexander Burns, an engineer, of Ayrshire +extraction. He attended a national school in Battersea until he was ten +years old, when he was sent to work in Price's candle factory. He worked +for a short time as a page-boy, then in some engine works, and at fourteen +was apprenticed for seven years to a Millbank engineer. He continued his +education at the night-schools, and read extensively, especially the works +of Robert Owen, J.S. Mill, Paine and Cobbett. He ascribed his conversion to +the principles of socialism to his sense of the insufficiency of the +arguments advanced against it by J.S. Mill, but he had learnt socialistic +doctrine from a French fellow-workman, Victor Delahaye, who had witnessed +the Commune. After working at his trade in various parts of England, and on +board ship, he went for a year to the West African coast at the mouth of +the Niger as a foreman engineer. His earnings from this undertaking were +expended on a six months' tour in France, Germany and Austria for the study +of political and economic conditions. He had early begun the practice of +outdoor speaking, and his exceptional physical strength and strong voice +were invaluable qualifications for a popular agitator. In 1878 he was +arrested and locked up for the night for addressing an open-air +demonstration on Clapham Common. Two years later he married Charlotte Gale, +the daughter of a Battersea shipwright. He was again arrested in 1886 for +his share in the West End riots when the windows of the Carlton and other +London clubs were broken, but cleared himself at the Old Bailey of the +charge of inciting the mob to violence. In November of the next year, +however, he was again arrested for resisting the police in their attempt to +break up the meeting in Trafalgar Square, and was condemned to six weeks' +imprisonment. A speech delivered by him at the Industrial Remuneration +Conference of 1884 had attracted considerable attention, and in that year +he became a member of the Social Democratic Federation, which put him +forward [v.04 p.0856] unsuccessfully in the next year as parliamentary +candidate for West Nottingham. His connexion with the Social Democratic +Federation was short-lived; but he was an active member of the executive of +the Amalgamated Engineers' trade union, and was connected with the trades +union congresses until 1895, when, through his influence, a resolution +excluding all except wage labourers was passed. He was still working at his +trade in Hoe's printing machine works when he became a Progressive member +of the first London County Council, being supported by an allowance of £2 a +week subscribed by his constituents, the Battersea working men. He +introduced in 1892 a motion that all contracts for the County Council +should be paid at trade union rates and carried out under trade union +conditions, and devoted his efforts in general to a war against monopolies, +except those of the state or the municipality. In the same year (1889) in +which he became a member of the County Council, he acted with Mr Ben +Tillett as the chief leader and organizer of the London dock strike. He +entered the House of Commons as member for Battersea in 1892, and was +re-elected in 1895, 1900 and 1906. In parliament he became well known as an +independent Radical, and he was included in the Liberal cabinet by Sir +Henry Campbell-Bannerman in December 1905 as president of the Local +Government Board. During the next two years, though much out of favour with +his former socialist allies, he earned golden opinions for his +administrative policy, and for his refusal to adopt the visionary proposals +put forward by the more extreme members of the Labour party for dealing +with the "unemployed" question; and in 1908 he retained his office in Mr +Asquith's cabinet. + +BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796), Scottish poet, was born on the 25th of January +1759 in a cottage about 2 m. from Ayr. He was the eldest son of a small +farmer, William Burness, of Kincardineshire stock, who wrought hard, +practised integrity, wished to bring up his children in the fear of God, +but had to fight all his days against the winds and tides of adversity. +"The poet," said Thomas Carlyle, "was fortunate in his father--a man of +thoughtful intense character, as the best of our peasants are, valuing +knowledge, possessing some and open-minded for more, of keen insight and +devout heart, friendly and fearless: a fully unfolded man seldom found in +any rank in society, and worth descending far in society to seek. ... Had +he been ever so little richer, the whole might have issued otherwise. But +poverty sunk the whole family even below the reach of our cheap school +system, and Burns remained a hard-worked plough-boy." + +Through a series of migrations from one unfortunate farm to another; from +Alloway (where he was taught to read) to Mt. Oliphant, and then (1777) to +Lochlea in Tarbolton (where he learnt the rudiments of geometry), the poet +remained in the same condition of straitened circumstances. At the age of +thirteen he thrashed the corn with his own hands, at fifteen he was the +principal labourer. The family kept no servant, and for several years +butchers' meat was a thing unknown in the house. "This kind of life," he +writes, "the cheerless gloom of a hermit and the unceasing toil of a +galley-slave, brought me to my sixteenth year." His naturally robust frame +was overtasked, and his nervous constitution received a fatal strain. His +shoulders were bowed, he became liable to headaches, palpitations and fits +of depressing melancholy. From these hard tasks and his fiery temperament, +craving in vain for sympathy in a frigid air, grew the strong temptations +on which Burns was largely wrecked,--the thirst for stimulants and the +revolt against restraint which soon made headway and passed all bars. In +the earlier portions of his career a buoyant humour bore him up; and amid +thick-coming shapes of ill he bated no jot of heart or hope. He was cheered +by vague stirrings of ambition, which he pathetically compares to the +"blind groping of Homer's Cyclops round the walls of his cave." Sent to +school at Kirkoswald, he became, for his scant leisure, a great +reader--eating at meal-times with a spoon in one hand and a book in the +other,--and carrying a few small volumes in his pocket to study in spare +moments in the fields. "The collection of songs" he tells us, "was my _vade +mecum_. I pored over them driving my cart or walking to labour, song by +song, verse by verse, carefully noting the true, tender, sublime or +fustian." He lingered over the ballads in his cold room by night; by day, +whilst whistling at the plough, he invented new forms and was inspired by +fresh ideas, "gathering round him the memories and the traditions of his +country till they became a mantle and a crown." It was among the furrows of +his father's fields that he was inspired with the perpetually quoted wish-- + + "That I for poor auld Scotland's sake + Some useful plan or book could make, + Or sing a sang at least." + +An equally striking illustration of the same feeling is to be found in his +summer Sunday's ramble to the Leglen wood,--the fabled haunt of +Wallace,--which the poet confesses to have visited "with as much devout +enthusiasm as ever pilgrim did the shrine of Loretto." In another reference +to the same period he refers to the intense susceptibility to the homeliest +aspects of Nature which throughout characterized his genius. "Scarcely any +object gave me more--I do not know if I should call it pleasure--but +something which exalts and enraptures me--than to walk in the sheltered +side of a wood or high plantation in a cloudy winter day and hear the +stormy wind howling among the trees and raving over the plain. I listened +to the birds, and frequently turned out of my path lest I should disturb +their little songs or frighten them to another station." Auroral visions +were gilding his horizon as he walked in glory, if not in joy, "behind his +plough upon the mountain sides."; but the swarm of his many-coloured +fancies was again made grey by the _atra cura_ of unsuccessful toils. + +Burns had written his first verses of note, "Behind yon hills where +Stinchar (afterwards Lugar) flows," when in 1781 he went to Irvine to learn +the trade of a flax-dresser. "It was," he says, "an unlucky affair. As we +were giving a welcome carousal to the New Year, the shop took fire and +burned to ashes; and I was left, like a true poet, without a sixpence." His +own heart, too, had unfortunately taken fire. He was poring over +mathematics till, in his own phraseology,--still affected in its prose by +the classical pedantries caught from Pope by Ramsay,--"the sun entered +Virgo, when a charming _fillette_, who lived next door, overset my +trigonometry, and set me off at a tangent from the scene of my studies." We +need not detail the story, nor the incessant repetitions of it, which +marked and sometimes marred his career. The poet was jilted, went through +the usual despairs, and resorted to the not unusual sources of consolation. +He had found that he was "no enemy to social life," and his mates had +discovered that he was the best of boon companions in the lyric feasts, +where his eloquence shed a lustre over wild ways of life, and where he was +beginning to be distinguished as a champion of the New Lights and a +satirist of the Calvinism whose waters he found like those of Marah. + +In Robert's 25th year his father died, full of sorrows and apprehensions +for the gifted son who wrote for his tomb in Alloway kirkyard, the fine +epitaph ending with the characteristic line-- + + "For even his failings leaned to virtue's side." + +For some time longer the poet, with his brother Gilbert, lingered at +Lochlea, reading agricultural books, miscalculating crops, attending +markets, and in a mood of reformation resolving, "in spite of the world, +the flesh and the devil, to be a wise man." Affairs, however, went no +better with the family; and in 1784 they migrated to Mossgiel, where he +lived and wrought, during four years, for a return scarce equal to the wage +of the commonest labourer in our day. Meanwhile he had become intimate with +his future wife, Jean Armour; but the father, a master mason, +discountenanced the match, and the girl being disposed to "sigh as a +lover," as a daughter to obey, Burns, in 1786, gave up his suit, resolved +to seek refuge in exile, and having accepted a situation as book-keeper to +a slave estate in Jamaica, had taken his passage in a ship for the West +Indies. His old associations seemed to be breaking up, men and fortune +scowled, and "hungry ruin had him in the wind," when he wrote the lines +ending-- + +[v.04 p.0857] + + "Adieu, my native banks of Ayr," + +and addressed to the most famous of the loves, in which he was as prolific +as Catullus or Tibullus, the proposal-- + + "Will ye go to the Indies, my Mary." + +He was withheld from his project and, happily or unhappily, the current of +his life was turned by the success of his first volume, which was published +at Kilmarnock in June 1786. It contained some of his most justly celebrated +poems, the results of his scanty leisure at Lochlea and Mossgiel; among +others "The Twa Dogs,"--a graphic idealization of Aesop,--"The Author's +Prayer," the "Address to the Deil," "The Vision" and "The Dream," +"Halloween," "The Cottar's Saturday Night," the lines "To a Mouse" and "To +a Daisy," "Scotch Drink," "Man was made to Mourn," the "Epistle to Davie," +and some of his most popular songs. This epitome of a genius so marvellous +and so varied took his audience by storm. "The country murmured of him from +sea to sea." "With his poems," says Robert Heron, "old and young, grave and +gay, learned and ignorant, were alike transported. I was at that time +resident in Galloway, and I can well remember how even plough-boys and +maid-servants would have gladly bestowed the wages they earned the most +hardly, and which they wanted to purchase necessary clothing, if they might +but procure the works of Burns." This first edition only brought the author +£20 direct return, but it introduced him to the _literati_ of Edinburgh, +whither he was invited, and where he was welcomed, feasted, admired and +patronized. He appeared as a portent among the scholars of the northern +capital and its university, and manifested, according to Mr Lockhart, "in +the whole strain of his bearing, his belief that in the society of the most +eminent men of his nation he was where he was entitled to be, hardly +deigning to flatter them by exhibiting a symptom of being flattered." + +Sir Walter Scott bears a similar testimony to the dignified simplicity and +almost exaggerated independence of the poet, during this _annus mirabilis_ +of his success. "As for Burns, _Virgilium vidi tantum_, I was a lad of +fifteen when he came to Edinburgh, but had sense enough to be interested in +his poetry, and would have given the world to know him. I saw him one day +with several gentlemen of literary reputation, among whom I remember the +celebrated Dugald Stewart. Of course we youngsters sat silent, looked, and +listened.... I remember ... his shedding tears over a print representing a +soldier lying dead in the snow, his dog sitting in misery on one side, on +the other his widow with a child in her arms. His person was robust, his +manners rustic, not clownish. ... His countenance was more massive than it +looks in any of the portraits. There was a strong expression of shrewdness +in his lineaments; the eye alone indicated the poetic character and +temperament. It was large and of a dark cast, and literally glowed when he +spoke with feeling or interest. I never saw such another eye in a human +head. His conversation expressed perfect self-confidence, without the least +intrusive forwardness. I thought his acquaintance with English poetry was +rather limited; and having twenty times the abilities of Allan Ramsay and +of Fergusson he talked of them with too much humility as his models. He was +much caressed in Edinburgh, but the efforts made for his relief were +extremely trifling." _Laudatur et alget._ Burns went from those meetings, +where he had been posing professors (no hard task), and turning the heads +of duchesses, to share a bed in the garret of a writer's apprentice,--they +paid together 3s. a week for the room. It was in the house of Mr Carfrae, +Baxter's Close, Lawnmarket, "first scale stair on the left hand in going +down, first door in the stair." During Burns's life it was reserved for +William Pitt to recognize his place as a great poet; the more cautious +critics of the North were satisfied to endorse him as a rustic prodigy, and +brought upon themselves a share of his satire. Some of the friendships +contracted during this period--as for Lord Glencairn and Mrs Dunlop--are +among the most pleasing and permanent in literature; for genuine kindness +was never wasted on one who, whatever his faults, has never been accused of +ingratitude. But in the bard's city life there was an unnatural element. He +stooped to beg for neither smiles nor favour, but the gnarled country oak +is cut up into cabinets in artificial prose and verse. In the letters to Mr +Graham, the prologue to Mr Wood, and the epistles to Clarinda, he is +dancing minuets with hob-nailed shoes. When, in 1787, the second edition of +the _Poems_ came out, the proceeds of their sale realized for the author +£400. On the strength of this sum he gave himself two long rambles, full of +poetic material--one through the border towns into England as far as +Newcastle, returning by Dumfries to Mauchline, and another a grand tour +through the East Highlands, as far as Inverness, returning by Edinburgh, +and so home to Ayrshire. + +In 1788 Burns took a new farm at Ellisland on the Nith, settled there, +married, lost his little money, and wrote, among other pieces, "Auld Lang +Syne" and "Tam o' Shanter." In 1789 he obtained, through the good office of +Mr Graham of Fintry, an appointment as excise-officer of the district, +worth £50 per annum. In 1791 he removed to a similar post at Dumfries worth +£70. In the course of the following year he was asked to contribute to +George Thomson's _Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs with +Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte and Violin: the poetry by +Robert Burns_. To this work he contributed about one hundred songs, the +best of which are now ringing in the ear of every Scotsman from New Zealand +to San Francisco. For these, original and adapted, he received a shawl for +his wife, a picture by David Allan representing the "Cottar's Saturday +Night," and £5! The poet wrote an indignant letter and never afterwards +composed for money. Unfortunately the "Rock of Independence" to which he +had proudly retired was but a castle of air, over which the meteors of +French political enthusiasm cast a lurid gleam. In the last years of his +life, exiled from polite society on account of his revolutionary opinions, +he became sourer in temper and plunged more deeply into the dissipations of +the lower ranks, among whom he found his only companionship and sole, +though shallow, sympathy. + +Burns began to feel himself prematurely old. Walking with a friend who +proposed to him to join a county ball, he shook his head, saying "that's +all over now," and adding a verse of Lady Grizel Baillie's ballad-- + + "O were we young as we ance hae been, + We sud hae been galloping down on yon green, + And linking it ower the lily-white lea, + But were na my heart light I wad dee." + +His hand shook; his pulse and appetite failed; his spirits sunk into a +uniform gloom. In April 1796 he wrote--"I fear it will be some time before +I tune my lyre again. By Babel's streams I have sat and wept. I have only +known existence by the pressure of sickness and counted time by the +repercussions of pain. I close my eyes in misery and open them without +hope. I look on the vernal day and say with poor Fergusson-- + + "Say wherefore has an all-indulgent heaven + Life to the comfortless and wretched given." + +On the 4th of July he was seen to be dying. On the 12th he wrote to his +cousin for the loan of £10 to save him from passing his last days in jail. +On the 21st he was no more. On the 25th, when his last son came into the +world, he was buried with local honours, the volunteers of the company to +which he belonged firing three volleys over his grave. + +It has been said that "Lowland Scotland as a distinct nationality came in +with two warriors and went out with two bards. It came in with William +Wallace and Robert Bruce and went out with Robert Burns and Walter Scott. +The first two made the history, the last two told the story and sung the +song." But what in the minstrel's lay was mainly a requiem was in the +people's poet also a prophecy. The position of Burns in the progress of +British literature may be shortly defined; he was a link between two eras, +like Chaucer, the last of the old and the first of the new--the inheritor +of the traditions and the music of the past, in some respects the herald of +the future. + +The volumes of our lyrist owe part of their popularity to the fact of their +being an epitome of melodies, moods and memories that had belonged for +centuries to the national life, the best [v.04 p.0858] inspirations of +which have passed into them. But in gathering from his ancestors Burns has +exalted their work by asserting a new dignity for their simplest themes. He +is the heir of Barbour, distilling the spirit of the old poet's epic into a +battle chant, and of Dunbar, reproducing the various humours of a +half-sceptical, half-religious philosophy of life. He is the pupil of +Ramsay, but he leaves his master, to make a social protest and to lead a +literary revolt. _The Gentle Shepherd_, still largely a court pastoral, in +which "a man's a man" if born a gentleman, may be contrasted with "The +Jolly Beggars"--the one is like a minuet of the ladies of Versailles on the +sward of the Swiss village near the Trianon, the other like the march of +the maenads with Theroigne de Mericourt. Ramsay adds to the rough tunes and +words of the ballads the refinement of the wits who in the "Easy" and +"Johnstone" clubs talked over their cups of Prior and Pope, Addison and +Gay. Burns inspires them with a fervour that thrills the most wooden of his +race. We may clench the contrast by a representative example. This is from +Ramsay's version of perhaps the best-known of Scottish songs,-- + + "Methinks around us on each bough + A thousand Cupids play; + Whilst through the groves I walk with you, + Each object makes me gay. + Since your return--the sun and moon + With brighter beams do shine, + Streams murmur soft notes while they run + As they did lang syne." + +Compare the verses in Burns-- + + "We twa hae run about the braes + And pu'd the gowans fine; + But we've wandered mony a weary foot + Sin auld lang syne. + We twa hae paidl'd in the burn, + Frae morning sun till dine: + But seas between us braid hae roar'd + Sin auld lang syne." + +Burns as a poet of the inanimate world doubtless derived hints from Thomson +of _The Seasons_, but in his power of tuning its manifestation to the moods +of the mind he is more properly ranked as a forerunner of Wordsworth. He +never follows the fashions of his century, except in his failures--in his +efforts at set panegyric or fine letter-writing. His highest work knows +nothing of "Damon" or "Musidora." He leaves the atmosphere of drawing-rooms +for the ingle or the ale-house or the mountain breeze. + +The affectations of his style are insignificant and rare. His prevailing +characteristic is an absolute sincerity. A love for the lower forms of +social life was his besetting sin; Nature was his healing power. Burns +compares himself to an Aeolian harp, strung to every wind of heaven. His +genius flows over all living and lifeless things with a sympathy that finds +nothing mean or insignificant. An uprooted daisy becomes in his pages an +enduring emblem of the fate of artless maid and simple bard. He disturbs a +mouse's nest and finds in the "tim'rous beastie" a fellow-mortal doomed +like himself to "thole the winter's sleety dribble," and draws his +oft-repeated moral. He walks abroad and, in a verse that glints with the +light of its own rising sun before the fierce sarcasm of "The Holy Fair," +describes the melodies of a "simmer Sunday morn." He loiters by Afton Water +and "murmurs by the running brook a music sweeter than its own." He stands +by a roofless tower, where "the howlet mourns in her dewy bower," and "sets +the wild echoes flying," and adds to a perfect picture of the scene his +famous vision of "Libertie." In a single stanza he concentrates the +sentiment of many Night Thoughts-- + + "The pale moon is setting beyond the white wave, + And Time is setting wi' me, O." + +For other examples of the same graphic power we may refer to the course of +his stream-- + + "Whiles ow'r a linn the burnie plays + As through the glen it wimpled," &c., + +or to "The Birks of Aberfeldy" or the "spate" in the dialogue of "The Brigs +of Ayr." The poet is as much at home in the presence of this flood as by +his "trottin' burn's meander." Familiar with all the seasons he represents +the phases of a northern winter with a frequency characteristic of his +clime and of his fortunes; her tempests became anthems in his verse, and +the sounding woods "raise his thoughts to Him that walketh on the wings of +the wind"; full of pity for the shelterless poor, the "ourie cattle," the +"silly sheep," and the "helpless birds," he yet reflects that the bitter +blast is not "so unkind as man's ingratitude." This constant tendency to +ascend above the fair or wild features of outward things, or to penetrate +beneath them, to make them symbols, to endow them with a voice to speak for +humanity, distinguishes Burns as a descriptive poet from the rest of his +countrymen. As a painter he is rivalled by Dunbar and James I., more rarely +by Thomson and Ramsay. The "lilt" of Tannahill's finest verse is even more +charming. But these writers rest in their art; their main care is for their +own genius. The same is true in a minor degree of some of his great English +successors. Keats has a palette of richer colours, but he seldom +condescends to "human nature's daily food." Shelley floats in a thin air to +stars and mountain tops, and vanishes from our gaze like his skylark. +Byron, in the midst of his revolutionary fervour, never forgets that he +himself belongs to the "caste of Vere de Vere." Wordsworth's placid +affection and magnanimity stretch beyond mankind, and, as in +"Hart-leap-well" and the "Cuckoo," extend to bird and beast; he moralizes +grandly on the vicissitudes of common life, but he does not enter into, +because by right of superior virtue he places himself above them. "From the +Lyrical Ballads," it has been said, "it does not appear that men eat or +drink, marry or are given in marriage." We revere the monitor who, +consciously good and great, gives us the dry light of truth, but we love +the bard, _nostrae deliciae_, who is all fire--fire from heaven and +Ayrshire earth mingling in the outburst of passion and of power, which is +his poetry and the inheritance of his race. He had certainly neither +culture nor philosophy enough to have written the "Ode on the Recollections +of Childhood," but to appreciate that ode requires an education. The +sympathies of Burns, as broad as Wordsworth's, are more intense; in turning +his pages we feel ourselves more decidedly in the presence of one who joys +with those who rejoice and mourns with those who mourn. He is never +shallow, ever plain, and the expression of his feeling is so terse that it +is always memorable. Of the people he speaks more directly for the people +than any of our more considerable poets. Chaucer has a perfect hold of the +homeliest phases of life, but he wants the lyric element, and the charm of +his language has largely faded from untutored ears. Shakespeare, indeed, +has at once a loftier vision and a wider grasp; for he sings of "Thebes and +Pelops line," of Agincourt and Philippi, as of Falstaff, and Snug the +joiner, and the "meanest flower that blows." But not even Shakespeare has +put more thought into poetry which the most prosaic must appreciate than +Burns has done. The latter moves in a narrower sphere and wants the +strictly dramatic faculty, but its place is partly supplied by the +vividness of his narrative. His realization of incident and character is +manifested in the sketches in which the manners and prevailing fancies of +his countrymen are immortalized in connexion with local scenery. Among +those almost every variety of disposition finds its favourite. The quiet +households of the kingdom have received a sort of apotheosis in the +"Cottar's Saturday Night." It has been objected that the subject does not +afford scope for the more daring forms of the author's genius; but had he +written no other poem, this heartful rendering of a good week's close in a +God-fearing home, sincerely devout, and yet relieved from all suspicion of +sermonizing by its humorous touches, would have secured a permanent place +in literature. It transcends Thomson and Beattie at their best, and will +smell sweet like the actions of the just for generations to come. + +Lovers of rustic festivity may hold that the poet's greatest performance is +his narrative of "Halloween," which for easy vigour, fulness of rollicking +life, blended truth and fancy, is unsurpassed in its kind. Campbell, +Wilson, Hazlitt, Montgomery, Burns himself, and the majority of his +critics, have [v.04 p.0859] recorded their preference for "Tam o' Shanter," +where the weird superstitious element that has played so great a part in +the imaginative work of this part of our island is brought more prominently +forward. Few passages of description are finer than that of the roaring +Doon and Alloway Kirk glimmering through the groaning trees; but the unique +excellence of the piece consists in its variety, and a perfectly original +combination of the terrible and the ludicrous. Like Goethe's _Walpurgis +Nacht_, brought into closer contact with real life, it stretches from the +drunken humours of Christopher Sly to a world of fantasies almost as +brilliant as those of the _Midsummer Night's Dream_, half solemnized by the +severer atmosphere of a sterner clime. The contrast between the lines +"Kings may be blest," &c., and those which follow, beginning "But pleasures +are like poppies spread," is typical of the perpetual antithesis of the +author's thought and life, in which, at the back of every revelry, he sees +the shadow of a warning hand, and reads on the wall the writing, _Omnia +mutantur_. With equal or greater confidence other judges have pronounced +Burns's masterpiece to be "The Jolly Beggars." Certainly no other single +production so illustrates his power of exalting what is insignificant, +glorifying what is mean, and elevating the lowest details by the force of +his genius. "The form of the piece," says Carlyle, "is a mere cantata, the +theme the half-drunken snatches of a joyous band of vagabonds, while the +grey leaves are floating on the gusts of the wind in the autumn of the +year. But the whole is compacted, refined and poured forth in one flood of +liquid harmony. It is light, airy and soft of movement, yet sharp and +precise in its details; every face is a portrait, and the whole a group in +clear photography. The blanket of the night is drawn aside; in full ruddy +gleaming light these rough tatterdemalions are seen at their boisterous +revel wringing from Fate another hour of wassail and good cheer." Over the +whole is flung a half-humorous, half-savage satire--aimed, like a two-edged +sword, at the laws and the law-breakers, in the acme of which the graceless +crew are raised above the level of ordinary gipsies, footpads and rogues, +and are made to sit "on the hills like gods together, careless of mankind," +and to launch their Titan thunders of rebellion against the world. + + "A fig for those by law protected; + Liberty's a glorious feast; + Courts for cowards were erected, + Churches built to please the priest." + +A similar mixture of drollery and defiance appears in the justly celebrated +"Address to the Deil," which, mainly whimsical, is relieved by touches oan +in the conception of such a being straying in lonely places and loitering +among trees, or in the familiarity with which the poet lectures so awful a +personage,"--we may add, than in the inimitable outbreak at the close-- + + "O would you tak a thought an' men'." + +Carlyle, in reference to this passage, cannot resist the suggestion of a +parallel from Sterne. "He is the father of curses and lies, said Dr Slop, +and is cursed and damned already. I am sorry for it, quoth my Uncle Toby." + +Burns fared ill at the hands of those who were not sorry for it, and who +repeated with glib complacency every terrible belief of the system in which +they had been trained. The most scathing of his _Satires_, under which head +fall many of his minor and frequent passages in his major pieces, are +directed against the false pride of birth, and what he conceived to be the +false pretences of religion. The apologue of "Death and Dr Hornbook," "The +Ordination," the song "No churchman am I for to rail and to write," the +"Address to the Unco Guid," "Holy Willie," and above all "The Holy Fair," +with its savage caricature of an ignorant ranter of the time called Moodie, +and others of like stamp, not unnaturally provoked offence. As regards the +poet's attitude towards some phases of Calvinism prevalent during his life, +it has to be remarked that from the days of Dunbar there has been a degree +of antagonism between Scottish verse and the more rigid forms of Scottish +theology. + +It must be admitted that in protesting against hypocrisy he has +occasionally been led beyond the limits prescribed by good taste. He is at +times abusive of those who differ from him. This, with other offences +against decorum, which here and there disfigure his pages, can only be +condoned by an appeal to the general tone of his writing, which is +reverential. Burns had a firm faith in a Supreme Being, not as a vague +mysterious Power; but as the Arbiter of human life. Amid the vicissitudes +of his career he responds to the cottar's summons, "Let us worship God." + + "An atheist's laugh's a poor exchange + For Deity offended" + +is the moral of all his verse, which treats seriously of religious matters. +His prayers in rhyme give him a high place among secular Psalmists. + +Like Chaucer, Burns was a great moralist, though a rough one. In the +moments of his most intense revolt against conventional prejudice and +sanctimonious affectation, he is faithful to the great laws which underlie +change, loyal in his veneration for the cardinal virtues--Truth, Justice +and Charity,--and consistent in the warnings, to which his experience gives +an unhappy force, against transgressions of Temperance. In the "Epistle to +a Young Friend," the shrewdest advice is blended with exhortations +appealing to the highest motive, that which transcends the calculation of +consequences, and bids us walk in the straight path from the feeling of +personal honour, and "for the glorious privilege of being independent." +Burns, like Dante, "loved well because he hated, hated wickedness that +hinders loving," and this feeling, as in the lines--"Dweller in yon dungeon +dark," sometimes breaks bounds; but his calmer moods are better represented +by the well-known passages in the "Epistle to Davie," in which he preaches +acquiescence in our lot, and a cheerful acceptance of our duties in the +sphere where we are placed. This _philosophie douce_, never better sung by +Horace, is the prevailing refrain of our author's _Songs_. On these there +are few words to add to the acclaim of a century. They have passed into the +air we breathe; they are so real that they seem things rather than words, +or, nearer still, living beings. They have taken all hearts, because they +are the breath of his own; not polished cadences, but utterances as direct +as laughter or tears. Since Sappho loved and sang, there has been no such +national lyrist as Burns. Fine ballads, mostly anonymous, existed in +Scotland previous to his time; and shortly before a few authors had +produced a few songs equal to some of his best. Such are Alexander Ross's +"Wooed and Married," Lowe's "Mary's Dream," "Auld Robin Gray," "The Land o' +the Leal" and the two versions of "The Flowers o' the Forest." From these +and many of the older pieces in Ramsay's collection, Burns admits to have +derived copious suggestions and impulses. He fed on the past literature of +his country as Chaucer on the old fields of English thought, and-- + + "Still the elements o' sang, + In formless jumble, right and wrang, + Went floating in his brain." + +But he gave more than he received; he brought forth an hundredfold; he +summed up the stray material of the past, and added so much of his own that +one of the most conspicuous features of his lyrical genius is its variety +in new paths. Between the first of war songs, composed in a storm on a +moor, and the pathos of "Mary in Heaven," he has made every chord in our +northern life to vibrate. The distance from "Duncan Gray" to "Auld Lang +Syne" is nearly as great as that from Falstaff to Ariel. There is the +vehemence of battle, the wail of woe, the march of veterans "red-wat-shod," +the smiles of meeting, the tears of parting friends, the gurgle of brown +burns, the roar of the wind through pines, the rustle of barley rigs, the +thunder on the hill--all Scotland is in his verse. Let who will make her +laws, Burns has made the songs, which her emigrants recall "by the long +wash of Australasian seas," in which maidens are wooed, by which mothers +lull their infants, which return "through open casements unto dying +ears"--they are the links, the watchwords, the masonic symbols of the Scots +race. + +(J. N.) [v.04 p.0860] + +The greater part of Burns's verse was posthumously published, and, as he +himself took no care to collect the scattered pieces of occasional verse, +different editors have from time to time printed, as his, verses that must +be regarded as spurious. _Poems chiefly in the Scottish Dialect_, by Robert +Burns (Kilmarnock, 1786), was followed by an enlarged edition printed in +Edinburgh in the next year. Other editions of this book were printed--in +London (1787), an enlarged edition at Edinburgh (2 vols., 1793) and a +reprint of this in 1794. Of a 1790 edition mentioned by Robert Chambers no +traces can be found. Poems by Burns appeared originally in _The Caledonian +Mercury, The Edinburgh Evening Courant, The Edinburgh Herald, The Edinburgh +Advertiser_; the London papers, _Stuart's Star and Evening Advertiser_ +(subsequently known as _The Morning Star_), _The Morning Chronicle_; and in +the _Edinburgh Magazine_ and _The Scots Magazine_. Many poems, most of +which had first appeared elsewhere, were printed in a series of penny +chap-books, _Poetry Original and Select_ (Brash and Reid, Glasgow), and +some appeared separately as broadsides. A series of tracts issued by +Stewart and Meikle (Glasgow, 1796-1799) includes some Burns's numbers, _The +Jolly Beggars, Holy Willie's Prayer_ and other poems making their first +appearance in this way. The seven numbers of this publication were reissued +in January 1800 as _The Poetical Miscellany_. This was followed by Thomas +Stewart's _Poems ascribed to Robert Burns_ (Glasgow, 1801). Burns's songs +appeared chiefly in James Johnson's _Scots Musical Museum_ (6 vols., +1787-1803), which he appears after the first volume to have virtually +edited, though the two last volumes were published only after his death; +and in George Thomson's _Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs_ (6 +vols., 1793-1841). Only five of the songs done for Thomson appeared during +the poet's lifetime, and Thomson's text cannot be regarded with confidence. +The Hastie MSS. in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 22,307) include 162 +songs, many of them in Burns's handwriting; and the Dalhousie MS., at +Brechin Castle, contains Burns's correspondence with Thomson. For a full +account of the songs see James C. Dick, _The Songs of Robert Burns now +first printed with the Melodies for which they were written_ (2 vols., +1903). + +The items in Mr W. Craibe Angus's _Printed Works of Robert Burns_ (1899) +number nine hundred and thirty. Only the more important collected editions +can be here noticed. Dr Currie was the anonymous editor of the _Works of +Robert Burns; with an Account of his Life, and a Criticism on his Writings +..._ (Liverpool, 1800). This was undertaken for the benefit of Burns's +family at the desire of his friends, Alexander Cunningham and John Syme. A +second and amended edition appeared in 1801, and was followed by others, +but Currie's text is neither accurate nor complete. Additional matter +appeared in _Reliques of Robert Burns_ ... by R.H. Cromek (London, 1808). +In _The Works of Robert Burns, With his Life by Allan Cunningham_ (8 vols., +London, 1834) there are many additions and much biographical material. _The +Works of Robert Burns_, edited by James Hogg and William Motherwell (5 +vols., 1834-1836, Glasgow and Edinburgh), contains a life of the poet by +Hogg, and some useful notes by Motherwell attempting to trace the sources +of Burns's songs. _The Correspondence between Burns and Clarinda_ was +edited by W.C. M^cLehose (Edinburgh, 1843). An improved text of the poems +was provided in the second "Aldine Edition" of the _Poetical Works_ (3 +vols., 1839), for which Sir H. Nicolas, the editor, made use of many +original MSS. In the _Life and Works of Robert Burns_, edited by Robert +Chambers (Edinburgh, 4 vols., 1851-1852; library edition, 1856-1857; new +edition, revised by William Wallace, 1896), the poet's works are given in +chronological order, interwoven with letters and biography. The text was +bowdlerized by Chambers, but the book contained much new and valuable +information. Other well-known editions are those of George Gilfillan (2 +vols., 1864); of Alexander Smith (Golden Treasury Series, London, 2 vols., +1865); of P. Hately Waddell (Glasgow, 1867); one published by Messrs +Blackie & Son, with Dr Currie's memoir and an essay by Prof. Wilson +(1843-1844); of W. Scott Douglas (the Kilmarnock edition, 1876, and the +"library" edition, 1877-1879), and of Andrew Lang, assisted by W.A. Craigie +(London, 1896). The complete correspondence between Burns and Mrs Dunlop +was printed in 1898. + +A critical edition of the _Poetry of Robert Burns_, which may be regarded +as definitive, and is provided with full notes and variant readings, was +prepared by W.E. Henley and T.F. Henderson (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1896-1897; +reprinted, 1901), and is generally known as the "Centenary Burns." In vol. +iii. the extent of Burns's indebtedness to Scottish folk-song and his +methods of adaptation are minutely discussed; vol. iv. contains an essay on +"Robert Burns. Life, Genius, Achievement," by W.E. Henley. + +The chief original authority for Burns's life is his own letters. The +principal "lives" are to be found in the editions just mentioned. His +biography has also been written by J. Gibson Lockhart (_Life of Burns_, +Edinburgh, 1828); for the "English Men of Letters" series in 1879 by Prof. +J. Campbell Shairp; and by Sir Leslie Stephen in the _Dictionary of +National Biography_ (vol. viii., 1886). Among the more important essays on +Burns are those by Thomas Carlyle (_Edinburgh Review_, December 1828); by +John Nichol, the writer of the above article (W. Scott Douglas's edition of +Burns); by R.L. Stevenson (_Familiar Studies of Men and Books_); by Auguste +Angellier (_Robert Burns. La vie et les oeuvres_, 2 vols., Paris, 1893); by +Lord Rosebery (_Robert Burns: Two Addresses in Edinburgh_, 1896); by J. +Logie Robertson (in _In Scottish Fields_, Edin., 1890, and _Furth in +Field_, Edin., 1894); and T.F. Henderson (_Robert Burns_, 1904). There is a +selected bibliography in chronological order in W.A. Craigie's _Primer of +Burns_ (1896). + +BURNS AND SCALDS. A burn is the effect of dry heat applied to some part of +the human body, a scald being the result of moist heat. Clinically there is +no distinction between the two, and their classification and treatment are +identical. In Dupuytren's classification, now most generally accepted, +burns are divided into six classes according to the severest part of the +lesion. Burns of the first degree are characterized by severe pain, redness +of the skin, a certain amount of swelling that soon passes, and later +exfoliation of the skin. Burns of the second degree show vesicles (small +blisters) scattered over the inflamed area, and containing a clear, +yellowish fluid. Beneath the vesicle the highly sensitive papillae of the +skin are exposed. Burns of this degree leave no scar, but often produce a +permanent discoloration. In burns of the third degree, there is a partial +destruction of the true skin, leaving sloughs of a yellowish or black +colour. The pain is at first intense, but passes off on about the second +day to return again at the end of a week, when the sloughs separate, +exposing the sensitive nerve filaments of the underlying skin. This results +in a slightly depressed cicatrix, which happily, however, shows but slight +tendency to contraction. Burns of the fourth degree, which follow the +prolonged application of any form of intense heat, involve the total +destruction of the true skin. The pain is much less severe than in the +preceding class, since the nerve endings have been totally destroyed. The +results, however, are far more serious, and the healing process takes place +only very slowly on account of the destruction of the skin glands. As a +result, deep puckered scars are formed, which show great tendency to +contract, and where these are situated on face, neck or joints the +resulting deformity and loss of function may be extremely serious. In burns +of the fifth degree the underlying muscles are more or less destroyed, and +in those of the sixth the bones are also charred. Examples of the last two +classes are mainly provided by epileptics who fall into a fire during a +fit. + +The clinical history of a severe burn can be divided into three periods. +The first period lasts from 36 to 48 hours, during which time the patient +lies in a condition of profound shock, and consequently feels little or no +pain. If death results from shock, coma first supervenes, which deepens +steadily until the end comes. The second period begins when the effects of +shock pass, and continues until the slough separates, this usually taking +from seven to fourteen days. Considerable fever is present, and the +tendency to every kind of complication is very great. Bronchitis, +pneumonia, pleurisy, meningitis, intestinal catarrh, and even ulceration of +the duodenum, have all been recorded. Hence both nursing and medical +attendance must be very close during this time. It is probable that these +complications are all the result of septic infection and absorption, and +since the modern antiseptic treatment of burns they have become much less +common. The third period is prolonged until recovery takes place. Death may +result from septic absorption, or from the wound becoming infected with +some organism, as tetanus, erysipelas, &c. The prognosis depends chiefly on +the extent of skin involved, death almost invariably resulting when +one-third of the total area of the body is affected, however superficially. +Of secondary but still grave importance is the position of the burn, that +over a serous cavity making the future more doubtful than one on a limb. +Also it must be remembered that children very easily succumb to shock. + +In treating a patient the condition of shock must be attended to first, +since from it arises the primary danger. The sufferer must be wrapped +immediately in hot blankets, and brandy given by the mouth or in an enema, +while ether can be injected hypodermically. If the pulse is very bad a +saline infusion must be administered. The clothes can then be removed and +the burnt surfaces thoroughly cleansed with a very mild antiseptic, a weak +solution of lysol acting very well. If there are blisters these must be +opened and the contained effusion allowed to [v.04 p.0861] escape. Some +surgeons leave them at this stage, but others prefer to remove the raised +epithelium. When thoroughly cleansed, the wound is irrigated with +sterilized saline solution and a dressing subsequently applied. For the +more superficial lesions by far the best results are obtained from the +application of gauze soaked in picric acid solution and lightly wrung out, +being covered with a large antiseptic wool pad and kept in position by a +bandage. Picric acid 1½ drams, absolute alcohol 3 oz., and distilled water +40 oz., make a good lotion. All being well, this need only be changed about +twice a week. The various kinds of oil once so greatly advocated in +treating burns are now largely abandoned since they have no antiseptic +properties. The deeper burns can only be attended to by a surgeon, whose +aim will be first to bring septic absorption to a minimum, and later to +hasten the healing process. Skin grafting has great value after extensive +burns, not because it hastens healing, which it probably does not do, but +because it has a marked influence in lessening cicatricial contraction. +When a limb is hopelessly charred, amputation is the only course. + +BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT (1824-1881), American soldier, was born at +Liberty, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1824, of Scottish pedigree, his +American ancestors settling first in South Carolina, and next in the +north-west wilderness, where his parents lived in a rude log cabin. He was +appointed to the United States military academy through casual favour, and +graduated in 1847, when war with Mexico was nearly over. In 1853 he +resigned his commission, and from 1853 to 1858 was engaged in the +manufacture of firearms at Bristol, R.I. In 1856 he invented a +breech-loading rifle. He was employed by the Illinois Central railroad +until the Civil War broke out. Then he took command of a Rhode Island +regiment of three months militia, on the summons of Governor Sprague, took +part in the relief of the national capital, and commanded a brigade in the +first battle of Bull Run. On the 6th of August 1861 he was commissioned +brigadier-general of volunteers, and placed in charge of the expeditionary +force which sailed in January 1862 under sealed orders for the North +Carolina coast. The victories of Roanoke Island, Newbern and Fort Macon +(February--April) were the chief incidents of a campaign which was +favourably contrasted by the people with the work of the main army on the +Atlantic coast. He was promoted major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, and +early in July, with his North Carolina troops (IX. army corps), he was +transferred to the Virginian theatre of war. Part of his forces fought in +the last battles of Pope's campaign in Virginia, and Burnside himself was +engaged in the battles of South Mountain and Antietam. At the latter he was +in command of McClellan's left wing, but the want of vigour in his attack +was unfavourably criticized. His patriotic spirit, modesty and amiable +manners, made him highly popular, and upon McClellan's final removal (Nov. +7) from the Army of the Potomac, President Lincoln chose him as successor. +The choice was unfortunate. Much as he was liked, no one had ever looked +upon him as the equal of McClellan, and it was only with the greatest +reluctance that he himself accepted the responsibility, which he had on two +previous occasions declined. He sustained a crushing defeat at the battle +of Fredericksburg (13 Dec. 1862), and (Jan. 27) gave way to Gen. Hooker, +after a tenure of less than three months. Transferred to Cincinnati in +March 1863, he caused the arrest and court-martial of Clement L. +Vallandigham, lately an opposition member of Congress, for an alleged +disloyal speech, and later in the year his measures for the suppression of +press criticism aroused much opposition; he helped to crush Morgan's Ohio +raid in July; then, moving to relieve the loyalists in East Tennessee, in +September entered Knoxville, to which the Confederate general James +Longstreet unsuccessfully laid siege. In 1864 Burnside led his old IX. +corps under Grant in the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. After bearing +his part well in the many bloody battles of that time, he was overtaken +once more by disaster. The failure of the "Burnside mine" at Petersburg +brought about his resignation. A year later he left the service, and in +1866 he became governor of Rhode Island, serving for three terms +(1866-1869). From 1875 till his death he was a Republican member of the +United States Congress. He was present with the German headquarters at the +siege of Paris in 1870-71. He died at Bristol, Rhode Island, on the 13th of +September 1881. + +See B.P. Poore, _Life and Public Services of Ambrose E. Burnside_ +(Providence, 1882); A. Woodbury, _Major-General Burnside and the Ninth Army +Corps_ (Providence, 1867). + +BURNTISLAND, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Fife, Scotland, on the +shore of the Firth of Forth, 5¾ m. S.W. of Kirkcaldy by the North British +railway. Pop. (1891) 4993; (1901) 4846. It is protected from the north wind +by the Binn (632 ft.), and in consequence of its excellent situation, its +links and sandy beach, it enjoys considerable repute as a summer resort. +The chief industries are distilling, fisheries, shipbuilding and shipping, +especially the export of coal and iron. Until the opening of the Forth +bridge, its commodious harbour was the northern station of the ferry across +the firth from Granton, 5 m. south. The parish church, dating from 1594, is +a plain structure, with a squat tower rising in two tiers from the centre +of the roof. The public buildings include two hospitals, a town-hall, music +hall, library and reading room and science institute. On the rocks forming +the western end of the harbour stands Rossend Castle, where the amorous +French poet Chastelard repeated the insult to Queen Mary which led to his +execution. In 1667 it was ineffectually bombarded by the Dutch. The burgh +was originally called Parva Kinghorn and later Wester Kinghorn. The origin +and meaning of the present name of the town have always been a matter of +conjecture. There seems reason to believe that it refers to the time when +the site, or a portion of it, formed an island, as sea-sand is the subsoil +even of the oldest quarters. Another derivation is from Gaelic words +meaning "the island beyond the bend." With Dysart, Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy, +it unites in returning one member to parliament. + +BURR, AARON (1756-1836), American political leader, was born at Newark, New +Jersey, on the 6th of February 1756. His father, the Rev. Aaron Burr +(1715-1757), was the second president (1748-1757) of the College of New +Jersey, now Princeton University; his mother was the daughter of Jonathan +Edwards, the well-known Calvinist theologian. The son graduated from the +College of New Jersey in 1772, and two years later began the study of law +in the celebrated law school conducted by his brother-in-law, Tappan Reeve, +at Litchfield, Connecticut. Soon after the outbreak of the War of +Independence, in 1775, he joined Washington's army in Cambridge, Mass. He +accompanied Arnold's expedition into Canada in 1775, and on arriving before +Quebec he disguised himself as a Catholic priest and made a dangerous +journey of 120 m. through the British lines to notify Montgomery, at +Montreal, of Arnold's arrival. He served for a time on the staffs of +Washington and Putnam in 1776-77, and by his vigilance in the retreat from +Long Island he saved an entire brigade from capture. On becoming +lieutenant-colonel in July 1777, he assumed the command of a regiment, and +during the winter at Valley Forge guarded the "Gulf," a pass commanding the +approach to the camp, and necessarily the first point that would be +attacked. In the engagement at Monmouth, on the 28th of June 1778, he +commanded one of the brigades in Lord Stirling's division. In January 1779 +Burr was assigned to the command of the "lines" of Westchester county, a +region between the British post at Kingsbridge and that of the Americans +about 15 m. to the north. In this district there was much turbulence and +plundering by the lawless elements of both Whigs and Tories and by bands of +ill-disciplined soldiers from both armies. Burr established a thorough +patrol system, rigorously enforced martial law, and quickly restored order. + +He resigned from the army in March 1779, on account of ill-health, renewed +the study of law, was admitted to the bar at Albany in 1782, and began to +practise in New York city after its evacuation by the British in the +following year. In 1782 he married Theodosia Prevost (d. 1794), the widow +of a British army officer who had died in the West Indies during the War of +Independence. They had one child, a daughter, Theodosia, born in 1783, who +became widely known for her beauty and accomplishments, married Joseph +Alston of South Carolina [v.04 p.0862] in 1801, and was lost at sea in +1813. Burr was a member of the state assembly (1784-1785), attorney-general +of the state (1789-1791), United States senator (1791-1797), and again a +member of the assembly (1798-1799 and 1800-1801). As national parties +became clearly defined, he associated himself with the +Democratic-Republicans. Although he was not the founder of Tammany Hall, he +began the construction of the political machine upon which the power of +that organization is based. In the election of 1800 he was placed on the +Democratic-Republican presidential ticket with Thomas Jefferson, and each +received the same number of electoral votes. It was well understood that +the party intended that Jefferson should be president and Burr +vice-president, but owing to a defect (later remedied) in the Constitution +the responsibility for the final choice was thrown upon the House of +Representatives. The attempts of a powerful faction among the Federalists +to secure the election of Burr failed, partly because of the opposition of +Alexander Hamilton and partly, it would seem, because Burr himself would +make no efforts to obtain votes in his own favour. On Jefferson's election, +Burr of course became vice-president. His fair and judicial manner as +president of the Senate, recognized even by his bitterest enemies, helped +to foster traditions in regard to that position quite different from those +which have become associated with the speakership of the House of +Representatives. + +Hamilton had opposed Burr's aspirations for the vice-presidency in 1792, +and had exerted influence through Washington to prevent his appointment as +brigadier-general in 1798, at the time of the threatened war between the +United States and France. It was also in a measure his efforts which led to +Burr's lack of success in the New York gubernatorial campaign of 1804; +moreover the two had long been rivals at the bar. Smarting under defeat and +angered by Hamilton's criticisms, Burr sent the challenge which resulted in +the famous duel at Weehawken, N.J., on the 11th of July 1804, and the death +of Hamilton (_q.v._) on the following day. After the expiration of his term +as vice-president (March 4, 1805), broken in fortune and virtually an exile +from New York, where, as in New Jersey, he had been indicted for murder +after the duel with Hamilton, Burr visited the South-west and became +involved in the so-called conspiracy which has so puzzled the students of +that period. The traditional view that he planned a separation of the West +from the Union is now discredited. Apart from the question of political +morality he could not, as a shrewd politician, have failed to see that the +people of that section were too loyal to sanction such a scheme. The +objects of his treasonable correspondence with Merry and Yrujo, the British +and Spanish ministers at Washington, were, it would seem, to secure money +and to conceal his real designs, which were probably to overthrow Spanish +power in the Southwest, and perhaps to found an imperial dynasty in Mexico. +He was arrested in 1807 on the charge of treason, was brought to trial +before the United States circuit court at Richmond, Virginia, Chief-Justice +Marshall presiding, and he was acquitted, in spite of the fact that the +political influence of the national administration was thrown against him. +Immediately afterward he was tried on a charge of misdemeanour, and on a +technicality was again acquitted. He lived abroad from 1808 to 1812, +passing most of his time in England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden and France; +trying to secure aid in the prosecution of his filibustering schemes but +meeting with numerous rebuffs, being ordered out of England and Napoleon +refusing to receive him. In 1812 he returned to New York and spent the +remainder of his life in the practice of law. Burr was unscrupulous, +insincere and notoriously immoral, but he was pleasing in his manners, +generous to a fault, and was intensely devoted to his wife and daughter. In +1833 he married Eliza B. Jumel (1769-1865), a rich New York widow; the two +soon separated, however, owing to Burr's having lost much of her fortune in +speculation. He died at Port Richmond, Staten Island, New York, on the 14th +of September 1836. + +The standard biography is James Parton's _The Life and Times of Aaron Burr_ +(first edition, 1857; enlarged edition, 2 vols., Boston and New York, +1898). W.F. McCaleb's _The Aaron Burr Conspiracy_ (New York, 1903) is a +scholarly defence of the West and incidentally of Burr against the charge +of treason, and is the best account of the subject; see also I. Jenkinson, +_Aaron Burr_ (Richmond, Ind., 1902). For the traditional view of Burr's +conspiracy, see Henry Adams's _History of the United States_, vol. iii. +(New York, 1890). + +BURRIANA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Castellón de la +Plana; on the estuary of the river Séco, which flows into the Mediterranean +Sea. Pop. (1900) 12,962. The harbour of Burriana on the open sea is +annually visited by about three hundred small coasting-vessels. Its exports +consist chiefly of oranges grown in the surrounding fertile plain, which is +irrigated with water from the river Mijares, on the north, and also +produces large quantities of grain, oil, wine and melons. Burriana is +connected by a light railway with the neighbouring towns of Onda (6595), +Almazóra (7070), Villarreal (16,068) and Castellón de la Plana (29,904). +Its nearest station on the Barcelona-Valencia coast railway is Villarreal. + +BURRITT, ELIHU (1810-1879), American philanthropist, known as "the learned +blacksmith," was born in New Britain, Conn., on the 8th of December 1810. +His father (a farmer and shoemaker), and his grandfather, both of the same +name, had served in the Revolutionary army. An elder brother, Elijah, who +afterwards published _The Geography of the Heavens_ and other text-books, +went out into the world while Elihu was still a boy, and after editing a +paper in Georgia came back to New Britain and started a school. Elihu, +however, had to pick up what knowledge he could get from books at home, +where his father's long illness, ending in death, made his services +necessary. At sixteen he was apprenticed to a blacksmith, and he made this +his trade both there and at Worcester, Mass., where he removed in 1837. He +had a passion for reading; from the village library he borrowed book after +book, which he studied at his forge or in his spare hours; and he managed +to find time for attending his brother's school for a while, and even for +pursuing his search for culture among the advantages to be found at New +Haven. He mastered Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and German, and +by the age of thirty could read nearly fifty languages. His extraordinary +aptitude gradually made him famous. He took to lecturing, and then to an +ardent crusade on behalf of universal peace and human brotherhood, which +made him travel persistently to various parts of the United States and +Europe. In 1848 he organized the Brussels congress of Friends of Peace, +which was followed by annual congresses in Paris, Frankfort, London, +Manchester and Edinburgh. He wrote and published voluminously, leaflets, +pamphlets and volumes, and started the _Christian Citizen_ at Worcester to +advocate his humanitarian views. Cheap trans-oceanic postage was an ideal +for which he agitated wherever he went. His vigorous philanthropy keeps the +name of Elihu Burritt green in the history of the peace movement, apart +from the fame of his learning. His countrymen, at universities such as Yale +and elsewhere, delighted to do him honour; and he was U.S. consul at +Birmingham from 1865 to 1870. He returned to America and died at New +Britain on the 9th of March 1879. + +See _Life_, by Charles Northend, in the memorial volume (1879); and an +article by Ellen Strong Bartlett in the _New England Magazine_ (June, +1897). + +BURROUGHS, GEORGE (c. 1650-1692), American congregational pastor, graduated +at Harvard in 1670, and became the minister of Salem Village (now Danvers) +in 1680, a charge which he held till 1683. He lived at Falmouth (now +Portland, Maine) until the Indians destroyed it in 1690, when he removed to +Wells. In May 1692 during the witchcraft delusion, on the accusation of +some personal enemies in his former congregation who had sued him for debt, +Burroughs was arrested and charged, among other offences, with +"extraordinary Lifting and such feats of strength as could not be done +without Diabolicall Assistance." Though the jury found no witch-marks on +his body he was convicted and executed on Gallows Hill, Salem, on the 19th +of August, the only minister who suffered this extreme fate. + +[v.04 p.0863] BURROUGHS, JOHN (1837- ), American poet and writer on natural +history, was born in Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 3rd of +April 1837. In his earlier years he engaged in various pursuits, teaching, +journalism, farming and fruit-raising, and for nine years was a clerk in +the treasury department at Washington. After publishing in 1867 a volume of +_Notes on Walt Whitman as poet and person_ (a subject to which he returned +in 1896 with his _Whitman: a Study_), he began in 1871, with _Wake-Robin_, +a series of books on birds, flowers and rural scenes which has made him the +successor of Thoreau as a popular essayist en the plants and animals +environing human life. His later writings showed a more philosophic mood +and a greater disposition towards literary or meditative allusion than +their predecessors, but the general theme and method remained the same. His +chief books, in addition to _Wake-Robin_, are _Birds and Poets_ (1877), +_Locusts and Wild Honey_ (1879), _Signs and Seasons_ (1886), and _Ways of +Nature_ (1905); these are in prose, but he wrote much also in verse, a +volume of poems, _Bird and Bough_, being published in 1906. _Winter +Sunshine_ (1875) and _Fresh Fields_ (1884) are sketches of travel in +England and France. + +A biographical sketch of Burroughs is prefixed to his _Year in the Fields_ +(new ed., 1901). A complete uniform edition of his works was issued in +1895, &c. (Riverside edition, Cambridge, Mass.). + +BURSAR (Med. Lat. _bursarius_), literally a keeper of the _bursa_ or purse. +The word is now chiefly used of the official, usually one of the fellows, +who administers the finances of a college at a university, or of the +treasurer of a school or other institution. The term is also applied to the +holder of "a bursary," an exhibition at Scottish schools or universities, +and also in England a scholarship or exhibition enabling a pupil of an +elementary school to continue his education at a secondary school. The term +"burse" (Lat. _bursa_, Gr. [Greek: borsa], bag of skin) is particularly +used of the embroidered purse which is one of the insignia of office of the +lord high chancellor of England, and of the pouch which in the Roman Church +contains the "corporal" in the service of the Mass. The "bursa" is a square +case opening at one side only and covered and lined with silk or linen; one +side should be of the colour of the vestments of the day. + +BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association of students at the German universities. It +was formed as a result of the German national sentiment awakened by the War +of Liberation, its object being to foster patriotism and Christian conduct, +as opposed to the particularism and low moral standard of the old +_Landsmannschaften_. It originated at Jena, under the patronage of the +grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, and rapidly spread, the _Allgemeine deutsche +Burschenschaft_ being established in 1818. The loud political idealism of +the _Burschen_ excited the fears of the reactionary powers, which +culminated after the murder of Kotzebue (_q.v._) by Karl Sand in 1819, a +crime inspired by a secret society among the _Burschen_ known as the Blacks +(_Schwarzen_). The repressive policy embodied in the Carlsbad Decrees +(_q.v._) was therefore directed mainly against the _Burschenschaft_, which +none the less survived to take part in the revolutions of 1830. After the +_émeute_ at Frankfort in 1833, the association was again suppressed, but it +lived on until, in 1848, all laws against it were abrogated. The +_Burschenschaften_ are now purely social and non-political societies. The +_Reformburschenschaften_, formed since 1883 on the principle of excluding +duelling, are united in the _Allgemeiner deutscher Burschenbund_. + +BURSIAN, CONRAD (1830-1883), German philologist and archaeologist, was born +at Mutzschen in Saxony, on the 14th of November 1830. On the removal of his +parents to Leipzig, he received his early education at the Thomas school, +and entered the university in 1847. Here he studied under Moritz Haupt and +Otto Jahn until 1851, spent six months in Berlin (chiefly to attend Böckh's +lectures), and completed his university studies at Leipzig (1852). The next +three years were devoted to travelling in Belgium, France, Italy and +Greece. In 1856 he became a _Privat-docent_, and in 1858 extraordinary +professor at Leipzig; in 1861 professor of philology and archaeology at +Tübingen; in 1864 professor of classical antiquities at Zurich; in 1869 at +Jena, where he was also director of the archaeological museum; in 1874 at +Munich, where he remained until his death on the 21st of September 1883. +His most important works are: _Geographie von Griechenland_ (1862-1872); +_Beiträge zur Geschichte der klassischen Studien im Mittelalter_ (1873); +_Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); editions of +Julius Firmicus Maternus' _De Errore Profanarum Religionum_ (1856) and of +Seneca's _Suasoriae_ (1857). The article on Greek Art in Ersch and Gruber's +Encyclopaedia is by him. Probably the work in connexion with which he is +best known is the _Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der klassischen +Altertumswissenschaft_ (1873, &c.), of which he was the founder and editor; +from 1879 a _Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde_ was published by +way of supplement, an obituary notice of Bursian, with a complete list of +his writings, being in the volume for 1884. + +BURSLEM, a market town of Staffordshire, England, in the Potteries +district, 150 m. N.W. from London, on the North Staffordshire railway and +the Grand Trunk Canal. Pop. (1891) 31,999; (1901) 38,766. In the 17th +century the town was already famous for its manufacture of pottery. Here +Josiah Wedgwood was born in 1730, his family having practised the +manufacture in this locality for several generations, while he himself +began work independently at the Ivy House pottery in 1759. He is +commemorated by the Wedgwood Institute, founded in 1863. It comprises a +school of art, free library, museum, picture-gallery and the free school +founded in 1794. The exterior is richly and peculiarly ornamented, to show +the progress of fictile art. The neighbouring towns of Stoke, Hanley and +Longton are connected with Burslem by tramways. Burslem is mentioned in +Domesday. Previously to 1885 it formed part of the parliamentary borough of +Stoke, but it is now included in that of Hanley. It was included in the +municipal borough of Stoke-on-Trent under an act of 1908. + +BURTON, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1900), British painter and art +connoisseur, the third son of Samuel Burton of Mungret, Co. Limerick, was +born in Ireland in 1816. He was educated in Dublin, where his artistic +studies were carried on with marked success under the direction of Mr +Brocas, an able teacher, who foretold for the lad a distinguished career. +That this estimate was not exaggerated was proved by Burton's immediate +success in his profession. He was elected an associate of the Royal +Hibernian Academy at the age of twenty-one and an academician two years +later; and in 1842 he began to exhibit at the Royal Academy. A visit to +Germany and Bavaria in 1851 was the first of a long series of wanderings in +various parts of Europe, which gave him a profound and intimate knowledge +of the works of the Old Masters, and prepared him admirably for the duties +that he undertook in 1874 when he was appointed director of the British +National Gallery in succession to Sir W. Boxall, R.A. During the twenty +years that he held this post he was responsible for many important +purchases, among them Leonardo da Vinci's "Virgin of the Rocks," Raphael's +"Ansidei Madonna," Holbein's "Ambassadors," Van Dyck's equestrian portrait +of Charles I., and the "Admiral Pulido Pareja," by Velasquez; and he added +largely to the noted series of Early Italian pictures in the gallery. The +number of acquisitions made to the collection during his period of office +amounts to not fewer than 500. His own painting, most of which was in +water-colour, had more attraction for experts than for the general public. +He was elected an associate of the Royal Society of Painters in +Water-Colours in 1855, and a full member in the following year. He resigned +in 1870, and was re-elected as an honorary member in 1886. A knighthood was +conferred on him in 1884, and the degree of LL.D. of Dublin in 1889. In his +youth he had strong sympathy with the "Young Ireland Party," and was a +close associate with some of its members. He died in Kensington on the 16th +of March 1900. + +BURTON, JOHN HILL (1809-1881), Scottish historical writer, the son of an +officer in the army, was born at Aberdeen on the 22nd of August 1809. After +studying at the university of his native city, he removed to Edinburgh, +where he qualified for [v.04 p.0864] the Scottish bar and practised as an +advocate; but his progress was slow, and he eked out his narrow means by +miscellaneous literary work. His _Manual of the Law of Scotland_ (1839) +brought him into notice; he joined Sir John Bowring in editing the works of +Jeremy Bentham, and for a short time was editor of the _Scotsman_, which he +committed to the cause of free trade. In 1846 he achieved high reputation +by his _Life of David Hume_, based upon extensive and unused MS. material. +In 1847 he wrote his biographies of Simon, Lord Lovat, and of Duncan +Forbes, and in 1849 prepared for Chambers's Series manuals of political and +social economy and of emigration. In the same year he lost his wife, whom +he had married in 1844, and never again mixed freely with society, though +in 1855 he married again. He devoted himself mainly to literature, +contributing largely to the _Scotsman_ and _Blackwood_, writing _Narratives +from Criminal Trials in Scotland_ (1852), _Treatise on the Law of +Bankruptcy in Scotland_ (1853), and publishing in the latter year the first +volume of his _History of Scotland_, which was completed in 1870. A new and +improved edition of the work appeared in 1873. Some of the more important +of his contributions to _Blackwood_ were embodied in two delightful +volumes, _The Book Hunter_ (1862) and _The Scot Abroad_ (1864). He had in +1854 been appointed secretary to the prison board, an office which gave him +entire pecuniary independence, and the duties of which he discharged most +assiduously, notwithstanding his literary pursuits and the pressure of +another important task assigned to him after the completion of his history, +the editorship of the _National Scottish Registers_. Two volumes were +published under his supervision. His last work, _The History of the Reign +of Queen Anne_ (1880), is very inferior to his _History of Scotland_. He +died on the 10th of August 1881. Burton was pre-eminently a jurist and +economist, and may be said to have been guided by accident into the path +which led him to celebrity. It was his great good fortune to find abundant +unused material for his _Life of Hume_, and to be the first to introduce +the principles of historical research into the history of Scotland. All +previous attempts had been far below the modern standard in these +particulars, and Burton's history will always be memorable as marking an +epoch. His chief defects as a historian are want of imagination and an +undignified familiarity of style, which, however, at least preserves his +history from the dulness by which lack of imagination is usually +accompanied. His dryness is associated with a fund of dry humour +exceedingly effective in its proper place, as in _The Book Hunter_. As a +man he was loyal, affectionate, philanthropic and entirely estimable. + +A memoir of Hill Burton by his wife was prefaced to an edition of _The Book +Hunter_, which like his other works was published at Edinburgh (1882). + +(R. G.) + +BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS (1821-1890), British consul, explorer and +Orientalist, was born at Barham House, Hertfordshire, on the 19th of March +1821. He came of the Westmorland Burtons of Shap, but his grandfather, the +Rev. Edward Burton, settled in Ireland as rector of Tuam, and his father, +Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton, of the 36th Regiment, was an +Irishman by birth and character. His mother was descended from the +MacGregors, and he was proud of a remote drop of Bourbon blood piously +believed to be derived from a morganatic union of the Grand Monarque. There +were even those, including some of the Romany themselves, who saw gipsy +written in his peculiar eyes as in his character, wild and resentful, +essentially vagabond, intolerant of convention and restraint. His irregular +education strengthened the inherited bias. A childhood spent in France and +Italy, under scarcely any control, fostered the love of untrammelled +wandering and a marvellous fluency in continental vernaculars. Such an +education so little prepared him for academic proprieties, that when he +entered Trinity College, Oxford, in October 1840, a criticism of his +military moustache by a fellow-undergraduate was resented by a challenge to +a duel, and Burton in various ways distinguished himself by such eccentric +behaviour that rustication inevitably ensued. Nor was he much more in his +element as a subaltern in the 18th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry, +which he joined at Baroda in October 1842. Discipline of any sort he +abhorred, and the one recommendation of the East India Company's service in +his eyes was that it offered opportunities for studying Oriental life and +languages. He had begun Arabic without a master at Oxford, and worked in +London at Hindustani under Forbes before he went out; in India he laboured +indefatigably at the vernaculars, and his reward was an astonishingly rapid +proficiency in Gujarati, Marathi, Hindustani, as well as Persian and +Arabic. His appointment as an assistant in the Sind survey enabled him to +mix with the people, and he frequently passed as a native in the bazaars +and deceived his own _munshi_, to say nothing of his colonel and messmates. +His wanderings in Sind were the apprenticeship for the pilgrimage to Mecca, +and his seven years in India laid the foundations of his unparalleled +familiarity with Eastern life and customs, especially among the lower +classes. Besides government reports and contributions to the Asiatic +Society, his Indian period produced four books, published after his return +home: _Scinde, or the Unhappy Valley_ (1851), _Sindh and the Races that +Inhabit the Valley of the Indus_ (1851), _Goa and the Blue Mountains_ +(1851), and _Falconry in the Valley of the Indus_ (1852). None of these +achieved popularity, but the account of Sind is remarkably vivid and +faithful. + +The pilgrimage to Mecca in 1853 made Burton famous. He had planned it +whilst mixing disguised among the Muslims of Sind, and had laboriously +prepared for the ordeal by study and practice. No doubt the primary motive +was the love of adventure, which was his strongest passion; but along with +the wanderer's restlessness marched the zest of exploration, and whilst +wandering was in any case a necessity of his existence, he preferred to +roam in untrodden ways where mere adventure might be dignified by +geographical service. There was a "huge white blot" on the maps of central +Arabia where no European had ever been, and Burton's scheme, approved by +the Royal Geographical Society, was to extend his pilgrimage to this "empty +abode," and remove a discreditable blank from the map. War among the tribes +curtailed the design, and his journey went no farther than Medina and +Mecca. The exploit of accompanying the Muslim hajj to the holy cities was +not unique, nor so dangerous as has been imagined. Several Europeans have +accomplished it before and since Burton's visit without serious mishap. +Passing himself off as an Indian Pathan covered any peculiarities or +defects of speech. The pilgrimage, however, demands an intimate proficiency +in a complicated ritual, and a familiarity with the minutiae of Eastern +manners and etiquette; and in the case of a stumble, presence of mind and +cool courage may be called into request. There are legends that Burton had +to defend his life by taking others'; but he carried no arms, and +confessed, rather shamefastly, that he had never killed anybody at any +time. The actual journey was less remarkable than the book in which it was +recorded, _The Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah_ (1855). Its vivid +descriptions, pungent style, and intensely personal "note" distinguish it +from books of its class; its insight into Semitic modes of thought and its +picture of Arab manners give it the value of an historical document; its +grim humour, keen observation and reckless insobriety of opinion, expressed +in peculiar, uncouth but vigorous language make it a curiosity of +literature. + +Burton's next journey was more hazardous than the pilgrimage, but created +no parallel sensation. In 1854 the Indian government accepted his proposal +to explore the interior of the Somali country, which formed a subject of +official anxiety in its relation to the Red Sea trade. He was assisted by +Capt. J.H. Speke and two other young officers, but accomplished the most +difficult part of the enterprise alone. This was the journey to Harrar, the +Somali capital, which no white man had entered. Burton vanished into the +desert, and was not heard of for four months. When he reappeared he had not +only been to Harrar, but had talked with the king, stayed ten days there in +deadly peril, and ridden back across the desert, almost without food and +water, running the gauntlet of the Somali spears all the way. Undeterred by +this experience he set out again, but was checked [v.04 p.0865] by a +skirmish with the tribes, in which one of his young officers was killed, +Captain Speke was wounded in eleven places, and Burton himself had a +javelin thrust through his jaws. His _First Footsteps in East Africa_ +(1856), describing these adventures, is one of his most exciting and most +characteristic books, full of learning, observation and humour. + +After serving on the staff of Beatson's Bashi-bazouks at the Dardanelles, +but never getting to the front in the Crimea, Burton returned to Africa in +1856. The foreign office, moved by the Royal Geographical Society, +commissioned him to search for the sources of the Nile, and, again +accompanied by Speke, he explored the lake regions of equatorial Africa. +They discovered Lake Tanganyika in February 1858, and Speke, pushing on +during Burton's illness and acting on indications supplied by him, lighted +upon Victoria Nyanza. The separate discovery led to a bitter dispute, but +Burton's expedition, with its discovery of the two lakes, was the incentive +to the later explorations of Speke and Grant, Baker, Livingstone and +Stanley; and his report in volume xxxiii. of the _Proceedings of the Royal +Geographical Society_, and his _Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa_ (1860), +are the true parents of the multitudinous literature of "darkest Africa." +Burton was the first Englishman to enter Mecca, the first to explore +Somaliland, the first to discover the great lakes of Central Africa. His +East African pioneering coincides with areas which have since become +peculiarly interesting to the British Empire; and three years later he was +exploring on the opposite side of Africa, at Dahomey, Benin and the Gold +Coast, regions which have also entered among the imperial "questions" of +the day. Before middle age Burton had compressed into his life, as Lord +Derby said, "more of study, more of hardship, and more of successful +enterprise and adventure, than would have sufficed to fill up the existence +of half a dozen ordinary men." _The City of the Saints_ (1861) was the +fruit of a flying visit to the United States in 1860. + +Since 1849 his connexion with the Indian army had been practically severed; +in 1861 he definitely entered the service of the foreign office as consul +at Fernando Po, whence he was shifted successively to Santos in Brazil +(1865), Damascus (1869), and Trieste (1871), holding the last post till his +death on the 20th of October 1890. Each of these posts produced its +corresponding books: Fernando Po led to the publishing of _Wanderings in +West Africa_ (1863), _Abeokuta and the Cameroons_ (1863), _A Mission to +Gelele, king of Dahomé_ (1864), and _Wit and Wisdom from West Africa_ +(1865). The _Highlands of the Brazil_ (1869) was the result of four years' +residence and travelling; and _Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay_ +(1870) relate to a journey across South America to Peru. Damascus suggested +_Unexplored Syria_ (1872), and might have led to much better work, since no +consulate in either hemisphere was more congenial to Burton's taste and +linguistic studies; but he mismanaged his opportunities, got into trouble +with the foreign office, and was removed to Trieste, where his Oriental +prepossessions and prejudices could do no harm, but where, unfortunately, +his Oriental learning was thrown away. He did not, however, abandon his +Eastern studies or his Eastern travels. Various fresh journeys or +revisitings of familiar scenes are recorded in his later books, such as +_Zanzibar_ (1872), _Ultima Thule_ (1875), _Etruscan Bologna_ (1876), _Sind +Revisited_ (1877), _The Land of Midian_ (1879) and _To the Gold Coast for +Gold_ (1883). None of these had more than a passing interest. Burton had +not the charm of style or imagination which gives immortality to a book of +travel. He wrote too fast, and took too little pains about the form. His +blunt, disconnected sentences and ill-constructed chapters were full of +information and learning, and contained not a few thrusts for the benefit +of government or other people, but they were not "readable." There was +something ponderous about his very humour, and his criticism was personal +and savage. By far the most celebrated of all his books is the translation +of the "Arabian Nights" (_The Thousand Nights and a Night_, 16 vols., +privately printed, 1885-1888), which occupied the greater part of his +leisure at Trieste. As a monument of his Arabic learning and his +encyclopaedic knowledge of Eastern life this translation was his greatest +achievement. It is open to criticism in many ways; it is not so exact in +scholarship, nor so faithful to its avowed text, as might be expected from +his reputation; but it reveals a profound acquaintance with the vocabulary +and customs of the Muslims, with their classical idiom as well as their +vulgarest "Billingsgate," with their philosophy and modes of thought as +well as their most secret and most disgusting habits. Burton's +"anthropological notes," embracing a wide field of pornography, apart from +questions of taste, abound in valuable observations based upon long study +of the manners and the writings of the Arabs. The translation itself is +often marked by extraordinary resource and felicity in the exact +reproduction of the sense of the original; Burton's vocabulary was +marvellously extensive, and he had a genius for hitting upon the right +word; but his fancy for archaic words and phrases, his habit of coining +words, and the harsh and rugged style he affected, detract from the +literary quality of the work without in any degree enhancing its fidelity. +With grave defects, but sometimes brilliant merits, the translation holds a +mirror to its author. He was, as has been well said, an Elizabethan born +out of time; in the days of Drake his very faults might have counted to his +credit. Of his other works, _Vikram and the Vampire, Hindu Tales_ (1870), +and a history of his favourite arm, _The Book of the Sword_, vol. i. +(1884), unfinished, may be mentioned. His translation of _The Lusiads of +Camoens_ (1880) was followed (1881) by a sketch of the poet's life. Burton +had a fellow-feeling for the poet adventurer, and his translation is an +extraordinarily happy reproduction of its original. A manuscript +translation of the "Scented Garden," from the Arabic, was burnt by his +widow, acting in what she believed to be the interests of her husband's +reputation. Burton married Isabel Arundell in 1861, and owed much to her +courage, sympathy and passionate devotion. Her romantic and exaggerated +biography of her husband, with all its faults, is one of the most pathetic +monuments which the unselfish love of a woman has ever raised to the memory +of her hero. Another monument is the Arab tent of stone and marble which +she built for his tomb at Mortlake. + +Besides Lady Burton's _Life of Sir Richard F. Burton_ (2 vols., 1893, 2nd +edition, condensed, edited, with a preface, by W.H. Wilkins, 1898), there +are _A Sketch of the Career of R.F. Burton_, by A.B. Richards, Andrew +Wilson, and St Clair Baddeley (1886); _The True Life of Captain Sir Richard +F. Burton_, by his niece, G.M. Stisted (1896); and a brief sketch by the +present writer prefixed to Bohn's edition of the _Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah +and Meccah_ (1898), from which some sentences have here been by permission +reproduced. In 1906 appeared the _Life of Sir Richard Burton_, by Thomas +Wright of Olney, in two volumes, an industrious and rather critical work, +interesting in particular for the doubts it casts on Burton's originality +as an Arabic translator, and emphasizing his indebtedness to Payne's +translation (1881) of the _Arabian Nights_. + +(S. L.-P.) + +BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640), English writer, author of _The Anatomy of +Melancholy_, son of a country gentleman, Ralph Burton, was born at Lindley +in Leicestershire on the 8th of February 1576-7. He was educated at the +free school of Sutton Coldfield and at Nuneaton grammar school; became in +1593 a commoner of Brasenose College, and in 1599 was elected student at +Christ Church, where he continued to reside for the rest of his life. The +dean and chapter of Christ Church appointed him, in November 1616, vicar of +St Thomas in the west suburbs, and about 1630 his patron, Lord Berkeley, +presented him to the rectory of Segrave in Leicestershire. He held the two +livings "with much ado to his dying day" (says Antony à Wood, the Oxford +historian, somewhat mysteriously); and he was buried in the north aisle of +Christ Church cathedral, where his elder brother William Burton, author of +a _History of Leicestershire_, raised to his memory a monument, with his +bust in colour. The epitaph that he had written for himself was carved +beneath the bust: _Paucis notus, paucioribus ignotus, hic jacet Democritus +Junior, cui vitam dedit et mortem Melancholia_. Some years before his death +he had predicted, by the calculation of his nativity, that the approach of +his climacteric year (sixty-three) would prove fatal; and the prediction +came true, for he died on the 25th of January 1639-40 (some gossips +surmising that he had "sent up his soul to heaven through a noose about his +neck" to avoid the chagrin of seeing his calculations falsified). His [v.04 +p.0866] portrait in Brasenose College shows the face of a scholar, shrewd, +contemplative, humorous. + +A Latin comedy, _Philosophaster_, originally written by Robert Burton in +1606 and acted at Christ Church in 1617, was long supposed to be lost; but +in 1862 it was printed for the Roxburghe Club from a manuscript belonging +to the Rev. W.E. Buckley, who edited it with elaborate care and appended a +collection of the academical exercises that Burton had contributed to +various Oxford miscellanies ("Natalia," "Parentalia," &c.). +_Philosophaster_ is a vivacious exposure of charlatanism. Desiderius, duke +of Osuna, invites learned men from all parts of Europe to repair to the +university which he has re-established; and a crowd of shifty adventurers +avail themselves of the invitation. There are points of resemblance to +_Philosophaster_ in Ben Jonson's _Alchemist_ and Tomkis's _Albumazar_, but +in the prologue Burton is careful to state that his was the earlier play. +(Another manuscript of _Philosophaster_, a presentation copy to William +Burton from the author, has since been found in the library of Lord +Mostyn.) + +In 1621 was issued at Oxford the first edition, a quarto, of _The Anatomy +of Melancholy ... by Democritus Junior_. Later editions, in folio, were +published in 1624, 1628, 1632, 1638, 1651, 1652, 1660, 1676. Burton was for +ever engaged in revising his treatise. In the third edition (where first +appeared the engraved emblematical title-page by C. Le Blond) he declared +that he would make no further alterations. But the fourth edition again +bore marks of revision; the fifth differed from the fourth; and the sixth +edition was posthumously printed from a copy containing his latest +corrections. + +Not the least interesting part of the _Anatomy_ is the long preface, +"Democritus to the Reader," in which Burton sets out his reasons for +writing the treatise and for assuming the name of Democritus Junior. He had +been elected a student of "the most flourishing college of Europe" and he +designed to show his gratitude by writing something that should be worthy +of that noble society. He had read much; he was neither rich nor poor; +living in studious seclusion, he had been a critically observant spectator +of the world's affairs. The philosopher Democritus, who was by nature very +melancholy, "averse from company in his latter days and much given to +solitariness," spent his closing years in the suburbs of Abdera. There +Hippocrates once found him studying in his garden, the subject of his study +being the causes and cure of "this _atra bilis_ or melancholy." Burton +would not compare himself with so famous a philosopher, but he aimed at +carrying out the design which Democritus had planned and Hippocrates had +commended. It is stated that he actually set himself to reproduce the old +philosopher's reputed eccentricities of conduct. When he was attacked by a +fit of melancholy he would go to the bridge foot at Oxford and shake his +sides with laughter to hear the bargemen swearing at one another, just as +Democritus used to walk down to the haven at Abdera and pick matter for +mirth out of the humours of waterside life. + +Burton anticipates the objections of captious critics. He allows that he +has "collected this cento out of divers authors" and has borrowed from +innumerable books, but he claims that "the composition and method is ours +only, and shows a scholar." It had been his original intention to write in +Latin, but no publisher would take the risk of issuing in Latin so +voluminous a treatise. He humorously apologizes for faults of style on the +ground that he had to work single-handed (unlike Origen who was allowed by +Ambrosius six or seven amanuenses) and digest his notes as best he might. +If any object to his choice of subject, urging that he would be better +employed in writing on divinity, his defence is that far too many +commentaries, expositions, sermons, &c., are already in existence. Besides, +divinity and medicine are closely allied; and, melancholy being both a +spiritual and bodily infirmity, the divine and the physician must unite to +cure it. + +The preface is followed by a tabular synopsis of the First Partition with +its several Sections, Members and Subsections. After various preliminary +digressions Burton sets himself to define what Melancholy is and what are +its species and kinds. Then he discusses the Causes, supernatural and +natural, of the disorder, and afterwards proceeds to set down the Symptoms +(which cannot be briefly summarized, "for the Tower of Babel never yielded +such confusion of tongues as the Chaos of Melancholy doth of Symptoms"). +The Second Partition is devoted to the Cure of Melancholy. As it is of +great importance that we should live in good air, a chapter deals with "Air +Rectified. With a Digression of the Air." Burton never travelled, but the +study of cosmography had been his constant delight; and over sea and land, +north, east, west, south--in this enchanting chapter--he sends his vagrant +fancy flying. In the disquisition on "Exercise rectified of body and mind" +he dwells gleefully on the pleasures of country life, and on the content +that scholars find in the pursuit of their favourite studies. +Love-Melancholy is the subject of the first Three Sections of the Third +Partition, and many are the merry tales with which these pages are +seasoned. The Fourth (and concluding) Section treats, in graver mood, of +Religious Melancholy; and to the "Cure of Despair" he devotes his deepest +meditations. + +_The Anatomy_, widely read in the 17th century, for a time lapsed into +obscurity, though even "the wits of Queen Anne's reign and the beginning of +George I. were not a little beholden to Robert Burton" (Archbishop +Herring). Dr Johnson deeply admired the work; and Sterne laid it heavily +under contribution. But the noble and impassioned devotion of Charles Lamb +has been the most powerful help towards keeping alive the memory of the +"fantastic great old man." Burton's odd turns and quirks of expression, his +whimsical and affectate fancies, his kindly sarcasm, his far-fetched +conceits, his deep-lying pathos, descended by inheritance of genius to +Lamb. The enthusiasm of Burton's admirers will not be chilled by the +disparagement of unsympathetic critics (Macaulay and Hallam among them) who +have consulted his pages in vain; but through good and evil report he will +remain, their well-loved companion to the end. + +The best of the modern editions of Burton was published in 1896, 3 vols. +8vo (Bell and Sons), under the editorship of A.R. Shilleto, who identified +a large number of the classical quotations and many passages from +post-classical authors. Prof. Bensley, of the university of Adelaide, has +since contributed to the ninth and tenth series of _Notes and Queries_ many +valuable notes on the _Anatomy_. Dr Aldis Wright has long been engaged on +the preparation of a definitive edition. + +(A. H. B.) + +BURTON, WILLIAM EVANS (1804-1860), English actor and playwright, born in +London in September 1804, was the son of William George Burton (1774-1825), +a printer and author of _Research into the religions of the Eastern nations +as illustrative of the scriptures_ (1805). He was educated for the Church, +but, having entered his father's business, his success as an amateur actor +led him to go upon the stage. After several years in the provinces, he made +his first London appearance in 1831. In 1834 he went to America, where he +appeared in Philadelphia as Dr Ollapod in _The Poor Gentleman_. He took a +prominent place, both as actor and manager, in New York, Philadelphia and +Baltimore, the theatre which he leased in New York being renamed Burton's +theatre. He had much popular success as Captain Cuttle in John Brougham's +dramatization of _Dombey and Son_, and in other low comedy parts in plays +from Dickens's novels. Burton was the author of a large number of plays, +one of which, _Ellen Wareham_ (1833), was produced simultaneously at five +London theatres. In Philadelphia he established the _Gentleman's Magazine_, +of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some time the editor. He was himself the +editor of the _Cambridge Quarterly_ and the _Souvenir_, and the author of +several books, including a _Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour_ (1857). He +collected a library of over 100,000 volumes, especially rich in +Shakespeariana, which was dispersed after his death at New York City on the +9th of February 1860. + +BURTON-UPON-TRENT, a market town and municipal and county borough in the +Burton parliamentary division of Staffordshire and the Southern +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England; lying mainly upon the left +bank of the Trent, in Staffordshire. Pop. (1891) 46,047; (1901) 50,386. It +is 127 m [v.04 p.0867] north-west from London by the London & North-Western +and the Midland railways, and is also served by the Great Northern and +North Staffordshire railways. The Trent is navigable from a point near the +town downward. The neighbouring country is pleasant enough, particularly +along the river, but the town itself is purely industrial, and contains no +pre-eminent buildings. The church of St Mary and St Modwen is classic in +style, of the 18th century, but embodies some remains of an ancient Gothic +building. Of a Benedictine abbey dedicated to the same saints there remain +a gatehouse and lodge, and a fine doorway. The former abbot's house at +Seyney Park is a half-timbered building of the 15th century. The free +grammar school was founded in 1525. A fine bridge over the Trent, and the +municipal buildings, were provided by Lord Burton. There are pleasant +recreation grounds on the Derbyshire side of the river. + +Burton is the seat of an enormous brewing trade, representing nearly +one-tenth of the total amount of this trade in the United Kingdom. It is +divided between some twenty firms. The premises of Bass's brewery extend +over 500 acres, while Allsopp's stand next; upwards of 5000 hands are +employed in all, and many miles of railways owned by the firms cross the +streets in all directions on the level, and connect with the lines of the +railway companies. The superiority which is claimed for Burton ales is +attributed to the use of well-water impregnated with sulphate of lime +derived from the gypseous deposits of the district. Burton is governed by a +mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 4202 acres. + +Burton-upon-Trent (Burhton) is first mentioned towards the close of the 9th +century, when St Modwen, an Irish virgin, is said to have established a +convent on the Isle of Andressey opposite Burton. In 1002 Wulfric, earl of +Mercia, founded here a Benedictine abbey, and by charter of 1004 granted to +it the town with other large endowments. Burton was evidently a mesne +borough under the abbot, who held the court of the manor and received the +profits of the borough according to the charter of Henry I. granting sac +and soc and other privileges and right in the town. Later charters were +given by Henry II., by John in 1204 (who also granted an annual fair of +three days' duration, 29th of October, at the feast of St Modwen, and a +weekly market on Thursday), by Henry III. in 1227, by Henry VII. in 1488 +(Henry VII. granted a fair at the feast of St Luke, 18th of October), and +by Henry VIII. in 1509. At the dissolution Henry VIII. founded on the site +of the abbey a collegiate church dissolved before 1545, when its lands, +with all the privileges formerly vested in the abbot, were conferred on Sir +William Paget, ancestor of the marquess of Anglesey, now holder of the +manor. In 1878 it was incorporated under a mayor, 8 aldermen, 24 +councillors. Burton was the scene of several engagements in the Civil War, +when its large trade in clothing and alabaster was practically ruined. +Although the abbey ale was mentioned as early as 1295, the brewing industry +is comparatively of recent development, having begun about 1708. Forty +years later it had a market at St Petersburg and the Baltic ports, and in +1796 there were nine brewing firms in the town. + +See William Molyneux, _History of Burton-on-Trent_ (1869); _Victoria County +History, Staffordshire_. + +BURU (_Buro_, Dutch _Boeroe_ or _Boeloe_), an island of the Dutch East +Indies, one of the Molucca Islands belonging to the residency of Amboyna, +between 3° 4' and 3° 50' S. and 125° 58' and 127° 15' E. Its extreme +measurements are 87 m. by 50 m., and its area is 3400 sq. m. Its surface is +for the most part mountainous, though the seaboard district is frequently +alluvial and marshy from the deposits of the numerous rivers. Of these the +largest, the Kajeli, discharging eastward, is in part navigable. The +greatest elevations occur in the west, where the mountain Tomahu reaches +8530 ft. In the middle of the western part of the island lies the large +lake of Wakolo, at an altitude of 2200 ft., with a circumference of 37 m. +and a depth of about 100 ft. It has been considered a crater lake; but this +is not the case. It is situated at the junction of the sandstone and slate, +where the water, having worn away the former, has accumulated on the +latter. The lake has no affluents and only one outlet, the Wai Nibe to the +north. The chief geological formations of Buru are crystalline slate near +the north coast, and more to the south Mesozoic sandstone and chalk, +deposits of rare occurrence in the archipelago. By far the larger part of +the country is covered with natural forest and prairie land, but such +portions as have been brought into cultivation are highly fertile. Coffee, +rice and a variety of fruits, such as the lemon, orange, banana, pine-apple +and coco-nut are readily grown, as well as sago, red-pepper, tobacco and +cotton. The only important exports, however, are cajeput oil, a sudorific +distilled from the leaves of the _Melaleuca Cajuputi_ or white-wood tree; +and timber. The native flora is rich, and teak, ebony and canari trees are +especially abundant; the fauna, which is similarly varied, includes the +babirusa, which occurs in this island only of the Moluccas. The population +is about 15,000. The villages on the sea-coast are inhabited by a Malayan +population, and the northern and western portions of the island are +occupied by a light-coloured Malay folk akin to the natives of the eastern +Celebes. In the interior is found a peculiar race which is held by some to +be Papuan. They are described, however, as singularly un-Papuan in +physique, being only 5 ft. 2 in. in average height, of a yellow-brown +colour, of feeble build, and without the characteristic frizzly hair and +prominent nose of the true Papuan. They are completely pagan, live in +scattered hamlets, and have come very little in contact with any +civilization. Among the maritime population a small number of Chinese, +Arabs and other races are also found. The island is divided by the Dutch +into two districts. The chief settlement is Kajeli on the east coast. A +number of Mahommedan natives here are descended from tribes compelled in +1657 to gather together from the different parts of the island, while all +the clove-trees were exterminated in an attempt by the Dutch to centralize +the clove trade. Before the arrival of the Dutch the islanders were under +the dominion of the sultan of Ternate; and it was their rebellion against +him that gave the Europeans the opportunity of effecting their subjugation. + +BURUJIRD, a province of Persia, bounded W. by Luristan, N. by Nehavend and +Malayir, E. by Irak and S. by Isfahan. It is divided into the following +administrative divisions:--(1) town of Burujird with villages in immediate +neighbourhood; (2) Silakhor (upper and lower); (3) Japalak (with Sarlek and +Burbarud); (4) nomad Bakhtiari. It has a population of about 250,000 or +300,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about £16,000. It is very fertile and +produces much wheat, barley, rice and opium. With improved means of +transport, which would allow the growers to export, the produce of cereals +could easily be trebled. The province is sometimes joined with that of +Luristan. + +The town Burujird, the capital of the province, is situated in the fertile +Silakhor plain on the river Tahij, a tributary of the Dizful river (Ab i +Diz), 70 m. by road from Hamadan and 212 m. from Isfahan, in 33° 55' N. and +48° 55' E., and at an elevation of 5315 ft. Pop. about 25,000. It +manufactures various cotton stuffs (coarse prints, carpet covers) and felts +(principally hats and caps for Lurs and Bakhtiaris). It has post and +telegraph offices. + +BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- ), British historian, was born on the 16th of +October 1861, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was +elected to a fellowship in 1885. A fine Greek scholar, he edited Pindar's +_Nemean_ and _Isthmian Odes_; but he devoted himself chiefly to the study +of history, and was chosen professor of modern history at Dublin in 1893, +becoming regius professor of Greek in 1898. He resigned both positions in +1902, when he was elected regius professor of modern history in the +university of Cambridge. His historical work was mainly concerned with the +later Roman empire, and his edition of Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, with a +masterly introduction and valuable notes (1896-1900), is the standard text +of this history. He also wrote a _History of Greece to the Death of +Alexander the Great_ (1900); _History of the Later Roman Empire, 395-800_ +(1889), _History of the Roman Empire 27 B.C.-180 A.D._ (1893); _Life of St +Patrick and his Place in History_ (1905), &c. He was elected a fellow of +King's College, Cambridge, and received honorary degrees from the +universities of Oxford, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Durham. + +BURY, a market-town and municipal, county and parliamentary borough of +Lancashire, England, on the river Irwell, [v.04 p.0868] 195 m. N.W. by W. +from London, and 10 ½ N. by W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire & +Yorkshire railway and the Manchester & Bolton canal. Pop. (1891) 57,212; +(1901) 58,029. The church of St Mary is of early foundation, but was +rebuilt in 1876. Besides numerous other places of worship, there are a +handsome town hall, athenaeum and museum, art gallery and public library, +various assembly rooms, and several recreation grounds. Kay's free grammar +school was founded in 1726; there are also municipal technical schools. The +cotton manufacture is the principal industry; there are also calico +printing, dyeing and bleaching works, machinery and iron works, woollen +manufactures, and coal mines and quarries in the vicinity. Sir Robert Peel +was born at Chamber Hall in the neighbourhood, and his father did much for +the prosperity of the town by the establishment of extensive print-works. A +monument to the statesman stands in the market-place. The parliamentary +borough returns one member (since 1832). The county borough was created in +1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. +Area, 5836 acres. + +Bury, of which the name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon _burhg_, _birig_ or +_byrig_ (town, castle or fortified place), was the site of a Saxon station, +and an old English castle stood in Castle Croft close to the town. It was a +member of the Honour of Clitheroe and a fee of the royal manor of +Tottington, which soon after the Conquest was held by the Lacys. The local +family of Bury held lands here during the 13th century, and at least for a +short time the manor itself, but before 1347 it passed by marriage to the +Pilkingtons of Pilkington, with whom it remained till 1485, when on the +attainder of Sir Thomas Pilkington it was granted to the first earl of +Derby, whose descendants have since held it. Under a grant made by Edward +IV. to Sir Thomas Pilkington, fairs are still held on March 5, May 3, and +September 18, and a market was formerly held under the same grant on +Thursday, which has, however, been long replaced by a customary market on +Saturday. The woollen trade was established here through the agency of +Flemish immigrants in Edward III.'s reign, and in Elizabeth's time this +industry was of such importance that an aulneger was appointed to measure +and stamp the woollen cloth. But although the woollen manufacture is still +carried on, the cotton trade has been gradually superseding it since the +early part of the 18th century. The family of the Kays, the inventors, +belonged to this place, and Robert Peel's print-works were established here +in 1770. The cognate trades of bleaching, dyeing and machine-making have +been long carried on. A court-leet and view of frank pledge used to be held +half-yearly at Easter and Michaelmas, and a court-baron in May. Until 1846 +three constables were chosen annually at the court-leet to govern the +place, but in that year the inhabitants obtained authority from parliament +to appoint twenty-seven commissioners to undertake the local government. A +charter of incorporation was granted in 1876. The well-known Bury +Cooperative Society was established in 1856. There was a church here at the +time of the Domesday Survey, and the earliest mention of a rector is found +in the year 1331-1332. One-half of the town is glebe belonging to the +rectory. + +BURY ST EDMUNDS, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of +Suffolk, England, on the Lark, an affluent of the Great Ouse; 87 m. N.E. by +N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 16,255. It is +pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a fertile and richly +cultivated district. The tower or church-gate, one of the finest specimens +of early Norman architecture in England, and the western gate, a beautiful +structure of rich Decorated work, together with ruined walls of +considerable extent, are all that remains of the great abbey. St Mary's +church, with a beautifully carved roof, was erected in the earlier part of +the 15th century, and contains the tomb of Mary Tudor, queen of Louis XII. +of France. St James's church is also a fine Perpendicular building, with a +modern chancel, and without a tower. All these splendid structures, +fronting one of the main streets in succession, form, even without the +abbey church, a remarkable memorial of the wealth of the foundation. Behind +them lie picturesque gardens which contain the ruins, the plan of which is +difficult to trace, though the outlines of some portions, as the +chapter-house, have been made clear by excavation. There is a handsome +Roman Catholic church of St Edmund. The so-called Moyses Hall (perhaps a +Jew's House, of which there is a parallel example at Lincoln) retains +transitional Norman work. The free grammar school, founded by Edward VI., +has two scholarships at Cambridge, and six exhibitions to each university, +and occupies modern buildings. The Church Schools Company has a school. +There are large agricultural implement works, and the agricultural trade is +important, cattle and corn markets being held. In the vicinity is Ickworth, +the seat of the marquess of Bristol, a great mansion of the end of the 18th +century. The parliamentary borough, which returns one member, is +coextensive with the municipal borough. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2947 acres. + +Bury St Edmunds (Beodricesworth, St Edmund's Bury), supposed by some to +have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans, was one of the royal towns of +the Saxons. Sigebert, king of the East Angles, founded a monastery here +about 633, which in 903 became the burial place of King Edmund, who was +slain by the Danes about 870, and owed most of its early celebrity to the +reputed miracles performed at the shrine of the martyr king. By 925 the +fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town was +changed to St Edmund's Bury. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the older +monastery and ejected the secular priests, built a Benedictine abbey on its +site. In 942 or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and convent +jurisdiction over the whole town, free from all secular services, and +Canute in 1020 freed it from episcopal control. Edward the Confessor made +the abbot lord of the franchise. By various grants from the abbots, the +town gradually attained the rank of a borough. Henry III. in 1235 granted +to the abbot two annual fairs, one in December (which still survives), the +other the great St Matthew's fair, which was abolished by the Fairs Act of +1871. Another fair was granted by Henry IV. in 1405. Elizabeth in 1562 +confirmed the charters which former kings had granted to the abbots, and +James I. in 1606 granted a charter of incorporation with an annual fair in +Easter week and a market. Further charters were granted by him in 1608 and +1614, and by Charles II. in 1668 and 1684. The reversion of the fairs and +two markets on Wednesday and Saturday were granted by James I. in fee farm +to the corporation. Parliaments were held here in 1272, 1296 and 1446, but +the borough was not represented until 1608, when James I. conferred the +privilege of sending two members. The Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the +representation to one. There was formerly a large woollen trade. + +See Richard Yates, _Hist. and Antiqs. of the Abbey of St Edmund's Bury_ +(2nd ed., 1843); H.R. Barker, _History of Bury St Edmunds_. + +BUSBECQ, OGIER GHISLAIN DE [AUGERIUS GISLENIUS] (1522-1592), Flemish writer +and traveller, was born at Comines, and educated at the university of +Louvain and elsewhere. Having served the emperor Charles V. and his son, +Philip II. of Spain, he entered the service of the emperor Ferdinand I., +who sent him as ambassador to the sultan Suleiman I. the Magnificent. He +returned to Vienna in 1562 to become tutor to the sons of Maximilian II., +afterwards emperor, subsequently taking the position of master of the +household of Elizabeth, widow of Charles IX., king of France, and daughter +of Maximilian. Busbecq was an excellent scholar, a graceful writer and a +clever diplomatist. He collected valuable manuscripts, rare coins and +curious inscriptions, and introduced various plants into Germany. He died +at the castle of Maillot near Rouen on the 28th of October 1592. Busbecq +wrote _Itinera Constantinopolitanum et Amasianum_ (Antwerp, 1581), a work +showing considerable insight into Turkish politics. This was published in +Paris in 1589 as _A.G. Busbequii legationis Turcicae epistolae iv._, and +has been translated into several languages. He was a frequent visitor to +France, and wrote _Epistolae ad Rudolphum II. Imperatorem e Gallia +scriptae_ (Louvain, 1630), an interesting account of affairs at the French +court. His works were published [v.04 p.0869] at Leiden in 1633 and at +Basel in 1740. An English translation of the _Itinera_ was published in +1744. + +See C.T. Forster and F.H.B. Daniel, _Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de +Busbecq_ (London, 1881); Viertel, _Busbecks Erlebnisse in der Turkei_ +(Gottingen, 1902). + +BUSBY, RICHARD (1606-1695), English clergyman, and head master of +Westminster school, was born at Lutton in Lincolnshire in 1606. He was +educated at the school which he afterwards superintended for so long a +period, and first signalized himself by gaining a king's scholarship. From +Westminster Busby proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in +1628. In his thirty-third year he had already become renowned for the +obstinate zeal with which he supported the falling dynasty of the Stuarts, +and was rewarded for his services with the prebend and rectory of Cudworth, +with the chapel of Knowle annexed, in Somersetshire. Next year he became +head master of Westminster, where his reputation as a teacher soon became +great. He himself once boasted that sixteen of the bishops who then +occupied the bench had been birched with his "little rod". No school in +England has on the whole produced so many eminent men as Westminster did +under the régime of Busby. Among the more illustrious of his pupils may be +mentioned South, Dryden, Locke, Prior and Bishop Atterbury. He wrote and +edited many works for the use of his scholars. His original treatises (the +best of which are his Greek and Latin grammars), as well as those which he +edited, have, however, long since fallen into disuse. Busby died in 1695, +in his ninetieth year, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his +effigy is still to be seen. + +BUSBY, the English name for a military head-dress of fur. Possibly the +original sense of a "busby wig" came from association with Dr Busby of +Westminster; but it is also derived from "buzz", in the phrase "buzz wig". +In its first Hungarian form the military busby was a cylindrical fur cap, +having a "bag" of coloured cloth hanging from the top; the end of this bag +was attached to the right shoulder as a defence against sword-cuts. In +Great Britain "busbies" are of two kinds: (_a_) the hussar busby, +cylindrical in shape, with a bag; this is worn by hussars and the Royal +Horse Artillery; (_b_) the rifle busby, a folding cap of astrachan, in +shape somewhat resembling a "Glengarry" but taller. Both have straight +plumes in the front of the headdress. The word "busby" is also used +colloquially to denote the tall bear-and-raccoon-skin "caps" worn by +foot-guards and fusiliers, and the full dress feather bonnet of Highland +infantry. Cylindrical busbies were formerly worn by the artillery engineers +and rifles, but these are now obsolete in the regular army, though still +worn by some territorial and colonial troops of these arms. + +BUSCH, JULIUS HERMANN MORITZ (1821-1899), German publicist, was born at +Dresden on the 13th of February 1821. He entered the university of Leipzig +in 1841 as a student of theology, but graduated as doctor philosophiae, and +from 1847 devoted himself entirely to journalism and literature. In 1851 he +went to America, but soon returned disillusioned to Germany, and published +an account of his travels. During the next years he travelled extensively +in the East and wrote books on Egypt, Greece and Palestine. From 1856 he +was employed at Leipzig on the _Grenzboten_, one of the most influential +German periodicals, which, under the editorship of Gustav Freytag, had +become the organ of the Nationalist party. In 1864 he became closely +connected with the Augustenburg party in Schleswig-Holstein, but after 1866 +he transferred his services to the Prussian government, and was employed in +a semi-official capacity in the newly conquered province of Hanover. From +1870 onwards he was one of Bismarck's press agents, and was at the +chancellor's side in this capacity during the whole of the campaign of +1870-71. In 1878 he published the first of his works on Bismarck--a book +entitled _Bismarck und seine Leute, während des Krieges mit Frankreich_, in +which, under the form of extracts from his diary, he gave an account of the +chancellor's life during the war. The vividness of the descriptions and the +cleverness with which the conversations were reported ensured a success, +and the work was translated into several languages. This was followed in +1885 by another book, _Unser Reichskanzler_, chiefly dealing with the work +in the foreign office in Berlin. Immediately after Bismarck's death Busch +published the chancellor's famous petition to the emperor William II. dated +the 18th of March 1890, requesting to be relieved of office. This was +followed by a pamphlet _Bismarck und sein Werk_; and in 1898 in London and +in English, by the famous memoirs entitled _Bismarck: some Secret Pages of +his History_ (German by Grunow, under title _Tagebuchblätter_), in which +were reprinted the whole of the earlier works, but which contains in +addition a considerable amount of new matter, passages from the earlier +works which had been omitted because of the attacks they contained on +people in high position, records of later conversations, and some important +letters and documents which had been entrusted to him by Bismarck. Many +passages were of such a nature that it could not be safely published in +Germany; but in 1899 a far better and more complete German edition was +published at Leipzig in three volumes and consisting of three sections. +Busch died at Leipzig on the 16th of November 1899. + +See Ernst Goetz, in _Biog. Jahrbuch_ (1900). + +BUSCH, WILHELM (1832-1908), German caricaturist, was born at Wiedensahl in +Hanover. After studying at the academies of Düsseldorf, Antwerp and Munich, +he joined in 1859 the staff of _Fliegende Blätter_, the leading German +comic paper, and was, together with Oberländer, the founder of modern +German caricature. His humorous drawings and caricatures are remarkable for +the extreme simplicity and expressiveness of his pen-and-ink line, which +record with a few rapid scrawls the most complicated contortions of the +body and the most transitory movement. His humorous illustrated poems, such +as _Max und Moritz, Der heilige Antonius von Padua, Die Fromme Helene, Hans +Huckebein_ and _Die Erlebnisse Knopps des Junggesellen_, play, in the +German nursery, the same part that Edward Lear's nonsense verses do in +England. The types created by him have become household words in his +country. He invented the series of comic sketches illustrating a story in +scenes without words, which have inspired Caran d'Ache and other leading +caricaturists. + +BÜSCHING, ANTON FRIEDRICH (1724-1793), German theologian and geographer, +was born at Stadthagen in Schaumburg-Lippe, on the 27th of September 1724. +In 1748 he was appointed tutor in the family of the count de Lynars, who +was then going as ambassador to St Petersburg. On this journey he resolved +to devote his life to the improvement of geographical science. Leaving the +count's family, he went to reside at Copenhagen, and devoted himself +entirely to this new pursuit. In 1752 he published his _Description of the +Counties of Schleswig and Holstein_. In 1754 he removed to Göttingen, where +in 1757 he was appointed professor of philosophy; but in 1761 he accepted +an invitation to the German congregation at St Petersburg. There he +organized a school which, under him, soon became one of the most +flourishing in the north of Europe, but a disagreement with Marshal Münich +led him, in spite of the empress's offers of high advancement, to return to +central Europe in 1765. He first went to live at Altona; but next year he +was called to superintend the famous "Greyfriars Gymnasium" (_Gymnasium zum +Grauen Kloster_), which had been formed at Berlin by Frederick the Great. +He died of dropsy on the 28th of May 1793, having by writing and example +given a new impulse to education throughout Prussia. While at Göttingen he +married the poetess, Christiana Dilthey. + +Büsching's works (on geography, history, education and religion) amount to +more than a hundred. The first class comprehends those upon which his fame +chiefly rests; for although he did not possess the genius of D'Anville, he +may be regarded as the creator of modern Statistical Geography. His _magnum +opus_ is the _Erdebeschreibung_, in seven parts, of which the first four, +comprehending Europe, were published in 1754-1761, and have been translated +into several languages (_e.g._ into English with a preface by Murdoch, in +six volumes, London, 1762). In 1768 the fifth part was published, being the +first volume upon Asia, containing Asiatic Turkey and Arabia. It displays +an immense extent of research, and is generally considered as his [v.04 +p.0870] masterpiece. Büsching was also the editor of a valuable collection +entitled _Magazin für d. neue Historie und Geographie_ (23 vols. 4to, +1767-1793); also of _Wochentl. Nachrichten von neuen Landkarten_ (Berlin, +1773-1787). His works on education enjoyed great repute. In biography he +wrote a number of articles for the above-mentioned _Magazin_, and a +valuable collection of _Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte merkwürdiger +Personen_ (6 vols., 1783-1789), including an elaborate life of Frederick +the Great. + +BUSENBAUM (or BUSEMBAUM), HERMANN (1600-1668), Jesuit theologian, was born +at Nottelen in Westphalia. He attained fame as a master of casuistry, and +out of his lectures to students at Cologne grew his celebrated book +_Medulla theologiae moralis, facili ac perspicua methodo resolvens casus +conscientiae_ (1645). The manual obtained a wide popularity and passed +through over two hundred editions before 1776. Pierre Lacroix added +considerably to its bulk, and editions in two folio volumes appeared in +both Germany (1710-1714) and France (1729). In these sections on murder and +especially on regicide were much amplified, and in connexion with Damien's +attempt on the life of Louis XV. the book was severely handled by the +parlement of Paris. At Toulouse in 1757, though the offending sections were +repudiated by the heads of the Jesuit colleges, the _Medulla_ was publicly +burned, and the episode undoubtedly led the way to the duc de Choiseul's +attack on the society. Busenbaum also wrote a book on the ascetic life, +_Lilium inter spinas_. He became rector of the Jesuit college at Hildesheim +and then at Münster, where he died on the 31st of January 1668, being at +the time father-confessor to Bishop Bernard of Galen. + +BUSH. (1) (A word common to many European languages, meaning "a wood", cf. +the Ger. _Busch_, Fr. _bois_, Ital. _bosco_ and the med. Lat. _boscus_), a +shrub or group of shrubs, especially of those plants whose branches grow +low and thick. Collectively "the bush" is used in British colonies, +particularly in Australasia and South Africa, for the tract of country +covered with brushwood not yet cleared for cultivation. From the custom of +hanging a bush as a sign outside a tavern comes the proverb "Good wine +needs no bush." (2) (From a Teutonic word meaning "a box", cf. the Ger. +_Rad-büchse_, a wheel box, and the termination of "blunderbuss" and +"arquebus"; the derivation from the Fr. _bouche_, a mouth, is not correct), +a lining frequently inserted in the bearings of machinery. When a shaft and +the bearing in which it rotates are made of the same metal, the two +surfaces are in certain cases apt to "seize" and abrade each other. To +prevent this, bushes of some dissimilar metal are employed; thus a shaft of +mild steel or wrought iron may be made to run in hard cast steel, cast +iron, bronze or Babbitt metal. The last, having a low melting point, may be +cast about the shaft for which it is to form a bearing. + +[Illustration: Female Bushbuck.] + +BUSHBUCK (_Boschbok_,) the South African name of a medium-sized red +antelope (_q.v._), marked with white lines and spots, belonging to a local +race of a widely spread species, _Tragelaphus scriptus_. The males alone +have rather small, spirally twisted horns. There are several allied +species, sometimes known as harnessed antelopes, which are of a larger +size. Some of these such as the situtunga (_T. spekei_) have the hoofs +elongated for walking on swampy ground, and hence have been separated as +_Limnotragus_. + +BUSHEL (from the O. Fr. _boissiel_, cf. med. L. _bustellus, busellus_, a +little box), a dry measure of capacity, containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It +has been in use for measuring corn, potatoes, &c., from a very early date; +the value varying locally and with the article measured. The "imperial +bushel", legally established in Great Britain in 1826, contains 2218.192 +cub.in., or 80 lb of distilled water, determined at 62° F., with the +barometer at 30 in. Previously, the standard bushel used was known as the +"Winchester bushel", so named from the standard being kept in the town hall +at Winchester; it contained 2150.42 cub. in. This standard is the basis of +the bushel used in the United States and Canada; but other "bushels" for +use in connexion with certain commodities have been legalized in different +states. + +BUSHIDO (Japanese for "military-knight-ways"), the unwritten code of laws +governing the lives of the nobles of Japan, equivalent to the European +chivalry. Its maxims have been orally handed down, together with a vast +accumulation of traditional etiquette, the result of centuries of +feudalism. Its inception is associated with the uprise of feudal +institutions under Yoritomo, the first of the Shoguns, late in the 12th +century, but bushido in an undeveloped form existed before then. The +samurai or nobles of Japan entertained the highest respect for truth. "A +_bushi_ has no second word" was one of their mottoes. And their sense of +honour was so high as to dictate suicide where it was offended. + +See Inazo Nitobe, _Bushido: The Soul of Japan_ (1905); also JAPAN: _Army_. + +BUSHIRE, or BANDER BUSHIRE, a town of Persia, on the northern shore of the +Persian Gulf, in 28° 59' N., 50° 49' E. The name is pronounced Boosheer, +and not Bew-shire, or Bus-hire; modern Persians write it Bushehr and, yet +more incorrectly, Abushehr, and translate it as "father of the city," but +it is most probably a contraction of Bokht-ardashir, the name given to the +place by the first Sassanian monarch in the 3rd century. In a similar way +Riv-ardashir, a few miles south of Bushire, has become Rishire (Reesheer). +In the first half of the 18th century, when Bushire was an unimportant +fishing village, it was selected by Nadir Shah as the southern port of +Persia and dockyard of the navy which he aspired to create in the Persian +Gulf, and the British commercial factory of the East India Company, +established at Gombrun, the modern Bander Abbasi, was transferred to it in +1759. At the beginning of the 19th century it had a population of 6000 to +8000, and it is now the most important port in the Persian Gulf, with a +population of about 25,000. It used to be under the government of Fars, but +is (since about 1892) the seat of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports, +who is responsible to the central government, and has under his +jurisdiction the principal ports of the Gulf and their dependencies. The +town, which is of a triangular form, occupies the northern extremity of a +peninsula 11 m. long and 4 broad, and is encircled by the sea on all sides +except the south. It is fortified on the land side by a wall with 12 round +towers. The houses being mostly built of a white conglomerate stone of +shells and coral which forms the peninsula, gives the city when viewed from +a distance a clean and handsome appearance, but on closer inspection the +streets are found to be very narrow, irregular, ill-paved and filthy. +Almost the only decent buildings are the governor's palace, the British +residency and the houses of some well-to-do merchants. The sea immediately +east of the town has a considerable depth, but its navigation is impeded by +sand-banks and a bar north and west of the town, which can be passed only +by vessels drawing not more than 9 ft. of water, except at spring tides, +when there is a rise of from 8 to 10 ft. Vessels drawing more than 9 ft. +must anchor in the roads miles away to the west. The climate is very hot in +the summer months and unhealthy. The water is very bad, and that fit for +drinking requires to be brought from wells distant 1½ to 3 m. from the city +wall. + +Bushire carries on a considerable trade, particularly with India, Java and +Arabia. Its principal imports are cotton and woollen goods, yarn, metals, +sugar, coffee, tea, spices, cashmere shawls, &c., and its principal exports +opium, wool, carpets, horses, grain, dyes and gums, tobacco, rosewater, &c. +The importance of Bushire has much increased since about 1862. It is now +not only the headquarters of the English naval squadron in the Persian +Gulf, and the land terminus of the Indo-European telegraph, but it also +forms the chief station in the Gulf of the British Indian Steam Navigation +Company, which runs its vessels weekly between Bombay and Basra. Consulates +of Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia and Turkey and several European +mercantile houses are established at Bushire, and [v.04 p.0871] +notwithstanding the drawbacks of bad roads to the interior, insufficient +and precarious means of transport, and want of security, the annual value +of the Bushire trade since 1890 averaged about £1,500,000 (one-third being +for exports, two-thirds for imports), and over two-thirds of this was +British. Of the 278,000 tons of shipping which entered the port in 1905, +244,000 were British. + +During the war with Persia (1856-57) Bushire surrendered to a British force +and remained in British occupation for some months. At Rishire, some miles +south of Bushire and near the summer quarters of the British resident and +the British telegraph buildings, there are extensive ruins among which +bricks with cuneiform inscriptions have been found, showing that the place +was a very old Elamite settlement. + +(A. H.-S.) + +BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, a people of South Africa, so named by the British +and Dutch colonists of the Cape. They often call themselves _Saan_ [Sing. +_Sá_], but this appears to be the Hottentot name. If they have a national +name it is _Khuai_, probably "small man," the title of one group. This +_Khuai_ has, however, been translated as the Bushman word for _tablier +égyptien_ (see below), adopted as the racial name because that malformation +is one of their physical characteristics. The Kaffirs call them Abatwa, the +Bechuana Masarwa (Maseroa). There is little reason to doubt that they +constitute the aboriginal element of the population of South Africa, and +indications of their former presence have been found as far north at least +as the Nyasa and Tanganyika basins. "It would seem," writes Sir H.H. +Johnston (_British Central Africa_, p. 52), "as if the earliest known race +of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa was akin to the +Bushman-Hottentot type of negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the +centre, similar to those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for +weighting their digging-sticks (the _graaf stock_ of the Boers), have been +found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika." The dirty yellow colour of the +Bushmen, their slightly slanting eyes and prominent cheek-bones had induced +early anthropologists to dwell on their resemblance to the Mongolian races. +This similarity has been now recognized as quite superficial. More recently +a connexion has been traced between the Bushmen and the Pygmy peoples +inhabiting the forests of Central Africa. Though the matter cannot be +regarded as definitely settled, the latest researches rather tend to +discredit this view. In fact it would appear that the two peoples have +little in common save diminutive proportions and a nomadic and predatory +form of existence. Owing to the discovery of steatopygous figurines in +Egyptian graves, a theory has been advanced that the Egyptians of the early +dynasties were of the same primitive pygmy negroid stock as the Bushmen. +But this is highly speculative. The physical characteristics of Egyptian +skulls have nothing of the Bushman in them. Of the primitive pygmy negroid +stock the Hottentots (_q.v._), once considered the parent family, are now +regarded as an offshoot of mixed Bantu-Bushman blood from the main Bushman +race. + +It seems probable that the Bushmen must be regarded as having extended +considerably to the north of the area occupied by them within the memory of +white men. Evidence has been produced of the presence of a belated +Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group as far north as the district between +Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza. They were probably driven south by the +Bantu tribes, who eventually outflanked them and confined them to the less +fertile tracts of country. Before the arrival of Europeans in South Africa +the Bushman race appears to have been, what it so essentially is to-day, a +nomadic race living in widely scattered groups. The area in which the +Bushmen are now found sporadically may be defined as extending from the +inner ranges of the mountains of Cape Colony, through the central Kalahari +desert to near Lake Ngami, and thence north-westward to the districts about +the Ovambo river north of Damaraland. In short, they have been driven by +European and Kaffir encroachments into the most barren regions of South +Africa. A few remain in the more inaccessible parts of the Drakensberg +range about the sources of the Vaal. Only in one or two districts are they +found in large numbers, chiefly in Great Bushman Land towards the Orange +river. A regularly planned and wholesale destruction of the Bushmen on the +borders of Cape Colony in the earlier years of European occupation reduced +their numbers to a great extent; but this cruel hunting of the Bushmen has +ceased. In retaliation the Bushmen were long the scourge of the farms on +the outer borders of the colony, making raids on the cattle and driving +them off in large numbers. On the western side of the deserts they are +generally at enmity with the Koranna Hottentots, but on the eastern border +of the Kalahari they have to some extent fraternized with the earliest +Bechuana migrants. Their language, which exists in several dialects, has in +common with Hottentot, but to a greater degree, the peculiar sounds known +as "clicks." The Hottentot language is more agglutinative, the Bushman more +monosyllabic; the former recognizes a gender in names, the latter does not; +the Hottentots form the plural by a suffix, the Bushmen by repetition of +the name; the former count up to twenty, the latter can only number two, +all above that being "many." F.C.Selous records that Koranna Hottentots +were able to converse fluently with the Bushmen of Bechuanaland. + +The most striking feature of the Bushman's physique is shortness of +stature. Gustav Fritsch in 1863-1866 found the average height of six grown +men to be 4 ft. 9 in. Earlier, but less trustworthy, measurements make them +still shorter. Among 150 measured by Sir John Barrow during the first +British occupation of Cape Colony the tallest man was 4 ft. 9 in., the +tallest woman 4 ft. 4 in. The Bushmen living in Bechuanaland measured by +Selous in the last quarter of the 19th century were, however, found to be +of nearly average height. Few persons were below 5 ft.; 5 ft. 4 in. was +common, and individuals of even 6 ft. were not unknown. No great difference +in height appears to exist between men and women. Fritsch's average from +five Bushman women was one-sixth of an inch more than for the men. The +Bushmen, as already stated, are of a dirty yellow colour, and of generally +unattractive countenance. The skull is long and low, the cheek-bones large +and prominent. The eyes are deeply set and crafty in expression. The nose +is small and depressed, the mouth wide with moderately everted lips, and +the jaws project. The teeth are not like badly cut ivory, as in Bantu, but +regular and of a mother-of-pearl appearance. In general build the Bushman +is slim and lean almost to emaciation. Even the children show little of the +round outlines of youth. The amount of fat under the skin in both sexes is +remarkably small; hence the skin is as dry as leather and falls into strong +folds around the stomach and at the joints. The fetor of the skin, so +characteristic of the negro, is not found in the Bushman. The hair is weak +in growth, in age it becomes grey, but baldness is rare. Bushmen have +little body-hair and that of a weak stubbly nature, and none of the fine +down usual on most skins. On the face there is usually only a scanty +moustache. A hollowed back and protruding stomach are frequent +characteristics of their figure, but many of them are well proportioned, +all being active and capable of enduring great privations and fatigue. +Considerable steatopygy often exists among the women, who share with the +Hottentot women the extraordinary prolongation of the nymphae which is +often called "the Hottentot apron" or _tablier_. Northward the Bushmen +appear to improve both in general condition and in stature, probably owing +to a tinge of Bantu blood. The Bushman's clothing is scanty: a triangular +piece of skin, passed between the legs and fastened round the waist with a +string, is often all that is worn. Many men, however, and nearly all the +women, wear the _kaross_, a kind of pelisse of skins sewn together, which +is used at night as a wrap. The bodies of both sexes are smeared with a +native ointment, _buchu_, which, aided by accretions of dust and dirt, soon +forms a coating like a rind. Men and women often wear sandals of hide or +plaited bast. They are fond of ornament, and decorate the arms, neck and +legs with beads, iron or copper rings, teeth, hoofs, horns and shells, +while they stick feathers or hares' tails in the hair. The women sometimes +stain their faces with red pigment. They carry tobacco in goats' horns or +in the shell of a land tortoise, while boxes of ointment [v.04 p.0872] or +amulets are hung round neck or waist. A jackal's tail mounted on a stick +serves the double purpose of fan and handkerchief. For dwellings in the +plains they have low huts formed of reed mats, or occupy a hole in the +earth; in the mountain districts they make a shelter among the rocks by +hanging mats on the windward side. Of household utensils they have none, +except ostrich eggs, in which they carry water, and occasionally rough +pots. For cooking his food the Bushman needs nothing but fire, which he +obtains by rubbing hard and soft wood together. + +Bushmen do not possess cattle, and have no domestic animals except a few +half-wild dogs, nor have they the smallest rudiments of agriculture. Living +by hunting, they are thoroughly acquainted with the habits and movements of +every kind of wild animal, following the antelope herds in their +migrations. Their weapon is a bow made of a stout bough bent into a sharp +curve. It is strung with twisted sinew. The arrow, which is neatly made of +a reed, the thickness of a finger, is bound with thread to prevent +splitting, and notched at the end for the string. At the point is a head of +bone, or stone with a quill barb; iron arrow-blades obtained from the Bantu +are also found. The arrow is usually 2 to 3 ft. long. The distance at which +the Bushman can be sure of hitting is not great, about twenty paces. The +arrows are always coated with a gummy poisonous compound which kills even +the largest animal in a few hours. The preparation is something of a +mystery, but its main ingredients appear to be the milky juice of the +_Amaryllis toxicaria_, which is abundant in South Africa, or of the +_Euphorbia arborescens_, generally mixed with the venom of snakes or of a +large black spider of the genus _Mygale_; or the entrails of a very deadly +caterpillar, called N'gwa or 'Kaa, are used alone. One authority states +that the Bushmen of the western Kalahari use the juice of a chrysalis which +they scrape out of the ground. From their use of these poisons the Bushmen +are held in great dread by the neighbouring races. They carry, too, a club +some 20 in. long with a knob as big as a man's fist. Assegais and knives +are rare. No Bushman tribe south of Lake Ngami is said to carry spears. A +rude implement, called by the Boers _graaf stock_ or digging stick, +consisting of a sharpened spike of hard wood over which a stone, ground to +a circular form and perforated, is passed and secured by a wedge, forms +part of the Bushman equipment. This is used by the women for uprooting the +succulent tuberous roots of the several species of creeping plants of the +desert, and in digging pitfalls. These perforated stones have a special +interest in indicating the former extension of the Bushmen, since they are +found, as has been said, far beyond the area now occupied by them. The +Bushmen are famous as hunters, and actually run down many kinds of game. +Living a life of periodical starvation, they spend days at a time in search +of food, upon which when found they feed so gluttonously that it is said +five of them will eat a whole zebra in a few hours. They eat practically +anything. The meat is but half cooked, and game is often not completely +drawn. The Bushman eats raw such insects as lice and ants, the eggs of the +latter being regarded as a great delicacy. In hard times they eat lizards, +snakes, frogs, worms and caterpillars. Honey they relish, and for +vegetables devour bulbs and roots. Like the Hottentot, the Bushman is a +great smoker. + +The disposition of the Bushman has been much maligned; the cruelty which +has been attributed to him is the natural result of equal brutalities +practiced upon him by the other natives and the early European settlers. He +is a passionate lover of freedom, and, like many other primitive people, +lives only for the moment. Unlike the Hottentot he has never willingly +become a slave, and will fight to the last for his personal liberty. He has +been described as the "anarchist of South Africa." Still, when he becomes a +servant, he is usually trustworthy. His courage is remarkable, and Fritsch +was told by residents who were well qualified to speak that supported by a +dozen Bushmen they would not be afraid of a hundred Kaffirs. The terror +inspired by the Bushmen has indeed had an effect in the deforestation of +parts of Cape Colony, for the colonists, to guard against stealthy attacks, +cut down all the bush far round their holdings. Mission-work among the +Bushmen has been singularly unsuccessful. But in spite of his savage +nature, the Bushman is intelligent. He is quick-witted, and has the gift of +imitating extraordinarily well the cries of bird and beast. He is musical, +too, and makes a rough instrument out of a gourd and one or more strings. +He is fond of dancing; besides the ordinary dances are the special dances +at certain stages of the moon, &c. One of the most interesting facts about +the Bushman is his possession of a remarkable delight in graphic +illustration; the rocks of the mountains of Cape Colony and of the +Drakensberg and the walls of caves anciently inhabited by them have many +examples of Bushman drawings of men, women, children and animals +characteristically sketched. Their designs are partly painted on rock, with +four colours, white, black, red and yellow ochre, partly engraved in soft +sandstone, partly chiselled in hard stone. Rings, crosses and other signs +drawn in blue pigment on some of the rocks, and believed to be one or two +centuries old, have given rise to the erroneous speculation that these may +be remains of a hieroglyphic writing. A discovery of drawings of men and +women with antelope heads was made in the recesses of the Drakensberg in +1873 (J.M. Orpen in _Cape Monthly Magazine_, July 1874). A few years later +Selous discovered similar rock-paintings in Mashonaland and Manicaland. + +Little is known of the family life of the Bushmen. Marriage is a matter +merely of offer and acceptance ratified by a feast. Among some tribes the +youth must prove himself an expert hunter. Nothing is known of the laws of +inheritance. The avoidance of parents-in-law, so marked among Kaffirs, is +found among Bushmen. Murder, adultery, rape and robbery are offences +against their code of morals. As among other African tribes the social +position of the women is low. They are beasts of burden, carrying the +children and the family property on the journeys, and doing all the work at +the halting-place. It is their duty also to keep the encampment supplied +with water, no matter how far it has to be carried. The Bushman mother is +devoted to her children, who, though suckled for a long time, yet are fed +within the first few days after birth upon chewed roots and meat, and +taught to chew tobacco at a very early age. The child's head is often +protected from the sun by a plaited shade of ostrich feathers. There is +practically no tribal organization. Individual families at times join +together and appoint a chief, but the arrangement is never more than +temporary. The Bushmen have no concrete idea of a God, but believe in evil +spirits and supernatural interference with man's life. All Bushmen carry +amulets, and there are indications of totemism in their refusal to eat +certain foods. Thus one group will not eat goat's flesh, though the animal +is the commonest in their district. Others reverence antelopes or even the +caterpillar N'gwa. The Bushman cuts off the joints of the fingers as a sign +of mourning and sometimes, it seems, as an act of repentance. Traces of a +belief in continued existence after death are seen in the cairns of stone +thrown on the graves of chiefs. Evil spirits are supposed to hide beneath +these sepulchral mounds, and the Bushman thinks that if he does not throw +his stone on the mounds the spirits will twist his neck. The whole family +deserts the place where any one has died, after raising a pile of stones. +The corpse's head is anointed, then it is smoke-dried and laid in the grave +at full length, stones or earth being piled on it. There is a Bushman +belief that the sun will rise later if the dead are not buried with their +faces to the east. Weapons and other Bushman treasures are buried with the +dead, and the hut materials are burnt in the grave. + +The Bushmen have many animal myths, and a rich store of beast legends. The +most prominent of the animal mythological figures is that of the mantis, +around which a great cycle of myths has been formed. He and his wife have +many names. Their adopted daughter is the porcupine. In the family history +an ichneumon, an elephant, a monkey and an eland all figure. The Bushmen +have also solar and lunar myths, and observe and name the stars. Canopus +alone has five names. Some of the constellations have figurative names. +Thus they call Orion's Belt "three she-tortoises hanging on a stick," and +Castor and [v.04 p.0873] Pollux "the cow-elands." The planets, too, have +their names and myths, and some idea of the astonishing wealth of this +Bushman folklore and oral literature may be formed from the fact that the +materials collected by Bleek and preserved in Sir George Grey's library at +Cape Town form eighty-four stout MS. volumes of 3600 pages. They comprise +myths, fables, legends and even poetry, with tales about the sun and moon, +the stars, the crocodile and other animals; legends of peoples who dwelt in +the land before the Bushmen arrived from the north; songs, charms, and even +prayers, or at least incantations; histories, adventures of men and +animals; tribal customs, traditions, superstitions and genealogies. A most +curious feature in Bushman folklore is the occurrence of the speeches of +various animals, into which the relater of the legend introduces particular +"clicks," supposed to be characteristic of the animals in whose mouths they +are placed. + +See G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_ (London, 1905); Mark +Hutchinson, "Bushman Drawings," in _Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, 1882, p. 464; +Sir H.H. Johnston, _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, 1883, p. 463; Dr H. Welcker, +_Archiv f. Anthrop._ xvi.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their Language," +_Jour. R. Asial. Soc._ xviii. part i.; Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen +Südafrikas_ (Breslau, 1872); W.H.I. Bleek, _Bushman Folklore_ (1875); +J.L.P. Erasmus, _The Wild Bushman_, MS. note (1899); F.C. Selous, _African +Nature Notes and Reminiscences_ (1908), chap. xx.; S. Passarge, _Die +Buschmanner der Kalahari_ (Berlin, 1907). + +BUSHNELL, HORACE (1802-1876), American theologian, was born in the village +of Bantam, township of Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 14th of April 1802. +He graduated at Yale in 1827, was associate editor of the New York _Journal +of Commerce_ in 1828-1829, and in 1829 became a tutor at Yale. Here he at +first took up the study of law, but in 1831 he entered the theological +department of Yale College, and in 1833 was ordained pastor of the North +Congregational church in Hartford, Conn., where he remained until 1859, +when on account of long-continued ill-health he resigned his pastorate. +Thereafter he had no settled charge, but, until his death at Hartford on +the 17th of February 1876, he occasionally preached and was diligently +employed as an author. While in California in 1856, for the restoration of +his health, he took an active interest in the organization, at Oakland, of +the college of California (chartered in 1855 and merged in the university +of California in 1869), the presidency of which he declined. As a preacher, +Dr Bushnell was a man of remarkable power. Not a dramatic orator, he was in +high degree original, thoughtful and impressive in the pulpit. His +theological position may be said to have been one of qualified revolt +against the Calvinistic orthodoxy of his day. He criticized prevailing +conceptions of the Trinity, the atonement, conversion, and the relations of +the natural and the supernatural. Above all, he broke with the prevalent +view which regarded theology as essentially intellectual in its appeal and +demonstrable by processes of exact logical deduction. To his thinking its +proper basis is to be found in the feelings and intuitions of man's +spiritual nature. He had a vast influence upon theology in America, an +influence not so much, possibly, in the direction of the modification of +specific doctrines as in "the impulse and tendency and general spirit which +he imparted to theological thought." Dr Munger's estimate may be accepted, +with reservations, as the true one: "He was a theologian as Copernicus was +an astronomer; he changed the point of view, and thus not only changed +everything, but pointed the way toward unity in theological thought. He was +not exact, but he put God and man and the world into a relation that +thought can accept while it goes on to state it more fully with ever +growing knowledge. Other thinkers were moving in the same direction; he led +the movement in New England, and wrought out a great deliverance. It was a +work of superb courage. Hardly a theologian in his denomination stood by +him, and nearly all pronounced against him." Four of his books were of +particular importance: _Christian Nurture_ (1847), in which he virtually +opposed revivalism and "effectively turned the current of Christian thought +toward the young"; _Nature and the Supernatural_ (1858), in which he +discussed miracles and endeavoured to "lift the natural into the +supernatural" by emphasizing the super-naturalness of man; _The Vicarious +Sacrifice_ (1866), in which he contended for what has come to be known as +the "moral view" of the atonement in distinction from the "governmental" +and the "penal" or "satisfaction" theories; and _God in Christ_ (1849) +(with an introductory "Dissertation on Language as related to Thought"), in +which he expressed, it was charged, heretical views as to the Trinity, +holding, among other things, that the Godhead is "instrumentally +three--three simply as related to our finite apprehension, and the +communication of God's incommunicable nature." Attempts, indeed, were made +to bring him to trial, but they were unsuccessful, and in 1852 his church +unanimously withdrew from the local "consociation," thus removing any +possibility of further action against him. To his critics Bushnell formally +replied by writing _Christ in Theology_ (1851), in which he employs the +important argument that spiritual facts can be expressed only in +approximate and poetical language, and concludes that an adequate dogmatic +theology cannot exist. That he did not deny the divinity of Christ he +proved in _The Character of Jesus, forbidding his possible Classification +with Men_ (1861). He also published _Sermons for the New Life_ (1858); +_Christ and his Salvation_ (1864); _Work and Play_ (1864); _Moral Uses of +Dark Things_ (1868); _Women's Suffrage, the Reform against Nature_ (1869); +_Sermons on Living Subjects_ (1872); and _Forgiveness and Law_ (1874). Dr +Bushnell was greatly interested in the civic interests of Hartford, and was +the chief agent in procuring the establishment of the public park named in +his honour by that city. + +An edition of his works, in eleven volumes, appeared in 1876-1881; and a +further volume, gathered from his unpublished papers, as _The Spirit in +Man: Sermons and Selections_, in 1903. New editions of his _Nature and the +Supernatural, Sermons for the New Life_, and _Work and Play_, were +published the same year. A full bibliography, by Henry Barrett Learned, is +appended to his _Spirit in Man_. Consult Mrs M.B. Cheneys _Life and Letters +of Horace Bushnell_ (New York, 1880; new edition, 1903), and Dr Theodore T. +Mungers _Horace Bushnell, Preacher and Theologian_ (Boston, 1899); also a +series of papers in the _Minutes of the General Association of Connecticut_ +(_Bushnell Centenary_) (Hartford, 1902). + +(W. WR.) + +BUSIRI [Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad ibn Sa'id ul-Busiri] (1211-1294), Arabian +poet, lived in Egypt, where he wrote under the patronage of Ibn Hinna, the +vizier. His poems seem to have been wholly on religious subjects. The most +famous of these is the so-called "Poem of the Mantle." It is entirely in +praise of Mahomet, who cured the poet of paralysis by appearing to him in a +dream and wrapping him in a mantle. The poem has little literary value, +being an imitation of Ka'b ibn Zuhair's poem in praise of Mahomet, but its +history has been unique (cf. I. Goldziher in _Revue de l'histoire des +religions_, vol. xxxi. pp. 304 ff.). Even in the poet's lifetime it was +regarded as sacred. Up to the present time its verses are used as amulets; +it is employed in the lamentations for the dead; it has been frequently +edited and made the basis for other poems, and new poems have been made by +interpolating four or six lines after each line of the original. It has +been published with English translation by Faizullabhai (Bombay, 1893), +with French translation by R. Basset (Paris, 1894), with German translation +by C.A. Ralfs (Vienna, 1860), and in other languages elsewhere. + +For long list of commentaries, &c., cf. C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der Arab. +Litteratur_ (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 264-267. + +(G. W. T.) + +BUSIRIS, in a Greek legend preserved in a fragment of Pherecydes, an +Egyptian king, son of Poseidon and Lyssianassa. After Egypt has been +afflicted for nine years with famine, Phrasius, a seer of Cyprus, arrived +in Egypt and announced that the cessation of the famine would not take +place until a foreigner was yearly sacrificed to Zeus or Jupiter. Busiris +commenced by sacrificing the prophet, and continued the custom by offering +a foreigner on the altar of the god. It is here that Busiris enters into +the circle of the myths and _parerga_ of Heracles, who had arrived in Egypt +from Libya, and was seized and bound ready to be killed and offered at the +altar of Zeus in Memphis. Heracles burst the bonds which bound him, and, +seizing his club, slew Busiris with his son Amphidamas and his herald +Chalbes. [v.04 p.0874] This exploit is often represented on vase paintings +from the 6th century B.C. and onwards, the Egyptian monarch and his +companions being represented as negroes, and the legend is referred to by +Herodotus and later writers. Although some of the Greek writers made +Busiris an Egyptian king and a successor of Menes, about the sixtieth of +the series, and the builder of Thebes, those better informed by the +Egyptians rejected him altogether. Various esoterical explanations were +given of the myth, and the name not found as a king was recognized as that +of the tomb of Osiris. Busiris is here probably an earlier and less +accurate Graecism than Osiris for the name of the Egyptian god Usiri, like +Bubastis, Buto, for the goddesses Ubasti and Uto. Busiris, Bubastis, Buto, +more strictly represent Pusiri, Pubasti, Puto, cities sacred to these +divinities. All three were situated in the Delta, and would be amongst the +first known to the Greeks. All shrines of Osiris were called _P-usiri_, but +the principal city of the name was in the centre of the Delta, capital of +the 9th (Busirite) nome of Lower Egypt; another one near Memphis (now +Abusir) may have helped the formation of the legend in that quarter. The +name Busiris in this legend may have been caught up merely at random by the +early Greeks, or they may have vaguely connected their legend with the +Egyptian myth of the slaying of Osiris (as king of Egypt) by his mighty +brother Seth, who was in certain aspects a patron of foreigners. Phrasius, +Chalbes and Epaphus (for the grandfather of Busiris) are all explicable as +Graecized Egyptian names, but other names in the legend are purely Greek. +The sacrifice of foreign prisoners before a god, a regular scene on temple +walls, is perhaps only symbolical, at any rate for the later days of +Egyptian history, but foreign intruders must often have suffered rude +treatment at the hands of the Egyptians, in spite of the generally mild +character of the latter. + +See H. v. Gartringen, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, for the +evidence from the side of classical archaeology. + +(F. LL. G.) + +BUSK, GEORGE (1807-1886), British surgeon, zoologist and palaeontologist, +son of Robert Busk, merchant of St Petersburg, was born in that city on the +12th of August 1807. He studied surgery in London, at both St Thomas's and +St Bartholomew's hospitals, and was an excellent operator. He was appointed +assistant-surgeon to the Greenwich hospital in 1832, and served as naval +surgeon first in the _Grampus_, and afterwards for many years in the +_Dreadnought_; during this period he made important observations on cholera +and on scurvy. In 1855 he retired from service and settled in London, where +he devoted himself mainly to the study of zoology and palaeontology. As +early as 1842 he had assisted in editing the _Microscopical Journal_; and +later he edited the _Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_ +(1853-1868) and the _Natural History Review_ (1861-1865). From 1856 to 1859 +he was Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology in the +Royal College of Surgeons, and he became president of the college in 1871. +He was elected F.R.S. in 1850, and was an active member of the Linnean, +Geological and other societies, and president of the Anthropological +Institute (1873-1874); he received the Royal Society's Royal medal and the +Geological Society's Wollaston and Lyell medals. Early in life he became +the leading authority on the Polyzoa; and later the vertebrate remains from +caverns and river-deposits occupied his attention. He was a patient and +cautious investigator, full of knowledge, and unaffectedly simple in +character. He died in London on the 10th of August 1886. + +BUSKEN-HUET, CONRAD (1826-1886), Dutch literary critic, was born at the +Hague on the 28th of December 1826. He was trained for the Church, and, +after studying at Geneva and Lausanne, was appointed pastor of the Walloon +chapel in Haarlem in 1851. In 1863 conscientious scruples obliged him to +resign his charge, and Busken-Huet, after attempting journalism, went out +to Java in 1868 as the editor of a newspaper. Before this time, however, he +had begun his career as a polemical man of letters, although it was not +until 1872 that he was made famous by the first series of his _Literary +Fantasies_, a title under which he gradually gathered in successive volumes +all that was most durable in his work as a critic. His one novel, +_Lidewijde_, was written under strong French influences. Returning from the +East Indies, Busken-Huet settled for the remainder of his life in Paris, +where he died in April 1886. For the last quarter of a century he had been +the acknowledged dictator in all questions of Dutch literary taste. +Perfectly honest, desirous to be sympathetic, widely read, and devoid of +all sectarian obstinacy, Busken-Huet introduced into Holland the light and +air of Europe. He made it his business to break down the narrow prejudices +and the still narrower self-satisfaction of his countrymen, without +endangering his influence by a mere effusion of paradox. He was a brilliant +writer, who would have been admired in any language, but whose appearance +in a literature so stiff and dead as that of Holland in the 'fifties was +dazzling enough to produce a sort of awe and stupefaction. The posthumous +correspondence of Busken-Huet has been published, and adds to our +impression of the vitality and versatility of his mind. + +(E. G.) + +BUSKIN (a word of uncertain origin, existing in many European languages, as +Fr. _brousequin_, Ital. _borzacchino_, Dutch _brozeken_, and Span, +_borceguí_), a half-boot or high shoe strapped under the ankle, and +protecting the shins; especially the thick-soled boot or _cothurnus_ in the +ancient Athenian tragedy, used to increase the stature of the actors, as +opposed to the _soccus_, "sock," the light shoe of comedy. The term is thus +often used figuratively of a tragic style. + +BUSLAEV, FEDOR IVANOVICH (1818-1898), Russian author and philologist, was +born on the 13th of April 1818 at Kerensk, where his father was secretary +of the district tribunal. He was educated at Penza and Moscow University. +At the end of his academical course, 1838, he accompanied the family of +Count S.G. Strogonov on a tour through Italy, Germany and France, occupying +himself principally with the study of classical antiquities. On his return +he was appointed assistant professor of Russian literature at the +university of Moscow. A study of Jacob Grimm's great dictionary had already +directed the attention of the young professor to the historical development +of the Russian language, and the fruit of his studies was the book _On the +Teaching of the National Language_ (Moscow, 1844 and 1867), which even now +has its value. In 1848 he produced his work _On the Influence of +Christianity on the Slavonic Language_, which, though subsequently +superseded by Franz von Miklosich's _Christliche Terminologie_, is still +one of the most striking dissertations on the development of the Slavonic +languages. In this work Buslaev proves that long before the age of Cyril +and Methodius the Slavonic languages had been subject to Christian +influences. In 1855 he published _Palaeographical and Philological +Materials for the History of the Slavonic Alphabets_, and in 1858 _Essay +towards an Historical Grammar of the Russian Tongue_, which, despite some +trivial defects, is still a standard work, abounding with rich material for +students, carefully collected from an immense quantity of ancient records +and monuments. In close connexion with this work in his _Historical +Chrestomathy of the Church-Slavonic and Old Russian Tongues_ (Moscow, +1861). Buslaev also interested himself in Russian popular poetry and old +Russian art, and the result of his labours is enshrined in _Historical +Sketches of Russian Popular Literature and Art_ (St Petersburg, 1861), a +very valuable collection of articles and monographs, in which the author +shows himself a worthy and faithful disciple of Grimm. His _Popular Poetry_ +(St Petersburg, 1887) is a valuable supplement to the _Sketches_. In 1881 +he was appointed professor of Russian literature at Moscow, and three years +later published his _Annotated Apocalypse_ with an atlas of 400 plates, +illustrative of ancient Russian art. + +See S.D. Sheremetev, _Memoir of F.I. Buslaev_ (Moscow, 1899). + +(R. N. B.) + +BUSS, FRANCES MARY (1827-1894), English schoolmistress, was born in London +in 1827, the daughter of the painter-etcher R.W. Buss, one of the original +illustrators of _Pickwick_. She was educated at a school in Camden Town, +and continued there as a teacher, but soon joined her mother in keeping a +school in Kentish Town. In 1848 she was one of the original attendants at +lectures at the new Queen's College for Ladies. In 1830 her [v.04 p.0875] +school was moved to Camden Street, and under its new name of the North +London Collegiate School for Ladies it rapidly increased in numbers and +reputation. In 1864 Miss Buss gave evidence before the Schools Inquiry +Commission, and in its report her school was singled out for exceptional +commendation. Indeed, under her influence, what was then pioneer work of +the highest importance had been done to put the education of girls on a +proper intellectual footing. Shortly afterwards the Brewers' Company and +the Clothworkers' Company provided funds by which the existing North London +Collegiate School was rehoused and a Camden School for Girls founded, and +both were endowed under a new scheme, Miss Buss continuing to be principal +of the former. She and Miss Beale of Cheltenham became famous as the chief +leaders in this branch of the reformed educational movement; she played an +active part in promoting the success of the Girls' Public Day School +Company, encouraging the connexion of the girls' schools with the +university standard by examinations, working for the establishment of +women's colleges, and improving the training of teachers; and her energetic +personality was a potent force among her pupils and colleagues. She died in +London on the 24th of December 1894. + +BUSSA, a town in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, on the west +bank of the Niger, in 10° 9' N., 4° 40' E. It is situated just above the +rapids which mark the limit of navigability of the Niger by steamer from +the sea. Here in 1806 Mungo Park, in his second expedition to trace the +course of the Niger, was attacked by the inhabitants, and drowned while +endeavouring to escape. During 1894-1898 its possession was disputed by +Great Britain and France, the last-named country acknowledging by the +convention of June 1898 the British claim, which carried with it the +control of the lower Niger. It is now the capital of northern Borgu (see +NIGERIA, and BORGU). + +BUSSACO (or BUSACO), SERRA DE, a mountain range on the frontiers of the +Aveiro, Coimbra, and Vizeu districts of Portugal, formerly included in the +province of Beira. The highest point in the range is the Ponta de Bussaco +(1795 ft.), which commands a magnificent view over the Serra da Estrella, +the Mondego valley and the Atlantic Ocean. Luso (pop. 1661), a village +celebrated for its hot mineral springs, is the nearest railway station, on +the Guarda-Figueira da Foz line, which skirts the northern slopes of the +Serra. Towards the close of the 19th century the Serra de Bussaco became +one of the regular halting-places for foreign, and especially for British, +tourists, on the overland route between Lisbon and Oporto. Its hotel, built +in the Manoellian style--a blend of Moorish and Gothic--encloses the +buildings of a secularized Carmelite monastery, founded in 1268. The +convent woods, now a royal domain, have long been famous for their cypress, +plane, evergreen oak, cork and other forest trees, many of which have stood +for centuries and attained an immense size. A bull of Pope Gregory XV. +(1623), anathematizing trespassers and forbidding women to approach, is +inscribed on a tablet at the main entrance; another bull, of Urban +VIII.(1643), threatens with excommunication any person harming the trees. +In 1873 a monument was erected, on the southern slopes of the Serra, to +commemorate the battle of Bussaco, in which the French, under Marshal +Masséna, were defeated by the British and Portuguese, under Lord +Wellington, on the 27th of September 1810. + +BUSSY, ROGER DE RABUTIN, COMTE DE (1618-1693), commonly known as +BUSSY-RABUTIN, French memoir-writer, was born on the 13th of April 1618 at +Epiry, near Autun. He represented a family of distinction in Burgundy (see +SÉVIGNÉ, MADAME DE), and his father, Léonor de Rabutin, was +lieutenant-general of the province of Nivernais. Roger was the third son, +but by the death of his elder brothers became the representative of the +family. He entered the army when he was only sixteen and fought through +several campaigns, succeeding his father in the office of _mestre de camp_. +He tells us himself that his two ambitions were to become "honnête homme" +and to distinguish himself in arms, but the luck was against him. In 1641 +he was sent to the Bastille by Richelieu for some months as a punishment +for neglect of his duties in his pursuit of gallantry. In 1643 he married a +cousin, Gabrielle de Toulongeon, and for a short time he left the army. But +in 1645 he succeeded to his father's position in the Nivernais, and served +under Condé in Catalonia. His wife died in 1646, and he became more +notorious than ever by an attempt to abduct Madame de Miramion, a rich +widow. This affair was with some difficulty settled by a considerable +payment on Bussy's part, and he afterwards married Louise de Rouville. When +Condé joined the party of the Fronde, Bussy joined him, but a fancied +slight on the part of the prince finally decided him for the royal side. He +fought with some distinction both in the civil war and on foreign service, +and buying the commission of _mestre de camp_ in 1655, he went to serve +under Turenne in Flanders. He served there for several campaigns and +distinguished himself at the battle of the Dunes and elsewhere; but he did +not get on well with his general, and his quarrelsome disposition, his +overweening vanity and his habit of composing libellous _chansons_ made him +eventually the enemy of most persons of position both in the army and at +court. In the year 1659 he fell into disgrace for having taken part in an +orgy at Roissy near Paris during Holy Week, which caused great scandal. +Bussy was ordered to retire to his estates, and beguiled his enforced +leisure by composing, for the amusement of his mistress, Madame de +Montglas, his famous _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_. This book, a series +of sketches of the intrigues of the chief ladies of the court, witty +enough, but still more ill-natured, circulated freely in manuscript, and +had numerous spurious sequels. It was said that Bussy had not spared the +reputation of Madame, and the king, angry at the report, was not appeased +when Bussy sent him a copy of the book to disprove the scandal. He was sent +to the Bastille on the 17th of April 1665, where he remained for more than +a year, and he was only liberated on condition of retiring to his estates, +where he lived in exile for seventeen years. Bussy felt the disgrace +keenly, but still bitterer was the enforced close of his military career. +In 1682 he was allowed to revisit the court, but the coldness of his +reception there made his provincial exile seem preferable, and he returned +to Burgundy, where he died on the 9th of April 1693. + +The _Histoire amoureuse_ is in its most striking passages adapted from +Petronius, and, except in a few portraits, its attractions are chiefly +those of the scandalous chronicle. But his _Mémoires_, published after his +death, are extremely lively and characteristic, and have all the charm of a +historical romance of the adventurous type. His voluminous correspondence +yields in variety and interest to few collections of the kind, except that +of Madame de Sévigné, who indeed is represented in it to a great extent, +and whose letters first appeared in it. The literary and historical +student, therefore, owes Bussy some thanks. + +The best edition of the _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_ is that of Paul +Boiteau in the Bibliothèque Elzévirienne (3 vols., Paris, 1856-1859). The +_Mémoires_ (2 vols., 1857) and _Correspondance_ (6 vols., 1858-1859) were +edited by Ludovic Lalanne. Bussy wrote other things, of which the most +important, his _Genealogy of the Rabutin Family_, remained in MS. till +1867, while his _Considérations sur la guerre_ was first published in +Dresden in 1746. He also wrote, for the use of his children, a series of +biographies, in which his own life serves a moral purpose. + +BUSTARD (corrupted from the Lat. _Avis tarda_, though the application of +the epithet[1] is not easily understood), the largest British land-fowl, +and the _Otis tarda_ of Linnaeus, which formerly frequented the champaign +parts of Great Britain from East Lothian to Dorsetshire, but of which the +native race is now extirpated. Its existence in the northern locality just +named rests upon Sir Robert Sibbald's authority (_circa_ 1684), and though +Hector Boethius (1526) unmistakably described it as an inhabitant of the +Merse, no later writer than the former has adduced any evidence in favour +of its Scottish domicile. The last examples of the native race were +probably two killed in 1838 near Swaffham, in Norfolk, a district in which +for some years previously a few hen-birds of the species, the remnant of a +plentiful stock, had maintained their existence, though no cock-bird had +latterly been known to bear them company. In Suffolk, where the +neighbourhood of Icklingham formed its chief haunt, an [v.04 p.0876] end +came to the race in 1832; on the wolds of Yorkshire about 1826, or perhaps +a little later; and on those of Lincolnshire about the same time. Of +Wiltshire, George Montagu, author of an _Ornithological Dictionary_, +writing in 1813, says that none had been seen in their favourite haunts on +Salisbury Plain for the last two or three years. In Dorsetshire there is no +evidence of an indigenous example having occurred since that date, nor in +Hampshire nor Sussex since the opening of the 19th century. From other +English counties, as Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire and Berkshire, it +disappeared without note being taken of the event, and the direct cause or +causes of its extermination can only be inferred from what, on testimony +cited by Henry Stevenson (_Birds of Norfolk_, ii. pp. 1-42), is known to +have led to the same result in Norfolk and Suffolk. In the latter the +extension of plantations rendered the country unfitted for a bird whose shy +nature could not brook the growth of covert that might shelter a foe, and +in the former the introduction of improved agricultural implements, notably +the corn-drill and the horse-hoe, led to the discovery and generally the +destruction of every nest, for the bird's chosen breeding-place was in wide +fields--"brecks," as they are locally called--of winter-corn. Since the +extirpation of the native race the bustard is known to Great Britain only +by occasional wanderers, straying most likely from the open country of +Champagne or Saxony, and occurring in one part or another of the United +Kingdom some two or three times every three or four years, and chiefly in +midwinter. + +An adult male will measure nearly 4 ft. from the tip of the bill to the end +of the tail, and its wings have an expanse of 8 ft. or more,--its weight +varying (possibly through age) from 22 to 32 lb. This last was that of one +which was recorded by the younger Naumann, the best biographer of the bird +(_Vögel Deutschlands_, vii. p. 12), who, however, stated in 1834 that he +was assured of the former existence of examples which had attained the +weight of 35 or 38 lb. The female is considerably smaller. Compared with +most other birds frequenting open places, the bustard has +disproportionately short legs, yet the bulk of its body renders it a +conspicuous and stately object, and when on the wing, to which it readily +takes, its flight is powerful and sustained. The bill is of moderate +length, but, owing to the exceedingly flat head of the bird, appears longer +than it really is. The neck, especially of the male in the breeding-season, +is thick, and the tail, in the same sex at that time of year, is generally +carried in an upright position, being, however, in the paroxysms of +courtship turned forwards, while the head and neck are simultaneously +reverted along the back, the wings are lowered, and their shorter feathers +erected. In this posture, which has been admirably portrayed by Joseph Wolf +(_Zool. Sketches_, pl. 45), the bird presents a very strange appearance, +for the tail, head and neck are almost buried amid the upstanding feathers +before named, and the breast is protruded to a remarkable extent. The +bustard is of a pale grey on the neck and white beneath, but the back is +beautifully barred with russet and black, while in the male a band of deep +tawny-brown--in some examples approaching a claret-colour--descends from +either shoulder and forms a broad gorget on the breast. The secondaries and +greater wing-coverts are white, contrasting vividly, as the bird flies, +with the black primaries. Both sexes have the ear-coverts somewhat +elongated--whence doubtless is derived the name _Otis_ (Gr. [Greek: +ôtis])--and the male is adorned with a tuft of long, white, bristly plumes, +springing from each side of the base of the mandible. The food of the +bustard consists of almost any of the plants natural to the open country it +loves, but in winter it will readily forage on those which are grown by +man, and especially coleseed and similar green crops. To this vegetable +diet much animal matter is added when occasion offers, and from an +earthworm to a field-mouse little that lives and moves seems to come amiss +to its appetite. + +Though not many birds have had more written about them than the bustard, +much is unsettled with regard to its economy. A moot point, which will most +likely always remain undecided, is whether the British race was migratory +or not, though that such is the habit of the species in most parts of the +European continent is beyond dispute. Equally uncertain as yet is the +question whether it is polygamous or not--the evidence being perhaps in +favour of its having that nature. But one of the most singular properties +of the bird is the presence in some of the fully-grown males of a pouch or +gular sac, opening under the tongue. This extraordinary feature, first +discovered by James Douglas, a Scottish physician, and made known by +Eleazar Albin in 1740, though its existence was hinted by Sir Thomas Browne +sixty years before, if not by the emperor Frederick II, has been found +wanting in examples that, from the exhibition of all the outward marks of +virility, were believed to be thoroughly mature; and as to its function and +mode of development judgment had best be suspended, with the understanding +that the old supposition of its serving as a receptacle whence the bird +might supply itself or its companions with water in dry places must be +deemed to be wholly untenable. The structure of this pouch--the existence +of which in some examples has been well established--is, however, variable; +and though there is reason to believe that in one form or another it is +more or less common to several exotic species of the family _Otididae_, it +would seem to be as inconstant in its occurrence as in its capacity. As +might be expected, this remarkable feature has attracted a good deal of +attention (_Journ. für Ornith._, 1861, p. 153; _Ibis_, 1862, p. 107; 1865, +p. 143; _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1865, p. 747; 1868, p. 741; 1869, p. 140; 1874, +p. 471), and the later researches of A.H. Garrod show that in an example of +the Australian bustard (_Otis australis_) examined by him there was, +instead of a pouch or sac, simply a highly dilated oesophagus--the +distension of which, at the bird's will, produced much the same appearance +and effect as that of the undoubted sac found at times in the _O. tarda_. + +The distribution of the bustards is confined to the Old World--the bird so +called in the fur-countries of North America, and thus giving its name to a +lake, river and cape, being the Canada goose (_Bernicla canadensis_). In +the Palaearctic region we have the _O. tarda_ already mentioned, extending +from Spain to Mesopotamia at least, and from Scania to Morocco, as well as +a smaller species, _O. tetrax_, which often occurs as a straggler in, but +was never an inhabitant of, the British Islands. Two species, known +indifferently by the name of houbara (derived from the Arabic), frequent +the more southern portions of the region, and one of them, _O. macqueeni_, +though having the more eastern range and reaching India, has several times +occurred in north-western Europe, and once even in England. In the east of +Siberia the place of _O. tarda_ is taken by the nearly-allied, but +apparently distinct, _O. dybovskii_, which would seem to occur also in +northern China. Africa is the chief stronghold of the family, nearly a +score of well-marked species being peculiar to that continent, all of which +have been by later systematists separated from the genus _Otis_. India, +too, has three peculiar species, the smaller of which are there known as +floricans, and, like some of their African and one of their European +cousins, are remarkable for the ornamental plumage they assume at the +breeding-season. Neither in Madagascar nor in the Malay Archipelago is +there any form of this family, but Australia possesses one large species +already named. From Xenophon's days (_Anab._ i. 5) to our own the flesh of +bustards has been esteemed as of the highest flavour. The bustard has long +been protected by the game-laws in Great Britain, but, as will have been +seen, to little purpose. A few attempts have been made to reinstate it as a +denizen of this country, but none on any scale that would ensure success. +Many of the older authors considered the bustards allied to the ostrich, a +most mistaken view, their affinity pointing apparently towards the cranes +in one direction and the plovers in another. + +(A. N.) + +[1] It may be open to doubt whether _tarda_ is here an adjective. Several +of the medieval naturalists used it as a substantive. + +BUSTO ARSIZIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, 21 m. +N.W. by rail from the town of Milan. Pop. (1901) 19,673. It contains a fine +domed church, S. Maria di Piazza, built in 1517 after the designs of +Bramante: the picture over the high altar is one of Gaudenzio Ferrari's +best works. The church of S. Giovanni Battista is a good baroque edifice of +1617; by it stands a fine 13th-century campanile. Busto Arsizio is an +active manufacturing town, the cotton factories being [v.04 p.0877] +especially important. It is a railway junction for Novara and Seregno. + +BUTADES, of Sicyon, wrongly called DIBUTADES, the first Greek modeller in +clay. The story is that his daughter, smitten with love for a youth at +Corinth where they lived, drew upon the wall the outline of his shadow, and +that upon this outline her father modelled a face of the youth in clay, and +baked the model along with the clay tiles which it was his trade to make. +This model was preserved in Corinth till Mummius sacked that town. This +incident led Butades to ornament the ends of roof-tiles with human faces, a +practice which is attested by numerous existing examples. He is also said +to have invented a mixture of clay and ruddle, or to have introduced the +use of a special kind of red clay (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxv. 12[43]). The +period at which he flourished is unknown, but has been put at about 600 +B.C. + +BUTCHER, one who slaughters animals, and dresses and prepares the carcass +for purposes of food. The word also is applied to one who combines this +trade with that of selling the meat, and to one who only sells the meat. +The O.Fr. _bochier_ or _bouchier_, modern _boucher_, from which "butcher" +is derived, meant originally a killer of goats and a seller of goats' +flesh, from the O.Fr. _boc_, a he-goat; cf. Ital. _beccaio_, from _becco_, +a goat. + +BUTE, JOHN STUART, 3RD EARL OF (1713-1792), English prime minister, son of +James, 2nd earl, and of Lady Jane Campbell, daughter of the 1st duke of +Argyll, was born on the 25th of May 1713; he was educated at Eton and +succeeded to the earldom (in the peerage of Scotland; created for his +grandfather Sir James Stuart in 1703) on his father's death in 1723. He was +elected a representative peer for Scotland in 1737 but not in the following +parliaments, and appears not to have spoken in debate. In 1738 he was made +a knight of the Thistle, and for several years lived in retirement in Bute, +engaged in agricultural and botanical pursuits. From the quiet obscurity +for which his talents and character entirely fitted him Bute was forced by +a mere accident. He had resided in England since the rebellion of 1745, and +in 1747, a downpour of rain having prevented the departure of Frederick, +prince of Wales, from the Egham races, Bute was summoned to his tent to +make up a whist party; he immediately gained the favour of the prince and +princess, became the leading personage at their court, and in 1750 was +appointed by Frederick a lord of his bedchamber. After the latter's death +in 1751 his influence in the household increased. To his close intimacy +with the princess a guilty character was commonly assigned by contemporary +opinion, and their relations formed the subject of numerous popular +lampoons, but the scandal was never founded on anything but conjecture and +the malice of faction. With the young prince, the future king, Bute's +intimacy was equally marked; he became his constant companion and +confidant, and used his influence to inspire him with animosity against the +Whigs and with the high notions of the sovereign's powers and duties found +in Bolingbroke's _Patriot King_ and Blackstone's _Commentaries_. In 1775 he +took part in the negotiations between Leicester House and Pitt, directed +against the duke of Newcastle, and in 1757 in the conferences between the +two ministers which led to their taking office together. In 1756, by the +special desire of the young prince, he was appointed groom of the stole at +Leicester House, in spite of the king's pronounced aversion to him. + +On the accession of George III. in 1760, Bute became at once a person of +power and importance. He was appointed a privy councillor, groom of the +stole and first gentleman of the bedchamber, and though merely an +irresponsible confidant, without a seat in parliament or in the cabinet, he +was in reality prime minister, and the only person trusted with the king's +wishes and confidence. George III. and Bute immediately proceeded to +accomplish their long-projected plans, the conclusion of the peace with +France, the break-up of the Whig monopoly of power, and the supremacy of +the monarchy over parliament and parties. Their policy was carried out with +consummate skill and caution. Great care was shown not to alienate the Whig +leaders in a body, which would have raised up under Pitt's leadership a +formidable party of resistance, but advantage was taken of disagreements +between the ministers concerning the war, of personal jealousies, and of +the strong reluctance of the old statesmen who had served the crown for +generations to identify themselves with active opposition to the king's +wishes. They were all discarded singly, and isolated, after violent +disagreements, from the rest of the ministers. On the 25th of March 1761 +Bute succeeded Lord Holderness as secretary of state for the northern +department, and Pitt resigned in October on the refusal of the government +to declare war against Spain. + +On the 3rd of November Bute appeared in his new capacity as prime minister +in the House of Lords, where he had not been seen for twenty years. Though +he had succeeded in disarming all organized opposition in parliament, the +hostility displayed against him in the nation, arising from his Scottish +nationality, his character as favourite, his peace policy and the +resignation of the popular hero Pitt, was overwhelming. He was the object +of numerous attacks and lampoons. He dared not show himself in the streets +without the protection of prize-fighters, while the jack-boot (a pun upon +his name) and the petticoat, by which the princess was represented, were +continually being burnt by the mob or hanged upon the gallows. On the 9th +of November, while proceeding to the Guildhall, he narrowly escaped falling +into the hands of the populace, who smashed his coach, and he was treated +with studied coldness at the banquet. In January 1762 Bute was compelled to +declare war against Spain, though now without the advantages which the +earlier decision urged by Pitt could have secured, and he supported the +war, but with no zeal and no definite aim beyond the obtaining of a peace +at any price and as soon as possible. In May he succeeded the duke of +Newcastle as first lord of the treasury, and he was created K.G. after +resigning the order of the Thistle. In his blind eagerness for peace he +conducted on his own responsibility secret negotiations for peace with +France through Viri, the Sardinian minister, and the preliminary treaty was +signed on the 3rd of November at Fontainebleau. The king of Prussia had +some reason to complain of the sudden desertion of his ally, but there is +no evidence whatever to substantiate his accusation that Bute had +endeavoured to divert the tsar later from his alliance with Prussia, or +that he had treacherously in his negotiations with Vienna held out to that +court hopes of territorial compensation in Silesia as the price of the +abandonment of France; while the charge brought against Bute in 1765 of +having taken bribes to conclude the peace, subsequently after investigation +pronounced frivolous by parliament, may safely be ignored. A parliamentary +majority was now secured for the minister's policy by bribery and threats, +and with the aid of Henry Fox, who deserted his party to become leader of +the Commons. The definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 10th of +February 1763, and a wholesale proscription of the Whigs was begun, the +most insignificant adherents of the fallen party, including widows, menial +servants and schoolboys, incurring the minister's mean vengeance. Later, +Bute roused further hostility by his cider tax, an ill-advised measure +producing only £75,000 a year, imposing special burdens upon the farmers +and landed interest in the cider counties, and extremely unpopular because +extending the detested system of taxation by excise, regarded as an +infringement of the popular liberties. At length, unable to contend any +longer against the general and inveterate animosity displayed against him, +fearing for the consequences to the monarchy, alarmed at the virulent +attacks of the _North Briton_, and suffering from ill-health, Bute resigned +office on the 8th of April. "Fifty pounds a year," he declared, "and bread +and water were luxury compared with what I suffer." He had, however, before +retiring achieved the objects for which he had been entrusted with power. + +He still for a short time retained influence with the king, and intended to +employ George Grenville (whom he recommended as his successor) as his +agent; but the latter insisted on possessing the king's whole confidence, +and on the failure of Bute in August 1763 to procure his dismissal and to +substitute a ministry led by Pitt and the duke of Bedford, Grenville +demanded and obtained Bute's withdrawal from the court. He resigned +accordingly the office of privy purse, and took leave of George III. [v.04 +p.0878] on the 28th of September. He still corresponded with the king, and +returned again to London next year, but in May 1765, after the duke of +Cumberland's failure to form an administration, Grenville exacted the +promise from the king, which appears to have been kept faithfully, that +Bute should have no share and should give no advice whatever in public +business, and obtained the dismissal of Bute's brother from his post of +lord privy seal in Scotland. Bute continued to visit the princess of Wales, +but on the king's arrival always retired by a back staircase. + +The remainder of Bute's life has little public interest. He spoke against +the government on the American question in February 1766, and in March +against the repeal of the Stamp Act. In 1768 and 1774 he was again elected +a representative peer for Scotland, but took no further part in politics, +and in 1778 refused to have anything to do with the abortive attempt to +effect an alliance between himself and Chatham. He travelled in Italy, +complained of the malice of his opponents and of the ingratitude of the +king, and determined "to retire from the world before it retires from me." +He died on the 10th of March 1792 and was buried at Rothesay in Bute. + +Though one of the worst of ministers, Bute was by no means the worst of men +or the despicable and detestable person represented by the popular +imagination. His abilities were inconsiderable, his character weak, and he +was qualified neither for the ordinary administration, of public business +nor for the higher sphere of statesmanship, and was entirely destitute of +that experience which sometimes fills the place of natural aptitude. His +short administration was one of the most disgraceful and incompetent in +English history, originating in an accident, supported only by the will of +the sovereign, by gross corruption and intimidation, the precursor of the +disintegration of political life and of a whole series of national +disasters. Yet Bute had good principles and intentions, was inspired by +feelings of sincere affection and loyalty for his sovereign, and his +character remains untarnished by the grosser accusations raised by faction. +In the circle of his family and intimate friends, away from the great world +in which he made so poor a figure, he was greatly esteemed. Samuel Johnson, +Lord Mansfield, Lady Hervey, Bishop Warburton join in his praise. For the +former, a strong opponent of his administration, he procured a pension of +£300 a year. He was exceptionally well read, with a refined taste for books +and art, and purchased the famous _Thomason Tracts_ now in the British +Museum. He was learned in the science of botany, and formed a magnificent +collection and a botanic garden at Luton Hoo, where Robert Adam built for +him a splendid residence. He engraved privately about 1785 at enormous +expense _Botanical Tables containing the Different Familys of British +Plants_, while _The Tabular Distribution of British Plants_ (1787) is also +attributed to him. Bute filled the offices of ranger of Richmond Forest, +governor of the Charterhouse, chancellor of Marischal College, Aberdeen +(1761), trustee of the British Museum (1765), president of the Society of +Antiquaries of Scotland (1780) and commissioner of Chelsea hospital. + +By his marriage with Mary, daughter of Edward Wortley Montagu of Wortley, +Yorkshire, who in 1761 was created Baroness Mount Stuart of Wortley, and +through whom he became possessed of the enormous Wortley property, he had, +besides six daughters, five sons, the eldest of whom, John, Lord Cardiff +(1744-1814), succeeded him as 4th earl and was created a marquess in 1796. +John, Lord Mount Stuart (1767-1794), the son and heir of the 1st marquess, +died before his father, and consequently in 1814 the Bute titles and +estates came to his son John (1793-1848) as 2nd marquess. The latter was +succeeded by his only son John Patrick (1847-1900), whose son John (b. +1881) inherited the title in 1900. + +BUTE, the most important, though not the largest, of the islands +constituting the county of the same name, in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, +about 18 m. S.W. of Greenock and 40 m., by water, from Glasgow. It is +bounded on the N. and W. by the lovely Kyles of Bute, the narrow winding +strait which separates it from Argyllshire, on the E. by the Firth of +Clyde, and on the S. and S.W. by the Sound of Bute, about 6 m. wide, which +divides it from Arran. Its area is about 49 sq. m., or 31,161 acres. It +lies in a N.W. to S.E. direction, and its greatest length from Buttock +Point on the Kyles to Garroch Head on the Firth of Clyde is 15½ m. Owing to +indentations its width varies from 1-1/3 m. to 4½ m. There are piers at +Kilchattan, Craigmore, Port Bannatyne and Rothesay, but Rothesay is +practically the harbour for the whole island. Here there is regular +communication by railway steamers from Craigendoran, Prince's Pier +(Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay, and by frequent vessels from the +Broomielaw Bridge in Glasgow and other points on the Clyde. Pop. (1891) +11,735; (1901) 12,162. + +The principal hills are in the north, where the chief are Kames Hill (911 +ft.) and Kilbride Hill (836 ft.). The streams are mostly burns, and there +are six lochs. Loch Fad, about 1 m. S. of Rothesay, 2½ m. long by 1/3 m. +wide, was the source of the power used in the Rothesay cotton-spinning +mill, which was the first establishment of the kind erected in Scotland. In +1827 on its western shore Edmund Kean built a cottage afterwards occupied +by Sheridan Knowles. It now belongs to the marquess of Bute. From Loch +Ascog, fully 1 m. long, Rothesay derives its water supply. The other lakes +are Loch Quien, Loch Greenan, Dhu Loch and Loch Bull. Glen More in the +north and Glen Callum in the south are the only glens of any size. The +climate is mild and healthful, fuchsias and other plants flowering even in +winter, and neither snow nor frost being of long continuance, and less rain +falling than in many parts of the western coast. Some two-thirds of the +area, mostly in the centre and south, are arable, yielding excellent crops +of potatoes for the Glasgow market, oats and turnips; the rest consists of +hill pastures and plantations. The fisheries are of considerable value. +There is no lack of sandstone, slate and whinstone. Some coal exists, but +it is of inferior quality and doubtful quantity. At Kilchattan a superior +clay for bricks and tiles is found, and grey granite susceptible of high +polish. + +The island is divided geologically into two areas by a fault running from +Rothesay Bay in a south-south-west direction by Loch Fad to Scalpsie Bay, +which, throughout its course, coincides with a well-marked depression. The +tract lying to the north-west of this dislocation is composed of the +metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands. The Dunoon phyllites form a +narrow belt about a mile and a half broad crossing the island between Kames +Bay and Etterick Bay, while the area to the north is occupied by grits and +schists which may be the western prolongations of the Beinn Bheula group. +Near Rothesay and along the hill slopes west of Loch Fad there are parallel +strips of grits and phyllites. That part of the island lying to the east of +this dislocation consists chiefly of Upper Old Red Sandstone strata, +dipping generally in a westerly or south-westerly direction. At the extreme +south end, between Kilchattan and Garroch Head, these conglomerates and +sandstones are overlaid by a thick cornstone or dolomitic limestone marking +the upper limit of the formation, which is surmounted by the cement-stones +and contemporaneous lavas of Lower Carboniferous age. The bedded volcanic +rocks which form a series of ridges trending north-west comprise +porphyritic basalts, andesite, and, near Port Luchdach, brownish trachyte. +Near the base of the volcanic series intrusive igneous rocks of +Carboniferous age appear in the form of sills and bosses, as, for instance, +the oval mass of olivine-basalt on Suidhe Hill. Remnants of raised beaches +are conspicuous in Bute. One of the well-known localities for arctic shelly +clays occurs at Kilchattan brick-works, where the dark red clay rests on +tough boulder-clay and may be regarded as of late glacial age. + +As to the origin of the name of Bute, there is some doubt. It has been held +to come from _both_ (Irish for "a cell"), in allusion to the cell which St +Brendan erected in the island in the 6th century; others contend that it is +derived from the British words _ey budh_ (Gaelic, _ey bhiod_), "the island +of corn" (_i.e._ food), in reference to its fertility, notable in contrast +with the barrenness of the Western Isles and Highlands. Bute was probably +first colonized by the vanguard of Scots who came over from Ireland, and at +intervals the Norsemen also secured a footing for longer or shorter +periods. In those days the Butemen were also called Brandanes, after the +Saint. Attesting the antiquity of the island, "Druidical" monuments, +barrows, cairns and cists are numerous, as well as the remains of ancient +chapels. In virtue of a charter granted by James IV. in 1506, the numerous +small proprietors took the title of "baron," which became hereditary in +their families. Now the title is practically extinct, the lands conferring +it having with very few exceptions passed [v.04 p.0879] by purchase into +the possession of the marquess of Bute, the proprietor of nearly the whole +island. His seat, Mount Stuart, about 4½ m. from Rothesay by the shore +road, is finely situated on the eastern coast. Port Bannatyne (pop. 1165), +2 m. north by west of Rothesay, is a flourishing watering-place, named +after Lord Bannatyne (1743-1833), a judge of the court of session, one of +the founders of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1784. Near to it +is Kames Castle, where John Sterling, famous for Carlyle's biography, was +born in 1806. Kilchattan, in the south-east of the island, is a favourite +summer resort. Another object of interest is St Blane's Chapel, +picturesquely situated about ½ m. from Dunagoil Bay. Off the western shore +of Bute, ¾ m. from St Ninian's Point, lies the island of Inchmarnock, 2 m. +in length and about ¾ m. in width. + +See J. Wilson, _Account of Rothesay and Bute_ (Rothesay, 1848); and J.K. +Hewison, _History of Bute_ (1894-1895). + +BUTE, or BUTESHIRE, an insular county in the S.W. of Scotland, consisting +of the islands of Bute, from which the county takes its name, Inchmarnock, +Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae, Arran, Holy Island and Pladda, all lying in +the Firth of Clyde, between Ayrshire on the E. and Argyllshire on the W. +and N. The area of the county is 140,307 acres, or rather more than 219 sq. +m. Pop. (1891) 18,404; (1901) 18,787 (or 86 to the sq. m.). In 1901 the +number of persons who spoke Gaelic alone was 20, of those speaking Gaelic +and English 2764. Before the Reform Bill of 1832, Buteshire, alternately +with Caithness-shire, sent one member to parliament--Rothesay at the same +time sharing a representative with Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Irvine. +Rothesay was then merged in the county, which since then has had a member +to itself. Buteshire and Renfrewshire form one sheriffdom, with a +sheriff-substitute resident in Rothesay who also sits periodically at +Brodick and Millport. The circuit courts are held at Inveraray. The county +is under school-board jurisdiction, and there is a secondary school at +Rothesay. The county council subsidizes technical education in agriculture +at Glasgow and Kilmarnock. The staple crops are oats and potatoes, and +cattle, sheep and horses are reared. Seed-growing is an extensive industry, +and the fisheries are considerable. The Rothesay fishery district includes +all the creeks in Buteshire and a few in Argyll and Dumbarton shires, the +Cumbraes being grouped with the Greenock district. The herring fishery +begins in June, and white fishing is followed at one or other point all the +year round. During the season many of the fishermen are employed on the +Clyde yachts, Rothesay being a prominent yachting centre. The exports +comprise agricultural produce and fish, trade being actively carried on +between the county ports of Rothesay, Millport, Brodick and Lamlash and the +mainland ports of Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Ardrossan and Wemyss Bay, +with all of which there is regular steamer communication throughout the +year. + +BUTHROTUM. (1) An ancient seaport of Illyria, corresponding with the modern +Butrinto (_q.v._). (2) A town in Attica, mentioned by Pliny the Elder +(_Nat. Hist._ iv. 37). + +BUTLER, the name of a family famous in the history of Ireland. The great +house of the Butlers, alone among the families of the conquerors, rivalled +the Geraldines, their neighbours, kinsfolk and mortal foes. Theobald +Walter, their ancestor, was not among the first of the invaders. He was the +grandson of one Hervey Walter who, in the time of Henry I., held Witheton +or Weeton in Amounderness, a small fee of the honour of Lancaster, the +manor of Newton in Suffolk, and certain lands in Norfolk. In the great +inquest of Lancaster lands that followed a writ of 1212, this Hervey, named +as the father of Hervey Walter, is said to have given lands in his fee of +Weeton to Orm, son of Magnus, with his daughter Alice in marriage. Hervey +Walter, son of this Hervey, advanced his family by matching with Maude, +daughter of Theobald de Valognes, lord of Parham, whose sister Bertha was +wife of Ranulf de Glanville, the great justiciar, "the eye of the king." +When Ranulf had founded the Austin Canons priory of Butley, Hervey Walter, +his wife's brother-in-law, gave to the house lands in Wingfield for the +soul's health of himself and his wife Maude, of Ranulf de Glanville and +Bertha his wife, the charter, still preserved in the Harleian collection, +being witnessed by Hervey's younger sons, Hubert Walter, Roger and Hamon. +Another son, Bartholomew, witnessed a charter of his brother Hubert, +1190-1193. That these nephews of the justiciar profited early by their +kinship is seen in Hubert Walter's foundation charter of the abbey of West +Dereham, wherein he speaks of "dominus Ranulphus de Glanvilla et domina +Bertha uxor eius, qui nos nutrierunt." Hubert, indeed, becoming one of his +uncle's clerks, was so much in his confidence that Gervase of Canterbury +speaks of the two as ruling the kingdom together. King Richard, whom he +accompanied to the Holy Land, made him bishop of Salisbury and (1193) +archbishop of Canterbury. "Wary of counsel, subtle of wit," he was the +champion of Canterbury and of England, and the news of his death drew the +cry from King John that "now, for the first time, am I king in truth." + +Between these two great statesmen Theobald Walter, the eldest brother of +the archbishop, rose and flourished. Theobald is found in the _Liber Niger_ +(c. 1166) as holding Amounderness by the service of one knight. In 1185 he +went over sea to Waterford with John the king's son, the freight of the +harness sent after him being charged in the Pipe Roll. Clad in that harness +he led the men of Cork when Dermot MacCarthy, prince of Desmond, was put to +the sword, John rewarding his services with lands in Limerick and with the +important fief of Arklow in the vale of Avoca, where he made his Irish seat +and founded an abbey. Returning to England he accompanied his uncle Randulf +to France, both witnessing a charter delivered by the king at Chinon when +near to death. Soon afterwards, Theobald Walter was given by John that +hereditary office of butler to the lord of Ireland, which makes a surname +for his descendants, styling himself _pincerna_ when he attests John's +charter to Dublin on the 15th of May 1192. J. Horace Round has pointed out +that he also took a fresh seal, the inscription of which calls him Theobald +Walter, Butler of Ireland, and henceforward he is sometimes surnamed Butler +(_le Botiller_). When John went abroad in 1192, Theobald was given the +charge of Lancaster castle, but in 1194 he was forced to surrender to his +brother Hubert, who summoned it in King Richard's name. Making his peace +through Hubert's influence, he was sheriff of Lancashire for King Richard, +who regranted to him all Amounderness. His fortunes turned with the king's +death. The new sovereign, treating his surrender of the castle as +treachery, took the shrievalty from him, disseised him of Amounderness and +sold his cantreds of Limerick land to William de Braose. But the great +archbishop soon found means to bring his brother back to favour, and on the +2nd of January 1201-2 Amounderness, by writ of the king, is to be restored +to Theobald Walter, _dilecto et fideli nostra_, Within a year or two +Theobald left England to end his days upon his Arklow fief, busying himself +with religious foundations at Wotheney in Limerick, at Arklow and at +Nenagh. At Wotheney he is said to have been buried shortly before the 12th +of February 1205-6, when an entry in the Close Roll is concerned with his +widow. This widow, Maude, daughter of Robert le Vavasor of Denton, was +given up to her father, who, buying the right of marrying her at a price of +1200 marks and two palfreys, gave her to Fulk fitz-Warine. Theobald, the +son and heir of Theobald and Maude, a child of six years old, was likewise +taken into the keeping of his grandfather Robert, but letters from the +king, dated the 2nd of March 1205-6, told Robert, "as he loved his body," +to surrender the heir at once to Gilbert fitz-Reinfrid, the baron of +Kendal. + +Adding to its possessions by marriages the house advanced itself among the +nobility of Ireland. On the 1st of September 1315, its chief, Edmund Walter +_alias_ Edmund the Butler, for services against the Scottish raiders and +Ulster rebels, had a charter of the castle and manors of Carrick, +Macgriffyn and Roscrea to hold to him and his heirs _sub nomine et honore +comitis de Karryk_. This charter, however, while apparently creating an +earldom, failed, as Mr Round has explained, to make his issue earls of +Carrick. But James, the son and heir of Edmund, having married in 1327 +Eleanor de Bohun, daughter of Humfrey, [v.04 p.0880] earl of Hereford and +Essex, high constable of England, by a daughter of Edward I., was created +an Irish earl on the 2nd of November 1328, with the title of Ormonde. + +From the early years of the 14th century the Ormonde earls, generation by +generation, were called to the chief government of Ireland as lords-keeper, +lords-lieutenant, deputies or lords-justices, and unlike their hereditary +enemies the Geraldines they kept a tradition of loyalty to the English +crown and to English custom. Their history is full of warring with the +native Irish, and as the sun stood still upon Gibeon, even so, we are told, +it rested over the red bog of Athy while James the White Earl was staying +the wild O'Mores. More than one of the earls of Ormonde had the name of a +scholar, while of the 6th earl, master of every European tongue and +ambassador to many courts, Edward IV. is said to have declared that were +good breeding and liberal qualities lost to the world they might be found +again in John, earl of Ormonde. The earls were often absent from Ireland on +errands of war or peace. James, the 5th earl, had the English earldom of +Wiltshire given him in 1449 for his Lancastrian zeal. He fought at St +Albans in 1455, casting his harness into a ditch as he fled the field, and +he led a wing at Wakefield. His stall plate as a knight of the Garter is +still in St George's chapel. Defeated with the earl of Pembroke at +Mortimer's Cross and taken prisoner after Towton, his fate is uncertain, +but rumour said that he was beheaded at Newcastle, and a letter addressed +to John Paston about May 1461 sends tidings that "the Erle of Wylchir is +hed is sette on London Brigge." + +To his time belongs a document illustrating a curious tradition of the +Butlers. His petition to parliament when he was conveying Buckinghamshire +lands to the hospital of St Thomas of Acres in London, recites that he does +so "in worship of that glorious martyr St Thomas, sometime archbishop of +Canterbury, of whose blood the said earl of Wiltshire, his father and many +of his ancestors are lineally descended." But the pedigrees in which +genealogists have sought to make this descent definite will not bear +investigation. The Wiltshire earldom died with him and the Irish earldom +was for a time forfeited, his two brothers, John and Thomas, sharing his +attainder. John was restored in blood by Edward IV.; and Thomas, the 7th +earl, summoned to the English parliament in 1495 as Lord Rochford, a title +taken from a Bohun manor in Essex, saw the statute of attainder annulled by +Henry VII.'s first parliament. He died without male issue in 1515. Of his +two daughters and co-heirs Anne was married to Sir James St. Leger, and +Margaret to Sir William Boleyn of Blickling, by whom she was mother of Sir +James and Sir Thomas Boleyn. The latter, the father of Anne Boleyn, was +created earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde in 1529. + +In Ireland the heir male of the Ormonde earls, Sir Piers Butler--"red +Piers"--assumed the earldom of Ormonde in 1515 and seized upon the Irish +estates. Being a good ally against the rebel Irish, the government +temporized with his claim. He was an Irishman born, allied to the wild +Irish chieftains by his mother, a daughter of the MacMorrogh Kavanagh; the +earldom had been long in the male line; all Irish sentiment was against the +feudal custom which would take it out of the family, and the two co-heirs +were widows of English knights. In 1522, styled "Sir Piers Butler +pretending himself to be earl of Ormonde," he was made chief governor of +Ireland as lord deputy, and on the 23rd of February 1527/8, following an +agreement with the co-heirs of the 7th earl, whereby the earldom of Ormonde +was declared to be at the king's disposal, he was created earl of Ossory. +But the Irish estates, declared forfeit to the crown in 1536 under the Act +of Absentees, were granted to him as "earl of Ossory and Ormonde." Although +the Boleyn earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire was still alive, there can be no +doubt that Piers Butler had a patent of the Ormonde earldom about the 22nd +of February 1537/8, from which date his successors must reckon their +peerage. His son and heir, James the Lame, who had been created Viscount +Thurles on the 2nd of January 1535/6, obtained an act of parliament in +1543/4 which, confirming the grant to his father of the earldom, gave him +the old "pre-eminence" of the ancient earldom of 1328. + +Earl James was poisoned at a supper in Ely House in 1546, and Thomas the +Black Earl, his son and heir, was brought up at the English court, +professing the reformed religion. His sympathies were with the Irish, +although he stood staunchly for law and order, and for the great part of +his life he was wrestling with rebellion. His lands having been harried by +hit hereditary enemies the Desmond Geraldines, Elizabeth gave him his +revenge by appointing him in 1580 military governor of Munster, with a +commission to "banish and vanquish these cankered Desmonds," then in open +rebellion. In three months, by his own account, he had put to the sword 46 +captains, 800 notorious traitors and 4000 others, and, after four years' +fighting, Gerald, earl of Desmond, a price on his head, was taken and +killed. Dying in 1614 without lawful issue, Thomas was succeeded by his +nephew Walter of Kilcash, who had fought beside him against the Burkes and +O'Mores. But Sir Robert Preston, afterwards created earl of Desmond, +claimed a great part of the Ormonde lands in right of his wife, the Black +Earl's daughter and heir. In spite of the loyal services of Earl Walter, +King James supported the claimant, and the earl, refusing to submit to a +royal award, was thrown into gaol, where he lay for eight years in great +poverty, his rents being cut off. Although liberated in 1625 he was not +acknowledged heir to his uncle's estates until 1630. His son, Viscount +Thurles, being drowned on a passage to England, a grandson succeeded him. + +This grandson, James Butler, is perhaps the most famous of the long line of +Ormondes. By his marriage with his cousin Elizabeth Preston, the Ormonde +titles were once more united with all the Ormonde estates. A loyal soldier +and statesman, he commanded for the king in Ireland, where he was between +the two fires of Catholic rebels and Protestant parliamentarians. In +Ireland he stayed long enough to proclaim Charles II. in 1649, but defeated +at Rathmines, his garrisons broken by Cromwell, he quitted the country at +the end of 1650. At the Restoration he was appointed lord-lieutenant, his +estates having been restored to him with the addition of the county +palatine of Tipperary, taken by James I. from his grandfather. In 1632 he +had been created a marquess. The English earldom of Brecknock was added in +1660 and an Irish dukedom of Ormonde in the following year. In 1682 he had +a patent for an English dukedom with the same title. Buckingham's intrigues +deprived him for seven years of his lord-lieutenancy, and a desperate +attempt was made upon his life in 1670, when a company of ruffians dragged +him from his coach in St James's Street and sought to hurry him to the +gallows at Tyburn. His son's threat that, if harm befell his father he +would pistol Buckingham, even if he were behind the king's chair, may have +saved him from assassination. At the accession of James II. he was once +more taken from active employment, and "Barzillai, crowned with honour and +with years" died at his Dorsetshire house in 1688. He had seen his +great-great-uncle the Black Earl, who was born in 1532, and a +great-grandson was playing beside him a few hours before his death. His +brave son Ossory, "the eldest hope with every grace adorned," died eight +years before him, and he was succeeded by a grandson James, the second duke +of Ormonde, who, a recognized leader of the London Jacobites, was attainted +in 1715, his honours and estates being forfeited. The duke lived thirty +years in exile, chiefly at Avignon, and died in the rebellion year of 1745 +without surviving issue. His younger brother Charles, whom King William had +created Lord Butler of Weston in the English peerage and earl of Arran in +the Irish, was allowed to purchase the Ormonde estates. On the earl's death +without issue in 1758 the estates were enjoyed by a sister, passing in +1760, by settlement of the earl of Arran, to John Butler of Kilcash, +descendant of a younger brother of the first duke. John dying six years +later was succeeded by Walter Butler, a first cousin, whose son John, +heir-male of the line of Ormonde, became earl of Ormonde and Ossory and +Viscount Thurles in 1791, the Irish parliament reversing the attainder of +1715. Walter, son and heir of the restored earl, was given an English +peerage as Lord Butler of Llanthony (1801) and an Irish marquessate of +Ormonde (1816), titles that died with him. This Lord Ormonde in 1810 [v.04 +p.0881] sold to the crown for the great sum of £216,000 his ancestral right +to the prisage of wines in Ireland. For his brother and heir, created Lord +Ormonde of Llahthony at the coronation of George IV., the Irish marquessate +was revived in 1825 and descended in the direct line. + +The earls of Carrick (Ireland 1748), Viscounts Ikerrin (Ireland 1629), +claim descent from a brother of the first Ormonde earl, while the viscounts +Mountgarret (Ireland 1550) spring from a younger son of Piers, the Red Earl +of Ossory. The barony of Caher (Ireland 1543), created for Sir Thomas +Butler of Chaier or Caher-down-Eske, a descendant in an illegitimate branch +of the Butlers, fell into abeyance among heirs general on the death of the +2nd baron in 1560. It was again created, after the surrender of their +rights by the heirs general, in 1583 for Sir Theobald Butler (d. 1596), and +became extinct in 1858 on the death of Richard Butler, 13th baron and 2nd +viscount Caher, and second earl of Glengall. Buttler von Clonebough, +_genannt_ Haimhausen, count of the Holy Roman Empire, descends from the 3rd +earl of Ormonde, the imperial title having been revived in 1681 in memory +of the services of a kinsman, Walter, Count Butler (d. 1634), the dragoon +officer who carried out the murder of Wallenstein. + +See Lancashire Inquests, 1205-1307; Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, +xlviii.; Chronicles of Matthew Paris, Roger of Hoveden, Giraldus +Cambrensis, &c.; _Dictionary of National Biography_; G.E.C.'s _Complete +Peerage_; Carte's Ormonde papers; Paston Letters; Rolls of parliament; fine +rolls, liberate rolls, pipe rolls, &c. + +(O. BA.) + +BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773), English Roman Catholic priest and hagiologist, +was born in Northampton on the 24th of October 1710. He was educated at the +English college, Douai, where on his ordination to the priesthood he held +successively the chairs of philosophy and divinity. He laboured for some +time as a missionary priest in Staffordshire, held several positions as +tutor to young Roman Catholic noblemen, and was finally appointed president +of the English seminary at St Omer, where he remained till his death on the +15th of May 1773. Butler's great work, _The Lives of the Saints_, the +result of thirty years' study (4 vols., London, 1756-1759), has passed +through many editions and translations (best edition, including valuable +notes, Dublin, 12 vols. 1779-1780). It is a popular and compendious +reproduction of the _Acta Sanctorum_, exhibiting great industry and +research, and is in all respects the best work of its kind in English +literature. + +See _An Account of the Life of A.B. by C.B._, _i.e._ by his nephew Charles +Butler (London, 1799); and Joseph Gillow's _Bibliographical Dictionary of +English Catholics_, vol. i. + +BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893), American lawyer, soldier and +politician, was born in Deerfield, New Hampshire, on the 5th of November +1818. He graduated at Waterville (now Colby) College in 1838, was admitted +to the Massachusetts bar in 1840, began practice at Lowell, Massachusetts, +and early attained distinction as a lawyer, particularly in criminal cases. +Entering politics as a Democrat, he first attracted general attention by +his violent campaign in Lowell in advocacy of the passage of a law +establishing a ten-hour day for labourers; he was a member of the +Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1853, and of the state senate in +1859, and was a delegate to the Democratic national conventions from 1848 +to 1860. In that of 1860 at Charleston he advocated the nomination of +Jefferson Davis and opposed Stephen A. Douglas, and in the ensuing campaign +he supported Breckinridge. + +After the Baltimore riot at the opening of the Civil War, Butler, as a +brigadier-general in the state militia, was sent by Governor John A. +Andrew, with a force of Massachusetts troops, to reopen communication +between the Union states and the Federal capital. By his energetic and +careful work Butler achieved his purpose without fighting, and he was soon +afterwards made major-general, U.S.V. Whilst in command at Fortress Monroe, +he declined to return to their owners fugitive slaves who had come within +his lines, on the ground that, as labourers for fortifications, &c., they +were contraband of war, thus originating the phrase "contraband" as applied +to the negroes. In the conduct of tactical operations Butler was almost +uniformly unsuccessful, and his first action at Big Bethel, Va., was a +humiliating defeat for the National arms. Later in 1861 he commanded an +expeditionary force, which, in conjunction with the navy, took Forts +Hatteras and Clark, N.C. In 1862 he commanded the force which occupied New +Orleans. In the administration of that city he showed great firmness and +severity. New Orleans was unusually healthy and orderly during the Butler +régime. Many of his acts, however, gave great offence, particularly the +seizure of $800,000 which had been deposited in the office of the Dutch +consul, and an order, issued after some provocation, on May 15th, that if +any woman should "insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the +United States, she shall be regarded and shall be held liable to be treated +as a woman of the town plying her avocation." This order provoked protests +both in the North and the South, and also abroad, particularly in England +and France, and it was doubtless the cause of his removal in December 1862. +On the 1st of June he had executed one W.B. Mumford, who had torn down a +United States flag placed by Farragut on the United States mint; and for +this execution he was denounced (Dec. 1862) by President Davis as "a felon +deserving capital punishment," who if captured should be reserved for +execution. In the campaign of 1864 he was placed at the head of the Army of +the James, which he commanded creditably in several battles. But his +mismanagement of the expedition against Fort Fisher, N.C., led to his +recall by General Grant in December. + +He was a Republican representative in Congress from 1867 to 1879, except in +1875-1877. In Congress he was conspicuous as a Radical Republican in +Reconstruction legislation, and was one of the managers selected by the +House to conduct the impeachment, before the Senate, of President Johnson, +opening the case and taking the most prominent part in it on his side; he +exercised a marked influence over President Grant and was regarded as his +spokesman in the House, and he was one of the foremost advocates of the +payment in "greenbacks" of the government bonds. In 1871 he was a defeated +candidate for governor of Massachusetts, and also in 1879 when he ran on +the Democratic and Greenback tickets, but in 1882 he was elected by the +Democrats who got no other state offices. In 1883 he was defeated on +renomination. As presidential nominee of the Greenback and Anti-Monopolist +parties, he polled 175,370 votes in 1884, when he had bitterly opposed the +nomination by the Democratic party of Grover Cleveland, to defeat whom he +tried to "throw" his own votes in Massachusetts and New York to the +Republican candidate. His professional income as a lawyer was estimated at +$100,000 per annum shortly before his death at Washington, D.C., on the +11th of January 1893. He was an able but erratic administrator and soldier, +and a brilliant lawyer. As a politician he excited bitter opposition, and +was charged, apparently with justice, with corruption and venality in +conniving at and sharing the profits of illicit trade with the Confederates +carried on by his brother at New Orleans and by his brother-in-law in the +department of Virginia and North Carolina, while General Butler was in +command. + +See James Parton, _Butler in New Orleans_ (New York, 1863), which, however, +deals inadequately with the charges brought against Butler; and _The +Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major-General B.F. Butler: +Butler's Book_ (New York, 1893), to be used with caution as regards facts. + +BUTLER, CHARLES (1750-1832), British lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was +born in London on the 14th of August 1750. He was educated at Douai, and in +1775 entered at Lincoln's Inn. He had considerable practice as a +conveyancer, and after the passing of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 +was called to the bar. In 1832 he took silk, and was made a bencher of +Lincoln's Inn. He died on the 2nd of June in the same year. His literary +activity was enormous, and the number of his published works comprises +about fifty volumes. The most important of them are the _Reminiscences_ +(1821-1827); _Horae Biblicae_ (1797), which has passed through several +editions; _Horae Juridicae Subsecivae_ (1804); _Book of the Roman Catholic +Church_ (1825), which was directed against Southey and excited [v.04 +p.0882] some controversy; lives of Erasmus, Grotius, Bossuet, Fénelon. He +also edited and completed the _Lives of the Saints_ of his uncle, Alban +Butler, Fearne's _Essay on Contingent Remainders_ and Hargrave's edition of +_Coke upon Littleton's Laws of England_ (1775). + +A complete list of Butler's works is contained in Joseph Gillow's +_Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics_, vol. i. pp. 357-364. + +BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853), English schoolmaster and divine, was born in +London and educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he +afterwards became fellow, in the capacity first of mathematical lecturer, +and afterwards of classical tutor. He was elected a public examiner of the +university in 1804, and in the following year was one of the select +preachers. As head master of Harrow (1805-1829) his all-round knowledge, +his tact and his skill as an athlete rendered his administration successful +and popular. On his retirement he settled down at Gayton, Northamptonshire, +a living which had been presented to him by his college in 1814. In 1836 he +became chancellor of the diocese of Peterborough, and in 1842 was appointed +dean of Peterborough. His few publications include some notes of Harrow, +entitled _Harrow, a Selection of Lists of the School between 1770 and 1828_ +(Peterborough, 1849). + +His eldest son, GEORGE BUTLER (1819-1890), was principal of Liverpool +College (1866-1882) and canon of Winchester. In 1852 he married Josephine +Elizabeth, daughter of John Grey of Dilston. She died on the 30th of +December 1906 (see her _Autobiography_, 1909). Mrs Josephine Butler, as she +was commonly called afterwards, was a woman of intense moral and spiritual +force, who devoted herself to rescue work, and specially to resisting the +"state regulation of vice" whether by the C.D. Acts in India or by any +system analogous to that of the continent in England. + +His youngest son, the Rev. Dr HENRY MONTAGU BUTLER, became one of the +best-known scholars of his day. Born in 1833, and educated at Harrow and +Trinity, Cambridge, he was senior classic in 1855 and was elected a fellow +of his college. In 1859 he became head master of Harrow, as his father had +been, and only resigned on being made dean of Gloucester in 1885. In 1886 +he was elected master of Trinity, Cambridge. His publications include +various volumes of sermons, but his reputation rests on his wide +scholarship, his remarkable gifts as a public speaker, and his great +practical influence both as a headmaster and at Cambridge. He married first +(1861), Georgina Elliot, and secondly (1888) Agneta Frances Ramsay (who in +1887 was senior classic at Cambridge), and had five sons and two daughters. + +BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752), English divine and philosopher, bishop of +Durham, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, on the 18th of May 1692. His +father, a linen-draper of that town, was a Presbyterian, and it was his +wish that young Butler should be educated for the ministry in that church. +The boy was placed under the care of the Rev. Philip Barton, master of the +grammar school at Wantage, and remained there for some years. He was then +sent to Samuel Jones's dissenting academy at Gloucester, and afterwards at +Tewkesbury, where his most intimate friend was Thomas Seeker, who became +archbishop of Canterbury. + +While at this academy Butler became dissatisfied with the principles of +Presbyterianism, and after much deliberation resolved to join the Church of +England. About the same time he began to study with care Samuel Clarke's +celebrated _Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God_, which had +been published as the Boyle Lectures a few years previously. With great +modesty and secrecy Butler, then in his twenty-second year, wrote to the +author propounding certain difficulties with regard to the proofs of the +unity and omnipresence of the Divine Being. Clarke answered his unknown +opponent with a gravity and care that showed his high opinion of the +metaphysical acuteness displayed in the objections, and published the +correspondence in later editions of the _Demonstration_. Butler +acknowledged that Clarke's reply satisfied him on one of the points, and he +subsequently gave his adhesion to the other. In one of his letters we +already find the germ of his famous dictum that "probability is the guide +of life." + +In March 1715 he entered at Oriel College, Oxford, but for some time found +it uncongenial and thought of migrating to Cambridge. But he made a close +friend in one of the resident fellows, Edward Talbot, son of William +Talbot, then bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Salisbury and Durham. In +1718 he took his degree, was ordained deacon and priest, and on the +recommendation of Talbot and Clarke was nominated preacher at the chapel of +the Rolls, where he continued till 1726. It was here that he preached his +famous _Fifteen Sermons_ (1726), including the well-known discourses on +human nature. In 1721 he had been given a prebend at Salisbury by Bishop +Talbot, who on his translation to Durham gave Butler the living of +Houghton-le-Skerne in that county, and in 1725 presented him to the wealthy +rectory of Stanhope. In 1726 he resigned his preachership at the Rolls. + +For ten years Butler remained in perfect seclusion at Stanhope. He was only +remembered in the neighbourhood as a man much loved and respected, who used +to ride a black pony very fast, and whose known benevolence was much +practised upon by beggars. Archbishop Blackburne, when asked by Queen +Caroline whether he was still alive, answered, "He is not dead, madam, but +buried." In 1733 he was made chaplain to Lord Chancellor Talbot, elder +brother of his dead friend Edward, and in 1736 prebendary of Rochester. In +the same year he was appointed clerk of the closet to the queen, and had to +take part in the metaphysical conversation parties which she loved to +gather round her. He met Berkeley frequently, but in his writings does not +refer to him. In 1736 also appeared his great work, _The Analogy of +Religion_. + +In 1737 Queen Caroline died; on her deathbed she recommended Butler to the +favour of her husband. George seemed to think his obligation sufficiently +discharged by appointing Butler in 1738 to the bishopric of Bristol, the +poorest see in the kingdom. The severe but dignified letter to Walpole, in +which Butler accepted the preferment, showed that the slight was felt and +resented. Two years later, however, the bishop was presented to the rich +deanery of St Paul's, and in 1746 was made clerk of the closet to the king. +In 1747 the primacy was offered to Butler, who, it is said, declined it, on +the ground that "it was too late for him to try to support a falling +church." The story has not the best authority, and though the desponding +tone of some of Butler's writings may give it colour, it is not in harmony +with the rest of his life, for in 1750 he accepted the see of Durham, +vacant by the death of Edward Chandler. His charge to the clergy of the +diocese, the only charge of his known to us, is a weighty and valuable +address on the importance of external forms in religion. This, together +with the fact that over the altar of his private chapel at Bristol he had a +cross of white marble, gave rise to an absurd rumour that the bishop had +too great a leaning towards Romanism. At Durham he was very charitable, and +expended large sums in building and decorating his church and residence. +His private expenses were exceedingly small. Shortly after his translation +his constitution began to break up, and he died on the 16th of June 1752, +at Bath, whither he had removed for his health. He was buried in the +cathedral of Bristol, and over his grave a monument was erected in 1834, +with an epitaph by Southey. According to his express orders, all his MSS. +were burned after his death. Bishop Butler was never married. His personal +appearance has been sketched in a few lines by Hutchinson:--"He was of a +most reverend aspect; his face thin and pale; but there was a divine +placidness which inspired veneration, and expressed the most benevolent +mind. His white hair hung gracefully on his shoulders, and his whole figure +was patriarchal." + +Butler was an earnest and deep-thinking Christian, melancholy by +temperament, and grieved by what seemed to him the hopelessly irreligious +condition of his age. In his view not only the religious life of the +nation, but (what he regarded as synonymous) the church itself, was in an +almost hopeless state of decay, as we see from his first and only charge to +the diocese of Durham and [v.04 p.0883] from many passages in the +_Analogy_. And though there was a complete remedy just coming into notice, +in the Evangelical revival, it was not of a kind that commended itself to +Butler, whose type of mind was opposed to everything that savoured of +enthusiasm. He even asked John Wesley, in 1739, to desist from preaching in +his diocese of Bristol, and in a memorable interview with the great +preacher remarked that any claim to the extraordinary gifts of the Holy +Spirit was "a horrid thing, a very horrid thing, sir." Yet Butler was +keenly interested in those very miners of Kingswood among whom Wesley +preached, and left £500 towards building a church for them. It is a great +mistake to suppose that because he took no great part in politics he had no +interest in the practical questions of his time, or that he was so immersed +in metaphysics as to live in the clouds. His intellect was profound and +comprehensive, thoroughly qualified to grapple with the deepest problems of +metaphysics, but by natural preference occupying itself mainly with the +practical and moral. Man's conduct in life, not his theory of the universe, +was what interested him. The _Analogy_ was written to counteract the +practical mischief which he considered wrought by deists and other +freethinkers, and the _Sermons_ lay a good deal of stress on everyday +Christian duties. His style has frequently been blamed for its obscurity +and difficulty, but this is due to two causes: his habit of compressing his +arguments into narrow compass, and of always writing with the opposite side +of the case in view, so that it has been said of the _Analogy_ that it +raises more doubts than it solves. One is also often tempted away from the +main course of the argument by the care and precision with which Butler +formulates small points of detail. + +His great work, _The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the +Course and Constitution of Nature_, cannot be adequately appreciated unless +taken in connexion with the circumstances of the period at which it +appeared. It was intended as a defence against the great tide of deistical +speculation (see DEISM), which in the apprehension of many good men seemed +likely to sweep away the restraints of religion and make way for a general +reign of licence. Butler did not enter the lists in the ordinary way. Most +of the literature evoked by the controversy on either side was devoted to +rebutting the attack of some individual opponent. Thus it was Bentley +versus Collins, Sherlock versus Woolston, Law versus Tindal. The _Analogy_, +on the contrary, did not directly refer to the deists at all, and yet it +worked more havoc with their position than all the other books put +together, and remains practically the one surviving landmark of the whole +dispute. Its central motive is to prove that all the objections raised +against revealed or supernatural religion apply with equal force to the +whole constitution of nature, and that the general analogy between the +principles of divine government, as set forth by the biblical revelation, +and those observable in the course of nature, leads us to the warrantable +conclusion that there is one Author of both. Without altogether eschewing +Samuel Clarke's _a priori_ system, Butler relies mainly on the inductive +method, not professing to give an absolute demonstration so much as a +probable proof. And everything is brought into closest relation with "that +which is the foundation of all our hopes and of all our fears; all our +hopes and fears which are of any consideration; I mean a Future Life." + +Butler is a typical instance of the English philosophical mind. He will +admit no speculative theory of things. To him the universe is no +realization of intelligence, which is to be deciphered by human thought; it +is a constitution or system, made up of individual facts, through which we +thread our way slowly and inductively. Complete knowledge is impossible; +nay, what we call knowledge of any part of the system is inherently +imperfect. "We cannot have a thorough knowledge of any part without knowing +the whole." So far as experience goes, "to us probability is the very guide +of life." Reason is certainly to be accepted; it is pur natural light, and +the only faculty whereby we can judge of things. But it gives no completed +system of knowledge and in matters of fact affords only probable +conclusions. In this emphatic declaration, that knowledge of the course of +nature is merely probable, Butler is at one with Hume, who was a most +diligent student of the bishop's works. What can come nearer Hume's +celebrated maxim--"Anything may be the cause of anything else," than +Butler's conclusion, "so that any one thing whatever may, for aught we know +to the contrary, be a necessary condition to any other"? + +It is this strong grasp or the imperfect character of our knowledge of +nature and of the grounds for its limitation that makes Butler so +formidable an opponent to his deistical contemporaries. He will permit no +anticipations of nature, no _a priori_ construction of experience. "The +constitution of nature is as it is," and no system of abstract principles +can be allowed to take its place. He is willing with Hume to take the +course of experience as the basis of his reasoning, seeing that it is +common ground for himself and his antagonists. In one essential respect, +however, he goes beyond Hume. The course of nature is for him an unmeaning +expression unless it be referred to some author; and he therefore makes +extensive use of the teleological method. This position is assumed +throughout the treatise, and as against the deists with justice, for their +whole argument rested upon the presupposition of the existence of God, the +perfect Ruler of the world. + +The premises, then, with which Butler starts are the existence of God, the +known course of nature, and the necessary limitation of our knowledge. What +does he wish to prove? It is not his intention _to prove God's perfect +moral government over the world or the truth of religion_. His work is in +no sense a philosophy of religion. His purpose is entirely defensive; he +wishes to answer objections that have been brought against religion, and to +examine certain difficulties that have been alleged as insuperable. And +this is to be effected in the first place by showing that from the +obscurities and inexplicabilities we meet with in nature we may reasonably +expect to find similar difficulties in the scheme of religion. If +difficulties be found in the course and constitution of nature, whose +author is admitted to be God, surely the existence of similar difficulties +in the plan of religion can be no valid objection against its truth and +divine origin. That this is at least in great part Butler's object is plain +from the slightest inspection of his work. It has seemed to many to be an +unsatisfactory mode of arguing and but a poor defence of religion; and so +much the author is willing to allow. But in the general course of his +argument a somewhat wider issue appears. He seeks to show not only that the +difficulties in the systems of natural and revealed religion have +counterparts in nature, but also that the facts of nature, far from being +adverse to the principles of religion, are a distinct ground for inferring +their probable truth. He endeavours to show that the balance of probability +is entirely in favour of the scheme of religion, that this probability is +the natural conclusion from an inspection of nature, and that, as religion +is a matter of practice, we are bound to adopt the course of action which +is even probably the right one. If, we may imagine him saying, the precepts +of religion are entirely analogous in their partial obscurity and apparent +difficulty to the ordinary course of nature disclosed to us by experience, +then it is credible that these precepts are true; not only can no +objections be drawn against them from experience, but the balance of +probability is in their favour. This mode of reasoning from what is known +of nature to the probable truth of what is contained in religion is the +celebrated method of analogy. + +Although Butler's work is peculiarly one of those which ought not to be +exhibited in outline, for its strength lies in the organic completeness +with which the details are wrought into the whole argument, yet a summary +of his results will throw more light on the method than any description +can. + +Keeping clearly in view his premises--the existence of God and the limited +nature of knowledge--Butler begins by inquiring into the fundamental +pre-requisite of all natural religion--the immortality of the soul. +Evidently the stress of the whole question is here. Were man not immortal, +religion would be of little value. Now, Butler does not attempt to prove +the truth of the doctrine; that proof comes from another quarter. The only +questions he asks are--Does experience forbid us to admit immortality as a +possibility? Does experience furnish any probable reason for inferring that +immortality is a fact? To the first of these a negative, to the second an +affirmative answer is returned. All the analogies of our life here lead us +to conclude that we shall continue to live after death; and neither from +experience nor from the reason of the thing can any argument against the +possibility of this be drawn. Immortality, then, is not unreasonable; it is +probable. If, he continues, we are to live after death, it is of importance +for us to consider on what our future state may depend; for we may be +either happy or miserable. Now, whatever speculation may say as to God's +purpose being necessarily universal benevolence, experience plainly shows +us that our present happiness and misery depend upon our conduct, and are +not distributed indiscriminately. Therefore no argument can be brought from +experience against the possibility of our future happiness and misery +likewise depending upon conduct. The whole analogy of nature is in favour +of such a dispensation; it is therefore reasonable or probable. Further, we +are not only under a government in which actions considered simply as such +are rewarded and punished, but it is known from experience that virtue and +vice are followed by their natural consequents--happiness and misery. And +though the distribution of these rewards is not perfect, all hindrances are +plainly temporary or accidental. It may therefore be concluded that the +balance of probability is in favour of God's government in general being a +moral scheme, where virtue and vice are respectively rewarded and punished. +It need not be objected to the justice of [v.04 p.0884] this arrangement +that men are sorely tempted, and may very easily be brought to neglect that +on which their future welfare depends, for the very same holds good in +nature. Experience shows man to be in a state of trial so far as regards +the present; it cannot, therefore, be unreasonable to suppose that we are +in a similar state as regards the future. Finally, it can surely never be +advanced as an argument against the truth of religion that there are many +things in it which we do not comprehend, when experience exhibits to us +such a copious stock of incomprehensibilities in the ordinary course and +constitution of nature. + +It cannot have escaped observation, that in the foregoing course of +argument the conclusion is invariably from experience of the present order +of things to the reasonableness or probability of some other system--of a +future state. The inference in all cases passes beyond the field of +experience; that it does so may be and has been advanced as a conclusive +objection against it. See for example a passage in Hume, _Works_ (ed. +1854), iv. 161-162, cf. p. 160, which says, in short, that no argument from +experience can ever carry us beyond experience itself. However well +grounded this reasoning may be, it altogether misses the point at which +Butler aimed, and is indeed a misconception of the nature of analogical +argument. Butler never attempts to _prove_ that a future life regulated +according to the requirements of ethical law is a reality; he only desires +to show that the conception of such a life is not irreconcilable with what +we know of the course of nature, and that consequently it is _not +unreasonable_ to suppose that there is such a life. Hume readily grants +this much, though he hints at a formidable difficulty which the plan of the +_Analogy_ prevented Butler from facing, the proof of the existence of God. +Butler seems willing to rest satisfied with his opponents' admission that +the being of God is proved by reason, but it would be hard to discover how, +upon his own conception of the nature and limits of reason, such a proof +could ever be given. It has been said that it is no flaw in Butler's +argument that he has left atheism as a possible mode of viewing the +universe, because his work was not directed against the atheists. It is, +however, in some degree a defect; for his defence of religion against the +deists rests on a view of reason which would for ever preclude a +demonstrative proof of God's existence. + +If, however, his premises be granted, and the narrow issue kept in view, +the argument may be admitted as perfectly satisfactory. From what we know +of the present order of things, it is not unreasonable to suppose that +there will be a future state of rewards and punishments, distributed +according to ethical law. When the argument from analogy seems to go beyond +this, a peculiar difficulty starts up. Let it be granted that our happiness +and misery in this life depend upon our conduct--are, in fact, the rewards +and punishments attached by God to certain modes of action, the natural +conclusion from analogy would seem to be that our future happiness or the +reverse will probably depend upon our actions in the future state. Butler, +on the other hand, seeks to show that analogy leads us to believe that our +future state will depend upon our present conduct. His argument, that the +punishment of an imprudent act often follows after a long interval may be +admitted, but does not advance a single step towards the conclusion that +imprudent acts will be punished hereafter. So, too, with the attempt to +show that from the analogy of the present life we may not unreasonably +infer that virtue and vice will receive their respective rewards and +punishments hereafter; it may be admitted that virtuous and vicious acts +are naturally looked upon as objects of reward or punishment, and treated +accordingly, but we may refuse to allow the argument to go further, and to +infer a perfect distribution of justice dependent upon our conduct here. +Butler could strengthen his argument only by bringing forward prominently +the absolute requirements of the ethical consciousness, in which case he +would have approximated to Kant's position with regard to this very +problem. That he did not do so is, perhaps, due to his strong desire to use +only such premises as his adversaries the deists were willing to allow. + +As against the deists, however, he may be allowed to have made out his +point, that the substantial doctrines of natural religion are not opposed +to reason and experience, and may be looked upon as credible. The positive +proof of them is to be found in revealed religion, which has disclosed to +us not only these truths, but also a further scheme not discoverable by the +natural light. Here, again, Butler joins issue with his opponents. Revealed +religion had been declared to be nothing but a republication of the truths +of natural religion (Matthew Tindal, _Christianity as Old as the +Creation_), and all revelation had been objected to as impossible. To show +that such objections are invalid, and that a revelation is at least not +impossible, Butler makes use mainly of his doctrine of human ignorance. +Revelation had been rejected because it lay altogether beyond the sphere of +reason and could not therefore be grasped by human intelligence. But the +same is true of nature; there are in the ordinary course of things +inexplicabilities; indeed we may be said with truth to know nothing, for +there is no medium between perfect and completed comprehension of the whole +system of things, which we manifestly have not, and mere faith grounded on +probability. Is it unreasonable to suppose that in a revealed system there +should be the same superiority to our intelligence? If we cannot explain or +foretell by reason what the exact course of events in nature will be, is it +to be expected that we can do so with regard to the wider scheme of God's +revealed providence? Is it not probable that there will be many things not +explicable by us? From our experience of the course of nature it would +appear that no argument can be brought against the possibility of a +revelation. Further, though it is the province of reason to test this +revealed system, and though it be granted that, should it contain anything +immoral, it must be rejected, yet a careful examination of the particulars +will show that there is no incomprehensibility or difficulty in them which +has not a counterpart in nature. The whole scheme of revealed principles +is, therefore, not unreasonable, and the analogy of nature and natural +religion would lead us to infer its truth. If, finally, it be asked, how a +system professing to be revealed can substantiate its claim, the answer is, +by means of the historical evidences, such as miracles and fulfilment of +prophecy. + +It would be unfair to Butler's argument to demand from it answers to +problems which had not in his time arisen, and to which, even if they had +then existed, the plan of his work would not have extended. Yet it is at +least important to ask how far, and in what sense, the _Analogy_ can be +regarded as a positive and valuable contribution to theology. What that +work has done is to prove to the consistent deist that no objections can be +drawn from reason or experience against natural or revealed religion, and, +consequently, that the things objected to are not incredible and may be +proved by external evidence. But the deism of the 17th century is a phase +of thought that has no living reality now, and the whole aspect of the +religious problem has been completely changed. To a generation that has +been moulded by the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, by the historical +criticism of modern theology, and by all that has been done in the field of +comparative religion, the argument of the _Analogy_ cannot but appear to +lie quite outside the field of controversy. To Butler the Christian +religion, and by that he meant the orthodox Church of England system, was a +moral scheme revealed by a special act of the divine providence, the truth +of which was to be judged by the ordinary canons of evidence. The whole +stood or fell on historical grounds. A speculative construction of religion +was abhorrent to him, a thing of which he seems to have thought the human +mind naturally incapable. The religious consciousness does not receive from +him the slightest consideration. The _Analogy_, in fact, has and can have +but little influence on the present state of theology; it was not a book +for all time, but was limited to the problems of the period at which it +appeared. + +Throughout the whole of the _Analogy_ it is manifest that the interest +which lay closest to Butler's heart was the ethical. His whole cast of +thinking was practical. The moral nature of man, his conduct in life, is +that on account of which alone an inquiry into religion is of importance. +The systematic account of this moral nature is to be found in the famous +_Sermons preached at the Chapel of the Rolls_, especially in the first +three. In these sermons Butler has made substantial contributions to +ethical science, and it may be said with confidence, that in their own +department nothing superior in value appeared during the long interval +between Aristotle and Kant. To both of these great thinkers he has certain +analogies. He resembles the first in his method of investigating the end +which human nature is intended to realize; he reminds of the other by the +consistency with which he upholds the absolute supremacy of moral law. + +In his ethics, as in his theology, Butler had constantly in view a certain +class of adversaries, consisting partly of the philosophic few, partly of +the fashionably educated many, who all participated in one common mode of +thinking. The keynote of this tendency had been struck by Hobbes, in whose +philosophy man was regarded as a mere selfish sensitive machine, moved +solely by pleasures and pains. Cudworth and Clarke had tried to place +ethics on a nobler footing, but their speculations were too abstract for +Butler and not sufficiently "applicable to the several particular relations +and circumstances of life." + +His inquiry is based on teleological principles. "Every work, both of +nature and art, is a system; and as every particular thing both natural and +artificial is for some use or purpose out of or beyond itself, one may add +to what has been already brought into the idea of a system its +conduciveness to this one or more ends." Ultimately this view of nature, as +the sphere of the realization of final causes, rests on a theological +basis; but Butler does not introduce prominently into his ethics the +specifically theological groundwork, and may be thought willing to ground +his principle on experience. The ethical question then is, as with +Aristotle, what is the [Greek: telos] of man? The answer to this question +is to be obtained by an analysis of the facts of human nature, whence, +Butler thinks, "it will as fully appear that this our nature, _i.e._ +constitution, is adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a watch it appears +that its nature, _i.e._ constitution or system, is adapted to measure +time." Such analysis had been already attempted by Hobbes, and the result +he came to was that man naturally is adapted only for a life of +selfishness,--his end is the procuring of pleasure and the avoidance of +pain. A closer examination, however, shows that this at least is false. The +truth of the counter propositions, that man is [Greek: phusei politikos], +that the full development of his being is impossible apart from society, +becomes manifest on examination of the facts. For while self-love plays a +most important part in the human economy, there is no less evidently a +natural principle of benevolence. Moreover, among the particular [v.04 +p.0885] passions, appetites and desires there are some whose tendency is as +clearly towards the general good as that of others is towards the +satisfaction of the self. Finally, that principle in man which reflects +upon actions and the springs of actions, unmistakably sets the stamp of its +approbation upon conduct that tends towards the general good. It is clear, +therefore, that from this point of view the sum of practical morals might +be given in Butler's own words--"that mankind is a community, that we all +stand in a relation to each other, that there is a public end and interest +of society, which each particular is obliged to promote." But deeper +questions remain. + +The threefold division into passions and affections, self-love and +benevolence, and conscience, is Butler's celebrated analysis of human +nature as found in his first sermon. But by regarding benevolence less as a +definite desire for the general good as such than as kind affection for +particular individuals, he practically eliminates it as a regulative +principle and reduces the authorities in the polity of the soul to +two--conscience and self-love. + +But the idea of human nature is not completely expressed by saying that it +consists of reason and the several passions. "Whoever thinks it worth while +to consider this matter thoroughly should begin by stating to himself +exactly the idea of a system, economy or constitution of any particular +nature; and he will, I suppose, find that it is one or a whole, made up of +several parts, but yet that the several parts, even considered as a whole, +do not complete the idea, unless in the notion of a whole you include the +relations and respects which these parts have to each other." This fruitful +conception of man's ethical nature as an organic unity Butler owes directly +to Shaftesbury and indirectly to Aristotle; it is the strength and +clearness with which he has grasped it that gives peculiar value to his +system. + +The special relation among the parts of our nature to which Butler alludes +is the subordination of the particular passions to the universal principle +of reflection or conscience. This relation is the peculiarity, the _cross_, +of man; and when it is said that virtue consists in following nature, we +mean that it consists in pursuing the course of conduct dictated by this +superior faculty. Man's function is not fulfilled by obeying the passions, +or even cool self-love, but by obeying conscience. That conscience has a +natural supremacy, that it is superior in kind, is evident from the part it +plays in the moral constitution. We judge a man to have acted wrongly, +_i.e._ unnaturally, when he allows the gratification of a passion to injure +his happiness, _i.e._ when he acts in accordance with passion and against +self-love. It would be impossible to pass this judgment if self-love were +not regarded as superior in kind to the passions, and this superiority +results from the fact that it is the peculiar province of self-love to take +a view of the several passions and decide as to their relative importance. +But there is in man a faculty which takes into consideration all the +springs of action, including self-love, and passes judgment upon them, +approving some and condemning others. From its very nature this faculty is +supreme in authority, if not in power; it reflects upon all the other +active powers, and pronounces absolutely upon their moral quality. +Superintendency and authority are constituent parts of its very idea. We +are under obligation to obey the law revealed in the judgments of this +faculty, for it is the law of our nature. And to this a religious sanction +may be added, for "consciousness of a rule or guide of action, in creatures +capable of considering it as given them by their Maker, not only raises +immediately a sense of duty, but also a sense of security in following it, +and a sense of danger in deviating from it." Virtue then consists in +following the true law of our nature, that is, conscience. Butler, however, +is by no means very explicit in his analysis of the functions to be +ascribed to conscience. He calls it the Principle of Reflection, the Reflex +Principle of Approbation, and assigns to it as its province the motives or +propensions to action. It takes a view of these, approves or disapproves, +impels to or restrains from action. But at times he uses language that +almost compels one to attribute to him the popular view of conscience as +passing its judgments with unerring certainty on individual acts. Indeed +his theory is weakest exactly at the point where the real difficulty +begins. We get from him no satisfactory answer to the inquiry, What course +of action is approved by conscience? Every one, he seems to think, knows +what virtue is, and a philosophy of ethics is complete if it can be shown +that such a course of action harmonizes with human nature. When pressed +still further, he points to justice, veracity and the common good as +comprehensive ethical ends. His whole view of the moral government led him +to look upon human nature and virtue as connected by a sort of +pre-established harmony. His ethical principle has in it no possibility of +development into a system of actual duties; it has no content. Even on the +formal side it is a little difficult to see what part conscience plays. It +seems merely to set the stamp of its approbation on certain courses of +action to which we are led by the various passions and affections; it has +in itself no originating power. How or why it approves of some and not of +others is left unexplained. Butler's moral theory, like those of his +English contemporaries and successors, is defective from not perceiving +that the notion of duty can have real significance only when connected with +the will or practical reason, and that only in reason which wills itself +have we a principle capable of development into an ethical system. It has +received very small consideration at the hands of German historians of +ethics. + +AUTHORITIES.--See T. Bartlett, _Memoirs of Butler_ (1839). The standard +edition of Butler's works is that in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1844). Editions of +the _Analogy_ are very numerous; that by Bishop William Fitzgerald (1849) +contains a valuable Life and Notes. W. Whewell published an edition of the +_Three Sermons_, with Introduction. Modern editions of the _Works_ are +those by W.E. Gladstone (2 vols. with a 3rd vol. of _Studies Subsidiary_, +1896), and J.H. Bernard, (2 vols. in the English Theological Library, +1900). For the history of the religious works contemporary with the +_Analogy_, see Lechler, _Gesch. d. Engl. Deismus_; M. Pattison, in _Essays +and Reviews_; W. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_, vols., ii. and iii.; +L. Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_; J.H. Overton and F. +Relton, _The English Church from the Accession of George I. to the End of +the 18th Century_. + +(R. AD.; A. J. G.) + +BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862- ), American educator, was born at Elizabeth, +New Jersey, on the 2nd of April 1862. He graduated at Columbia College in +1882, was a graduate fellow in philosophy there from 1882 to 1884, when he +took the degree of Ph.D., and then studied for a year in Paris and Berlin. +He was an assistant in philosophy at Columbia in 1885-1886, tutor in +1886-1889, adjunct professor of philosophy, ethics and psychology in +1889-1890, becoming full professor in 1890, and dean of the faculty of +philosophy in 1890-1902. From 1887 until 1891 he was the first president of +the New York college for the training of teachers (later the Teachers' +College of Columbia University), which he had personally planned and +organized. In 1891 he founded and afterwards edited the _Educational +Review_, an influential educational magazine. He soon came to be looked +upon as one of the foremost authorities on educational matters in America, +and in 1894 was elected president of the National Educational Association. +He was also a member of the New Jersey state board of education from 1887 +to 1895, and was president of the Paterson (N.J.) board of education in +1892-1893. In 1901 he succeeded Seth Low as president of Columbia +University. Besides editing several series of books, including "The Great +Educators" and "The Teachers' Professional Library," he published _The +Meaning of Education_ (1898), a collection of essays; and two series of +addresses, _True and False Democracy_ (1907), and _The American as he is_ +(1908). + +BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612-1680), English poet, author of +_Hudibras_, son of Samuel Butler, a small farmer, was baptized at +Strensham, Worcestershire, on the 8th of February 1612. He was educated at +the King's school, Worcester, under Henry Bright, the record of whose zeal +as a teacher is preserved by Fuller (_Worthies_, Worcestershire). After +leaving school he served a Mr Jeffereys of Earl's Croome, Worcestershire, +in the capacity of justice's clerk, and is supposed to have thus gained his +knowledge of law and law terms. He also employed himself at Earl's Croome +in general study, and particularly in painting, which he is said to have +thought of adopting as a profession. It is probable, however, that art has +not lost by his change of mind, for, according to one of his editors, in +1774 his pictures "served to stop windows and save the tax; indeed they +were not fit for much else." He was then recommended to Elizabeth, countess +of Kent. At her home at Wrest, Bedfordshire, he had access to a good +library, and there too he met Selden, who sometimes employed him as his +secretary. But his third sojourn, with Sir Samuel Luke at Cople Hoo, +Bedfordshire, was not only apparently the longest, but also much the most +important in its effects on his career and works. We are nowhere informed +in what capacity Butler served Sir Samuel Luke, or how he came to reside in +the house of a noted Puritan and Parliament man. In the family of this +"valiant Mamaluke," who, whether he was or was not the original of +Hudibras, was certainly a rigid Presbyterian, "a colonel in the army of the +Parliament, scoutmaster-general for Bedfordshire and governor of Newport +Pagnell," Butler must have had the most abundant opportunities of studying +from the life those who were to be the victims of his satire; he is +supposed to have taken some hints for his caricature from Sir Henry +Rosewell of Ford Abbey, Devonshire. But we know nothing positive of him +until the Restoration, when he was appointed secretary to Richard Vaughan, +2nd earl of Carbery, lord president of the principality of Wales, who made +him steward of Ludlow Castle, an office which he held from January 1661 +[v.04 p.0886] to January 1662. About this time he married a rich lady, +variously described as a Miss Herbert and as a widow named Morgan. His +wife's fortune was afterwards, however, lost. + +Early in 1663 _Hudibras: The First Part: written in the Time of the Late +Wars_, was published, but this, the first genuine edition, had been +preceded in 1662 by an unauthorized one. On the 26th of December Pepys +bought it, and though neither then nor afterwards could he see the wit of +"so silly an abuse of the Presbyter knight going to the wars," he +repeatedly testifies to its extraordinary popularity. A spurious second +part appeared within the year. This determined the poet to bring out the +second part (licensed on the 7th of November 1663, printed 1664), which if +possible exceeded the first in popularity. From this time till 1678, the +date of the publication of the third part, we hear nothing certain of +Butler. On the publication of _Hudibras_ he was sent for by Lord Chancellor +Hyde (Clarendon), says Aubrey, and received many promises, none of which +was fulfilled. He is said to have received a gift of £300 from Charles II., +and to have been secretary to George Villiers, 2nd duke of Buckingham, when +the latter was chancellor of the university of Cambridge. Most of his +biographers, in their eagerness to prove the ill-treatment which Butler is +supposed to have received, disbelieve both these stories, perhaps without +sufficient reason. Butler's satire on Buckingham in his _Characters_ +(_Remains_, 1759) shows such an intimate knowledge that it is probable the +second story is true. Two years after the publication of the third part of +_Hudibras_ he died, on the 25th of September 1680, and was buried by his +friend Longueville, a bencher of the Middle Temple, in the churchyard of St +Paul's, Covent Garden. He was, we are told, "of a leonine-coloured hair, +sanguine, choleric, middle-sized, strong." A portrait by Lely at Oxford and +others elsewhere represent him as somewhat hard-featured. + +Of the neglect of Butler by the court something must be said. It must be +remembered that the complaints on the subject supposed to have been uttered +by the poet all occur in the spurious posthumous works, that men of letters +have been at all times but too prone to complain of lack of patronage, that +Butler's actual service was rendered when the day was already won, and that +the pathetic stories of the poet starving and dying in want are +contradicted by the best authority--Charles Longueville, son of the poet's +friend--who asserted that Butler, though often disappointed, was never +reduced to anything like want or beggary and did not die in any person's +debt. But the most significant notes on the subject are Aubrey's,[1] that +"he might have had preferments at first, but would not accept any but very +good, so at last he had none at all, and died in want"; and the memorandum +of the same author, that "satirical wits disoblige whom they converse with, +&c., consequently make to themselves many enemies and few friends, and this +was his manner and case." + +Three monuments have been erected to the poet's memory--the first in +Westminster Abbey in 1721, by John Barber, mayor of London, who is +spitefully referred to by Pope for daring to connect his name with +Butler's. In 1786 a tablet was placed in St Paul's, Covent Garden, by +residents of the parish. This was destroyed in 1845. Later, another was set +up at Strensham by John Taylor of that place. Perhaps the happiest epitaph +on him is one by John Dennis, which calls Butler "a whole species of poets +in one." + +_Hudibras_ itself, though probably quoted as often as ever, has dropped +into the class of books which are more quoted than read. In reading it, it +is of the utmost importance to comprehend clearly and to bear constantly in +mind the purpose of the author in writing it. This purpose is evidently not +artistic but polemic, to show in the most unmistakable characters the +vileness and folly of the anti-royalist party. Anything like a regular +plot--the absence of which has often been deplored or excused--would have +been for this end not merely a superfluity but a mistake, as likely to +divert the attention and perhaps even enlist some sympathy for the heroes. +Anything like regular character-drawing would have been equally unnecessary +and dangerous--for to represent anything but monsters, some alleviating +strokes must have been introduced. The problem, therefore, was to produce +characters just sufficiently unlike lay-figures to excite and maintain a +moderate interest, and to set them in motion by dint of a few incidents not +absolutely unconnected,--meanwhile to subject the principles and manners of +which these characters were the incarnation to ceaseless satire and +raillery. The triumphant solution of the problem is undeniable, when it has +once been enunciated and understood. Upon a canvas thus prepared and +outlined, Butler has embroidered a collection of flowers of wit, which only +the utmost fertility or imagination could devise, and the utmost patience +of industry elaborate. In the union of these two qualities he is certainly +without a parallel, and their combination has produced a work which is +unique. The poem is of considerable length, extending to more than ten +thousand verses, yet Hazlitt hardly exaggerates when he says that "half the +lines are got by heart"; indeed a diligent student of later English +literature has read great part of _Hudibras_ though he may never have +opened its pages. The tableaux or situations, though few and simple in +construction, are ludicrous enough. The knight and squire setting forth on +their journey; the routing of the bear-baiters; the disastrous renewal of +the contest; Hudibras and Ralph in the stocks; the lady's release and +conditional acceptance of the unlucky knight; the latter's deliberations on +the means of eluding his vow; the Skimmington; the visit to Sidrophel, the +astrologer; the attempt to cajole the lady, with its woeful consequences; +the consultation with the lawyer, and the immortal pair of letters to which +this gives rise, complete the argument of the whole poem. But the story is +as nothing; throughout we have little really kept before us but the sordid +vices of the sectaries, their hypocrisy, their churlish ungraciousness, +their greed of money and authority, their fast and loose morality, their +inordinate pride. The extraordinary felicity of the means taken to place +all these things in the most ridiculous light has never been questioned. +The doggerel metre, never heavy or coarse, but framed as to be the very +voice of mocking laughter, the astounding similes and disparates, the +rhymes which seem to chuckle and to sneer of themselves, the wonderful +learning with which the abuse of learning is rebuked, the subtlety with +which subtle casuistry is set at nought can never be missed. Keys like +those of L'Estrange are therefore of little use. It signifies nothing +whether Hudibras was Sir Samuel Luke of Bedfordshire or Sir Henry Rosewell +of Devonshire, still less whether Ralph's name in the flesh was Robinson or +Pendle, least of all that Orsin was perhaps Mr Gosling, or Trulla possibly +Miss Spencer. Butler was probably as little indebted to mere copying for +his characters as for his ideas and style. These latter are in the highest +degree original. The first notion of the book, and only the first notion, +Butler undoubtedly received from _Don Quixote_. His obligations to the +_Satyre Ménippée_ have been noticed by Voltaire, and though English writers +have sometimes ignored or questioned them, are not to be doubted. The art, +perhaps the most terrible of all the weapons of satire, of making +characters without any great violation of probability represent themselves +in the most atrocious and despicable light, was never perhaps possessed in +perfection except by Pithou and his colleagues and by Butler. Against these +great merits some defects must certainly be set. As a whole, the poem is no +doubt tedious, if only on account of the very blaze of wit, which at length +almost wearies us by its ceaseless demands on our attention. It should, +however, be remembered that it was originally issued in parts, and +therefore, it may be supposed, intended to be read in parts, for there can +be little doubt that the second part was written before the first was +published. A more real defect, but one which Butler shares with all his +contemporaries, is the tendency to delineate humours instead of characters, +and to draw from the outside rather than from within. + +Attempts have been made to trace the manner and versification of _Hudibras_ +to earlier writers, especially in Cleveland's satires and in the _Musarum +Deliciae_ of Sir John Mennis (Pepys's Minnes) and Dr James Smith +(1605-1667). But if it had few [v.04 p.0887] ancestors it had an abundant +offspring. A list of twenty-seven direct imitations of _Hudibras_ in the +course of a century may be found in the Aldine edition (1893). Complete +translations of considerable excellence have been made into French (London, +1757 and 1819) by John Townley (1697-1782), a member of the Irish Brigade; +and into German by D.W. Soltau (Riga, 1787); specimens of both may be found +in R. Bell's edition. Voltaire tried his hand at a compressed version, but +not with happy results. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Butler's works published during his life include, besides +_Hudibras_: _To the Memory of the most renowned Du Vall: A Pindaric Ode_ +(1671); and a prose pamphlet against the Puritans, _Two Letters, one from +J. Audland...to W. Prynne, the other Prynne's Answer_ (1672). In 1715-1717 +three volumes, entitled _Posthumous Works in Prose and Verse...with a key +to Hudibras by Sir Roger l'Estrange..._ were published with great success. +Most of the contents, however, are generally rejected as spurious. The +poet's papers, now in the British Museum (Addit. MSS. 32,625-6), remained +in the hands of his friend William Longueville, and after his death were +left untouched until 1759, when Robert Thyer, keeper of the public library +at Manchester, edited two volumes of verse and prose under the title of +_Genuine Remains in Verse and Prose of Mr Samuel Butler_. This collection +contained _The Elephant in the Moon_, a satire on the Royal Society; a +series of sketches in prose, _Characters_; and some satirical poems and +prose pamphlets. Another edition, _Poetical Remains_, was issued by Thyer +in 1827. In 1726 Hogarth executed some illustrations to _Hudibras_, which +are among his earliest but not, perhaps, happiest productions. In 1744 Dr +Zachary Grey published an edition of _Hudibras_, with copious and learned +annotations; and an additional volume of _Critical and Historical and +Explanatory Notes_ in 1752. Grey's has formed the basis of all subsequent +editions. + +Other pieces published separately and ascribed to Butler are: _A Letter +from Mercurius Civicus to Mercurius Rusticus, or London's Confession but +not repentance..._ (1643), represented in vol. iv. of Somers's tracts; +_Mola Asinarum, on the unreasonable and insupportable burthen now pressed +... upon this groaning nation ..._ (1659), included in his posthumous +works, which is supposed to have been written by John Prynne, though Wood +ascribes it to Butler; _The Acts and monuments of our late parliament ..._ +(1659, printed 1710), of which a continuation appeared in 1659; a +"character" of Charles I. (1671); _A New Ballad of King Edward and Jane +Shore ..._ (1671); _A Congratulatory poem ... to Sir Joseph Sheldon ..._ +(1675); _The Geneva Ballad, or the occasional conformist display'd_ (1674); +_The Secret history of the Calves head club, compleat ..._ (4th edition, +1707); _The Morning's Salutation, or a friendly conference between a +puritan preacher and a family of his flock ..._ (reprinted, Dublin, 1714). +Two tracts of his appear in Somers's _Tracts_, vol. vii.; he contributed to +_Ovid's Epistles translated by several hands_ (1680); and works by him are +included in _Miscellaneous works, written by ... George Duke of Buckingham +... also State Poems ... (by various hands)_ (1704); and in _The Grove ..._ +(1721), a poetic miscellany, is a "Satyr against Marriage," not found in +his works. + +The life of Butler was written by an anonymous author, said by William +Oldys to be Sir James Astrey, and prefixed to the edition of 1704. The +writer professes to supplement and correct the notice given by Anthony à +Wood in _Athenae Oxonienses_. Dr Threadneedle Russel Nash, a Worcestershire +antiquarian, supplied some additional facts in an edition of 1793. See the +Aldine edition of the _Poetical Works of Samuel Butler_ (1893), edited by +Reginald Brimley Johnson, with complete bibliographical information. There +is a good reprint of _Hudibras_ (edited by Mr A.R. Waller, 1905) in the +_Cambridge Classics_. + +[1] _Letters written by Eminent Persons...and Lives of Eminent Men_, by +John Aubrey, Esq. (2 vols., 1813). + +BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839), English classical scholar and schoolmaster, and +bishop of Lichfield, was born at Kenilworth on the 30th of January 1774. He +was educated at Rugby, and in 1792 went to St John's College, Cambridge. +Butler's classical career was a brilliant one. He obtained three of Sir +William Browne's medals, for the Latin (1792) and Greek (1793, 1794) odes, +the medal for the Greek ode in 1792 being won by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. +In 1793 Butler was elected to the Craven scholarship, amongst the +competitors being John Keate, afterwards headmaster of Eton, and Coleridge. +In 1796 he was fourth senior op time and senior chancellor's classical +medallist. In 1797 and 1798 he obtained the members' prize for Latin essay. +He took the degree of B.A. in 1796, M.A. 1799, and D.D. 1811. In 1797 he +was elected a fellow of St John's, and in 1798 became headmaster of +Shrewsbury school. In 1802 he was presented to the living of Kenilworth, in +1807 to a prebendal stall in Lichfield cathedral, and in 1822 to the +archdeaconry of Derby; all these appointments he held with his +headmastership, but in 1836 he was promoted to the bishopric of Lichfield +(and Coventry, which was separated from his diocese in the same year). He +died on the 4th of December 1839. It is in connexion with Shrewsbury school +that Butler will be chiefly remembered. During his headmastership its +reputation greatly increased, and in the standard of its scholarship it +stood as high as any other public school in England. His edition of +Aeschylus, with the text and notes of Stanley, appeared 1809-1816, and was +somewhat severely criticized in the _Edinburgh Review_, but Butler was +prevented by his elevation to the episcopate from, revising it. He also +wrote a _Sketch of Modern and Ancient Geography_ (1813, frequently +reprinted) for use in schools, and brought out atlases of ancient and +modern geography. His large library included a fine collection of Aldine +editions and Greek and Latin MSS.; the Aldines were sold by auction, the +MSS. purchased by the British Museum. + +Butler's life has been written by his grandson, Samuel Butler, author of +_Erewhon_ (_Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Butler_, 1896); see also Baker's +_History of St John's College, Cambridge_ (ed. J.E.B. Mayor, 1869); Sandys, +_Hist. Class. Schol._ (ed. 1908), vol. iii. p. 398. + +BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902), English author, son of the Rev. Thomas Butler, +and grandson of the foregoing, was born at Langar, near Bingham, +Nottinghamshire, on the 4th of December 1835. He was educated at Shrewsbury +school, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He took a high place in the +classical tripos of 1858, and was intended for the Church. His opinions, +however, prevented his carrying out this intention, and he sailed to New +Zealand in the autumn of 1859. He owned a sheep run in the Upper Rangitata +district of the province of Canterbury, and in less than five years was +able to return home with a moderate competence, most of which was +afterwards lost in unlucky investments. The Rangitata district supplied the +setting for his romance of _Erewhon, or Over the Range_ (1872), satirizing +the Darwinian theory and conventional religion. _Erewhon_ had a sequel +thirty years later (1901) in _Erewhon Revisited_, in which the narrator of +the earlier romance, who had escaped from Erewhon in a balloon, finds +himself, on revisiting the country after a considerable interval, the +object of a topsy-turvy cult, to which he gave the name of "Sunchildism." +In 1873 he had published a book of similar tendency, _The Fair Haven_, +which purported to be a "work in defence of the miraculous element in our +Lord's ministry upon earth" by a fictitious J.P. Owen, of whom he wrote a +memoir. Butler was a man of great versatility, who pursued his +investigations in classical scholarship, in Shakespearian criticism, +biology and art with equal independence and originality. On his return from +New Zealand he had established himself at Clifford's Inn, and studied +painting, exhibiting regularly in the Academy between 1868 and 1876. But +with the publication of _Life and Habit_ (1877) he began to recognize +literature as his life work. The book was followed by three others, +attacking Darwinism--_Evolution Old and New, or the Theories of Buffon, Dr +Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck as compared with that of Mr C. Darwin_ (1879); +_Unconscious Memory_ (1880), a comparison between the theory of Dr E. +Hering and the _Philosophy of the Unconscious_ of Dr E. von Hartmann; and +_Luck or Cunning_ (1886). He had a thorough knowledge of northern Italy and +its art. In _Ex Voto_ (1888) he introduced many English readers to the art +of Tabachetti and Gaudenzio Ferrari at Varallo. He learnt nearly the whole +of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ by heart, and translated both poems (1898 +and 1900) into colloquial English prose. In his _Authoress of the Odyssey_ +(1897) he propounded two theories: that the poem was the work of a woman, +who drew her own portrait in Nausicaa; and that it was written at Trapani, +in Sicily, a proposition which he supported by elaborate investigations on +the spot. In another book on the _Shakespeare Sonnets_ (1899) he aimed at +destroying the explanations of the orthodox commentators. + +Butler was also a musician, or, as he called himself, a Handelian, and in +imitation of the style of Handel he wrote in collaboration with H. Festing +Jones a secular oratorio, _Narcissus_ (1888), and had completed his share +of another, _Ulysses_, at the time of his death on the 18th of June 1902. +His other works include: _Life and Letters_ (1896) of Dr Samuel Butler, his +[v.04 p.0888] grandfather, headmaster of Shrewsbury school and afterwards +bishop of Lichfield; _Alps and Sanctuaries_ (1881); and two posthumous +works edited by R.A. Streatfeild, _The Way of All Flesh_ (1903), a novel; +and _Essays on Life, Art and Science_ (1904). + +See _Samuel Butler, Records and Memorials_ (1903), by R.A. Streatfeild, a +collection printed for private circulation, the most important article +included being one by H. Festing Jones originally published in _The Eagle_ +(Cambridge, December 1902). + +BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848), Irish historian of philosophy, was born +at Annerville, near Clonmel in Ireland, probably in 1814. His father was a +Protestant, his mother a Roman Catholic, and he was brought up as a +Catholic. As a boy he was imaginative and poetical, and some of his early +verses were remarkable. While yet at Clonmel school he became a Protestant. +Later he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a brilliant career. +He specially devoted himself to literature and metaphysics, and was noted +for the beauty of his style. In 1834 he gained the ethical moderatorship, +newly instituted by Provost Lloyd, and continued in residence at college. +In 1837 he decided to enter the Church, and in the same year he was elected +to the professorship of moral philosophy, specially founded for him through +Lloyd's exertions. About the same time he was presented to the prebend of +Clondahorky, Donegal, and resided there when not called by his professorial +duties to Dublin. In 1842 he was promoted to the rectory of Raymochy. He +died on the 5th of July 1848. His _Sermons_ (2 vols., 1849) were remarkably +brilliant and forceful. The _Lectures on the History of Ancient +Philosophy_, edited by W. Hepworth Thompson (2 vols., 1856; 2nd ed., 1 vol. +1875), take a high place among the few British works on the history of +philosophy. The introductory lectures, and those on the early Greek +thinkers, though they evidence wide reading, do not show the complete +mastery that is found in Schwegler or Zeller; but the lectures on Plato are +of considerable value. Among his other writings were papers in the _Dublin +University Magazine_ (1834-1837); and "Letters on Development" (in the +_Irish Ecclesiastical Journal_, 1845), a reply to Newman's famous _Essay on +the Development of Christian Doctrine_. + +See _Memoir of W.A. Butler_, prefixed by Rev. J. Woodward to first series +of _Sermons_. + +BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838- ), British soldier, entered the army as +an ensign in 1858, becoming captain in 1872 and major in 1874. He took part +with distinction in the Red River expedition (1870-71) and the Ashanti +operations of 1873-74 under Wolseley, and received the C.B. in 1874. He +served with the same general in the Zulu War (brevet lieut.-colonel), the +campaign of Tel-el-Kebir, after which he was made an aide-de-camp to the +queen, and the Sudan 1884-85, being employed as colonel on the staff 1885, +and brigadier-general 1885-1886. In the latter year he was made a K.C.B. He +was colonel on the staff in Egypt 1890-1892, and brigadier-general there +until 1892, when he was promoted major-general and stationed at Aldershot, +after which he commanded the southeastern district. In 1898 he succeeded +General Goodenough as commander-in-chief in South Africa, with the local +rank of lieutenant-general. For a short period (Dec. 1898-Feb. 1899), +during the absence of Sir Alfred Milner in England, he acted as high +commissioner, and as such and subsequently in his military capacity he +expressed views on the subject of the probabilities of war which were not +approved by the home government; he was consequently ordered home to +command the western district, and held this post until 1905. He also held +the Aldershot command for a brief period in 1900-1901. Sir William Butler +was promoted lieutenant-general in 1900. He had long been known as a +descriptive writer, since his publication of _The Great Lone Land_ (1872) +and other works, and he was the biographer (1899) of Sir George Colley. He +married in 1877 Miss Elizabeth Thompson, an accomplished painter of +battle-scenes, notably "The Roll Call" (1874), "Quatre Bras" (1875), +"Rorke's Drift" (1881), "The Camel Corps" (1891), and "The Dawn of +Waterloo" (1895). + +BUTLER, a borough and the county-seat of Butler county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on Conoquenessing Creek, about 30 m. N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) +8734; (1900) 10,853, of whom 928 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,728. +It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, +Rochester & Pittsburg, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and is +connected with Pittsburg by two electric lines. It is built on a small hill +about 1010 ft. above sea-level, and commands extensive views of the +surrounding valley. The Butler County hospital (1899) is located here. A +fair is held in Butler annually. Oil, natural gas, clay, coal and iron +abound in the vicinity, and the borough has various manufactures, including +lumber, railway cars (especially of steel), paint, silk, bricks, +plate-glass, bottles and oil-well tools. The value of the city's factory +products increased from $1,403,026 in 1900 to $6,832,007 in 1905, or +386.9%, this being much the greatest rate of increase shown by any city in +the state having in 1900 a population of 8000 or more. Butler was selected +as the site for the county-seat of the newly-formed county in 1802, was +laid out in 1803, and was incorporated in the same year. The county and the +borough were named in honour of General Richard Butler, a soldier in the +War of Independence and leader of the right wing of General St Clair's +army, which was sent against the Indians in 1791 and on the 4th of November +was defeated, Butler being killed in the engagement. + +BUTLER (through the O. Fr. _bouteillier_, from the Late Lat. _buticularius, +buticula_, a bottle), a domestic servant who superintends the wine-cellar +and acts as the chief male servant of a household; among his other duties +are the conduct of the service of the table and the custody of the plate. +The butler of a royal household was an official of high rank, whose duties, +though primarily connected with the supply of wine for the royal table, +varied in the different courts in which the office appears. In England, as +superintendent of the importation of wine, a duty was payable to him (see +BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE); the butlership of Ireland, _Pincerna Hiberniae_, +was given by John, king of England, to Theobald Walter, who added the name +of Butler to his own; it then became the surname of his descendants, the +earls, dukes and marquesses of Ormonde (see BUTLER, family, above). + +BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE. In England there was an ancient right of the crown +to purveyance or pre-emption, _i.e._ the right of buying up provisions and +other necessities for the royal household, at a valuation, even without the +consent of the owner. Out of this right originated probably that of taking +customs, in return for the protection and maintenance of the ports and +harbours. One such customs due was that of "prisage," the right of taking +one tun of wine from every ship importing from ten to twenty tuns, and two +tuns from every ship importing more than twenty tuns. This right of prisage +was commuted, by a charter of Edward I. (1302), into a duty of two +shillings on every tun imported by merchant strangers, and termed +"butlerage," because paid to the king's butler. Butlerage ceased to be +levied in 1809, by the Customs Consolidation Act of that year. + +BUTO, the Greek name of the Egyptian goddess Uto (hierogl. _W'zy·t_), +confused with the name of her city Buto (see BUSIRIS). She was a +cobra-goddess of the marshes, worshipped especially in the city of Buto in +the north-west of the Delta, and at another Buto (Hdt. ii. 75) in the +north-east of the Delta, now Tell Nebesheh. The former city is placed by +Petrie at Tell Ferain, a large and important site, but as yet yielding no +inscriptions. This western Buto was the capital of the kingdom of Northern +Egypt in prehistoric times before the two kingdoms were united; hence the +goddess Buto was goddess of Lower Egypt and the North. To correspond to the +vulture goddess (Nekhbi) of the south she sometimes is given the form of a +vulture; she is also figured in human form. As a serpent she is commonly +twined round a papyrus stem, which latter spells her name; and generally +she wears the crown of Lower Egypt. The Greeks identified her with Leto; +this may be accounted for partly by the resemblance of name, partly by the +myth of her having brought up Horus in a floating island, resembling the +story of Leto and Apollo on Delos. Perhaps the two myths influenced each +other. Herodotus describes the temple and other sacred [v.04 p.0889] places +of (the western) Buto, and refers to its festival, and to its oracle, which +must have been important though nothing definite is known about it. It is +strange that a city whose leading in the most ancient times was fully +recognized throughout Egyptian history does not appear in the early lists +of nome-capitals. Like Thebes, however (which lay in the 4th nome of Upper +Egypt, its early capital being Hermonthis), it eventually became, at a very +late date, the capital of a nome, in this case called Phtheneto, "the land +of (the goddess) Buto." The second Buto (hierogl. _'Im·t_) was capital from +early times of the 19th nome of Lower Egypt. + +See Herodotus ii. 155; _Zeitschr. f. ägyptische Sprache_ (1871), I; K. +Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, _s.v._ "Buto"; D.G. Hogarth, +_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxiv. I; W.M.F. Petrie, _Ehnasya_, p. 36; +_Nebesheh and Defenneh_. + +(F. LL. G.) + +BUTRINTO, a seaport and fortified town of southern Albania, Turkey, in the +vilayet of Iannina; directly opposite the island of Corfu (Corcyra), and on +a small stream which issues from Lake Vatzindro or Vivari, into the Bay of +Butrinto, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. Pop.(1900) about 2000. The town, +which is situated about 2 m. inland, has a small harbour, and was formerly +the seat of an Orthodox bishop. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the +ancient _Buthrotum_, from which the modern town derives its name. The ruins +consist of a Roman wall, about a mile in circumference, and some remains of +both later and Hellenic work. The legendary founder of the city was +Helenus, son of Priam, and Virgil (_Aen._ iii. 291 sq.) tells how Helenus +here established a new Trojan kingdom. Hence the names _New Troy_ and _New +Pergamum_, applied to Buthrotum, and those of _Xanthus_ and _Simoïs_, given +to two small streams in the neighbourhood. In the 1st century B.C. +Buthrotum became a Roman colony, and derived some importance from its +position near Corcyra, and on the main highway between Dyrrachium and +Ambracia. Under the Empire, however, it was overshadowed by the development +of Dyrrachium and Apollonia. The modern city belonged to the Venetians from +the 14th century until 1797. It was then seized by the French, who in 1799 +had to yield to the Russians and Turks. + +BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879), Irish lawyer and Nationalist leader, was born at +Glenfin, Donegal, in 1813, his father being the Episcopalian rector of +Stranorlar. Having won high honours at Trinity, Dublin, he was appointed +professor of political economy in 1836. In 1838 he was called to the bar, +and not only soon obtained a good practice, but became known as a +politician on the Protestant Conservative side, and an opponent of +O'Connell. In 1844 he was made a Q.C. He figured in nearly all the +important Irish law cases for many years, and was engaged in the defence of +Smith O'Brien in 1848, and of the Fenians between 1865 and 1869. In 1852 he +was returned to parliament by Youghal as a Liberal-Conservative, and +retained this seat till 1865; but his views gradually became more liberal, +and he drifted away from his earlier opinions. His career in parliament was +marred by his irregular habits, which resulted in pecuniary embarrassment, +and between 1865 and 1870 he returned again to his work at the law courts. +The result, however, of the disestablishment of the Irish Church was to +drive Butt and other Irish Protestants into union with the Nationalists, +who had always repudiated the English connexion; and on 19th May 1870, at a +large meeting in Dublin, Butt inaugurated the Home Rule movement in a +speech demanding an Irish parliament for local affairs. On this platform he +was elected in 1871 for Limerick, and found himself at the head of an Irish +Home Rule party of fifty-seven members. But it was an ill-assorted union, +and Butt soon found that he had little or no control over his more +aggressive followers. He had no liking for violent methods or for +"obstruction" in parliament; and his leadership gradually became a nullity. +His false position undoubtedly assisted in breaking down his health, and he +died in Dublin on the 5th of May 1879. + +BUTT. (1) (From the Fr. _botte_, _boute_; Med. Lat. _butta_, a wine +vessel), a cask for ale or wine, with a capacity of about two hogsheads. +(2) (A word common in Teutonic languages, meaning short, or a stump), the +thick end of anything, as of a fishing-rod, a gun, a whip, also the stump +of a tree. (3) (From the Fr. _but_, a goal or mark, and _butte_, a target, +a rising piece of ground, &c.), a mark for shooting, as in archery, or, in +its modern use, a mound or bank in front of which are placed the targets in +artillery or musketry practice. This is sometimes called a "stop-butt," its +purpose being to secure the ground behind the targets from stray shots. The +word is used figuratively of a person or object at which derision or abuse +are levelled. + +BUTTE, the largest city of Montana, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Silver +Bow county. It is situated in the valley of Deer Lodge river, near its +head, at an altitude of about 5700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3363; (1890) 10,723; +(1900) 30,470, of whom 10,210 were foreign-born, including 2474 Irish, 1518 +English-Canadians, and 1505 English; (1910 census) 39,165. It is served by +the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget +Sound, the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, and the Oregon Short Line railways. +Popularly the name "Butte" is applied to an area which embraces the city, +Centerville, Walkerville, East Butte, South Butte and Williamsburg. These +together form one large and more or less compact city. Butte lies in the +centre of the greatest copper-mining district in the world; the surrounding +hills are honey-combed with mines, and some mines are in the very heart of +the city itself. The best known of the copper mines is the Anaconda. The +annual output of copper from the Butte district almost equals that from all +the rest of the country together; the annual value of copper, gold and +silver aggregates more than $60,000,000. Although mining and its allied +industries of quartz crushing and smelting dominate all other industries in +the place, there are also foundries and machine shops, iron-works, tile +factories, breweries and extensive planing mills. Electricity, used in the +mines particularly, is brought to Butte from Cañon Ferry, 75 m. to the N.; +from the plant, also on the Missouri river, of the Helena Power +Transmission Company, which has a great steel dam 85 ft. high and 630 ft. +long across the river, and a 6000-h.p. substation in Butte; and from the +plant of the Madison River Power Company, on Madison river 7½ m. S.E. of +Norris, whence power is also transmitted to Bozeman and Belgrade, Gallatin +county, to Ruby, Madison county, and to the Greene-Campbell mine near +Whitehall, Jefferson county. In 1910 Butte had only one large smelter, and +the smoke nuisance was thus abated. The city is the seat of the Montana +School of Mines (1900), and has a state industrial school, a high school +and a public library (rebuilt in 1906 after a fire) with more than 32,000 +volumes. The city hall, Federal building and Silver Bow county court house +are among the principal buildings. Butte was first settled as a placer +mining camp in 1864. It was platted in 1866; its population in 1870 was +only 241, and for many years its growth was slow. Prosperity came, however, +with the introduction of quartz mining in 1875, and in 1879 a city charter +was granted. In the decade from 1890 to 1900 Butte's increase in population +was 184.2%. + +BUTTE (O. Fr. _butte_, a hillock or rising ground), a word used in the +western states of North America for a flat-topped hill surrounded by a +steep escarpment from which a slope descends to the plain. It is sometimes +used for "an elevation higher than a hill but not high enough for a +mountain." The butte capped by a horizontal platform of hard rock is +characteristic of the arid plateau region of the west of North America. + +[Illustration: Plant of _Ranunculus bulbosus_, showing determinate +inflorescence.] + +BUTTER (Lat. _butyrum_, [Greek: bouturon], apparently connected with +[Greek: bous], cow, and [Greek: turos], cheese, but, according to the _New +English Dictionary_, perhaps of Scythian origin), the fatty portion of the +milk of mammalian animals. The milk of all mammals contains such fatty +constituents, and butter from the milk of goats, sheep and other animals +has been and may be used; but that yielded by cow's milk is the most +savoury, and it alone really constitutes the butter of commerce. The milk +of the various breeds of cattle varies widely in the proportion of fatty +matter it contains; its richness in this respect being greatly influenced +by season, nature of food, state of the animals' health and other +considerations. Usually the cream is skimmed off the surface of the milk +for making butter, but by some the churning is performed on the milk itself +without waiting for the [v.04 p.0890] separation of the cream. The +operation of churning causes the rupture of the oil sacs, and by the +coalescence of the fat so liberated butter is formed. Details regarding +churning and the preparation of butter generally will be found under DAIRY +AND DAIRY FARMING. + +BUTTERCUP, a name applied to several species of the genus _Ranunculus_ +(_q.v._), characterized by their deeply-cut leaves and yellow, broadly +cup-shaped flowers. _Ranunculus acris_ and _R. bulbosus_ are erect, hairy +meadow plants, the latter having the stem swollen at the base, and +distinguished also by the furrowed flower-stalks and the often smaller +flowers with reflexed, not spreading, sepals. _R. repens_, common on waste +ground, produces long runners by means of which it rapidly covers the +ground. The plants are native in the north temperate to arctic zones of the +Old World, and have been introduced in America. + +BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL (1831-1901), American soldier, was born in Utica, New +York. He graduated at Union College in 1849, and when the Civil War broke +out he became colonel of the 12th New York militia regiment. On the 14th of +May 1861 he was transferred to the regular army as a lieutenant-colonel, +and in September he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He served in +Virginia in 1861 and in the Peninsular campaign of 1862, and was wounded at +Games' Mill. He took part in the campaign of second Bull Run (August 1862), +and in November became major-general U.S.V. and in July 1863 colonel U.S.A. +At Fredericksburg he commanded the V. corps, in which he had served since +its formation. After General Hooker succeeded Burnside, Butterfield was +appointed chief of staff, Army of the Potomac, and in this capacity he +served in the Chancellorsville and Gettysburg campaigns. Not being on good +terms with General Meade he left the staff, and was soon afterwards sent as +chief of staff to Hooker, with the XI. and XII. corps (later combined as +the XX.) to Tennessee, and took part in the battle of Chattanooga (1863), +and the Atlanta campaign of the following year, when he commanded a +division of the XX. corps. His services were recognized by the brevets of +brigadier-general and major-general in the regular army. He resigned in +1870, and for the rest of his life was engaged in civil and commercial +pursuits. In 1862 he wrote a manual of _Camp and Outpost Duty_ (New York, +1862). General Butterfield died at Cold Spring, N.Y., on the 17th of July +1901. + +A _Biographical Memorial_, by his widow, was published in 1904. + +BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM (1814-1900), English architect, was born in London, +and educated for his profession at Worcester, where he laid the foundations +of his knowledge of Gothic architecture. He settled in London and became +prominent in connexion with the Cambridge Camden Society, and its work in +the improvement of church furniture and art. His first important building +was St Augustine's, Canterbury (1845), and his reputation was made by All +Saints', Margaret Street, London (1859), followed by St Alban's, Holborn +(1863), the new part of Merton College, Oxford (1864), Keble College, +Oxford (1875), and many houses and ecclesiastical buildings. He also did +much work as a restorer, which has been adversely criticized. He was a keen +churchman and intimately associated with the English church revival. He had +somewhat original views as to colour in architecture, which led to rather +garish results, his view being that any combination of the natural colours +of the materials was permissible. His private life was retiring, and he +died unmarried on the 23rd of February 1900. + +BUTTERFLY AND MOTH (the former from "butter" and "fly," an old term of +uncertain origin, possibly from the nature of the excrement, or the yellow +colour of some particular species; the latter akin to O. Eng. _mod_, an +earth-worm), the common English names applied respectively to the two +groups of insects forming the scientific order Lepidoptera (_q.v._). + +BUTTER-NUT, the product of _Caryocar nuciferum_, a native of tropical South +America. The large nuts, known also as saowari or suwarow nuts, are the +hard stone of the fruit and contain an oily nutritious seed. The genus +_Caryocar_ contains ten species, in tropical South America, some of which +form large trees affording a very durable wood, useful for shipbuilding. + +[Illustration: A, leaf of Butterwort (_Pinguicula vulgaris_) with left +margin inflected over a row of small flies. (After Darwin.) B, glands from +surface of leaf by which the sticky liquid is secreted and by means of +which the products of digestion are absorbed.] + +BUTTERWORT, the popular name of a small insectivorous plant, _Pinguicula +vulgaris_, which grows in wet, boggy land. It is a herb with a rosette of +fleshy, oblong leaves, 1 to 3 in. long, appressed to the ground, of a pale +colour and with a sticky surface. Small insects settle on the leaves and +are caught in the viscid excretion. This, like the excretion of the sundew +and other insectivorous plants, contains a digestive ferment (or enzyme) +which renders the nitrogenous substances of the body of the insect soluble, +and capable of absorption by the leaf. In this way the plant obtains +nitrogenous food by means of its leaves. The leaves bear two sets of +glands, the larger borne on usually unicellular pedicels, the smaller +almost sessile (fig. B). When a fly is captured, the viscid excretion +becomes strongly acid and the naturally incurved margins of the leaf curve +still further inwards, rendering contact between the insect and the +leaf-surface more complete. The plant is widely distributed hi the north +temperate zone, extending into the arctic zone. + +BUTTERY (from O. Fr. _boterie_, Late Lat. _botaria_, a place where liquor +is stored, from _butta_, a cask), a place for storing wine; later, with a +confusion with "butter," a pantry or storeroom for food; especially, at +colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, the place where food other than meat, +especially bread and butter, ale and wines, &c., are kept. + +BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL (1764-1829), German philologist, was born at +Frankfort-On-Main in 1764. He was educated in his native town and at the +university of Göttingen. In 1789 he obtained an appointment in the library +at Berlin, and for some years he edited _Speners Journal_. In 1796 he +became professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, a post which he +held for twelve years. In 1806 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences, +and in 1811 was made secretary of the Historico-Philological Section. He +died in 1829. Buttmann's writings gave a great impetus to the scientific +study of the Greek language. His _Griechische Grammatik_ (1792) went +through many editions, and was translated into English. His _Lexilogus_, a +valuable study on some words of difficulty occurring principally in the +poems of Homer and Hesiod, was published in 1818-1825, and was translated +into English. Buttmann's other works were _Ausführliche griechische +Sprachlehre_ (2 vols., 1819-1827); _Mythologus_, a collection of essays +(1828-1829); and editions of some classical authors, the most important +being _Demosthenes in Midiam_ (1823) and the continuation of Spalding's +_Quintilian_. + +[v.04 p.0891] BUTTON (Fr. _bouton_, O. Fr. _boton_, apparently from the +same root as _bouter_, to push), a small piece of metal or other material +which, pushed through a loop or button-hole, serves as a catch between +different parts of a garment, &c. The word is also used of other objects +which have a projecting knob-like character, _e.g._ button-mushrooms, the +button of an electric bell-push, or the guard at the tip of a fencing foil; +or which resemble a button in size and shape, as the button of metal +obtained in assaying operations. At first buttons were apparently used for +purposes of ornamentation; in _Piers Plowman_ (1377) mention is made of a +knife with "botones ouergylte," and in Lord Berner's translation of +_Froissart's Chronicles_ (1525) of a book covered with crimson velvet with +"ten botons of syluer and gylte." While this use has continued, especially +in connexion with women's dress, they began to be employed as fastenings at +least as early as the 15th century. As a term of comparison for something +trivial or worthless, the word is found in the 14th century. Buttons of +distinctive colour or pattern, or bearing a portrait or motto, are often +worn, especially in the United States, as a decoration, or sign of +membership of a society or of adherence to a political party; among the +most honoured of such buttons are those worn by members of the military +order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, organized in 1865 by +officers who had fought in the Civil War. Chinese officials wear a button +or knob on their hats as a mark of rank, the grade being denoted by its +colour and material (see MANDARIN). + +Many varieties of buttons are used on clothing, but they may be divided +into two main classes according to the arrangement by which they are +attached to the garment; in one class they are provided with a shank which +may consist of a metal loop or of a tuft of cloth or similar material, +while in the other they are pierced with holes through which are passed +threads. To these two classes roughly correspond two broad differences in +the method of manufacture, according as the buttons are composite and made +up of two or more pieces, or are simply shaped disks of a single material; +some composite buttons, however, are provided with holes, and simple metal +buttons sometimes have metal shanks soldered or riveted on them. From an +early period buttons of the former kind were made by needlework with the +aid of a mould or former, but about 1807 B. Sanders, a Dane who had been +ruined by the bombardment of Copenhagen, introduced an improved method of +manufacturing them at Birmingham. His buttons were formed of two disks of +metal locked together by having their edges turned back on each other and +enclosing a filling of cloth or pasteboard; and by methods of this kind, +carried out by elaborate automatic machinery, buttons are readily produced, +presenting faces of silk, mohair, brocade or other material required to +harmonize with the fabric on which they are used. Sanders's buttons at +first had metal shanks, but about 1825 his son invented flexible shanks of +canvas or other substance through which the needle could pass freely in any +direction. The mechanical manufacture of covered buttons was started in the +United States in 1827 by Samuel Williston, of Easthampton, Mass., who in +1834 joined forces with Joel and Josiah Hayden, of Haydenville. + +The number of materials that have been used for making buttons is very +large--metals such as brass and iron for the cheaper kinds, and for more +expensive ones, gold and silver, sometimes ornamented with jewels, filigree +work, &c.; ivory, horn, bone and mother-of-pearl or other nacreous products +of shell-fish; vegetable ivory and wood; glass, porcelain, paper, celluloid +and artificial compositions; and even the casein of milk, and blood. Brass +buttons were made at Birmingham in 1689, and in the following century the +metal button industry underwent considerable development in that city. +Matthew Boulton the elder, about 1745, introduced great improvements in the +processes of manufacture, and when his son started the Soho works in 1767 +one of the departments was devoted to the production of steel buttons with +facets, some of which sold for 140 guineas a gross. Gilt buttons also came +into fashion about the same period. In this "Augustan age" of the +Birmingham button industry, when there was a large export trade, the +profits of manufacturers who worked on only a modest scale amounted to +£3000 and £4000 a year, and workmen earned from £2 to £4 a week. At one +time the buttons had each to be fashioned separately by skilled artisans, +but gradually the cost of production was lessened by the adoption of +mechanical processes, and instead of being turned out singly and engraved +or otherwise ornamented by hand, they came to be stamped out in dies which +at once shape them and impress them with the desired pattern. Ivory buttons +are among the oldest of all. Horn buttons were made at Birmingham at least +by 1777; towards the middle of the igth century Emile Bassot invented a +widely-used process for producing them from the hoofs of cattle, which were +softened by boiling. Pearl buttons are made from pearl oyster shells +obtained from various parts of the world, and after being cut out by +tubular drills are shaped and polished by machinery. Buttons of vegetable +ivory can be readily dyed. Glass buttons are especially made in Bohemia, as +also are those of porcelain, which were invented about 1840 by an +Englishman, R. Prosser of Birmingham. In the United States few buttons were +made until the beginning of the 19th century, when the manufacture of metal +buttons was started at Waterbury, Conn., which is now the centre of that +industry. In 1812 Aaron Benedict began to make ivory and horn buttons at +the same place. Buttons of vegetable ivory, now one of the most important +branches of the American button industry, were first made at Leeds, Mass., +in 1859 by an Englishman, A.W. Critchlow, and in 1875 commercial success +was attained in the production of composition buttons at Springfield, Mass. +Pearl buttons were made on a small scale in 1855, but their manufacture +received an enormous impetus in the last decade of the 19th century, when +J.F. Boepple began, at Muscatine, Iowa, to utilize the unio or "niggerhead" +shells found along the Mississippi. By 1905 the annual output of these +"fresh-water pearl" buttons had reached 11,405,723 gross, worth $3,359,167, +or 36.6% of the total value of the buttons produced in the United States. +In the same year the mother-of-pearl buttons ("ocean pearl buttons") +numbered 1,737,830 gross, worth $1,511,107, and the two kinds together +constituted 44% of the number, and 53.9% of the value, of the button +manufactures of the United States. (See _U.S.A. Census Reports, 1900, +Manufactures_, part iii. pp. 315-327.) + +BUTTRESS (from the O. Fr. _bouteret_, that which bears a thrust, from +_bouter_, to push, cf. Eng. "butt" and "abutment"), masonry projecting from +a wall, provided to give additional strength to the same, and also to +resist the thrust of the roof or wall, especially when concentrated at any +one point. In Roman architecture the plans of the building, where the +vaults were of considerable span and the thrust therefore very great, were +so arranged as to provide cross-walls, dividing the aisles, as in the case +of the Basilica of Maxentius, and, in the Thermae of Rome, the subdivisions +of the less important halls, so that there were no visible buttresses. In +the baths of Diocletian, however, these cross-walls rose to the height of +the great vaulted hall, the tepidarium, and their upper portions were +decorated with niches and pilasters. In a palace at Shuka in Syria, +attributed to the end of the 2nd century A.D., where, in consequence of the +absence of timber, it was necessary to cover over the building with slabs +of stones, these latter were carried on arches thrown across the great +hall, and this necessitated two precautions, viz. the provision of an +abutment inside the building, and of buttresses outside, the earliest +example in which the feature was frankly accepted. In Byzantine work there +were no external buttresses, the plans being arranged to include them in +cross-walls or interior abutments. The buttresses of the early Romanesque +churches were only pilaster strips employed to break up the wall surface +and decorate the exterior. At a slightly later period a greater depth was +given to the lower portion of the buttresses, which was then capped with a +deep sloping weathering. The introduction of ribbed vaulting, extended to +the nave in the 12th century, and the concentration of thrusts on definite +points of the structure, rendered the buttress an absolute necessity, and +from the first this would seem to have been recognized, and the +architectural treatment already given to the Romanesque buttress received +[v.04 p.0892] a remarkable development. The buttresses of the early English +period have considerable projection with two or three sets-off sloped at an +acute angle dividing the stages and crowned by triangular heads; and +slender columns ("buttress shafts") are used at the angle. In later work +pinnacles and niches are usually employed to decorate the summits of the +buttresses, and in the still later Perpendicular work the vertical faces +are all richly decorated with panelling. + +BUTYL ALCOHOLS, C_4H_9OH. Four isomeric alcohols of this formula are known; +two of these are primary, one secondary, and one tertiary (see ALCOHOLS). +Normal butyl alcohol, CH_3·(CH_2)_2·CH_2OH, is a colourless liquid, boiling +at 116.8°, and formed by reducing normal butyl aldehyde with sodium, or by +a peculiar fermentation of glycerin, brought about by a schizomycete. +Isobutyl alcohol, (CH_3)_2CH·CH_2OH, the butyl alcohol of fermentation, is +a primary alcohol derived from isobutane. It may be prepared by the general +methods, and occurs in fusel oil, especially in potato spirit. It is a +liquid, smelling like fusel oil and boiling at 108.4° C. Methyl ethyl +carbinol, CH_3·C_2H_5·CHOH, is the secondary alcohol derived from n-butane. +It is a strongly smelling liquid, boiling at 99°. Trimethyl carbinol or +tertiary butyl alcohol, (CH_3)_3·COH, is the simplest tertiary alcohol, and +was obtained by A. Butlerow in 1864 by acting with zinc methyl on acetyl +chloride (see ALCOHOLS). It forms rhombic prisms or plates which melt at +25° and boil at 83°, and has a spiritous smell, resembling that of camphor. + +BUTYRIC ACID, C_4H_8O_2. Two acids are known corresponding to this formula, +_normal butyric acid_, CH_3·CH_2·CH_2·COOH, and _isobutyric acid_, +(CH_3)_2·CH·COOH. Normal butyric acid or fermentation butyric acid is found +in butter, as an hexyl ester in the oil of _Heracleum giganteum_ and as an +octyl ester in parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_); it has also been noticed in +the fluids of the flesh and in perspiration. It may be prepared by the +hydrolysis of ethyl acetoacetate, or by passing carbon monoxide over a +mixture of sodium acetate and sodium ethylate at 205° C. (A. Geuther, +_Ann._, 1880, 202, p.306), C_2H_5ONa + CH_3COONa + CO = H·CO_2Na + +CH_3·CH_2·CH_2·COONa. It is ordinarily prepared by the fermentation of +sugar or starch, brought about by the addition of putrefying cheese, +calcium carbonate being added to neutralize the acids formed in the +process. A. Fitz (_Ber._, 1878, 11 p. 52) found that the butyric +fermentation of starch is aided by the direct addition of _Bacillus +subtilis_. The acid is an oily liquid of unpleasant smell, and solidifies +at -19° C.; it boils at 162.3° C., and has a specific gravity of 0.9746 (0° +C.). It is easily soluble in water and alcohol, and is thrown out of its +aqueous solution by the addition of calcium chloride. Potassium bichromate +and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide and acetic acid, while +alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to carbon dioxide. The calcium +salt, Ca(C_4H_7O_2)_2·H_2O, is less soluble in hot water than in cold. + +_Isobutyric acid_ is found in the free state in carobs (_Ceratonia +siliqua_) and in the root of _Arnica dulcis_, and as an ethyl ester in +croton oil. It may be artificially prepared by the hydrolysis of +isopropylcyanide with alkalies, by the oxidation of isopropyl alcohol with +potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid (I. Pierre and E. Puchot, _Ann. de +chim. et de phys._, 1873, [4] 28, p. 366), or by the action of sodium +amalgam on methacrylic acid, CH_2·C(CH_3)·COOH. It is a liquid of somewhat +unpleasant smell, boiling at 155.5° C. Its specific gravity is 0.9697 (0°). +Heated with chromic acid solution to 140° C., it gives carbon dioxide and +acetone. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to +[alpha]-oxyisobutyric acid, (CH_3)_2·C(OH)·COOH, whilst concentrated nitric +acid converts it into dinitroisopropane. Its salts are more soluble in +water than those of the normal acid. + +BUXAR, or BAXAR, a town of India, in the district of Shahabad, Bengal, on +the south bank of the Ganges, and on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) +13,945. There is a dismantled fort of small size which was important from +its commanding the Ganges. A celebrated victory was gained here on the 23rd +of October 1764 by the British forces under Major (afterwards Sir Hector) +Munro, over the united armies of Shuja-ud-Dowlah and Kasim Ali Khan. The +action raged from 9 o'clock till noon, when the enemy gave way. Pursuit +was, however, frustrated by Shuja-ud-Dowlah sacrificing a part of his army +to the safety of the remainder. A bridge of boats had been constructed over +a stream about 2 m. distant from the field of battle, and this the enemy +destroyed before their rear had passed over. Through this act 2000 troops +were drowned, or otherwise lost; but destructive as was this proceeding, it +was, said Major Munro, "the best piece of generalship Shuja-ud-Dowlah +showed that day, because if I had crossed the rivulet with the army, I +should either have taken or drowned his whole army in the Karamnasa, and +come up with his treasure and jewels, and Kasim Ali Khan's jewels, which I +was informed amounted to between two and three millions." + +BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707-1772), English arithmetician, was born on the 20th +of March 1707 at Elmton, near Chesterfield, in Derbyshire. Although his +father was schoolmaster of the parish, and his grandfather had been the +vicar, his education had been so neglected that he could not write; and his +knowledge, except of numbers, was extremely limited. How he came first to +know the relative proportions of numbers, and their progressive +denominations, he did not remember; but on such matters his attention was +so constantly riveted, that he frequently took no cognizance of external +objects, and when he did, it was only with reference to their numbers. He +measured the whole lordship of Elmton, consisting of some thousand acres, +simply by striding over it, and gave the area not only in acres, roods and +perches, but even in square inches. After this, he reduced them into square +hairs'-breadths, reckoning forty-eight to each side of the inch. His memory +was so great, that in resolving a question he could leave off and resume +the operation again at the same point after the lapse of a week, or even of +several months. His perpetual application to figures prevented the smallest +acquisition of any other knowledge. His wonderful faculty was tested in +1754 by the Royal Society of London, who acknowledged their satisfaction by +presenting him with a handsome gratuity. During his visit to the metropolis +he was taken to see the tragedy of _Richard III._ performed at Drury Lane +theatre, but his whole mind was given to the counting of the words uttered +by David Garrick. Similarly, he set himself to count the steps of the +dancers; and he declared that the innumerable sounds produced by the +musical instruments had perplexed him beyond measure. He died in 1772. + +A memoir appeared in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June 1754, to which, +probably through the medium of a Mr Holliday, of Haughton Hall, +Nottinghamshire, Buxton had contributed several letters. In this memoir, +his age is given as forty-nine, which points to his birth in 1705; the date +adopted above is on the authority of Lysons' _Magna Britannia_ +(Derbyshire). + +BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL (1786-1845), English philanthropist, was born in +Essex on the 1st of April 1786, and was educated at Trinity College, +Dublin, where, in spite of his early education having been neglected, hard +work made him one of the first men of his time, with a high reputation as a +speaker. In 1807 he married Hannah Gurney, sister of the celebrated +Elizabeth Fry. As his means were not sufficient to support his family, he +entered in 1808 the brewery of Truman, Hanbury & Company, of which his +uncles, the Hanburys, were partners. He devoted himself to business with +characteristic energy, became a partner in 1811, and soon had the whole +concern in his hands. In 1816 he brought himself into notice by his speech +on behalf of the Spitalfields weavers, and in 1818 he published his able +_Inquiry into Prison Discipline_. The same year he was elected M.P. for +Weymouth, a borough for which he continued to sit till 1837. In the House +of Commons he had a high reputation as an able and straightforward speaker, +devoted to philanthropic schemes. Of these plans the most important was +that for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies. Buxton devoted +his life to this object, and through defeat and opposition, despite the +attacks of enemies and the remonstrances of faint-hearted friends, he +remained true to it. Not till 1833 was he successful, and even then only +partially, for he was compelled to admit into the bill some clauses against +which his better judgment had decided. In 1837 he ceased to [v.04 p.0893] +sit in the House of Commons. He travelled on the continent in 1839 to +recruit his health, which had given way, and took the opportunity of +inspecting foreign prisons. He was made a baronet in 1840, and then devoted +himself to a plan for ameliorating the condition of the African natives. +The failure of the Niger expedition of 1841 was a blow from which he never +recovered. He died on the 19th of February 1845. + +See _Memoir and Correspondence of Sir T.F. Buxton_ (1848), by his third +son, Charles Buxton (1823-1871), a well-known philanthropist and member of +parliament. + +BUXTON, a market town and fashionable health-resort in the High Peak +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the London & +North-Western and Midland railways, 36 m. N.W. by N. of Derby. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 10,181. It occupies a high position, lying between +1000 and 1150 ft. above sea-level, in an open hollow, surrounded at a +distance by hills of considerable elevation, except on the south-east side, +where the Wye, which rises about half a mile away, makes its exit. The old +town (High Buxton) stands a little above the new, and consists of one wide +street, and a considerable market-place with an old cross. The new town is +the richer portion. The Crescent is a fine range of buildings in the Doric +style, erected by the duke of Devonshire in 1779-1788. It contains hotels, +a ballroom, a bank, a library and other establishments, and the surrounding +open grounds are laid out in terraces and gardens. The Old Hall hotel at +the west end of the Crescent stands on the site of the mansion built in +1572 by the earl of Shrewsbury in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, which was +the residence of Mary queen of Scots when she visited the town. The mineral +waters of Buxton, which have neither taste nor smell, are among the most +noted in England, and are particularly efficacious in cases of rheumatism +and gout. There are numerous public and private baths, the most important +of which are those in the establishment at the eastern end of the Crescent. +The springs supply hot and cold water at a very short distance from each +other, flowing at the rate of 60 gallons a minute. The former possesses a +uniform temperature of 82° Fahr., and the principal substances in solution +are bicarbonate of calcium, bicarbonate of magnesium, chloride of sodium, +chloride of magnesium and silica acid. There is also a chalybeate spring +known as St Anne's well, situated at the S.W. corner of the Crescent, the +water of which when mixed with that of the other springs proves purgative. +The Devonshire hospital, formerly known as the Bath Charity, is a +benevolent institution, supported by voluntary subscriptions. Every year +some thousands of poor patients are treated free of cost; and the hospital +was enlarged for their accommodation, a dome being added which is of +greater circumference than any other in Europe. In 1894 the duke of +Devonshire erected a handsome pump-room at St Anne's well. The Buxton +season extends from June to October, and during that period the town is +visited by thousands, but it is also popular as a winter resort. The Buxton +Gardens are beautifully laid out, with ornamental waters, a fine +opera-house, pavilion and concert hall, theatre and reading rooms. Electric +lighting has been introduced, and there is an excellent golf course. The +Cavendish Terrace forms a fine promenade, and the neighbourhood of the town +is rich in objects of interest. Of these the chief are Poole's Hole, a vast +stalactite cave, about half a mile distant; Diamond Hill, which owes its +name to the quartz crystals which are not uncommon in its rocks; and Chee +Tor, a remarkable cliff, on the banks of the Wye, 300 ft. high. Ornaments +are manufactured by the inhabitants from alabaster and spar; and excellent +lime is burned at the quarries near Poole's Hole. Buxton is an important +centre for horse-breeding, and a large horse-fair is held annually. +Although the annual rainfall, owing to the situation of the town towards +the western flank of the Pennine Hills, is about 49 in., the air is +particularly dry owing to the high situation and the rapidity with which +waters drain off through the limestone. The climate is bracing and healthy. + +The waters were known and used by the Romans, but to a limited extent, and +no remains of their baths survive. Roman roads connected the place with +Derby, Brough in Edale and Manchester. Buxton (Bawdestanes, Bue-stanes), +formed into a civil parish from Bakewell in 1895, has thus claims to be +considered one of the oldest English spas. It was probably the "Bectune" +mentioned in Domesday. After the departure of the Romans the baths seem to +have been long neglected, but were again frequented in the 16th century, +when the chapel of St Anne was hung round with the crutches of those who +were supposed to owe their cure to her healing powers; these interesting +relics were destroyed at the Reformation. The baths were visited at least +four times by Mary queen of Scots, when a prisoner in charge of George, +earl of Shrewsbury, other famous Elizabethan visitors being Lord Burleigh, +the earl of Essex, and Robert, earl of Leicester. At the close of the 18th +century the duke of Devonshire, lord of the manor (whose ancestor Sir Ralph +de Gernons was lord of Bakewell in 1251), spent large sums of money on +improvements in the town. In 1781 he began to build the famous Crescent, +and since that time Buxton has steadily increased in favour as an inland +watering-place. In 1813 a weekly market on Saturday and four annual fairs +were granted. These were bought by the local authorities from the duke of +Devonshire in 1864. + +See Gough's edition of Camden's _Britannia_; Stephen Glover, _History of +the County of Derby_ (Derby, 1829); W. Bemrose, _Guide to Buxton_ (London, +1869). + +BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1564-1629), German Hebrew and Rabbinic +scholar, was born at Kamen in Westphalia on the 25th of December 1564. The +original form of the name was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived +the family crest, which bore the figure of a goat (Ger. _Bock_, he-goat). +After the death of his father, who was minister of Kamen, Buxtorf studied +at Marburg and the newly-founded university of Herborn, at the latter of +which C. Olevian (1536-1587) and J.P. Piscator (1546-1625) had been +appointed professors of theology. At a later date Piscator received the +assistance of Buxtorf in the preparation of his Latin translation of the +Old Testament, published at Herborn in 1602-1603. From Herborn Buxtorf went +to Heidelberg, and thence to Basel, attracted by the reputation of J.J. +Grynaeus and J.G. Hospinian (1515-1575). After a short residence at Basel +he studied successively under H.B. Bullinger (1504-1575) at Zürich and Th. +Beza at Geneva. On his return to Basel, Grynaeus, desirous that the +services of so promising a scholar should be secured to the university, +procured him a situation as tutor in the family of Leo Curio, son of +Coelius Secundus Curio, well-known for his sufferings on account of the +Reformed faith. At the instance of Grynaeus, Buxtorf undertook the duties +of the Hebrew chair in the university, and discharged them for two years +with such ability that at the end of that time he was unanimously appointed +to the vacant office. From this date (1591) to his death in 1629 he +remained in Basel, and devoted himself with remarkable zeal to the study of +Hebrew and rabbinic literature. He received into his house many learned +Jews, that he might discuss his difficulties with them, and he was +frequently consulted by Jews themselves on matters relating to their +ceremonial law. He seems to have well deserved the title which was +conferred upon him of "Master of the Rabbins." His partiality for Jewish +society brought him, indeed, on one occasion into trouble with the +authorities of the city, the laws against the Jews being very strict. +Nevertheless, on the whole, his relations with the city of Basel were +friendly. He remained firmly attached to the university which first +recognized his merits, and declined two invitations from Leiden and Saumur +successively. His correspondence with the most distinguished scholars of +the day was very extensive; the library of the university of Basel contains +a rich collection of letters, which are valuable for a literary history of +the time. + +WORKS.--_Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum_ (1602; 7th ed., 1658); _Synagoga +Judaica_ (1603 in German; afterwards translated into Latin in an enlarged +form), a valuable repertory of information regarding the opinions and +ceremonies of the Jews; _Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum cum brevi Lexico +Rabbinico Philosophico_ (1607; reprinted at Glasgow, 1824); his great +Rabbinical Bible, _Biblic Hebraica cum Paraphr. Chald. et Commentariis +Rabbinorum_ (2 vols., 1618; 4 vols., 1618-1619), containing, in addition to +the Hebrew [v.04 p.0894] text, the Aramaic Paraphrases of Targums, +punctuated after the analogy of the Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel (a +proceeding which has been condemned by Richard Simon and others), and the +Commentaries of the more celebrated Rabbis, with various other treatises; +_Tiberias, sive Commentarius Masoreticus_ (1620; quarto edition, improved +and enlarged by J. Buxtorf the younger, 1665), so named from the great +school of Jewish criticism which had its seat in the town of Tiberias. It +was in this work that Buxtorf controverted the views of Elias Levita +regarding the late origin of the Hebrew vowel points, a subject which gave +rise to the controversy between Louis Cappel and his son Johannes Buxtorf +(_q.v._). Buxtorf did not live to complete the two works on which his +reputation chiefly rests, viz. his great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, +et Rabbinicum_, and the _Concordantiae Bibliorum Hebraicorum_, both of +which were edited by his son. They are monuments of untiring labour and +industry. The lexicon was republished at Leipzig in 1869 with some +additions by Bernard Fischer, and the concordance was assumed by Julius +Fürst as the basis of his great Hebrew concordance, which appeared in 1840. + +For additional information regarding his writings see _Athenae Rauricae_, +pp. 444-448; articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopädie_, and +Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._; J.P. Niceron's _Mémoires_, vol. xxxi. pp. +206-215; J.M. Schroeckh's _Kirchengeschichte_, vol. v. (Post-Reformation +period), pp. 72 seq. (Leipzig, 1806); G.W. Meyer's _Geschichte der +Schrift-Erklärung_, vol. iii. (Göttingen, 1804); and E. Kautsch, _Johannes +Buxtorf der Ältere_ (1879). + +BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1599-1664), son of the preceding, was born +at Basel on the 13th of August 1599, and when still a boy attained +considerable proficiency in the classical languages. Entering the +university at the age of twelve, he was only sixteen when he obtained his +master's degree. He now gave himself up to theological and especially to +Semitic studies, concentrating later on rabbinical Hebrew, and reading +while yet a young man both the Mishna and the Jerusalem and Babylonian +Gemaras. These studies he further developed by visits to Heidelberg, Dort +(where he made the acquaintance of many of the delegates to the synod of +1619) and Geneva, and in all these places acquired a great reputation. In +1622 he published at Basel a _Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum_, as a +companion work to his father's great Rabbinical Bible. He declined the +chair of logic at Lausanne, and in 1624 was appointed general deacon of the +church at Basel. On the death of his father in 1629, he was unanimously +designated his successor in the Hebrew professorship. From this date until +his death in 1664 he remained at Basel, declining two offers which were +made to him from Groningen and Leiden, to accept the Hebrew chair in these +two celebrated schools. In 1647 the governing body of the university +founded, specially for him, a third theological professorship, that of +"Commonplaces and Controversies," which Buxtorf held for seven years along +with the Hebrew chair. When, however, the professorship of the Old +Testament became vacant in 1654 by the death of Theodor Zwinger, Buxtorf +resigned the chair of theology and accepted that of the Old Testament +instead. He was four times married, his three first wives dying shortly +after marriage and the fourth predeceasing her husband by seven years. His +children died young, with the exception of two boys, the younger of whom, +Jakob (1645-1704), became his father's colleague, and then his successor, +in the chair of Hebrew. The same distinction fell to the lot of his nephew +Johann (1663-1732). + +A considerable portion of Buxtorf's public life was spent in controversy +regarding disputed points in biblical criticism, in reference to which he +had to defend his father's views. The attitude of the Reformed churches at +that time, as opposed to the Church of Rome, led them to maintain many +opinions in regard to biblical questions which were not only erroneous, but +altogether unnecessary for the stability of their position. Having +renounced the dogma of an infallible church, it was deemed necessary to +maintain as a counterpoise, not only that of an infallible Bible, but, as +the necessary foundation of this, of a Bible which had been handed down +from the earliest ages without the slightest textual alteration. Even the +vowel points and accents were held to have been given by divine +inspiration. The Massoretic text of the Old Testament, therefore, as +compared either with that of the recently discovered Samaritan Pentateuch, +or the Septuagint or of the Vulgate, alone contained the true words of the +sacred writers. Although many of the Reformers, as well as learned Jews, +had long seen that these assertions could not be made good, there had been +as yet no formal controversy upon the subject. Louis Cappel (_q.v._) was +the first effectually to dispel the illusions which had long prevailed by a +work on the modern origin of the vowel points and accents. The elder +Buxtorf had counselled him not to publish his work, pointing out the injury +which it would do the Protestant cause, but Cappel sent his MS. to Thomas +Erpenius of Leiden, the most learned orientalist of his day, by whom it was +published in 1624, under the title _Arcanum Punctationis revelatum_, but +without the author's name. The elder Buxtorf, though he lived five years +after the publication of the work, made no public reply to it, and it was +not until 1648 that Buxtorf junior published his _Tractatus de punctorum +origine, antiquitate, et authoritate, oppositus Arcano punctationis +revelato Ludovici Cappelli_. He tried to prove by copious citations from +the rabbinical writers, and by arguments of various kinds, that the points, +if not so ancient as the time of Moses, were at least as old as that of +Ezra, and thus possessed the authority of divine inspiration. Unfortunately +he allowed himself to employ contemptuous epithets towards Cappel, such as +"innovator" and "visionary." Cappel speedily prepared a second edition of +his work, in which, besides replying to the arguments of his opponent, and +fortifying his position with new ones, he retorted his contumelious +epithets with interest. Owing to various causes, however, this second +edition did not see the light until 1685, when it was published at +Amsterdam in the edition of his collected works. Besides this controversy, +Buxtorf engaged in three others with the same antagonist, on the subject of +the integrity of the Massoretic text of the Old Testament, on the antiquity +of the present Hebrew characters, and on the Lord's Supper. In the two +former Buxtorf supported the untenable position that the text of the Old +Testament had been transmitted to us without any errors or alteration, and +that the present square or so-called Chaldee characters were coeval with +the original composition of the various books. These views were +triumphantly refuted by his great opponent in his _Critica Sacra_, and in +his _Diatriba veris et antiquis Ebraicorum literis_. + +Besides the works already mentioned in the course of this article, Buxtorf +edited the great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et Rabbinicum_, on which +his father had spent the labour of twenty years, and to the completion of +which he himself gave ten years of additional study; and the great Hebrew +_Concordance_, which his father had little more than begun. In addition to +these, he published new editions of many of his father's works, as well as +others of his own, complete lists of which may be seen in the _Athenae +Rauricae_ and other works enumerated at the close of the preceding article. + +BUYING IN, on the English stock exchange, a transaction by which, if a +member has sold securities which he fails to deliver on settling day, or +any of the succeeding ten days following the settlement, the buyer may give +instructions to a stock exchange official to "buy in" the stock required. +The official announces the quantity of stock, and the purpose for which he +requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be prepared to deliver it +immediately. The original seller has to pay the difference between the two +prices, if the latter is higher than the original contract price. A similar +practice, termed "selling out," prevails when a purchaser fails to take up +his securities. + +BUYS BALLOT'S LAW, in meteorology, the name given to a law which may be +expressed as follows:--"Stand with your back to the wind; the low-pressure +area will be on your left-hand." This rule, the truth of which was first +recognized by the American meteorologists J.H. Coffin and W. Ferrel, is a +direct consequence of Ferrel's Law (_q.v._). It is approximately true in +the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and is reversed in the +Southern Hemisphere, but the angle between barometric gradient and wind is +not a right angle in low latitudes. The law takes its name from C.H.D. Buys +Ballott, a Dutch meteorologist, who published it in the _Comptes rendus_, +November 1857. + +BUZEU, the capital of the department of Buzeu, Rumania, situated near the +right bank of the river Buzeu, between the Carpathian Mountains and the +fertile lowlands of south Moldavia and east Walachia. Pop. (1900) 21,561. +Buzeu is important as a market for petroleum, timber and grain. It is the +meeting [v.04 p.0895] place of railroads from Râmnicu Sarat, Braila and +Ploesci. Amber is found by the riverside, and there are cloth-mills in the +city. Buzeu is the seat of a bishop, whose cathedral was erected in 1640 by +Prince Matthias Bassarab of Walachia, on the site of an older church. In +the neighbourhood there are many monasteries. Buzeu was formerly called +Napuca or Buzograd. + +BUZOT, FRANÇOIS NICOLAS LÉONARD (1760-1794), French revolutionist, was born +at Evreux on the 1st of March 1760. He studied law, and at the outbreak of +the Revolution was an advocate in his native town. In 1789 he was elected +deputy to the states-general, and there became known for his advanced +opinions. He demanded the nationalization of the possessions of the clergy, +and the right of all citizens to carry arms. After the dissolution of the +Constituent Assembly, Buzot returned to Evreux, where he was named +president of the criminal tribunal. In 1792 he was elected deputy to the +Convention, and took his place among the Girondists. He demanded the +formation of a national guard from the departments to defend the Convention +against the populace of Paris. His proposal was carried, but never put into +force; and the Parisians were extremely bitter against him and the +Girondists. In the trial of Louis XVI., Buzot voted for death, but with +appeal to the people and postponement of sentence. He had a decree of death +passed against the _émigrés_ who did not return to France, and against +anyone who should demand the re-establishment of the monarchy. Proscribed +with the Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793, he succeeded in escaping, and +took refuge in Normandy, where he contributed to organize a federalist +insurrection against the Convention, which was speedily suppressed. Buzot +was outlawed, and fled to the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and committed +suicide in the woods of St Émilion on the 18th of June 1794. He was an +intelligent and honest man, although he seems to have profited by the sale +of the possessions of the clergy, but he had a stubborn, unyielding +temperament, was incapable of making concessions, and was dominated by +Madame Roland, who imparted to him her hatred of Danton and the +Montagnards. + +See _Mémoires de Pétion, Barbaroux, Buzot_, published by C.A. Daubon +(Paris, 1866). For the history of the federalist movement in Normandy, see +L. Boivin Champeaux, _Notices pour servir à, l'histoire de la Révolution +dans le département de l'Eure_ (Evreux and Paris, 1884). + +BUZZARD, a word derived from the Lat. _Buteo_, through the Fr. _Busard_, +and used in a general sense for a large group of diurnal birds-of-prey, +which contains, among many others, the species usually known as the common +buzzard (_Buteo vulgaris_, Leach), though the English epithet is nowadays +hardly applicable. The name buzzard, however, belongs quite as rightfully +to the birds called in books "harriers," which form a distinct subfamily of +_Falconidae_ under the title _Circinae_, and by it one species, the +moor-buzzard (_Circus aeruginosus_), is still known in such places as it +inhabits. "Puttock" is also another name used in some parts of England, but +perhaps is rather a synonym of the kite (_Milvus ictinus_). Though +ornithological writers are almost unanimous in distinguishing the buzzards +as a group from the eagles, the grounds usually assigned for their +separation are but slight, and the diagnostic character that can be best +trusted is probably that in the former the bill is decurved from the base, +while in the latter it is for about a third of its length straight. The +head, too, in buzzards is short and round, while in the eagles it is +elongated. In a general way buzzards are smaller than eagles, though there +are several exceptions to this statement, and have their plumage more +mottled. Furthermore, most if not all of the buzzards, about which anything +of the kind is with certainty known, assume their adult dress at the first +moult, while the eagles take a longer time to reach maturity. The buzzards +are fine-looking birds, but are slow and heavy of flight, so that in the +old days of falconry they were regarded with infinite scorn, and hence in +common English to call a man "a buzzard" is to denounce him as stupid. +Their food consists of small mammals, young birds, reptiles, amphibians and +insects--particularly beetles--and thus they never could have been very +injurious to the game-preserver, if indeed they were not really his +friends, though they have fallen under his ban; but at the present day they +are so scarce that in England their effect, whatever it may be, is +inappreciable. Buzzards are found over the whole world with the exception +of the Australian region, and have been split into many genera by +systematists. In the British Islands are two species, one resident (the _B. +vulgaris_ already mentioned), and now almost confined to a few wooded +districts; the other the rough-legged buzzard (_Archibuteo lagopus_), an +irregular winter-visitant, sometimes arriving in large bands from the north +of Europe, and readily distinguishable from the former by being feathered +down to the toes. The honey-buzzard (_Pernis apivorus_), a summer-visitor +from the south, and breeding, or attempting to breed, yearly in the New +Forest, does not come into the subfamily _Buteoninae_, but is probably the +type of a distinct group, _Perninae_, of which there are other examples in +Africa and Asia. In America the name "buzzard" is popularly given to the +turkey-buzzard or turkey-vulture (_Cathartes Aura_). + +(A. N.) + +BYELAYA TSERKOV (_i.e._ White Church), a town of Russia, in the government +of Kiev, 32 m. S.S.W. of Vasilkov, on the main road from Kiev to the +Crimea, in 49° 47' N. lat. and 30° 7' E. long. Pop. (1860) 12,075; (1897) +20,705. First mentioned in 1155, Byelaya Tserkov was destroyed during the +Mongol invasion of the 13th century. In 1550 a castle was built here by the +prince of Kiev, and various privileges were bestowed upon the inhabitants. +From 1651 the town was subject alternately to Poland and to independent +hetmans (Cossack chiefs). In 1793 it was united to Russia. There is a trade +in beer, cattle and grain, sold at eleven annual fairs, three of which last +for ten days each. + +BYELEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tula, and 67 m. S.W. from +the city of that name on the left bank of the Oka, in 53° 48' N. lat., and +36° 9' E. long. Pop. (1860) 8063; (1897) 9567. It is first mentioned in +1147. It belonged to Lithuania in the end of the 14th century; and in 1468 +it was raised to the rank of a principality, dependent on that country. In +the end of the 15th century this principality began to attach itself to the +grand-duchy of Moscow; and by Ivan III. it was ultimately united to Russia. +It suffered greatly from the Tatars in 1507, 1512, 1530, 1536 and 1544. In +1826 the empress Elizabeth died here on her way from Taganrog to St +Petersburg. A public library was founded in 1858 in memory of the poet +Zhukovsky, who was born (1782) in a neighbouring village. The industries +comprise tallow-boiling, oil-manufacture, tanning, sugar-refining and +distilling. There is a trade in grain, hemp oil, cattle and tallow. A fair +is held from the 28th of August to the loth of September every year. + +BYELGOROD (_i.e._ White Town), a town of Russia, in the government of +Kursk, 100 m. S.S.E. by rail from the city of that name, in 50° 46' N. lat. +and 36° 37' E. long., clustering on a chalk hill on the right bank of the +Donets. Pop. (1860) 11,722; (1897) 21,850. In the 17th century it suffered +repeatedly from Tatar incursions, against which there was built (from 1633 +to 1740) an earthen wall, with twelve forts, extending upwards of 200 m. +from the Vorskla to the Don, and called the Byelgorod line. In 1666 an +archiepiscopal see was established in the town. There are two cathedral +churches, both built in the 16th century, as well as a theological +seminary. Candles, leather, soap, lime and bricks are manufactured, and a +trade is carried on in grain, cattle, wool, honey, wax and tallow. There +are three annual fairs, on the 10th Friday after Easter, the 29th of June +and the 15th of August respectively. + +BYELOSTOK (Polish, _Bialystok_), a town of West Russia, in the government +of and 53 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Grodno, on the main railway line +from Moscow to Warsaw, at its junction with the Kiev-Grayevo (Prussian +frontier) line. Founded in 1320, it became part of Prussia after the third +partition of Poland, but was annexed to Russia in 1807, after the peace of +Tilsit. Its development dates from 1845, when woollen-mills were built. +Since that time it has grown very rapidly, its population being 13,787 in +1857; 56,629 in 1889; and 65,781 in 1901, three-fourths Jews. Its woollen, +silk and felt hat factories give occupation to several thousand workers. + +[v.04 p.0896] BYEZHETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, and +70 m. N.N.E. of the city of that name, on the right bank of the Mologa, in +57° 46' N. lat. and 36° 43' E. long. Pop. (1860) 5423; (1897) 9090. It is +mentioned in the chronicles of 1137. On the fall of Novgorod, to which it +had belonged, it was incorporated (1479) with the grand-duchy of Moscow. +The town is famous for its scythes and shearing hooks, but makes also axes, +nails and other hardware, and trades in grain, linen, hemp and flax. + +BY-LAW, or BYE-LAW (_by-_ being used in the sense of subordinate or +secondary, cf. by-path), a regulation made by councils, boards, +corporations and companies, usually under statutory power, for the +preservation of order and good government within some place or +jurisdiction. When made under authority of a statute, by-laws must +generally, before they come into operation, be submitted to some confirming +authority for sanction and approval; when approved, they are as binding as +enacted laws. By-laws must be reasonable in themselves; they must not be +retrospective nor contrary to the general law of the land. By various +statutes powers are given to borough, county and district councils, to make +by-laws for various purposes; corporate bodies, also, are empowered by +their charters to make by-laws which are binding on their members. Such +by-laws must be in harmony with the objects of the society and must not +infringe or limit the powers and duties of its officers. + +BYLES, MATHER (1706-1788), American clergyman, was born in Boston, +Massachusetts, on the 26th of March 1706, descended, on his mother's side, +from John Cotton and Richard Mather. He graduated at Harvard in 1725, and +in 1733 became pastor of the Hollis Street church (Congregational), Boston. +He held a high rank among the clergy of the province and was noted for his +scholarly sermons and his ready wit. At the outbreak of the War of +Independence he was outspoken in his advocacy of the royal cause, and after +the British evacuation of Boston his connexion with his church was +dissolved. He remained in Boston, however, and subsequently (1777) was +arrested, tried and sentenced to deportation. This sentence was later +changed to imprisonment in his own house. He was soon released, but never +resumed his pastorate. He died in Boston on the 5th of July 1788. Besides +many sermons he published _A Poem on the Death of George I._ (1727) and +_Miscellaneous Poems_ (1744). + +His son, MATHER BYLES (1735-1814), graduated at Harvard in 1751, and was a +Congregational clergyman at New London, Connecticut, until 1768, when he +entered the Established Church, and became rector of Christ church, Boston. +Sympathizing with the royal cause, he settled, after the War of +Independence, in St Johns, New Brunswick, where he was rector of a church +until his death. + +BYNG, JOHN (1704-1757), British admiral, was the fourth son of George Byng, +Lord Torrington, and entered the navy in 1718. The powerful influence of +his father accounts for his rapid rise in the service. He received his +first appointment as lieutenant in 1723, and became captain in 1727. His +career presents nothing of note till after his promotion as rear-admiral in +1745, and as vice-admiral in 1747. He served on the most comfortable +stations, and avoided the more arduous work of the navy. On the approach of +the Seven Years' War the island of Minorca was threatened by an attack from +Toulon and was actually invaded in 1756. Byng, who was then serving in the +Channel with the rank of admiral, which he attained in 1755, was ordered to +the Mediterranean to relieve the garrison of Fort St Philip, which was +still holding out. The squadron was not very well manned, and Byng was in +particular much aggrieved because his marines were landed to make room for +the soldiers who were to reinforce the garrison, and he feared that if he +met a French squadron after he had lost them he would be dangerously +undermanned. His correspondence shows clearly that he left prepared for +failure, that he did not believe that the garrison could hold out against +the French force landed, and that he was already resolved to come back from +Minorca if he found that the task presented any great difficulty. He wrote +home to that effect to the ministry from Gibraltar. The governor of the +fortress refused to spare any of his soldiers to increase the relief for +Minorca, and Byng sailed on the 8th of May. On the 19th he was off Minorca, +and endeavoured to open communications with the fort. Before he could land +any of the soldiers, the French squadron appeared. A battle was fought on +the following day. Byng, who had gained the weather gauge, bore down on the +French fleet of M. de la Galissonière at an angle, so that his leading +ships came into action unsupported by the rest of his line. The French cut +the leading ships up, and then slipped away. When the flag captain pointed +out to Byng that by standing out of his line he could bring the centre of +the enemy to closer action, he declined on the ground that Thomas Mathews +had been condemned for so doing. The French, who were equal in number to +the English, got away undamaged. After remaining near Minorca for four days +without making any further attempt to communicate with the fort or sighting +the French, Byng sailed away to Gibraltar leaving Fort St Philip to its +fate. The failure caused a savage outburst of wrath in the country. Byng +was brought home, tried by court-martial, condemned to death, and shot on +the 14th of March 1757 at Portsmouth. The severity of the penalty, aided by +a not unjust suspicion that the ministry sought to cover themselves by +throwing all the blame on the admiral, led in after time to a reaction in +favour of Byng. It became a commonplace to say that he was put to death for +an error of judgment. The court had indeed acquitted him of personal +cowardice or of disaffection, and only condemned him for not having done +his utmost. But it must be remembered that in consequence of many scandals +which had taken place in the previous war the Articles of War had been +deliberately revised so as to leave no punishment save death for the +officer of any rank who did not do his utmost against the enemy either in +battle or pursuit. That Byng had not done all he could is undeniable, and +he therefore fell under the law. Neither must it be forgotten that in the +previous war in 1745 an unhappy young lieutenant, Baker Phillips by name, +whose captain had brought his ship into action unprepared, and who, when +his superior was killed, surrendered the ship when she could no longer be +defended, was shot by sentence of a court-martial. This savage punishment +was approved by the higher officers of the navy, who showed great lenity to +men of their own rank. The contrast had angered the country, and the +Articles of War had been amended precisely in order that there might be one +law for all. + +The facts of Byng's life are fairly set out in Charnock's _Biogr. Nav._ +vol. iv. pp. 145 to 179. The number of contemporary pamphlets about his +case is very great, but they are of no historical value, except as +illustrating the state of public opinion. + +(D. H.) + +BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN (1673-1743), Dutch jurist, was born at +Middleburg in Zeeland. In the prosecution of his legal studies, and while +holding the offices first of member and afterwards of president of the +supreme court, he found the common law of his country so defective as to be +nearly useless for practical purposes. This abuse he resolved to reform, +and took as the basis of a new system the principles of the ancient Roman +law. His works are very voluminous. The most important of them are _De foro +legatorum_ (1702); _Observationes Juris Romani_ (1710), of which a +continuation in four books appeared in 1733; the treatise _De Dominio +Maris_ (1721); and the _Quaestiones Juris Publici_ (1737). Complete +editions of his works were published after his death; one in folio at +Geneva in 1761, and another in two volumes folio at Leiden in 1766. + +BYRD, WILLIAM (1543-1623), English musical composer, was probably a member +of one of the numerous Lincolnshire families of the name who were to be +found at Lincoln, Spalding, Pinchbeck, Moulton and Epworth in the 16th +century. According to Wood, he was "bred up to musick under Thomas Tallis." +He was appointed organist of Lincoln cathedral about 1563, and on the 14th +of September 1568 was married at St Margaret in the Close to Ellen or +Julian Birley. On the 22nd of February 1569 he was sworn in as a member of +the Chapel Royal, but he does not seem to have left Lincoln immediately. In +the Chapel Royal he shared with Tallis the honorary post of organist, and +on the 22nd [v.04 p.0897] of January 1575 the two composers obtained a +licence for twenty-one years from Elizabeth to print music and music-paper, +a monopoly which does not seem to have been at all remunerative. In 1575 +Byrd and Tallis published a collection of Latin motets for five and six +voices, printed by Thomas Vautrollier. In 1578 Byrd and his family were +living at Harlington, Middlesex. As early as 1581 his name occurs among +lists of recusants, and though he retained his post in the Chapel Royal he +was throughout his life a Catholic. About 1579 he set a three-part song in +Thomas Legge's Latin play _Ricardus Tertius_. In 1588 he published +_Psalmes, Sonets and Songs of Sadnes and Pietie, _and in the same year +contributed two madrigals to Nicolas Yonge's _Musica Transalpina_. In 1589 +appeared _Songs of Sundrie Natures_, a second edition of which was issued +in 1610. In the same year he published _Liber Primus Sacrarum Cantionum_, a +second series of which was brought out in 1591. In 1590 two madrigals by +Byrd were included in Thomas Watson's _First Sett of Italian Madrigalls +Englished_; one of these seems to have been sung before Queen Elizabeth on +her visit to Lord Hertford at Elvetham in 1591. In April 1592 Byrd was +still living at Harlington, but about 1593 he became possessed of the +remainder of a lease of Stondon Place, Essex, a farm of some 200 acres, +belonging to William Shelley, who was shortly afterwards convicted of high +treason. The property was sequestrated, and on the 15th of July 1595 Byrd +obtained a crown lease of it for the lives of his eldest son Christopher +and his daughters Elizabeth and Rachel. On the death of Shelley his son +bought back his estates (in 1604), whereupon his widow attempted to oust +Byrd from Stondon Place, on the ground that it formed part of her jointure. +Byrd was upheld in his possession of the property by James I. (_Calendar of +State Papers, Dom. Series_, James I. add. series, vol. xxxvi.), but Mrs +Shelley persevered in her suit, apparently until her death in 1609. In the +following year the matter was settled for a time by Byrd's buying Stondon +Place in the names of John and Thomas Petre, part of the property being +charged with a payment to Byrd of £20 for his life, with remainder to his +second son Thomas. Throughout this long suit Byrd, though in possession of +property which had been confiscated from a recusant and actually taking +part as a member of the Chapel Royal at the coronation of James I., had +been excommunicated since 1598, while from 1605 until 1612, and possibly +later, he was regularly presented before the archidiaconal court of Essex +as a Catholic. In 1603 Easte published a work (no copies of which are known +to exist) entitled _Medulla Musicke. Sucked out of the sappe of two_ [_of_] +_the most famous Musitians that ever were in this land, namely Master +Wylliam Byrd ... and Master Alphonso Ferabosco ... either of whom having +made 40tie severall waies (without contention), showing most rare and +intricate skill in 2 partes in one upon the playne song Miserere_. In 1607 +appeared two books of _Gradualia_, a second edition of which was issued in +1610. In the following year he published _Psalmes, Songs and Sonnets; some +solemne, others joyfull, framed to the life of the Words_. Probably in the +same year was issued _Parthenia_, a collection of virginal music, in which +Byrd was associated with Bull and Orlando Gibbons. The last work to which +he contributed was Sir Thomas Leighton's _Teares or Lamentations of a +Sorrowfull Soule_ (1614). His death took place on the 4th of July 1623. It +is recorded in the _Cheque Book_ of the Chapel Royal as that of a "father +of musicke." His will, dated the 15th of November 1622, shows that he +remained a Catholic until the end of his life, and he expresses a desire +that he may die at Stondon and be buried near his wife. From the same +document it seems that his latter years had been embittered by a dispute +with his eldest son, but that the matter was settled by an agreement with +his daughter-in-law Catherine, to whom he left his property at Stondon, +charged with the payment of £20 to his second son Thomas and £10 to his +daughter Rachel, with remainder to his grandson Thomas and his second son +of the same name. In 1635 the estate again came before the court of +chancery, on the ground that the annuities had not been paid. The property +seems about 1637 to have been let to one John Leigh, and in 1651 was held +by a member of the Petre family. The committee for compounding with +delinquents at that date allowed Thomas Byrd the annuity of £20 bequeathed +by his father. Byrd's arms, as entered in the Visitation of Essex of 1634 +_ex sigillo_ were three stags' heads cabossed, a canton ermine. His +children were (1) Christopher, who married Catherine, daughter of Thomas +Moore of Bamborough, and had a son, Thomas, living at Stondon in 1634; (2) +Thomas; (3) Elizabeth, who married successively John Jackson and--Burdett; +(4) Rachel, married (1)--Hook, by whom she had two children, William and +Catherine, married to Michael Walton; in 1634 Rachel Hook had married (2) +Edward Biggs; (5) Mary, married (1) Henry Hawksworth, by whom she had four +sons, William, Henry, George and John; (2) Thomas Falconbridge. Anne Byrd, +who is mentioned in the proceedings _Shelley_ v. _Byrd_ (_Exchequer +Decrees_, 7 James I., series ii. vol. vii. fol. 294 and 328), was probably +a fourth daughter who died young. + +Besides the works already mentioned Byrd was the composer of three masses, +for three, four and five voices respectively, which seem to have been +published with some privacy about 1588. There exists a second edition (also +undated) of the four-part mass; all three have recently appeared in modern +editions, and increase Byrd's claim to rank as the greatest English +composer of his age. In addition to his published works, a large amount +still remains in MS., comprising nearly every kind of composition. The +Fitzwilliam _Virginal Book_ contains a long series of interesting pieces +for the virginal, and more still remains unpublished in Lady Neville's +_Virginal Book_ and other contemporary collections. His industry was +enormous, and though his work is unequal and the licences he allowed can +hardly be defended on strict grounds, his Latin church music and his +instrumental compositions entitle him to high rank among his +contemporaries. As a madrigalist he was inferior to Morley, Wilbye and +Gibbons, though even in this branch of his art he often displays great +charm and individuality. + +(W. B. S.*) + +BYROM, JOHN (1692-1763), English poet, writer of hymns and inventor of a +system of shorthand, was born at Kersal Cell, near Manchester, on the 29th +of February 1692, the younger son of a prosperous merchant. He was educated +at Merchant Taylors school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he +became a fellow in 1714. His first poem, "Colin to Phoebe," a pastoral, +appeared in the _Spectator_, No. 603. The heroine is said to have been Dr +Bentley's daughter, Joanna, the mother of Richard Cumberland, the +dramatist. After leaving the university Byrom went abroad, ostensibly to +study medicine, but he never practised and possibly his errand was really +political, for he was an adherent of the Pretender. He was elected a member +of the Royal Society in 1724. On his return to London he married his cousin +in 1721, and to support himself taught a new method of shorthand of his own +invention, till he succeeded (1740) to his father's estate on the death of +his elder brother. His diary gives interesting portraits and letters of the +many great men of his time whom he knew intimately. He died on the 26th of +September 1763. A collection of his poems was published in 1773, and he is +included in Alexander Chalmers's _English Poets_. His system of shorthand +was not published until after his death, when it was printed as _The +Universal English Shorthand; or the way of writing English in the most +easy, concise, regular and beautiful manner, applicable to any other +language, but particularly adjusted to our own_ (Manchester, 1767). + +The _Private Journal and Literary Remains of John Byrom, related by Richard +Parkinson, D.D._, was published by the Chetham Society (1854-1857). + +BYRON, GEORGE GORDON BYRON, 6TH BARON (1788-1824), English poet, was born +in London at 16 Holles Street, Cavendish Square, on the 22nd of January +1788. The Byrons were of Norman stock, but the founder of the family was +Sir John Byron, who entered into possession of the priory and lands of +Newstead in the county of Nottingham in 1540. From him it descended (but +with a bar-sinister) to a great-grandson, John (1st Baron) Byron (_q.v._), +a Cavalier general, who was raised to the peerage in 1643. The first Lord +Byron died childless, and was succeeded by his brother Richard, the +great-grandfather of William, the 5th lord, who outlived son and grandson, +and was [v.04 p.0898] succeeded by his great-nephew, the poet. Admiral the +Hon. John Byron (_q.v._) was the poet's grandfather. His eldest son, +Captain John Byron, the poet's father, was a libertine by choice and in an +eminent degree. He caused to be divorced, and married (1779) as his first +wife, the marchioness of Carmarthen (born Amelia D'Arcy), Baroness Conyers +in her own right. One child of the marriage survived, the Hon. Augusta +Byron (1783-1851), the poet's half-sister, who, in 1807, married her first +cousin, Colonel George Leigh. His second marriage to Catherine Gordon (b. +1765) of Gight in Aberdeenshire took place at Bath on the 13th of May 1785. +He is said to have squandered the fortunes of both wives. It is certain +that Gight was sold to pay his debts (1786), and that the sole provision +for his wife was a settlement of £3000. It was an unhappy marriage. There +was an attempt at living together in France, and, when this failed, Mrs +Byron returned to Scotland. On her way thither she gave birth to a son, +christened George Gordon after his maternal grandfather, who was descended +from Sir William Gordon of Gight, grandson of James I. of Scotland. After a +while her husband rejoined her, but went back to France and died at +Valenciennes on the 2nd of August 1791. His wife was not a bad woman, but +she was not a good mother. Vain and capricious, passionate and +self-indulgent, she mismanaged her son from his infancy, now provoking him +by her foolish fondness, and now exciting his contempt by her paroxysms of +impotent rage. She neither looked nor spoke like a gentlewoman; but in the +conduct of her affairs she was praiseworthy. She hated and avoided debt, +and when relief came (a civil list pension of £300 a year) she spent most +of it upon her son. Fairly well educated, she was not without a taste for +books, and her letters are sensible and to the point. But the violence of +her temper was abnormal. Her father committed suicide, and it is possible +that she inherited a tendency to mental derangement. If Byron owed anything +to his parents it was a plea for pardon. + +The poet's first years were spent in lodgings at Aberdeen. From 1794 to +1798 he attended the grammar school, "threading all classes" till he +reached the fourth. It was a good beginning, a solid foundation, enabling +him from the first to keep a hand over his talents and to turn them to a +set purpose. He was lame from his birth. His right leg and foot, possibly +both feet, were contracted by infantile paralysis, and, to strengthen his +muscles, his mother sent him in the summers of 1796, 1797 to a farm house +on Deeside. He walked with difficulty, but he wandered at will, soothed and +inspired by the grandeur of the scenery. To his Scottish upbringing he owed +his love of mountains, his love and knowledge of the Bible, and too much +Calvinism for faith or unfaith in Christianity. The death of his +great-uncle (May 19, 1798) placed him in possession of the title and +estates. Early in the autumn Mrs Byron travelled south with her son and his +nurse, and for a time made her home at Newstead Abbey. Byron was old enough +to know what had befallen him. "It was a change from a shabby Scotch flat +to a palace," a half-ruined palace, indeed, but his very own. It was a +proud moment, but in a few weeks he was once more in lodgings. The shrunken +leg did not improve, and acting on bad advice his mother entrusted him to +the care of a quack named Lavender, truss-maker to the general hospital at +Nottingham. His nurse who was in charge of him maltreated him, and the +quack tortured him to no purpose. At his own request he read Virgil and +Cicero with a tutor. + +In August 1799 he was sent to a preparatory school at Dulwich. The master, +Dr Glennie, perceived that the boy liked reading for its own sake and gave +him the free run of his library. He read a set of the _British Poets_ from +beginning to end more than once. This, too, was an initiation and a +preparation. He remained at Dulwich till April 1801, when, on his mother's +intervention, he was sent to Harrow. His school days, 1801-1805, were +fruitful in two respects. He learned enough Latin and Greek to make him a +classic, if not a classical scholar, and he made friends with his equals +and superiors. He learned something of his own worth and of the worth of +others. "My school-friendships," he says, "were with me passions." Two of +his closest friends died young, and from Lord Clare, whom he loved best of +all, he was separated by chance and circumstance. He was an odd mixture, +now lying dreaming on his favourite tombstone in the churchyard, now the +ring-leader in whatever mischief was afoot. He was a "record" swimmer, and, +in spite of his lameness, enough of a cricketer to play for his school at +Lord's, and yet he found time to read and master standard works of history +and biography, and to acquire more general knowledge than boys and masters +put together. + +In the midsummer of 1803, when he was in his sixteenth year, he fell in +love, once for all, with his distant relative, Mary Anne Chaworth, a "minor +heiress" of the hall and park of Annesley which marches with Newstead. Two +years his senior, she was already engaged to a neighbouring squire. There +were meetings half-way between Newstead and Annesley, of which she thought +little and he only too much. What was sport to the girl was death to the +boy, and when at length he realized the "hopelessness of his attachment," +he was "thrown out," as he said, "alone, on a wide, wide sea." She is the +subject of at least five of his early poems, including the pathetic +stanzas, "Hills of Annesley," and there are allusions to his love story in +_Childe Harold_ (c. i _s.v._), and in "The Dream" (1816). + +Byron went into residence at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1805. +Cambridge did him no good. "The place is the devil," he said, and according +to his own showing he did homage to the _genius loci_. But whatever he did +or failed to do, he made friends who were worthy of his choice. Among them +were the scholar-dandy Scrope Berdmore Davies, Francis Hodgson, who died +provost of Eton, and, best friend of all, John Cam Hobhouse (afterwards +Lord Broughton). And there was another friend, a chorister named Edleston, +a "humble youth" for whom he formed a romantic attachment. He died whilst +Byron was still abroad (May 1811), but not unwept nor unsung, if, as there +is little doubt, the mysterious Thyrza poems of 1811, 1812 refer to his +death. During the vacation of 1806, and in 1807 which was one "long +vacation," he took to his pen, and wrote, printed and published most of his +"Juvenile Poems." His first venture was a thin quarto of sixty-six pages, +printed by S. and J. Ridge of Newark. The "advertisement" is dated the 23rd +of December 1806, but before that date he had begun to prepare a second +collection for the press. One poem ("To Mary") contained at least one +stanza which was frankly indecent, and yielding to advice he gave orders +that the entire issue should be thrown into the fire. Early in January 1807 +an expurgated collection entitled _Poems on Various Occasions_ was ready +for private distribution. Encouraged by two critics, Henry Mackenzie and +Lord Woodhouselee, he determined to recast this second issue and publish it +under his own name. _Hours of Idleness_, "by George Gordon Lord Byron, a +minor," was published in June 1807. The fourth and last issue of +_Juvenilia_, entitled _Poems, Original and Translated_, was published in +March 1808. + +_Hours of Idleness_ enjoyed a brief triumph. The _Critical_ and other +reviews were "very indulgent," but the _Edinburgh Review_ for January 1808 +contained an article, not, as Byron believed, by Jeffrey, but by Brougham, +which put, or tried to put, the author and "his poesy" to open shame. The +sole result was that it supplied fresh material and a new title for some +rhyming couplets on "British Bards" which he had begun to write. A satire +on Jeffrey, the editor, and Lord Holland, the patron of the _Edinburgh +Review_, was slipped into the middle of "British Bards," and the poem +rechristened _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ (published the 1st of +March 1809). + +In April 1808, whilst he was still "a minor," Byron entered upon his +inheritance. Hitherto the less ruinous portions of the abbey had been +occupied by a tenant, Lord Grey de Ruthven. The banqueting hall, the grand +drawing-room, and other parts of the monastic building were uninhabitable, +but by incurring fresh debts, two sets of apartments were refurnished for +Byron and for his mother. Dismantled and ruinous, it was still a splendid +inheritance. In line with the front of the abbey is the west front of the +priory church, with its hollow arch, once a "mighty window," its vacant +niches, its delicate Gothic mouldings. The abbey buildings enclose a grassy +quadrangle [v.04 p.0899] overlooked by two-storeyed cloisters. On the +eastern side are the state apartments occupied by kings and queens not as +guests, but by feudal right. In the park, which is part of Sherwood Forest, +there is a chain of lakes--the largest, the north-west, Byron's "lucid +lake." A waterfall or "cascade" issues from the lake, in full view of the +room where Byron slept. The possession of this lordly and historic domain +was an inspiration in itself. It was an ideal home for one who was to be +hailed as the spirit or genius of romance. + +On the 13th of March 1809, he took his seat in the House of Lords. He had +determined, as soon as he was of age, to travel in the East, but before he +sought "another zone" he invited Hobhouse and three others to a +house-warming. One of the party, C.S. Matthews, describes a day at +Newstead. Host and guests lay in bed till one. "The afternoon was passed in +various diversions, fencing, single-stick ... riding, cricket, sailing on +the lake." They dined at eight, and after the cloth was removed handed +round "a human skull filled with Burgundy." After dinner they "buffooned +about the house" in a set of monkish dresses. They went to bed some time +between one and three in the morning. Moore thinks that the picture of +these festivities is "pregnant in character," and argues that there were +limits to the misbehaviour of the "wassailers." The story, as told in +_Childe Harold_ (c. I. s. v.-ix.), need not be taken too seriously. Byron +was angry because Lord De La Warr did not wish him goodbye, and visited his +displeasure on friends and "lemans" alike. May and June were devoted to the +preparation of an enlarged edition of his satire. At length, accompanied by +Hobhouse and a small staff of retainers, he set out on his travels. He +sailed from Falmouth on the 2nd of July and reached Lisbon on the 7th of +July 1809. The first two cantos of _Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_ contain a +record of the principal events of his first year of absence. + +The first canto describes Lisbon, Cintra, the ride through Portugal and +Spain to Seville and thence to Cadiz. He is moved by the grandeur of the +scenery, but laments the helplessness of the people and their impending +fate. Talavera was fought and won whilst he was in Spain, but he is +convinced that the "Scourge of the World" will prevail, and that Britain, +"the fond ally," will display her blundering heroism in vain. Being against +the government, he is against the war. History has falsified his politics, +but his descriptions of places and scenes, of "Morena's dusky height," of +Cadiz and the bull-fight, retain their freshness and their warmth. + +Byron sailed from Gibraltar on the 16th of August, and spent a month at +Malta making love to Mrs Spencer Smith (the "Fair Florence" of c. II. s. +xxix.-xxxiii.). He anchored off Prevesa on the 28th of September. The +second canto records a journey on horseback through Albania, then almost a +_terra incognita_, as far as Tepeleni, where he was entertained by Ali +Pacha (October 20th), a yachting tour along the shores of the Ambracian +Gulf (November 8-23), a journey by land from Larnaki to Athens (December +15-25), and excursions in Attica, Sunium and Marathon (January 13-25, +1810). + +Of the tour in Asia Minor, a visit to Ephesus (March 15, 1810), an +excursion in the Troad (April 13), and the famous swim across the +Hellespont (May 3), the record is to be sought elsewhere. The stanzas on +Constantinople (lxxvii.-lxxxii.), where Byron and Hobhouse stayed for two +months, though written at the time and on the spot, were not included in +the poem till 1814. They are, probably, part of a projected third canto. On +the 14th of July Hobhouse set sail for England and Byron returned to +Athens. + +Of Byron's second year of residence in the East little is known beyond the +bare facts that he was travelling in the Morea during August and September, +that early in October he was at Patras, having just recovered from a severe +attack of malarial fever, and that by the 14th of November he had returned +to Athens and taken up his quarters at the Franciscan convent. Of his +movements during the next five months there is no record, but of his +studies and pursuits there is substantial evidence. He learnt Romaic, he +compiled the notes to the second canto of _Childe Harold_. He wrote (March +12) _Hints from Horace_ (published 1831), an imitation or loose translation +of the _Epistola ad Pisones_ (Art of Poetry), and (March 17) _The Curse of +Minerva_ (published 1815), a skit on Lord Elgin's deportation of the +metopes and frieze of the Parthenon. + +He left Athens in April, passed some weeks at Malta, and landed at +Portsmouth (c. July 20). Arrived in London his first step was to consult +his literary adviser, R.C. Dallas, with regard to the publication of _Hints +from Horace_. Of _Childe Harold_ he said nothing, but after some hesitation +produced the MS. from a "small trunk," and, presenting him with the +copyright, commissioned Dallas to offer it to a publisher. Rejected by +Miller of Albemarle Street, who published for Lord Elgin, it was finally +accepted by Murray of Fleet Street, who undertook to share the profits of +an edition with Dallas. + +Meanwhile Mrs Byron died suddenly from a stroke of apoplexy. Byron set off +at once for Newstead, but did not find his mother alive. He had but little +affection for her while she lived, but her death touched him to the quick. +"I had but one friend," he exclaimed, "and she is gone." Another loss +awaited him. Whilst his mother lay dead in his house, he heard that his +friend Matthews had been drowned in the Cam. Edleston and Wingfield had +died in May, but the news had reached him on landing. There were troubles +on every side. On the 11th of October he wrote the "Epistle to a Friend" +("Oh, banish care," &c.) and the lines "To Thyrza," which, with other +elegies, were appended to the second edition of _Childe Harold_ (April 17, +1812). It was this cry of desolation, this open profession of melancholy, +which at first excited the interest of contemporaries, and has since been +decried as morbid and unreal. No one who has read his letters can doubt the +sincerity of his grief, but it is no less true that he measured and +appraised its literary significance. He could and did turn it to account. + +Towards the close of the year he made friends with Moore. Some lines in +_English Bards_, &c. (ii. 466-467), taunting Moore with fighting a duel +with Jeffrey with "leadless pistol" had led to a challenge, and it was not +till Byron returned to England that explanations ensued, and that the +challenge was withdrawn. As a poet Byron outgrew Moore, giving back more +than he had received, but the friendship which sprang up between them still +serves Byron in good stead. Moore's _Life of Byron_ (1830) is no doubt a +picture of the man at his best, but it is a genuine likeness. At the end of +October Byron moved to London and took up his quarters at 8 St James's +Street. On the 27th of February 1812 he made his first speech in the House +of Lords on a bill which made the wilful destruction of certain newly +invented stocking-frames a capital offence, speaking in defence of the +riotous "hands" who feared that their numbers would be diminished by +improved machinery. It was a brilliant speech and won the praise of Burdett +and Lord Holland. He made two other speeches during the same session, but +thenceforth pride or laziness kept him silent. _Childe Harold_ (4to) was +published on Tuesday, the loth of March 1812. "The effect," says Moore, +"was ... electric, his fame ... seemed to spring, like the palace of a +fairy king, in a night." A fifth edition (8vo) was issued on the 5th of +December 1812. Just turned twenty-four he "found himself famous," a great +poet, a rising statesman. Society, which in spite of his rank had neglected +him, was now at his feet. But he could not keep what he had won. It was not +only "villainous company," as he put it, which was to prove his "spoil," +but the opportunity for intrigue. The excitement and absorption of one +reigning passion after another destroyed his peace of mind and put him out +of conceit with himself. His first affair of any moment was with Lady +Caroline Lamb the wife of William Lamb, better known as Lord Melbourne, a +delicate, golden-haired sprite, who threw herself in his way, and +afterwards, when she was shaken off, involved him in her own disgrace. To +her succeeded Lady Oxford, who was double his own age, and Lady Frances +Wedderburn Webster, the "Ginevra" of his sonnets, the "Medora" of _The +Corsair_. + +His "way of life" was inconsistent with an official career, but there was +no slackening of his poetical energies. In February 1813 he published _The +Waltz_ (anonymously), he wrote and [v.04 p.0900] published _The Giaour_ +(published June 5, 1813) and _The Bride of Abydos_ (published November 29, +1813), and he wrote _The Corsair_ (published February 1, 1814). The +_Turkish Tales_ were even more popular than _Childe Harold_. Murray sold +10,000 copies of _The Corsair_ on the day of publication. Byron was at +pains to make his accessories correct. He prided himself on the accuracy of +his "costume." He was under no delusion as to the ethical or artistic value +of these experiments on "public patience." + +In the summer of 1813 a new and potent influence came into his life. Mrs +Leigh, whose home was at Newmarket, came up to London on a visit. After a +long interval the brother and sister met, and whether there is or is not +any foundation for the dark story obscurely hinted at in Byron's lifetime, +and afterwards made public property by Mrs Beecher Stowe (_Macmillan's +Magazine_, 1869, pp. 377-396), there is no question as to the depth and +sincerity of his love for his "one relative,"--that her well-being was more +to him than his own. Byron passed the "seasons" of 1813, 1814 in London. +His manner of life we know from his journals. Socially he was on the crest +of the wave. He was a welcome guest at the great Whig houses, at Lady +Melbourne's, at Lady Jersey's, at Holland House. Sheridan and Moore, Rogers +and Campbell, were his intimates and companions. He was a member of the +Alfred, of Watier's, of the Cocoa Tree, and half a dozen clubs besides. +After the publication of _The Corsair_ he had promised an interval of +silence, but the abdication of Napoleon evoked "An Ode," &c., in his +dishonour (April 16); _Lara, a Tale_, an informal sequel to _The Corsair_, +was published anonymously on August 6, 1814. + +Newstead had been put up for sale, but pending the completion of the +contract was still in his possession. During his last visit but one, whilst +his sister was his guest, he became engaged to Miss Anna Isabella Milbanke +(b. May 17, 1792; d. May 16, 1860), the only daughter of Sir Ralph +Milbanke, Bart., and the Hon. Judith (born Noel), daughter of Lord +Wentworth. She was an heiress, and in succession to a peerage in her own +right (becoming Baroness Wentworth in 1856). She was a pretty girl of "a +perfect figure," highly educated, a mathematician, and, by courtesy, a +poetess. She had rejected Byron's first offer, but, believing that her +cruelty had broken his heart and that he was an altered man, she was now +determined on marriage. High-principled, but self-willed and opinionated, +she believed that she held her future in her own hands. On her side there +was ambition touched with fancy--on his, a wish to be married and some hope +perhaps of finding an escape from himself. The marriage took place at +Seaham in Durham on the 2nd of January 1815. Bride and bridegroom spent +three months in paying visits, and at the end of March settled at 13 +Piccadilly Terrace, London. + +Byron was a member of the committee of management of Drury Lane theatre, +and devoted much of his time to his professional duties. He wrote but +little poetry. _Hebrew Melodies_ (published April 1815), begun at Seaham in +October 1814, were finished and given to the musical composer, Isaac +Nathan, for publication. _The Siege of Corinth_ and _Parisina_ (published +February 7, 1816) were got ready for the press. On the loth of December +Lady Byron gave birth to a daughter christened Augusta Ada. To judge from +his letters, for the first weeks or months of his marriage things went +smoothly. His wife's impression was that Byron "had avowedly begun his +revenge from the first." It is certain that before the child was born his +conduct was so harsh, so violent, and so eccentric, that she believed, or +tried to persuade herself, that he was mad. + +On the 15th of January 1816 Lady Byron left London for her father's house, +claimed his protection, and after some hesitation and consultation with her +legal advisers demanded a separation from her husband. It is a matter of +common knowledge that in 1869 Mrs Beecher Stowe affirmed that Lady Byron +expressly told her that Byron was guilty of incest with his half-sister, +Mrs Leigh; also that in 1905 the second Lord Lovelace (Lord Byron's +grandson) printed a work entitled _Astarte_ which was designed to uphold +and to prove the truth of this charge. It is a fact that neither Lady Byron +nor her advisers supported their demand by this or any other charge of +misconduct, but it is also a fact that Lord Byron yielded to the demand +reluctantly, under pressure and for large pecuniary considerations. It is a +fact that Lady Byron's letters to Mrs Leigh before and after the separation +are inconsistent with a knowledge or suspicion of guilt on the part of her +sister-in-law, but it is also a fact (see _Astarte_, pp. 142-145) that she +signed a document (dated March 14, 1816) to the effect that any renewal of +intercourse did not involve and must not be construed as a withdrawal of +the charge. It cannot be doubted that Lady Byron's conviction that her +husband's relations with his half-sister before his marriage had been of an +immoral character was a factor in her demand for a separation, but whether +there were other and what issues, and whether Lady Byron's conviction was +founded on fact, are questions which have not been finally answered. Lady +Byron's charge, as reported by Mrs Beecher Stowe and upheld by the 2nd earl +of Lovelace, is "non-proven." Mr Robert Edgcome, in _Byron: the Last Phase_ +(1909), insists that Mary Chaworth was the real object of Byron's passion, +and that Mrs Leigh was only shielding her. + +The separation of Lord and Lady Byron was the talk of the town. Two poems +entitled "Fare Thee Well" and "A Sketch," which Byron had written and +printed for private circulation, were published by _The Champion_ on +Sunday, April 14. The other London papers one by one followed suit. The +poems, more especially "A Sketch," were provocative of criticism. There was +a balance of opinion, but politics turned the scale. Byron had recently +published some pro-Gallican stanzas, "On the 'Star of the Legion of +Honour,'" in the _Examiner_ (April 7), and it was felt by many that private +dishonour was the outcome of public disloyalty. The Whigs defended Byron as +best they could, but his own world, with one or two exceptions, ostracized +him. The "excommunicating voice of society," as Moore put it, was loud and +insistent. The articles of separation were signed on or about the 18th of +April, and on Sunday, the 25th of April, Byron sailed from Dover for +Ostend. The "Lines on Churchill's Grave" were written whilst he was waiting +for a favourable wind. His route lay through the Low Countries, and by the +Rhine to Switzerland. On his way he halted at Brussels and visited the +field of Waterloo. He reached Geneva on the 25th of May, where he met by +appointment at Dejean's Hôtel d'Angleterre, Shelley, Mary Godwin and Clare +(or "Claire") Clairmont. The meeting was probably at the instance of +Claire, who had recently become, and aspired to remain, Byron's mistress. +On the 10th of June Byron moved to the Villa Diodati on the southern shore +of the lake. Shelley and his party had already settled at an adjoining +villa, the Campagne Montalègre. The friends were constantly together. On +the 23rd of June Byron and Shelley started for a yachting tour round the +lake. They visited the castle of Chillon on the 26th of June, and, being +detained by weather at the Hôtel de l'Ancre, Ouchy, Byron finished (June +27-29) the third canto of _Childe Harold_ (published November 18), and +began the _Prisoner of Chillon_ (published December 5, 1816). These and +other poems of July-September 1816, _e.g._ "The Dream" and the first two +acts of _Manfred_ (published June 16, 1817), betray the influence of +Shelley, and through him of Wordsworth, both in thought and style. Byron +knew that Wordsworth had power, but was against his theories, and resented +his criticism of Pope and Dryden. Shelley was a believer and a disciple, +and converted Byron to the Wordsworthian creed. Moreover he was an +inspiration in himself. Intimacy with Shelley left Byron a greater poet +than he was before. Byron passed the summer at the Villa Diodati, where he +also wrote the _Monody on the Death of Sheridan_, published September 9, +1816. The second half of September was spent and devoted to "an excursion +in the mountains." His journal (September 18-29), which was written for and +sent to Mrs Leigh, is a great prose poem, the source of the word pictures +of Alpine scenery in _Manfred_. His old friend Hobhouse was with him and he +enjoyed himself, but at the close he confesses that he could not lose his +"own wretched identity" in the "majesty and the power and the glory" of +nature. Remorse was scotched, not [v.04 p.0901] killed. On the 6th of +October Byron and Hobhouse started via Milan and Verona for Venice, which +was reached early in November. For the next three years Byron lived in or +near Venice--at first, 1816-1817, in apartments in the Frezzeria, and after +January 1818 in the central block of the Mocenigo palace. Venice appealed +both to his higher and his lower nature. He set himself to study her +history, to understand her constitution, to learn her language. The sights +and scenes with which Shakespeare and Otway, Schiller's _Ghostseer_, and +Madame de Staël's _Corinne_ had made him familiar, were before his eyes, +not dreams but realities. He would "repeople" her with her own past, and +"stamp her image" on the creations of his pen. But he had no one to live +for but himself, and that self he gave over to a reprobate mind. He planned +and pursued a life of deliberate profligacy. Of two of his amours we learn +enough or too much from his letters to Murray and to Moore--the first with +his landlord's wife, Marianna Segati, the second with Margarita Cogni (the +"Fornarina"), a Venetian of the lower class, who amused him with her +savagery and her wit. But, if Shelley may be trusted, there was a limit to +his candour. There is abundant humour, but there is an economy of detail in +his pornographic chronicle. He could not touch pitch without being defiled. +But to do him justice he was never idle. He kept his brains at work, and +for this reason, perhaps, he seems for a time to have recovered his spirits +and sinned with a good courage. His song of carnival, "So we'll go no more +a-roving," is a hymn of triumph. About the middle of April he set out for +Rome. His first halt was at Ferrara, which inspired the "Lament of Tasso" +(published July 17, 1817). He passed through Florence, where he saw "_the_ +Venus" (of Medici) in the Uffizi Gallery, by reedy Thrasymene and Term's +"matchless cataract" to "Rome the Wonderful." At Rome, with Hobhouse as +companion and guide, he stayed three weeks. He returned to Venice on the +28th of May, but shortly removed to a villa at Mira on the Brenta, some 7 +m. inland. A month later (June 26) when memory had selected and reduced to +order the first impressions of his tour, he began to work them up into a +fourth canto of _Childe Harold_. A first draft of 126 stanzas was finished +by the 29th of July; the 60 additional stanzas which made up the canto as +it stands were written up to material suggested by or supplied by Hobhouse, +"who put his researches" at Byron's disposal and wrote the learned and +elaborate notes which are appended to the poem. Among the books which +Murray sent out to Venice was a copy of Hookham Frere's _Whistlecraft_. +Byron took the hint and produced _Beppo, a Venetian Story_ (published +anonymously on the 28th of February 1818). He attributes his choice of the +mock heroic _ottava-rima_ to Frere's example, but he was certainly familiar +with Casti's _Novelle_, and, according to Stendhal, with the poetry of +Buratti. The success of _Beppo_ and a growing sense that "the excellent +manner of _Whistlecraft_" was the manner for him, led him to study Frere's +masters and models, Berni and Pulci. An accident had led to a great +discovery. + +The fourth canto of _Childe Harold_ was published on the 28th of April +1818. Nearly three months went by before Murray wrote to him, and he began +to think that his new poem was a failure. Meanwhile he completed an "Ode on +Venice," in which he laments her apathy and decay, and contrasts the +tyranny of the Old World with the new birth of freedom in America. In +September he began _Don Juan_. His own account of the inception of his last +and greatest work is characteristic but misleading. He says (September 9) +that his new poem is to be in the style of _Beppo_, and is "meant to be a +little quietly facetious about everything." A year later (August 12, 1819), +he says that he neither has nor had a _plan_--but that "he had or has +_materials_." By materials he means books, such as Dalzell's _Shipwrecks +and Disasters by Sea_, or de Castelnau's _Histoire de la nouvelle Russie_, +&c., which might be regarded as poetry in the rough. The dedication to +Robert Southey (not published till 1833) is a prologue to the play. The +"Lakers" had given samples of their poetry, their politics and their +morals, and now it was his turn to speak and to speak out. He too would +write "An Excursion." He doubted that _Don Juan_ might be "too free for +these modest days." It _was_ too free for the public, for his publisher, +even for his mistress; and the "building up of the drama," as Shelley puts +it, was a slow and gradual process. Cantos I., II. were published (4to) on +the 15th of July 1819; Cantos III., IV., V., finished in November 1820, +were not published till the 8th of August 1821. Cantos VI.-XVI., written +between June 1822 and March 1823, were published at intervals between the +15th of July 1823 and the 26th of March 1824. Canto XVII. was begun in May +1823, but was never finished. A fragment of fourteen stanzas, found in his +room at Missolonghi, was first published in 1903. + +He did not put all his materials into _Don Juan_. "Mazeppa, a tale of the +Russian Ukraine," based on a passage in Voltaire's _Charles XII._, was +finished by the 30th of September 1818 and published with "An Ode" (on +Venice) on the 28th of June 1819. In the spring of 1819 Byron met in +Venice, and formed a connexion with, an Italian lady of rank, Teresa (born +Gamba), wife of the Cavaliere Guiccioli. She was young and beautiful, +well-read and accomplished. Married at sixteen to a man nearly four times +her age, she fell in love with Byron at first sight, soon became and for +nearly four years remained his mistress. A good and true wife to him in all +but name, she won from Byron ample devotion and a prolonged constancy. Her +volume of _Recollections_ (_Lord Byron jugé par les témoins de sa vie_, +1869), taken for what it is worth, is testimony in Byron's favour. The +countess left Venice for Ravenna at the end of April; within a month she +sent for Byron, and on the 10th of June he arrived at Ravenna and took +rooms in the Strada di Porto Sisi. The house (now No. 295) is close to +Dante's tomb, and to gratify the countess and pass the time he wrote the +"Prophecy of Dante" (published April 21, 1821). According to the preface +the poem was a metrical experiment, an exercise in _terza rima_; but it had +a deeper significance. It was "intended for the Italians." Its purport was +revolutionary. In the fourth canto of _Childe Harold_, already translated +into Italian, he had attacked the powers, and "Albion most of all" for her +betrayal of Venice, and knowing that his word had weight he appeals to the +country of his adoption to strike a blow for freedom--to "unite." It is +difficult to realize the force or extent of Byron's influence on +continental opinion. His own countrymen admired his poetry, but abhorred +and laughed at his politics. Abroad he was the prophet and champion of +liberty. His hatred of tyranny--his defence of the oppressed--was a word +spoken in season when there were few to speak but many to listen. It +brought consolation and encouragement, and it was not spoken in vain. It +must, however, be borne in mind that Byron was more of a king-hater than a +people-lover. He was against the oppressors, but he disliked and despised +the oppressed. He was aristocrat by conviction as well as birth, and if he +espoused a popular cause it was _de haut en bas_. His connexion with the +Gambas brought him into touch with the revolutionary movement, and +thenceforth he was under the espionage of the Austrian embassy at Rome. He +was suspected and "shadowed," but he was left alone. + +Early in September Byron returned to La Mira, bringing the countess with +him. A month later he was surprised by a visit from Moore, who was on his +way to Rome. Byron installed Moore in the Mocenigo palace and visited him +daily. Before the final parting (October 11) Byron placed in Moore's hands +the MS. of his _Life and Adventures_ brought down to the close of 1816. +Moore, as Byron suggested, pledged the MS. to Murray for 2000 guineas, to +be Moore's property if redeemed in Byron's lifetime, but if not, to be +forfeit to Murray at Byron's death. On the 17th of May 1824, with Murray's +assent and goodwill, the MS. was burned in the drawing-room of 50 Albemarle +Street. Neither Murray nor Moore lost their money. The Longmans lent Moore +a sufficient sum to repay Murray, and were themselves repaid out of the +receipts of Moore's _Life of Byron_. Byron told Moore that the memoranda +were not "confessions," that they were "the truth but not the whole truth." +This, no doubt, was the truth, and the whole truth. Whatever they may or +may [v.04 p.0902] not have contained, they did not explain the cause or +causes of the separation from his wife.[1] + +At the close of 1819 Byron finally left Venice and settled at Ravenna in +his own apartments in the Palazzo Guiccioli. His relations with the +countess were put on a regular footing, and he was received in society as +her _cavaliere servente_. At Ravenna his literary activity was greater than +ever. His translation of the first canto of Pulci's _Morgante Maggiore_ +(published in the _Liberal_, No. IV., July 30, 1832), a laborious and +scholarly achievement, was the work of the first two months of the year. +From April to July he was at work on the composition of _Marino Faliero, +Doge of Venice_, a tragedy in five acts (published April 21, 1821). The +plot turns on an episode in Venetian history known as _La Congiura_, the +alliance between the doge and the populace to overthrow the state. Byron +spared no pains in preparing his materials. In so far as he is +unhistorical, he errs in company with Sanudo and early Venetian chronicles. +Moved by the example of Alfieri he strove to reform the British drama by "a +severer approach to the rules." He would read his countrymen a "moral +lesson" on the dramatic propriety of observing the three unities. It was an +heroic attempt to reassert classical ideals in a romantic age, but it was +"a week too late"; Byron's "regular dramas" are admirably conceived and +finely worded, but they are cold and lifeless. + +Eighteen additional sheets of the _Memoirs_ and a fifth canto of _Don Juan_ +were the pastime of the autumn, and in January 1821 Byron began to work on +his second "historical drama," _Sardanapalus_. But politics intervened, and +little progress was made. He had been elected _capo_ of the "_Americani_," +a branch of the Carbonari, and his time was taken up with buying and +storing arms and ammunition, and consultations with leading conspirators. +"The poetry of politics" and poetry on paper did not go together. Meanwhile +he would try his hand on prose. A controversy had arisen between Bowles and +Campbell with regard to the merits of Pope. Byron rushed into the fray. To +avenge and exalt Pope, to decry the "Lakers," and to lay down his own +canons of art, Byron addressed two letters to **** ****** (_i.e._ John +Murray), entitled "Strictures on the Life and Writings of Pope." The first +was published in 1821, the second in 1835. + +The revolution in Italy came to nothing, and by the 28th of May, Byron had +finished his work on _Sardanapalus_. The _Two Foscari_, a third historical +drama, was begun on the 12th of June and finished on the 9th of July. On +the same day he began _Cain, a Mystery_. _Cain_ was an attempt to dramatize +the Old Testament; Lucifer's apology for himself and his arraignment of the +Creator startled and shocked the orthodox. Theologically the offence lay in +its detachment. _Cain_ was not irreverent or blasphemous, but it treated +accepted dogmas as open questions. _Cain_ was published in the same volume +with the _Two Foscari_ and _Sardanapalus_, December 19, 1821. The "Blues," +a skit upon literary coteries and their patronesses, was written in August. +It was first published in _The Liberal_, No. III., April 26, 1823, When +_Cain_ was finished Byron turned from grave to gay, from serious to +humorous theology. Southey had thought fit to eulogize George III. in +hexameter verse. He called his funeral ode a "Vision of Judgment." In the +preface there was an obvious reference to Byron. The "Satanic School" of +poetry was attributed to "men of diseased hearts and depraved +imaginations." Byron's revenge was complete. In his "Vision of Judgment" +(published in _The Liberal_, No. I., October 15, 1822) the tables are +turned. The laureate is brought before the hosts of heaven and rejected by +devils and angels alike. In October Byron wrote _Heaven and Earth, a +Mystery_ (_The Liberal_, No. II., January 1, 1823), a lyrical drama based +on the legend of the "Watchers," or fallen angels of the Book of Enoch. The +countess and her family had been expelled from Ravenna in July, but Byron +still lingered on in his apartments in the Palazzo Guiccioli. At length +(October 28) he set out for Pisa. On the road he met his old friend, Lord +Clare, and spent a few minutes in his company. Rogers, whom he met at +Bologna, was his fellow-traveller as far as Florence. At Pisa he rejoined +the countess, who had taken on his behalf the Villa Lanfranchi on the Arno. +At Ravenna Byron had lived amongst Italians. At Pisa he was surrounded by a +knot of his own countrymen, friends and acquaintances of the Shelleys. +Among them were E.J. Trelawny, Thomas Medwin, author of the well-known +_Conversations of Lord Byron_ (1824), and Edward Elliker Williams. His +first work at Pisa was to dramatize Miss Lee's _Kruitzner, or the German's +Tale_. He had written a first act in 1815, but as the MS. was mislaid he +made a fresh adaptation of the story which he rechristened _Werner, or the +Inheritance_. It was finished on the 20th of January and published on the +23rd of November 1822. _Werner_ is in parts _Kruitzner_ cut up into loose +blank verse, but it contains lines and passages of great and original +merit. Alone of Byron's plays it took hold of the stage. Macready's +"Werner" was a famous impersonation. + +In the spring of 1822 a heavy and unlooked-for sorrow befell Byron. +Allegra, his natural daughter by Claire Clairmont, died at the convent of +Bagna Cavallo on the 20th of April 1822. She was in her sixth year, an +interesting and attractive child, and he had hoped that her companionship +would have atoned for his enforced separation from Ada. She is buried in a +nameless grave at the entrance of Harrow church. Soon after the death of +Allegra, Byron wrote the last of his eight plays, _The Deformed +Transformed_ (published by John Hunt, February 20, 1824). The "sources" are +Goethe's _Faust_, _The Three Brothers_, a novel by Joshua Pickersgill, and +various chronicles of the sack of Rome in 1527. The theme or _motif_ is the +interaction of personality and individuality. Remonstrances on the part of +publisher and critic induced him to turn journalist. The control of a +newspaper or periodical would enable him to publish what and as he pleased. +With this object in view he entered into a kind of literary partnership +with Leigh Hunt, and undertook to transport him, his wife and six children +to Pisa, and to lodge them in the Villa Lanfranchi. The outcome of this +arrangement was _The Liberal--Verse and Prose from the South_. Four numbers +were issued between October 1822 and June 1823. _The Liberal_ did not +succeed financially, and the joint menage was a lamentable failure. +_Correspondence of Byron and some of his Contemporaries_ (1828) was Hunt's +revenge for the slights and indignities which he suffered in Byron's +service. Yachting was one of the chief amusements of the English colony at +Pisa. A schooner, the "Bolivar," was built for Byron, and a smaller boat, +the "Don Juan" re-named "Ariel," for Shelley. Hunt arrived at Pisa on the +1st of July. On the 8th of July Shelley, who had remained in Pisa on Hunt's +account, started for a sail with his friend Williams and a lad named +Vivian. The "Ariel" was wrecked in the Gulf of Spezia and Shelley and his +companions were drowned. On the 16th of August Byron and Hunt witnessed the +"burning of Shelley" on the seashore near Via Reggio. Byron told Moore that +"all of Shelley was consumed but the _heart_." Whilst the fire was burning +Byron swam out to the "Bolivar" and back to the shore. The hot sun and the +violent exercise brought on one of those many fevers which weakened his +constitution and shortened his life. + +The Austrian government would not allow the Gambas or the countess +Guiccioli to remain in Pisa. As a half measure Byron took a villa for them +at Montenero near Leghorn, but as the authorities were still dissatisfied +they removed to Genoa. Byron and Leigh Hunt left Pisa on the last day of +September. On reaching Genoa Byron took up his quarters with the Gambas at +the Casa Saluzzo, "a fine old palazzo with an extensive view over the bay," +and Hunt and his party at the Casa Negroto with Mrs Shelley. Life at Genoa +was uneventful. Of Hunt and Mrs Shelley he saw as little as possible, and +though his still unpublished poems were at the service of _The Liberal_, he +did little or nothing to further its success. Each number was badly +received. Byron had some reason to fear that his popularity [v.04 p.0903] +was on the wane, and though he had broken with Murray and was offering _Don +Juan_ (cantos vi.-xii.) to John Hunt, the publisher of _The Liberal_, he +meditated a "run down to Naples" and a recommencement of _Childe Harold_. +There was a limit to his defiance of the "world's rebuke." Home politics +and the congress of Verona (November-December 1822) suggested a satire +entitled "The Age of Bronze" (published April 1, 1823). It is, as he said, +"stilted," and cries out for notes, but it embodies some of his finest and +most vigorous work as a satirist. By the middle of February (1823) he had +completed _The Island; or Christian and his Comrades_ (published June 26, +1823). The sources are Bligh's _Narrative of the Mutiny of the Bounty_, and +Mariner's _Account of the Tonga Islands_. Satire and tale are a reversion +to his earlier method. The execution of _The Island_ is hurried and +unequal, but there is a deep and tender note in the love-story and the +recital of the "feasts and loves and wars" of the islanders. The poetic +faculty has been "softened into feeling" by the experience of life. + +When _The Island_ was finished, Byron went on with _Don Juan_. Early in +March the news reached him that he had been elected a member of the Greek +Committee, a small body of influential Liberals who had taken up the cause +of the liberation of Greece. Byron at once offered money and advice, and +after some hesitation on the score of health, determined "to go to Greece." +His first step was to sell the "Bolivar" to Lord Blessington, and to +purchase the "Hercules," a collier-built tub of 120 tons. On the 23rd of +July the "Hercules" sailed from Leghorn and anchored off Cephalonia on the +3rd of August. The party on board consisted of Byron, Pietro Gamba, +Trelawny, Hamilton Browne and six or seven servants. The next four months +were spent at Cephalonia, at first on board the "Hercules," in the harbour +of Argostoli and afterwards at Metaxata. The object of this delay was to +ascertain the real state of affairs in Greece. The revolutionary Greeks +were split up into parties, not to say factions, and there were several +leaders. It was a question to which leader he would attach himself. At +length a message reached him which inspired him with confidence. He +received a summons from Prince Alexander Mavrocordato, a man of birth and +education, urging him to come at once to Missolonghi, and enclosing a +request from the legislative body "to co-operate with Mavrocordato in the +organization of western Greece." Byron felt that he could act with a "clear +conscience" in putting himself at the disposal of a man whom he regarded as +the authorized leader and champion of the Greeks. He sailed from Argostoli +on the 29th of December 1823, and after an adventurous voyage landed at +Missolonghi on the 5th of January 1824. He met with a royal reception. +Byron may have sought, but he did not find, "a soldier's grave." During his +three months' residence at Missolonghi he accomplished little and he +endured much. He advanced large sums of money for the payment of the +troops, for repair and construction of fortifications, for the provision of +medical appliances. He brought opposing parties into line, and served as a +link between Odysseus, the democratic leader of the insurgents, and the +"prince" Mavrocordato. He was eager to take the field, but he never got the +chance. A revolt in the Morea, and the repeated disaffection of his Suliote +guard prevented him from undertaking the capture of Epacto, an exploit +which he had reserved for his own leadership. He was beset with +difficulties, but at length events began to move. On the 18th of March he +received an invitation from Odysseus and other chiefs to attend a +conference at Salona, and by the same messenger an offer from the +government to appoint him "governor-general of the enfranchised parts of +Greece." He promised to attend the conference but did not pledge himself to +the immediate acceptance of office. But to Salona he never came. "Roads and +rivers were impassable," and the conference was inevitably postponed. + +His health had given way, but he does not seem to have realized that his +life was in danger. On the 15th of February he was struck down by an +epileptic fit, which left him speechless though not motionless. He +recovered sufficiently to conduct his business as usual, and to drill the +troops. But he suffered from dizziness in the head and spasms in the chest, +and a few days later he was seized with a second though slighter +convulsion. These attacks may have hastened but they did not cause his +death. For the first week of April the weather confined him to the house, +but on the 9th a letter from his sister raised his spirits and tempted him +to ride out with Gamba. It came on to rain, and though he was drenched to +the skin he insisted on dismounting and returning in an open boat to the +quay in front of his house. Two hours later he was seized with ague and +violent rheumatic pains. On the 11th he rode out once more through the +olive groves, attended by his escort of Suliote guards, but for the last +time. Whether he had got his deathblow, or whether copious blood-letting +made recovery impossible, he gradually grew worse, and on the ninth day of +his illness fell into a comatose sleep. It was reported that in his +delirium he had called out, half in English, half in Italian, +"Forward--forward--courage! follow my example--don't be afraid!" and that +he tried to send a last message to his sister and to his wife. He died at +six o'clock in the evening of the 19th of April 1824, aged thirty-six years +and three months. The Greeks were heartbroken. Mavrocordato gave orders +that thirty-seven minute-guns should be fired at daylight and decreed a +general mourning of twenty-one days. His body was embalmed and lay in +state. On the 25th of May his remains, all but the heart, which is buried +at Missolonghi, were sent back to England, and were finally laid beneath +the chancel of the village church of Hucknall-Torkard on the 16th of July +1824. The authorities would not sanction burial in Westminster Abbey, and +there is neither bust nor statue of Lord Byron in Poets' Corner. + +The title passed to his first cousin as 7th baron, from whom the subsequent +barons were descended. The poet's daughter Ada (d. 1852) predeceased her +mother, but the barony of Wentworth went to her heirs. She was the first +wife of Baron King, who in 1838 was created 1st earl of Lovelace, and had +two sons (of whom the younger, b. 1839, d. 1906, was 2nd earl of Lovelace) +and a daughter, Lady Anne, who married Wilfrid S. Blunt (_q.v._). On the +death of the 2nd earl the barony of Wentworth went to his daughter and only +child, and the earldom of Lovelace to his half-brother by the 1st earl's +second wife. + +Great men are seldom misjudged. The world passes sentence on them, and +there is no appeal. Byron's contemporaries judged him by the tone and +temper of his works, by his own confessions or self-revelations in prose +and verse, by the facts of his life as reported in the newspapers, by the +talk of the town. His letters, his journals, the testimony of a dozen +memorialists are at the disposal of the modern biographer. Moore thinks +that Byron's character was obliterated by his versatility, his mobility, +that he was carried away by his imagination, and became the thing he wished +to be, or conceived himself as becoming. But his nature was not +chameleon-like. Self-will was the very pulse of the machine. Pride ruled +his years. All through his life, as child and youth and man, his one aim +and endeavour was the subjection of other people's wishes to, his own. He +would subject even fate if he could. He has two main objects in view, +_glory_, in the French rather than the English use of the word, and +passion. It is hard to say which was the strongest or the dearest, but, on +the whole, within his "little life" passion prevailed. Other inclinations +he could master. Poetry was often but not always an exaltation and a +relief. He could fulfil his tasks in "hours of gloom." If he had not been a +great poet he would have gained credit as a painstaking and laborious man +of letters. His habitual temperance was the outcome of a stern resolve. He +had no scruples, but he kept his body in subjection as a means to an end. +In his youth Byron was a cautious spendthrift. Even when he was "cursedly +dipped" he knew what he was about; and afterwards, when his income was +sufficient for his requirements, he kept a hold on his purse. He loved +display, and as he admitted, spent money on women, but he checked his +accounts and made both ends meet. On the other hand, the "gift of +continency" he did not possess, or trouble himself to acquire. He was, to +use his own phrase, "passionate of body," and his desires were stronger +than his will. There are points of Byron's character with regard to which +opinion is divided. Candid he certainly was to the verge of brutality, but +was he sincere? Was [v.04 p.0904] he as melancholy as his poetry implies? +Did he pose as pessimist or misanthropist, or did he speak out of the +bitterness of his soul? It stands to reason that Byron knew that his sorrow +and his despair would excite public interest, and that he was not ashamed +to exhibit "the pageant of a bleeding heart." But it does not follow that +he was a hypocrite. His quarrel with mankind, his anger against fate, were +perfectly genuine. His outcry is, in fact, the anguish of a baffled will. +Byron was too self-conscious, too much interested in himself, to take any +pleasures in imaginary woes, or to credit himself with imaginary vices. + +Whether he told the whole truth is another matter. He was naturally a +truthful man and his friends lived in dread of unguarded disclosures, but +his communications were not so free as they seemed. There was a string to +the end of the kite. Byron was kindly and generous by nature. He took +pleasure in helping necessitous authors, men and women, not at all _en +grand seigneur_, or without counting the cost, but because he knew what +poverty meant, and a fellow-feeling made him kind. Even in Venice he set +aside a fixed sum for charitable purposes. It was to his credit that +neither libertinism nor disgrace nor remorse withered at its root this herb +of grace. Cynical speeches with regard to friends and friendship, often +quoted to his disadvantage, need not be taken too literally. Byron talked +for effect, and in accordance with the whim of the moment. His acts do not +correspond with his words. Byron rejected and repudiated bath Protestant +and Catholic orthodoxy, but like the Athenians he was "exceedingly +religious." He could not, he did not wish to, detach himself from a belief +in an Invisible Power. "A fearful looking for of judgment" haunted him to +the last. + +There is an increasing tendency on the part of modern critics to cast a +doubt on Byron's sanity. It is true that he inherited bad blood on both +sides of his family, that he was of a neurotic temperament, that at one +time he maddened himself with drink, but there is no evidence that his +brain was actually diseased. Speaking figuratively, he may have been "half +mad," but, if so, it was a derangement of the will, not of the mind. He was +responsible for his actions, and they rise up in judgment against him. He +put indulgence before duty. He made a byword of his marriage and brought +lifelong sorrow on his wife. If, as Goethe said, he was "the greatest +talent" of the 19th century, he associated that talent with scandal and +reproach. But he was born with certain noble qualities which did not fail +him at his worst. He was courageous, he was kind, and he loved truth rather +than lies. He was a worker and a fighter. He hated tyranny, and was +prepared to sacrifice money and ease and life in the cause of popular +freedom. If the issue of his call to arms was greater and other than he +designed or foresaw, it was a generous instinct which impelled him to begin +the struggle. + +With regard to the criticism of his works, Byron's personality has always +confused the issue. Politics, religion, morality, have confused, and still +confuse, the issue. The question for the modern critic is, of what +permanent value is Byron's poetry? What did he achieve for art, for the +intellect, for the spirit, and in what degree does he still give pleasure +to readers of average intelligence? It cannot be denied that he stands out +from other poets of his century as a great creative artist, that his canvas +is crowded with new and original images, additions to already existing +types of poetic workmanship. It has been said that Byron could only +represent himself under various disguises, that Childe Harold and The +Corsair, Lara and Manfred and Don Juan, are variants of a single +personality, the egotist who is at war with his fellows, the generous but +nefarious sentimentalist who sins and suffers and yet is to be pitied for +his suffering. None the less, with whatever limitations as artist or +moralist, he invented characters and types of characters real enough and +distinct enough to leave their mark on society as well as on literature. +These masks or replicas of his own personality were formative of thought, +and were powerful agents in the evolution of sentiment and opinion. In +language which was intelligible and persuasive, under shapes and forms +which were suggestive and inspiring, Byron delivered a message of +liberation. There was a double motive at work in his energies as a poet. He +wrote, as he said, because "his mind was full" of his own loves, his own +griefs, but also to register a protest against some external tyranny of law +or faith or custom. His own countrymen owe Byron another debt. His poems +were a liberal education in the manners and customs of "the gorgeous East," +in the scenery, the art, the history and politics of Italy and Greece. He +widened the horizon of his contemporaries, bringing within their ken +wonders and beauties hitherto unknown or unfamiliar, and in so doing he +heightened and cultivated, he "touched with emotion," the unlettered and +unimaginative many, that "reading public" which despised or eluded the +refinements and subtleties of less popular writers. + +To the student of literature the first half of the 19th century is the age +of Byron. He has failed to retain his influence over English readers. The +knowledge, the culture of which he was the immediate channel, were speedily +available through other sources. The politics of the Revolution neither +interested nor affected the Liberalism or Radicalism of the middle classes. +It was not only the loftier and wholesomer poetry of Wordsworth and of +Tennyson which averted enthusiasm from Byron, not only moral earnestness +and religious revival but the optimism and the materialism of commercial +prosperity. As time went on, a severer and more intelligent criticism was +brought to bear on his handiwork as a poet. It was pointed out that his +constructions were loose and ambiguous, that his grammar was faulty, that +his rhythm was inharmonious, and it was argued that these defects and +blemishes were outward and visible signs of a lack of fineness in the man's +spiritual texture; that below the sentiment and behind the rhetoric the +thoughts and ideas were mean and commonplace. There was a suspicion of +artifice, a questioning of the passion as genuine. Poetry came to be +regarded more and more as a source of spiritual comfort, if not a religious +exercise, yet, in some sort, a substitute for religion. There was little or +nothing in Byron's poetry which fulfilled this want. He had no message for +seekers after truth. Matthew Arnold, in his preface to _The Poetry of +Byron_, prophesied that "when the year 1900 is turned, and our nation comes +to recount the poetic glories in the century which has then just ended, her +first names with her will be those of Byron and Wordsworth." + +That prophecy still waits fulfilment, but without doubt there has been a +reconsideration of Byron's place in literature, and he stands higher than +he did, say, in 1875. His quarrel with orthodoxy neither alarms nor +provokes the modern reader. Cynical or flippant turns of speech, which +distressed and outraged his contemporaries, are taken as they were meant, +for witty or humorous by-play. He is regarded as the herald and champion +_revolt_. He is praised for his "sincerity and strength," for his +single-mindedness, his directness, his audacity. A dispassionate criticism +recognizes the force and splendour of his rhetoric. The "purple patches" +have stood the wear and tear of time. Byron may have mismanaged the +Spenserian stanza, may have written up to or anticipated the guide-book, +but the spectacle of the bull-fight at Cadiz is "for ever warm," the "sound +of revelry" on the eve of Waterloo still echoes in our ears, and Marathon +and Venice, Greece and Italy, still rise up before us, "as from the stroke +of an enchanter's wand." It was, however, in another vein that Byron +achieved his final triumph. In _Don Juan_ he set himself to depict life as +a whole. The style is often misnamed the mock-heroic. It might be more +accurately described as humorous-realistic. His "plan was to have no plan" +in the sense of synopsis or argument, but in the person of his hero to +"unpack his heart," to avenge himself on his enemies, personal or +political, to suggest an apology for himself and to disclose a criticism +and philosophy of life. As a satirist in the widest sense of the word, as +an analyser of human nature, he comes, at whatever distance, after and yet +next to Shakespeare. It is a test of the greatness of _Don Juan_ that its +reputation has slowly increased and that, in spite of its supposed immoral +tendency, in spite of occasional grossness and voluptuousness, it has come +to be recognized as Byron's masterpiece. _Don Juan_ will be read for its +own sake, for its beauty, its humour, its faithfulness. It is a "hymn to +the earth," but it is a human sequence to "its own music chaunted." + +[v.04 p.0905] In his own lifetime Byron stood higher on the continent of +Europe than in England or even in America. His works as they came out were +translated into French, into German, into Italian, into Russian, and the +stream of translation has never ceased to flow. The _Bride of Abydos_ has +been translated into ten, _Cain_ into nine languages. Of _Manfred_ there is +one Bohemian translation, two Danish, two Dutch, two French, nine German, +three Hungarian, three Italian, two Polish, one Romaic, one Rumanian, four +Russian and three Spanish translations. The dictum or verdict of Goethe +that "the English may think of Byron as they please, but this is certain +that they show no poet who is to be compared with him" was and is the +keynote of continental European criticism. A survey of European literature +is a testimony to the universality of his influence. Victor Hugo, +Lamartine, Delavigne, Alfred de Musset, in France; Börne, Müller and Heine +in Germany; the Italian poets Leopardi and Giusti; Pushkin and Lermontov +among the Russians; Michiewicz and Slowacki among the Poles--more or less, +as eulogists or imitators or disciples--were of the following of Byron. +This fact is beyond dispute, that after the first outburst of popularity he +has touched and swayed other nations rather than his own. The part he +played or seemed to play in revolutionary politics endeared him to those +who were struggling to be free. He stood for freedom of thought and of +life. He made himself the mouthpiece of an impassioned and welcome protest +against the hypocrisy and arrogance of his order and his race. He lived on +the continent and was known to many men in many cities. It has been argued +that foreigners are insensible to his defects as a writer, and that this +may account for an astonishing and perplexing preference. The cause is +rather to be sought in the quality of his art. It was as the creator of new +types, "forms more real than living man," that Byron appealed to the +artistic sense and to the imagination of Latin, Teuton or Slav. That "he +taught us little" of the things of the spirit, that he knew no cure for the +sickness of the soul, were considerations which lay outside the province of +literary criticism. "It is a mark," says Goethe (_Aus meinem Leben: +Dichtung und Wahrheit_, 1876, iii. 125), "of true poetry, that as a secular +gospel it knows how to free us from the earthly burdens which press upon +us, by inward serenity, by outward charm." Now of this "secular gospel" the +redemption from "real woes" by the exhibition of imaginary glory, and +imaginary delights, Byron was both prophet and evangelist. + +Byron was 5 ft. 8 in. in height, and strongly built; only with difficulty +and varying success did he prevent himself from growing fat. At +five-and-thirty he was extremely thin. He was "very slightly lame," but he +was painfully conscious of his deformity and walked as little and as seldom +as he could. He had a small head covered and fringed with dark brown or +auburn curls. His forehead was high and narrow, of a marble whiteness. His +eyes were of a light grey colour, clear and luminous. His nose was straight +and well-shaped, but "from being a little too thick, it looked better in +profile than in front face." Moore says that it was in "the mouth and chin +that the great beauty as well as expression of his fine countenance lay." +The upper lip was of a Grecian shortness and the corners descending. His +complexion was pale and colourless. Scott speaks of "his beautiful pale +face--like a spirit's good or evil." Charles Matthews said that "he was the +only man to whom he could apply the word beautiful." Coleridge said that +"if you had seen him you could scarce disbelieve him... his eyes the open +portals of the sun--things of light and for light." He was likened to "the +god of the Vatican," the Apollo Belvidere. + +The best-known portraits are: (1) Byron at the age of seven by Kay of +Edinburgh; (2) a drawing of Lord Byron at Cambridge by Gilchrist (1808); +(3) a portrait in oils by George Sanders (1809); (4) a miniature by Sanders +(1812); (5) a portrait in oils by Richard Westall, R.A. (1813); (6) a +portrait in oils (Byron in Albanian dress) by Thomas Phillips, R.A. (1813); +(7) a portrait in oils by Phillips (1813); (8-9) a sketch for a miniature, +and a miniature by James Holmes (1815); (10) a sketch by George Henry +Harlow (1818); (11) a portrait in oils by Vincenzio Camuccini (in the +Vatican) c. 1822; (12) a portrait in oils by W.H. West (1822); (13) a +sketch by Count D'Orsay (1823). Busts were taken by Bertel Thorwaldsen +(1817) and by Lorenzo Bartolini (1822). The statue (1829) in the library of +Trinity College, Cambridge, is by Thorwaldsen after the bust taken in 1817. + +AUTHORITIES.--The best editions of Lord Byron's poetical works are: (1) +_The Works of Lord Byron with his Letters and Journals and his Life_, by +Thomas Moore (17 vols., London, John Murray, 1832, 1833); (2) _The Works of +Lord Byron_ (1 vol., 1837, reissued, 1838-1892); (3) _The Poetical Works of +Lord Byron_ (6 vols., 1855); (4) _The Works of Lord Byron_, new, revised +and enlarged edition, _Letters and Journals_, edited by G.E. Prothero, 6 +vols., _Poetry_, edited by E.H. Coleridge (7 vols., 1898-1903); (5) _The +Poetical Works of Lord Byron_, with memoir by E.H. Coleridge (1 vol., +1905). + +The principal biographies, critical notices, memoirs, &c., are:--_Journey +through Albania... with Lord Byron_, by J.C. Hobhouse (1812; reprinted in 2 +vols., 1813 and 1855); _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of ... Lord Byron_ +[by Dr John Watkins] (1822); _Letters on the Character and Poetical Genius +of Lord Byron_, by Sir E. Brydges, Bart. (1824); _Correspondence of Lord +Byron with a Friend_ (3 vols., Paris, 1824); _Recollections of the Life of +Lord Byron_, by R.C. Dallas (1824); _Journal of the Conversations of Lord +Byron_, by Capt. T. Medwin (1824); _Last Days of Lord Byron_, by W. Parry +(1824); _Narrative of a Second Visit to Greece_, by E. Blaquiere (1825); _A +Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece_, by Count Gamba (1825); +_The Life, Writings, Opinions and Times of Lord Byron_ (3 vols., 1825); +_The Spirit of the Age_, by W. Hazlitt (1825); _Memoir of the Life and +Writings of Lord Byron_, by George Clinton (1826); _Correspondence of Byron +and some of his Contemporaries_, by J.H. Leigh Hunt (2 vols., 1828); +_Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices of his Life_, by Thomas +Moore (2 vols., 1830); _The Life of Lord Byron_, by J. Galt (1830); +_Conversations on Religion with Lord Byron_, by J. Kennedy (1830); +_Conversations of Lord Byron with the Countess of Blessington_ (1834); +_Critical and Historical Essays_, by T.B. Macaulay, i. 311-352 (1843); +_Lord Byron jugé par les témoins de sa vie_ (1869), _My Recollections of +Lord Byron_, by the Countess _Guiccioli_ (1869); _Lady Byron Vindicated, A +History of the Byron Controversy_, by H. Beecher Stowe (1870); _Lord Byron, +a Biography_, by Karl Elze (1872); _Kunst und Alterthum_, Goethe's +_Sämmtliche Werke_ (1874), vol. xiii. p. 641; _Memoir of the Rev. F. +Hodgson_ (2 vols., 1878); _The Real Lord Byron_, by J.C. Jeaffreson (2 +vols., 1883); _A Selection_, &c., by A.C. Swinburne (1885); _Records of +Shelley, Byron and the Author_, by E.J. Trelawny (1887); _Memoirs of John +Murray_, by S. Smiles (2 vols., 1891); _Poetry of Byron_, chosen and +arranged by Matthew Arnold (preface) (1892); _The Siege of Corinth_, edited +by E. Kölbing (1893) _Prisoner of Chillon and other Poems_, edited by E. +Kölbing (1869); _The Works of Lord Byron_, edited by W. Henley, vol. i. +(1897); A. Brandl's "Goethes Verhältniss zu Byron," _Goethe Jahrbuch, +zwanzigster Band_ (1899); _Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature_, +by G. Brandis (6 vols., 1901-1905), translated from _Hauptströmungen der +Literatur des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_, 4 Bde. (Berlin 1872-1876); +_Chambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature_, vol. iii. (1903) art. +"Byron," by T. Watts Dunton; _Studies in Poetry and Criticism_, by J. +Churton Collins (1905); _Lord Byron, sein Leben_, &c., by Richard +Ackermann; _Byron_, 3 vols. in the _Biblioteka velikikh pisatelei pod +redaktsei_, edited by S.A. Vengesova (St Petersburg, 1906): a variorum +translation; _Byron et le romantisme français_, by Edmond Estève (1907). + +(E. H. C.) + +[1] An anonymous work entitled _The Life, Writings, &c. of ... Lord Byron_ +(3 vols., 1825) purports to give "Recollections of the Lately Destroyed +Manuscript." To judge by internal evidence (see "The Wedding Day," &c. ii. +278-284) there is some measure of truth in this assertion, but the work as +a whole is untrustworthy. + +BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884), English playwright, son of Henry Byron, at +one time British consul at Port-au-Prince, was born in Manchester in +January 1834. He entered the Middle Temple as a student in 1858, with the +intention of devoting his time to play-writing. He soon ceased to make any +pretence of legal study, and joined a provincial company as an actor. In +this line he never made any real success; and, though he continued to act +for years, chiefly in his own plays, he had neither originality nor charm. +Meanwhile he wrote assiduously, and few men have produced so many pieces of +so diverse a nature. He was the first editor of the weekly comic paper, +_Fun_, and started the short-lived _Comic Trials_. His first successes were +in burlesque; but in 1865 he joined Miss Marie Wilton (afterwards Lady +Bancroft) in the management of the Prince of Wales's theatre, near +Tottenham Court Road. Here several of his pieces, comedies and +extravaganzas were produced with success; but, upon his severing the +partnership two years later, and starting management on his own account in +the provinces, he was financially unfortunate. The commercial success of +his life was secured with _Our Boys_, which was played at the Vaudeville +from January 1875 till April 1879--a then unprecedented "run." _The Upper +Crust_, another of his successes, gave a congenial opportunity to Mr J.L. +Toole for one of his [v.04 p.0906] inimitably broad character-sketches. +During the last few years of his life Byron was in frail health; he died in +Clapham on the 11th of April 1884. H.J. Byron was the author of some of the +most popular stage pieces of his day. Yet his extravaganzas have no wit but +that of violence; his rhyming couplets are without polish, and decorated +only by forced and often pointless puns. His sentiment had T.W. Robertson's +insipidity without its freshness, and restored an element of vulgarity +which his predecessor had laboured to eradicate from theatrical tradition. +He could draw a "Cockney" character with some fidelity, but his _dramatis +personae_ were usually mere puppets for the utterance of his jests. Byron +was also the author of a novel, _Paid in Full_ (1865), which appeared +originally in _Temple Bar_. In his social relations he had many friends, +among whom he was justly popular for geniality and imperturbable good +temper. + +BYRON, JOHN BYRON, 1ST BARON (c. 1600-1652), English cavalier, was the +eldest son of Sir John Byron (d. 1625), a member of an old Lancashire +family which had settled at Newstead, near Nottingham. During the third +decade of the 17th century Byron was member of parliament for the town and +afterwards for the county of Nottingham; and having been knighted and +gained some military experience he was an enthusiastic partisan of Charles +I. during his struggle with the parliament. In December 1641 the king made +him lieutenant of the Tower of London, but in consequence of the persistent +demand of the House of Commons he was removed from this position at his own +request early in 1642. At the opening of the Civil War Byron joined Charles +at York. He was present at the skirmish at Powick Bridge; he commanded his +own regiment of horse at Edgehill and at Roundway Down, where he was +largely responsible for the royalist victory; and at the first battle of +Newbury Falkland placed himself under his orders. In October 1643 he was +created Baron Byron of Rochdale, and was soon serving the king in Cheshire, +where the soldiers sent over from Ireland augmented his forces. His defeat +at Nantwich, however, in January 1644, compelled him to retire into +Chester, and he was made governor of this city by Prince Rupert. At Marston +Moor, as previously at Edgehill, Byron's rashness gave a great advantage to +the enemy; then after fighting in Lancashire and North Wales he returned to +Chester, which he held for about twenty weeks in spite of the king's defeat +at Naseby and the general hopelessness of the royal cause. Having obtained +favourable terms he surrendered the city in February 1646. Byron took some +slight part in the second Civil War, and was one of the seven persons +excepted by parliament from all pardon in 1648. But he had already left +England, and he lived abroad in attendance on the royal family until his +death in Paris in August 1652. Although twice married Byron left no +children, and his title descended to his brother Richard (1605-1679), who +had been governor of Newark. Byron's five other brothers served Charles I. +during the Civil War, and one authority says that the seven Byrons were all +present at Edgehill. + +BYRON, HON. JOHN (1723-1786), British vice-admiral, second son of the 4th +Lord Byron, and grandfather of the poet, was born on the 8th of November +1723. While still very young, he accompanied Anson in his voyage of +discovery round the world. During many successive years he saw a great deal +of hard service, and so constantly had he to contend, on his various +expeditions, with adverse gales and dangerous storms, that he was nicknamed +by the sailors, "Foul-weather Jack." It is to this that Lord Byron alludes +in his _Epistle to Augusta_:-- + + "A strange doom is thy father's son's, and past + Recalling as it lies beyond redress, + Reversed for him our grandsire's fate of yore, + He had no rest at sea, nor I on shore." + +Among his other expeditions was that to Louisburg in 1760, where he was +sent in command of a squadron to destroy the fortifications. And in 1764 in +the "Dolphin" he went for a prolonged cruise in the South Seas. In 1768 he +published a _Narrative_ of some of his early adventures with Anson, which +was to some extent utilized by his grandson in _Don Juan_. In 1769 he was +appointed governor of Newfoundland. In 1775 he attained his flag rank, and +in 1778 became a vice-admiral. In the same year he was despatched with a +fleet to watch the movements of the Count d'Estaing, and in July 1779 +fought an indecisive engagement with him off Grenada. He soon after +returned to England, retiring into private life, and died on the 10th of +April 1786. + +BYSTRÖM, JOHAN NIKLAS (1783-1848), Swedish sculptor, was born on the 18th +of December 1783 at Philipstad. At the age of twenty he went to Stockholm +and studied for three years under Sergel. In 1809 he gained the academy +prize, and in the following year visited Rome. He sent home a beautiful +work, "The Reclining Bacchante," in half life size, which raised him at +once to the first rank among Swedish sculptors. On his return to Stockholm +in 1816 he presented the crown prince with a colossal statue of himself, +and was entrusted with several important works. Although he was appointed +professor of sculpture at the academy, he soon returned to Italy, and with +the exception of the years from 1838 to 1844 continued to reside there. He +died at Rome in 1848. Among Byström's numerous productions the best are his +representations of the female form, such as "Hebe," "Pandora," "Juno +suckling Hercules," and the "Girl entering the Bath." His colossal statues +of the Swedish kings are also much admired. + +BYTOWNITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the plagioclase (_q.v._) +series of the felspars. The name was originally given (1835) by T. Thomson, +to a greenish-white felspathic mineral found in a boulder near Bytown (now +the city of Ottawa) in Ontario, but this material was later shown on +microscopical examination to be a mixture. The name was afterwards applied +by G. Tschermak to those plagioclase felspars which lie between labradorite +and anorthite; and this has been generally adopted by petrologists. In +chemical composition and in optical and other physical characters it is +thus much nearer to the anorthite end of the series than to albite. Like +labradorite and anorthite, it is a common constituent of basic igneous +rocks, such as gabbro and basalt. Isolated crystals of bytownite bounded by +well-defined faces are unknown. + +(L. J. S.) + +BYWATER, INGRAM (1840- ), English classical scholar, was born in London on +the 27th of June 1840. He was educated at University and King's College +schools, and at Queen's College, Oxford. He obtained a first class in +Moderations (1860) and in the final classical schools (1862), and became +fellow of Exeter (1863), reader in Greek (1883), regius professor of Greek +(1893-1908), and student of Christ Church. He received honorary degrees +from various universities, and was elected corresponding member of the +Prussian Academy of Sciences. He is chiefly known for his editions of Greek +philosophical works: _Heracliti Ephesii Reliquiae_ (1877); _Prisciani Lydi +quae extant_ (edited for the Berlin Academy in the _Supplementum +Aristolelicum_, 1886); Aristotle, _Ethica Nicomachea_ (1890), _De Arte +Poetica_ (1898); _Contributions to the Textual Criticism of the Nicomachean +Ethics_ (1892). + +BYZANTINE ART + +PLATE I. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE HOLY WISDOM (S. SOPHIA), CONSTANTINOPLE. +Sixth century, the dome was rebuilt in the tenth century. The metal +balustrades, pulpits, and the large discs are Turkish.] + +CAPITALS OF COLUMNS. + +[Illustration: S. VITALI, RAVENNA. +Sixth century.] + +[Illustration: S. MARK, VENICE. +Eleventh century.] + +[Illustration: S. APOLLINARI, RAVENNA. +Sixth century.] + +PLATE II. + +[Illustration: SMALL MEDIEVAL CATHEDRAL, ATHENS. _Photo: Emery Walker._] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ST. LUKE'S, NEAR DELPHI. + +Showing a typical scheme of internal decoration. The lower parts of the +walls are covered with marble, and the upper surfaces and vaults with +mosaics and paintings. Eleventh century. _From a Drawing by Sidney +Barnsley._] + +BYZANTINE ART.[1] By "Byzantine art" is meant the art of Constantinople +(sometimes called _Byzantium_ in the middle ages as in antiquity), and of +the Byzantine empire; it represents the form of art which followed the +classical, after the transitional interval of the early Christian period. +It reached maturity under Justinian (527-565), declined and revived with +the fortunes of the empire, and attained a second culmination from the 10th +to the 12th centuries. Continuing in existence throughout the later middle +ages, it is hardly yet extinct in the lands of the Greek Church. It had +enormous influence over the art of Europe and the East during the early +middle ages, not only through the distribution of minor works from +Constantinople but by the reputation of its architecture and painting. +Several buildings in Italy are truly Byzantine. It is difficult to set a +time for the origin of the style. When Constantine founded new Rome the art +was still classical, although it had even then gathered up many of the +elements which were to transform its aspect. Just two hundred years later +some of the most characteristic works of this style of art were being +produced, such [v.04 p.0907] as the churches of St Sergius, the Holy Wisdom +(St Sophia), and the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, and San Vitale at +Ravenna. We may best set an arbitrary point for the demarcation of the new +style midway between these two dates, with the practical separation of the +eastern and western empires. + +The style may be said to have arisen from the orientalization of Roman art, +and itself largely contributed to the formation of the Saracenic or +Mahommedan styles. As Choisy well says, "The history of art in the Roman +epoch presents two currents, one with its source in Rome, the other in +Hellenic Asia. When Rome fell the Orient returned to itself and to the +freedom of exploring new ways. There was now a new form of society, the +Christian civilization, and, in art, an original type of architecture, the +Byzantine." It has hardly been sufficiently emphasized how closely the art +was identified with the outward expression of the Christian church; in +fact, the Christian element in late classical art is the chief root of the +new style, and it was the moral and intellectual criticism that was brought +to bear on the old material, which really marked off Byzantine art from +being merely a late form of classic. + +Hardly any distinction can be set up in the material contents of the art; +it was at least for a period only simplified and sweetened, and it is this +freshening which prepared the way for future development. It must be +confessed, however, that certain influences darkened the style even before +it had reached maturity; chief among these was a gloomy hierarchical +splendour, and a ritual rigidity, which to-day we yet refer to, quite +properly, as Byzantinism. Choisy sees a distinction in the constructive +types of Roman and Byzantine architecture, in that the former covered +spaces by concreted vaults built on centres, which approximated to a sort +of "monolithic" formation, whereas in the Byzantine style the vaults were +built of brick and drawn forward in space without the help of preparatory +support. Building in this way, it became of the greatest importance that +the vaults should be so arranged as to bring about an equilibrium of +thrusts. The distinction holds as between Rome in the 4th century and +Constantinople in the 6th, but we are not sufficiently sure that the +concreted construction did not depend on merely local circumstances, and it +is possible, in other centres of the empire where strong cement was not so +readily obtainable, and wood was scarce, that the Byzantine _constructive_ +method was already known in classical times. Choisy, following Dieulafoy, +would derive the Byzantine system of construction from Persia, but this +proposition seems to depend on a mistaken chronology of the monuments as +shown by Perrot and Chipiez in their _History of Art in Persia_. It seems +probable that the erection of brick vaulting was indigenous in Egypt as a +building method. Strzygowski, in his recent elaborate examination of the +art-types found at the palace of Mashita (Mschatta), a remarkable ruin +discovered by Canon Tristram in Moab, of which the most important parts +have now been brought to the new Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin, shows +that there are Persian ideas intermixed with Byzantine in its decoration, +and there are also brick arches of high elliptical form in the structure. +He seems disposed to date this work rather in the 5th than in the 6th +century, and to see in it an intermediate step between the Byzantine work +of the west and a Mesopotamian style, which he postulates as probably +having its centre at Seleucia-Ctesiphon. From the examples brought forward +by the learned author himself, it is safer as yet to look on the work as in +the main Byzantine, with many Egyptian and Syrian elements, and an +admixture, as has been said, of Persian ideas in the ornamentation. Egypt +was certainly an important centre in the development of the Byzantine +style. + +The course of the transition to Byzantine, the first mature Christian +style, cannot be satisfactorily traced while, guided by Roman +archaeologists, we continue to regard Rome as a source of Christian art +apart from the rest of the world. Christianity itself was not of Rome, it +was an eastern leaven in Roman society. Christian art even in that capital +was, we may say, an eastern leaven in Roman art. If we set the year 450 for +the beginning of Byzantine art, counting all that went before as early +Christian, we get one thousand years to the Moslem conquest of +Constantinople (1453). This millennium is broken into three well-marked +periods by the great iconoclastic schism (726-842) and the taking of +Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204. The first we may call the +classical epoch of Byzantine art; it includes the mature period under +Justinian (the central year of which we may put as 550), from which it +declined until the settlement of the quarrel about images, 400 years in +all, to, say, 850. The second period, to which we may assign the limits +850-1200, is, in the main, one of orientalizing influences, especially in +architecture, although in MSS. and paintings there was, at one time, a +distinct and successful classical revival. The interregnum had caused +almost complete isolation from the West, and inspiration was only to be +found either by casting back on its own course, or by borrowing from the +East. This period is best represented by the splendid works undertaken by +Basil the Macedonian (867-886) and his immediate successors, in the +imperial palace, Constantinople. The third period is marked by the return +of western influence, of which the chief agency was probably the +establishment of Cistercian monasteries. This western influence, although +it may be traced here and there, was not sufficient, however, to change the +essentially oriental character of the art, which from first to last may be +described as Oriental-Christian. + +_Architecture._--The architecture of our period is treated in some detail +in the article ARCHITECTURE; here we can only glance at some broad aspects +of its development. As early as the building of Constantine's churches in +Palestine there were two chief types of plan in use--the basilican, or +axial, type, represented by the basilica at the Holy Sepulchre, and the +circular, or central, type, represented by the great octagonal church once +at Antioch. Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always +vaulted, for a central dome would seem to furnish their very _raison +d'être_. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, +in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at the noble +church of St George, Salonica (5th century?), or by a vaulted aisle, as at +Sta Costanza, Rome (4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the +central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions +helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at the mausoleum of Galla +Placidia, Ravenna (5th century). The most famous church of this type was +that of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople. Vaults appear to have been early +applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at St Irene, +Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two +domes. + +At St Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the +central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal +additions made to the octagon. Finally, at St Sophia (6th century) a +combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning +ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft. square is increased to 200 ft. +in length by adding two hemicycles to it to the east and the west; these +are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two +others, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. This +unbroken area, about 260 ft. long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft. +wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the conchs +of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the +hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central +square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is +supported by vaulted aisles in two storeys which bring the exterior form to +a general square. At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were +applied to a cruciform plan, that in the midst being the highest. After the +6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale +with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to +approximate to one type. The central area covered by the dome was included +in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, +west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof +system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave [v.04 +p.0908] and transepts. Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes +octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead +of four, and the "nave" and "transepts" were narrower in proportion. If we +draw a square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are +greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these +points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. +Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and +opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the +front. Still in front put a square court. The court is the _atrium_ and +usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on pillars. The +entrance porch is the _narthex_. The central area covered by the dome is +the _solea_, the place for the choir of singers. Here also stood the +_ambo_. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which +divided off the _bema_, where the altar was situated, from the body of the +church; this screen, bearing images, is the _iconastasis_. The altar was +protected by a canopy or _ciborium_ resting on pillars. Rows of rising +seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the +middle eastern point formed the _synthronon_. The two smaller compartments +and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the _diaconicon_ and +_prothesis_. The continuous influence from the East is strangely shown in +the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built about the +12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to +make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic +writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior +brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, +key-patterns, &c.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian +buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. +The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling +of the Roman variety. The window and door frames were of marble. The +interior surfaces were adorned all over by mosaics or paintings in the +higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, +which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, +although in one surface, the colouring formed a series of large panels. The +choicer marbles were opened out so that the two surfaces produced by the +division formed a symmetrical pattern resembling somewhat the marking of +skins of beasts. + +_Mosaics and Paintings._--The method of depicting designs by bringing +together morsels of variously colored materials is of high antiquity. We +are apt to think of a line of distinction between classical and Christian +mosaics in that the former were generally of marble and the latter mostly +of colored and gilt glass. But glass mosaics were already in use in the +Augustan age, and the use of gilt tesserae goes back to the 1st or 2nd +century. The first application of glass to this purpose seems to have been +made in Egypt, the great glass-working centre of antiquity, and the gilding +of tesserae may with probability be traced to the same source, whence, it +is generally agreed, most of the gilt glass vessels, of which so many have +been found in the catacombs, were derived. The earliest existing mosaics of +a typically Christian character are some to be found at Santa Costanza, +Rome (4th century). Other mosaics on the vaults of the same church are of +marble and follow a classical tradition. It is probable that we have here +the meeting-point of two art-currents, the indigenous and the eastern. In +Rome, the great apse-mosaic of S. Pudenziana dates from about A.D. 400. The +mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, is incrusted within by mosaic work of +the 5th century, and most probably the dome mosaics of the church of St +George, Salonica, are also of this period. Of the 6th century are many of +the magnificent examples still remaining at Ravenna, portions of the +original incrustation of St Sophia, Constantinople, those of the basilica +at Parenzo, on the Gulf of Istria, and of St Catherines, Sinai. An +interesting mosaic which is probably of this period, and has only recently +been described, is at the small church of Keti in Cyprus. This, which may +be the only Byzantine mosaic in the British dominions, fills the conch of a +tiny apse, but is none the less of great dignity. In the centre is a figure +of the Virgin with the Holy Child in her arms standing between two angels +who hold disks marked with the sign [CHI]. They are named Michael and +Gabriel. Another mosaic of this period brought from Ravenna to Germany two +generations ago has been recently almost rediscovered, and set up in the +new Museum of Decorative Art in Berlin. In this, a somewhat similar +composition fills the conch of the apse, but here it is the Risen Christ +who stands between the two archangels. Above, in a broad strip, a frieze of +angels blowing trumpets stand on the celestial sea on either hand of the +Enthroned Majesty. + +Such mosaics flowed out widely over the Christian world trom its art +centres, as far east as Sanâ, the capital of Yemen, as far north as Kiev in +Russia, and Aachen in Germany, and as far west as Paris, and continued in +time for a thousand years without break in the tradition save by the +iconoclastic dispute. The finest late example is the well-known +"mosaic-church" (the Convent of the Saviour) at Constantinople, a work of +the 14th century. + +The single figures were from the first, and for the most part, treated with +an axial symmetry. Almost all are full front; only occasionally will one, +like the announcing angel, be drawn with a three-quarter face. The features +are thus kept together on the general map of the face. In the same way the +details of a tree will be collected on a simple including form which makes +a sort of mat for them. Groups, similarly, are closely gathered up into +masses of balanced form, and such masses are arranged with strict regard +for general symmetry. "The art," as Bayet says, "in losing something of +life and liberty became so much the better fitted for the decoration of +great edifices." The technical means were just as much simplified, and only +a few frank colours were made sufficient, by skilful juxtaposition, to do +all that was required of them. The fine pure blue, or bright gold, +backgrounds on which the figures were spaced, as well as the broken surface +incidental to the process, created an atmosphere which harmonized all +together. At St Sophia there were literally acres of such mosaics, and they +seem to have been applied with similar profusion in the imperial palace. + +Mosaic was only a more magnificent kind of painting, and painted design +followed exactly the same laws; the difference is in the splendour of +effect and in the solidity and depth of colour. Paintings, from the first, +must have been of more grey and pearly hues. A large side chapel at the +mosaic church at Constantinople is painted, and it is difficult to say +which is really the more beautiful, the deep splendour of the one, or the +tender yet gay colour of the other. The greatest thing in Byzantine art was +this picturing of the interiors of entire buildings with a series of +mosaics or paintings, filling the wall space, vaults and domes with a +connected story. The typical character of the personages and scenes, the +elimination of non-essentials, and the continuity of the tradition, brought +about an intensity of expression such as may nowhere else be found. It is +part of the limited greatness of this side of Byzantine art that there was +no room in it for the gaiety and humour of the later medieval schools; all +was solemn, epical, cosmic. When such stories are displayed on the golden +ground of arches and domes, and related in a connected cycle, the result +produces, as it was intended to produce, a sense of the universal and +eternal. Beside this great power of co-ordination possessed by Byzantine +artists, they created imaginative types of the highest perfection. They +clothed Christian ideas with forms so worthy, which have become so +diffused, and so intimately one with the history, that we are apt to take +them for granted, and not to see in them the superb results of Greek +intuition and power of expression. Such a type is the Pantocrator,--the +Creator-Redeemer, the Judge inflexible and yet compassionate,--who is +depicted at the zenith of all greater domes; such the Virgin with the Holy +Child, enthroned or standing in the conchs of apses, all tenderness and +dignity, or with arms extended, all solicitude; of her image the _Painter's +Guide_ directs that it is to be painted with the "complexion the colour of +wheat, hair and eyes brown, grand eyebrows, and beautiful eyes, clad in +beautiful clothing, humble, beautiful and faultless"; such are the angels +with their mighty [v.04 p.0909] wings, splendid impersonations of +beneficent power; such are the prophets, doctors, martyrs, saints,--all +have been fixed into final types. + +We are apt to speak of the rigidity and fixity of Byzantine work, but the +method is germane in the strictest sense to the result desired, and we +should ask ourselves how far it is possible to represent such a serious and +moving drama except by dealing with more or less unchangeable types. It +could be no otherwise. This art was not a matter of taste, it was a growth +of thought, cast into an historical mould. Again, the artists had an +extraordinary power of concentrating and abstracting the great things of a +story into a few elements or symbols. For example, the seven days of +creation are each figured by some simple detail, such as a tree, or a +flight of birds, or symbolically, as seven spirits; the flood by an ark on +the waters. What the capabilities of such a method are, where invention is +not allowed to wander into variety, but may only add intensity, may, for +instance, be seen in representations of the Agony in the Garden. This +subject is usually divided into three sections, each consecutive one +showing, with the same general scene, greater darkness, an advance up the +hill, and the figure of Christ more bowed. Another composition, the "Sleep +(death) of the Virgin," is all sweetness and peace, but no less powerful. A +remarkable invention is the _etomasia_, a splendid empty throne prepared +for the Second Advent. The stories of the Old Testament are put into +relation with the Gospel by way of type and anti-type. There are +allegories: the anchorite life contrasted with the mad life of the world, +the celestial ladder, &c., and fine impersonations, such as night and dawn, +mercy and truth, cities and rivers, are frequently found, especially in MS. +pictures. + +A few general schemes may be briefly summarized. St Sophia has the +Pantocrator in the middle of the dome, and four cherubim of colossal size +at the four corners; on the walls below were angels, prophets, saints and +doctors. On the circle of the apse was enthroned the Virgin. To the right +and left, high above the altar, were two archangels holding banners +inscribed "Holy, Holy, Holy." These last are also found at Nicaea, and at +the monastery of St Luke. The church of the Holy Apostles had the Ascension +in the central dome, and below, the Life of Christ. St Sophia, Salonica, +also has the Ascension, a composition which is repeated on the central dome +of St Mark's, Venice. In the eastern dome of the Venetian church is Christ +surrounded by prophets, and, in the western dome, the Descent of the Holy +Spirit upon the Apostles. A Pentecost similar to the last occupies the dome +over the Bema of St Luke's monastery in Phocis; in the central dome of this +church is the Pantocrator, while in a zone below stand, the Virgin to the +east, St John Baptist to the west, and the four archangels, Michael, +Gabriel, Raphael and Uriel, to the north and south. A better example of +grandeur of treatment can hardly be cited than the paintings of the now +destroyed dome of the little church of Megale Panagia at Athens, a dome +which was only about 12 ft. across. At the centre was Christ enthroned, +next came a series of nine semicircles containing the orders of the angels, +seraphim, cherubim, thrones, dominations, virtues, powers, principalities, +archangels and angels. Below these came a wide blue belt set with stars and +the signs of the zodiac; to the east the sun, to the west the moon. Still +below these were the winds, hail and snow; and still lower mountains and +trees and the life on the earth, with all of which were interwoven passages +from the last three Psalms, forming a Benedicite. After St Mark's, Venice, +the completest existing scheme of mosaics is that of the church of St Luke; +those of Daphne, Athens, are the most beautiful. A complete series of +paintings exists in one of the monastic churches on Mount Athos. The +Pantocrator is at the centre of the dome, then comes a zone with the +Virgin, St John Baptist and the orders of the angels. Then the prophets +between the windows of the dome and the four evangelists in the +pendentives. On the rest of the vaults is the life of Christ, ending at the +Bema with the Ascension; in the apse is the Virgin above, the Divine +Liturgy lower, and the four doctors of the church below. All the walls are +painted as well as the vaults. The mosaics overflowed from the interiors on +to the external walls of buildings even in Roman days, and the same +practice was continued on churches. The remains of an external mosaic of +the 6th century exist on the west façade of the basilica at Parenzo. Christ +is there seated amongst the seven candlesticks, and adored by saints. At +the basilica at Bethlehem the gable end was appropriately covered with a +mosaic of the Nativity, also a work of the age of Justinian. In Rome, St +Peter's and other churches had mosaics on the façades; a tradition +represented, in a small way, at San Miniato, Florence. At Constantinople, +according to Clavigo, the Spanish ambassador who visited that city about +1400, the church of St Mary of the Fountain had its exterior richly worked +in gold, azure and other colours; and it seems almost necessary to believe +that the bare front of the narthex of St Sophia was intended to be +decorated in a similar manner. In Damascus the courtyard of the Great +Mosque seems to have been adorned with mosaics; photographs taken before +the fire in 1893 show patches on the central gable in some of the spandrels +of the side colonnade and on the walls of the isolated octagonal treasury. +The mosaics here were of Byzantine workmanship, and their effect, used in +such abundance, must have been of great splendour. In Jerusalem the mosque +of Omar also had portions of the exterior covered with mosaics. We may +imagine that such external decorations of the churches, where a few solemn +figures told almost as shadows on the golden background brightly reflecting +the sun, must have been even more glorious than the imagery of their +interiors. + +Painted books were hardly different in their style from the paintings on +the walls. Of the MSS. the Cottonian Genesis, now only a collection of +charred fragments, was an early example. The great _Natural History_ of +Dioscorides of Vienna (c. 500) and the Joshua Roll of the Vatican, which +have both been lately published in perfect facsimile, are magnificent +works. In the former the plants are drawn with an accuracy of observation +which was to disappear for a thousand years. The latter shows a series of +drawings delicately tinted in pinks and blues. Many of the compositions +contain classical survivals, like personified rivers. + +In some of the miniatures of the later school of the art the classical +revival of the 10th century was especially marked. Still later others show +a very definite Persian influence in their ornamentation, where intricate +arabesques almost of the style of eastern rugs are found. + +_The Plastic Art._--If painting under the new conditions entered on a fresh +course of power and conquest, if it set itself successfully to provide an +imagery for new and intense thought, sculpture, on the other hand, seems to +have withered away as it became removed from the classic stock. Already in +the pre-Constantinian epoch of classical art sculpture had become strangely +dry and powerless, and as time went on the traditions of modelling appear +to have been forgotten. Two points of recent criticism may be mentioned +here. It has been shown that the porphyry images of warriors at the +southwest angle of St Mark's, Venice, are of Egyptian origin and are of +late classical tradition. The celebrated bronze St Peter at Rome is now +assigned to the 13th century. Not only did statue-making become nearly a +lost art, but architectural carvings ceased to be seen as _modelled form_, +and a new system of relief came into use. Ornament, instead of being +gathered up into forcible projections relieved against retiring planes, and +instead of having its surfaces modulated all over with delicate gradations +of shade, was spread over a given space in an even fretwork. Such a highly +developed member as the capital, for instance, was thought of first as a +simple, solid form, usually more or less the shape of a bowl, and the +carving was spread out over the general surface, the background being sunk +into sharply defined spaces of shadow, all about the same size. Often the +background was so deeply excavated that it ceased to be a plane supporting +the relieved parts, but passed wholly into darkness. Strzygowski has given +to this process the name of the "deep-dark" ground. A further step was to +relieve the upper fretwork of carving from the ground altogether in certain +places by cutting away the sustaining portions. + +[v.04 p.0910] The simplicity, the definition and crisp sharpness of some of +the results are entirely delightful. The bluntness and weariness of many of +the later modelled Roman forms disappear in the new energy of workmanship +which was engaged in exploring a fresh field of beauty. These brightly +illuminated lattices of carved ornament seem to hold within them masses of +cold shadow. Beautiful as was this method of architectural adornment, it +must be allowed that it was, in essence, much more elementary than the +school of modelled form. All such carvings were usually brightly coloured +and gilt, and it seems probable that the whole was considered rather as a +colour arrangement than as sculpture proper. + +Plaster work, again, an art on which wonderful skill was lavished in Rome, +became under the Byzantines extremely rude. Many good examples of this work +exist at San Vitale and Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna, also at +Parenzo, and at St Sophia, Constantinople. Later examples of plaster work +of Byzantine tradition are to be found at Cividale, and at Sant' Ambrogio, +Milan, where the tympana of the well-known baldachin are of this material, +and contain modelled figures. + +Coins and medallions of even the best period of Byzantine art prove what a +deep abyss separates them from the power over modelled relief shown in +classical examples. The sculptural art is best displayed by ivory carvings, +although this is more to be attributed to their pictorial quality than to a +feeling for modelling. + +_Metal Work, Ivories and Textiles._--One of the greatest of Byzantine arts +is the goldsmith's. This absorbed so much from Persian and Oriental schools +as to become semi-barbaric. Under Justinian the transformation from +Classical art was almost complete. Some few examples, like a silver dish +from Cyprus in the British Museum, show refined restraint; on the other +hand, the mosaic portraits of the emperor and Theodora show crowns and +jewels of full Oriental style, and the description of the splendid fittings +of St Sophia read like an eastern tale. Goldsmith's work was executed on +such a scale for the great church as to form parts of the architecture of +the interior. The altar was wholly of gold, and its ciborium and the +iconastasis were of silver. In the later palace-church, built by Basil the +Macedonian, the previous metals were used to such an extent that it is +clear, from the description, that the interior was intended to be, as far +as possible, like a great jewelled shrine. Gold and silver, we are told, +were spread over all the church, not only in the mosaics, but in plating +and other applications. The enclosure of the bema, with its columns and +entablatures, was of silver gilt, and set with gems and pearls. + +The most splendid existing example of goldsmith's work on a large scale is +the _Paid d'Oro_ of St Mark's, Venice; an assemblage of many panels on +which saints and angels are enamelled. The monastic church of St Catherine, +Sinai, is entered through a pair of enamelled doors, and several doors +inlaid with silver still exist. In these doors the ground was of +gilt-bronze; but there is also record of silver doors in the imperial +palace at Constantinople. The inlaid doors of St Paul Outside the Walls at +Rome were executed in Constantinople by Stauricios, in 1070, and have Greek +inscriptions. There are others at Salerno (c. 1080), but the best known are +those at St Mark's, Venice. In all these the imagery was delineated in +silver on the gilt-bronze ground. The earliest works of this sort are still +to be found in Constantinople. The panels of a door at St Sophia bear the +monograms of Theophilus and Michael (840). Two other doors in the narthex +of the same church, having simpler ornamentation of inlaid silver, are +probably as early as the time of Justinian. + +The process of enamelling dates from late classical times and Venturi +supposes that it was invented in Alexandria. The cloisonné process, +characteristic of Byzantine enamels, is thought by Kondakov to be derived +from Persia, and to its study he has devoted a splendid volume. One of the +finest examples of this cloisonné is the reliquary at Limburg on which the +enthroned Christ appears between St Mary and St John in the midst of the +twelve apostles. An inscription tells that it was executed for the emperors +Constantine and Romanus (948-959). + +A reliquary lately added to the J. Pierpont Morgan collection at South +Kensington is of the greatest beauty in regard to the colour and clearness +of the enamel. The cover, which is only about 4½ by 3 ins., has in the +centre a crucifixion with St Mary and St John to the right and left, while +around are busts of the apostles. Christ is vested in a tunic. The ground +colour is the green of emerald, the rest mostly blue and white. The +cloisons are of gold. Two other Byzantine enamels are in the permanent +collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum: one is a cross with the +crucifixion on a background of the same emerald enamel; the other is a +small head of St Paul of remarkably fine workmanship. + +Ivory-working was another characteristic Byzantine art, although, like so +many others it had its origin in antiquity. One of the earliest ivories of +the Byzantine type is the diptych at Monza, showing a princess and a boy, +supposed to be Galla Placidia and Valentinian III. This already shows the +broad, flattened treatment which seems to mark the ivory work of the East. +The majestic archangel of the British Museum, one of the largest panels +known, is probably of the 5th century, and almost certainly, as Strzygowski +has shown, of Syrian origin. Design and execution are equally fine. The +drawing of the body, and the modelling of the drapery, are accomplished and +classical. Only the full front pose, the balanced disposition of the large +wings, and the intense outlook of the face, give it the Byzantine type. + +Ivory, like gold-work and enamel, was pressed into the adornment of +architectural works. The ambo erected by Justinian at St Sophia was in part +covered by ivory panels set into the marble. The best existing specimen of +this kind of work is the celebrated ivory throne at Ravenna. This +masterpiece, which resembles a large, high-backed chair, is entirely +covered with sculptured ivory, delicate carvings of scriptural subjects and +ornament. It is of the 6th century and bears the monogram of Bishop +Maximian. It is probably of Egyptian or Syrian origin. + +So many fragments of ivories have been discovered in recent explorations in +Egypt that it is most likely that Alexandria, a fit centre for receiving +the material, was also its centre of distribution. The weaving of patterned +silks was known in Europe in the classical age, and they reached great +development in the Byzantine era. A fragment, long ago figured by Semper, +showing a classical design of a nereid on a sea-horse, is so like the +designs found on many ivories discovered in Egypt that we may probably +assign it to Alexandria. Such fabrics going back to the 3rd century have +been found in Egypt which must have been one of the chief centres for the +production of silk as for linen textiles. The Victoria and Albert Museum is +particularly rich in early silks. One fine example, having rose-coloured +stripes and repeated figures of Samson and the lion, must be of the great +period of the 6th century. The description of St Sophia written at that +time tells of the altar curtains that they bore woven images of Christ, St +Peter and St Paul standing under tabernacles upon a crimson ground, their +garments being enriched with gold embroidery. Later the patterns became +more barbaric and of great scale, lions trampled across the stuff, and in +large circles were displayed eagles, griffins and the like in a fine +heraldic style. From the origin of the raw material in China and India and +the ease of transport, such figured stuffs gathered up and distributed +patterns over both Europe and Asia. The Persian influence is marked. There +is, for example, a pattern of a curious dragon having front feet and a +peacock's tail. It appears on a silver Persian dish in the Hermitage +Museum, it is found on the mixed Byzantine and Persian carvings of the +palace of Mashita, and it occurs on several silks of which there are two +varieties at the Victoria and Albert Museum, both of which are classed as +Byzantine; it is difficult to say of many of these patterns whether they +are Sassanian originals or Byzantine adaptations from them. + +AUTHORITIES.--A very complete bibliography is given by H. Leclercq, _Manuel +d'archéologie chrétienne_ (Paris, 1907). The current authorities for all +that concerns Byzantine history or art [v.04 p.0911] are:--_Byzantinische +Zeitschrift ..._ (Leipzig, 1892 seq.); _Oriens Christianus_ (Rome, 1900 +seq.). See also Dom R.P. Cabrol, _Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne_, +&c. (Paris, 1902 seq.). The best general introduction is:--C. Bayet, _L'Art +byzantin_ (Paris, 1883, new edition, 1904). See J. Strzygowski, _Orient +oder Rom_ (Leipzig, 1901) and other works; Kondakov, _Les Émaux byz._ +(1892), and other works; C. Diehl, _Justinien et la civilis. byz._ (Paris, +1901), and other works; G. Millet, _Le Monastère de Daphne_, &c. (Paris, +1899), and other works; L.G. Schlumberger, _L'Epopée byz._ &c. (1896 seq.); +A. Michel, _Histoire de l'art_, vol. i. (Paris, 1905); H. Brockhaus, _Die +Kunst in den Athos-Klostern_ (Leipzig, 1891); E. Molinier, _Histoire +générale des arts_, &c. i., _Ivoires_ (Paris, 1896); O. Dalton, _Catalogue +of Early Christian Antiquities...of the British Museum_ (1901); A. van +Millingen, _Byzantine Constantinople_ (1899); Salzenberg, _Altchristliche +Baudenkmaler_ &c. (Berlin, 1854); A. Choisy, _L'Art de bâtir chez les +Byzantins_ (Paris, 1875); Couchand, _Églises byzantines en Grèce_; Ongania, +_Basilica di S. Marco_; Texier and Pullan, _L'Architecture b. 73_ (1864); +Lethaby and Swainson, _Sancta Sophia, Constantinople_ (1894); Schultz and +Barnsley, _The Monastery of St Luke_, &c. (1890); L. de Beylié, +_L'Habitation byz._ (Paris, 1903). For Syria: M. de Vogüé, +_L'Architecture...dans la Syrie centrale_ (Paris, 1866-1877); H.C. Butler, +_Architecture and other Arts_, &c. (New York, 1904). For Egypt: W.E. Crum, +_Coptic Monuments_ (Cairo, 1902); A. Gayet, _L'Art Copte_ (Paris, 1902); +A.J. Butler, _Ancient Coptic Churches_. For North Africa: S. Csell, _Les +Monuments antiques de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1901). For Italy: A. Venturi, +_Storia dell' arte Italiana_ (Milan, 1901); G. Rivoira, _Le Origini della +architettura Lombarda_ (Rome, 1901); C. Errard and A. Gayet, _L'Art +byzantin_, &c. (Paris,1903). + +(W. R. L.) + +[1] For Byzantine literature see GREEK LITERATURE: _Byzantine_. + +BYZANTIUM, an ancient Greek city on the shores of the Bosporus, occupying +the most easterly of the seven hills on which modern Constantinople stands. +It was said to have been founded by Megarians and Argives under Byzas about +657 B.C., but the original settlement having been destroyed in the reign of +Darius Hystaspes by the satrap Otanes, it was recolonized by the Spartan +Pausanias, who wrested it from the Medes after the battle of Plataea (479 +B.C.)--a circumstance which led several ancient chroniclers to ascribe its +foundation to him. Its situation, said to have been fixed by the Delphic +oracle, was remarkable for beauty and security. It had complete control +over the Euxine grain-trade; the absence of tides and the depth of its +harbour rendered its quays accessible to vessels of large burden; while the +tunny and other fisheries were so lucrative that the curved inlet near +which it stood became known as the Golden Horn. The greatest hindrance to +its prosperity was the miscellaneous character of the population, partly +Lacedaemonian and partly Athenian, who flocked to it under Pausanias. It +was thus a subject of dispute between these states, and was alternately in +the possession of each, till it fell into the hands of the Macedonians. +From the same cause arose the violent intestine contests which ended in the +establishment of a rude and turbulent democracy. About seven years after +its second colonization, the Athenian Cimon wrested it from the +Lacedaemonians; but in 440 B.C. it returned to its former allegiance. +Alcibiades, after a severe blockade (408 B.C.), gained possession of the +city through the treachery of the Athenian party; in 405 B.C. it was +retaken by Lysander and placed under a Spartan harmost. It was under the +Lacedaemonian power when the Ten Thousand, exasperated by the conduct of +the governor, made themselves masters of the city, and would have pillaged +it had they not been dissuaded by the eloquence of Xenophon. In 390 B.C. +Thrasybulus, with the assistance of Heracleides and Archebius, expelled the +Lacedaemonian oligarchy, and restored democracy and the Athenian influence. + +After having withstood an attempt under Epaminondas to restore it to the +Lacedaemonians, Byzantium joined with Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Mausolus, +King of Caria, in throwing off the yoke of Athens, but soon after sought +Athenian assistance when Philip of Macedon, having overrun Thrace, advanced +against it. The Athenians under Chares suffered a severe defeat from +Amyntas, the Macedonian admiral, but in the following year gained a +decisive victory under Phocion and compelled Philip to raise the siege. The +deliverance of the besieged from a surprise, by means of a flash of light +which revealed the advancing masses of the Macedonian army, has rendered +this siege memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous interference, the +Byzantines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, and stamped a crescent +on their coins, a device which is retained by the Turks to this day. They +also granted the Athenians extraordinary privileges, and erected a monument +in honour of the event in a public part of the city. + +During the reign of Alexander Byzantium was compelled to acknowledge the +Macedonian supremacy; after the decay of the Macedonian power it regained +its independence, but suffered from the repeated incursions of the +Scythians. The losses which they sustained by land roused the Byzantines to +indemnify themselves on the vessels which still crowded the harbour, and +the merchantmen which cleared the straits; but this had the effect of +provoking a war with the neighbouring naval powers. The exchequer being +drained by the payment of 10,000 pieces of gold to buy off the Gauls who +had invaded their territories about 279 B.C., and by the imposition of an +annual tribute which was ultimately raised to 80 talents, they were +compelled to exact a toll on all the ships which passed the Bosporus--a +measure which the Rhodians resented and avenged by a war, wherein the +Byzantines were defeated. After the retreat of the Gauls Byzantium rendered +considerable services to Rome in the contests with Philip II., Antiochus +and Mithradates. + +During the first years of its alliance with Rome it held the rank of a free +confederate city; but, having sought arbitration on some of its domestic +disputes, it was subjected to the imperial jurisdiction, and gradually +stripped of its privileges, until reduced to the status of an ordinary +Roman colony. In recollection of its former services, the emperor Claudius +remitted the heavy tribute which had been imposed on it; but the last +remnant of its independence was taken away by Vespasian, who, in answer to +a remonstrance from Apollonius of Tyana, taunted the inhabitants with +having "forgotten to be free." During the civil wars it espoused the party +of Pescennius Niger; and though skilfully defended by the engineer +Periscus, it was besieged and taken (A.D. 196) by Severus, who destroyed +the city, demolished the famous wall, which was built of massive stones so +closely riveted together as to appear one block, put the principal +inhabitants to the sword and subjected the remainder to the Perinthians. +This overthrow of Byzantium was a great loss to the empire, since it might +have served as a protection against the Goths, who afterwards sailed past +it into the Mediterranean. Severus afterwards relented, and, rebuilding a +large portion of the town, gave it the name of Augusta Antonina. He +ornamented the city with baths, and surrounded the hippodrome with +porticos; but it was not till the time of Caracalla that it was restored to +its former political privileges. It had scarcely begun to recover its +former position when, through the capricious resentment of Gallienus, the +inhabitants were once more put to the sword and the town was pillaged. From +this disaster the inhabitants recovered so far as to be able to give an +effectual check to an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius II., +and the fortifications were greatly strengthened during the civil wars +which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Licinius, after his defeat +before Adrianople, retired to Byzantium, where he was besieged by +Constantine, and compelled to surrender (A.D. 323-324). To check the +inroads of the barbarians on the north of the Black Sea, Diocletian had +resolved to transfer his capital to Nicomedia; but Constantine, struck with +the advantages which the situation of Byzantium presented, resolved to +build a new city there on the site of the old and transfer the seat of +government to it. The new capital was inaugurated with special ceremonies, +A.D. 330. (See CONSTANTINOPLE.) + +The ancient historians invariably note the profligacy of the inhabitants of +Byzantium. They are described as an idle, depraved people, spending their +time for the most part in loitering about the harbour, or carousing over +the fine wine of Maronea. In war they trembled at the sound of a trumpet, +in peace they quaked before the shouting of their own demagogues; and +during the assault of Philip II. they could only be prevailed on to man the +walls by the savour of extempore cook-shops distributed along the ramparts. +The modern Greeks attribute the introduction of Christianity into Byzantium +to St Andrew; it certainly had some hold there in the time of Severus. + +[v.04 p.0912] C The third letter in the Latin alphabet and its descendants +corresponds in position and in origin to the Greek Gamma ([Gamma], +[gamma]), which in its turn is borrowed from the third symbol of the +Phoenician alphabet (Heb. _Gimel_). The earliest Semitic records give its +form as [Illustration] or more frequently [Illustration] or [Illustration] +The form [Illustration] is found in the earliest inscriptions of Crete, +Attica, Naxos and some other of the Ionic islands. In Argolis and Euboea +especially a form with legs of unequal length is found [Illustration] From +this it is easy to pass to the most widely spread Greek form, the ordinary +[Illustration] In Corinth, however, and its colony Corcyra, in Ozolian +Locris and Elis, a form [Illustration] inclined at a different angle is +found. From this form the transition is simple to the rounded +[Illustration] which is generally found in the same localities as the +pointed form, but is more widely spread, occurring in Arcadia and on +Chalcidian vases of the 6th century B.C., in Rhodes and Megara with their +colonies in Sicily. In all these cases the sound represented was a hard G +(as in _gig_). The rounded form was probably that taken over by the Romans +and with the value of G. This is shown by the permanent abbreviation of the +proper names Gaius and Gnaeus by C. and Cn. respectively. On the early +inscription discovered in the Roman Forum in 1899 the letter occurs but +once, in the form [Illustration] written from right to left. The broad +lower end of the symbol is rather an accidental pit in the stone than an +attempt at a diacritic mark--the word is _regei_, in all probability the +early dative form of _rex_, "king." It is hard to decide why Latin adopted +the _g_-symbol with the value of _k_, a letter which it possessed +originally but dropped, except in such stereotyped abbreviations as K. for +the proper name _Kaeso_ and _Kal._ for _Calendae_. There are at least two +possibilities: (1) that in Latium _g_ and _k_ were pronounced almost +identically, as, _e.g._, in the German of Württemberg or in the Celtic +dialects, the difference consisting only in the greater energy with which +the _k_-sound is produced; (2) that the confusion is graphic, K being +sometimes written [Illustration] which was then regarded as two separate +symbols. A further peculiarity of the use of C in Latin is in the +abbreviation for the district _Subura_ in Roma and its adjective +_Suburanus_, which appears as SVC. Here C no doubt represents G, but there +is no interchange between _g_ and _b_ in Latin. In other dialects of Italy +_b_ is found representing an original voiced guttural (_gw_), which, +however, is regularly replaced by _v_ in Latin. As the district was full of +traders, _Subura_ may very well be an imported word, but the form with C +must either go back to a period before the disappearance of _g_ before _v_ +or must come from some other Italic dialect. The symbol G was a new coinage +in the 3rd century B.C. The pronunciation of C throughout the period of +classical Latin was that of an unvoiced guttural stop (_k_). In other +dialects, however, it had been palatalized to a sibilant before _i_-sounds +some time before the Christian era; _e.g._ in the Umbrian _façia_ = Latin +_facial_. In Latin there is no evidence for the interchange of _c_ with a +sibilant earlier than the 6th century A.D. in south Italy and the 7th +century A.D. in Gaul (Lindsay, _Latin Language_, p. 88). This change has, +however, taken place in all Romance languages except Sardinian. In +Anglo-Saxon _c_ was adopted to represent the hard stop. After the Norman +conquest many English words were re-spelt under Norman influence. Thus +Norman-French spelt its palatalized _c_-sound (_=tsh_) with _ch_ as in +_cher_ and the English palatalized _cild_, &c. became _child_, &c. In +Provençal from the 10th century, and in the northern dialects of France +from the 13th century, this palatalized _c_ (in different districts _ts_ +and _tsh_) became a simple _s_. English also adopted the value of _s_ for +_c_ in the 13th century before _e_, _i_ and _y_. In some foreign words like +_cicala_ the _ch-_ (_tsh_) value is given to c. In the transliteration of +foreign languages also it receives different values, having that of _tsh_ +in the transliteration of Sanskrit and of _ts_ in various Slavonic +dialects. + +As a numeral C denotes 100. This use is borrowed from Latin, in which the +symbol was originally [Illustration] This, like the numeral symbols later +identified with L and M, was thus utilized since it was not required as a +letter, there being no sound in Latin corresponding to the Greek [theta]. +Popular etymology identified the symbol with the initial letter of +_centum_, "hundred." + +(P. GI.) + +CAB (shortened about 1825 from the Fr. _cabriolet_, derived from +_cabriole_, implying a bounding motion), a form of horsed vehicle for +passengers either with two ("hansom") or four wheels ("four-wheeler" or +"growler"), introduced into London as the _cabriolet de place_, from Paris +in 1820 (see CARRIAGE). Other vehicles plying for hire and driven by +mechanical means are included in the definition of the word "cab" in the +London Cab and Stage Carriage Act 1007. The term "cab" is also applied to +the driver's or stoker's shelter on a locomotive-engine. + +Cabs, or hackney carriages, as they are called in English acts of +parliament, are regulated in the United Kingdom by a variety of statutes. +In London the principal acts are the Hackney Carriage Acts of 1831-1853, +the Metropolitan Public Carriages Act 1869, the London Cab Act 1896 and the +London Cab and Stage Carriage Act 1907. In other large British towns cabs +are usually regulated by private acts which incorporate the Town Police +Clauses Act 1847, an act which contains provisions more or less similar to +the London acts. The act of 1869 defined a hackney carriage as any carriage +for the conveyance of passengers which plies for hire within the +metropolitan police district and is not a stage coach, _i.e._ a conveyance +in which the passengers are charged separate and distinct fares for their +seats. Every cab must be licensed by a licence renewable every year by the +home secretary, the licence being issued by the commissioner of police. +Every cab before being licensed must be inspected at the police station of +the district by the inspector of public carriages, and certified by him to +be in a fit condition for public use. The licence costs £2. The number of +persons which the cab is licensed to carry must be painted at the back on +the outside. It must carry a lighted lamp during the period between one +hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. The cab must be under the +charge of a driver having a licence from the home secretary. A driver +before obtaining a licence, which costs five shillings per annum, must pass +an examination as to his ability to drive and as to his knowledge of the +topography of London. + +General regulations with regard to fares and hiring may be made from time +to time by the home secretary under the London Cab and Stage Carriage Act +1907. The hiring is by distance or by time as the hirer may decide at the +beginning of the hiring; if not otherwise expressed the fare is paid +according to distance. If a driver is hired by distance he is not compelled +to drive more than six miles, and if hired by time he is not compelled to +drive for more than one hour. When a cab is hired in London by distance, +and discharged within a circle the radius of which is four miles (the +centre being taken at Charing Cross), the fare is one shilling for any +distance not exceeding two miles, and sixpence for every additional mile or +part of a mile. Outside the circle the fare for each mile, or part of a +mile, is one shilling. When a cab is hired by time, the fare (inside or +outside the circle) is two shillings and sixpence for the first hour, and +eightpence for every quarter of an hour afterwards. Extra payment has to be +made for luggage (twopence per piece outside), for extra passengers +(sixpence each for more than two), and for waiting (eightpence each +completed quarter of an hour). If a horse cab is fitted with a taximeter +(_vide infra_) the fare for a journey wholly _within_ or partly without and +partly within the four-mile radius, and not exceeding one mile or a period +of ten minutes, is sixpence. For each half mile or six minutes an +additional threepence is paid. If the journey is wholly _without_ the +four-mile radius the fare for the first mile is one shilling, and for each +additional quarter of a mile or period of three minutes, threepence is +paid. If the cab is one propelled by mechanical means the fare for a +journey not [v.04 p.0913] exceeding one mile or a period of ten minutes is +eightpence, and for every additional quarter mile or period of 2½ minutes +twopence is paid. A driver required to wait may demand a reasonable sum as +a deposit and also payment of the sum which he has already earned. The +London Cab Act 1896 (by which for the first time legal sanction was given +to the word "cab") made an important change in the law in the interest of +cab drivers. It renders liable to a penalty on summary conviction any +person who (_a_) hires a cab knowing or having reason to believe that he +cannot pay the lawful fare, or with intent to avoid payment; (_b_) +fraudulently endeavours to avoid payment; (_c_) refuses to pay or refuses +to give his address, or gives a false address with intent to deceive. The +offences mentioned (generally known as "bilking") may be punished by +imprisonment without the option of a fine, and the whole or any part of the +fine imposed may be applied in compensation to the driver. + +Strictly speaking, it is an offence for a cab to ply for hire when not +waiting on an authorized "standing," but cabs passing in the street for +this purpose are not deemed to be "plying for hire." These stands for cabs +are appointed by the commissioner of police or the home secretary. +"Privileged cabs" is the designation given to those cabs which by virtue of +a contract between a railway company and a number of cab-owners are alone +admitted to ply for hire within a company's station, until they are all +engaged, on condition (1) of paying a certain weekly or annual sum, and (2) +of guaranteeing to have cabs in attendance at all hours. This system was +abolished by the act of 1907, but the home secretary was empowered to +suspend or modify the abolition if it should interfere with the proper +accommodation of the public. + +At one time there was much discussion in England as to the desirability of +legalizing on cabs the use of a mechanical fare-recorder such as, under the +name of taximeter or taxameter, is in general use on the continent of +Europe. It is now universal on hackney carriages propelled by mechanical +means, and it has also extended largely to those drawn by animal power. A +taximeter consists of a securely closed and sealed metal box containing a +mechanism actuated by a flexible shaft connected with the wheel of the +vehicle, in the same manner as the speedometer on a motor car. It has, +within plain view of the passenger, a number of apertures in which appear +figures showing the amount payable at any time. A small lever, with a metal +flag, bearing the words "for hire" stands upright upon it when the cab is +disengaged. As soon as a passenger enters the cab the lever is depressed by +the driver and the recording mechanism starts. At the end of the journey +the figures upon the dials show exactly the sum payable for hire; this sum +is based on a combination of time and distance. + +CABAL (through the Fr. _cabale_ from the _Cabbala_ or _Kabbalah_, the +theosophical interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures), a private +organization or party engaged in secret intrigues, and applied also to the +intrigues themselves. The word came into common usage in English during the +reign of Charles II. to describe the committee of the privy council known +as the "Committee for Foreign Affairs," which developed into the cabinet. +The invidious meaning attached to the term was stereotyped by the +coincidence that the initial letters of the names of the five ministers, +Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley and Lauderdale, who signed the +treaty of alliance with France in 1673, spelled cabal. + +CABALLERO, FERNÁN (1796-1877), the pseudonym adopted from the name of a +village in the province of Ciudad Real by the Spanish novelist Cecilia +Francisca Josefa Böhl de Faber y Larrea. Born at Morges in Switzerland on +the 24th of December 1796, she was the daughter of Johan Nikolas Böhl von +Faber, a Hamburg merchant, who lived long in Spain, married a native of +Cadiz, and is creditably known to students of Spanish literature as the +editor of the _Floresta de rimas antiguas castellanas_ (1821-1825), and the +_Teatro español anterior á Lope de Vega_ (1832). Educated principally at +Hamburg, she visited Spain in 1815, and, unfortunately for herself, in 1816 +married Antonio Planells y Bardaxi, an infantry captain of bad character. +In the following year Planells was killed in action, and in 1822 the young +widow married Francisco Ruiz del Arco, marqués de Arco Hermoso, an officer +in one of the Spanish household regiments. Upon the death of Arco Hermoso +in 1835, the marquesa found herself in straitened circumstances, and in +less than two years she married Antonio Arrón de Ayala, a man considerably +her junior. Arrón was appointed consul in Australia, engaged in business +enterprises and made money; but unfortunate speculations drove him to +commit suicide in 1859. Ten years earlier the name of Fernán Caballero +became famous in Spain as the author of _La Gaviola_. The writer had +already published in German an anonymous romance, _Sola_ (1840), and +curiously enough the original draft of _La Gaviota_ was written in French. +This novel, translated into Spanish by José Joaquín de Mora, appeared as +the _feuilleton_ of _El Heraldo_ (1849), and was received with marked +favour. Ochoa, a prominent critic of the day, ratified the popular +judgment, and hopefully proclaimed the writer to be a rival of Scott. No +other Spanish book of the 19th century has obtained such instant and +universal recognition. It was translated into most European languages, and, +though it scarcely seems to deserve the intense enthusiasm which it +excited, it is the best of its author's works, with the possible exception +of _La Familia de Alvareda_ (which was written, first of all, in German). +Less successful attempts are _Lady Virginia_ and _Clemencia_; but the short +stories entitled _Cuadros de Costumbres_ are interesting in matter and +form, and _Una en otra_ and _Elia ó la España treinta años ha_ are +excellent specimens of picturesque narration. It would be difficult to +maintain that Fernán Caballero was a great literary artist, but it is +certain that she was a born teller of stories and that she has a graceful +style very suitable to her purpose. She came into Spain at a most happy +moment, before the new order had perceptibly disturbed the old, and she +brought to bear not alone a fine natural gift of observation, but a +freshness of vision, undulled by long familiarity. She combined the +advantages of being both a foreigner and a native. In later publications +she insisted too emphatically upon the moral lesson, and lost much of her +primitive simplicity and charm; but we may believe her statement that, +though she occasionally idealized circumstances, she was conscientious in +choosing for her themes subjects which had occurred in her own experience. +Hence she may be regarded as a pioneer in the realistic field, and this +historical fact adds to her positive importance. For many years she was the +most popular of Spanish writers, and the sensation caused by her death at +Seville on the 7th of April 1877 proved that her naïve truthfulness still +attracted readers who were interested in records of national customs and +manners. + +Her _Obras completas_ are included in the _Colección de escritores +castellanos_: a useful biography by Fernando de Gabriel Ruiz de Apodaca +precedes the _Últimas producciones de Fernán Caballero_ (Seville, 1878). + +(J. F.-K.) + +CABANEL, ALEXANDRE (1823-1889), French painter, was born at Montpellier, +and studied in Paris, gaining the Prix de Rome in 1845. His pictures soon +attracted attention, and by his "Birth of Venus" (1863), now in the +Luxembourg, he became famous, being elected that year to the Institute. He +became the most popular portrait painter of the day, and his pupils +included a number of famous artists. + +CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE (1757-1808), French physiologist, was born at +Cosnac (Corrèze) on the 5th of June 1757, and was the son of Jean Baptiste +Cabanis (1723-1786), a lawyer and agronomist. Sent at the age of ten to the +college of Brives, he showed great aptitude for study, but his independence +of spirit was so excessive that he was almost constantly in a state of +rebellion against his teachers, and was finally dismissed from the school. +He was then taken to Paris by his father and left to carry on his studies +at his own discretion for two years. From 1773 to 1775 he travelled in +Poland and Germany, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself mainly to +poetry. About this time he ventured to send in to the Academy a translation +of the passage from Homer proposed for their prize, and, though his attempt +passed without notice, he received so much encouragement from his friends +that he contemplated translating the whole of the _Iliad_. But at the [v.04 +p.0914] desire of his father he relinquished these pleasant literary +employments, and resolving to engage in some settled profession selected +that of medicine. In 1789 his _Observations sur les hôpitaux_ procured him +an appointment as administrator of hospitals in Paris, and in 1795 he +became professor of hygiene at the medical school of Paris, a post which he +exchanged for the chair of legal medicine and the history of medicine in +1799. From inclination and from weak health he never engaged much in +practice as a physician, his interests lying in the deeper problems of +medical and physiological science. During the last two years of Mirabeau's +life he was intimately connected with that extraordinary man, and wrote the +four papers on public education which were found among the papers of +Mirabeau at his death, and were edited by the real author soon afterwards +in 1791. During the illness which terminated his life Mirabeau confided +himself entirely to the professional skill of Cabanis. Of the progress of +the malady, and the circumstances attending the death of Mirabeau, Cabanis +drew up a detailed narrative, intended as a justification of his treatment +of the case. Cabanis espoused with enthusiasm the cause of the Revolution. +He was a member of the Council of Five Hundred and then of the Conservative +senate, and the dissolution of the Directory was the result of a motion +which he made to that effect. But his political career was not of long +continuance. A foe to tyranny in every shape, he was decidedly hostile to +the policy of Bonaparte, and constantly rejected every solicitation to +accept a place under his government. He died at Meulan on the 5th of May +1808. + +A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five volumes +were published. His principal work, _Rapports du physique et du moral de +l'homme_, consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the +Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. Psychology is with +Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the fundamental +fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the +intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself +is a property of the nervous system. The soul is not an entity, but a +faculty; thought is the function of the brain. Just as the stomach and +intestines receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, +digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought. Alongside of this +harsh materialism Cabanis held another principle. He belonged in biology to +the vitalistic school of G.E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work, _Lettre +sur les causes premières_ (1824), the consequences of this opinion became +clear. Life is something added to the organism; over and above the +universally diffused sensibility there is some living and productive power +to which we give the name of Nature. But it is impossible to avoid +ascribing to this power both intelligence and will. In us this living power +constitutes the ego, which is truly immaterial and immortal. These results +Cabanis did not think out of harmony with his earlier theory. + +CABARRUS, FRANÇOIS (1752-1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier, +was born at Bayonne, where his father was a merchant. Being sent into Spain +on business he fell in love with a Spanish lady, and marrying her, settled +in Madrid. Here his private business was the manufacture of soap; but he +soon began to interest himself in the public questions which were +ventilated even at the court of Spain. The enlightenment of the 18th +century had penetrated as far as Madrid; the king, Charles III., was +favourable to reform; and a circle of men animated by the new spirit were +trying to infuse fresh vigour into an enfeebled state. Among these Cabarrus +became conspicuous, especially in finance. He originated a bank, and a +company to trade with the Philippine Islands; and as one of the council of +finance he had planned many reforms in that department of the +administration, when Charles III. died (1788), and the reactionary +government of Charles IV. arrested every kind of enlightened progress. The +men who had taken an active part in reform were suspected and prosecuted. +Cabarrus himself was accused of embezzlement and thrown into prison. After +a confinement of two years he was released, created a count and employed in +many honourable missions; he would even have been sent to Paris as Spanish +ambassador, had not the Directory objected to him as being of French birth. +Cabarrus took no part in the transactions by which Charles IV. was obliged +to abdicate and make way for Joseph, brother of Napoleon, but his French +birth and intimate knowledge of Spanish affairs recommended him to the +emperor as the fittest person for the difficult post of minister of +finance, which he held at his death. His beautiful daughter Thérèse, under +the name of Madame Tallien (afterwards princess of Chimay), played an +interesting part in the later stages of the French Revolution. + +CABASILAS, NICOLAUS (d. 1371), Byzantine mystic and theological writer. He +was on intimate terms with the emperor John VI. Cantacuzene, whom he +accompanied in his retirement to a monastery. In 1355 he succeeded his +uncle Nilus Cabasilas, like himself a determined opponent of the union of +the Greek and Latin churches, as archbishop of Thessalonica. In the +Hesychast controversy he took the side of the monks of Athos, but refused +to agree to the theory of the uncreated light. His chief work is his +[Greek: Peri tês en Christôi zôês] (_ed. pr._ of the Greek text, with +copious introduction, by W. Gass, 1849; new ed. by M. Heinze, 1899), in +which he lays down the principle that union with Christ is effected by the +three great mysteries of baptism, confirmation and the eucharist. He also +wrote homilies on various subjects, and a speech against usurers, printed +with other works in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, c. i. A large number of his +works is still extant in MS. + +See C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897), and +article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_ +(1901). + +CABATÚAN, a town of the province of Ilóilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on a +branch of the Suague river, 15 m. N.W. of Ilóilo, the capital. Pop. (1903) +16,497. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of +Maasin, with a population of 8401, was annexed to Cabatúan. Its climate is +healthful. The surrounding country is very fertile and produces large +quantities of rice, as well as Indian corn, tobacco, sugar, coffee and a +great variety of fruits. The language is Visayan. Cabatúan was founded in +1732. + +CABBAGE. The parent form of the variety of culinary and fodder vegetables +included under this head is generally supposed to be the wild or sea +cabbage (_Brassica oleracea_), a plant found near the sea coast of various +parts of England and continental Europe, although Alphonse de Candolle +considered it to be really descended from the two or three allied species +which are yet found growing wild on the Mediterranean coast. In any case +the cultivated varieties have departed very widely from the original type, +and they present very marked and striking dissimilarities among themselves. +The wild cabbage is a comparatively insignificant plant, growing from 1 to +2 ft. high, in appearance very similar to the corn mustard or charlock +(_Sinapis arvensis_), but differing from it in having smooth leaves. The +wild plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the uppermost being +undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers, elongated seed-pod, and seeds +with conduplicate cotyledons. Notwithstanding the fact that the cultivated +forms differ in habit so widely, it is remarkable that the flower, +seed-pods and seeds of the varieties present no appreciable difference. + +John Lindley proposed the following classification for the various forms, +which includes all yet cultivated: (1) All the leaf-buds active and open, +as in wild cabbage and kale or greens; (2) All the leaf-buds active, but +forming heads, as in Brussels sprouts; (3) Terminal leaf-bud alone active, +forming a head, as in common cabbage, savoys, &c.; (4) Terminal leaf-bud +alone active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as +in cauliflower and broccoli; (5) All the leaf-buds active and open, with +most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as in sprouting broccoli. The +last variety bears the same relation to common broccoli as Brussels sprouts +do to the common cabbage. Of all these forms there are numerous gardeners' +varieties, all of which reproduce faithfully enough their parent form by +proper and separate cultivation. + +Under Lindley's first class, common or Scotch kale or borecole (_Brassica +oleracea_ var. _acephala_ or var. _fimbriata_) includes several varieties +which are amongst the hardiest of our esculents, and seldom fail to yield a +good supply of winter greens. They require well-enriched soil, and +sufficient space for full exposure to air; and they should also be sown +early, so as to be well [v.04 p.0915] established and hardened before +winter. The main crops should be sown about the first week of April, or, in +the north, in the third week of March, and a succession a month later. The +Buda kale is sown in May, and planted out in September, but a sowing for +late spring use may be made in the last week of August and transplanted +towards the end of September. To prevent overcrowding, the plants should be +transplanted as soon as they are of sufficient size, but if the ground is +not ready to receive them a sufficient number should be pricked out in some +open spot. In general the more vigorous sorts should be planted in rows 3 +ft. and the smaller growers 2 ft. apart, and 18 in. from plant to plant. In +these the heads should be first used, only so much of the heart as is fresh +and tender being cut out for boiling; side shoots or sprouts are afterwards +produced for a long time in succession, and may be used so long as they are +tender enough to admit of being gathered by snapping their stalks asunder. + +The plant sends up a stout central stem, growing upright to a height of +about 2 ft., with close-set, large thick, plain leaves of a light red or +purplish hue. The lower leaves are stripped off for use as the plants grow +up, and used for the preparation of broth or "Scotch kail," a dish at one +time in great repute in the north-eastern districts of Scotland. A very +remarkable variety of open-leaved cabbage is cultivated in the Channel +Islands under the name of the Jersey or branching cabbage. It grows to a +height of 8 ft, but has been known to attain double that altitude. It +throws out branches from the central stem, which is sufficiently firm and +woody to be fashioned into walking-sticks; and the stems are even used by +the islanders as rafters for bearing the thatch on their cottage-roofs. +Several varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants on account of their +beautifully coloured, frizzled and laciniated leaves. + +Brussels sprouts (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _bullata gemmifera_) are +miniature cabbage-heads, about an inch in diameter, which form in the axils +of the leaves. There appears to be no information as to the plant's origin, +but, according to Van Mons (1765-1842), physician and chemist, it is +mentioned in the year 1213, in the regulations for holding the markets of +Belgium, under the name of _spruyten_ (sprouts). It is very hardy and +productive, and is much esteemed for the table on account of its flavour +and its sightly appearance. The seed should be sown about the middle of +March, and again in the first or second week in April for succession. Any +good garden soil is suitable. For an early crop it may be sown in a warm +pit in February, pricked out and hardened in frames, and planted out in a +warm situation in April. The main crop may be planted in rows 2 ft. +asunder, the plants 18 in. apart. They should be got out early, so as to be +well established and come into use before winter. The head may be cut and +used after the best of the little rosettes which feather the stem have been +gathered; but, if cut too early, it exposes these rosettes, which are the +most delicate portion of the produce, to injury, if the weather be severe. +The earliest sprouts become fit for use in November, and they continue +good, or even improve in quality, till the month of March following; by +successive sowings the sprouts are obtained for the greater part of the +year. + +The third class is chiefly represented by the common or drumhead cabbage, +_Brassica oleracea_ var. _capitata_, the varieties of which are +distinguished by difference in size, form and colour. In Germany it is +converted into a popular article of diet under the name of _Sauerkraut_ by +placing in a tub alternate layers of salt and cabbage. An acid fermentation +sets in, which after a few days is complete, when the vessel is tightly +covered over and the product kept for use with animal food. + +The savoy is a hardy green variety, characterized by its very wrinkled +leaves. The Portugal cabbage, or _Couve Tronchuda_, is a variety, the tops +of which form an excellent cabbage, while the midribs of the large leaves +are cooked like sea-kale. + +Cabbages contain a very small percentage of nitrogenous compounds as +compared with most other articles of food. Their percentage composition, +when cooked, is--water, 97.4; fat, 0.1; carbohydrate, 0.4; mineral matter, +0.1; cellulose, 1.3; nitrogenous matter (only about half being proteid), +0.6. Their food-value, apart from their anti-scorbutic properties, is +therefore practically nil. + +The cabbage requires a well-manured and well-wrought loamy soil. It should +have abundant water in summer, liquid manure being specially beneficial. +Round London where it is grown in perfection, the ground for it is dug to +the depth of two spades or spits, the lower portion being brought up to the +action of the weather, and rendered available as food for the plants; while +the top-soil, containing the eggs and larvae of many insects, being deeply +buried, the plants are less liable to be attacked by the club disease. +Farm-yard manure is that most suitable for the cabbage, but artificial +manures such as guano, superphosphate of lime or gypsum, together with +lime-rubbish, wood-ashes and marl, may, if required, be applied with +advantage. + +The first sowing of cabbage should be made about the beginning of March; +this will be ready for use in July and August, following the autumn-sown +crops. Another sowing should be made in the last week of March or first +week of April, and will afford a supply from August till November; and a +further crop may be made in May to supply young-hearted cabbages in the +early part of winter. The autumn sowing, which is the most important, and +affords the supply for spring and early summer use, should be made about +the last week in August, in warm localities in the south, and about a +fortnight earlier in the north; or, to meet fluctuations of climate, it is +as well in both cases to anticipate this sowing by another two or three +weeks earlier, planting out a portion from each, but the larger number from +that sowing which promises best to stand without running to seed. + +The cabbages grown late in autumn and in the beginning of winter are +denominated coleworts (vulg. collards), from a kindred vegetable no longer +cultivated. Two sowings are made, in the middle of June and in July, and +the seedlings are planted a foot or 15 in. asunder, the rows being 8 or 10 +in. apart. The sorts employed are the Rosette and the Hardy Green. + +About London the large sorts, as Enfield Market, are planted for spring +cabbages 2 ft. apart each way; but a plant from an earlier sowing is +dibbled in between every two in the rows, and an intermediate row a foot +apart is put in between the permanent rows, these extra plants being drawn +as coleworts in the course of the winter. The smaller sorts of cabbage may +be planted 12 in. apart, with 12 or 15 in. between the rows. The large +sorts should be planted 2 ft. apart, with 2½ ft. between the rows. The only +culture required is to stir the surface with the hoe to destroy the weeds, +and to draw up the soil round the stems. + +The red cabbage, _Brassica oleracea_ var. _capitata rubra_, of which the +Red Dutch is the most commonly grown, is much used for pickling. It is sown +about the end of July, and again in March or April. The Dwarf Red and +Utrecht Red are smaller sorts. The culture is in every respect the same as +in the other sorts, but the plants have to stand until they form hard close +hearts. + +Cauliflower, which is the chief representative of class 4, consists of the +inflorescence of the plant modified so as to form a compact succulent white +mass or head. The cauliflower (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _botrytis +cauliflora_) is said by our old authors to have been introduced from +Cyprus, where, as well as on the Mediterranean coasts, it appears to have +been cultivated for ages. It is one of the most delicately flavoured of +vegetables, the dense cluster formed by its incipient succulent flower-buds +being the edible portion. + +The sowing for the first or spring crop, to be in use in May and June, +should be made from the 15th to the 25th of August for England, and from +the 1st to the 15th of August for Scotland. In the neighbourhood of London +the growers adhere as nearly as possible to the 21st day. A sowing to +produce heads in July and August takes place in February on a slight +hotbed. A late spring sowing to produce cauliflowers in September or +October or later, should be made early in April and another about the 20th +of May. + +The cauliflower succeeds best in a rich soil and sheltered position; but, +to protect the young plants in winter, they are sometimes pricked out in a +warm situation at the foot of a south [v.04 p.0916] wall, and in severe +weather covered with hoops and mats. A better method is to plant them +thickly under a garden frame, securing them from cold by coverings and +giving air in mild weather. For a very early supply, a few scores of plants +may be potted and kept under glass during winter and planted out in spring, +defended with a hand-glass. Sometimes patches of three or four plants on a +south border are sheltered by hand-glasses throughout the winter. It is +advantageous to prick out the spring-sown plants into some sheltered place +before they are finally transplanted in May. The later crop, the +transplanting of which may take place at various times, is treated like +early cabbages. After planting, all that is necessary is to hoe the ground +and draw up the soil about the stems. + +It is found that cauliflowers ready for use in October may be kept in +perfection over winter. For this purpose they are lifted carefully with the +spade, keeping a ball of earth attached to the roots. Some of the large +outside leaves are removed, and any points of leaves that immediately +overhang the flower are cut off. They are then placed either in pots or in +garden frames, the plants being arranged close together, but without +touching. In mild dry weather the glass frames are drawn off, but they are +kept on during rainstorms, ventilation being afforded by slightly tilting +the frames, and in severe frost they are thickly covered with mats. + +Broccoli is merely a variety of cauliflower, differing from the other in +the form and colour of its inflorescence and its hardiness. The broccoli +(_Brassica oleracea_ var. _botrytis asparagoides_) succeeds best in loamy +soil, somewhat firm in texture. For the autumn broccolis the ground can +scarcely be too rich, but the winter and spring sorts on ground of this +character are apt to become so succulent and tender that the plants suffer +from frost even in sheltered situations, while plants less stimulated by +manure and growing in the open field may be nearly all saved, even in +severe winters. The main crops of the early sorts for use in autumn should +be sown early in May, and planted out while young to prevent them coming +too early into flower; in the north they may be sown a fortnight earlier. +The later sorts for use during winter and spring should be sown about the +middle or end of May, or about ten days earlier in the north. The seed-beds +should be made in fresh light soil; and if the season be dry the ground +should be well watered before sowing. If the young plants are crowding each +other they should be thinned. The ground should not be dug before planting +them out, as the firmer it is the better; but a shallow drill may be drawn +to mark the lines. The larger-growing sorts may be put in rows 3 ft. apart, +and the plants about 2½ ft. apart in the rows, and the smaller-growing ones +at from 2 to 2½ ft. between, and 1½ to 2 ft. in the rows. If the ground is +not prepared when young plants are ready for removal, they should be +transferred to nursery beds and planted at 3 to 4 in. apart, but the +earlier they can be got into their permanent places the better. + +It is of course the young flower-heads of the plant which are eaten. When +these form, they should be shielded from the light by bending or breaking +down an inner leaf or two. In some of the sorts the leaves naturally curve +over the heads. To prevent injury to the heads by frost in severe winters, +the plants should be laid in with their heads sloping towards the north, +the soil being thrown back so as to cover their stems; or they may be taken +up and laid in closely in deep trenches, so that none of the lower bare +portion of the stem may be exposed. Some dry fern may also be laid over the +tops. The spring varieties are extremely valuable, as they come at a season +when the finer vegetables are scarce. They afford a supply from December to +May inclusive. + +Broccoli sprouts, the representative of the fifth class, are a form of +recent introduction, and consist of flowering sprouts springing from the +axils of the leaves. The purple-leaved variety is a very hardy and +much-esteemed vegetable. + +Kohl-rabi (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _caulo-rapa_) is a peculiar variety of +cabbage in which the stem, just above ground, swells into a fleshy +turnip-like mass. It is much cultivated in certain districts as a food for +stock, for which purpose the drumhead cabbage and the thousand-headed kale +are also largely used. Kohl-rabi is exceedingly hardy, withstanding both +severe frosts and drought. It is not much grown in English gardens, though +when used young it forms a good substitute for turnips. The seeds should be +sown in May and June, and the seedlings should be planted shallowly in +well-manured ground, 8 or 10 in. apart, in rows 15 in. asunder; and they +should be well watered, so as to induce quick growth. + +The varieties of cabbage, like other fresh vegetables, are possessed of +anti-scorbutic properties; but unless eaten when very fresh and tender they +are difficult of digestion, and have a very decided tendency to produce +flatulence. + +Although the varieties reproduce by seed with remarkable constancy, +occasional departures from the types occur, more especially among the +varieties of spring cabbages, cauliflowers and broccoli. The departures, +known technically as "rogues," are not as a rule sufficiently numerous to +materially affect crops grown for domestic purposes. Rogues appearing among +the stocks of seed-growers, however, if allowed to remain, very materially +affect the character of particular stocks by the dissemination of strange +pollen and by the admixture of their seed. Great care is exercised by +seed-growers, with reputations to maintain, to eliminate these from among +their stock-plants before the flowering period is reached. + +Several species of palm, from the fact of yielding large sapid central buds +which are cooked as vegetables, are known as cabbage-palms. The principal +of these is _Areca oleracea_, but other species, such as the coco-palm, the +royal palm (_Oreodoxa regia_), _Arenga saccharifera_ and others yield +similar edible leaf-buds. + +CABEIRI, in Greek mythology, a group of minor deities, of whose character +and worship nothing certain is known. Their chief seats of worship were the +islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, the coast of Troas, Thessalia and +Boeotia. The name appears to be of Phoenician origin, signifying the +"great" gods, and the Cabeiri seem to have been deities of the sea who +protected sailors and navigation, as such often identified with the +Dioscuri, the symbol of their presence being St Elmo's fire. Originally the +Cabeiri were two in number, an older identified with Hephaestus (or +Dionysus), and a younger identified with Hermes, who in the Samothracian +mysteries was called Cadmilus or Casmilus. Their cult at an early date was +united with that of Demeter and Kore, with the result that two pairs of +Cabeiri appeared, Hephaestus and Demeter, and Cadmilus and Kore. According +to Mnaseas[1] (quoted by the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius i. 917) they +were four in number:--Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, Casmilus. It is there +stated that Axieros is Demeter; Axiokersa, Persephone; Axiokersos, Hades; +and Casmilus, Hermes. The substitution of Hades for Hephaestus is due to +the fact that Hades was regarded as the husband of Persephone. Cabeiro, who +is mentioned in the logographers Acusilaus and Pherecydes as the wife of +Hephaestus, is identical with Demeter, who indeed is expressly called +[Greek: Kabeiria] in Thebes. Roman antiquarians identified the Cabeiri with +the three Capitoline deities or with the Penates. In Lemnos an annual +festival of the Cabeiri was held, lasting nine days, during which all the +fires were extinguished and fire brought from Delos. From this fact and +from the statement of Strabo x. p. 473, that the father of the Cabeiri was +Camillus, a son of Hephaestus, the Cabeiri have been thought to be, like +the Corybantes, Curetes and Dactyli, demons of volcanic fire. But this view +is not now generally held. In Lemnos they fostered the vine and fruits of +the field, and from their connexion with Hermes in Samothrace it would also +seem that they promoted the fruitfulness of cattle. + +By far the most important seat of their worship was Samothrace. Here, as +early as the 5th century B.C., their mysteries, possibly under Athenian +influence, attracted great attention, and initiation was looked upon as a +general safeguard against all misfortune. But it was in the period after +the death of Alexander the Great that their cult reached its height. +Demetrius Poliorcetes, Lysimachus and Arsinoë regarded the Cabeiri with +especial favour, and initiation was sought, not only by large numbers of +pilgrims, but by persons of distinction. Initiation included also an asylum +or refuge within the strong walls of Samothrace, for which purpose it was +used among others by Arsinoë, who, to show her gratitude, afterwards caused +a monument to be erected there, the ruins of which were explored in [v.04 +p.0917] 1874 by an Austrian archaeological expedition. In 1888 interesting +details as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were obtained by the +excavations of their temple in the neighbourhood of Thebes, conducted by +the German archaeological institute. The two male deities worshipped were +Cabeiros and a boy: the Cabeiros resembles Dionysus, being represented on +vases as lying on a couch, his head surrounded with a garland of ivy, a +drinking cup in his right hand; and accompanied by maenads and satyrs. The +boy is probably his cup-bearer. The Cabeiri were held in even greater +esteem by the Romans, who regarded themselves as descendants of the +Trojans, whose ancestor Dardanus (himself identified in heroic legend with +one of the Cabeiri) came from Samothrace. The identification of the three +Capitoline deities with the Penates, and of these with the Cabeiri, tended +to increase this feeling. + +See C.A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (1829); F.G. Welcker, _Die Aeschylische +Trilogie und die Kabirenweihe zu Lemnos_ (1824); J.P. Rossignol, _Les +Métaux dans l'antiquité_ (1863), discussing the gods of Samothrace (the +Dactyli, the Cabeiri, the Corybantes, the Curetes, and the Telchines) as +workers in metal, and the religious origin of metallurgy; O. Rubensohn, +_Die Mysterienheiligtümer in Eleusis und Samothrake_ (1892); W.H. Roscher, +_Lexikon der Mythologie_ (_s.v._ "Megaloi Theoi"); L. Preller, _Griechische +Mythologie_ (4th ed., appendix); and the article by F. Lenormant in +Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_. + +[1] A grammarian of Patrae in Achaea (or Patara in Lycia), pupil of +Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.), and author of a periplus and a collection of +Delphic oracles. + +CABER TOSSING (Gaelic _cabar_, a pole or beam), a Scottish athletic +exercise which consists in throwing a section of a trunk of a tree, called +the "caber," in such a manner that it shall turn over in the air and fall +on the ground with its small end pointing in the direction directly +opposite to the "tosser." Tossing the caber is usually considered to be a +distinctly Scottish sport, although "casting the bar," an exercise +evidently similar in character, was popular in England in the 16th century +but afterwards died out. The caber is the heavy trunk of a tree from 16 to +20 ft. long. It is often brought upon the field heavier than can be thrown +and then cut to suit the contestants, although sometimes cabers of +different sizes are kept, each contestant taking his choice. The toss is +made after a run, the caber being set up perpendicularly with the heavy end +up by assistants on the spot indicated by the tosser, who sets one foot +against it, grasps it with both hands, and, as soon as he feels it properly +balanced, gives the word to the assistants to let go their hold. He then +raises the caber and gets both hands underneath the lower end. "A practised +hand, having freed the caber from the ground, and got his hands underneath +the end, raises it till the lower end is nearly on a level with his elbows, +then advances for several yards, gradually increasing his speed till he is +sometimes at a smart run before he gives the toss. Just before doing this +he allows the caber to leave his shoulder, and as the heavy top end begins +to fall forward, he throws the end he has in his hands upwards with all his +strength, and, if successful, after the heavy end strikes the ground the +small end continues its upward motion till perpendicular, when it falls +forward, and the caber lies in a straight line with the tosser" (W.M. +Smith). The winner is he who tosses with the best and easiest style, +according to old Highland traditions, and whose caber falls straightest in +a direct line from him. In America a style called the Scottish-American +prevails at Caledonian games. In this the object is distance alone, the +same caber being used by all contestants and the toss being measured from +the tosser's foot to the spot where the small end strikes the ground. This +style is repudiated in Scotland. Donald Dinnie, born in 1837 and still a +champion in 1890, was the best tosser of modern times. + +See W.M. Smith, _Athletics and Athletic Sports in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, +1891). + +CABET, ÉTIENNE (1788-1856), French communist, was born at Dijon in 1788, +the son of a cooper. He chose the profession of advocate, without +succeeding in it, but ere long became notable as the persevering apostle of +republicanism and communism. He assisted in a secondary way in the +revolution of 1830, and obtained the appointment of _procureur-général_ in +Corsica under the government of Louis Philippe; but was dismissed for his +attack upon the conservatism of the government, in his _Histoire de la +révolution de 1830_. Elected, notwithstanding, to the chamber of deputies, +he was prosecuted for his bitter criticism of the government, and obliged +to go into exile in England in 1834, where he became an ardent disciple of +Robert Owen. On the amnesty of 1839 he returned to France, and attracted +some notice by the publication of a badly written and fiercely democratic +history of the Revolution of 1789 (4 vols., 1840), and of a social romance, +_Voyage en Icarie_, in which he set forth his peculiar views. These works +met with some success among the radical working-men of Paris. Like Owen, he +sought to realize his ideas in practice, and, pressed as well by his +friends, he made arrangements for an experiment in communism on American +soil. By negotiations in England favoured by Owen, he purchased a +considerable tract of land on the Red river, Texas, and drew up an +elaborate scheme for the intending colony, community of property being the +distinctive principle of the society. Accordingly in 1848 an expedition of +1500 "Icarians" sailed to America; but unexpected difficulties arose and +the complaints of the disenchanted settlers soon reached Europe. Cabet, who +had remained in France, had more than one judicial investigation to undergo +in consequence, but was honourably acquitted. In 1849 he went out in person +to America, but on his arrival, finding that the Mormons had been expelled +from their city Nauvoo (_q.v._), in Illinois, he transferred his settlement +thither. There, with the exception of a journey to France, where he +returned to defend himself successfully before the tribunals, he remained, +the dictator of his little society. In 1856, however, he withdrew and died +the same year at St Louis. + +See COMMUNISM. Also Félix Bonnaud, _Cabet et son oeuvre, appel à tous les +socialistes_ (Paris, 1900); J. Prudhommeaux, _Icaria and its Founder, +Étienne Cabet_ (Nîmes, 1907). + +CABIN, a small, roughly built hut or shelter; the term is particularly +applied to the thatched mud cottages of the negro slaves of the southern +states of the Unites States of America, or of the poverty-stricken +peasantry of Ireland or the crofter districts of Scotland. In a special +sense it is used of the small rooms or compartments on board a vessel used +for sleeping, eating or other accommodation. The word in its earlier +English forms was _cabane_ or _caban_, and thus seems to be an adaptation +of the French _cabane_; the French have taken _cabine_, for the room on +board a ship, from the English. In French and other Romanic languages, in +which the word occurs, _e.g._ Spanish _cabaña_, Portuguese _cabana_, the +origin is usually found in the Medieval Latin _capanna_. Isidore of Seville +(_Origines_, lib. xiv. 12) says:--_Tugurium_ (hut) _parva casula est, quam +faciunt sibi custodes vinearum, ad tegimen seu quasi tegurium. Hoc rustici +Capannam vocant, quod unum tantum capiat_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. +_Capanna_). Others derive from Greek [Greek: kapê], crib, manger. Skeat +considers the English word was taken from the Welsh _caban_, rather than +from the French, and that the original source for all the forms was Celtic. + +CABINET, a word with various applications which may be traced to two +principal meanings, (1) a small private chamber, and (2) an article of +furniture containing compartments formed of drawers, shelves, &c. The word +is a diminutive of "cabin" and therefore properly means a small hut or +shelter. This meaning is now obsolete; the _New English Dictionary_ quotes +from Leonard Digges's _Stratioticos_ (published with additions by his son +Thomas in 1579), "the Lance Knights encamp always in the field very +strongly, two or three to a Cabbonet." From the use both of the article of +furniture and of a small chamber for the safe-keeping of a collection of +valuable prints, pictures, medals or other objects, the word is frequently +applied to such a collection or to objects fit for such safe-keeping. The +name of _Cabinet du Roi_ was given to the collection of prints prepared by +the best artists of the 17th century by order of Louis XIV. These were +intended to commemorate the chief events of his reign, and also to +reproduce the paintings and sculptures and other art treasures contained in +the royal palaces. It was begun in 1667 and was placed under the +superintendence of Nicholas Clement (1647 or 1651-1712), the royal +librarian. The collection was published in 1727. The plates are now in the +Louvre. A "cabinet" edition [v.04 p.0918] of a literary work is one of +somewhat small size, and bound in such a way as would suit a tasteful +collection. The term is applied also to a size of photograph of a larger +size than the _carte de visite_ but smaller than the "panel." The political +use of the term is derived from the private chamber of the sovereign or +head of a state in which his advisers met. + +_Cabinet in Furniture._--The artificer who constructs furniture is still +called a "cabinet-maker," although the manufacture of cabinets, properly so +called, is now a very occasional part of his work. Cabinets can be divided +into a very large number of classes according to their shape, style, period +and country of origin; but their usual characteristic is that they are +supported upon a stand, and that they contain a series of drawers and +pigeon-holes. The name is, however, now given to many pieces of furniture +for the safe-keeping or exhibition of valuable objects, which really answer +very little to the old conception of a cabinet. The cabinet represented an +evolution brought about by the necessities of convenience, and it appealed +to so many tastes and needs that it rapidly became universal in the houses +of the gentle classes, and in great measure took the impress of the peoples +who adopted it. It would appear to have originated in Italy, probably at +the very beginning of the 16th century. In its rudimentary form it was +little more than an oblong box, with or without feet, small enough to stand +upon a table or chair, filled with drawers and closed with doors. In this +early form its restricted dimensions permitted of its use only for the +safeguard of jewels, precious stones and sometimes money. One of the +earliest cabinets of which we have mention belonged to Francis I. of +France, and is described as covered with gilt leather, tooled with +mauresque work. As the Renaissance became general these early forms gave +place to larger, more elaborate and more architectural efforts, until the +cabinet became one of the most sumptuous of household adornments. It was +natural that the countries which were earliest and most deeply touched by +the Renaissance should excel in the designing of these noble and costly +pieces of furniture. The cabinets of Italy, France and the Netherlands were +especially rich and monumental. Those of Italy and Flanders are often of +great magnificence and of real artistic skill, though like all other +furniture their style was often grievously debased, and their details +incongruous and bizarre. Flanders and Burgundy were, indeed, their lands of +adoption, and Antwerp added to its renown as a metropolis of art by +developing consummate skill in their manufacture and adornment. The cost +and importance of the finer types have ensured the preservation of +innumerable examples of all but the very earliest periods; and the student +never ceases to be impressed by the extraordinary variety of the work of +the 16th and 17th centuries, and very often of the 18th also. The basis of +the cabinet has always been wood, carved, polished or inlaid; but lavish +use has been made of ivory, tortoise-shell, and those cut and polished +precious stones which the Italians call _pietra dura_. In the great Flemish +period of the 17th century the doors and drawers of cabinets were often +painted with classical or mythological scenes. Many French and Florentine +cabinets were also painted. In many classes the drawers and pigeon-holes +are enclosed by folding doors, carved or inlaid, and often painted on the +inner sides. Perhaps the most favourite type during a great part of the +16th and 17th centuries--a type which grew so common that it became +cosmopolitan--was characterized by a conceit which acquired astonishing +popularity. When the folding doors are opened there is disclosed in the +centre of the cabinet a tiny but palatial interior. Floored with alternate +squares of ebony and ivory to imitate a black and white marble pavement, +adorned with Corinthian columns or pilasters, and surrounded by mirrors, +the effect, if occasionally affected and artificial, is quite as often +exquisite. Although cabinets have been produced in England in considerable +variety, and sometimes of very elegant and graceful form, the foreign +makers on the whole produced the most elaborate and monumental examples. As +we have said, Italy and the Netherlands acquired especial distinction in +this kind of work. In France, which has always enjoyed a peculiar genius +for assimilating modes in furniture, Flemish cabinets were so greatly in +demand that Henry IV. determined to establish the industry in his own +dominions. He therefore sent French workmen to the Low Countries to acquire +the art of making cabinets, and especially those which were largely +constructed of ebony and ivory. Among these workmen were Jean Macé and +Pierre Boulle, a member of a family which was destined to acquire something +approaching immortality. Many of the Flemish cabinets so called, which were +in such high favour in France and also in England, were really _armoires_ +consisting of two bodies superimposed, whereas the cabinet proper does not +reach to the floor. Pillared and fluted, with panelled sides, and front +elaborately carved with masks and human figures, these pieces which were +most often in oak were exceedingly harmonious and balanced. Long before +this, however, France had its own school of makers of cabinets, and some of +their carved work was of the most admirable character. At a somewhat later +date André Charles Boulle made many pieces to which the name of cabinet has +been more or less loosely given. They were usually of massive proportions +and of extreme elaboration of marquetry. The North Italian cabinets, and +especially those which were made or influenced by the Florentine school, +were grandiose and often gloomy. Conceived on a palatial scale, painted or +carved, or incrusted with marble and _pietra dura_, they were intended for +the adornment of galleries and lofty bare apartments where they were not +felt to be overpowering. These North Italian cabinets were often covered +with intarsia or marquetry, which by its subdued gaiety retrieved somewhat +their heavy stateliness of form. It is, however, often difficult to ascribe +a particular fashion of shape or of workmanship to a given country, since +the interchange of ideas and the imports of actual pieces caused a rapid +assimilation which destroyed frontiers. The close connexion of centuries +between Spain and the Netherlands, for instance, led to the production +north and south of work that was not definitely characteristic of either. +Spain, however, was more closely influenced than the Low Countries, and +contains to this day numbers of cabinets which are not easily to be +distinguished from the characteristic ebony, ivory and tortoise-shell work +of the craftsmen whose skill was so rapidly acquired by the emissaries of +Henry IV. The cabinets of southern Germany were much influenced by the +models of northern Italy, but retained to a late date some of the +characteristics of domestic Gothic work such as elaborately fashioned +wrought-iron handles and polished steel hinges. Often, indeed, 17th-century +South Germany work is a curious blend of Flemish and Italian ideas executed +in oak and Hungarian ash. Such work, however interesting, necessarily lacks +simplicity and repose. A curious little detail of Flemish and Italian, and +sometimes of French later 17th-century cabinets, is that the interiors of +the drawers are often lined with stamped gold or silver paper, or marbled +ones somewhat similar to the "end papers" of old books. The great English +cabinet-makers of the 18th century were very various in their cabinets, +which did not always answer strictly to their name; but as a rule they will +not bear comparison with the native work of the preceding century, which +was most commonly executed in richly marked walnut, frequently enriched +with excellent marquetry of woods. Mahogany was the dominating timber in +English furniture from the accession of George II. almost to the time of +the Napoleonic wars; but many cabinets were made in lacquer or in the +bright-hued foreign woods which did so much to give lightness and grace to +the British style. The glass-fronted cabinet for China or glass was in high +favour in the Georgian period, and for pieces of that type, for which +massiveness would have been inappropriate, satin and tulip woods, and other +timbers with a handsome grain taking a high polish were much used. + +(J. P.-B.) + +_The Political Cabinet._--Among English political institutions, the +"Cabinet" is a conventional but not a legal term employed to describe those +members of the privy council who fill the highest executive offices in the +state, and by their concerted policy direct the government, and are +responsible for all the acts of the crown. The cabinet now always includes +the persons filling the following offices, who are therefore called +"cabinet ministers," viz.:--the first lord of the treasury, the lord +chancellor of England, the lord president of the council, the lord privy +seal, the five secretaries of state, the chancellor of the exchequer [v.04 +p.0919] and the first lord of the admiralty. The chancellor of the duchy of +Lancaster, the postmaster-general, the first commissioner of works, the +president of the board of trade, the chief secretary for Ireland, the lord +chancellor of Ireland, the president of the local government board, the +president of the board of agriculture, and the president of the board of +education, are usually members of the cabinet, but not necessarily so. A +modern cabinet contains from sixteen to twenty members. It used to be said +that a large cabinet is an evil; and the increase in its numbers in recent +years has often been criticized. But the modern widening of the franchise +has tended to give the cabinet the character of an executive committee for +the party in power, no less than that of the prime-minister's consultative +committee, and to make such a committee representative it is necessary to +include the holders of all the more important offices in the +administration, who are generally selected as the influential politicians +of the party rather than for special aptitude in the work of the +departments. + +The word "cabinet," or "cabinet council," was originally employed as a term +of reproach. Thus Lord Bacon says, in his essay _Of Counsel_ (xx.), "The +doctrine of Italy and practice of France, in some kings' times, hath +introduced cabinet councils--a remedy worse than the disease"; and, again, +"As for cabinet councils, it may be their motto _Plenus rimarum sum_." Lord +Clarendon--after stating that, in 1640, when the great Council of Peers was +convened by the king at York, the burden of affairs rested principally on +Laud, Strafford and Cottington, with five or six others added to them on +account of their official position and ability--adds, "These persons made +up the committee of state, which was reproachfully after called the +_Juncto_, and enviously then in court the _Cabinet Council_." And in the +Second Remonstrance in January 1642, parliament complained "of the managing +of the great affairs of the realm in _Cabinet Councils_ by men unknown and +not publicly trusted." But this use of the term, though historically +curious, has in truth nothing in common with the modern application of it. +It meant, at that time, the employment of a select body of favourites by +the king, who were supposed to possess a larger share of his confidence +than the privy council at large. Under the Tudors, at least from the later +years of Henry VIII. and under the Stuarts, the privy council was the +council of state or government. During the Commonwealth it assumed that +name. + +The Cabinet Council, properly so called, dates from the reign of William +III. and from the year 1693, for it was not until some years after the +Revolution that the king discovered and adopted the two fundamental +principles of a constitutional executive government, namely, that a +ministry should consist of statesmen holding the same political principles +and identified with each other; and, secondly, that the ministry should +stand upon a parliamentary basis, that is, that it must command and retain +the majority of votes in the legislature. It was long before these +principles were thoroughly worked out and understood, and the perfection to +which they have been brought in modern times is the result of time, +experience and in part of accident. But the result is that the cabinet +council for the time being _is_ the government of Great Britain; that all +the powers vested in the sovereign (with one or two exceptions) are +practically exercised by the members of this body; that all the members of +the cabinet are jointly and severally responsible for all its measures, for +if differences of opinion arise their existence is unknown as long as the +cabinet lasts--when publicly manifested the cabinet is at an end; and +lastly, that the cabinet, being responsible to the sovereign for the +conduct of executive business, is also collectively responsible to +parliament both for its executive conduct and for its legislative measures, +the same men being as members of the cabinet the servants of the crown, and +as members of parliament and leaders of the majority responsible to those +who support them by their votes and may challenge in debate every one of +their actions. In this latter sense the cabinet has sometimes been +described as a standing committee of both Houses of Parliament. + +One of the consequences of the close connexion of the cabinet with the +legislature is that it is desirable to divide the strength of the ministry +between the two Houses of Parliament. Pitt's cabinet of 1783 consisted of +himself in the House of Commons and seven peers. But so aristocratic a +government would now be impracticable. In Gladstone's cabinet of 1868, +eight, and afterwards nine, ministers were in the House of Commons and six +in the House of Lords. Great efforts were made to strengthen the +ministerial bench in the Commons, and a new principle was introduced, that +the representatives of what are called the spending departments--that is, +the secretary of state for war and the first lord of the admiralty--should, +if possible, be members of the House which votes the supplies. Disraeli +followed this precedent but it has since been disregarded. In Sir H. +Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet formed in 1905, six ministers were in the +House of Lords and thirteen in the House of Commons. + +Cabinets are usually convoked by a summons addressed to "His Majesty's +confidential servants" by the prime minister; and the ordinary place of +meeting is either at the official residence of the first lord of the +treasury in Downing Street or at the foreign office, but they may be held +anywhere. No secretary or other officer is present at the deliberations of +this council. No official record is kept of its proceedings, and it is even +considered a breach of ministerial confidence to keep a private record of +what passed in the cabinet, inasmuch as such memoranda may fall into other +hands. But on some important occasions, as is known from the _Memoirs of +Lord Sidmouth_, the _Correspondence of Earl Grey with King William IV._, +and from Sir Robert Peel's _Memoirs_, published by permission of Queen +Victoria, cabinet minutes are drawn up and submitted to the sovereign, as +the most formal manner in which the advice of the ministry can be tendered +to the crown and placed upon record. (See also Sir Algernon West's +_Recollections_, 1899.) More commonly, it is the duty of the prime minister +to lay the collective opinion of his colleagues before the sovereign, and +take his pleasure on public measures and appointments. The sovereign never +presides at a cabinet; and at the meetings of the privy council, where the +sovereign does preside, the business is purely formal. It has been laid +down by some writers as a principle of the British constitution that the +sovereign is never present at a discussion between the advisers of the +crown; and this is, no doubt, an established fact and practice. But like +many other political usages of Great Britain it originated in a happy +accident. + +King William and Queen Anne always presided at weekly cabinet councils. But +when the Hanoverian princes ascended the throne, they knew no English, and +were barely able to converse at all with their ministers; for George I. or +George II. to take part in, or even to listen to, a debate in council was +impossible. When George III. mounted the throne the practice of the +independent deliberations of the cabinet was well established, and it has +never been departed from. + +Upon the resignation or dissolution of a ministry, the sovereign exercises +the undoubted prerogative of selecting the person who may be thought by him +most fit to form a new cabinet. In several instances the statesmen selected +by the crown have found themselves unable to accomplish the task confided +to them. But in more favourable cases the minister chosen for this supreme +office by the crown has the power of distributing all the political offices +of the government as may seem best to himself, subject only to the ultimate +approval of the sovereign. The prime minister is therefore in reality the +author and constructor of the cabinet; he holds it together; and in the +event of his retirement, from whatever cause, the cabinet is really +dissolved, even though its members are again united under another head. + +AUTHORITIES.--Sir W. Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_ (1896); W. +Bagehot, _The English Constitution_; M.T. Blauvelt, _The Development of +Cabinet Government in England_ (New York, 1902); E. Boutmy, _The English +Constitution_ (trans. I.M. Eaden, 1891); A. Lawrence Lowell, _The +Government of England_ (1908), part I.; A.V. Dicey, _Law of the +Constitution_ (1902); Sir T. Erskine May, _Constitutional History of +England_ (1863-1865); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History of England_; W.E. +Hearn, _The Government of England_ (1867); S. Low, _The Governance of +England_ (1904); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_; Hannis +Taylor, _Origin and Growth of the English Constitution_ (Boston, +1889-1900); [v.04 p.0920] A. Todd, _Parliamentary Government in England_ +(1867-1869); much valuable information will also be found in such works as +W.E. Gladstone's _Gleanings_; the third earl of Malmesbury's _Memoirs of an +ex-Minister_ (1884-1885); Greville's _Memoirs_; Sir A. West's +_Recollections_, 1832-1886 (1889), &c. + +CABINET NOIR, the name given in France to the office where the letters of +suspected persons were opened and read by public officials before being +forwarded to their destination. This practice had been in vogue since the +establishment of posts, and was frequently used by the ministers of Louis +XIII. and Louis XIV.; but it was not until the reign of Louis XV. that a +separate office for this purpose was created. This was called the _cabinet +du secret des postes_, or more popularly the _cabinet noir_. Although +declaimed against at the time of the Revolution, it was used both by the +revolutionary leaders and by Napoleon. The _cabinet noir_ has now +disappeared, but the right to open letters in cases of emergency appears +still to be retained by the French government; and a similar right is +occasionally exercised in England under the direction of a secretary of +state, and, indeed, in all civilized countries. In England this power was +frequently employed during the 18th century and was confirmed by the Post +Office Act of 1837; its most notorious use being, perhaps, the opening of +Mazzini's letters in 1844. + +CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844- ) American author, was born in New Orleans, +Louisiana, on the 12th of October 1844. At the age of fourteen he entered a +mercantile establishment as a clerk; joined the Confederate army (4th +Mississippi Cavalry) at the age of nineteen; at the close of the war +engaged in civil engineering, and in newspaper work in New Orleans; and +first became known in literature by sketches and stories of old +French-American life in that city. These were first published in +_Scribner's Monthly_, and were collected in book form in 1879, under the +title of _Old Creole Days_. The characteristics of the series--of which the +novelette _Madame Delphine_ (1881) is virtually a part--are neatness of +touch, sympathetic accuracy of description of people and places, and a +constant combination of gentle pathos with quiet humour. These shorter +tales were followed by the novels _The Grandissimes_ (1880), _Dr Sevier_ +(1883) and _Bonaventure_ (1888), of which the first dealt with Creole life +in Louisiana a hundred years ago, while the second was related to the +period of the Civil War of 1861-65. _Dr Sevier_, on the whole, is to be +accounted Cable's masterpiece, its character of Narcisse combining nearly +all the qualities which have given him his place in American literature as +an artist and a social chronicler. In this, as in nearly all of his +stories, he makes much use of the soft French-English dialect of Louisiana. +He does not confine himself to New Orleans, laying many of his scenes, as +in the short story _Belles Demoiselles Plantation_, in the marshy lowlands +towards the mouth of the Mississippi. Cable was the leader in the +noteworthy literary movement which has influenced nearly all southern +writers since the war of 1861--a movement of which the chief importance lay +in the determination to portray local scenes, characters and historical +episodes with accuracy instead of merely imaginative romanticism, and to +interest readers by fidelity and sympathy in the portrayal of things well +known to the authors. Other writings by Cable have dealt with various +problems of race and politics in the southern states during and after the +"reconstruction period" following the Civil War; while in _The Creoles of +Louisiana_ (1884) he presented a history of that folk from the time of its +appearance as a social and military factor. His dispassionate treatment of +his theme in this volume and its predecessors gave increasing offence to +sensitive Creoles and their sympathizers, and in 1886 Cable removed to +Northampton, Massachusetts. At one time he edited a magazine in +Northampton, and afterwards conducted the monthly _Current Literature_, +published in New York. His _Collected Works_ were published in a uniform +issue in 5 vols. (New York, 1898). Among his later volumes are _The +Cavalier_ (1901), _Bylow Hill_ (1902), and _Kincaid's Battery_ (1908). + +CABLE (from Late Lat. _capulum_, a halter, from _capere_, to take hold of), +a large rope or chain, used generally with ships, but often employed for +other purposes; the term "cable" is also used by analogy in minor varieties +of similar engineering or other attachments, and in the case of "electric +cables" for the submarine wires (see TELEGRAPH) by which telegraphic +messages are transmitted.[1] + +The cable by which a ship rides at her anchor is now made of iron; prior to +1811 only hempen cables were supplied to ships of the British navy, a +first-rate's complement on the East Indian station being eleven; the +largest was 25 in. (equal to 2¼ in. iron cable) and weighed 6 tons. In +1811, iron cables were supplied to stationary ships; their superiority over +hempen ones was manifest, as they were less liable to foul or to be cut by +rocks, or to be injured by enemy's shot. Iron cables are also handier and +cleaner, an offensive odour being exhaled from dirty hempen cables, when +unbent and stowed inboard. The first patent for iron cables was by Phillip +White in 1634; twisted links were suggested in 1813 by Captain Brown (who +afterwards, in conjunction with Brown, Lenox & Co., planned the Brighton +chain pier in 1823); and studs were introduced in 1816. Hempen cables are +not now supplied to ships, having been superseded by steel wire hawsers. +The length of a hempen cable is 101 fathoms, and a cable's length, as a +standard of measurement, usually placed on charts, is assumed to be 100 +fathoms or 600 ft. The sizes, number and lengths of cables supplied to +ships of the British navy are given in the official publication, the +_Ship's Establishment_; cables for merchant ships are regulated by Lloyds, +and are tested according to the Anchors and Chain Cables Act 1899. + +In manufacturing chain cables, the bars are cut to the required length of +link, at an angle for forming the welds and, after heating, are bent by +machinery to the form of a link and welded by smiths, each link being +inserted in the previous one before welding. Cables of less than 1¼ in. are +welded at the crown, there not being sufficient room for a side weld; +experience has shown that the latter method is preferable and it is +employed in making larger sized cables. In 1898 steel studs were introduced +instead of cast iron ones, the latter having a tendency to work loose, but +the practice is not universal. After testing, the licensed tester must +place on every five fathoms of cable a distinctive mark which also +indicates the testing establishments; the stamp or die employed must be +approved by the Board of Trade. The iron used in the construction, also the +testing, of mooring chains and cables for the London Trinity House +Corporation are subject to more stringent regulations. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stud-link Chain.] + +Cables for the British navy and mercantile marine are supplied in 12½ +fathom and 15 fathom lengths respectively, connected together by "joining +shackles", D (fig. 1). Each length is "marked" by pieces of iron wire being +twisted round the studs of the links; the wire is placed on the first studs +on each side of the first shackle, on the second studs on each side of the +second shackle, and so on; thus the number of lengths of cable out is +clearly indicated. For instance, if the wire is on the sixth [v.04 p.0921] +studs on each side of the shackle, it indicates that six lengths or 75 +fathoms of cable are out. In joining the lengths together, the round end of +the shackle is placed towards the anchor. The end links of each length +(C.C.) are made without studs, in order to take the shackle; but as studs +increase the strength of a link, in a studless or open link the iron is of +greater diameter. The next links (B.B.) have to be enlarged, in order to +take the increased size of the links C.C. In the joining shackle (D), the +pin is oval, its greater diameter being in the direction of the strain. The +pin of a shackle, which attaches the cable to the anchor (called an "anchor +shackle", to distinguish it from a joining shackle) projects and is secured +by a forelock; but since any projection in a joining shackle would be +liable to be injured when the cable is running out or when passing around a +capstan, the pins are made as shown at D, and are secured by a small pin d. +This small pin is kept from coming out by being made a little short, and +lead pellets are driven in at either end to fill up the holes in the +shackle, which are made with a groove, so that as the pellets are driven in +they expand or dovetail, keeping the small pin in its place.[2] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mooring Swivel.] + +The cables are stowed in chain lockers, the inboard ends being secured by a +"slip" (in the mercantile marine the cable is often shackled or lashed to +the kelson); the slip prevents the cable's inner end from passing +overboard, and also enables the cable to be "slipped", or let go, in case +of necessity. In the British navy, swivel pieces are fitted in the first +and last lengths of cable, to avoid and, if required, to take out turns in +a cable, caused by a ship swinging round when at anchor. With a ship moored +with two anchors, the cables are secured to a mooring swivel (fig. 2), +which prevents a "foul hawse", _i.e._ the cables being entwined round each +other. When mooring, unmooring, and as may be necessary, cables are +temporarily secured by "slips" shackled to eye or ring bolts in the deck +(see ANCHOR). The cable is hove up by either a capstan or windlass (see +CAPSTAN) actuated by steam, electricity or manual power. Ships in the +British navy usually ride by the compressor, the cable holder being used +for checking the cable running out. When a ship has been given the +necessary cable, the cable holder is eased up and the compressor "bowsed +to"; in a heavy sea, a turn, or if necessary two turns, are taken round the +"bitts," a strong iron structure placed between the hawse and navel +("deck") pipes. A single turn of cable is often taken round the bitts when +anchoring in deep water. Small vessels of the mercantile marine ride by +turns around the windlass; in larger or more modern vessels fitted with a +steam windlass, the friction brakes take the strain, aided when required by +the bitts, compressor or controller in bad weather. + +(J. W. D.) + +[1] The word "cable" is a various reading for "camel" in the Biblical +phrase, "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle" of +Matt. xix. 24, Mark x. 25, and Luke xviii. 25, mentioned as early as Cyril +of Alexandria (5th cent.); and it was adopted by Sir John Cheke and other +16th century and later English writers. The reading [Greek: kamilos] for +[Greek: kamêlos] is found in several late cursive MSS. Cheyne, in the +_Ency. Biblica_, ascribes it to a non-Semitic scribe, and regards [Greek: +kamêlos] as correct. (See under CAMEL.) + +[2] The dimensions marked in the figure are those for 1-in. chains, and +signify so many diameters of the iron of the common links; thus forming a +scale for all sizes. + +CABLE MOULDING, in architecture, the term given to a convex moulding carved +in imitation of a rope or cord, and used to decorate the mouldings of the +Romanesque style in England, France and Spain. The word "cabling" by itself +indicates a convex circular moulding sunk in the concave fluting of a +classic column, and rising about one-third of the height of the shaft. + +CABOCHE, SIMON. Simon Lecoustellier, called "Caboche", a skinner of the +Paris Boucherie, played an important part in the Parisian riots of 1413. He +had relations with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, since 1411, and was +prominent in the seditious disturbances which broke out in April and May, +following on the _États_ of February 1413. In April he stirred the people +to the point of revolt, and was among the first to enter the hôtel of the +dauphin. When the butchers had made themselves masters of Paris, Caboche +became bailiff (_huissier d'armes_) and warden of the bridge of Charenton. +Upon the publication of the great ordinance of May 26th, he used all his +efforts to prevent conciliation between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. +After the fall of the _Cabochien_ party on the 4th of August he fled to +Burgundy in order to escape from royal justice. Doubtless he returned to +Paris in 1418 with the Burgundians. + +See Colville, _Les Cabochiens et l'ordonnance de 1413_ (Paris, 1888). + +CABOT, GEORGE (1751-1823), American political leader, was born in Salem, +Massachusetts, on the 16th of December 1751. He studied at Harvard from +1766 to 1768, when he went to sea as a cabin boy. He gradually became a +ship-owner and a successful merchant, retiring from business in 1794. +Throughout his life he was much interested in politics, and though his +temperamental indolence and his aversion for public life often prevented +his accepting office, he exercised, as a contributor to the press and +through his friendships, a powerful political influence, especially in New +England. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of +1770-1780, of the state senate in 1782-1783, of the convention which in +1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, and from 1791 to +1796 of the United States Senate, in which, besides serving on various +important committees, he became recognized as an authority on economic and +commercial matters. Among the bills introduced by him in the Senate was the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. Upon the establishment of the navy department +in 1798, he was appointed and confirmed as its secretary, but he never +performed the duties of the office, and was soon replaced by Benjamin +Stoddert (1751-1813), actually though not nominally the first secretary of +the department. In 1814-1815 Cabot was the president of the Hartford +Convention, and as such was then and afterwards acrimoniously attacked by +the Republicans throughout the country. He died in Boston on the 18th of +April 1823. In politics he was a staunch Federalist, and with Fisher Ames, +Timothy Pickering and Theophilus Parsons (all of whom lived in Essex +county, Massachusetts) was classed as a member of the "Essex Junto",--a +wing of the party and not a formal organization. A fervent advocate of a +strong centralized government, he did much to secure the ratification by +Massachusetts of the Federal Constitution, and after the overturn of the +Federalist by the Republican party, he wrote (1804): "We are democratic +altogether, and I hold democracy in its natural operation to be a +government of the worst". + +See Henry Cabot Lodge's _Life and Letters of George Cabot_ (Boston, 1877). + +CABOT, JOHN [GIOVANNI CABOTO] (1450-1498), Italian navigator and discoverer +of North America, was born in Genoa, but in 1461 went to live in Venice, of +which he became a naturalized citizen in 1476. During one of his trading +voyages to the eastern Mediterranean, Cabot paid a visit to Mecca, then the +greatest mart in the world for the exchange of the goods of the East for +those of the West. On inquiring whence came the spices, perfumes, silks and +precious stones bartered there in great quantities, Cabot learned that they +were brought by caravan from the north-eastern parts of farther Asia. Being +versed in a knowledge of the sphere, it occurred to him that it would be +shorter and quicker to bring these goods to Europe straight across the +western ocean. First of all, however, a way would have to be found across +this ocean from Europe to Asia. Full of this idea, Cabot, about the year +1484, removed with his family to London. His plans were in course of time +made known to [v.04 p.0922] the leading merchants of Bristol, from which +port an extensive trade was carried on already with Iceland. It was decided +that an attempt should be made to reach the island of Brazil or that of the +Seven Cities, placed on medieval maps to the west of Ireland, and that +these should form the first halting-places on the route to Asia by the +west. + +To find these islands vessels were despatched from Bristol during several +years, but all in vain. No land of any sort could be seen. Affairs were in +this state when in the summer of 1493 news reached England that another +Genoese, Christopher Columbus, had set sail westward from Spain and had +reached the Indies. Cabot and his friends at once determined to forgo +further search for the islands and to push straight on to Asia. With this +end in view application was made to the king for formal letters patent, +which were not issued until March 5, 1496. By these Henry VII. granted to +his "well-beloved John Cabot, citizen of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian and +Santius,[1] sonnes of the said John, full and free authority, leave and +power upon theyr own proper costs and charges, to seeke out, discover and +finde whatsoever isles, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen and +infidels, which before this time have been unknown to all Christians". +Merchandise from the countries visited was to be entered at Bristol free of +duty, but one-fifth of the net gains was to go to the king. + +Armed with these powers Cabot set sail from Bristol on Tuesday the 2nd of +May 1497, on board a ship called the "Mathew" manned by eighteen men. +Rounding Ireland they headed first north and then west. During several +weeks they were forced by variable winds to keep an irregular course, +although steadily towards the west. At length, after being fifty-two days +at sea, at five o'clock on Saturday morning, June 24, they reached the +northern extremity of Cape Breton Island. The royal banner was unfurled, +and in solemn form Cabot took possession of the country in the name of King +Henry VII. The soil being found fertile and the climate temperate, Cabot +was convinced he had reached the north-eastern coast of Asia, whence came +the silks and precious stones he had seen at Mecca. Cape North was named +Cape Discovery, and as the day was the festival of St John the Baptist, St +Paul Island, which lies opposite, was called the island of St John. + +Having taken on board wood and water, preparations were made to return home +as quickly as possible. Sailing north, Cabot named Cape Ray, St George's +Cape, and christened St Pierre and Miquelon, which then with Langley formed +three separate islands, the Trinity group. Hereabout they met great schools +of cod, quantities of which were caught by the sailors merely by lowering +baskets into the water. Cape Race, the last land seen, was named England's +Cape. + +The return voyage was made without difficulty, since the prevailing winds +in the North Atlantic are westerly, and on Sunday, the 6th of August, the +"Mathew" dropped anchor once more in Bristol harbour. Cabot hastened to +Court, and on Thursday the 10th of August received from the king £10 for +having "found the new isle". Cabot reported that 700 leagues beyond Ireland +he had reached the country of the Grand Khan. Although both silk and +brazil-wood could be obtained there, he intended on his next voyage to +follow the coast southward as far as Cipangu or Japan, then placed near the +equator. Once Cipangu had been reached London would become a greater centre +for spices than Alexandria. Henry VII. was delighted, and besides granting +Cabot a pension of £20 promised him in the spring a fleet of ten ships with +which to sail to Cipangu. + +On the 3rd of February 1498, fresh letters patent were issued, whereby +Cabot was empowered to "take at his pleasure VI. englisshe shippes and +theym convey and lede to the londe and iles of late founde by the seid +John". Henry VII. himself also advanced considerable sums of money to +various members of the expedition. As success seemed assured, it was +expected the returns would be high. + +In the spring Cabot visited Lisbon and Seville, to secure the services of +men who had sailed along the African coast with Cam and Diaz or to the +Indies with Columbus. At Lisbon he met a certain João Fernandes, called +Llavrador, who about the year 1492 appears to have made his way from +Iceland to Greenland. Cabot, on learning from Fernandes that part of Asia, +as they supposed Greenland to be, lay so near Iceland, determined to return +by way of this country. On reaching Bristol he laid his plans accordingly. +Early in May the expedition, which consisted of two ships and 300 men, left +Bristol. Several vessels in the habit of trading to Iceland accompanied +them. Off Ireland a storm forced one of these to return, but the rest of +the fleet proceeded on its way along the parallel of 58°. Each day the +ships were carried northward by the Gulf Stream. Early in June Cabot +reached the east coast of Greenland, and as Fernandes was the first who had +told him of this country he named it the Labrador's Land. + +In the hope of finding a passage Cabot proceeded northward along the coast. +As he advanced, the cold became more intense and the icebergs thicker and +larger. It was also noticed that the land trended eastward. As a result on +the 11th of June in latitude 67° 30' the crews mutinied and refused to +proceed farther in that direction. Cabot had no alternative but to put his +ships about and look for a passage towards the south. Rounding Cape +Farewell he explored the southern coast of Greenland and then made his way +a certain distance up the west coast. Here again his progress was checked +by icebergs, whereupon a course was set towards the west. Crossing Davis +Strait Cabot reached our modern Baffin Land in 66°. Judging this to be the +Asiatic mainland, he set off southward in search of Cipangu. South of +Hudson Strait a little bartering was done with the Indians, but these could +offer nothing in exchange but furs. Our strait of Belle Isle was mistaken +for an ordinary bay, and Newfoundland was regarded by Cabot as the main +shore itself. Rounding Cape Race he visited once more the region explored +in the previous summer, and then proceeded to follow the coast of our Nova +Scotia and New England in search of Cipangu. He made his way as far south +as the thirty-eighth parallel, when the absence of all signs of eastern +civilization and the low state of his stores forced him to abandon all hope +of reaching Cipangu on this voyage. Accordingly the ships were put about +and a course set for England, where they arrived safely late in the autumn +of 1498. Not long after his return John Cabot died. + +His son, SEBASTIAN CABOT (1476-1557),[2] is not independently heard of +until May 1512, when he was paid twenty shillings "for making a carde of +Gascoigne and Guyenne", whither he accompanied the English army sent that +year by Henry VIII. to aid his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon against +the French. Since Ferdinand and his daughter Joanna were contemplating the +dispatch of an expedition from Santander to explore Newfoundland, Sebastian +was questioned about this coast by the king's councillors. As a result +Ferdinand summoned him in September 1512 to Logroño, and on the 30th of +October appointed him a captain in the navy at a salary of 50,000 maravedis +a year. A letter was also written to the Spanish ambassador in England to +help Cabot and his family to return to Spain, with the result that in March +1514 he was again back at Court discussing with Ferdinand the proposed +expedition to Newfoundland. Preparations were made for him to set sail in +March 1516; but the death of the king in January of that year put an end to +the undertaking. His services were retained by Charles V., and on the 5th +of February 1518 Cabot was named Pilot Major and official examiner of +pilots. + +In the winter of 1520-1521 Sebastian Cabot returned to England [v.04 +p.0923] and while there was offered by Wolsey the command of five vessels +which Henry VIII. intended to despatch to Newfoundland. Being reproached by +a fellow Venetian with having done nothing for his own country, Cabot +refused, and on reaching Spain entered into secret negotiations with the +Council of Ten at Venice. It was agreed that as soon as an opportunity +offered Cabot should come to Venice and lay his plans before the Signiory. +The conference of Badajoz took up his time in 1524, and on the 4th of March +1525 he was appointed commander of an expedition fitted out at Seville "to +discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, Ophir, Cipango and Cathay." + +The three vessels set sail in April, and by June were off the coast of +Brazil and on their way to the Straits of Magellan. Near the La Plata river +Cabot found three Spaniards who had formed part of De Solis's expedition of +1515. These men gave such glowing accounts of the riches of the country +watered by this river that Cabot was at length induced, partly by their +descriptions and in part by the casting away of his flag-ship, to forgo the +search for Tarsis and Ophir and to enter the La Plata, which was reached in +February 1527. All the way up the Parana Cabot found the Indians friendly, +but those on the Paraguay proved so hostile that the attempt to reach the +mountains, where the gold and silver were procured, had to be given up. On +reaching Seville in August 1530, Cabot was condemned to four years' +banishment to Oran in Africa, but in June 1533 he was once more reinstated +in his former post of Pilot Major, which he continued to fill until he +again removed to England. + +As early as 1538 Cabot tried to obtain employment under Henry VIII., and it +is possible he was the Sevillian pilot who was brought to London by the +king in 1541. Soon after the accession of Edward VI., however, his friends +induced the Privy Council to advance money for his removal to England, and +on the 5th of January 1549 the king granted him a pension of £166, 13s. 4d. +On Charles V. objecting to this proceeding, the Privy Council, on the zist +of April 1550, made answer that since "Cabot of himself refused to go +either into Spayne or to the emperour, no reason or equitie wolde that he +shulde be forced or compelled to go against his will." A fresh application +to Queen Mary on the 9th of September 1553 likewise proved of no avail. + +On the 26th of June 1550 Cabot received £200 "by waie of the kinges +Majesties rewarde," but it is not clear whether this was for his services +in putting down the privileges of the German Merchants of the Steelyard or +for founding the company of Merchant Adventurers incorporated on the 18th +of December 1551. Of this company Cabot was made governor for life. Three +ships were sent out in May 1553 to search for a passage to the East by the +north-east. Two of the vessels were caught in the ice near Arzina and the +crews frozen to death. Chancellor's vessel alone reached the White Sea, +whence her captain made his way overland to Moscow. He returned to England +in the summer of 1554 and was the means of opening up a very considerable +trade with Russia. Vessels were again despatched to Russia in 1555 and +1556. On the departure of the "Searchthrift" in May 1556, "the good old +gentleman Master Cabot gave to the poor most liberal alms, wishing them to +pray for the good fortune and prosperous success of the 'Searchthrift'; and +then, at the sign of the Christopher, he and his friends banqueted and made +them that were in the company good cheer; and for very joy that he had to +see the towardness of our intended discovery, he entered into the dance +himself among the rest of the young and lusty company." On the arrival of +King Philip II. in England Cabot's pension was stopped on the 26th of May +1557, but three days later Mary had it renewed. The date of Cabot's death +has not been definitely discovered. It is supposed that he died within the +year. + +See G.P. Winship, _Cabot Bibliography, with an Introductory Essay on the +Careers of the Cabots_ (London, 1900); and H.P. Biggar, "The Voyages of the +Cabots to North America and Greenland," in the _Revue Hispanique_, tome x. +pp. 485-593 (Paris, 1903). + +(H. P. B.) + +[1] Nothing further is known of Lewis and Santius. + +[2] The dates are conjectural. Richard Eden (_Decades of the Newe Worlde_, +f. 255) says Sebastian told him that when four years old he was taken by +his father to Venice, and returned to England "after certeyne yeares; +wherby he was thought to have bin born in Venice"; Stow (_Annals_, under +year 1498) styles "Sebastian Caboto, a Genoas sonne, borne in Bristow". +Galvano and Herrera also give England the honour of his nativity. See also +Nicholls, _Remarkable Life of Sebastian Cabot_ (1869), a eulogistic +account, with which may be contrasted Henry Harrisse's _John Cabot and his +son Sebastian_ (1896). + +CABOTAGE, the French term for coasting-trade, a coast-pilotage. It is +probably derived from _cabot_, a small boat, with which the name Cabot may +be connected; the conjecture that the word comes from _cabo_, the Spanish +for cape, and means "sailing from cape to cape", has little foundation. + +CABRA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 28 m. S.E. by +S. of Cordova, on the Jaen-Málaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,127. Cabra is +built in a fertile valley between the Sierra de Cabra and the Sierra de +Montilla, which together form the watershed between the rivers Cabra and +Guadajoz. The town was for several centuries an episcopal see. Its chief +buildings are the cathedral, originally a mosque, and the ruined castle, +which is the chief among many interesting relics of Moorish rule. The +neighbouring fields of clay afford material for the manufacture of bricks +and pottery; coarse cloth is woven in the town; and there is a considerable +trade in farm produce. Cabra is the Roman _Baebro_ or _Aegabro_. It was +delivered from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1240, and +entrusted to the Order of Calatrava; in 1331 it was recaptured by the +Moorish king of Granada; but in the following century it was finally +reunited to Christian Spain. + +CABRERA, RAMON (1806-1877), Carlist general, was born at Tortosa, province +of Tarragona, Spain, on the 27th of December 1806. As his family had in +their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to the seminary of +Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed +up in disturbances and careless in his studies. After he had taken minor +orders, the bishop refused to ordain him as a priest, telling him that the +Church was not his vocation, and that everything in him showed that he +ought to be a soldier. Cabrera followed this advice and took part in +Carlist conspiracies on the death of Ferdinand VII. The authorities exiled +him and he absconded to Morella to join the forces of the pretender Don +Carlos. In a very short time he rose by sheer daring, fanaticism and +ferocity to the front rank among the Carlist chiefs who led the bands of +Don Carlos in Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. As a raider he was often +successful, and he was many times wounded in the brilliant fights in which +he again and again defeated the generals of Queen Isabella. He sullied his +victories by acts of cruelty, shooting prisoners of war whose lives he had +promised to spare and not respecting the lives and property of +non-combatants. The queen's generals seized his mother as a hostage, +whereupon Cabrera shot several mayors and officers. General Nogueras +unfortunately caused the mother of Cabrera to be shot, and the Carlist +leader then started upon a policy of reprisals so merciless that the people +nicknamed him "The Tiger of the Maeztrazgo". It will suffice to say that he +shot 1110 prisoners of war, 100 officers and many civilians, including the +wives of four leading Isabellinos, to avenge his mother. When Marshal +Espartero induced the Carlists of the north-western provinces, with Maroto +at their head, to submit in accordance with the Convention of Vergara, +which secured the recognition of the rank and titles of 1000 Carlist +officers, Cabrera held out in Central Spain for nearly a year. Marshals +Espartero and O'Donnell, with the bulk of the Isabellino armies, had to +conduct a long and bloody campaign against Cabrera before they succeeded in +driving him into French territory in July 1840. The government of Louis +Philippe kept him in a fortress for some months and then allowed him to go +to England, where he quarrelled with the pretender, disapproving of his +abdication in favour of the count of Montemolin. In 1848 Cabrera reappeared +in the mountains of Catalonia at the head of Carlist bands. These were soon +dispersed and he again fled to France. After this last effort he did not +take a very active part in the propaganda and subsequent risings of the +Carlists, who, however, continued to consult him. He took offence when new +men, not a few of them quondam regular officers, became the advisers and +lieutenants of Don Carlos in the war which lasted more or less from +1870-1876. Indeed, his long residence in England, his marriage with Miss +Richards, and his prolonged absence from Spain had much shaken his devotion +to his old cause and belief in its success. In March 1875 Cabrera sprang +upon Don Carlos a manifesto in which he called upon the adherents of the +pretender to follow his own example and submit to the restored monarchy of +Alphonso XII., the son of Queen Isabella, who recognized the rank of +captain-general and the title of count of Morella conferred on Cabrera by +[v.04 p.0924] the first pretender. Only a very few insignificant Carlists +followed Cabrera's example, and Don Carlos issued a proclamation declaring +him a traitor and depriving him of all his honours and titles. Cabrera, who +was ever afterwards regarded with contempt and execration by the Carlists, +died in London on the 24th of May 1877. He did not receive much attention +from the majority of his fellow-countrymen, who commonly said that his +disloyalty to his old cause had proved more harmful to him than beneficial +to the new state of things. A pension which had been granted to his widow +was renounced by her in 1899 in aid of the Spanish treasury after the loss +of the colonies. + +(A. E. H.) + +CACCINI, GIULIO (1558-1615?), Italian musical composer, also known as +Giulio Romano, but to be distinguished from the painter of that name, was +born at Rome about 1558, and in 1578 entered the service of the grand duke +of Tuscany at Florence. He collaborated with J. Peri in the early attempts +at musical drama which were the ancestors of modern opera (_Dafne_, 1594, +and _Euridice_, 1600), produced at Florence by the circle of musicians and +amateurs which met at the houses of G. Bardi and Corsi. He also published +in 1601 _Le nuove musiche_, a collection of songs which is of great +importance in the history of singing as well as in that of the transition +period of musical composition. He was a lyric composer rather than a +dramatist like Peri, and the genuine beauty of his works makes them +acceptable even at the present day. + +CÁCERES, a province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken +from Estremadura, and bounded on the N. by Salamanca and Ávila, E. by +Toledo, S. by Badajoz, and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 362,164; area, 7667 +sq. m. Cáceres is the largest of Spanish provinces, after Badajoz, and one +of the most thinly peopled, although the number of its inhabitants steadily +increases. Except for the mountainous north, where the Sierra de Gata and +the Sierra de Grédos mark respectively the boundaries of Salamanca and +Ávila, and in the south-east, where there are several lower ranges, almost +the entire surface is flat or undulating, with wide tracts of moorland and +thin pasture. There is little forest and many districts suffer from +drought. The whole province, except the extreme south, belongs to the basin +of the river Tagus, which flows from east to west through the central +districts, and is joined by several tributaries, notably the Alagon and +Tietar, from the north, and the Salor and Almonte from the south. The +climate is temperate except in summer, when hot east winds prevail. Fair +quantities of grain and olives are raised, but as a stock-breeding province +Cáceres ranks second only to Badajoz. In 1900 its flocks and herds numbered +more than 1,000,000 head. It is famed for its sheep and pigs, and exports +wool, hams and the red sausages called _embutidos_. Its mineral resources +are comparatively insignificant. The total number of mines at work in 1903 +was only nine; their output consisted of phosphates, with a small amount of +zinc and tin. Brandy, leather and cork goods, and coarse woollen stuffs are +manufactured in many of the towns, but the backwardness of education, the +lack of good roads, and the general poverty retard the development of +commerce. The more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways enters the +province on the east; passes south of Plasencia, where it is joined by the +railway from Salamanca, on the north; and reaches the Portuguese frontier +at Valencia de Alcántara. This line is supplemented by a branch from Arroyo +to the city of Cáceres, and thence southwards to Mérida in Badajoz. Here it +meets the railways from Seville and Cordova. The principal towns of Cáceres +are Cáceres (pop. 1900, 16,933); Alcántara (3248), famous for its Roman +bridge; Plasencia (8208); Trujillo (12,512), and Valencia de Alcántara +(9417). These are described in separate articles. Arroyo, or Arroyo del +Puerco (7094), is an important agricultural market. (See also ESTREMADURA.) + +CÁCERES, the capital of the Spanish province of Cáceres, about 20 m. S. of +the river Tagus, on the Cáceres-Mérida railway, and on a branch line which +meets the more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways at Arroyo, 10 m. +W. Pop. (1900) 16,933. Cáceres occupies a conspicuous eminence on a low +ridge running east and west. At the highest point rises the lofty tower of +San Mateo, a fine Gothic church, which overlooks the old town, with its +ancient palaces and massive walls, gateways and towers. Many of the +palaces, notably those of the provincial legislature, the dukes of +Abrantes, and the counts of la Torre, are good examples of medieval +domestic architecture. The monastery and college of the Jesuits, formerly +one of the finest in Spain, has been secularized and converted into a +hospital. In the modern town, built on lower ground beyond the walls, are +the law courts, town-hall, schools and the palace of the bishops of Cória +(pop. 3124), a town on the river Alagon. The industries of Cáceres include +the manufacture of cork and leather goods, pottery and cloth. There is also +a large trade in grain, oil, live-stock and phosphates from the +neighbouring mines. The name of _Cáceres_ is probably an adaptation of _Los +Alcázares_, from the Moorish _Alcázar_, a tower or castle; but it is +frequently connected with the neighbouring _Castra Caecilia_ and _Castra +Servilia_, two Roman camps on the Mérida-Salamanca road. The town is of +Roman origin and probably stands on the site of _Norba Caesarina_. Several +Roman inscriptions, statues and other remains have been discovered. + +CACHAR, or KACHAR, a district of British India, in the province of Eastern +Bengal and Assam. It occupies the upper basin of the Surma or Barak river, +and is bounded on three sides by lofty hills. Its area is 3769 sq. m. It is +divided naturally between the plain and hills. The scenery is beautiful, +the hills rising generally steeply and being clothed with forests, while +the plain is relieved of monotony by small isolated undulations and by its +rich vegetation. The Surma is the chief river, and its principal +tributaries from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and from the south the +Sonai and Daleswari. The climate is extremely moist. Several extensive +fens, notably that of Chatla, which becomes lakes in time of flood, are +characteristic of the plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of +rice, next to which in importance is tea. The industry connected with the +latter crop employs large numbers of the population; manufacturing +industries are otherwise slight. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the +district, including the capital town of Silchar. The population of the +district in 1901 was 455,593, and showed a large increase, owing in great +part to immigration from the adjacent district of Sylhet. The plain is the +most thickly populated part of the district; in the North Cachar Hills the +population is sparse. About 66 % of the population are Hindus and 20 % +Mahommedans. There are three administrative subdivisions of the district: +Silchar, Hailakandi and North Cachar. The district takes name from its +former rulers of the Kachari tribe, of whom the first to settle here did so +early in the 18th century, after being driven out of the Assam valley in +1536, and from the North Cachar Hills in 1706, by the Ahoms. About the +close of the 18th century the Burmans threatened to expel the Kachari raja +and annex his territory; the British, however, intervened to prevent this, +and on the death of the last raja without heir in 1830 they obtained the +territory under treaty. A separate principality which had been established +in the North Cachar Hills earlier in the century by a servant of the raja, +and had been subsequently recognized as such, was taken over by the British +in 1854 owing to the misconduct of its rulers. The southern part of the +district was raided several times in the 19th century by the turbulent +tribe of Lushais. + +CACHOEIRA, an important inland town of Bahia, Brazil, on the Paraguassu +river, about 48 m. from São Salvador, with which it is connected by +river-boats. Pop. (1890) of the city, 12,607; of the municipality, 48,352. +The Bahia Central railway starts from this point and extends S. of W. to +Machado Portella, 161 m., and N. to Feira de Santa Anna, 28 m. Although +badly situated on the lower levels of the river (52 ft. above sea-level) +and subject to destructive floods, Cachoeira is one of the most thriving +commercial and industrial centres in the state. It exports sugar and +tobacco and is noted for its cigar and cotton factories. + +CACTUS. This word, applied in the form of [Greek: Kaktos] by the ancient +Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus as the name of a +group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed plants, most of them prickly +and leafless, some of which produce [v.04 p.0925] beautiful flowers, and +are now so popular in our gardens that the name has become familiar. As +applied by Linnaeus, the name _Cactus_ is almost conterminous with what is +now regarded as the natural order Cactaceae, which embraces several modern +genera. It is one of the few Linnaean generic terms which have been +entirely set aside by the names adopted for the modern divisions of the +group. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Prickly Pear (_Opuntia vulgaris_). 1, Flower +reduced; 2, Same in vertical section; 3, Flattened branch much reduced; 4, +Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.] + +The _Cacti_ may be described in general terms as plants having a woody +axis, overlaid with thick masses of cellular tissue forming the fleshy +stems. These are extremely various in character and form, being globose, +cylindrical, columnar or flattened into leafy expansions or thick +joint-like divisions, the surface being either ribbed like a melon, or +developed into nipple-like protuberances, or variously angular, but in the +greater number of the species furnished copiously with tufts of horny +spines, some of which are exceedingly keen and powerful. These tufts show +the position of buds, of which, however, comparatively few are developed. +The stems are in most cases leafless, using the term in a popular sense; +the leaves, if present at all, being generally reduced to minute scales. In +one genus, however, _Peireskia_, the stems are less succulent, and the +leaves, though rather fleshy, are developed in the usual form. The flowers +are frequently large and showy, and are generally attractive from their +high colouring. In one group, represented by _Cereus_, they consist of a +tube, more or less elongated, on the outer surface of which, towards the +base, are developed small and at first inconspicuous scales, which +gradually increase in size upwards, and at length become crowded, numerous +and petaloid, forming a funnel-shaped blossom, the beauty of which is much +enhanced by the multitude of conspicuous stamens which with the pistil +occupy the centre. In another group, represented by _Opuntia_ (fig. 1), the +flowers are rotate, that is to say, the long tube is replaced by a very +short one. At the base of the tube, in both groups, the ovary becomes +developed into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, that produced by the +_Opuntia_ being known as the prickly pear or Indian fig. + +The principal modern genera are grouped by the differences in the +flower-tube just explained. Those with long-tubed flowers comprise the +genera _Melocactus_, _Mammillaria_, _Echinocactus_, _Cereus_, _Pilocereus_, +_Echinopsis_, _Phyllocactus_, _Epiphyllum_, &c.; while those with +short-tubed flowers are _Rhipsalis_, _Opuntia_, _Peireskia_, and one or two +of minor importance. Cactaceae belong almost entirely to the New World; but +some of the Opuntias have been so long distributed over certain parts of +Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean and the volcanic soil +of Italy, that they appear in some places to have taken possession of the +soil, and to be distinguished with difficulty from the aboriginal +vegetation. The habitats which they affect are the hot, dry regions of +tropical America, the aridity of which they are enabled to withstand in +consequence of the thickness of their skin and the paucity of evaporating +pores or stomata with which they are furnished,--these conditions not +permitting the moisture they contain to be carried off too rapidly; the +thick fleshy stems and branches contain a store of water. The succulent +fruits are not only edible but agreeable, and in fevers are freely +administered as a cooling drink. The Spanish Americans plant the Opuntias +around their houses, where they serve as impenetrable fences. + +MELOCACTUS, the genus of melon-thistle or Turk's-cap cactuses, contains, +according to a recent estimate, about 90 species, which inhabit chiefly the +West Indies, Mexico and Brazil, a few extending into New Granada. The +typical species, _M. communis_, forms a succulent mass of roundish or ovate +form, from 1 ft. to 2 ft. high, the surface divided into numerous furrows +like the ribs of a melon, with projecting angles, which are set with a +regular series of stellated spines--each bundle consisting of about five +larger spines, accompanied by smaller but sharp bristles--and the tip of +the plant being surmounted by a cylindrical crown 3 to 5 in. high, composed +of reddish-brown, needle-like bristles, closely packed with cottony wool. +At the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers are produced, half +protruding from the mass of wool, and these are succeeded by small red +berries. These strange plants usually grow in rocky places with little or +no earth to support them; and it is said that in times of drought the +cattle resort to them to allay their thirst, first ripping them up with +their horns and tearing off the outer skin, and then devouring the moist +succulent parts. The fruit, which has an agreeably acid flavour, is +frequently eaten in the West Indies. The _Melocacti_ are distinguished by +the distinct cephalium or crown which bears the flowers. + +MAMMILLARIA.--This genus, which comprises nearly 300 species, mostly +Mexican, with a few Brazilian and West Indian, is called nipple cactus, and +consists of globular or cylindrical succulent plants, whose surface instead +of being cut up into ridges with alternate furrows, as in _Melocactus_, is +broken up into teat-like cylindrical or angular tubercles, spirally +arranged, and terminating in a radiating tuft of spines which spring from a +little woolly cushion. The flowers issue from between the mammillae, +towards the upper part of the stem, often disposed in a zone just below the +apex, and are either purple, rose-pink, white or yellow, and of moderate +size. The spines are variously coloured, white and yellow tints +predominating, and from the symmetrical arrangement of the areolae or tufts +of spines they are very pretty objects, and are hence frequently kept in +drawing-room plant cases. They grow freely in a cool greenhouse. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Echinocactus_ much reduced; the flowers are +several inches in diameter.] + +ECHINOCACTUS (fig. 2) is the name given to the genus bearing the popular +name of hedgehog cactus. It comprises some 200 species, distributed from +the south-west United States to Brazil and Chile. They have the fleshy +stems characteristic of the order, these being either globose, oblong or +cylindrical, and either ribbed as in _Melocactus_, or broken up into +distinct tubercles, and most of them armed with stiff sharp pines, set in +little woolly cushions occupying the place of the buds. The flowers, +produced near the apex of the plant, are generally large and showy, yellow +and rose being the prevailing colours. They are succeeded by succulent +fruits, which are exserted, and frequently scaly or spiny, in which +respects this genus differs both from _Melocactus_ and _Mamrmllaria_, which +have the fruits immersed and smooth. One of the most interesting species is +the _E. ingens_, of which some very large plants have been from time to +time imported. These large plants have from 40 to 50 ridges, on which the +buds and clusters of spines are sunk at intervals, the aggregate number of +the spines having been in some cases computed at upwards of 50,000 on a +single plant. These spines are used by the Mexicans as toothpicks. The +plants are slow growers and must have plenty of sun heat; they require +sandy loam with a mixture of sand and bricks finely broken and must be kept +dry in winter. + +CEREUS.--This group bears the common name of torch thistle. It comprises +about 100 species, largely Mexican but scattered through South America and +the West Indies. The stems are columnar or elongated, some of the latter +creeping on the ground or climbing up the trunks of trees, rooting as they +grow. _C. giganteus_, the largest and most striking species of the genus, +is a native of hot, arid, desert regions of New Mexico, growing there in +rocky valleys and on mountain sides, where the tall stems with their erect +branches have the appearance of telegraph poles. The stems grow to a height +of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., and have a diameter of from 1 ft. to 2 ft., often +unbranched, but sometimes furnished with branches [v.04 p.0926] which grow +out at right angles from the main stem, and then curve upwards and continue +their growth parallel to it; these stems have from twelve to twenty ribs, +on which at intervals of about an inch are the buds with their thick yellow +cushions, from which issue five or six large and numerous smaller spines. +The fruits of this plant, which are green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long, +contain a crimson pulp from which the Pimos and Papagos Indians prepare an +excellent preserve; and they also use the ripe fruit as an article of food, +gathering it by means of a forked stick attached to a long pole. The +Cereuses include some of our most interesting and beautiful hothouse +plants. In the allied genus _Echinocereus_, with 25 to 30 species in North +and South America, the stems are short, branched or simple, divided into +few or many ridges all armed with sharp, formidable spines. _E. pectinatus +_produces a purplish fruit resembling a gooseberry, which is very good +eating; and the fleshy part of the stem itself, which is called _cabeza del +viego_ by the Mexicans, is eaten by them as a vegetable after removing the +spines. + +PILOCEREUS, the old man cactus, forms a small genus with tallish erect, +fleshy, angulate stems, on which, with the tufts of spines, are developed +hair-like bodies, which, though rather coarse, bear some resemblance to the +hoary locks of an old man. The plants are nearly allied to _Cereus_, +differing chiefly in the floriferous portion developing these longer and +more attenuated hair-like spines, which surround the base of the flowers +and form a dense woolly head or cephalium. The most familiar species is _P. +senilis_, a Mexican plant, which though seldom seen more than a foot or two +in height in greenhouses, reaches from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in its native +country. + +ECHINOPSIS is another small group of species, separated by some authors +from _Cereus_. They are dwarf, ribbed, globose or cylindrical plants; and +the flowers, which are produced from the side instead of the apex of the +stem, are large, and in some cases very beautiful, being remarkable for the +length of the tube, which is more or less covered with bristly hairs. They +are natives of Brazil, Bolivia and Chile. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Branch of _Phyllocactus_ much reduced; the flowers +are 6 in. or more in diameter.] + +PHYLLOCACTUS (fig. 3), the Leaf Cactus family, consists of about a dozen +species, found in Central and tropical South America. They differ from all +the forms already noticed in being shrubby and epiphytal in habit, and in +having the branches compressed and dilated so as to resemble thick fleshy +leaves, with a strong median axis and rounded woody base. The margins of +these leaf-like branches are more or less crenately notched, the notches +representing buds, as do the spine-clusters in the spiny genera; and from +these crenatures the large showy flowers are produced. As garden plants the +_Phyllocacti_ are amongst the most ornamental of the whole family, being of +easy culture, free blooming and remarkably showy, the colour of the flowers +ranging from rich crimson, through rose-pink to creamy white. Cuttings +strike readily in spring before growth has commenced; they should be potted +in 3-in. or 4-in. pots, well drained, in loamy soil made very porous by the +admixture of finely broken crocks and sand, and placed in a temperature of +60°; when these pots are filled with roots they are to be shifted into +larger ones, but overpotting must be avoided. During the summer they need +considerable heat, all the light possible and plenty of air; in winter a +temperature of 45° or 50° will be sufficient, and they must be kept +tolerably dry at the root. By the spring they may have larger pots if +required and should be kept in a hot and fairly moistened atmosphere; and +by the end of June, when they have made new growth, they may be turned out +under a south wall in the full sun, water being given only as required. In +autumn they are to be returned to a cool house and wintered in a dry stove. +The turning of them outdoors to ripen their growth is the surest way to +obtain flowers, but they do not take on a free blooming habit until they +have attained some age. They are often called _Epiphyllum_, which name is, +however, properly restricted to the group next to be mentioned. + +EPIPHYLLUM.--This name is now restricted to two or three dwarf branching +Brazilian epiphytal plants of extreme beauty, which agree with +_Phyllocactus_ in having the branches dilated into the form of fleshy +leaves, but differ in haying them divided into short truncate leaf-like +portions, which are articulated, that is to say, provided with a joint by +which they separate spontaneously; the margins are crenate or dentate, and +the flowers, which are large and showy, magenta or crimson, appear at the +apex of the terminal joints. In _E. truncatum_ the flowers have a very +different aspect from that of other _Cacti_, from the mouth of the tube +being oblique and the segments all reflexed at the tip. The short separate +pieces of which these plants are made up grow out of each other, so that +the branches may be said to resemble leaves joined together endwise. + +RHIPSALIS, a genus of about 50 tropical species, mainly in Central and +South America, but a few in tropical Africa and Madagascar. It is a very +heterogeneous group, being fleshy-stemmed with a woody axis, the branches +being angular, winged, flattened or cylindrical, and the flowers small, +short-tubed, succeeded by small, round, pea-shaped berries. _Rhipsalis +Cassytha_, when seen laden with its white berries, bears some resemblance +to a branch of mistletoe. All the species are epiphytal in habit. + +OPUNTIA, the prickly pear, or Indian fig cactus, is a large typical group, +comprising some 150 species, found in North America, the West Indies, and +warmer parts of South America, extending as far as Chile. In aspect they +are very distinct from any of the other groups. They are fleshy shrubs, +with rounded, woody stems, and numerous succulent branches, composed in +most of the species of separate joints or parts, which are much compressed, +often elliptic or suborbicular, dotted over in spiral lines with small, +fleshy, caducous leaves, in the axils of which are placed the areoles or +tufts of barbed or hooked spines of two forms. The flowers are mostly +yellow or reddish-yellow, and are succeeded by pear-shaped or egg-shaped +fruits, having a broad scar at the top, furnished on their soft, fleshy +rind with tufts of small spines. The sweet, juicy fruits of _O. vulgaris_ +and _O. Tuna_ are much eaten under the name of prickly pears, and are +greatly esteemed for their cooling properties. Both these species are +extensively cultivated for their fruit in Southern Europe, the Canaries and +northern Africa; and the fruits are not unfrequently to be seen in Covent +Garden Market and in the shops of the leading fruiterers of the metropolis. +_O. vulgaris_ is hardy in the south of England. + +The cochineal insect is nurtured on a species of _Opuntia_ (_O. +coccinellifera_), separated by some authors under the name of _Nopalea_, +and sometimes also on _O. Tuna_. Plantations of the nopal and the tuna, +which are called nopaleries, are established for the purpose of rearing +this insect, the _Coccus Cacti_, and these often contain as many as 50,000 +plants. The females are placed on the plants about August, and in four +months the first crop of cochineal is gathered, two more being produced in +the course of the year. The native country of the insect is Mexico, and it +is there more or less cultivated; but the greater part of our supply comes +from Colombia and the Canary Islands. + +PEIRESKIA ACULEATA, or Barbadoes gooseberry, the _Cactus peireskia_ of +Linnaeus, differs from the rest in having woody stems and leaf-bearing +branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, but otherwise of the ordinary +laminate character. The flowers are subpaniculate, white or yellowish. This +species is frequently used as a stock on which to graft other _Cacti_. +There are about a dozen species known of this genus, mainly Mexican. + +CADALSO VAZQUEZ, JOSÉ (1741-1782), Spanish author, was born at Cadiz on the +8th of October 1741. Before completing his twentieth year he had travelled +through Italy, Germany, England, France and Portugal, and had studied the +literatures of these countries. On his return to Spain he entered the army +and rose to the rank of colonel. He was killed at the siege of Gibraltar, +on the 27th of February 1782. His first published work was a rhymed +tragedy, _Don Sancho Garcia, Conde de Castilla_ (1771). In the following +year he published his _Eruditos á la Violeta_, a prose satire on +superficial knowledge, which was very successful. In 1773 appeared a volume +of miscellaneous poems, _Ocios de mi juventud_, and after his death there +was found among his MSS. a series of fictitious letters in the style of the +_Lettres Persanes_; these were issued in 1793 under the title of _Cartas +marruecas_. A good edition of his works appeared at Madrid, in 3 vols., +1823. This is supplemented by the _Obras inéditas_ (Paris, 1894) published +by R. Foulché-Delbosc. + +[v.04 p.0927] CADAMOSTO (or CA DA MOSTO), ALVISE (1432-1477), a Venetian +explorer, navigator and writer, celebrated for his voyages in the +Portuguese service to West Africa. In 1454 he sailed from Venice for +Flanders, and, being detained by contrary winds off Cape St Vincent, was +enlisted by Prince Henry the Navigator among his explorers, and given +command of an expedition which sailed (22nd of March 1455) for the south. +Visiting the Madeira group and the Canary Islands (of both which he gives +an elaborate account, especially concerned with European colonization and +native customs), and coasting the West Sahara (whose tribes, trade and +trade-routes he likewise describes in detail), he arrived at the Senegal, +whose lower course had already, as he tells us, been explored by the +Portuguese 60 m. up. The negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and +especially the country and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning +about 50 m. beyond the river, are next treated with equal wealth of +interesting detail, and Cadamosto thence proceeded towards the Gambia, +which he ascended some distance (here also examining races, manners and +customs with minute attention), but found the natives extremely hostile, +and so returned direct to Portugal. Cadamosto expressly refers to the chart +he kept of this voyage. At the mouth of the Gambia he records an +observation of the "Southern Chariot" (Southern Cross). Next year (1456) he +went out again under the patronage of Prince Henry. Doubling Cape Blanco he +was driven out to sea by contrary winds, and thus made the first known +discovery of the Cape Verde Islands. Having explored Boavista and Santiago, +and found them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland, and pushed +on to the Gambia, Rio Grande and Geba. Returning thence to Portugal, he +seems to have remained there till 1463, when he reappeared at Venice. He +died in 1477. + +Besides the accounts of his two voyages, Cadamosto left a narrative of +Pedro de Cintra's explorations in 1461 (or 1462) to Sierre Leone and beyond +Cape Mesurado to El Mina and the Gold Coast; all these relations first +appeared in the 1507 Vicenza Collection of Voyages and Travels (the _Paesi +novamente retrovati et novo mondo da Alberico Vesputio Florentino_); they +have frequently since been reprinted and translated (_e.g._ Ital. text in +1508, 1512, 1519, 1521, 1550 (Ramusio), &c.; Lat. version, _Itinerarium +Portugallensium_, &c.,1508, 1532 (Grynaeus), &c.; Fr. _Sensuyt le nouveau +monde_, &c., 1516, 1521; German, _Newe unbekante Landte_, &c., 1508). See +also C. Schefer, _Relation des voyages ... de Ca' da Mosto_ (1895); R.H. +Major, _Henry the Navigator_ (1868), pp. 246-287; C.R. Beazley, _Henry the +Navigator_ (1895), pp. 261-288; Yule Oldham, _Discovery of the Cape Verde +Islands_ (1892), esp. pp. 4-15. + +It may be noted that Antonio Uso di Mare (Antoniotto Ususmaris), the +Genoese, wrote his famous letter of the 12th of December 1455 (purporting +to record a meeting with the last surviving descendant of the +Genoese-Indian expedition of 1291, at or near the Gambia), after +accompanying Cadamosto to West Africa; see Beazley, _Dawn of Modern +Geography_ (1892), iii. 416-418. + +CADASTRE (a French word from the Late Lat. _capitastrum_, a register of the +poll-tax), a register of the real property of a country, with details of +the area, the owners and the value. A "cadastral survey" is properly, +therefore, one which gives such information as the Domesday Book, but the +term is sometimes used loosely of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom +(1=2500), which is on sufficiently large a scale to give the area of every +field or piece of ground. + +CADDIS-FLY and CADDIS-WORM, the name given to insects with a superficial +resemblance to moths, sometimes referred to the Neuroptera, sometimes to a +special order, the Trichoptera, in allusion to the hairy clothing of the +body and wings. Apart from this feature the Trichoptera also differ from +the typical Neuroptera in the relatively simple, mostly longitudinal +neuration of the wings, the absence or obsolescence of the mandibles and +the semi-haustellate nature of the rest of the mouth-parts. Although +caddis-flies are sometimes referred to several families, the differences +between the groups are of no great importance. Hence the insects may more +conveniently be regarded as constituting the single family _Phryganeidae_. +The larvae known as caddis-worms are aquatic. The mature females lay their +eggs in the water, and the newly-hatched larvae provide themselves with +cases made of various particles such as grains of sand, pieces of wood or +leaves stuck together with silk secreted from the salivary glands of the +insect. These cases differ greatly in structure and shape. Those of +_Phyrganea_ consist of bits of twigs or leaves cut to a suitable length and +laid side by side in a long spirally-coiled band, forming the wall of a +subcylindrical cavity. The cavity of the tube of _Helicopsyche_, composed +of grains of sand, is itself spirally coiled, so that the case exactly +resembles a small snail-shell in shape. One species of _Limnophilus_ uses +small but entire leaves; another, the shells of the pond-snail _Planorbis_; +another, pieces of stick arranged transversely with reference to the long +axis of the tube. To admit of the free inflow and outflow of currents of +water necessary for respiration, which is effected by means of filamentous +abdominal tracheal gills, the two ends of the tube are open. Sometimes the +cases are fixed, but more often portable. In the latter case the larva +crawls about the bottom of the water or up the stems of plants, with its +thickly-chitinized head and legs protruding from the larger orifice, while +it maintains a secure hold of the silk lining of the tube by means of a +pair of strong hooks at the posterior end of its soft defenceless abdomen. +Their food appears for the most part to be of a vegetable nature. Some +species, however, are alleged to be carnivorous, and a North American form +of the genus _Hydropsyche_ is said to spin around the mouth of its burrow a +silken net for the capture of small animal organisms living in the water. +Before passing into the pupal stage, the larva partially closes the orifice +of the tube with silk or pieces of stone loosely spun together and pervious +to water. Through this temporary protection the active pupa, which closely +resembles the mature insect, subsequently bites a way by means of its +strong mandibles, and rising to the surface of the water casts the pupal +integument and becomes sexually adult. + +The above sketch may be regarded as descriptive of the life-history of a +great majority of species of caddis-flies. It is only necessary here to +mention one anomalous form, _Enoicyla pusilla_, in which the mature female +is wingless and the larva is terrestrial, living in moss or decayed leaves. + +Caddis-flies are universally distributed. Geologically they are known to +date back to the Oligocene period, and wings believed to be referable to +them have been found in Liassic and Jurassic beds. + +(R. I. P.) + +CADDO, a confederacy of North American Indian tribes which gave its name to +the Caddoan stock, represented in the south by the Caddos, Wichita and +Kichai, and in the north by the Pawnee and Arikara tribes. The Caddos, now +reduced to some 500, settled in western Oklahoma, formerly ranged over the +Red River (Louisiana) country, in what is now Arkansas, northern Texas and +Oklahoma. The native name of the confederacy is Hasinai, corrupted by the +French into Asinais and Cenis. The Caddoan tribes were mostly agricultural +and sedentary, and to-day they are distinguished by their industry and +intelligence. + +See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + +CADE, JOHN (d. 1450), commonly called JACK CADE, English rebel and leader +of the rising of 1450, was probably an Irishman by birth, but the details +of his early life are very scanty. He seems to have resided for a time in +Sussex, to have fled from the country after committing a murder, and to +have served in the French wars. Returning to England, he settled in Kent +under the name of Aylmer and married a lady of good position. When the men +of Kent rose in rebellion in May 1450, they were led by a man who took the +name of Mortimer, and who has generally been regarded as identical with +Cade. Mr James Gairdner, however, considers it probable that Cade did not +take command of the rebels until after the skirmish at Sevenoaks on the +18th of June. At all events, it was Cade who led the insurgents from +Blackheath to Southwark, and under him they made their way into London on +the 3rd of July. A part of the populace was doubtless favourable to the +rebels, but the opposing party gained strength when Cade and his men began +to plunder. Having secured the execution of James Fiennes, Baron Say and +Sele, and of William Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, Cade and his followers +retired to Southwark, and on the 5th of July, after a fierce struggle on +London Bridge, the citizens prevented them from re-entering the city. Cade +then met the chancellor, John [v.04 p.0928] Kemp, archbishop of York, and +William of Wayneflete, bishop of Winchester, and terms of peace were +arranged. Pardons were drawn up, that for the leaders being in the name of +Mortimer. Cade, however, retained some of his men, and at this time, or a +day or two earlier, broke open the prisons in Southwark and released the +prisoners, many of whom joined his band. Having collected some booty, he +went to Rochester, made a futile attempt to capture Queenborough castle, +and then quarrelled with his followers over some plunder. On the 10th of +July a proclamation was issued against him in the name of Cade, and a +reward was offered for his apprehension. Escaping into Sussex he was +captured at Heathfield on the 12th. During the scuffle he had been severely +wounded, and on the day of his capture he died in the cart which was +conveying him to London. The body was afterwards beheaded and quartered, +and in 1451 Cade was attainted. + +See Robert Fabyan, _The New Chronicles of England and France_, edited by H. +Ellis (London, 1811); William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_, +edited by J. Stevenson, (London, 1864); _An English Chronicle of the Reigns +of Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI._, edited by J.S. Davies +(London, 1856); _Historical Collections of a Citizen of London_, edited by +J. Gairdner (London, 1876); _Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles_, edited by +J. Gairdner (London, 1880); J. Gairdner, Introduction to the _Paston +Letters_ (London, 1904); G. Kriehn, _The English Rising of 1450_ +(Strassburg, 1892.) + +CADENABBIA, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, about 15 +m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como. It is situated on the W. shore +of the lake of Como, and owing to the great beauty of the scenery and of +the vegetation, and its sheltered situation, is a favourite spring and +autumn resort. The most famous of its villas is the Villa Carlotta, now the +property of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, which contains marble reliefs by +Thorwaldsen, representing the triumph of Alexander, and statues by Canova. + +CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. _cadentia_, from _cadere_, to fall), +a falling or sinking, especially as applied to rhythmical or musical +sounds, as in the "fall" of the voice in speaking, the rhythm or measure of +verses, song or dance. In music, the word is used of the closing chords of +a musical phrase, which succeed one another in such a way as to produce, +first an expectation or suspense, and then an impression of finality, +indicating also the key strongly. "Cadenza," the Italian form of the same +word, is used of a free flourish in a vocal or instrumental composition, +introduced immediately before the close of a movement or at the end of the +piece. The object is to display the performer's technique, or to prevent +too abrupt a contrast between two movements. Cadenzas are usually left to +the improvisation of the performer, but are sometimes written in full by +the composer, or by some famous executant, as in the cadenza in Brahms's +_Violin Concerto_, written by Joseph Joachim. + +CADER IDRIS ("the Seat of Idris"), the second most imposing mountain in +North Wales, standing in Merionethshire to the S. of Dolgelly, between the +broad estuaries of the Mawddach and the Dovey. It is so called in memory of +Idris Gawr, celebrated in the Triads as one of the three "Gwyn +Serenyddion," or "Happy Astronomers," of Wales, who is traditionally +supposed to have made his observations on this peak. Its loftiest point, +known as Pen-y-gader, rises to the height of 2914 ft., and in clear weather +commands a magnificent panorama of immense extent. The mountain is +everywhere steep and rocky, especially on its southern side, which falls +abruptly towards the Lake of Tal-y-llyn. Mention of Cader Idris and its +legends is frequent in Welsh literature, old and modern. + +CADET (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _capitettum_, a diminutive of +_caput_, head, through the Provençal form _capdet_), the head of an +inferior branch of a family, a younger son; particularly a military term +for an accepted candidate for a commission in the army or navy, who is +undergoing training to become an officer. This latter use of the term arose +in France, where it was applied to the younger sons of the _noblesse_ who +gained commissioned rank, not by serving in the ranks or by entering the +_écoles militaires_, but by becoming attached to corps without pay but with +certain privileges. "Cadet Corps," in the British service, are bodies of +boys or youths organized, armed and trained on volunteer military lines. +Derived from "cadet," through the Scots form "cadee," comes "caddie," a +messenger-boy, and particularly one who carries clubs at golf, and also the +slang word "cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person. + +CADGER (a word of obscure origin possibly connected with "catch"), a hawker +or pedlar, a carrier of farm produce to market. The word in this sense has +fallen into disuse, and now is used for a beggar or loafer, one who gets +his living in more or less questionable ways. + +CADI (_qadi_), a judge in a _mahkama_ or Mahommedan ecclesiastical court, +in which decisions are rendered on the basis of the canon law of Islam +(_shari `a_). It is a general duty, according to canon law, upon a Moslem +community to judge legal disputes on this basis, and it is an individual +duty upon the ruler of the community to appoint a cadi to act for the +community. According to Shafi`ite law, such a cadi must be a male, free, +adult Moslem, intelligent, of unassailed character, able to see, hear and +write, learned in the Koran, the traditions, the Agreement, the differences +of the legal schools, acquainted with Arabic grammar and the exegesis of +the Koran. He must not sit in a mosque, except under necessity, but in some +open, accessible place. He must maintain a strictly impartial attitude of +body and mind, accept no presents from the people of his district, and +render judgment only when he is in a normal condition mentally and +physically. He may not engage in any business. He shall ride to the place +where he holds court, greeting the people on both sides. He shall visit the +sick and those returned from a journey, and attend funerals. On some of +these points the codes differ, and the whole is to be regarded as the ideal +qualification, built up theoretically by the canonists. + +See MAHOMMEDAN LAW; also Juynboll, _De Mohammedaansche Wet_ (Leiden, 1903), +pp. 287 ff.; Sachau, _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Berlin, 1897), pp. 687 ff. + +(D. B. MA.) + +CADILLAC, a city and the county seat of Wexford county, Michigan, U.S.A., +on Lake Cadillac, about 95 m. N. by E. of Grand Rapids and about 85 m. N.W. +of Bay City. Pop. (1890) 4461; (1900) 5997, of whom 1676 were foreign-born; +(1904) 6893; (1910) 8375. It is served by the Ann Arbor and the Grand +Rapids & Indiana railways. Cadillac overlooks picturesque lake scenery, and +the good fishing for pike, pickerel and perch in the lake, and for brook +trout in streams near by, attracts many visitors. Among the city's chief +manufactures are hardwood lumber, iron, tables, crates and woodenware, +veneer, flooring and flour. Cadillac was settled in 1871, was incorporated +as a village under the name of Clam Lake in 1875, was chartered as a city +under its present name (from Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac) in 1877, and was +rechartered in 1895. + +CADIZ, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros, +Philippine Islands, on the N. coast, about 53 m. N.N.E. of Bacólod, the +capital. Pop. (1903) 16,429. Lumber products are manufactured in the town, +and a saw-mill here is said to be the largest in the Philippines. + +CADIZ (_Cádiz_), a maritime province in the extreme south of Spain, formed +in 1833 of districts taken from the province of Seville; and bounded on the +N. by Seville, E. by Málaga, S.E. by the Mediterranean sea, S. by the +Straits of Gibraltar, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 452,659; +area 2834 sq. m.; inclusive, in each case, of the town and territory of +Ceuta, on the Moroccan coast, which belong, for administrative purposes, to +Cadiz. The sea-board of Cadiz possesses several features of exceptional +interest. On the Atlantic littoral, the broad Guadalquivir estuary marks +the frontier of Seville; farther south, the river Guadalete, which waters +the northern districts, falls into the magnificent double bay of Cadiz; +farther south again, is Cape Trafalgar, famous for the British naval +victory of 1805. Near Trafalgar, the river Barbate issues into the straits +of Gibraltar, after receiving several small tributaries, which combine with +it to form, near its mouth, the broad and marshy Laguna de la Janda. Punta +Marroqui, on the straits, is the southernmost promontory of the European +mainland. The [v.04 p.0929] most conspicuous feature of the east coast is +Algeciras Bay, overlooked by the rock and fortress of Gibraltar. The river +Guadiaro, which drains the eastern highlands, enters the Mediterranean +close to the frontier of Málaga. In the interior there is a striking +contrast between the comparatively level western half of Cadiz and the very +picturesque mountain ranges of the eastern half, which are well wooded and +abound in game. The whole region known as the Campo de Gibraltar is of this +character; but it is in the north-east that the summits are most closely +massed together, and attain their greatest altitudes in the Cerro de San +Cristobal (5630 ft.) and the Sierra del Pinar (5413 ft.). + +The climate is generally mild and temperate, some parts of the coast only +being unhealthy owing to a marshy soil. Severe drought is not unusual, and +it was largely this cause, together with want of capital, and the +dependence of the peasantry on farming and fishing, that brought about the +distress so prevalent early in the 20th century. The manufactures are +insignificant compared with the importance of the natural products of the +soil, especially wines and olives. Jerez de la Frontera (Xeres) is famous +for the manufacture and export of sherry. The fisheries furnish about 2500 +tons of fish per annum, one-fifth part of which is salted for export and +the rest consumed in Spain. There are no important mines, but a +considerable amount of salt is obtained by evaporation of sea-water in pans +near Cadiz, San Fernando, Puerto Real and Santa Maria. The railway from +Seville passes through Jerez de la Frontera to Cadiz and San Fernando, and +another line, from Granada, terminates at Algeciras; but at the beginning +of the 20th century, although it was proposed to construct railways from +Jerez inland to Grazalema and coastwise from San Fernando to Tarifa, +travellers who wished to visit these places were compelled to use the +old-fashioned diligence, over indifferent roads, or to go by sea. The +principal seaports are, after Cadiz the capital (pop. 1900, 69,382), +Algeciras (13,302), La Línea (31,862), Puerto de Santa Maria (20,120), +Puerto Real (10,535), the naval station of San Fernando (29,635), San Lucar +(23,883) and Tarifa (11,723); the principal inland towns are Arcos de la +Frontera (13,926), Chiclana (10,868), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Medina +Sidonia (11,040), and Véjer de la Frontera (11,298). These are all +described in separate articles. Grazalema (5587), Jimena de la Frontera +(7549), and San Roque (8569) are less important towns with some trade in +leather, cork, wine and farm produce. They all contain many Moorish +antiquities, and Grazalema probably represents the Roman _Lacidulermium_. +(See also ANDALUSIA.) + +CADIZ (in Lat. _Gades_, and formerly called _Cales_ by the English), the +capital and principal seaport of the Spanish province of Cadiz; on the Bay +of Cadiz, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, in 36° 27' N. and 6° 12' W., 94 +m. by rail S. of Seville. Pop. (1900) 69,382. Cadiz is built on the +extremity of a tongue of land, projecting about 5 m. into the sea, in a +north-westerly direction from the Isla de Leon. Its noble bay, more than 30 +m. in circuit, and almost entirely land-locked by the isthmus and the +headlands which lie to the north-east, has principally contributed to its +commercial importance. The outer bay stretches from the promontory and town +of Rota to the mouth of the river Guadalete; the inner bay, protected by +the forts of Matagorda and Puntales, affords generally good anchorage, and +contains a harbour formed by a projecting mole, where vessels of small +burden may discharge. The entrance to the bays is rendered somewhat +dangerous by the low shelving rocks (Cochinos and Las Puercas) which +encumber the passage, and by the shifting banks of mud deposited by the +Guadalete and the Rio Santi Petri, a broad channel separating the Isla de +Leon from the mainland. At the mouth of this channel is the village of +Caracca; close beside it is the important naval arsenal of San Fernando +(_q.v._); and on the isthmus are the defensive works known as the +Cortadura, or Fort San Fernando, and the well-frequented sea-bathing +establishments. + +From its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild and serene climate. +The _Medina_, or land-wind, so-called because it blows from the direction +of Medina Sidonia, prevails during the winter; the moisture-laden +_Virazón_, a westerly sea-breeze, sets in with the spring. The mean annual +temperature is about 64° F., while the mean summer and winter temperatures +vary only about 10° above and below this point; but the damp atmosphere is +very oppressive in summer, and its unhealthiness is enhanced by the +inadequate drainage and the masses of rotting seaweed piled along the +shore. The high death-rate, nearly 45 per thousand, is also due to the bad +water-supply, the water being either collected in cisterns from the tops of +the houses, or brought at great expense from Santa Maria on the opposite +coast by an aqueduct nearly 30 m. long. An English company started a +waterworks in Cadiz about 1875, but came to grief through the incapacity of +the population to appreciate its necessity. + +The city, which is 6 or 7 m. in circumference, is surrounded by a wall with +five gates, one of which communicates with the isthmus. Seen from a +distance off the coast, it presents a magnificent display of snow-white +turrets rising majestically from the sea; and for the uniformity and +elegance of its buildings, it must certainly be ranked as one of the finest +cities of Spain, although, being hemmed in on all sides, its streets and +squares are necessarily contracted. Every house annually receives a coating +of whitewash, which, when it is new, produces a disagreeable glare. The +city is distinguished by its somewhat deceptive air of cleanliness, its +quiet streets, where no wheeled traffic passes, and its lavish use of white +Italian marble. But the most characteristic feature of Cadiz is the marine +promenades, fringing the city all round between the ramparts and the sea, +especially that called the _Alameda_, on the eastern side, commanding a +view of the shipping in the bay and the ports on the opposite shore. The +houses are generally lofty and surmounted by turrets and flat roofs in the +Moorish style. + +Cadiz is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop of +Seville, but its chief conventual and monastic institutions have been +suppressed. Of its two cathedrals, one was originally erected by Alphonso +X. of Castile (1252-1284), and rebuilt after 1596; the other, begun in +1722, was completed between 1832 and 1838. Under the high altar of the old +cathedral rises the only freshwater spring in Cadiz. The chief secular +buildings include the Hospicio, or Casa de Misericordia, adorned with a +marble portico, and having an interior court with Doric colonnades; the +bull-ring, with room for 12,000 spectators; the two theatres, the prison, +the custom-house, and the lighthouse of San Sebastian on the western side +rising 172 ft. from the rock on which it stands. Besides the Hospicio +already mentioned, which sometimes contains 1000 inmates, there are +numerous other charitable institutions, such as the women's hospital, the +foundling institution, the admirable Hospicio de San Juan de Dios for men, +and the lunatic asylum. Gratuitous instruction is given to a large number +of children, and there are several mathematical and commercial academies, +maintained by different commercial corporations, a nautical school, a +school of design, a theological seminary and a flourishing medical school. +The museum is filled for the most part with Roman and Carthaginian coins +and other antiquities; the academy contains a valuable collection of +pictures. In the church of Santa Catalina, which formerly belonged to the +Capuchin convent, now secularized, there is an unfinished picture of the +marriage of St Catherine, by Murillo, who met his death by falling from the +scaffold on which he was painting it (3rd of April 1682). + +Cadiz no longer ranks among the first marine cities of the world. Its +harbour works are insufficient and antiquated, though a scheme for their +improvement was adopted in 1903; its communications with the mainland +consist of a road and a single line of railway; its inhabitants, apart from +foreign residents and a few of the more enterprising merchants, rest +contented with such prosperity as a fine natural harbour and an unsurpassed +geographical situation cannot fail to confer. Several great shipping lines +call here; shipbuilding yards and various factories exist on the mainland; +and there is a considerable trade in the exportation of wine, principally +sherry from Jerez, salt, olives, figs, canary-seed and ready-made corks; +and in the importation of fuel, iron and machinery, building materials, +American oak staves for casks, &c. In 1904, 2753 ships of 1,745,588 tons +[v.04 p.0930] entered the port. But local trade, though still considerable, +remains stationary if it does not actually recede. Its decline, originally +due to the Napoleonic wars and the acquisition of independence by many +Spanish colonies early in the 19th century, was already recognised, and an +attempt made to check it in 1828, when the Spanish government declared +Cadiz a free warehousing port; but this valuable privilege was withdrawn in +1832. Among the more modern causes of depression have been the rivalry of +Gibraltar and Seville; the decreasing demand for sherry; and the disasters +of the Spanish-American war of 1898, which almost ruined local commerce +with Cuba and Porto Rico. + +_History._--Cadiz represents the Sem. _Agadir_, _Gadir_, or _Gaddir_ +("stronghold") of the Carthaginians, the Gr. _Gadeira_, and the Lat. +_Gades_. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Phoenician merchants from +Tyre, as early as 1100 B.C.; and in the 7th century it had already become +the great mart of the west for amber and tin from the Cassiterides +(_q.v._). About 501 B.C. it was occupied by the Carthaginians, who made it +their base for the conquest of southern Iberia, and in the 3rd century for +the equipment of the armaments with which Hannibal undertook to destroy the +power of Rome. But the loyalty of Gades, already weakened by trade rivalry +with Carthage, gave way after the second Punic War. Its citizens welcomed +the victorious Romans, and assisted them in turn to fit out an expedition +against Carthage. Thenceforward, its rapidly-growing trade in dried fish +and meat, and in all the produce of the fertile Baetis (Guadalquivir) +valley, attracted many Greek settlers; while men of learning, such as +Pytheas in the 4th century B.C., Polybius and Artemidorus of Ephesus in the +2nd, and Posidonius in the 1st, came to study the ebb and flow of its +tides, unparalleled in the Mediterranean. C. Julius Caesar conferred the +_civitas_ of Rome on all its citizens in 49 B.C.; and, not long after L. +Cornelius Balbus Minor built what was called the "New City," constructed +the harbour which is now known as Puerto Real, and spanned the strait of +Santi Petri with the bridge which unites the Isla de Leon with the +mainland, and is now known as the Puente de Zuazo, after Juan Sanchez de +Zuazo, who restored it in the 15th century. Under Augustus, when it was the +residence of no fewer than 500 _equites_, a total only surpassed in Rome +and Padua, Gades was made a _municipium_ with the name of _Augusta Urbs +Gaditana_, and its citizens ranked next to those of Rome. In the 1st +century A.D. it was the birthplace or home of several famous authors, +including Lucius Columella, poet and writer on husbandry; but it was more +renowned for gaiety and luxury than for learning. Juvenal and Martial write +of _Jocosae Gades_, "Cadiz the Joyous," as naturally as the modern +Andalusian speaks of _Cadiz la Joyosa_; and throughout the Roman world its +cookery and its dancing-girls were famous. In the 5th century, however, the +overthrow of Roman dominion in Spain by the Visigoths involved Cadiz in +destruction. A few fragments of masonry, submerged under the sea, are +almost all that remains of the original city. Moorish rule over the port, +which was renamed _Jezirat-Kadis_, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz +was captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alphonso X. of Castile. Its renewed +prosperity dates from the discovery of America in 1492. As the headquarters +of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon recovered its position as the +wealthiest port of western Europe, and consequently it was a favourite +point of attack for the enemies of Spain. During the 16th century it +repelled a series of raids by the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 all the +shipping in its harbour was burned by the English squadron under Sir +Francis Drake; in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord Charles +Howard sacked the city, and destroyed forty merchant vessels and thirteen +warships. This disaster necessitated the rebuilding of Cadiz on a new plan. +Its recovered wealth tempted the duke of Buckingham to promote the +fruitless expedition to Cadiz of 1626; thirty years later Admiral Blake +blockaded the harbour in an endeavour to intercept the treasure fleet; and +in 1702 another attack was made by the British under Sir George Rooke and +the duke of Ormonde. During the 18th century the wealth of Cadiz became +greater than ever; from 1720 to 1765, when it enjoyed a monopoly of the +trade with Spanish America, the city annually imported gold and silver to +the value of about £5,000,000. With the closing years of the century, +however, it entered upon a period of misfortune. From February 1797 to +April 1798 it was blockaded by the British fleet, after the battle of Cape +St Vincent; and in 1800 it was bombarded by Nelson. In 1808 the citizens +captured a French squadron which was imprisoned by the British fleet in the +inner bay. From February 1810 until the duke of Wellington raised the siege +in August 1812, Cadiz resisted the French forces sent to capture it; and +during these two years it served as the capital of all Spain which could +escape annexation by Napoleon. Here, too, the Cortes met and promulgated +the famous Liberal constitution of March 1812. To secure a renewal of this +constitution, the citizens revolted in 1820; the revolution spread +throughout Spain; the king, Ferdinand VII., was imprisoned at Cadiz, which +again became the seat of the Cortes; and foreign intervention alone checked +the movement towards reform. A French army, under the duc d'Angoulême, +seized Cadiz in 1823, secured the release of Ferdinand and suppressed +Liberalism. In 1868 the city was the centre of the revolution which +effected the dethronement of Queen Isabella. + +See _Sevilla y Cadiz, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza é historia_, an +illustrated volume in the series "España," by P. de Madrazo (Barcelona, +1884); _Recuerdos Gaditanos_, a very full history of local affairs, by J.M. +León y Dominguez (Cadiz, 1897); _Historia de Cadiz y de su provincia desde +los remotos tiempos hasta_ 1824, by A. de Castro (Cadiz, 1858); and +_Descripcion historico-artistica de la catedral de Cadiz_, by J. de Urrutia +(Cadiz, 1843). + +CADMIUM (symbol Cd, atomic weight 112.4 (O=16)), a metallic element, +showing a close relationship to zinc, with which it is very frequently +associated. It was discovered in 1817 by F. Stromeyer in a sample of zinc +carbonate from which a specimen of zinc oxide was obtained, having a yellow +colour, although quite free from iron; Stromeyer showing that this +coloration was due to the presence of the oxide of a new metal. +Simultaneously Hermann, a German chemical manufacturer, discovered the new +metal in a specimen of zinc oxide which had been thought to contain +arsenic, since it gave a yellow precipitate, in acid solution, on the +addition of sulphuretted hydrogen. This supposition was shown to be +incorrect, and the nature of the new element was ascertained. + +Cadmium does not occur naturally in the uncombined condition, and only one +mineral is known which contains it in any appreciable quantity, namely, +greenockite, or cadmium sulphide, found at Greenock and at Bishopton in +Scotland, and in Bohemia and Pennsylvania. It is, however, nearly always +found associated with zinc blende, and with calamine, although only in +small quantities. + +The metal is usually obtained from the flue-dust (produced during the first +three or four hours working of a zinc distillation) which is collected in +the sheet iron cones or adapters of the zinc retorts. This is mixed with +small coal, and when redistilled gives an enriched dust, and by repeating +the process and distilling from cast iron retorts the metal is obtained. It +can be purified by solution in hydrochloric acid and subsequent +precipitation by metallic zinc. + +Cadmium is a white metal, possessing a bluish tinge, and is capable of +taking a high polish; on breaking, it shows a distinct fibrous fracture. By +sublimation in a current of hydrogen it can be crystallized in the form of +regular octahedra; it is slightly harder than tin, but is softer than zinc, +and like tin, emits a crackling sound when bent. It is malleable and can be +rolled out into sheets. The specific gravity of the metal is 8.564, this +value being slightly increased after hammering; its specific heat is 0.0548 +(R. Bunsen), it melts at 310-320° C. and boils between 763-772° C. (T. +Carnelley), forming a deep yellow vapour. The cadmium molecule, as shown by +determinations of the density of its vapour, is monatomic. The metal unites +with the majority of the heavy metals to form alloys; some of these, the +so-called fusible alloys, find a useful application from the fact that they +possess a low melting-point. It also forms amalgams with mercury, and on +this account has been employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or +filling) [v.04 p.0931] teeth. The metal is quite permanent in dry air, but +in moist air it becomes coated with a superficial layer of the oxide; it +burns on heating to redness, forming a brown coloured oxide; and is readily +soluble in mineral acids with formation of the corresponding salts. Cadmium +vapour decomposes water at a red heat, with liberation of hydrogen, and +formation of the oxide of the metal. + +Cadmium oxide, CdO, is a brown powder of specific gravity 6.5, which can be +prepared by heating the metal in air or in oxygen; or by ignition of the +nitrate or carbonate; by heating the metal to a white heat in a current of +oxygen it is obtained as a dark red crystalline sublimate. It does not melt +at a white heat, and is easily reduced to the metal by heating in a current +of hydrogen or with carbon. It is a basic oxide, dissolving readily in +acids, with the formation of salts, somewhat analogous to those of zinc. + +Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)_2, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding +potassium hydroxide to a solution of any soluble cadmium salt. It is +decomposed by heat into the oxide and water, and is soluble in ammonia but +not in excess of dilute potassium hydroxide; this latter property serves to +distinguish it from zinc hydroxide. + +The chloride, CdCl_2, bromide, CdBr_2, and iodide, CdI_2, are also known, +cadmium iodide being sometimes used in photography, as it is one of the few +iodides which are soluble in alcohol. Cadmium chloride and iodide have been +shown to behave in an anomalous way in aqueous solution (W. Hittorf, _Pogg. +Ann._, 1859, 106, 513), probably owing to the formation of complex ions; +the abnormal behaviour apparently diminishing as the solution becomes more +and more dilute, until, at very high dilutions the salts are ionized in the +normal manner. + +Cadmium sulphate, CdSO_4, is known in several hydrated forms; being +deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated aqueous solution, +in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of composition 3CdSO_4·8H_2O, +whilst a boiling saturated solution, to which concentrated sulphuric acid +has been added, deposits crystals of composition CdSO_4·H_2O. It is largely +used for the purpose of making standard electric cells, such for example as +the Weston cell. + +Cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurs naturally as greenockite (_q.v._), and can be +artificially prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through acid +solutions of soluble cadmium salts, when it is precipitated as a pale +yellow amorphous solid. It is used as a pigment (cadmium yellow), for it +retains its colour in an atmosphere containing sulphuretted hydrogen; it +melts at a white heat, and on cooling solidifies to a lemon-yellow +micaceous mass. + +Normal cadmium carbonates are unknown, a white precipitate of variable +composition being obtained on the addition of solutions of the alkaline +carbonates to soluble cadmium salts. + +Cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO_3)_2·4H_2O, is a deliquescent salt, which may be +obtained by dissolving either the metal, or its oxide or carbonate in +dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in needles and is soluble in alcohol. + +Cadmium salts can be recognized by the brown incrustation which is formed +when they are heated on charcoal in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe; +and also by the yellow precipitate formed when sulphuretted hydrogen is +passed though their acidified solutions. This precipitate is insoluble in +cold dilute acids, in ammonium sulphide, and in solutions of the caustic +alkalis, a behaviour which distinguishes it from the yellow sulphides of +arsenic and tin. Cadmium is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the +oxide, being precipitated from boiling solutions by the addition of sodium +carbonate, the carbonate thus formed passing into the oxide on ignition. It +can also be determined as sulphide, by precipitation with sulphuretted +hydrogen, the precipitated sulphide being dried at 100° C. and weighed. + +The atomic weight of cadmium was found by O.W. Huntington (_Berichte_, +1882, 15, p. 80), from an analysis of the pure bromide, to be 111.9. H.N. +Morse and H.C. Jones (_Amer. Chem. Journ._, 1892, 14, p. 261) by conversion +of cadmium into the oxalate and then into oxide, obtained values ranging +from 111.981 to 112.05, whilst W.S. Lorimer and E.F. Smith (_Zeit. für +anorg. Chem._, 1891, 1, p. 364), by the electrolytic reduction of cadmium +oxide in potassium cyanide solution, obtained as a mean value 112.055. The +atomic weight of cadmium has been revised by G.P. Baxter and M.A. Hines +(_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1905, 27, p. 222), by determinations of the +ratio of cadmium chloride to silver chloride, and of the amount of silver +required to precipitate cadmium chloride. The mean value obtained was +112.469 (Ag=107.93). The mean value 112.467 was obtained by Baxter, Hines +and Frevert (ibid., 1906, 28, p. 770) by analysing cadmium bromide. + +CADMUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia and brother of +Europa. After his sister had been carried off by Zeus, he was sent out to +find her. Unsuccessful in his search, he came in the course of his +wanderings to Delphi, where he consulted the oracle. He was ordered to give +up his quest and follow a cow which would meet him, and to build a town on +the spot where she should lie down exhausted. The cow met him in Phocis, +and guided him to Boeotia, where he founded the city of Thebes. Intending +to sacrifice the cow, he sent some of his companions to a neighbouring +spring for water. They were slain by a dragon, which was in turn destroyed +by Cadmus; and by the instructions of Athena he sowed its teeth in the +ground, from which there sprang a race of fierce armed men, called Sparti +(sown). By throwing a stone among them Cadmus caused them to fall upon each +other till only five survived, who assisted him to build the Cadmeia or +citadel of Thebes and became the founders of the noblest families of that +city (Ovid, _Metam._ iii. 1 ff.; Apollodorus iii. 4, 5). Cadmus, however, +because of this bloodshed, had to do penance for eight years. At the +expiration of this period the gods gave him to wife Harmonia (_q.v._), +daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, by whom he had a son Polydorus, and four +daughters, Ino, Autonoë, Agave and Semele--a family which was overtaken by +grievous misfortunes. At the marriage all the gods were present; Harmonia +received as bridal gifts a peplos worked by Athena and a necklace made by +Hephaestus. Cadmus is said to have finally retired with Harmonia to +Illyria, where he became king. After death, he and his wife were changed +into snakes, which watched the tomb while their souls were translated to +the Elysian fields. + +There is little doubt that Cadmus was originally a Boeotian, that is, a +Greek hero. In later times the story of a Phoenician immigrant of that name +became current, to whom was ascribed the introduction of the alphabet, the +invention of agriculture and working in bronze and of civilization +generally. But the name itself is Greek rather than Phoenician; and the +fact that Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace under the name of Cadmus or +Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was originally an ancestral +Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian. The name may mean "order," +and be used to characterize one who introduces order and civilization. + +The exhaustive article by O. Crusius in W.H. Roscher's _Lexikon der +Mythologie_ contains a list of modern authorities on the subject of Cadmus; +see also O. Gruppe, _De Cadmi Fabula_ (1891). + +CADMUS OF MILETUS, according to some ancient authorities the oldest of the +logographi (_q.v._). Modern scholars, who accept this view, assign him to +about 550 B.C.; others regard him as purely mythical. A confused notice in +Suidas mentions three persons of the name: the first, the inventor of the +alphabet; the second, the son of Pandion, "according to some" the first +prose writer, a little later than Orpheus, author of a history of the +_Foundation of Miletus_ and of Ionia generally, in four books; the third, +the son of Archelaus, of later date, author of a history of Attica in +fourteen books, and of some poems of an erotic character. As Dionysius of +Halicarnassus (_Judicium de Thucydide_, c. 23) distinctly states that the +work current in his time under the name of Cadmus was a forgery, it is most +probable that the two first are identical with the Phoenician Cadmus, who, +as the reputed inventor of letters, was subsequently transformed into the +Milesian and the author of an historical work. In this connexion it should +be observed that the old Milesian nobles traced their descent back to the +Phoenician or one of his companions. The text of the notice of the third +Cadmus of Miletus in Suidas is unsatisfactory; and it is uncertain whether +he is to be explained in the same way, or whether he was an historical +personage, of whom all further record is lost. + +See C.W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec_, ii. 2-4; and O. Crusius in Roscher's +_Lexikon der Mythologie_ (article "Kadmos," 90, 91). + +CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN, 1ST EARL (1675-1726), British soldier, was the +son of Henry Cadogan, a Dublin barrister, and grandson of Major William +Cadogan (1601-1661), governor of Trim. The family has been credited with a +descent from Cadwgan, the old Welsh prince. Cadogan began his military +career as a cornet of horse under William III. at the Boyne, and, with the +regiment now known as the 5th (Royal Irish) Lancers, made the campaigns in +the Low Countries. In the course of these years he attracted the notice of +Marlborough. In 1701 Cadogan was employed by him as a staff officer in the +complicated task of concentrating the grand army formed by contingents from +[v.04 p.0932] multitudinous states, and Marlborough soon made the young +officer his confidential staff officer and right-hand man. His services in +the campaign of 1701 were rewarded with the colonelcy of the famous +"Cadogan's Horse" (now the 5th Dragoon Guards). As quartermaster-general, +it fell to his lot to organize the celebrated march of the allies to the +Danube, which, as well as the return march with its heavy convoys, he +managed with consummate skill. At the Schellenberg he was wounded and his +horse shot under him, and at Blenheim he acted as Marlborough's chief of +staff. Soon afterwards he was promoted brigadier-general, and in 1705 he +led "Cadogan's Horse" at the forcing of the Brabant lines between Wange and +Elissem, capturing four standards. He was present at Ramillies, and +immediately afterwards was sent to take Antwerp, which he did without +difficulty. Becoming major-general in 1706, he continued to perform the +numerous duties of chief staff officer, quartermaster-general and colonel +of cavalry, besides which he was throughout constantly employed in delicate +diplomatic missions. In the course of the campaign of 1707, when leading a +foraging expedition, he fell into the hands of the enemy but was soon +exchanged. In 1708 he commanded the advanced guard of the army in the +operations which culminated in the victory of Oudenarde, and in the same +year he was with Webb at the action of Wynendael. On the 1st of January +1709 he was made lieutenant-general. At the siege of Menin in this year +occurred an incident which well illustrates his qualifications as a staff +officer and diplomatist. Marlborough, riding with his staff close to the +French, suddenly dropped his glove and told Cadogan to pick it up. This +seemingly insolent command was carried out at once, and when Marlborough on +the return to camp explained that he wished a battery to be erected on the +spot, Cadogan informed him that he had already given orders to that effect. +He was present at Malplaquet, and after the battle was sent off to form the +siege of Mons, at which he was dangerously wounded. At the end of the year +he received the appointment of lieutenant of the Tower, but he continued +with the army in Flanders to the end of the war. His loyalty to the fallen +Marlborough cost him, in 1712, his rank, positions and emoluments under the +crown. George I. on his accession, however, reinstated Cadogan, and, +amongst other appointments, made him lieutenant of the ordnance. In 1715, +as British plenipotentiary, he signed the third Barrier Treaty between +Great Britain, Holland and the emperor. His last campaign was the Jacobite +insurrection of 1715-1716. At first as Argyle's subordinate (see Coxe, +_Memoirs of Marlborough_, cap. cxiv.), and later as commander-in-chief, +General Cadogan by his firm, energetic and skilful handling of his task +restored quiet and order in Scotland. Up to the death of Marlborough he was +continually employed in diplomatic posts of special trust, and in 1718 he +was made Earl Cadogan, Viscount Caversham and Baron Cadogan of Oakley. In +1722 he succeeded his old chief as head of the army and master-general of +the ordnance, becoming at the same time colonel of the 1st or Grenadier +Guards. He sat in five successive parliaments as member for Woodstock. He +died at Kensington in 1726, leaving two daughters, one of whom married the +second duke of Richmond and the other the second son of William earl of +Portland. + +Readers of _Esmond_ will have formed a very unfavourable estimate of +Cadogan, and it should be remembered that Thackeray's hero was the friend +and supporter of the opposition and General Webb. As a soldier, Cadogan was +one of the best staff officers in the annals of the British army, and in +command of detachments, and also as a commander-in-chief, he showed himself +to be an able, careful and withal dashing leader. + +He was succeeded, by special remainder, in the barony by his brother, +General Charles Cadogan (1691-1776), who married the daughter of Sir Hans +Sloane, thus beginning the association of the family with Chelsea, and died +in 1776, being succeeded in turn by his son Charles Sloane (1728-1807), who +in the year 1800 was created Viscount Chelsea and Earl Cadogan. His +descendant George Henry, 5th Earl Cadogan (b. 1840), was lord privy seal +from 1886 to 1892, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1895 to 1902. + +CADOUDAL, GEORGES (1771-1804), leader of the _Chouans_ during the French +Revolution, was born in 1771 near Auray. He had received a fair education, +and when the Revolution broke out he remained true to his royalist and +Catholic teaching. From 1793 he organized a rebellion in the Morbihan +against the revolutionary government. It was quickly suppressed and he +thereupon joined the army of the revolted Vendeans, taking part in the +battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in December 1793. Returning to Morbihan, +he was arrested, and imprisoned at Brest. He succeeded, however, in +escaping, and began again the struggle against the Revolution. In spite of +the defeat of his party, and of the fact that he was forced several times +to take refuge in England, Cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to +conspire in favour of the royalist pretenders. He refused to come to any +understanding with the government, although offers were made to him by +Bonaparte, who admired his skill and his obstinate energy. From 1800 it was +impossible for Cadoudal to continue to wage open war, so he took altogether +to plotting. He was indirectly concerned in the attempt made by Saint +Régent in the rue Sainte Nicaise on the life of the First Consul, in +December 1800, and fled to England again. In 1803 he returned to France to +undertake a new attempt against Bonaparte. Though watched for by the +police, he succeeded in eluding them for six months, but was at length +arrested. Found guilty and condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon +and was executed in Paris on the 10th of June 1804, along with eleven of +his companions. He is often called simply Georges. + +See _Procès de Georges, Moreau et Pichegru_ (Paris, 1804, 8 vols. 8vo); the +_Mémoires_ of Bourrienne, of Hyde de Neuville and of Rohu; Lenotre, +_Tournebut_ (on the arrest); Lejean, _Biographie bretonne_; and the +bibliography to the article VENDÉE. + +CADRE (Fr. for a frame, from the Lat. _quadrum_, a square), a framework or +skeleton, particularly the permanent establishment of a military corps, +regiment, &c. which can be expanded on emergency. + +CADUCEUS (the Lat. adaptation of the Doric Gr. [Greek: karukeion], Attic +[Greek: kêrukeion], a herald's wand), the staff used by the messengers of +the gods, and especially by Hermes as conductor of the souls of the dead to +the world below. The caduceus of Hermes, which was given him by Apollo in +exchange for the lyre, was a magic wand which exercised influence over the +living and the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned everything +it touched into gold. In its oldest form it was a rod ending in two prongs +twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with two shoots, adorned with +ribbons or garlands), for which, later, two serpents, with heads meeting at +the top, were substituted. The mythologists explained this by the story of +Hermes finding two serpents thus knotted together while fighting; he +separated them with his wand, which, crowned by the serpents, became the +symbol of the settlement of quarrels (Thucydides i. 53; Macrobius, _Sat._ +i. 19; Hyginus, _Poet. Astron._ ii. 7). A pair of wings was sometimes +attached to the top of the staff, in token of the speed of Hermes as a +messenger. In historical times the caduceus was the attribute of Hermes as +the god of commerce and peace, and among the Greeks it was the distinctive +mark of heralds and ambassadors, whose persons it rendered inviolable. The +caduceus itself was not used by the Romans, but the derivative _caduceator_ +occurs in the sense of a peace commissioner. + +See L. Preller, "Der Hermesstab" in _Philologus_, i. (1846); O.A. Hoffmann, +_Hermes und Kerykeion_ (1890), who argues that Hermes is a male lunar +divinity and his staff the special attribute of Aphrodite-Astarte. + +CADUCOUS (Lat. _caducus_), a botanical term for "falling early," as the +sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand. + +CAECILIA. This name was given by Linnaeus to the blind, or nearly blind, +worm-like Batrachians which were formerly associated with the snakes and +are now classed as an order under the names of _Apoda, Peromela_ or +_Gymnophiona_. The type of the genus _Caecilia_ is _Caecilia tentaculata_, +a moderately slender species, not unlike a huge earth-worm, growing to 2 +ft. in length with a diameter of three-quarters of an inch. It is one of +the largest species of the order. Other species of the same genus are very +slender in form, as for instance _Caecilia gracilis_, [v.04 p.0933] which +with a length of 2¼ ft. has a diameter of only a quarter of an inch. One of +the most remarkable characters of the genus _Caecilia_, which it shares +with about two-thirds of the known genera of the order, is the presence of +thin, cycloid, imbricate scales imbedded in the skin, a character only to +be detected by raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or +less completely encircle the body. This feature, unique among living +Batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly _Stegocephalia_, +a view which is further strengthened by the similarity of structure of +these scales in both groups, which the histological investigations of H. +Credner have revealed. The skull is well ossified and contains a greater +number of bones than occur in any other living Batrachian. There is +therefore strong reason for tracing the Caecilians directly from the +Stegocephalia, as was the view of T.H. Huxley and of R. Wiedersheim, since +supported by H. Gadow and by J.S. Kingsley. E.D. Cope had advocated the +abolition of the order Apoda and the incorporation of the Caecilians among +the Urodela or Caudata in the vicinity of the Amphiumidae, of which he +regarded them as further degraded descendants; and this opinion, which was +supported by very feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately +received the support of the two great authorities, P. and F. Sarasin, to +whom we are indebted for our first information on the breeding habits and +development of these Batrachians. + +The knowledge of species of Caecilians has made rapid progress, and we are +now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred to twenty-one genera. +The principal characters on which these genera are founded reside in the +presence or absence of scales, the presence or absence of eyes, the +presence of one or of two series of teeth in the lower jaw, the structure +of the tentacle (representing the so-called "balancers" of Urodele larvae) +on the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of a vacuity between +the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. Of these twenty-one genera +six are peculiar to tropical Africa, one to the Seychelles, four to +south-eastern Asia, eight to Central and South America, one occurs in both +continental Africa and the Seychelles, and one is common to Africa and +South America. + +These Batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in soft mud. The +complete development of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ has been observed in +Ceylon by P. and F. Sarasin. The eggs, forming a rosary-like string, are +very large, and deposited in a burrow near the water. The female protects +them by coiling herself round the egg-mass, which the young do not leave +till after the loss of the very large external gills (one on each side); +they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with an opening, or +spiraculum, on each side of the neck. In these larvae the head is +fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes, with the eyes much +more distinct than in the perfect animal; the tail, which is quite +rudimentary in all Caecilians, is very distinct, strongly compressed, and +bordered above and beneath by a dermal fold. + +In _Hypogeophis_, a Caecilian from the Seychelles studied by A. Brauer, the +development resembles that of _Ichthyophis_, but there is no aquatic larval +stage. The young leaves the egg in the perfect condition, and at once leads +a terrestrial life like its parents. In accordance with this abbreviated +development, the caudal membranous crest does not exist, and the branchial +aperture closes as soon as the external gills disappear. + +In the South American _Typhlonectes_, and in the _Dermophis_ from the +Island of St Thomé, West Africa, the young are brought forth alive, in the +former as larvae with external gills, and in the latter in the perfect +air-breathing condition. + +REFERENCES.--R. Wiedersheim, _Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena, 1879), 4to; +G.A. Boulenger, "Synopsis of the Genera and Species," _P.Z.S._, 1895, p. +401; R. Greeff, "Über Siphonops thomensis," _Sizb. Ges. Naturw._ (Marburg, +1884), p. 15; P. and F. Sarasin, _Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen auf +Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890), 4to; A. Brauer, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis +der Entwicklungsgeschichte und der Anatomie der Gymnophionen," _Zool. +Jahrb. Ana._ x., 1897, p. 389, xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, Suppl. +p. 381; E.A. Göldi, "Entwicklung von Siphonops annulatus," _Zool. Jahrb. +Syst._ xii., 1899, p. 170; J.S. Kingsley, "The systematic Position of the +Caecilians," _Tufts Coll. Stud._ vii., 1902, p. 323. + +(G. A. B.) + +CAECILIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which diverged from the Via +Salaria at the 35th m. from Rome, and ran by Amiternum to the Adriatic +coast, passing probably by Hadria. A branch ran to Interamna Praetuttiorum +(Teramo) and thence probably to the sea at Castrum Novum (Giulianova), a +distance of about 151 m. from Rome. It was probably constructed by L. +Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (consul in 117 B.C.). + +See C. Hülsen in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1896), 87 seq. N. Persichetti in +_Römische Mitteilungen_ (1898), 193 seq.; (1902), 277 seq. + +CAECILIUS, of Calacte ([Greek: Kalê\ Aktê]) in Sicily, Greek rhetorician, +flourished at Rome during the reign of Augustus. Originally called +Archagathus, he took the name of Caecilius from his patron, one of the +Metelli. According to Suidas, he was by birth a Jew. Next to Dionysius of +Halicarnassus, he was the most important critic and rhetorician of the +Augustan age. Only fragments are extant of his numerous and important +works, among which may be mentioned: _On the Style of the Ten Orators_ +(including their lives and a critical examination of their works), the +basis of the pseudo-Plutarchian treatise of the same name, in which +Caecilius is frequently referred to; _On the Sublime_, attacked by (?) +Longinus in his essay on the same subject (see L. Martens, _De Libello_ +[Greek: Peri hupsous], 1877); _History of the Servile Wars_, or slave +risings in Sicily, the local interest of which would naturally appeal to +the author; _On Rhetoric_ and _Rhetorical Figures_; an _Alphabetical +Selection of Phrases_, intended to serve as a guide to the acquirement of a +pure Attic style--the first example of an Atticist lexicon, mentioned by +Suidas in the preface to his lexicon as one of his authorities; _Against +the Phrygians_, probably an attack on the florid style of the Asiatic +school of rhetoric. + +The fragments have been collected and edited by T. Burckhardt (1863), and +E. Ofenloch (1907); some in C.W. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum +Graecorum_, iii.; C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht ... der classischen +Altertumswissenschaft_, xxiii. (1896), contains full notices of recent +works on Caecilius, by C. Hammer; F. Blass, _Griechische Beredsamkeit von +Alexander bis auf Augustus_ (1865), treats of Dionysius of Halicarnassus +and Caecilius together; see also J. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa, +_Realencyclopädie_ (1897). + +CAECILIUS STATIUS, or STATIUS CAECILIUS, Roman comic poet, contemporary and +intimate friend of Ennius, died in 168 (or 166) B.C. He was born in the +territory of the Insubrian Gauls, and was probably taken as a prisoner to +Rome (c. 200), during the great Gallic war. Originally a slave, he assumed +the name of Caecilius from his patron, probably one of the Metelli. He +supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the Roman stage from the new +comedy writers, especially Menander. If the statement in the life of +Terence by Suetonius is correct and the reading sound, Caecilius's judgment +was so esteemed that he was ordered to hear Terence's _Andria_ (exhibited +166 B.C.) read and to pronounce an opinion upon it. After several failures +Caecilius gained a high reputation. Volcacius Sedigitus, the dramatic +critic, places him first amongst the comic poets; Varro credits him with +pathos and skill in the construction of his plots; Horace (_Epistles_, ii. +1. 59) contrasts his dignity with the art of Terence. Quintilian (_Inst. +Orat._, x. 1. 99) speaks somewhat disparagingly of him, and Cicero, +although he admits with some hesitation that Caecilius may have been the +chief of the comic poets (_De Optimo Genere Oratorum_, 1), considers him +inferior to Terence in style and Latinity (_Ad Att._ vii. 3), as was only +natural, considering his foreign extraction. The fact that his plays could +be referred to by name alone without any indication of the author (Cicero, +_De Finibus_, ii. 7) is sufficient proof of their widespread popularity. +Caecilius holds a place between Plautus and Terence in his treatment of the +Greek originals; he did not, like Plautus, confound things Greek and Roman, +nor, like Terence, eliminate everything that could not be romanized. + +The fragments of his plays are chiefly preserved in Aulus Gellius, who +cites several passages from the _Plocium_ (necklace) together with the +original Greek of Menander. The translation which is diffuse and by no +means close, fails to reproduce the spirit of the original. Fragments in +Ribbeck, _Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta_ (1898); see also W.S. +Teuffel, _Caecilius Statius_, &c. (1858); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. +tr.), bk. iii. ch. 14; F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_ +(1897). + +[v.04 p.0934] + +CAECINA, the name of a distinguished Etruscan family of Volaterrae. Graves +have been discovered belonging to the family, whose name is still preserved +in the river and hamlet of Cecina. + +AULUS CAECINA, son of Aulus Caecina who was defended by Cicero (69 B.C.) in +a speech still extant, took the side of Pompey in the civil wars, and +published a violent tirade against Caesar, for which he was banished. He +recanted in a work called _Querelae_, and by the intercession of his +friends, above all, of Cicero, obtained pardon from Caesar. Caecina was +regarded as an important authority on the Etruscan system of divination +(_Etrusca Disciplina_), which he endeavoured to place on a scientific +footing by harmonizing its theories with the doctrines of the Stoics. +Considerable fragments of his work (dealing with lightning) are to be found +in Seneca (_Naturales Quaestiones_, ii. 31-49). Caecina was on intimate +terms with Cicero, who speaks of him as a gifted and eloquent man and was +no doubt considerably indebted to him in his own treatise _De Divinatione_. +Some of their correspondence is preserved in Cicero's letters (_Ad Fam._ +vi. 5-8; see also ix. and xiii. 66). + +AULUS CAECINA ALIENUS, Roman general, was quaestor of Baetica in Spain +(A.D. 68). On the death of Nero, he attached himself to Galba, who +appointed him to the command of a legion in upper Germany. Having been +prosecuted for embezzling public money, Caecina went over to Vitellius, who +sent him with a large army into Italy. Caecina crossed the Alps, but was +defeated near Cremona by Suetonius Paulinus, the chief general of Otho. +Subsequently, in conjunction with Fabius Valens, Caecina defeated Otho at +the decisive battle of Bedriacum (Betriacum). The incapacity of Vitellius +tempted Vespasian to take up arms against him. Caecina, who had been +entrusted with the repression of the revolt, turned traitor, and tried to +persuade his army to go over to Vespasian, but was thrown into chains by +the soldiers. After the overthrow of Vitellius, he was released, and taken +into favour by the new emperor. But he could not remain loyal to any one. +In 79 he was implicated in a conspiracy against Vespasian, and was put to +death by order of Titus. Caecina is described by Tacitus as a man of +handsome presence and boundless ambition, a gifted orator and a great +favourite with the soldiers. + +Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 53, 61, 67-70, ii. 20-25, 41-44, iii. 13; Dio +Cassius lxv. 10-14, lxvi. 16; Plutarch, _Otho_, 7; Suetonius, _Titus_, 6; +Zonaras xi. 17. + +CÆDMON, the earliest English Christian poet. His story, and even his very +name, are known to us only from Bæda (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 24). He was, +according to Bæda (see BEDE), a herdsman, who received a divine call to +poetry by means of a dream. One night, having quitted a festive company +because, from want of skill, he could not comply with the demand made of +each guest in turn to sing to the harp, he sought his bed and fell asleep. +He dreamed that there appeared to him a stranger, who addressed him by his +name, and commanded him to sing of "the beginning of created things." He +pleaded inability, but the stranger insisted, and he was compelled to obey. +He found himself uttering "verses which he had never heard." Of Cædmon's +song Bæda gives a prose paraphrase, which may be literally rendered as +follows:--"Now must we praise the author of the heavenly kingdom, the +Creator's power and counsel, the deeds of the Father of glory: how He, the +eternal God, was the author of all marvels--He, who first gave to the sons +of men the heaven for a roof, and then, Almighty Guardian of mankind, +created the earth." Bæda explains that his version represents the sense +only, not the arrangement of the words, because no poetry, however +excellent, can be rendered into another language, without the loss of its +beauty of expression. When Cædmon awoke he remembered the verses that he +had sung and added to them others. He related his dream to the farm bailiff +under whom he worked, and was conducted by him to the neighbouring +monastery at Streanæshalch (now called Whitby). The abbess Hild and her +monks recognized that the illiterate herdsman had received a gift from +heaven, and, in order to test his powers, proposed to him that he should +try to render into verse a portion of sacred history which they explained +to him. On the following morning he returned having fulfilled his task. At +the request of the abbess he became an inmate of the monastery. Throughout +the remainder of his life his more learned brethren from time to time +expounded to him the events of Scripture history and the doctrines of the +faith, and all that he heard from them he reproduced in beautiful poetry. +"He sang of the creation of the world, of the origin of mankind and of all +the history of Genesis, of the exodus of Israel from Egypt and their +entrance into the Promised Land, of many other incidents of Scripture +history, of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection and ascension, of +the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles. He also made +many songs of the terrors of the coming judgment, of the horrors of hell +and the sweetness of heaven; and of the mercies and the judgments of God." +All his poetry was on sacred themes, and its unvarying aim was to turn men +from sin to righteousness and the love of God. Although many amongst the +Angles had, following his example, essayed to compose religious poetry, +none of them, in Bæda's opinion, had approached the excellence of Cædmon's +songs. + +Bæda's account of Cædmon's deathbed has often been quoted, and is of +singular beauty. It is commonly stated that he died in 680, in the same +year as the abbess Hild, but for this there is no authority. All that we +know of his date is that his dream took place during the period (658-680) +in which Hild was abbess of Streanæshalch, and that he must have died some +considerable time before Bæda finished his history in 731. + +The hymn said to have been composed by Cædmon in his dream is extant in its +original language. A copy of it, in the poet's own Northumbrian dialect, +and in a handwriting of the 8th century, appears on a blank page of the +Moore MS. of Bæda's History; and five other Latin MSS. of Bæda have the +poem (but transliterated into a more southern dialect) as a marginal note. +In the old English version of Bæda, ascribed to King Alfred, and certainly +made by his command if not by himself, it is given in the text. Probably +the Latin MS. used by the translator was one that contained this addition. +It was formerly maintained by some scholars that the extant Old English +verses are not Bæda's original, but a mere retranslation from his Latin +prose version. The argument was that they correspond too closely with the +Latin; Bæda's words, "hic est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum," being +taken to mean that he had given, not a literal translation, but only a free +paraphrase. But the form of the sentences in Bæda's prose shows a close +adherence to the parallelistic structure of Old English verse, and the +alliterating words in the poem are in nearly every case the most obvious +and almost the inevitable equivalents of those used by Bæda. The sentence +quoted above[1] can therefore have been meant only as an apology for the +absence of those poetic graces that necessarily disappear in translations +into another tongue. Even on the assumption that the existing verses are a +retranslation, it would still be certain that they differ very slightly +from what the original must have been. It is of course possible to hold +that the story of the dream is pure fiction, and that the lines which Bæda +translated were not Cædmon's at all. But there is really nothing to justify +this extreme of scepticism. As the hymn is said to have been Cædmon's first +essay in verse, its lack of poetic merit is rather an argument for its +genuineness than against it. Whether Bæda's narrative be historical or +not--and it involves nothing either miraculous or essentially +improbable--there is no reason to doubt that the nine lines of the Moore +MS. are Cædmon's composition. + +This poor fragment is all that can with confidence be affirmed to remain of +the voluminous works of the man whom Bæda regarded as the greatest of +vernacular religious poets. It is true that for two centuries and a half a +considerable body of verse has been currently known by his name; but among +modern scholars the use of the customary designation is merely a matter of +convenience, and does not imply any belief in the correctness of the +attribution. The so-called Cædmon poems are contained [v.04 p.0935] in a +MS. written about A.D. 1000, which was given in 1651 by Archbishop Ussher +to the famous scholar Francis Junius, and is now in the Bodleian library. +They consist of paraphrases of parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and +three separate poems the first on the lamentations of the fallen angels, +the second on the "Harrowing of Hell," the resurrection, ascension and +second coming of Christ, and the third (a mere fragment) on the temptation. +The subjects correspond so well with those of Cædmon's poetry as described +by Bæda that it is not surprising that Junius, in his edition, published in +1655, unhesitatingly attributed the poems to him. The ascription was +rejected in 1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the character +of the language, is now known to be fallacious, as most of the poetry that +has come down to us in the West Saxon dialect is certainly of Northumbrian +origin. Since, however, we learn from Bæda that already in his time Cædmon +had had many imitators, the abstract probability is rather unfavourable +than otherwise to the assumption that a collection of poems contained in a +late 10th century MS. contains any of his work. Modern criticism has shown +conclusively that the poetry of the "Cædmon MS." cannot be all by one +author. Some portions of it are plainly the work of a scholar who wrote +with his Latin Bible before him. It is possible that some of the rest may +be the composition of the Northumbrian herdsman; but in the absence of any +authenticated example of the poet's work to serve as a basis of comparison, +the internal evidence can afford no ground for an affirmative conclusion. +On the other hand, the mere unlikeness of any particular passage to the +nine lines of the _Hymn_ is obviously no reason for denying that it may +have been by the same author. + +The _Genesis_ contains a long passage (ii. 235-851) on the fall of the +angels and the temptation of our first parents, which differs markedly in +style and metre from the rest. This passage, which begins in the middle of +a sentence (two leaves of the MS. having been lost) is one of the finest in +all Old English poetry. In 1877 Professor E. Sievers argued, on linguistic +grounds, that it was a translation, with some original insertions, from a +lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the author of the _Heliand_. Sievers's +conclusions were brilliantly confirmed in 1894 by the discovery in the +Vatican library of a MS. containing 62 lines of the _Heliand_ and three +fragments of an old Saxon poem on the story of Genesis. The first of these +fragments includes the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of +the Old English _Genesis_. The Old Saxon Biblical poetry belongs to the +middle of the 9th century; the Old English translation of a portion of it +is consequently later than this. + +As the _Genesis_ begins with a line identical in meaning, though not in +wording, with the opening of Cædmon's _Hymn_, we may perhaps infer that the +writer knew and used Cædmon's genuine poems. Some of the more poetical +passages may possibly echo Cædmon's expressions; but when, after treating +of the creation of the angels and the revolt of Lucifer, the paraphrast +comes to the Biblical part of the story, he follows the sacred text with +servile fidelity, omitting no detail, however prosaic. The ages of the +antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately rendered into verse. +In all probability the _Genesis_ is of Northumbrian origin. The names +assigned to the wives of Noah and his three sons (Phercoba, Olla, Olliua, +Olliuani[2]) have been traced to an Irish source, and this fact seems to +point to the influence of the Irish missionaries in Northumbria. + +The _Exodus_ is a fine poem, strangely unlike anything else in Old English +literature. It is full of martial spirit, yet makes no use of the phrases +of the heathen epic, which Cynewulf and other Christian poets were +accustomed to borrow freely, often with little appropriateness. The +condensation of the style and the peculiar vocabulary make the _Exodus_ +somewhat obscure in many places. It is probably of southern origin, and can +hardly be supposed to be even an imitation of Cædmon. + +The _Daniel_ is often unjustly depreciated. It is not a great poem but the +narration is lucid and interesting. The author has borrowed some 70 lines +from the beginning of a poetical rendering of the Prayer of Azarias and the +Song of the Three Children, of which there is a copy in the Exeter Book. +The borrowed portion ends with verse 3 of the canticle, the remainder of +which follows in a version for the most part independent, though containing +here and there a line from _Azarias_. Except in inserting the prayer and +the _Benedicite_, the paraphrast draws only from the canonical part of the +book of Daniel. The poem is obviously the work of a scholar, though the +Bible is the only source used. + +The three other poems, designated as "Book II" in the Junius MS., are +characterized by considerable imaginative power and vigour of expression, +but they show an absence of literary culture and are somewhat rambling, +full of repetitions and generally lacking in finish. They abound in +passages of fervid religious exhortation. On the whole, both their merits +and their defects are such as we should expect to find in the work of the +poet celebrated by Bæda, and it seems possible, though hardly more than +possible, that we have in these pieces a comparatively little altered +specimen of Cædmon's compositions. + +Of poems not included in the Junius MS., the _Dream of the Rood_ (see +CYNEWULF) is the only one that has with any plausibility been ascribed to +Cædmon. It was affirmed by Professor G. Stephens that the Ruthwell Cross, +on which a portion of the poem is inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone +the name "Cadmon";[3] but, according to Professor W. Vietor, the traces of +runes that are still visible exclude all possibility of this reading. The +poem is certainly Northumbrian and earlier than the date of Cynewulf. It +would be impossible to prove that Cædmon was not the author, though the +production of such a work by the herdsman of Streanæshalch would certainly +deserve to rank among the miracles of genius. + +Certain similarities between passages in _Paradise Lost_ and parts of the +translation from Old Saxon interpolated in the Old English _Genesis_ have +given occasion to the suggestion that some scholar may have talked to +Milton about the poetry published by Junius in 1655, and that the poet may +thus have gained some hints which he used in his great work. The parallels, +however, though very interesting, are only such as might be expected to +occur between two poets of kindred genius working on what was essentially +the same body of traditional material. + +The name Cædmon (in the MSS. of the Old English version of Bæda written +_Cedmon, Ceadmann_) is not explicable by means of Old English; the +statement that it means "boatman" is founded on the corrupt gloss +_liburnam, ced_, where _ced_ is an editorial misreading for _ceol_. It is +most probably the British _Cadman_, intermediate between the Old Celtic +_Catumanus_ and the modern Welsh _Cadfan_. Possibly the poet may have been +of British descent, though the inference is not certain, as British names +may sometimes have been given to English children. The name Caedwalla or +Ceadwalla was borne by a British king mentioned by Bæda and by a king of +the West Saxons. The initial element _Caed_--or _Cead_ (probably adopted +from British names in which it represents _catu_, war) appears combined +with an Old English terminal element in the name _Caedbaed_ (cp., however, +the Irish name Cathbad), and hypocoristic forms of names containing it were +borne by the English saints Ceadda (commonly known as St Chad) and his +brother Cedd, called Ceadwealla in one MS. of the _Old English +Martyrology_. A Cadmon witnesses a Buckinghamshire charter of about A.D. +948. + +The older editions of the so-called "Cædmon's Paraphrase" by F. Junius +(1655); B. Thorpe (1832), with an English translation; K.W. Bouterwek +(1851-1854); C.W.M. Grein in his _Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie_ +(1857) are superseded, so far as the text is concerned, by R. Wülker's +re-edition of Grein's _Bibliothek_, Bd. ii. (1895). This work contains also +the texts of the _Hymn_ and the _Dream of the Rood_. The pictorial +illustrations of the Junius MS. were published in 1833 by Sir H. Ellis. + +(H. BR.) + +[1] It is a significant fact that the Alfredian version, instead of +translating this sentence, introduces the verses with the words, "This is +the order of the words." + +[2] The invention of these names was perhaps suggested by _Pericope Oollae +et Oolibae_, which may have been a current title for the 23rd chapter of +Ezekiel. + +[3] Stephens read the inscription on the top-stone as _Cadmon mae fauaepo_, +which he rendered "Cadmon made me." But these words are mere jargon, not +belonging to any known or possible Old English dialect. + +[v.04 p.0936] CAELIA, the name of two ancient cities in Italy, (1) In +Apulia (mod. _Ceglie di Bari_) on the Via Traiana, 5 m. S. of Barium. Coins +found here bearing the inscription [Greek: Kailinôn] prove that it was once +an independent town. Discoveries of ruins and tombs have also been made. +(2) In Calabria (mod. _Ceglie Messapica_) 25 m. W. of Brundusium, and 991 +ft. above sea-level. It was in early times a place of some importance, as +is indicated by the remains of a prehistoric _enceinte_ and by the +discovery of several Messapian inscriptions. + +See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1252. + +CAEN, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of +Calvados, 7½ m. from the English Channel and 149 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the +Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) 36,247. It is situated in the +valley and on the left bank of the Orne, the right bank of which is +occupied by the suburb of Vaucelles with the station of the Western +railway. To the south-west of Caen, the Orne is joined by the Odon, arms of +which water the "Prairie," a fine plain on which a well-known race-course +is laid out. Its wide streets, of which the most important is the rue St +Jean, shady boulevards, and public gardens enhance the attraction which the +town derives from an abundance of fine churches and old houses. Hardly any +remains of its once extensive ramparts and towers are now to be seen; but +the castle, founded by William the Conqueror and completed by Henry I., is +still employed as barracks, though in a greatly altered condition. St +Pierre, the most beautiful church in Caen, stands at the northern extremity +of the rue St Jean, in the centre of the town. In the main, its +architecture is Gothic, but the choir and the apsidal chapels, with their +elaborate interior and exterior decoration, are of Renaissance workmanship. +The graceful tower, which rises beside the southern portal to a height of +255 ft., belongs to the early 14th century. The church of St Étienne, or +l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes, in the west of the town, is an important specimen of +Romanesque architecture, dating from about 1070, when it was founded by +William the Conqueror. It is unfortunately hemmed in by other buildings, so +that a comprehensive view of it is not to be obtained. The whole building, +and especially the west façade, which is flanked by two towers with lofty +spires, is characterized by its simplicity. The choir, which is one of the +earliest examples of the Norman Gothic style, dates from the early 13th +century. In 1562 the Protestants did great damage to the building, which +was skilfully restored in the early 17th century. A marble slab marks the +former resting-place of William the Conqueror. The abbey-buildings were +rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, and now shelter the lycée. Matilda, +wife of the Conqueror, was the foundress of the church of La Trinité or +l'Abbaye-aux-Dames, which is of the same date as St Étienne. Two square +unfinished towers flank the western entrance, and another rises above the +transept. Queen Matilda is interred in the choir, and a fine crypt beneath +it contains the remains of former abbesses. The buildings of the nunnery, +reconstructed in the early 18th century, now serve as a hospital. Other +interesting old churches are those of St Sauveur, St Michel de Vaucelles, +St Jean, St Gilles, Notre-Dame de la Gloriette, St Étienne le Vieux and St +Nicolas, the last two now secularized. Caen possesses many old timber +houses and stone mansions, in one of which, the hôtel d'Ecoville (c. 1530), +the exchange and the tribunal of commerce are established. The hôtel de +Than, also of the 16th century, is remarkable for its graceful +dormer-windows. The Maison des Gens d'Armes (15th century), in the eastern +outskirts of the town, has a massive tower adorned with medallions and +surmounted by two figures of armed men. The monuments at Caen include one +to the natives of Calvados killed in 1870 and 1871 and one to the lawyer +J.C.F. Demolombe, together with statues of Louis XIV, Élie de Beaumont, +Pierre Simon, marquis de Laplace, D.F.E. Auber and François de Malherbe, +the two last natives of the town. Caen is the seat of a court of appeal, of +a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is the centre of an academy and has +a university with faculties of law, science and letters and a preparatory +school of medicine and pharmacy; there are also a lycée, training colleges, +schools of art and music, and two large hospitals. The other chief public +institutions are tribunals of first instance and commerce, an exchange, a +chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The hôtel-de-ville +contains the library, with more than 100,000 volumes and the art museum +with a fine collection of paintings. The town is the seat of several +learned societies including the Société des Antiquaires, which has a rich +museum of antiquities. Caen, despite a diversity of manufactures, is +commercial rather than industrial. Its trade is due to its position in the +agricultural and horse-breeding district known as the "Campagne de Caen" +and to its proximity to the iron mines of the Orne valley, and to +manufacturing towns such as Falaise, Le Mans, &c. In the south-east of the +town there is a floating basin lined with quays and connected with the Orne +and with the canal which debouches into the sea at Ouistreham 9 m. to the +N.N.E. The port, which also includes a portion of the river-bed, +communicates with Havre and Newhaven by a regular line of steamers; it has +a considerable fishing population. In 1905 the number of vessels entered +was 563 with a tonnage of 190,190. English coal is foremost among the +imports, which also include timber and grain, while iron ore, Caen +stone[1], butter and eggs and fruit are among the exports. Important horse +and cattle fairs are held in the town. The industries of Caen include +timber-sawing, metal-founding and machine-construction, cloth-weaving, +lace-making, the manufacture of leather and gloves, and of oil from the +colza grown in the district, furniture and other wooden goods and chemical +products. + +Though Caen is not a town of great antiquity, the date of its foundation is +unknown. It existed as early as the 9th century, and when, in 912, Neustria +was ceded to the Normans by Charles the Simple, it was a large and +important place. Under the dukes of Normandy, and particularly under +William the Conqueror, it rapidly increased. It became the capital of lower +Normandy, and in 1346 was besieged and taken by Edward III. of England. It +was again taken by the English in 1417, and was retained by them till 1450, +when it capitulated to the French. The university was founded in 1436 by +Henry VI. of England. During the Wars of Religion, Caen embraced the +reform; in the succeeding century its prosperity was shattered by the +revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the city was the focus of +the Girondist movement against the Convention. + +See G. Mancel et C. Woinez, _Hist. de la ville de Caen et de ses progrès_ +(Caen, 1836); B. Pent, _Hist. de la ville de Caen, ses origines_ (Caen, +1866); E. de R. de Beaurepaire, _Caen illustré: son histoire, ses +monuments_ (Caen, 1896). + +[1] A limestone well adapted for building. It was well known in the 15th +and 16th centuries, at which period many English churches were built of it. + +CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIUS, Roman general, consul 106 B.C. During his year +of office, he brought forward a law by which the jurymen were again to be +chosen from the senators instead of the equites (Tacitus, _Ann._ xii. 60). +As governor of Gallia Narbonensis, he plundered the temple of the Celtic +Apollo at Tolosa (Toulouse), which had joined the Cimbri. In 105, Caepio +suffered a crushing defeat from the Cimbri at Arausio (Orange) on the +Rhone, which was looked upon as a punishment for his sacrilege; hence the +proverb _Aurum Tolosanum habet_, of an act involving disastrous +consequences. In the same year he was deprived of his proconsulship and his +property confiscated; subsequently (the chronology is obscure, see Mommsen, +_History of Rome_, bk. iv. ch. 5) he was expelled from the senate, accused +by the tribune Norbanus of embezzlement and misconduct during the war, +condemned and imprisoned. He either died during his confinement or escaped +to Smyrna. + +Livy, _Epit._ 67; Valerius Maximus iv. 7. 3; Justin xxxii. 3; Aulus Gellius +iii. 9. + +CAERE (mod. _Cerveteri, i.e. Caere vetus_, see below), an ancient city of +Etruria about 5 m. from the sea coast and about 20 m. N.W. of Rome, direct +from which it was reached by branch roads from the Via Aurelia and Via +Clodia. Ancient writers tell us that its original Pelasgian name was +Agylla, and that the Etruscans took it and called it Caere (when this +occurred is not known), [v.04 p.0937] but the former name lasted on into +later times as well as Caere. It was one of the twelve cities of Etruria, +and its trade, through its port Pyrgos (_q.v._), was of considerable +importance. It fought with Rome in the time of Tarquinus Priscus and +Servius Tullius, and subsequently became the refuge of the expelled +Tarquins. After the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C., the vestal virgins +and the sacred objects in their custody were conveyed to Caere for safety, +and from this fact some ancient authorities derive the word _caerimonia_, +ceremony. A treaty was made between Rome and Caere in the same year. In +353, however, Caere took up arms against Rome out of friendship for +Tarquinii, but was defeated, and it is probably at this time that it became +partially incorporated with the Roman state, as a community whose members +enjoyed only a restricted form of Roman citizenship, without the right to a +vote, and which was, further, without internal autonomy. The status is +known as the _ius Caeritum_, and Caere was the first of a class of such +municipalities (Th. Mommsen, _Römische Staatsrecht_, iii. 583). In the +First Punic War, Caere furnished Rome with corn and provisions, but +otherwise, up till the end of the Republic, we only hear of prodigies being +observed at Caere and reported at Rome, the Etruscans being especially +expert in augural lore. By the time of Augustus its population had actually +fallen behind that of the Aquae Caeretanae (the sulphur springs now known +as the Bagni del Sasso, about 5 m. W.), but under either Augustus or +Tiberius its prosperity was to a certain extent restored, and inscriptions +speak of its municipal officials (the chief of them called _dictator_) and +its town council, which had the title of _senatus_. In the middle ages, +however, it sank in importance, and early in the 13th century, a part of +the inhabitants founded Caere novum (mod. _Ceri_) 3 m. to the east. + +The town lay on a hill of tufa, running from N.E. to S.W., isolated except +on the N.E., and about 300 ft. above sea-level. The modern town, at the +western extremity, probably occupies the site of the acropolis. The line of +the city walls, of rectangular blocks of tufa, can be traced, and there +seem to have been eight gates in the circuit, which was about 4 m. in +length. There are no remains of buildings of importance, except the +theatre, in which many inscriptions and statues of emperors were found. The +necropolis in the hill to the north-west, known as the Banditaccia, is +important. The tomb chambers are either hewn in the rock or covered by +mounds. One of the former class was the family tomb of the +Tarchna-Tarquinii, perhaps descended from the Roman kings; others are +interesting from their architectural and decorative details. One +especially, the Grotta dei Bassirilievi, has interesting reliefs cut in the +rock and painted, while the walls of another were decorated with painted +tiles of terracotta. The most important tomb of all, the Regolini-Galassi +tomb (taking its name from its discoverers), which lies S.W. of the ancient +city, is a narrow rock-hewn chamber about 60 ft. long, lined with masonry, +the sides converging to form the roof. The objects found in it (a chariot, +a bed, silver goblets with reliefs, rich gold ornaments, &c.) are now in +the Etruscan Museum at the Vatican: they are attributed to about the middle +of the 7th century B.C. At a short distance from the modern town on the +west, thousands of votive terracottas were found in 1886, some representing +divinities, others parts of the human body (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, +38). They must have belonged to some temple. + +See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, i. 226 seq.; C. Hülsen +in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 1281. + +(T. AS.) + +CAERLEON, an ancient village in the southern parliamentary division of +Monmouthshire, England, on the right (west) bank of the Usk, 3 m. N.E. of +Newport. Pop. (1901) 1411. Its claim to notice rests on its Roman and +British associations. As _Isca Silurum_, it was one of the three great +legionary fortresses of Roman Britain, established either about A.D. 50 +(Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 32), or perhaps, as coin-finds suggest, about A.D. +74-78 in the governorship of Julius Frontinus, and in either case intended +to coerce the wild Silures. It was garrisoned by the Legio II. Augusta from +its foundation till near the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Though never +seriously excavated, it contains plentiful visible traces of its Roman +period--part of the ramparts, the site of an amphitheatre, and many +inscriptions, sculptured stones, &c., in the local museum. No civil life or +municipality seems, however, to have grown up outside its walls, as at York +(_Eburacum_). Like Chester (see DEVA), it remained purely military, and the +common notion that it was the seat of a Christian bishopric in the 4th +century is unproved and improbable. Its later history is obscure. We do not +know when the legion was finally withdrawn, nor what succeeded. But Welsh +legend has made the site very famous with tales of Arthur (revived by +Tennyson in his _Idylls_), of Christian martyrs, Aaron and Julius, and of +an archbishopric held by St Dubric and shifted to St David's in the 6th +century. Most of these traditions date from Geoffrey of Monmouth (about +1130-1140), and must not be taken for history. The ruins of Caerleon +attracted notice in the 12th and following centuries, and gave plain cause +for legend-making. There is better, but still slender, reason for the +belief that it was here, and not at Chester, that five kings of the Cymry +rowed Edgar in a barge as a sign of his sovereignty (A.D. 973). The name +Caerleon seems to be derived from the Latin _Castra legionum_, but it is +not peculiar to Caerleon-on-Usk, being often used of Chester and +occasionally of Leicester and one or two other places. + +(F. J. H.) + +CAERPHILLY, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, 152¼ m. from London by +rail _via_ Cardiff, 7 m. from Cardiff, 12 m. from Newport and 6 m. from +Pontypridd. The origin of the name is unknown. It was formerly in the +ancient parish of Eglwysilan, but from that and Bedwas (Mon.) an +ecclesiastical parish was formed in 1850, while the whole of the parishes +of Eglwysilan and Llanfabon, with a total acreage of 14,426, were in 1893 +constituted into an urban district; its population in 1901 was 15,385, of +which 4343 were in the "town" ward. In 1858 was opened the Rhymney railway +from Rhymney to Caerphilly and on to Taff's Well, whence it had running +powers over the Taff Vale railway to Cardiff, but in 1871, by means of a +tunnel about 2000 yds. long, under Cefn Onn, a direct line was provided +from Caerphilly to Cardiff. A branch line, 4 m. long, was opened in 1894 to +Senghenydd. The Pontypridd and Newport railway was constructed in 1887, and +there is a joint station at Caerphilly for both railways. Some 2 m. +eastwards there is a station on the Brecon and Merthyr railway at Bedwas. + +The ancient commote of Senghenydd (corresponding to the modern hundred of +Caerphilly) comprised the mountainous district extending from the ridge of +Cefn Onn on the south to Breconshire on the north, being bounded by the +rivers Taff and Rumney on the west and east. Its inhabitants, though +nominally subject to the lords of Glamorgan since Fitzhamon's conquest, +enjoyed a large measure of independence and often raided the lowlands. To +keep these in check, Gilbert de Clare, during the closing years of the +reign of Henry III., built the castle of Caerphilly on the southern edge of +this district, in a wide plain between the two rivers. It had probably not +been completed, though it was already defensible, when Prince Llewelyn ab +Griffith, incensed by its construction and claiming its site as his own, +laid siege to it in 1271 and refused to retire except on conditions. +Subsequently completed and strengthened it became and still remains (in the +words of G.T. Clark) "both the earliest and the most complete example in +Britain of a concentric castle of the type known as 'Edwardian', the circle +of walls and towers of the outer, inner and middle wards exhibiting the +most complete illustration of the most scientific military architecture". +The knoll on which it stood was converted almost into an island by the +damming up of an adjacent brook, and the whole enclosed area amounted to 30 +acres. The great hall (which is 73 ft. by 35 ft. and about 30 ft. high) is +a fine example of Decorated architecture. This and other additions are +attributed to Hugh le Despenser (1318-1326). Edward II. visited the castle +shortly before his capture in 1326. The defence of the castle was committed +by Henry IV. to Constance, Lady Despenser, in September 1403, but it was +shortly afterwards taken by Owen Glyndwr, to whose mining operations +tradition ascribes the leaning position of a large [v.04 p.0938] circular +tower, about 50 ft. high, the summit of which overhangs its base about 9 +ft. Before the middle of the 15th century it had ceased to be a fortified +residence and was used as a prison, which was also the case in the time of +Leland (1535), who describes it as in a ruinous state. It is still, +however, one of the most extensive and imposing ruins of the kind in the +kingdom. + +The town grew up around the castle but never received a charter or had a +governing body. In 1661 the corporation of Cardiff complained of Cardiff's +impoverishment by reason of a fair held every three weeks for the previous +four years at Caerphilly, though "no Borough." Its markets during the 19th +century had been chiefly noted for the Caerphilly cheese sold there. The +district was one of the chief centres of the Methodist revival of the 18th +century, the first synod of the Calvinistic Methodists being held in 1743 +at Watford farm close to the town, from which place George Whitefield was +married at Eglwysilan church two years previously. The church of St Martin +was built in 1879, and there are Nonconformist chapels. Mining is now the +chief industry of the district. + +(D. LL. T.) + +CAESALPINUS (CESALPINO), ANDREAS (1519-1603), Italian natural philosopher, +was born in Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. He studied anatomy and medicine at +the university of Pisa, where he took his doctor's degree in 1551, and in +1555 became professor materia medica and director of the botanical garden. +Appointed physician to Pope Clement VIII., he removed in 1592 to Rome, +where he died on the 23rd of February 1603. Caesalpinus was the most +distinguished botanist of his time. His work, _De Plantis libri xvi._ +(Florence, 1583), was not only the source from which various subsequent +writers, and especially Robert Morison (1620-1683) derived their ideas of +botanical arrangement but it was a mine of science to which Linnaeus +himself gratefully avowed his obligations. Linnaeus's copy of the book +evinces the great assiduity with which he studied it; he laboured +throughout to remedy the defect of the want of synonyms, sub-joined his own +generic names to nearly every species, and particularly indicated the two +remarkable passages where the germination of plants and their sexual +distinctions are explained. Caesalpinus was also distinguished as a +physiologist, and it has been claimed that he had a clear idea of the +circulation of the blood (see HARVEY, WILLIAM). His other works include +_Daemonum investigatio peripatetica_ (1580), _Quaestionum medicarum libri +ii._ (1593), _De Metallicis_ (1596), and _Quaestionum peripateticarum libri +v._ (1571) + +CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102-44 B.C.), the great Roman soldier and statesman, +was born on the 12th of July 102 B.C.[1] [Sidenote: Early years.] His +family was of patrician rank and traced a legendary descent from Iulus, the +founder of Alba Longa, son of Aeneas and grandson of Venus and Anchises. +Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and built a temple in his forum +to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician descent was of little importance in +politics and disqualified Caesar from holding the tribunate, an office to +which, as a leader of the popular party, he would naturally have aspired. +The Julii Caesares, however, had also acquired the new _nobilitas_, which +belonged to holders of the great magistracies. Caesar's uncle was consul in +91 B.C., and his father held the praetorship. Most of the family seem to +have belonged to the senatorial party (_optimates_); but Caesar himself was +from the first a _popularis_. The determining factor is no doubt to be +sought in his relationship with C. Marius, the husband of his aunt Julia. +Caesar was born in the year of Marius's first great victory over the +Teutones, and as he grew up, inspired by the traditions of the great +soldier's career, attached himself to his party and its fortunes. Of his +education we know scarcely anything. His mother, Aurelia, belonged to a +distinguished family, and Tacitus (_Dial. de Orat._ xxviii.) couples her +name with that of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the +Roman matron whose _disciplina_ and _severitas_ formed her son for the +duties of a soldier and statesman. His tutor was M. Antonius Gnipho, a +native of Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is said to have +been equally learned in Greek and Latin literature, and to have set up in +later years a school of rhetoric which was attended by Cicero in his +praetorship 66 B.C. It is possible that Caesar may have derived from him +his interest in Gaul and its people and his sympathy with the claims of the +Romanized Gauls of northern Italy to political rights. + +In his sixteenth year (87 B.C.) Caesar lost his father, and assumed the +_toga virilis_ as the token of manhood. The social war (90-89 B.C.) had +been brought to a close by the enfranchisement of Rome's Italian subjects; +and the civil war which followed it led, after the departure of Sulla for +the East, to the temporary triumph of the _populares_, led by Marius and +Cinna, and the indiscriminate massacre of their political opponents, +including both of Caesar's uncles. Caesar was at once marked out for high +distinction, being created _flamen Dialis_ or priest of Jupiter. In the +following year (which saw the death of Marius) Caesar, rejecting a proposed +marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress, sought and obtained the hand +of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and thus became further identified with +the ruling party. His career was soon after interrupted by the triumphant +return of Sulla (82 B.C.), who ordered him to divorce his wife, and on his +refusal deprived him of his property and priesthood and was induced to +spare his life only by the intercession of his aristocratic relatives and +the college of vestal virgins. + +Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 B.C.) left Rome for +the East and served his first campaign under Minucius Thermus, who was +engaged in stamping out the embers of resistance to Roman rule in the +province of Asia, and received from him the "civic crown" for saving a +fellow-soldier's life at the storm of Mytilene. In 78 B.C. he was serving +under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician pirates when the news of +Sulla's death reached him and he at once returned to Rome. Refusing to +entangle himself in the abortive and equivocal schemes of Lepidus to +subvert the Sullan constitution, Caesar took up the only instrument of +political warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial +governors, Cn. Cornelius Dolabella (in 77 B.C.) and C. Antonius (in 76 +B.C.) for extortion in the provinces of Macedonia and Greece, and though he +lost both cases, probably convinced the world at large of the corruption of +the senatorial tribunals. After these failures Caesar determined to take no +active part in politics for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in +order to study rhetoric under Molon, at Rhodes. On the journey thither he +was caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate nonchalance while +awaiting his ransom, threatening to return and crucify them; when released +he lost no time in carrying out his threat. Whilst he was studying at +Rhodes the third Mithradatic War broke out, and Caesar at once raised a +corps of volunteers and helped to secure the wavering loyalty of the +provincials of Asia. When Lucullus assumed the command of the Roman troops +in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had been elected to a +seat on the college of _pontifices_ left vacant by the death of his uncle, +C. Aurelius Cotta. He was likewise elected first of the six _tribuni +militum a populo_, but we hear nothing of his service in this capacity. +Suetonius tells us that he threw himself into the agitation for the +restoration of the ancient powers of the tribunate curtailed by Sulla, and +that he secured the passing of a law of amnesty in favour of the partisans +of Sertorius. He was not, however, destined to compass the downfall of the +Sullan _régime_; the crisis of the Slave War placed the Senate at the mercy +of Pompey and Crassus, who in 70 B.C. swept away the safeguards of +senatorial ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to the +tribunes, and replaced the Equestrian order, _i.e._ the capitalists, in +partial possession of the jury-courts. This judicial reform (or rather +compromise) was the work of Caesar's uncle, L. Aurelius Cotta. Caesar +himself, however, gained no accession of influence. In 69 B.C. he served as +quaestor under Antistius Vetus, governor of Hither Spain, and on his way +back to Rome (according to Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation +[v.04 p.0939] amongst the Transpadanes for the acquisition of full +political rights, which had been denied them by Sulla's settlement. + +Caesar was now best known as a man of pleasure, celebrated for his debts +and his intrigues; in politics he had no force behind [Sidenote: Opposition +to the Optimates.] him save that of the discredited party of the +_populares_, reduced to lending a passive support to Pompey and Crassus. +But as soon as the proved incompetence of the senatorial government had +brought about the mission of Pompey to the East with the almost unlimited +powers conferred on him by the Gabinian and Manilian laws of 67 and 66 B.C. +(see POMPEY), Caesar plunged into a network of political intrigues which it +is no longer possible to unravel. In his public acts he lost no opportunity +of upholding the democratic tradition. Already in 68 B.C. he had paraded +the bust of Marius at his aunt's funeral; in 65 B.C., as curule aedile, he +restored the trophies of Marius to their place on the Capitol; in 64 B.C., +as president of the murder commission, he brought three of Sulla's +executioners to trial, and in 63 B.C. he caused the ancient procedure of +trial by popular assembly to be revived against the murderer of Saturninus. +By these means, and by the lavishness of his expenditure on public +entertainments as aedile, he acquired such popularity with the plebs that +he was elected _pontifex maximus_ in 63 B.C. against such distinguished +rivals as Q. Lutatius Catulus and P. Servilius Isauricus. But all this was +on the surface. There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of some at +least of the threads of conspiracy which were woven during Pompey's absence +in the East. According to one story, the _enfants perdus_ of the +revolutionary party--Catiline, Autronius and others--designed to +assassinate the consuls on the 1st of January 65, and make Crassus +dictator, with Caesar as master of the horse. We are also told that a +public proposal was made to confer upon him an extraordinary military +command in Egypt, not without a legitimate king and nominally under the +protection of Rome. An equally abortive attempt to create a counterpoise to +Pompey's power was made by the tribune Rullus at the close of 64 B.C. He +proposed to create a land commission with very wide powers, which would in +effect have been wielded by Caesar and Crassus. The bill was defeated by +Cicero, consul in 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy associated with +the name of Catiline came to a head. The charge of complicity was freely +levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by Cato in the great debate in +the senate. But Caesar, for party reasons, was bound to oppose the +execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who shared in the accusation, +was the richest man in Rome and the least likely to further anarchist +plots. Both, however, doubtless knew as much and as little as suited their +convenience of the doings of the left wing of their party, which served to +aggravate the embarrassments of the government. + +As praetor (62 B.C.) Caesar supported proposals in Pompey's favour which +brought him into violent collision with the senate. This was a +master-stroke of tactics, as Pompey's return was imminent. Thus when Pompey +landed in Italy and disbanded his army he found in Caesar a natural ally. +After some delay, said to have been caused by the exigencies of his +creditors, which were met by a loan of £200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left +Rome for his province of Further Spain, where he was able to retrieve his +financial position, and to lay the foundations of a military reputation. He +returned to Rome in 60 B.C. to find that the senate had sacrificed the +support of the capitalists (which Cicero had worked so hard to secure), and +had finally alienated Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and grant lands +to his soldiers. Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus, who +alike detested the existing system of government but were personally at +variance, and succeeded in persuading them to forget their quarrel and join +him in a coalition which should put an end to the rule of the oligarchy. He +even made a generous, though unsuccessful, endeavour to enlist the support +of Cicero. The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, and constitutional +government ceased to exist save in name. + +The first prize which fell to Caesar was the consulship, to secure which he +forewent the triumph which he had earned in Spain. His colleague was M. +Bibulus, who belonged to the straitest sect of the senatorial oligarchy +and, together with [Sidenote: Coalition with Pompey and Crassus.] his +party, placed every form of constitutional obstruction in the path of +Caesar's legislation. Caesar, however, overrode all opposition, mustering +Pompey's veterans to drive his colleague from the forum. Bibulus became a +virtual prisoner in his own house, and Caesar placed himself outside the +pale of the free republic. Thus the programme of the coalition was carried +through. Pompey was satisfied by the ratification of his acts in Asia, and +by the assignment of the Campanian state domains to his veterans, the +capitalists (with whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain +for the farming of the Asiatic revenues cancelled, Ptolemy Auletes received +the confirmation of his title to the throne of Egypt (for a consideration +amounting to £1,500,000), and a fresh act was passed for preventing +extortion by provincial governors. + +It was now all-important for Caesar to secure practical irresponsibility by +obtaining a military command. The senate, [Sidenote: Gallic wars.] in +virtue of its constitutional prerogative, had assigned as the _provincia_ +of the consuls of 59 B.C. the supervision of roads and forests in Italy. +Caesar secured the passing of a legislative enactment conferring upon +himself the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria for five years, and +exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine Gaul, where, +as he well knew, a storm was brewing which threatened to sweep away Roman +civilization beyond the Alps. The mutual jealousies of the Gallic tribes +had enabled German invaders first to gain a foothold on the left bank of +the Rhine, and then to obtain a predominant position in Central Gaul. In 60 +B.C. the German king Ariovistus had defeated the Aedui, who were allies of +Rome, and had wrested from the Sequani a large portion of their territory. +Caesar must have seen that the Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome +the mastery of Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 B.C. +Ariovistus was inscribed on the roll of the friends of the Roman people. In +58 B.C. the Helvetii, a Celtic people inhabiting Switzerland, determined to +migrate for the shores of the Atlantic and demanded a passage through Roman +territory. According to Caesar's statement they numbered 368,000, and it +was necessary at all hazards to save the Roman province from the invasion. +Caesar had but one legion beyond the Alps. With this he marched to Geneva, +destroyed the bridge over the Rhone, fortified the left bank of the river, +and forced the Helvetii to follow the right bank. Hastening back to Italy +he withdrew his three remaining legions from Aquileia, raised two more, +and, crossing the Alps by forced marches, arrived in the neighbourhood of +Lyons to find that three-fourths of the Helvetii had already crossed the +Saône, marching westward. He destroyed their rearguard, the Tigurini, as it +was about to cross, transported his army across the river in twenty-four +hours, pursued the Helvetii in a northerly direction, and utterly defeated +them at Bibracte (Mont Beuvray). Of the survivors a few were settled +amongst the Aedui; the rest were sent back to Switzerland lest it should +fall into German hands. + +The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from the actual or +threatened tyranny of Ariovistus. He at once demanded a conference, which +Ariovistus refused, and on hearing that fresh swarms were crossing the +Rhine, marched with all haste to Vesontio (Besançon) and thence by way of +Belfort into the plain of Alsace, where he gained a decisive victory over +the Germans, of whom only a few (including Ariovistus) reached the right +bank of the Rhine in safety. These successes roused natural alarm in the +minds of the Belgae--a confederacy of tribes in the north-west of Gaul, +whose civilization was less advanced than that of the Celtae of the +centre--and in the spring of 57 B.C. Caesar determined to anticipate the +offensive movement which they were understood to be preparing and marched +northwards into the territory of the Remi (about Reims), who alone amongst +their neighbours were friendly to Rome. He successfully checked the advance +of the enemy at the passage of the Aisne (between Laon and Reims) and their +ill-organized force melted away as he advanced. But the Nervii, and their +neighbours further to the north-west, remained to be dealt with, and were +[v.04 p.0940] crushed only after a desperate struggle on the banks of the +Sambre, in which Caesar was forced to expose his person in the _mêlée_. +Finally, the Aduatuci (near Namur) were compelled to submit, and were +punished for their subsequent treachery by being sold wholesale into +slavery. In the meantime Caesar's lieutenant, P. Crassus, received the +submission of the tribes of the north-east, so that by the close of the +campaign almost the whole of Gaul--except the Aquitani in the +south-west--acknowledged Roman suzerainty. + +In 56 B.C., however, the Veneti of Brittany threw off the yoke and detained +two of Crassus's officers as hostages. Caesar, who had been hastily +summoned from Illyricum, crossed the Loire and invaded Brittany, but found +that he could make no headway without destroying the powerful fleet of +high, flat-bottomed boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti. A +fleet was hastily constructed in the estuary of the Loire, and placed under +the command of Decimus Brutus. The decisive engagement was fought +(probably) in the Gulf of Morbihan and the Romans gained the victory by +cutting down the enemy's rigging with sickles attached to poles. As a +punishment for their treachery, Caesar put to death the senate of the +Veneti and sold their people into slavery. Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious +on the northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani. At the close of +the season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and Menapii in the +extreme north-west. + +In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the +lower Rhine, and invaded the modern Flanders. [Sidenote: Expeditions to +Britain ] Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pretext that +they had violated a truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with +him, and then surprised and practically destroyed their host. His enemies +in Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be +handed over to the Germans. Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge +over the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right +bank. In the remaining weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to +Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C. On the first +occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected little beyond +a landing on the coast of Kent. The second expedition consisted of five +legions and 2000 cavalry, and set out from the Portus Itius (Boulogne or +Wissant; see T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius +Caesar_, 1907, later views in _Classical Review_, May 1909, and H.S. Jones, +in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xxiv., 1909, p. 115). Caesar now penetrated into +Middlesex and crossed the Thames, but the British prince Cassivellaunus +with his war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled +to return to Gaul after imposing a tribute which was never paid. + +The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for freedom. +Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan chief, had +been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an attempt to escape +from Caesar's camp. At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his +legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory. Two of their camps were +treacherously attacked. At Aduatuca (near Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised +legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones under Ambiorix, while Quintus +Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in +time by Caesar, who was obliged to winter in Gaul in order to check the +spread of the rebellion. Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of the Treveri (about +Trèves), revolted and attacked Labienus, but was defeated and killed. The +campaign of 53 B.C. was marked by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the +destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, escaped. In +the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), and Acco, a +chief of the Senones, was convicted of treason and flogged to death. + +Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at Cenabum (Orléans), +and, on hearing the news, the Arverni revolted under Vercingetorix and were +quickly joined by other tribes, especially the Bituriges, whose capital was +Avaricum (Bourges). Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past +Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (Sens), the headquarters of his +legions. Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be met in open battle, and +determined to concentrate his forces in a few strong positions. Caesar +first besieged and took Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then +invested Gergovia (near the Puy-de-Dôme), the capital of the Arverni, but +suffered a severe repulse and was forced to raise the siege. Hearing that +the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated +Vercingetorix near Dijon and shut him up in Alesia (Mont-Auxois), which he +surrounded with lines of circumvallation. An attempt at relief by +Vercassivellaunus was defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix +surrendered. The struggle was over except for some isolated operations in +51 B.C., ending with the siege and capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu), +whose defenders had their hands cut off. Caesar now reduced Gaul to the +form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000 sesterces (£350,000), +and dealing liberally with the conquered tribes, whose cantons were not +broken up. + +In the meantime his own position was becoming critical. In 56 B.C., at the +conference of Luca (Lucca), Caesar, Pompey [Sidenote: Break-up of the +Coalition.] and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command +in Gaul, which would have expired on the 1st of March 54 B.C., was renewed, +probably for five years, _i.e._ to the 1st of March 49 B.C., and it was +enacted that the question of his successor should not be discussed until +the 1st of March 50 B.C., by which time the provincial commands for 49 B.C. +would have been assigned, so that Caesar would retain _imperium_, and thus +immunity from persecution, until the end of 49 B.C. He was to be elected +consul for 48 B.C., and, as the law prescribed a personal canvass, he was +by special enactment dispensed from its provisions. But in 54 B.C. Julia, +the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C. Crassus was +killed at Carrhae. Pompey now drifted apart from Caesar and became the +champion of the senate. In 52 B.C. he passed a fresh law _de jure +magistratuum_ which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it +possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of +49 B.C., which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private +person, and thus liable to be called to account for his unconstitutional +acts. Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising obstruction, which he +sustained by enormous bribes. His representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C. +Scribonius Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm majority of the +senate to refrain from extreme measures, insisting that Pompey, as well as +Caesar, should resign the _imperium_. But all attempts at negotiation +failed, and in January 49 B.C., martial law having been proclaimed on the +proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar, +who crossed the Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, +exclaiming "_Alea jacta est._" + +Pompeys available force consisted in two legions stationed in Campania, and +eight, commanded by his lieutenants, Afranius [Sidenote: The Civil war ] +and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in Italy. Caesar was soon +joined by two legions from Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic +coast, overtaking Pompey at Brundisium (Brindisi), but failing to prevent +him from embarking with his troops for the East, where the prestige of his +name was greatest. Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed "I am going to +Spain to fight an army without a general, and thence to the East to fight a +general without an army." He carried out the first part of this programme +with marvellous rapidity. He reached Ilerda (Lerida) on the 23rd of June +and, after extricating his army from a perilous situation, outmanoeuvred +Pompey's lieutenants and received their submission on the 2nd of August. +Returning to Rome, he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected +consul for 48 B.C., and set sail for Epirus at Brundisium on the 4th of +January. He attempted to invest Pompey's lines at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), +though his opponent's force was double that of his own, and was defeated +with considerable loss. He now marched eastwards, in order if possible to +intercept the reinforcements which Pompeys father-in-law, Scipio, was +bringing up; but Pompey [v.04 p.0941] was able to effect a junction with +this force and descended into the plain of Thessaly, where at the battle of +Pharsalus he was decisively defeated and fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, +who learnt of his rival's murder on landing at Alexandria. Here he remained +for nine months, fascinated (if the story be true) by Cleopatra, and almost +lost his life in an _émeute_. In June 47 B.C. he proceeded to the East and +Asia Minor, where he "came, saw and conquered" Pharnaces, son of +Mithradates the Great, at Zela. Returning to Italy, he quelled a mutiny of +the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and crossed to +Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions under Scipio was cut to +pieces at Thapsus (6th of April 46 B.C.). Here most of the republican +leaders were killed and Cato committed suicide. On the 26th to 29th July +Caesar celebrated a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten +years. In November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where the +sons of Pompey still held out. On the 17th of March 45 B.C. they were +crushed at Munda. Caesar returned to Rome in September, and six months +later (15th of March 44 B.C.) was murdered in the senate house at the foot +of Pompey's statue. + +It was remarked by Seneca that amongst the murderers of Caesar were to be +found more of his friends than of his enemies. [Sidenote: Caesar's +dictatorship ] We can account for this only by emphasizing the fact that +the form of Caesar's government became as time went on more undisguised in +its absolutism, while the honours conferred upon seemed designed to raise +him above the rest of humanity. It is explained elsewhere (see ROME: +_History, Ancient_) that Caesar's power was exercised under the form of +dictatorship. In the first instance (autumn of 49 B.C.) this was conferred +upon him as the only solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the +flight of the magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including +that of Caesar himself to the consulship) might be held in due course. For +this there were republican precedents. In 48 B.C. he was created dictator +for the second time, probably with constituent powers and for an undefined +period, according to the dangerous and unpopular precedent of Sulla. In May +46 B.C. a third dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten +years and apparently as a yearly office, so that he became Dictator IV. in +May 45 B.C. Finally, before the 15th of February 44 B.C., this was +exchanged for a life-dictatorship. Not only was this a contradiction in +terms, since the dictatorship was by tradition a makeshift justified only +when the state had to be carried through a serious crisis, but it involved +military rule in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional +guarantees, such as _intercessio_ and _provocatio_, by which the liberties +of Romans were protected. That Caesar held the _imperium_ which he enjoyed +as dictator to be distinct in kind from that of the republican magistrates +he indicated by placing the term _imperator_ at the head of his titles.[2] +Besides the dictatorship, Caesar held the consulship in each year of his +reign except 47 B.C. (when no curule magistrates were elected save for the +last three months of the year); and he was moreover invested by special +enactments with a number of other privileges and powers; of these the most +important was the _tribunicia potestas_, which we may believe to have been +free from the limits of place (_i.e._ Rome) and collegiality. Thus, too, he +was granted the sole right of making peace and war, and of disposing of the +funds in the treasury of the state.[3] Save for the title of dictator, +which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and was formally abolished +on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's death, this cumulation of powers +has little to distinguish it from the Principate of Augustus; and the +assumption of the perpetual dictatorship would hardly by itself suffice to +account for the murder of Caesar. But there are signs that in the last six +months of his life he aspired not only to a monarchy in name as well as in +fact, but also to a divinity which Romans should acknowledge as well as +Greeks, Orientals and barbarians. His statue was set up beside those of the +seven kings of Rome, and he adopted the throne of gold, the sceptre of +ivory and the embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them. He allowed +his supporters to suggest the offer of the regal title by putting in +circulation an oracle according to which it was destined for a king of Rome +to subdue the Parthians, and when at the Lupercalia (15th February 44 B.C.) +Antony set the diadem on his head he rejected the offer half-heartedly on +account of the groans of the people. His image was carried in the _pompa +circensis_ amongst those of the immortal gods, and his statue set up in the +temple of Quirinus with the inscription "To the Unconquerable God." A +college of Luperci, with the surname Juliani, was instituted in his honour +and _flamines_ were created as priests of his godhead. This was intolerable +to the aristocratic republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious +commanders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks and +Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the same worship to a +Roman. + +Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be borne in mind in +considering his record of legislative and [Sidenote: Legislative reforms.] +administrative reform. Some account of this is given elsewhere (see ROME: +_History, Ancient_), but it may be well to single out from the list of his +measures (some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and the children +of proscribed persons, were dictated by political expediency, while others, +such as his financial proposals for the relief of debtors, and the steps +which he took to restore Italian agriculture, were of the nature of +palliatives) those which have a permanent significance as indicating his +grasp of imperial problems. The Social War had brought to the inhabitants +of Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman citizenship; it remained +to extend this gift to the Transpadane Italians, to establish a uniform +system of local administration and to devise representative institutions by +which at least some voice in the government of Rome might be permitted to +her new citizens. This last conception lay beyond the horizon of Caesar, as +of all ancient statesmen, but his first act on gaining control of Italy was +to enfranchise the Transpadanes, whose claims he had consistently +advocated, and in 45 B.C. he passed the _Lex Julia Municipalis_, an act of +which considerable fragments are inscribed on two bronze tables found at +Heraclea near Tarentum.[4] This law deals _inter alia_ with the police and +the sanitary arrangements of the city of Rome, and hence it has been argued +by Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to reduce Rome to the level of a +municipal town. But it is not likely that such is the case. Caesar made no +far-reaching modifications in the government of the city, such as were +afterwards carried out by Augustus, and the presence in the _Lex Julia +Municipalis_ of the clauses referred to is an example of the common process +of "tacking" (legislation _per saturam_, as it was called by the Romans). +The law deals with the constitution of the local senates, for whose members +qualifications of age (30 years) and military service are laid down, while +persons who have suffered conviction for various specified offences, or who +are insolvent, or who carry on discreditable or immoral trades are +excluded. It also provides that the local magistrates shall take a census +of the citizens at the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and +send the registers to Rome within sixty days. The existing fragments tell +us little as to the decentralization of the functions of government, but +from the _Lex Rubria_, which applies to the Transpadane districts +enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul remained +nominally a province until 42 B.C.) we gather that considerable powers of +independent jurisdiction were reserved to the municipal magistrates. But +Caesar was not content with framing a uniform system of local government +[v.04 p.0942] for Italy. He was the first to carry out on a large scale +those plans of transmarine colonization whose inception was due to the +Gracchi. As consul in 59 B.C. Caesar had established colonies [Sidenote: +Colonies.] of veterans in Campania under the _Lex Julia Agraria_, and had +even then laid down rules for the foundation of such communities. As +dictator he planted numerous colonies both in the eastern and western +provinces, notably at Corinth and Carthage. Mommsen interprets this policy +as signifying that "the rule of the urban community of Rome over the shores +of the Mediterranean was at an end," and says that the first act of the +"new Mediterranean state" was "to atone for the two greatest outrages which +that urban community had perpetrated on civilization." This, however, +cannot be admitted. The sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for their +commercial value, and that the citizens of Rome should cease to be rulers +of the Mediterranean basin could never have entered into Caesar's mind. The +colonists were in many cases veterans who had served under Caesar, in +others members of the city proletariat. We possess the charter of the +colony planted at Urso in southern Spain under the name of _Colonia Julia +Genetiva Urbanorum_. Of the two latter titles, the first is derived from +the name of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian house, the second +indicates that the colonists were drawn from the _plebs urbana_. +Accordingly, we find that free birth is not, as in Italy, a necessary +qualification for municipal office. By such foundations Caesar began the +extension to the provinces of that Roman civilization which the republic +had carried to the bounds of the Italian peninsula. Lack of time alone +prevented him from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of +the Isthmus of Corinth, whose object was to promote trade and intercourse +throughout the Roman dominions, and we are told that at the time of his +death he was contemplating the extension of the empire to its natural +frontiers, and was about to engage in a war with Parthia with the object of +carrying Roman arms to the Euphrates. Above all, he was determined that the +empire should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer +exploited by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the _legati_, +who, under the form of military subordination, were responsible to him for +the administration of their provinces. + +Caesar's writings are treated under LATIN LITERATURE. It is sufficient here +to say that of those preserved to us the [Sidenote: The Commentaries.] +seven books _Commentarii de bello Gallico_ appear to have been written in +51 B.C. and carry the narrative of the Gallic campaigns down to the close +of the previous year (the eighth book, written by A. Hirtius, is a +supplement relating the events of 51-50 B.C.), while the three books _De +bello civili_ record the struggle between Caesar and Pompey (49-48 B.C.). +Their veracity was impeached in ancient times by Asinius Pollio and has +often been called in question by modern critics. The _Gallic War_, though +its publication was doubtless timed to impress on the mind of the Roman +people the great services rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands the test of +criticism as far as it is possible to apply it, and the accuracy of its +narrative has never been seriously shaken. The _Civil War_, especially in +its opening chapters is, however, not altogether free from traces of +misrepresentation. With respect to the first moves made in the struggle, +and the negotiations for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's +account sometimes conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's correspondence +or implies movements which cannot be reconciled with geographical facts. We +have but few fragments of Caesar's other works, whether political pamphlets +such as the _Anticato_, grammatical treatises (_De Analogia_) or poems. All +authorities agree in describing him as a consummate orator. Cicero (_Brut. +22_) wrote: _de Caesare ita judico, illum omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui +elegantissime_, while Quintilian (x. i. 114) says that had he practised at +the bar he would have been the only serious rival of Cicero. + +The verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured by their +political sympathies. All have recognised his commanding [Sidenote: +Character.] genius, and few have failed to do justice to his personal charm +and magnanimity, which almost won the heart of Cicero, who rarely appealed +in vain to his clemency. Indeed, he was singularly tolerant of all but +intellectual opposition. His private life was not free from scandal, +especially in his youth, but it is difficult to believe the worst of the +tales which were circulated by his opponents, _e.g._ as to his relations +with Nicomedes of Bithynia. As to his public character, however, no +agreement is possible between those who regard Caesarism as a great +political creation, and those who hold that Caesar by destroying liberty +lost a great opportunity and crushed the sense of dignity in mankind. The +latter view is unfortunately confirmed by the undoubted fact that Caesar +treated with scant respect the historical institutions of Rome, which with +their magnificent traditions might still have been the organs of true +political life. He increased the number of senators to 900 and introduced +provincials into that body; but instead of making it into a grand council +of the empire, representative of its various races and nationalities, he +treated it with studied contempt, and Cicero writes that his own name had +been set down as the proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing, +conferring the title of king on potentates of whom he had never heard. A +similar treatment was meted out to the ancient magistracies of the +republic; and thus began the process by which the emperors undermined the +self-respect of their subjects and eventually came to rule over a nation of +slaves. Few men, indeed, have partaken as freely of the inspiration of +genius as Julius Caesar; few have suffered more disastrously from its +illusions. See further ROME: _History_, ii. "The Republic," Period C _ad +fin._ + +AUTHORITIES.--The principal ancient authorities for the life of Caesar are +his own _Commentaries_, the biographies of Plutarch and Suetonius, letters +and speeches of Cicero, the _Catiline_ of Sallust, the _Pharsalia_ of +Lucan, and the histories of Appian, Dio Cassius and Velleius Paterculus +(that of Livy exists only in the _Epitome_). Amongst modern works may be +named the exhaustive repertory of fact contained in Drumann, _Geschichte +Roms_, vol. iii. (new ed. by Groebe, 1906, pp. 125-829), and the brilliant +but partial panegyric of Th. Mommsen in his _History of Rome_ (Eng. trans., +vol. iv., esp. p. 450 ff.). J.A. Froude's _Caesar; a Sketch_ (2nd ed., +1896) is equally biased and much less critical. W. Warde Fowler's _Julius +Caesar_ (1892) gives a favourable account (see also his _Social Life at +Rome_, 1909). On the other side see especially A. Holm, _History of Greece_ +(Eng. trans., vol. iv. p. 582 ff.), J.L. Strachan Davidson, _Cicero_ +(1894), p. 345 ff., and the introductory Lections in Prof. Tyrrell's +edition of the _Correspondence of Cicero_, particularly "Cicero's case +against Caesar," vol. v. p. 13 ff. Vol. ii. of G. Ferrero's _Greatness and +Decline of Rome_ (Eng. trans., 1907) is largely devoted to Caesar, but must +be used with caution. The Gallic campaigns have been treated by Napoleon +III., _Histoire de Jules César_ (1865-1866), which is valuable as giving +the result of excavations, and in English by T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's +Conquest of Gaul_ (1901), in which references to earlier literature will be +found. A later account is that of G. Veith, _Geschichte der Feldzüge C. +Julius Caesars_ (1906). For maps see A. von Kampen. For the Civil War see +Colonel Stoffel (the collaborator of Napoleon III.), _Histoire de Jules +César: guerre civile_ (1887). There is an interesting article, "The +Likenesses of Julius Caesar," by J.C. Ropes, in _Scribner's Magazine_, Feb. +1887, with 18 plates. + +(H. S. J.) + +_Medieval Legends._ + +In the middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such extraordinary +transformations as befell the history of Alexander the Great and the Theban +legend. Lucan was regularly read in medieval schools, and the general facts +of Caesar's life were too well known. He was generally, by a curious error, +regarded as the first emperor of Rome,[5] and representing as he did in the +popular mind the glory of Rome, by an easy transition he became a pillar of +the Church. Thus, in a French pseudo-historic romance, _Les Faits des +Romains_ (c. 1223), he receives the honour of a bishopric. His name was not +usually associated with the marvellous, and the _trouvère_ of _Huon de +Bordeaux_ outstepped the usual sober tradition when he made Oberon the son +of Julius Caesar and Morgan la Fay. About 1240 Jehan de Tuim composed a +prose _Hystore de Julius Cesar_ (ed. F. Settegast, Halle, 1881) based on +the _Pharsalia_ of Lucan, and the _commentaries_ of Caesar (on the Civil +War) and his continuators (on the Alexandrine, African and Spanish wars). +The author gives a romantic description of the meeting with Cleopatra, with +an interpolated dissertation on _amour courtois_ as understood by the +_trouvères_. [v.04 p.0943] The _Hystore_ was turned into verse +(alexandrines) by Jacot de Forest (latter part of the 13th century) under +the title of _Roman de Julius César_. A prose compilation by an unknown +author, _Les Fails des Romains_ (c. 1225), has little resemblance to the +last two works, although mainly derived from the same sources. It was +originally intended to contain a history of the twelve Caesars, but +concluded with the murder of the dictator, and in some MSS. bears the title +of _Li livres de César_. Its popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in +which it is preserved and by three separate translations into Italian. A +_Mistaire de Julius César_ is said to have been represented at Amboise in +1500 before Louis XII. + +See A. Graf, _Roma nella memoria e nella imaginazione del medio evo_, i. +ch. 8 (1882-1883); P. Meyer in _Romania_, xiv. (Paris, 1885), where the +_Faits des Romains_ is analysed at length; A. Duval in _Histoire littéraire +de la France_, xix. (1838); L. Constans in Petit de Jullevilles' _Hist. de +la langue et de la litt. française_, i. (1896); H. Wesemann, _Die +Cäsarfabeln des Mittelalters_ (Löwenberg, 1879). + +(M. BR.) + +[1] In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, Plutarch and Appian +that Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his murder, it is, +as Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 B.C., +since he held the chief offices of state in regular order, beginning with +the aedileship in 65 B.C., and the legal age for this was fixed at 37-38. + +[2] Suetonius, _Jul._ 76, errs in stating that he used the title +_imperator_ as a _praenomen_. + +[3] The statement of Dio and Suetonius, that a general _cura legum et +morum_ was conferred on Caesar in 46 B.C., is rejected by Mommsen. It is +possible that it may have some foundation in the terms of the law +establishing his third dictatorship. + +[4] Since the discovery of a fragmentary municipal charter at Tarentum (see +ROME), dating from a period shortly after the Social War, doubts have been +cast on the identification of the tables of Heraclea with Caesar's +municipal statute. It has been questioned whether Caesar passed such a law, +since the _Lex Julia Municipalis_ mentioned in an inscription of Patavium +(Padua) may have been a local charter. See Legras, _La Table latine +d'Héraclée_ (Paris, 1907). + +[5] Brunetto Latini, _Trésor_: "_Et ainsi Julius César fu li premiers +empereres des Romains._" + +CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636), English judge, descended by the female +line from the dukes de' Cesarini in Italy, was born near Tottenham in +Middlesex. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and afterwards studied +at the university of Paris, where in the year 1581 he was made a doctor of +the civil law. Two years later he was admitted to the same degree at +Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law. He held many high offices +during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., including a judgeship of the +admiralty court (1584), a mastership in chancery (1588), a mastership of +the court of requests (1595), chancellor and under treasurer of the +exchequer (1606). He was knighted by King James in 1603, and in 1614 was +appointed master of the rolls, an office which he held till his death on +the 18th of April 1636, He was so remarkable for his bounty and charity to +all persons of worth that it was said of him that he seemed to be the +almoner-general of the nation. His manuscripts, many of which are now in +the British Museum, were sold by auction in 1757 for upwards of £500. + +See E. Lodge, _Life of Sir Julius Caesar_ (1810); Wood, _Fasti Oxonienses_, +ed. Bliss; Foss, _Lives of the Judges_. + +CAESAREA MAZACA (mod. _Kaisarieh_), chief town of a sanjak in the Angora +vilayet of Asia Minor. Mazaca, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia, +later called _Eusebea_ (perhaps after Ariarathes Eusebes), and named +_Caesarea_ probably by Claudius, stood on a low spur on the north side of +Erjies Dagh (_M. Argaeus_). The site, now called _Eski-shehr_, shows only a +few traces of the old town. It was taken by Tigranes and destroyed by the +Persian king Shapur (Sapor) I. after his defeat of Valerian in A.D. 260. At +this time it is stated to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. In the 4th +century Basil, when bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the +plain, about 1 m. to the north-east, and this gradually supplanted the old +town. A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong walls and +turned into a fortress by Justinian; and within the walls, rebuilt in the +13th and 16th centuries, lies the greater part of Kaisarieh, altitude 3500 +ft. The town was captured by the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, 1064, and by +the Mongols, 1243, before passing to the Osmanli Turks. Its geographical +situation has made it a place of commercial importance throughout history. +It lay on the ancient trade route from Sinope to the Euphrates, on the +Persian "Royal Road" from Sardis to Susa, and on the great Roman highway +from Ephesus to the East. It is still the most important trade centre in +eastern Asia Minor. The town is noted for its fruit, especially its vines; +and it exports tissues, carpets, hides, yellow berries and dried fruit. +Kaisarieh is the headquarters of the American mission in Cappadocia, which +has several churches and schools for boys and girls and does splendid +medical work. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, an Armenian archbishop and +a Roman Catholic bishop, and there is a Jesuit school. On the 30th of +November 1895 there was a massacre of Armenians, in which several Gregorian +priests and Protestant pastors lost their lives. Pop., according to Cuinet, +71,000 (of whom 26,000 are Christians). Sir C. Wilson gave it as 50,000 +(23,000 Christians). + +(C. W. W.; J. G. C. A.) + +CAESAREAN SECTION, in obstetrics (_q.v._) the operation for removal of a +foetus from the uterus by an abdominal incision, so called from a legend of +its employment at the birth of Julius Caesar. This procedure has been +practised on the dead mother since very early times; in fact it was +prescribed by Roman law that every woman dying in advanced pregnancy should +be so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice enacted that any +practitioner who failed to perform this operation on a pregnant woman +supposed to be dead, laid himself open to very heavy penalties. But the +first recorded instance of its being performed on a living woman occurred +about 1500, when a Swiss pig-gelder operated on his own wife. From this +time onwards it was tried in many ways and under many conditions, but +almost invariably with the same result, the death of the mother. Even as +recently as the first half of the 19th century the recorded mortality is +over 50%. Thus it is no surprise that craniotomy--in which the life of the +child is sacrificed to save that of the mother--was almost invariably +preferred. As the use of antiseptics was not then understood, and as it was +customary to return the uterus to the body cavity without suturing the +incision, the immediate cause of death was either septicaemia or +haemorrhage. But in 1882 Sänger published his method of suturing the +uterus--that of employing two series of sutures, one deep, the other +superficial. This method of procedure was immediately adopted by many +obstetricians, and it has proved so satisfactory that it is still in use +today. This, and the increasing knowledge of aseptic technique, has brought +the mortality from this operation to less than 3% for the mother and about +5% for the child; and every year it is being advised more freely for a +larger number of morbid conditions, and with increasingly favourable +results. Craniotomy, _i.e._ crushing the head of the foetus to reduce its +size, is now very rarely performed on the living child, but symphysiotomy, +_i.e._ the division of the symphysis pubis to produce a temporary +enlargement of the pelvis, or caesarean section, is advocated in its place. +Of these two operations, symphysiotomy is steadily being replaced by +caesarean section. + +This operation is now advised for (1) extreme degrees of pelvic +contraction, (2) any malformation or tumour of the uterus, cervix or +vagina, which would render the birth of the child through the natural +passages impossible, (3) maternal complications, as eclampsia and concealed +accidental haemorrhage, and (4) at the death of the mother for the purpose +of saving the child. + +CAESAREA PALAESTINA, a town built by Herod about 25-13 B.C., on the +sea-coast of Palestine, 30 miles N. of Joppa, on the site of a place +previously called _Tunis Stratonis_. Remains of all the principal buildings +erected by Herod existed down to the end of the 19th century; the ruins +were much injured by a colony of Bosnians established here in 1884. These +buildings are a temple, dedicated to Caesar; a theatre; a hippodrome; two +aqueducts; a boundary wall; and, chief of all, a gigantic mole, 200 ft. +wide, built of stones 50 ft. long, in 20 fathoms of water, protecting the +harbour on the south and west. The harbour measures 180 yds. across. The +massacre of Jews at this place led to the Jewish rebellion and to the Roman +war. Vespasian made it a colony and called it Flavia: the old name, +however, persisted, and still survives as _Kaisarieh_. Eusebius was +archbishop here (A.D. 315-318). It was captured by the Moslems in 638 and +by the Crusaders in 1102, by Saladin in 1187, recaptured by the Crusaders +in 1191, and finally lost by them in 1265, since when till its recent +settlement it has lain in ruins. Remains of the medieval town are also +visible, consisting of the walls (one-tenth the area of the Roman city), +the castle, the cathedral (now covered by modern houses), and a church. + +(R. A. S. M.) + +CAESAREA PHILIPPI, the name of a town 95 miles N. of Jerusalem, 35 miles +S.W. from Damascus, 1150 ft. above the sea, on the south base of Hermon, +and at an important source of the Jordan. It does not certainly appear in +the Old Testament history, though identifications with Baal-Gad and (less +certainly) with Laish (Dan) have been proposed. It was certainly a place of +great sanctity from very early times, and when foreign [v.04 p.0944] +religious influences intruded upon Palestine, the cult of its local _numen_ +gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom was dedicated the cave in which +the copious spring feeding the Jordan arises. It was long known as _Panium_ +or _Panias_, a name that has survived in the modern _Banias_. When Herod +the Great received the territory from Augustus, 20 B.C., he erected here a +temple in honour of his patron; but the re-foundation of the town is due to +his son, Philip the Tetrarch, who here erected a city which he named +_Caesarea_ in honour of Tiberius, adding _Philippi_ to immortalize his own +name and to distinguish his city from the similarly-named city founded by +his father on the sea-coast. Here Christ gave His charge to Peter (Matt. +xvi. 13). Many Greek inscriptions have been found here, some referring to +the shrine. Agrippa II. changed the name to _Neronias_, but this name +endured but a short while. Titus here exhibited gladiatorial shows to +celebrate the capture of Jerusalem. The Crusaders took the city in 1130, +and lost it to the Moslems in 1165. Banias is a poor village inhabited by +about 350 Moslems; all round it are gardens of fruit-trees. It is well +watered and fertile. There are not many remains of the Roman city above +ground. The Crusaders' castle of Subeibeh, one of the finest in Palestine, +occupies the summit of a conical hill above the village. + +(R. A. S. M.) + +CAESIUM (symbol Cs, atomic weight 132.9), one of the alkali metals. Its +name is derived from the Lat. _caesius_, sky-blue, from two bright blue +lines of its spectrum. It is of historical importance, since it was the +first metal to be discovered by the aid of the spectroscope (R. Bunsen, +_Berlin Acad. Ber._, 1860), although caesium salts had undoubtedly been +examined before, but had been mistaken for potassium salts (see C.F. +Plattner, _Pog. Ann._, 1846, p. 443, on the analysis of pollux and the +subsequent work of F. Pisani, _Comptes Rendus_, 1864, 58, p. 714). Caesium +is found in the mineral springs of Frankenhausen, Montecatini, di Val di +Nievole, Tuscany, and Wheal Clifford near Redruth, Cornwall (W.A. Miller, +_Chem. News_, 1864, 10, p. 181), and, associated with rubidium, at +Dürkheim; it is also found in lepidolite, leucite, petalite, triphylline +and in the carnallite from Stassfurt. The separation of caesium from the +minerals which contain it is an exceedingly difficult and laborious +process. According to R. Bunsen, the best source of rubidium and caesium +salts is the residue left after extraction of lithium salts from +lepidolite. This residue consists of sodium, potassium and lithium +chlorides, with small quantities of caesium and rubidium chlorides. The +caesium and rubidium are separated from this by repeated fractional +crystallization of their double platinum chlorides, which are much less +soluble in water than those of the other alkali metals (R. Bunsen, _Ann._, +1862, 122, p. 347; 1863, 125, p. 367). The platino-chlorides are reduced by +hydrogen, and the caesium and rubidium chlorides extracted by water. See +also A. Schrötter (_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1864, 93, p. 2075) and W. Heintz +(_Journ. prak. Chem._, 1862, 87, p. 310). W. Feit and K. Kubierschky +(_Chem. Zeit._, 1892, 16, p. 335) separate rubidium and caesium from the +other alkali metals by converting them into double chlorides with stannic +chloride; whilst J. Redtenbacher (_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1865, 94, p. 442) +separates them from potassium by conversion into alums, which C. Setterberg +(_Ann._, 1882, 211, p. 100) has shown are very slightly soluble in a +solution of potash alum. In order to separate caesium from rubidium, use is +made of the different solubilities of their various salts. The bitartrates +RbHC_4H_40_6 and CsHC_4H_40_6 have been employed, as have also the alums +(see above). The double chloride of caesium and antimony 3CsCl·2SbCl_3 (R. +Godeffroy, _Ber._, 1874, 7, p. 375; _Ann._, 1876, 181, p. 176) has been +used, the corresponding compound not being formed by rubidium. The metal +has been obtained by electrolysis of a mixture of caesium and barium +cyanides (C. Setterberg, _Ann._, 1882, 211, p. 100) and by heating the +hydroxide with magnesium or aluminium (N. Beketoff, _Chem. Centralblatt_, +1889, 2, p. 245). L. Hackspill (_Comptes Rendus_, 1905, 141, p. 101) finds +that metallic caesium can be obtained more readily by heating the chloride +with metallic calcium. A special V-shaped tube is used in the operation, +and the reaction commences between 400°C. and 500°C. It is a silvery white +metal which burns on heating in air. It melts at 26° to 27°C. and has a +specific gravity of 1.88 (15°C.). + +The atomic weight of caesium has been determined by the analysis of its +chloride and bromide. Richards and Archibald (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1903, +34, p. 353) obtained 132.879 (O=16). + +_Caesium hydroxide_, Cs(OH)_2, obtained by the decomposition of the +sulphate with baryta water, is a greyish-white deliquescent solid, which +melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly. It readily +dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. _Caesium chloride_, CsCl, +is obtained by the direct action of chlorine on caesium, or by solution of +the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. It forms small cubes which melt at a +red heat and volatilize readily. It deliquesces in moist air. Many double +chlorides are known, and may be prepared by mixing solutions of the two +components in the requisite proportions. The _bromide_, CsBr, and _iodide_, +CsI, resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of +caesium are also known, such as CsBr_3, CsClBr_2, CsI_3, CsBrI_2, CsBr_2I, +&c. (H.L. Wells and S.L. Penfield, _Zeit. fur anorg. Chem._, 1892, i, p. +85). _Caesium sulphate_, Cs_2SO_4, may be prepared by dissolving the +hydroxide or carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in short hard +prisms, which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol. It +combines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, &c.) +to form double sulphates of the type Cs_2SO_4·RSO_4·6H_2O. It also forms a +caesium-alum Cs_2SO_4·Al_2(SO_4)_3·24H_2O. _Caesium nitrate_, CsNO_3, is +obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizes in +glittering prisms, which melt readily, and on heating evolve oxygen and +leave a residue of caesium nitrite. The carbonate, Cs_2CO_3, +silicofluoride, Cs_2SiF_6, borate, Cs_2O·3B_2O_3, and the sulphides +Cs_2S·4H_2O, Cs_2S_2·H_2O, Cs_2S_3·H_2O, Cs_2S_4 and Cs_2S_6·H_2O, are also +known. + +Caesium compounds can be readily recognized by the two bright blue lines +(of wave length 4555 and 4593) in their flame spectrum, but these are not +present in the spark spectrum. The other lines include three in the green, +two in the yellow, and two in the orange. + +CAESPITOSE (Lat. _caespes_, a sod), a botanical term for "growing in +tufts," like many grasses. + +CAESTUS, or CESTUS (from Lat. _caedo_, strike), a gauntlet or boxing-glove +used by the ancient pugilists. Of this there were several varieties, the +simplest and least dangerous being the _meilichae_ ([Greek: meilichai]), +which consisted of strips of raw hide tied under the palm, leaving the +fingers bare. With these the athletes in the _palaestrae_ were wont to +practise, reserving for serious contests the more formidable kinds, such as +the _sphaerae_ ([Greek: sphairai]), which were sewn with small metal balls +covered with leather, and the terrible _murmekes_ ([Greek: murmêkes]), +sometimes called "limb-breakers" ([Greek: guiotoroi]), which were studded +with heavy nails. The straps ([Greek: himantes]) were of different lengths, +many reaching to the elbow, in order to protect the forearm when guarding +heavy blows (see J.H. Krause, _Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_, +1841). The _caestus_ is to be distinguished from _cestus_ (=embroidered, +from [Greek: kentein]), an adjective used as a noun in the sense of +"girdle," especially the girdle of Aphrodite, which was supposed to have +the power of exciting love. + +CAESURA (Lat. for "cutting," Gr. [Greek: tomê]), in prosody, a rest or +pause, usually occurring about the middle of a verse, which is thereby +separated into two parts ([Greek: kôla], members). In Greek and Latin +hexameters the best and most common caesura is the penthemimeral (_i.e._ +after the 5th half-foot): + +[Greek: Mênin a | eide, the | a, | Pê | lêïa | deô Achi | lêos] +Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Tro | jae qui | primus ab | oris. + +Another caesura very common in Homer, but rare in Latin verse, is after the +2nd syllable of the 3rd dactyl: + +[Greek: Oiô | noisi te | pasi Di | os d' ete | leieto | boulê.] + +On the other hand, the hephthemimeral caesura (_i.e._ after the 7th +half-foot) is common in Latin, but rare in Greek: + +Formo | sam reso | nare do | ces Ama | ryllida | silvas. + +The "bucolic" caesura, peculiar to Greek (so called because it is chiefly +found in writers like Theocritus) occurs after the 4th dactyl: + +[Greek: Ándra moi | ennepe, | Mousa, po | lutropon, | hos mala | polla] + +In the pentameter verse of the elegiac distich the caesura is always +penthemimeral. In the iambic trimeter (consisting of three dipodia or pairs +of feet), both in Greek and Latin, the most usual caesura is the +penthemimeral; next, the hephthemimeral: + +[Greek: Ô tek | na Kad | mou tou | palai | nea | trophê] +Supplex | et o | ro reg | na per | Proser | pinae. + +[v.04 p.0945] Verses in which neither of these caesuras occurs are +considered faulty. On the other hand, secondary or subsidiary caesuras are +found in both Greek and Latin; thus, a trithemimeral (after the 3rd +half-foot) is combined with the hephthemimeral, which divides the verse +into two unequal parts. A caesura is often called masculine when it falls +after a long, feminine when it falls after a short syllable. + +The best treatise on Greek and Latin metre for general use is L. Müller, +_Die Metrik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885); see also the article VERSE. + +CAFFEINE, or THEINE (1.3.7 trimethyl 2.6 dioxypurin), C_8H_{10}N_4O_2·H_2O, +a substance found in the leaves and beans of the coffee tree, in tea, in +Paraguay tea, and in small quantities in cocoa and in the kola nut. It may +be extracted from tea or coffee by boiling with water, the dissolved tannin +precipitated by basic lead acetate, the solution filtered, excess of lead +precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtered liquid then +evaporated to crystallization; or, tea is boiled with water, and the whole +then evaporated to a syrup, which is mixed with slaked lime, evaporated to +dryness on the water-bath and extracted with chloroform (P. Cazeneuve, +_Bull. de la soc. chim. de Paris_, 1876-1877, 27, p. 199). Synthetically it +may be prepared by the methylation of silver theobromine and silver +theophyllin or by boiling heteroxanthine with methyl iodide and potash. E. +Fischer and L. Ach (_Berichte_, 1895, 28, p. 3135) have synthesized it from +dimethyl alloxan, whilst W. Traube (_Berichte_, 1900, 33, p. 3435) has +obtained it from 1.3 diamethyl 4.5 diamino 2.6 dioxypyrimidine. On the +constitution of caffeine see PURIN and also E. Fischer (_Annalen_, 1882, +215, p. 253). + +Caffeine crystallizes in long silky needles, which are slightly soluble in +cold water. It becomes anhydrous at 100°C. and melts at 234° to 235°C. It +has a faint bitter taste and gives salts with mineral acids. On oxidation +with nitric acid caffeine gives cholesterophane (dimethyl parabanic acid), +but if chlorine water be used as the oxidant, then it yields monomethyl +urea and dimethyl alloxan (E. Fischer). + +CAFFIERI, JACQUES (1678-1755), French worker in metal, the most famous +member of a family several of whom distinguished themselves in plastic art, +was the fifth son of Philippe Caffieri (1634-1716), a decorative sculptor, +who, after serving Pope Alexander VII., entered the service of Louis XIV. +in 1660. An elder son of Philippe, François Charles (1667-1721), was +associated with him. As a _fondeur ciseleur_, however, the renown of the +house centred in Jacques, though it is not always easy to distinguish +between his own work and that of his son Philippe (1714-1777). A large +proportion of his brilliant achievement as a designer and chaser in bronze +and other metals was executed for the crown at Versailles, Fontainebleau, +Compiègne, Choisy and La Muette, and the crown, ever in his debt, still +owed him money at his death. Jacques and his son Philippe undoubtedly +worked together in the "Appartement du Dauphin" at Versailles, and although +much of their contribution to the palace has disappeared, the decorations +of the marble chimney-piece still remain. They belong to the best type of +the Louis XV. style--vigorous and graceful in design, they are executed +with splendid skill. It is equally certain that father and son worked +together upon the gorgeous bronze case of the famous astronomical clock +made by Passement and Danthiau for Louis XV. between 1749 and 1753. The +form of the case has been much criticized, and even ridiculed, but the +severest critics in that particular have been the readiest to laud the +boldness and freedom of the motives, the jewel-like finish of the +craftsmanship, the magnificent dexterity of the master-hand. The elder +Caffieri was, indeed, the most consummate practitioner of the _style +rocaille_, which he constantly redeemed from its mannered conventionalism +by the ease and mastery with which he treated it. From the studio in which +he and his son worked side by side came an amazing amount of work, chiefly +in the shape of those gilded bronze mounts which in the end became more +insistent than the pieces of furniture which they adorned. Little of his +achievement was ordinary; an astonishingly large proportion of it is +famous. There is in the Wallace collection (Hertford House, London) a +commode from the hand of Jacques Caffieri in which the brilliance and +spontaneity, the sweeping boldness and elegance of line that mark his style +at its best, are seen in a perfection hardly exceeded in any other example. +Also at Hertford House is the exceptionally fine lustre which was a wedding +present from Louis XV. to Louise Elizabeth of France. After Jacques' death +his son Philippe continued to work for the crown, but had many private +clients. He made a great cross and six candlesticks for the high altar of +Notre Dame, which disappeared in the revolution, but similar work for +Bayeux cathedral still exists. A wonderful enamelled toilet set which he +executed for the Princess of Asturias has also disappeared. Philippe's +style was gradually modified into that which prevailed in the third quarter +of the 18th century, since by 1777, when he died, the taste for the +magnificent mounts of his early days had passed away. Like his father, he +drew large sums from the crown, usually after giving many years' credit, +while many other years were needed by his heirs to get in the balance of +the royal indebtedness. Philippe's younger brother, Jean Jacques Caffieri +(1725-1792), was a sculptor, but was sufficiently adept in the treatment of +metals to design the fine _rampe d'escalier_ which still adorns the Palais +Royal. + +CAFTAN, or KAFTAN (a Turkish word, also in use in Persia), a tunic or +under-dress with long hanging sleeves, tied with a girdle at the waist, +worn in the East by persons of both sexes. The caftan was worn by the upper +and middle classes in Russia till the time of Peter the Great, when it was +generally discarded. + +CAGLI, a town and (with Pergola) an episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in +the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 18 m. S. of the latter town by rail, and +830 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4628; commune, 12,533. The +church of S. Domenico contains a good fresco (Madonna and saints) by +Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael. The citadel of the 15th century, +constructed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini of Siena, is on the S.E. of the +modern town. Cagli occupies the site of an ancient _vicus_ (village) on the +Via Flaminia, which seems to have borne the name Cale, 24 m. N. of +Helvillum (mod. _Sigillo_) and 18 m. S.W. of Forum Sempronii (mod. +_Fossombrone_). Below the town to the north is a single arched bridge of +the road, the arch having the span of 38¼ ft. (See G. Mochi, _Storia di +Cagli_, Cagli, 1878.) About 5 m. to the N.N.W. of Cagli and 2½ m. W. of the +Via Flaminia at the mod. _Acqualagna_ is the site of an ancient town; the +place is now called _piano di Valeria_, and is scattered with ruins. +Inscriptions show that this was a Roman _municipium_, perhaps Pitinum +Mergens (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. [Berlin, 1901] p. 876). Three miles north +of Acqualagna the Via Flaminia, which is still in use as the modern +high-road, traverses the Furlo Pass, a tunnel about 40 yds. long, excavated +by Vespasian in A.D. 77, as an inscription at the north end records. There +is another tunnel at lower level, which belongs to an earlier date; this +seems to have been in use till the construction of the Roman road, which at +first ran round the rock on the outside, until Vespasian cut the tunnel. In +repairing the modern road just outside the south entrance to the tunnel, a +stratum of carbonized corn, beans, &c., and a quantity of burnt wood, +stones, tiles, pottery, &c., was found under and above the modern road, for +a distance of some 500 yds. This débris must have belonged to the castle of +Petra Pertusa, burned by the Lombards in 570 or 571 on their way to Rome. +The castle itself is mentioned by Procopius (_Bell. Goth._ ii. 11, iii. 6, +iv. 28, 34). Here also was found the inscription of A.D. 295, relating to +the measures taken to suppress brigandage in these parts. (See APENNINES.) + +See A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 411 (cf. _ibid._ 227); +_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, 6107. + +(T. AS.) + +CAGLIARI (anc. _Carales_), the capital of the island of Sardinia, an +archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of Cagliari, which +embraces the southern half of the island. It is 270 m. W.S.W. of Naples, +and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea. Pop. (1900) of town, 48,098; of commune, +53,057. It is finely situated at the northern extremity of the Gulf of +Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of the island. The medieval town +occupies a long narrow hill running N. and S. with precipitous [v.04 +p.0946] cliffs on the E. and W. which must have been the ancient acropolis, +but the modern town, like the Roman town before it, extends to the slopes +of the hill and to the low ground by the sea. On each side of the town are +lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W., which produces fish in abundance, was +originally an open bay. That of Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans. +The upper town still retains in part its fortifications, including the two +great towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (S.) +and the Torre di S. Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the Pisans, the former +in 1307, the latter in 1305. The Torre di S. Pancrazio at the highest point +(367 ft. above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. Close to it is the +archaeological museum, the most important in the island. To the north of it +are the modern citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public promenade. +The narrow streets run from north to south for the whole length of the +upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the cathedral, built in +1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the original transept doors. +The pulpit of the same period is also fine: it now stands, divided into +two, on each side of the entrance, while the lions which supported it are +on the balustrade in front of the cathedral (see E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_, +Rome, 1901, 59; D. Scano, _ibid._ 204). Near the sacristy are also some +Gothic chapels of the Aragonese period. The church was, however, remodelled +in 1676, and the interior is baroque. Two fine silver candelabra, the +tabernacle and the altar front are of the 17th century; and the treasury +also contains some good silver work. (See D. Scano in _Bolletino d'Arte_, +February 1907, p. 14; and E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_, 1907, p. 47.) The crypt +contains three ancient sarcophagi. The façade, in the baroque style, was +added in 1703. The university, a little farther north, the buildings of +which were erected in 1764, has some 240 students. At the south extremity +of the hill, on the site of the bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace, +the Passeggiata Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on +summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are covered promenades, +and from it steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part of which (the +so-called Marina), sloping gradually towards the sea, is probably the +nucleus of the Roman _municipium_, while the quarter of Stampace lies to +the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace. The northern +portion of this, below the castle hill, is the older, while the part near +the shore consists mainly of modern buildings of no great interest. To the +east of the castle hill and the Marina is the quarter of Villanova, which +contains the church of S. Saturnino, a domed church of the 8th century with +a choir of the Pisan period. The harbour of Cagliari (along the north side +of which runs a promenade called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a +considerable trade, exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals and +salt, the total annual value of exports amounting to nearly 1½ million +sterling in value. The Campidano of Cagliari, the plain which begins at the +north end of the lagoon of S. Gilla, is very fertile and much cultivated, +as is also the district to the east round Quarto S. Elena, a village with +8459 inhabitants (1901). The national costumes are rarely now seen in the +neighbourhood of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that of +S. Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see NORA). The methods of cultivation are +primitive: the curious water-wheels, made of brushwood with pots tied on to +them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey, may be noted. The ox-carts are +often made with solid wheels, for greater strength. Prickly pear +(_opuntia_) hedges are as frequent as in Sicily. Cagliari is considerably +exposed to winds in winter, while in summer it is almost African in +climate. The aqueduct was constructed in quite recent times, rain-water +having previously given the only supply. The main line of railway runs +north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), Oristano, Macomer and Chilivani (for +Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); while another line (narrow-gauge) runs to +Mandas (for Sorgono and Tortoli). There is also a tramway to Quarto S. +Elena. + +In A.D. 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken by the Vandals from Africa; but +in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In 687 Cagliari rose against the East +Roman emperors, under Gialetus, one of the citizens, who made himself king +of the whole island, his three brothers becoming governors of Torres (in +the N.W.), Arborea (in the S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island). +The Saracens devastated it in the 8th century, but were driven out, and the +island returned to the rule of kings, until they fell in the 10th century, +their place being taken by four "judges" of the four provinces, Cagliari, +Torres, Arborea and Gallura. In the 12th century Musatto, a Saracen, +established himself in Cagliari, but was driven out with the help of the +Pisans and Genoese. The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole +island with the exception of Arborea, which continued to be independent. In +1297 Boniface VIII. invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and in 1326 +they finally drove the Pisans out of Cagliari, and made it the seat of +their government. In 1348 the island was devastated by the plague described +by Boccaccio. It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to +conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated Eleonora +(whose code of laws--the so-called _Carta de Logu_--was famous), offered a +heroic resistance. In 1479 the native princes were deprived of all +independence. The island remained in the hands of Spain until the peace of +Utrecht (1714), by which it was assigned to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded +by the latter, in exchange for Sicily, to the duke of Savoy, who assumed +the title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing to be the seat of +government), and this remained the title of the house of Savoy until 1861. +Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1793, but Napoleon's attempt +to take the island failed. + +(T. AS.) + +CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, COUNT (1743-1793), Italian alchemist and impostor, +was born at Palermo on the 8th of June 1743. Giuseppe Balsamo--for such was +the "count's" real name--gave early indications of those talents which +afterwards gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of +his education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but was expelled +from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations. He now signalized +himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity with which he contrived to +perpetrate forgeries and other crimes without exposing himself to the risk +of detection. Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled +from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, +Rhodes--where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the +Greek Althotas--and Malta. There he presented himself to the grand master +of the Maltese order as Count Cagliostro, and curried favour with him as a +fellow alchemist, for the grand master's tastes lay in the same direction. +From him he obtained introductions to the great houses of Rome and Naples, +whither he now hastened. At Rome he married a beautiful but unprincipled +woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with whom he travelled, under different names, +through many parts of Europe. It is unnecessary to recount the various +infamous means which he employed to pay his expenses during these journeys. +He visited London and Paris in 1771, selling love-philtres, elixirs of +youth, mixtures for making ugly women beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c., +and deriving large profits from his trade. After further travels on the +continent he returned to London, where he posed as the founder of a new +system of freemasonry, and was well received in the best society, being +adored by the ladies. He went to Germany and Holland once more, and to +Russia, Poland, and then again to Paris, where, in 1785, he was implicated +in the affair of the Diamond Necklace (_q.v._); and although Cagliostro +escaped conviction by the matchless impudence of his defence, he was +imprisoned for other reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited +England once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately +outwitted by some English lawyers, and confined for a while in the Fleet +prison. Leaving England, he travelled through Europe as far as Rome, where +he was arrested in 1789. He was tried and condemned to death for being a +heretic, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while his +wife was immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San Leo in +1795. + +The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe Balsamo +is contained in Carlyle's _Miscellanies_. Dumas's novel, _Memoirs of a +Physician_, is founded on his adventures; see also a [v.04 p.0947] series +of papers in the _Dublin University Magazine_, vols. lxxviii. and lxxix.; +_Memorial, or Brief for Cagliostro in the Cause of Card. de Rohan_, &c. +(Fr.) by P. Macmahon (1786); _Compendio della vita e delle gesta di +Giuseppe Balsamo denominato il conte di Cagliostro_ (Rome, 1791); Sierke, +_Schwarmer und Schwindler zu Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderts_ (1875); and the +sketch of his life in D. Silvagni's _La Corte e la Società Romana nei +secoli XVIII. e XIX._ vol. i. (Florence, 1881). + +(L. V.*) + +CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES (1777-1859), French engineer and physicist, +was born in Paris on the 31st of March 1777, and after attending the École +Polytechnique became one of the _ingénieurs géographiques_. He was made a +baron in 1818, and died in Paris on the 5th of July 1859. He was the author +of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a blowing machine, +which consists essentially of an Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank +of water in such a way that its lower end is completely and its upper end +partially immersed, and operated by being rotated in the opposite direction +to that required for raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819, +the improved siren which is known by his name, using it for ascertaining +the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch, +and he also made experiments on the mechanism of voice-production. In +course of an investigation in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure +on certain liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature +above which it refused to remain liquid but passed into the gaseous state, +no matter what the amount of pressure to which it was subjected, and in the +case of water he determined this critical temperature, with a remarkable +approach to accuracy, to be 362°C. He also studied the nature of yeast and +the influence of extreme cold upon its life. + +CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARCHESE (1762-1833), Italian architect, was born on the +9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent at the age of fourteen to the +Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards studied at the university of +Pavia. He was intended for the legal profession, but his passion for +architecture was too strong, and after holding some government posts at +Milan, he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Porta +Orientale. His designs were commended, but were not selected on account of +the expense their adoption would have involved. From that time Cagnola +devoted himself entirely to architecture. After the death of his father he +spent two years in Verona and Venice, studying the architectural structures +of these cities. In 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for +the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria. The arch +was of wood, but was of such beauty that it was resolved to carry it out in +marble. The result was the magnificent Arco della Pace in Milan, surpassed +in dimensions only by the Arc de l'Étoile at Paris. Among other works +executed by Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at +Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died on the 14th +of August 1833, five years before the completion of the Arco del Sempione, +which he designed for his native city. + +CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Béarn, Gascony and +Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1288, when they appear to have +been called Christiens or Christianos. In the 16th century they had many +names, Cagots, Gahets, Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; and +Cacons, Cahets, Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle ages +they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and even as +cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted separate quarters in +towns, called _cagoteries_, and lived in wretched huts in the country +distinct from the villages. Excluded from all political and social rights, +they were only allowed to enter a church by a special door, and during the +service a rail separated them from the other worshippers. Either they were +altogether forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the holy wafer was +handed to them on the end of a stick, while a receptacle for holy water was +reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled to wear a distinctive +dress, to which, in some places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck +(whence they were sometimes called _Canards_). And so pestilential was +their touch considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road +barefooted. The only trades allowed them were those of butcher and +carpenter, and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their language +is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a Teutonic origin +seems to be indicated by their fair complexions and blue eyes. Their crania +have a normal development; their cheek-bones are high; their noses +prominent, with large nostrils; their lips straight; and they are marked by +the absence of the auricular lobules. + +The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littré defines them as "a people of +the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism." It has been suggested that +they were descendants of the Visigoths, and Michael derives the name from +_caas_ (dog) and _Goth_. But opposed to this etymology is the fact that the +word _cagot_ is first found in the _for_ of Béarn not earlier than 1551. +Marca, in his _Histoire de Béarn_, holds that the word signifies "hunters +of the Goths," and that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens. Others +made them descendants of the Albigenses. The old MSS. call them Chrétiens +or Chrestiaas, and from this it has been argued that they were Visigoths +who originally lived as Christians among the Gascon pagans. A far more +probable explanation of their name "Chrétiens" is to be found in the fact +that in medieval times all lepers were known as _pauperes Christi_, and +that, Goths or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages with a +particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus would arise +the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day their descendants are +not more subject to goitre and cretinism than those dwelling around them, +and are recognized by tradition and not by features or physical degeneracy. +It was not until the French Revolution that any steps were taken to +ameliorate their lot, but to-day they no longer form a class, but have been +practically lost sight of in the general peasantry. + +See Francisque Michel, _Histoire des races maudites de France et d'Espagne_ +(Paris, 1846); Abbé Venuti, _Recherches sur les Cahets de Bordeaux_ (1754); +_Bulletins de la société anthropologique_ (1861, 1867, 1868, 1871); +_Annales medico-psychologiques_ (Jan. 1867); Lagneau, _Questionnaire sur +l'ethnologie de la France_; Paul Raymond, _Moeurs béarnaises_ (Pau, 1872); +V. de Rochas, _Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohémiens)_ +(Paris, 1877); J. Hack Tuke, _Jour. Anthropological Institute_ (vol. ix., +1880). + +CAHER (or CAHIR), a market-town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the south +parliamentary division, beautifully situated on the river Suir at the foot +of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. (1901) 2058. It stands midway between Clonmel +and Tipperary town on the Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern +and Western railway, 124 m. S.W. from Dublin. It is the centre of a rich +agricultural district, and there is some industry in flour-milling. Its +name (_cathair_, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity and the site of +the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in the river, was occupied +from very early times. Here was a fortress-palace of Munster, originally +called _Dun-iasgach_, the suffix signifying "abounding in fish." The +present castle dates from 1142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond, +and is well restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647, and +by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the demesne of Caher Park +is especially noteworthy. The Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, 10 m. S.W., +and the finely-placed Norman castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous crag 6 +m. down the Suir, are other neighbouring features of interest, while the +Galtee Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., command +admirable prospects. + +CAHITA, a group of North American Indians, mainly of the Mayo and Yaqui +tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the Piman family, and +numbering some 40,000. + +CAHOKIA, the name of a North American Indian tribe of the Illinois +confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis. The "Cahokia +mound" there (a model of which is in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) +is interesting as the largest pre-historic earth-work in America. + +CAHORS, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Lot, +70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. +(1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on the right bank of the river Lot, occupying +a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. It is divided into two +portions [v.04 p.0948] by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs from the Pont +Louis Philippe on the south to within a short distance of the fortified +wall of the 14th and 15th centuries enclosing the town on the north. To the +east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets and closely-packed +houses; west of the Boulevard a newer quarter, with spacious squares and +promenades, stretches to the bank of the river. Cahors communicates with +the opposite shore by three bridges. One of these, the Pont Valentré to the +west of the town, is the finest fortified bridge of the middle ages in +France. It is a structure of the early 14th century, restored in the 19th +century, and is defended at either end by high machicolated towers, another +tower, less elaborate, surmounting the centre pier. The east bridge, the +Pont Neuf, also dates from the 14th century. The cathedral of St Étienne +stands in the heart of the old town. It dates from the 12th century, but +was entirely restored in the 13th century. Its exterior, for the most part +severe in appearance, is relieved by some fine sculpture, that of the north +portal being especially remarkable. The nave, which is without aisles, is +surmounted by two cupolas; its interior is whitewashed and plain in +appearance, while the choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining +the church to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from +1494 to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings, +stands near the cathedral. Dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, it +preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. The principal +of the civil buildings is the palace of Pope John XXII., built at the +beginning of the 14th century; a massive square tower is still standing, +but the rest is in ruins. The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a +building of the 14th to the 17th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, also +remains. The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in Cahors, is +one of the 15th century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV. Most of the state +buildings are modern, with the exception of the prefecture which occupies +the old episcopal palace, and the old convent and the Jesuit college in +which the Lycée Gambetta is established. The Porte de Diane is a large +archway of the Roman period, probably the entrance to the baths. Of the +commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in the Place d'Armes to +Gambetta, who was a native of the town. There is also a statue of the poet +Clément Marot, born at Cahors in 1496. Cahors is the seat of a bishopric, a +prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There +are also training colleges, a lycée, a communal college for girls, an +ecclesiastical seminary, a library, museum and hospital. The manufacture of +farm implements, tanning, wool-spinning, metal-founding, distilling and the +preparation of _pâté de foie gras_ and other delicacies are carried on. +Wine, nuts, oil of nuts, tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles +of commerce. + +_History._--Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew up near the +sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the Fontaine des Chartreux), was +the capital of the Cadurci. Under the Romans it enjoyed a prosperity partly +due to its manufacture of cloth and of mattresses, which were exported even +to Rome. The first bishop of Cahors, St Genulfus, appears to have lived in +the 3rd century. In the middle ages the town was the capital of Quercy, and +its territory until after the Albigensian Crusade was a fief of the counts +of Toulouse. The seigniorial rights, including that of coining money, +belonged to the bishops. In the 13th century Cahors was a financial centre +of much importance owing to its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name +_cahorsin_ consequently came to signify "banker" or "usurer." At the +beginning of the century a commune was organized in the town. Its constant +opposition to the bishops drove them, in 1316, to come to an arrangement +with the French king, by which the administration of the town was placed +almost entirely in the hands of royal officers, king and bishop being +co-seigneurs. This arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope +John XXII., a native of Cahors, founded there a university, which +afterwards numbered Jacques Cujas among its teachers and François Fénelon +among its students. It flourished till 1751, when it was united to its +rival the university of Toulouse. During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors, +like the rest of Quercy, consistently resisted the English occupation, from +which it was relieved in 1428. In the 16th century it belonged to the +viscounts of Béarn, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of Navarre +who took it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry IV. punished the +town by depriving it of its privileges as a wine-market; the loss of these +was the chief cause of its decline. + +CAIATIA (mod. _Caiazzo_), an ancient city of Campania, on the right bank of +the Volturnus, 11 m. N.E. of Capua, on the road between it and Telesia. It +was already in the hands of the Romans in 306 B.C., and since in the 3rd +century B.C. it issued copper coins with a Latin legend it must have had +the _civitas sine suffragio_. In the Social War it rebelled from Rome, and +its territory was added to that of Capua by Sulla. In the imperial period, +however, we find it once more a _municipium_. Caiatia has remains of +Cyclopean walls, and under the Piazza del Mercato is a large Roman cistern, +which still provides a good water supply. The episcopal see was founded in +A.D. 966. The place is frequently confused with Calatia (_q.v._). + +CAIETAE PORTUS (mod. _Gaeta_), an ancient harbour of _Latium adiectum_, +Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which it is 5 m. S.W. The name +(originally [Greek: Aiêtê]) is generally derived from the nurse of Aeneas. +The harbour, owing to its fine anchorage, was much in use, but the place +was never a separate town, but always dependent on Formiae. Livy mentions a +temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only between Caietae Portus and +Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as the modern Monte Scauri, was +a favourite summer resort (see FORMIA). Cicero may have had villas both at +Portus Caietae and at Formiae[1] proper, and the emperors certainly +possessed property at both places. After the destruction of Formiae in A.D. +847 it became one of the most important seaports of central Italy (see +GAETA). In the town are scanty remains of an amphitheatre and theatre: near +the church of La Trinità, higher up, are remains of a large reservoir. +There are also traces of an aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned +by the tomb of Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who +died after 22 B.C. It is a circular structure of blocks of travertine 160 +ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland is the so-called tomb of +L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae Portus was no doubt +connected with the Via Appia (which passed through Formiae) by a +_deverticulum_. There seems also to have been a road running W.N.W. along +the precipitous coast to Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga). + +See E. Gesualdo _Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via Appia di +Pratilli_ p. 7 (Naples, 1754). + +(T. AS.) + +[1] The two places are sufficiently close for the one villa to have borne +both names; but Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 603) +prefers to differentiate them. + +CAILLIÉ (or CAILLÉ), RENÉ AUGUSTE (1799-1838), French explorer, was born at +Mauzé, Poitou, in 1799, the son of a baker. The reading of _Robinson +Crusoe_ kindled in him a love of travel and adventure, and at the age of +sixteen he made a voyage to Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning +to Senegal in 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a +British expedition then in that country. Ill with fever he was obliged to +go back to France, but in 1824 was again in Senegal with the fixed idea of +penetrating to Timbuktu. He spent eight months with the Brakna "Moors" +living north of Senegal river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a +convert, the laws and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching +Timbuktu before the governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement +went to Sierra Leone where the British authorities made him superintendent +of an indigo plantation. Having saved £80 he joined a Mandingo caravan +going inland. He was dressed as a Mussulman, and gave out that he was an +Arab from Egypt who had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was +desirous of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near Boké on +the Rio Nunez on 19th of April 1827, he travelled east along the hills of +Futa Jallon, passing the head streams of the Senegal and crossing the Upper +Niger at Kurussa. Still going east he came to the Kong highlands, where at +a place called Timé he was detained five months by illness. Resuming his +journey [v.04 p.0949] in January 1828 he went north-east and gained the +city of Jenné, whence he continued his journey to Timbuktu by water. After +spending a fortnight (20th April-4th May) in Timbuktu he joined a caravan +crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fez on the 12th of August. From +Tangier he returned to France. He had been preceded at Timbuktu by a +British officer, Major Gordon Laing, but Laing had been murdered (1826) on +leaving the city and Caillié was the first to accomplish the journey in +safety. He was awarded the prize of £400 offered by the Geographical +Society of Paris to the first traveller who should gain exact information +of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given by Mungo Park. He also received +the order of the Legion of Honour, a pension, and other distinctions, and +it was at the public expense that his _Journal d'un voyage à Temboctou et à +Jenne dans l'Afrique Centrale_, etc. (edited by E.F. Jomard) was published +in three volumes in 1830. Caillié died at Badère in 1838 of a malady +contracted during his African travels. For the greater part of his life he +spelt his name Caillié, afterwards omitting the second "i." + +See Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap. xii. (London, +1892); Goepp and Cordier, _Les Grands Hommes de France, voyageurs: René +Caillé_ (Paris, 1885); E.F. Jomard, _Notice historique sur la vie et les +voyages de R. Caillié_ (Paris, 1839). An English version of Caillié's +_Journal_ was published in London in 1830 in two volumes under the title of +_Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo_, &c. + +CAIN, in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.), was a tiller +of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was a keeper of sheep. +Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's offering, and rejected his own, he +slew his brother in the field (see ABEL). For this a curse was pronounced +upon him, and he was condemned to be a "fugitive and a wanderer" on the +earth, a mark being set upon him "lest any finding him should kill him." He +took up his abode in the land of Nod ("wandering") on the east of Eden, +where he built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. The narrative +presents a number of difficulties, which early commentators sought to solve +with more ingenuity than success. But when it is granted that the ancient +Hebrews, like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and +traditional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The mark set +upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or sign analogous to the +cattle marks of Bedouin and the related usages in Europe. Such marks had +often a religious significance, and denoted that the bearer was a follower +of a particular deity. The suggestion has been made that the name Cain is +the eponym of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good name almost +everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its destruction is +foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed a division, are +consistently represented as the inveterate enemies of Yahweh and of his +people Israel. The story of Cain and Abel, which appears to represent the +nomad life as a curse, may be an attempt to explain the origin of an +existence which in the eyes of the settled agriculturist was one of +continual restlessness, whilst at the same time it endeavours to find a +reason for the institution of blood-revenge on the theory that at some +remote age a man (or tribe) had killed his brother (or brother tribe). +Cain's subsequent founding of a city finds a parallel in the legend of the +origin of Rome through the swarms of outlaws and broken men of all kinds +whom Romulus attracted thither. The list of Cain's descendants reflects the +old view of the beginnings of civilization; it is thrown into the form of a +genealogy and is parallel to Gen. v. (see GENESIS). It finds its analogy in +the Phoenician account of the origin of different inventions which Eusebius +(_Praep. Evang._ i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus (Gebal), and probably +both go back to a common Babylonian origin. + +On this question, see Driver, _Genesis_ (Westminster Comm., London, 1904), +p. 80 seq.; A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients_ (Leipzig, +1906), pp. 220 seq.; also ENOCH, LAMECH. On the story of Cain, see +especially Stade, _Akademische Reden_, pp. 229-273; Ed. Meyer, +_Israeliten_, pp. 395 sqq.; A.R. Gordon, _Early Trad. Genesis_ (Index). +Literary criticism (see Cheyne, _Encycl. Bib._ col. 620-628, and 4411-4417) +has made it extremely probable that Cain the nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv. +1-16) was originally distinct from Cain the city-builder (vv. 17 sqq.). The +latter was perhaps regarded as a "smith," cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the +"father" of those who work in bronze (or copper). That the Kenites, too, +were a race of metal-workers is quite uncertain, although even at the +present day the smiths in Arabia form a distinct nomadic class. Whatever be +the meaning of the name, the words put into Eve's mouth (v. I) probably are +not an etymology, but an assonance (Driver). It is noteworthy that Kenan, +son of Enosh ("man," Gen. v. 9), appears in Sabaean inscriptions of South +Arabia as the name of a tribal-god. + +A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of Cainites. They +are first mentioned by Irenaeus, who connects them with the Valentinians. +They believed that Cain derived his existence from the superior power, and +Abel from the inferior power, and that in this respect he was the first of +a line which included Esau, Korah, the Sodomites and Judas Iscariot. + +(S. A. C.) + +CAINE, THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born +of mixed Manx and Cumberland parentage at Runcorn, Cheshire, on the 14th of +May 1853. He was educated with a view to becoming an architect, but turned +to journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the _Liverpool Mercury_. He came +up to London at the suggestion of D.G. Rossetti, with whom he had had some +correspondence, and lived with the poet for some time before his death. He +published a volume of _Recollections of Rossetti_ (1882), and also some +critical work; but in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a +novelist of a melodramatic type with _The Shadow of a Crime_, followed by +_The Son of Hagar_ (1886), _The Deemster_ (1887), _The Bondman_ (1890), +_The Scapegoat_ (1891), _The Manxman_ (1894), _The Christian_ (1897), _The +Eternal City_ (1901), and _The Prodigal Son_ (1904). His writings on Manx +subjects were acknowledged by his election in 1901 to represent Ramsey in +the House of Keys. _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_ and _The Christian_ had +already been produced in dramatic form, when _The Eternal City_ was staged +with magnificent accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1902, and in 1905 _The +Prodigal Son_ had a successful run at Drury Lane. + +See C.F. Kenyon, _Hall Caine_; _The Man and the Novelist_ (1901); and the +novelist's autobiography, _My Story_ (1908). + +CA'ING WHALE (_Globicephalus melas_), a large representative of the dolphin +tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North +America, the Cape and New Zealand. From its nearly uniform black colour it +is also called the "black-fish." Its maximum length is about 20 ft. These +cetaceans are gregarious and inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly on +cuttle-fish. Their sociable character constantly leads to their +destruction, as when attacked they instinctively rush together, and blindly +follow the leaders of the herd, whence the names pilot-whale and ca'ing (or +driving) whale. Many hundreds at a time are thus frequently driven ashore +and killed, when a herd enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroe +Islands or north of Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has +been distinguished as _G. scammoni_, while one from the Atlantic coast, +south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are possibly also +distinct. (See CETACEA.) + +CAINOZOIC (from the Gr. _[Greek: kainos]_, recent, _[Greek: zôê]_, life), +also written Cenozoic (American), _Kainozoisch_, _Cänozoisch_ (German), +_Cénozoaire_ (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest of the +three great eras of geological time, the other two being the Mesozoic and +Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed the term "Neozoic" +(_Neozoisch_) with the same significance, others have restricted its +application to the Tertiary epoch (_Néozoique_, De Lapparent). The +"Neogene" of Hörnes (1853) included the Miocene and Pliocene periods; +Renevier subsequently modified its form to _Néogénique_. The remaining +Tertiary periods were classed as Paléogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The word +"Neocene" has been used in place of Neozoic, but its employment is open to +objection. + +Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term Cainozoic to +include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone, and on the other hand, +to make it include both the Tertiary and the post-Tertiary or Quaternary +epochs; and in order that it may bear a relationship to the concepts of +time and faunal development similar to those indicated by the terms +Mesozoic and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the latter +alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the geological +periods from Eocene to Recent. (See TERTIARY and PLEISTOCENE.) + +(J. A. H.) + +[v.04 p.0950] CAÏQUE (from Turk. _Kaik_), a light skiff or rowing-boat used +by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a Levantine sailing +vessel of considerable size. + +ÇA IRA, a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:-- + + "_Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira!_ + _Les aristocrates à la lanterne._" + +The words, written by one Ladré, a street singer, were put to an older +tune, called "Le Carillon National," and the song rivalled the "Carmagnole" +(_q.v._) during the Terror. It was forbidden by the Directory. + +CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908), British philosopher and theologian, brother of +John Caird (_q.v._), was born at Greenock on the 22nd of March 1835, and +educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first +class in moderations in 1862 and in _Literae humaniores_ in 1863, and was +Pusey and Ellerton scholar in 1861. From 1864 to 1866 he was fellow and +tutor of Merton College. In 1866 he became professor of moral philosophy in +the university of Glasgow, and in 1893 succeeded Benjamin Jowett as master +of Balliol. With Thomas Hill Green he founded in England a school of +orthodox neo-Hegelianism (see HEGEL, _ad fin._), and through his pupils he +exerted a far-reaching influence on English philosophy and theology. Owing +to failing health he gave up his lectures in 1904, and in May 1906 resigned +his mastership, in which he was succeeded by James Leigh Strachan-Davidson, +who had previously for some time, as senior tutor and fellow, borne the +chief burden of college administration. Dr Caird received the honorary +degree of D.C.L. in 1892; he was made a corresponding member of the French +Academy of Moral and Political Science and a fellow of the British Academy. +His publications include _Philosophy of Kant_ (1878); _Critical Philosophy +of Kant_ (1889); _Religion and Social Philosophy of Comte_ (1885); _Essays +on Literature and Philosophy_ (1892); _Evolution of Religion_ (Gifford +Lectures, 1891-1892); _Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers_ +(1904); and he is represented in this encyclopaedia by the article on +CARTESIANISM. He died on the 1st of November 1908. + +For a criticism of Dr Caird's theology, see A.W. Benn, _English Rationalism +in the 19th Century_ (London, 1906). + +CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born at +Greenock on the 15th of December 1820. In his sixteenth year he entered the +office of his father, who was partner and manager of a firm of engineers. +Two years later, however, he obtained leave to continue his studies at +Glasgow University. After a year of academic life he tried business again, +but in 1840 he gave it up finally and returned to college. In 1845 he +entered the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and after holding several +livings accepted the chair of divinity at Glasgow in 1862. During these +years he won a foremost place among the preachers of Scotland. In theology +he was a Broad Churchman, seeking always to emphasize the permanent +elements in religion, and ignoring technicalities. In 1873 he was appointed +vice-chancellor and principal of Glasgow University. He delivered the +Gifford Lectures in 1892-1893 and in 1895-1896. His _Introduction to the +Philosophy of Religion_ (1880) is an attempt to show the essential +rationality of religion. It is idealistic in character, being in fact a +reproduction of Hegelian teaching in clear and melodious language. His +argument for the Being of God is based on the hypothesis that thought--not +individual but universal--is the reality of all things, the existence of +this Infinite Thought being demonstrated by the limitations of finite +thought. Again his Gifford Lectures are devoted to the proof of the truth +of Christianity on grounds of right reason alone. Caird wrote also an +excellent study of Spinoza, in which he showed the latent Hegelianism of +the great Jewish philosopher. He died on the 30th of July 1898. + +CAIRN (in Gaelic and Welsh, _Carn_), a heap of stones piled up in a conical +form. In modern times cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient +times they were erected as sepulchral monuments. The _Duan Eireanach_, an +ancient Irish poem, describes the erection of a family cairn; and the +_Senchus Mor_, a collection of ancient Irish laws, prescribes a fine of +three three-year-old heifers for "not erecting the tomb of thy chief." +Meetings of the tribes were held at them, and the inauguration of a new +chief took place on the cairn of one of his predecessors. It is mentioned +in the _Annals of the Four Masters_ that, in 1225, the O'Connor was +inaugurated on the cairn of Fraech, the son of Fiodhach of the red hair. In +medieval times cairns are often referred to as boundary marks, though +probably not originally raised for that purpose. In a charter by King +Alexander II. (1221), granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss, +the boundary is described as passing "from the great oak in Malevin as far +as the _Rune Pictorum_," which is explained as "the Carne of the Pecht's +fieldis." In Highland districts small cairns used to be erected, even in +recent times, at places where the coffin of a distinguished person was +"rested" on its way to the churchyard. Memorial cairns are still +occasionally erected, as, for instance, the cairn raised in memory of the +prince consort at Balmoral, and "Maule's Cairn," in Glenesk, erected by the +earl of Dalhousie in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends +specified by name in the inscription placed upon it. (See BARROW.) + +CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT (1823-1875), British political economist, was born at +Castle Bellingham, Ireland, in 1823. After leaving school he spent some +years in the counting-house of his father, a brewer. His tastes, however, +lay altogether in the direction of study, and he was permitted to enter +Trinity College, Dublin, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1848, and six +years later that of M.A. After passing through the curriculum of arts he +engaged in the study of law and was called to the Irish bar. But he felt no +very strong inclination for the legal profession, and during some years he +occupied himself to a large extent with contributions to the daily press, +treating of the social and economical questions that affected Ireland. He +devoted most attention to political economy, which he studied with great +thoroughness and care. While residing in Dublin he made the acquaintance of +Archbishop Whately, who conceived a very high respect for his character and +abilities. In 1856 a vacancy occurred in the chair of political economy at +Dublin founded by Whately, and Cairnes received the appointment. In +accordance with the regulations of the foundation, the lectures of his +first year's course were published. The book appeared in 1857 with the +title _Character and Logical Method of Political Economy_. It follows up +and expands J.S. Mill's treatment in the _Essays on some Unsettled +Questions in Political Economy_, and forms an admirable introduction to the +study of economics as a science. In it the author's peculiar powers of +thought and expression are displayed to the best advantage. Logical +exactness, precision of language, and firm grasp of the true nature of +economic facts, are the qualities characteristic of this as of all his +other works. If the book had done nothing more, it would still have +conferred inestimable benefit on political economists by its clear +exposition of the true nature and meaning of the ambiguous term "law." To +the view of the province and method of political economy expounded in this +early work the author always remained true, and several of his later +essays, such as those on _Political Economy and Land_, _Political Economy +and Laissez-Faire_, are but reiterations of the same doctrine. His next +contribution to economical science was a series of articles on the gold +question, published partly in _Fraser's Magazine_, in which the probable +consequences of the increased supply of gold attendant on the Australian +and Californian gold discoveries were analysed with great skill and +ability. And a critical article on M. Chevalier's work _On the Probable +Fall in the Value of Gold_ appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ for July +1860. + +In 1861 Cairnes was appointed to the professorship of political economy and +jurisprudence in Queen's College, Galway, and in the following year he +published his admirable work _The Slave Power_, one of the finest specimens +of applied economical philosophy. The inherent disadvantages of the +employment of slave labour were exposed with great fulness and ability, and +the conclusions arrived at have taken their place among the recognized +doctrines of political economy. The opinions expressed by Cairnes as to the +probable issue of the war in America were largely verified by the actual +course of events, and the appearance of the book had a marked influence on +the attitude taken by serious political thinkers in England towards the +southern states. + +[v.04 p.0951] + +During the remainder of his residence at Galway Professor Cairnes published +nothing beyond some fragments and pamphlets mainly upon Irish questions. +The most valuable of these papers are the series devoted to the +consideration of university education. His health, at no time very good, +was still further weakened in 1865 by a fall from his horse. He was ever +afterwards incapacitated from active exertion and was constantly liable to +have his work interfered with by attacks of illness. In 1866 he was +appointed professor of political economy in University College, London. He +was compelled to spend the session 1868-1869 in Italy but on his return +continued to lecture till 1872. During his last session he conducted a +mixed class, ladies being admitted to his lectures. His health soon +rendered it impossible for him to discharge his public duties; he resigned +his post in 1872, and retired with the honorary title of emeritus professor +of political economy. In 1873 his own university conferred on him the +degree of LL.D. He died at Blackheath, near London, on the 8th of July +1875. + +The last years of his life were spent in the collection and publication of +some scattered papers contributed to various reviews and magazines, and in +the preparation of his most extensive and important work. The _Political +Essays_, published in 1873, comprise all his papers relating to Ireland and +its university system, together with some other articles of a somewhat +similar nature. The _Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical and Applied_, +which appeared in the same year, contain the essays towards a solution of +the gold question, brought up to date and tested by comparison with +statistics of prices. Among the other articles in the volume the more +important are the criticisms on Bastiat and Comte, and the essays on +_Political Economy and Land_, and on _Political Economy and Laissez-Faire_, +which have been referred to above. In 1874 appeared his largest work, _Some +Leading Principles of Political Economy, newly Expounded_, which is beyond +doubt a worthy successor to the great treatises of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo +and Mill. It does not expound a completed system of political economy; many +important doctrines are left untouched; and in general the treatment of +problems is not such as would be suited for a systematic manual. The work +is essentially a commentary on some of the principal doctrines of the +English school of economists, such as value, cost of production, wages, +labour and capital, and international values, and is replete with keen +criticism and lucid illustration. While in fundamental harmony with Mill, +especially as regards the general conception of the science, Cairnes +differs from him to a greater or less extent on nearly all the cardinal +doctrines, subjects his opinions to a searching examination, and generally +succeeds in giving to the truth that is common to both a firmer basis and a +more precise statement. The last labour to which he devoted himself was a +republication of his first work on the _Logical Method of Political +Economy_. + +Taken as a whole the works of Cairnes formed the most important +contribution to economical science made by the English school since the +publication of J.S. Mill's _Principles_. It is not possible to indicate +more than generally the special advances in economic doctrine effected by +him, but the following points may be noted as establishing for him a claim +to a place beside Ricardo and Mill: (1) His exposition of the province and +method of political economy. He never suffers it to be forgotten that +political economy is a _science_, and consequently that its results are +entirely neutral with respect to social facts or systems. It has simply to +trace the necessary connexions among the phenomena of wealth and dictates +no rules for practice. Further, he is distinctly opposed both to those who +would treat political economy as an integral part of social philosophy, and +to those who have attempted to express economic facts in quantitative +formulae and to make economy a branch of applied mathematics. According to +him political economy is a mixed science, its field being partly mental, +partly physical. It may be called a positive science, because its premises +are facts, but it is hypothetical in so far as the laws it lays down are +only approximately true, _i.e._ are only valid in the absence of +counteracting agencies. From this view of the nature of the science, it +follows at once that the method to be pursued must be that called by Mill +the physical or concrete deductive, which starts from certain known causes, +investigates their consequences and verifies or tests the result by +comparison with facts of experience. It may, perhaps, be thought that +Cairnes gives too little attention to the effects of the organism of +society on economic facts, and that he is disposed to overlook what Bagehot +called the postulates of political economy. (2) His analysis of cost of +production in its relation to value. According to Mill, the universal +elements in cost of production are the wages of labour and the profits of +capital. To this theory Cairnes objects that wages, being remuneration, can +in no sense be considered as cost, and could only have come to be regarded +as cost in consequence of the whole problem being treated from the point of +view of the capitalist, to whom, no doubt, the wages paid represent cost. +The real elements of cost of production he looks upon as labour, abstinence +and risk, the second of these falling mainly, though not necessarily, upon +the capitalist. In this analysis he to a considerable extent follows and +improves upon Senior, who had previously defined cost of production as the +sum of the labour and abstinence necessary to production. (3) His +exposition of the natural or social limit to free competition, and of its +bearing on the theory of value. He points out that in any organized society +there can hardly be the ready transference of capital from one employment +to another, which is the indispensable condition of free competition; while +class distinctions render it impossible for labour to transfer itself +readily to new occupations. Society may thus be regarded as consisting of a +series of non-competing industrial groups, with free competition among the +members of any one group or class. Now the only condition under which cost +of production will regulate value is perfect competition. It follows that +the normal value of commodities--the value which gives to the producers the +average and usual remuneration--will depend upon cost of production only +when the exchange is confined to the members of one class, among whom there +is free competition. In exchange between classes or non-competing +industrial groups, the normal value is simply a case of international +value, and depends upon reciprocal demand, that is to say, is such as will +satisfy the equation of demand. This theory is a substantial contribution +to economical science and throws great light upon the general problem of +value. At the same time, it may be thought that Cairnes overlooked a point +brought forward prominently by Senior, who also had called attention to the +bearing of competition on the relation between cost of production and +value. The cost to the producer fixes the limit below which the price +cannot fall without the supply being affected; but it is the desire of the +consumer--_i.e._ what he is willing to give up rather than be compelled to +produce the commodity for himself--that fixes the maximum value of the +article. To treat the whole problem of natural or normal value from the +point of view of the producer is to give but a one-sided theory of the +facts. (4) His defence of the wages fund doctrine. This doctrine, expounded +by Mill in his _Principles_, had been relinquished by him, but Cairnes +still undertook to defend it. He certainly succeeded in removing from the +theory much that had tended to obscure its real meaning and in placing it +in its very best aspect. He also showed the sense in which, when treating +the problem of wages, we must refer to some fund devoted to the payment of +wages, and pointed out the conditions under which the wages fund may +increase or decrease. It may be added that his _Leading Principles_ contain +admirable discussions on trade unions and protection, together with a clear +analysis of the difficult theory of international trade and value, in which +there is much that is both novel and valuable. The _Logical Method_ +contains about the best exposition and defence of Ricardo's theory of rent; +and the _Essays_ contain a very clear and formidable criticism of Bastiat's +economic doctrines. + +Professor Cairnes's son, CAPTAIN W.E. CAIRNES (1862-1906), was an able +writer on military subjects, being author of _An Absent-minded War_ (1900), +_The Coming Waterloo_ (1905), &c. + +[v.04 p.0952] + +CAIRNGORM, a yellow or brown variety of quartz, named from Cairngorm or +Cairngorum, one of the peaks of the Grampian Mountains in Banffshire, +Scotland. According to Mr E.H. Cunningham-Craig, the mineral occurs in +crystals lining cavities in highly-inclined veins of a fine-grained granite +running through the coarser granite of the main mass: Shallow pits were +formerly dug in the kaolinized granite for sake of the cairngorm and the +mineral was also found as pebbles in the bed of the river Avon. Cairngorm +is a favourite ornamental stone in Scotland, being set in the lids of +snuff-mulls, in the handles of dirks and in brooches for Highland costume. +A rich sherry-yellow colour is much esteemed. Quartz of yellow and brown +colour is often known in trade as "false topaz," or simply "topaz." Such +quartz is found at many localities in Brazil, Russia and Spain. Much of the +yellow quartz used in jewellery is said to be "burnt amethyst"; that is, it +was originally amethystine quartz, the colour of which has been modified by +heat (see AMETHYST). Yellow quartz is sometimes known as citrine; when the +quartz presents a pale brown tint it is called "smoky quartz"; and when the +brown is so deep that the stone appears almost black it is termed morion. +The brown colour has been referred to the presence of titanium. + +CAIRNS, HUGH MCCALMONT CAIRNS, 1ST EARL (1819-1885), Irish statesman, and +lord chancellor of England, was born at Cultra, Co. Down, Ireland, on the +27th of December 1819. His father, William Cairns, formerly a captain in +the 47th regiment, came of a family[1] of Scottish origin, which migrated +to Ireland in the time of James I. Hugh Cairns was his second son, and was +educated at Belfast academy and at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with +a senior moderatorship in classics in 1838. In 1844 he was called to the +bar at the Middle Temple, to which he had migrated from Lincoln's Inn. +During his first years at the chancery bar, Cairns showed little promise of +the eloquence which afterwards distinguished him. Never a rapid speaker, he +was then so slow and diffident, that he feared that this defect might +interfere with his legal career. Fortunately he was soon able to rid +himself of the idea that he was only fit for practice as a conveyancer. In +1852 he entered parliament as member for Belfast, and his Inn, on his +becoming a Q.C. in 1856, made him a bencher. + +In 1858 Cairns was appointed solicitor-general, and was knighted, and in +May of that year made two of his most brilliant and best-remembered +speeches in the House of Commons. In the first, he defended the action of +Lord Ellenborough, who, as president of the board of control, had not only +censured Lord Canning for a proclamation issued by him as governor-general +of India but had made public the despatch in which the censure was +conveyed. On the other occasion referred to, Sir Hugh Cairns spoke in +opposition to Lord John Russell's amendment to the motion for the second +reading of the government Reform Bill, winning the most cordial +commendation of Disraeli. Disraeli's appreciation found an opportunity for +displaying itself some years later, when in 1868 he invited him to be lord +chancellor in the brief Conservative administration which followed Lord +Derby's resignation of the leadership of his party. Meanwhile, Cairns had +maintained his reputation in many other debates, both when his party was in +power and when it was in opposition. In 1866 Lord Derby, returning to +office, had made him attorney-general, and in the same year he had availed +himself of a vacancy to seek the comparative rest of the court of appeal. +While a lord justice he had been offered a peerage, and though at first +unable to accept it, he had finally done so on a relative, a member of the +wealthy family of McCalmont, providing the means necessary for the +endowment of a title. + +The appointment of Baron Cairns of Garmoyle as lord chancellor in 1868 +involved the superseding of Lord Chelmsford, an act which apparently was +carried out by Disraeli with less tact than might have been expected of +him. Lord Chelmsford bitterly declared that he had been sent away with less +courtesy than if he had been a butler, but the testimony of Lord Malmesbury +is strong that the affair was the result of an understanding arrived at +when Lord Chelmsford took office. Disraeli held office on this occasion for +a few months only, and when Lord Derby died in 1869, Lord Cairns became the +leader of the Conservative opposition in the House of Lords. He had +distinguished himself in the Commons by his resistance to the Roman +Catholics' Oath Bill brought in in 1865; in the Lords, his efforts on +behalf of the Irish Church were equally strenuous. His speech on +Gladstone's Suspensory Bill was afterwards published as a pamphlet, but the +attitude which he and the peers who followed him had taken up, in insisting +on their amendments to the preamble of the bill, was one difficult to +maintain, and Lord Cairns made terms with Lord Granville in circumstances +which precluded his consulting his party first. He issued a circular to +explain his action in taking a course for which many blamed him. Viewed +dispassionately, the incident appears to have exhibited his statesmanlike +qualities in a marked degree, for he secured concessions which would have +been irretrievably lost by continued opposition. Not long after this, Lord +Cairns resigned the leadership of his party in the upper house, but he had +to resume it in 1870 and took a strong part in opposing the Irish Land Bill +in that year. On the Conservatives coming into power in 1874, he again +became lord chancellor; in 1878 he was made Viscount Garmoyle and Earl +Cairns; and in 1880 his party went out of office. In opposition he did not +take as prominent a part as previously, but when Lord Beaconsfield died in +1881, there were some Conservatives who considered that his title to lead +the party was better than that of Lord Salisbury. His health, however, +never robust, had for many years shown intermittent signs of failing. He +had periodically made enforced retirements to the Riviera, and for many +years had had a house at Bournemouth, and it was here that he died on the +2nd of April 1885. + +Cairns was a great lawyer, with an immense grasp of first principles and +the power to express them; his judgments taking the form of luminous +expositions or treatises upon the law governing the case before him, rather +than of controversial discussions of the arguments adduced by counsel or of +analysis of his own reasons. Lucidity and logic were the leading +characteristics of his speeches in his professional capacity and in the +political arena. In an eloquent tribute to his memory in the House of +Lords, Lord Chief Justice Coleridge expressed the high opinion of the legal +profession upon his merits and upon the severe integrity and single-minded +desire to do his duty, which animated him in his selections for the bench. +His piety was reflected by that of his great opponent, rival and friend, +Lord Selborne. Like Lord Selborne and Lord Hatherley, Cairns found leisure +at his busiest for teaching in the Sunday-school, but it is not recorded of +them (as of him) that they refused to undertake work at the bar on +Saturdays, in order to devote that day to hunting. He used to say that his +great incentive to hard work at his profession in early days was his desire +to keep hunters, and he retained his keenness as a sportsman as long as he +was able to indulge it. Of his personal characteristics, it may be said +that he was a spare man, with a Scottish, not an Irish, cast of +countenance. He was scrupulously neat in his personal appearance, faultless +in bands and necktie, and fond of wearing a flower in his button-hole. His +chilly manner, coupled with his somewhat austere religious principles, had +no doubt much to do with the fact that he was never a popular man. His +friends claimed for him a keen sense of humour, but it was not to be +detected by those whose knowledge of him was professional rather than +personal. Probably he thought the exhibition of humour incompatible with +the dignity of high judicial position. Of his legal attainments there can +be no doubt. His influence upon the legislation of the day was largely felt +where questions affecting religion and the Church were involved and in +matters peculiarly affecting his own profession. His power was felt, as has +been said, both when he was in office and when his party was in opposition. +He had been chairman of the committee on judicature reform, and although he +was not in office when the Judicature Act was passed, all the reforms in +the legal procedure of his day owed much to him. He took part, when out of +office, in the passing of the Married Women's Property Act, and was +directly responsible for the Conveyancing Acts of 1881-1882, and [v.04 +p.0953] for the Settled Land Act. Many other statutes in which he was +largely concerned might be quoted. His judgments are to be found in the Law +Reports and those who wish to consider his oratory should read the speeches +above referred to, or that delivered in the House of Lords on the +Compensation for Disturbance Bill in 1880, and his memorable criticism of +Mr Gladstone's policy in the Transvaal, after Majuba Hill. (See Hansard and +_The Times_, 1st of April 1881.) His style of delivery was, as a rule, cold +to a marked degree. The term "frozen oratory" has been applied to his +speeches, and it has been said of them that they flowed "like water from a +glacier.... The several stages of his speech are like steps cut out in ice, +as sharply defined, as smooth and as cold." Lord Caims married in 1856 Mary +Harriet, eldest daughter of John McNeill, of Parkmount, Co. Antrim, by whom +he had issue five sons and two daughters. He was succeeded in the earldom +by his second but eldest surviving son, Arthur William (1861-1890), who +left one daughter, and from whom the title passed to his two next younger +brothers in succession, Herbert John, third earl (1863-1905), and Wilfrid +Dallas, fourth earl (b. 1865). + +AUTHORITIES.--See _The Times_, 3rd and 14th of April 1885; _Law Journal, +Law Times, Solicitors' Journal_, 11th of April 1885; the _Law Magazine_, +vol. xi. p. 133; the _Law Quarterly_, vol. i. p. 365; _Earl Russell's +Recollections; Memoirs of Lord Malmesbury_; Sir Theodore Martin, _The Life +of the Prince Consort_; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_; J.B. Atlay, +_Victorian Chancellors_, vol. ii. + +[1] See _History of the family of Cairnes or Cairns_, by H.C. Lawlor +(1907). + +CAIRNS, JOHN (1818-1892), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born at Ayton +Hill, Berwickshire, on the 23rd of August 1818, the son of a shepherd. He +went to school at Ayton and Oldcambus, Berwickshire, and was then for three +years a herd boy, but kept up his education. In 1834 he entered Edinburgh +University, but during 1836 and 1837, owing to financial straits, taught in +a school at Ayton. In November 1837 he returned to Edinburgh, where he +became the most distinguished student of his time, graduating M.A. in 1841, +first in classics and philosophy and bracketed first in mathematics. While +at Edinburgh he organized the Metaphysical Society along with A. Campbell +Fraser and David Masson. He entered the Presbyterian Secession Hall in +1840, and in 1843 wrote an article in the _Secession Magazine_ on the Free +Church movement, which aroused the interest of Thomas Chalmers. The years +1843-1844 he spent at Berlin studying German philosophy and theology. He +was licensed as preacher on the 3rd of February 1845, and on the 6th of +August ordained as minister of Golden Square Church, Berwick-on-Tweed. +There his preaching was distinguished by its impressiveness and by a broad +and unaffected humanity. He had many "calls" to other churches, but chose +to remain at Berwick. In 1857 he was one of the representatives at the +meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, and in 1858 Edinburgh +University conferred on him an honorary D.D. In the following year he +declined an invitation to become principal of Edinburgh University. In 1872 +he was elected moderator of the United Presbyterian Synod and represented +his church in Paris at the first meeting of the Reformed Synod of France. +In May 1876, he was appointed joint professor of systematic theology and +apologetics with James Harper, principal of the United Presbyterian +Theological College, whom he succeeded as principal in 1879. He was an +indefatigable worker and speaker, and in order to facilitate his efforts in +other countries and other literatures he learnt Arabic, Norse, Danish and +Dutch. In 1890 he visited Berlin and Amsterdam to acquaint himself with the +ways of younger theologians, especially with the Ritschlians, whose work he +appreciated but did not accept as final. On his return he wrote a long +article on "Recent Scottish Theology" for the _Presbyterian and Reformed +Review_, for which he read over every theological work of note published in +Scotland during the preceding half-century. He died on the 12th of March, +1892, at Edinburgh. Among his principal publications are _An Examination of +Ferrier's "Knowing and Being," and the Scottish Philosophy_--(a work which +gave him the reputation of being an independent Hamiltonian in philosophy); +_Memoir of John Brown, D.D._ (1860); _Romanism and Rationalism_ (1863); +_Outlines of Apologetical Theology_ (1867); _The Doctrine of the +Presbyterian Church_ (1876); _Unbelief in the 18th Century_ (1881); +_Doctrinal Principles of the United Presbyterian Church_ (Dr Blair's +Manual, 1888). + +See MacEwen's _Life and Letters of John Cairns_ (1895). + +(D. MN.) + +CAIRNS, a seaport of Nares county, Queensland, Australia, 890 m. direct +N.N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 3557. The town lies parallel with the sea, +on the western shore of Trinity Bay, with an excellent harbour, and a long +beach, finely timbered. Cairns is the natural outlet for the gold-fields, +tin-mines and silver-fields of the district and for the rich copper +district of Chillagoe. A government railway, 48 m. long, runs to Mareeba, +whence a private company's line continues to Mungana, 100 m. W. There is +also a line belonging to a private company connecting Chillagoe with +Mareeba. In the vicinity of Cairns are extensive sugar plantations, with +sugar mills and refineries; the culture of coffee and tobacco has rapidly +extended; bananas, pine-apples and other fruits are exported in +considerable quantities and there is a large industry in cedar. The Barron +Falls, among the finest in Australia, are near Kuranda, 19 m. from Cairns. +Cairns became a municipality in 1885. + +CAIRO (Arabic _Misr-al-Kahira_, or simply _Misr_), the capital of modern +Egypt and the most populous city in Africa, on the Nile, 12 m. S. of the +apex of the Delta, in 30° 3' N. and 31° 21' E. It is 130 m. S.E. of +Alexandria, and 148 E. of Suez by rail, though only 84 m. from the +last-named port by the overland route across the desert, in use before the +opening of the Suez Canal. Cairo occupies a length of 5 m. on the east bank +of the Nile, stretching north from the old Roman fortress of Babylon, and +covers an area of about 8 sq. m. It is built partly on the alluvial plain +of the Nile valley and partly on the rocky slopes of the Mokattam hills, +which rise 550 ft. above the town. + +The citadel, which is built on a spur of the Mokattam hills, occupies the +S.E. angle of the city. The prospect from the ramparts of this fortress is +one of striking picturesqueness and beauty. Below lies the city with its +ancient walls and lofty towers, its gardens and squares, its palaces and +its mosques, with their delicately-carved domes and minarets covered with +fantastic tracery, the port of Bulak, the gardens and palace of Shubra, the +broad river studded with islands, the valley of the Nile dotted with groups +of trees, with the pyramids on the north horizon, and on the east the +barren cliffs, backed by a waste of sand. Since the middle of the 19th +century the city has more than doubled in size and population. The newer +quarters, situated near the river, are laid out in the fashion of French +cities, but the eastern parts of the town retain, almost unimpaired, their +Oriental aspect, and in scores of narrow, tortuous streets, and busy +bazaars it is easy to forget that there has been any change from the Cairo +of medieval times. Here the line of fortifications still marks the eastern +limits of the city, though on the north large districts have grown up +beyond the walls. Neither on the south nor towards the river are there any +fortifications left. + +_Principal Quarters and Modern Buildings._--From the citadel a straight +road, the Sharia Mehemet Ali, runs N. to the Ezbekia (Ezbekiyeh) Gardens, +which cover over 20 acres, and form the central point of the foreign +colony. North and west of the Ezbekia runs the Ismailia canal, and on the +W. side of the canal, about half a mile N. of the Gardens, is the Central +railway station, approached by a broad road, the Sharia Clot Bey. The Arab +city and the quarters of the Copts and Jews lie E. of the two streets +named. West of the Ismailia canal lies the Bulak quarter, the port or +riverside district. At Bulak are the arsenal, foundry and railway works, a +paper manufactory and the government printing press, founded by Mehemet +Ali. A little distance S.E. of the Ezbekia is the Place Atabeh, the chief +point of intersection of the electric tramways which serve the newer parts +of the town. From the Place Atabeh a narrow street, the Muski, leads E. +into the heart of the Arab city. Another street leads S.W. to the Nile, at +the point where the Kasr en Nil or Great Nile bridge spans the river, +leading to Gezira Bulak, an island whereon is a palace, now turned into a +hotel, polo, cricket and tennis grounds, and a racecourse. The districts +between the bridge, the Ezbekia [v.04 p.0954] and the Ismailia canal, are +known as the Ismailia and Tewfikia quarters, after the khedives in whose +reigns they were laid out. The district immediately south of the bridge is +called the Kasr el-Dubara quarter. Abdin Square, which occupies a central +position, is connected with Ezbekia Gardens by a straight road. The narrow +canal, El Khalig, which branched from the Nile at Old Cairo and traversed +the city from S.W. to N.E., was filled up in 1897, and an electric tramway +runs along the road thus made. With the filling up of the channel the +ancient festival of the cutting of the canal came to an end. + +The government offices and other modern public buildings are nearly all in +the western half of the city. On the south side of the Ezbekia are the post +office, the courts of the International Tribunals, and the opera house. On +the east side are the bourse and the Crédit Lyonnais, on the north the +buildings of the American mission. On or near the west side of the gardens +are most of the large and luxurious hotels which the city contains for the +accommodation of Europeans. Facing the river immediately north of the Great +Nile bridge are the large barracks, called Kasr-en-Nil, and the new museum +of Egyptian antiquities (opened in 1902). South of the bridge are the +Ismailia palace (a khedivial residence), the British consulate general, the +palace of the khedive's mother, the medical school and the government +hospital. Farther removed from the river are the offices of the ministries +of public works and of war--a large building surrounded by gardens--and of +justice and finance. On the east side of Abdin Square is Abdin palace, an +unpretentious building used for official receptions. Adjoining the palace +are barracks. N.E. of Abdin Square, in the Sharia Mehemet Ali, is the Arab +museum and khedivial library. Near this building are the new courts of the +native tribunals. Private houses in these western districts consist chiefly +of residential flats, though in the Kasr el-Dubara quarter are many +detached residences. + +_The Oriental City._--The eastern half of Cairo is divided into many +quarters. These quarters were formerly closed at night by massive gates. A +few of these gates remain. In addition to the Mahommedan quarters, usually +called after the trade of the inhabitants or some notable building, there +are the Copt or Christian quarter, the Jews' quarter and the old "Frank" +quarter. The last is the Muski district where, since the days of Saladin, +"Frank" merchants have been permitted to live and trade. Some of the +principal European shops are still to be found in this street. The Copt and +Jewish quarters lie north of the Muski. The Coptic cathedral, dedicated to +St Mark, is a modern building in the basilica style. The oldest Coptic +church in Cairo is, probably, the Keniset-el-Adra, or Church of the Virgin, +which is stated to preserve the original type of Coptic basilica. The +Coptic churches in the city are not, however, of so much interest as those +in Old Cairo (see below). In the Copt quarter are also Armenian, Syrian, +Maronite, Greek and Roman Catholic churches. In the Copt and Jewish +quarters the streets, as in the Arab quarters, are winding and narrow. In +them the projecting upper stories of the houses nearly meet. Sebils or +public fountains are numerous. These fountains are generally two-storeyed, +the lower chamber enclosing a well, the upper room being often used for +scholastic purposes. Many of the fountains are fine specimens of Arab +architecture. While the houses of the poorer classes are mean and too often +dirty, in marked contrast are the houses of the wealthier citizens, built +generally in a style of elaborate arabesque, the windows shaded with +projecting cornices of graceful woodwork (_mushrebiya_) and ornamented with +stained glass. A winding passage leads through the ornamental doorway into +the court, in the centre of which is a fountain shaded with palm-trees. The +principal apartment is generally paved with marble; in the centre a +decorated lantern is suspended over a fountain, while round the sides are +richly inlaid cabinets and windows of stained glass; and in a recess is the +_divan_, a low, narrow, cushioned seat. The basement storey is generally +built of the soft calcareous stone of the neighbouring hills, and the upper +storey, which contains the harem, of painted brick. The shops of the +merchants are small and open to the street. The greater part of the trade +is done, however, in the bazaars or markets, which are held in large +_khans_ or storehouses, of two storeys and of considerable size. Access to +them is gained from the narrow lanes which usually surround them. The khans +often possess fine gateways. The principal bazaar, the Khan-el-Khalil, +marks the site of the tombs of the Fatimite caliphs. + +_The Citadel and the Mosques._--Besides the citadel, the principal edifices +in the Arab quarters are the mosques and the ancient gates. The citadel or +El-Kala was built by Saladin about 1166, but it has since undergone +frequent alteration, and now contains a palace erected by Mehemet Ali, and +a mosque of Oriental alabaster (based on the model of the mosques at +Constantinople) founded by the same pasha on the site of "Joseph's Hall," +so named after the prenomen of Saladin. The dome and the two slender +minarets of this mosque form one of the most picturesque features of Cairo, +and are visible from a great distance. In the centre is a well called +Joseph's Well, sunk in the solid rock to the level of the Nile. There are +four other mosques within the citadel walls, the chief being that of Ibn +Kalaun, built in A.D. 1317 by Sultan Nasir ibn Kalaun. The dome has fallen +in. After having been used as a prison, and, later, as a military +storehouse, it has been cleared and its fine colonnades are again visible. +The upper parts of the minarets are covered with green tiles. They are +furnished with bulbous cupolas. The most magnificent of the city mosques is +that of Sultan Hasan, standing in the immediate vicinity of the citadel. It +dates from A.D. 1357, and is celebrated for the grandeur of its porch and +cornice and the delicate stalactite vaulting which adorns them. The +restoration of parts of the mosque which had fallen into decay was begun in +1904. Besides it there is the mosque of Tulun (c. A.D. 879) exhibiting very +ancient specimens of the pointed arch; the mosque of Sultan El Hakim (A.D. +1003), the mosque el Azhar (the splendid), which dates from about A.D. 970, +and is the seat of a Mahommedan university; and the mosque of Sultan +Kalaun, which is attached to the hospital or madhouse (_muristan_) begun by +Kalaun in A.D. 1285. The whole forms a large group of buildings, now +partially in ruins, in a style resembling the contemporaneous medieval work +in Europe, with pointed arches in several orders. Besides the mosque proper +there is a second mosque containing the fine mausoleum of Kalaun. Adjacent +to the _muristan_ on the north is the tomb mosque of al Nasir, completed +1303, with a fine portal. East of the Khan-el-Khalil is the mosque of El +Hasanen, which is invested with peculiar sanctity as containing relics of +Hosain and Hasan, grandsons of the Prophet. This mosque was rebuilt in the +19th century and is of no architectural importance. In all Cairo contains +over 260 mosques, and nearly as many _zawias_ or chapels. Of the gates the +finest are the Bab-en-Nasr, in the north wall of the city, and the +Bab-ez-Zuwela, the only surviving part of the southern fortifications. + +_Tombs of the Caliphs and Mamelukes._--Beyond the eastern wall of the city +are the splendid mausolea erroneously known to Europeans as the tombs of +the caliphs; they really are tombs of the Circassian or Burji Mamelukes, a +race extinguished by Mehemet Ali. Their lofty gilt domes and fanciful +network or arabesque tracery are partly in ruins, and the mosques attached +to them are also partly ruined. The chief tomb mosques are those of Sultan +Barkuk, with two domes and two minarets, completed AD. 1410, and that of +Kait Bey (c. 1470), with a slender minaret 135 ft. high. This mosque was +carefully restored in 1898. South of the citadel is another group of +tomb-mosques known as the tombs of the Mamelukes. They are architecturally +of less interest than those of the "caliphs". Southwest of the Mameluke +tombs is the much-venerated tomb-mosque of the Imam esh-Shafih or Shaf'i, +founder of one of the four orthodox sects of Islam. Near the imam's mosque +is a family burial-place built by Mehemet Ali. + +[Illustration] + +_Old Cairo: the Fortress of Babylon and the Nilometer._--About a mile south +of the city is Masr-el-Atika, called by Europeans Old Cairo. Between Old +Cairo and the newer city are large mounds of débris marking the site of +Fostat (see below, _History_). [v.04 p.0955] The road to Old Cairo by the +river leads past the monastery of the "Howling" Dervishes, and the head of +the aqueduct which formerly supplied the citadel with water. Farther to the +east is the mosque of Amr, a much-altered building dating from A.D. 643 and +containing the tomb of the Arab conqueror of Egypt. Most important of the +quarters of Masr-el-Atika is that of Kasr-esh-Shama (Castle of the Candle), +built within the outer walls of the Roman fortress of Babylon. Several +towers of this fortress remain, and in the south wall is a massive gateway, +uncovered in 1901. In the quarter are five Coptic churches, a Greek convent +and two churches, and a synagogue. The principal Coptic church is that of +Abu Serga (St Sergius). The crypt dates from about the 6th century and is +dedicated to Sitt Miriam (the Lady Mary), from a tradition that in the +flight into Egypt the Virgin and Child rested at this spot. The upper +church is basilican in form, the nave being, as customary in Coptic +churches, divided into three sections by wooden screens, which are adorned +by carvings in ivory and wood. The wall above the high altar is faced with +beautiful mosaics of marbles, blue glass and mother-of-pearl. Of the other +churches in Kasr-esh-Shama the most noteworthy is that of El Adra (the +Virgin), also called El Moallaka, or The Suspended, being built in one of +the towers of the Roman gateway. It contains fine wooden and ivory screens. +The pulpit is supported on fifteen columns, which rest on a slab of white +marble. The patriarch of the Copts was formerly consecrated in this church. +The other buildings in Old Cairo, or among the mounds of rubbish which +adjoin it, include several fort-like _ders_ or convents. One, south of the +Kasr-esh-Shama, is called Der Bablun, thus preserving the name of the +ancient fortress. In the Der Abu Sephin, to the north of Babylon, is a +Coptic church of the 10th century, possessing magnificent carved screens, a +pulpit with fine mosaics and a semi-circle of marble steps. + +Opposite Old Cairo lies the island of Roda, where, according to Arab +tradition, Pharaoh's daughter found Moses in the bulrushes. Two bridges, +opened in 1908, connect Old Cairo with Roda, and a third bridge joins Roda +to Giza on the west bank of the river. Roda Island contains a mosque built +by Kait Bey, and at its southern extremity is the Nilometer, by which the +Cairenes have for over a thousand years measured the rise of the river. It +is a square well with an octagonal pillar marked in cubits in the centre. + +_Northern and Western Suburbs._--Two miles N.E. of Cairo and on the edge of +the desert is the suburb of Abbasia (named after the viceroy Abbas), +connected with the city by a continuous line of houses. Abbasia is now +largely a military colony, the cavalry barracks being the old palace of +Abbas Pasha. In these barracks Arabi Pasha surrendered to the British on +the 14th of September 1882, the day after the battle of Tel el-Kebir. +Mataria, a village 3 m. farther to the N.E., is the site of the defeat of +the Mamelukes by the Turks in 1517, and of the defeat of the Turks by the +French under General Kleber in 1800. At Mataria was a sycamore-tree, the +successor of a tree which decayed in 1665, venerated as being that beneath +which the Holy Family, rested on their flight into Egypt. This tree was +blown down in July 1906 and its place taken by a cutting made from the tree +some years previously. Less than a mile N.E. of Mataria are the scanty +remains of the ancient city of On or Heliopolis. The chief monument is an +obelisk, about 66 ft. high, erected by Usertesen I. of the XIIth dynasty. A +residential suburb, named Heliopolis, containing many fine buildings, was +laid out between Mataria and Abbasia during 1905-10. + +On the west bank of the Nile, opposite the southern end of Roda Island, is +the small town of Giza or Gizeh, a fortified place of considerable +importance in the times of the Mamelukes. In the viceregal palace here the +museum of Egyptian antiquities was housed for several years (1889-1902). +The grounds of this palace have been converted into zoological gardens. A +broad, tree-bordered, macadamized road, along which run electric trams, +leads S.S.W. across the plain to the Pyramids of Giza, 5 m. distant, built +on the edge of the desert. + +_Helwan._--Fourteen miles S. of Cairo and connected with it by railway is +the town of Helwan, built in the desert 3 m. E. of the Nile, and much +frequented by invalids on account of its sulphur baths, which are owned by +the Egyptian government. A khedivial astronomical observatory was built +here in 1903-1904, to take the place of that at Abbasia, that site being no +longer suitable in consequence of the northward extension of the city. The +ruins of Memphis are on the E. bank of the Nile opposite Helwan. + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants are of many diverse races, the various +nationalities being frequently distinguishable by differences in dress as +well as in physiognomy and colour. In the oriental quarters of the city the +curious shops, the markets of different trades (the shops of each trade +being generally congregated in one street or district), the easy merchant +sitting before his shop, the musical and quaint street-cries of the +picturesque vendors of fruit, sherbet, water, &c., with the ever-changing +and many-coloured throng of passengers, all render the streets a delightful +study for the lover of Arab life, nowhere else to be seen in such +perfection, or with so fine a background of magnificent buildings. The +Cairenes, or native citizens, differ from the fellahin in having a much +larger mixture of Arab blood, and are at once keener witted and more +conservative than the peasantry. The Arabic spoken by the middle and higher +classes is generally inferior in grammatical correctness and pronunciation +to that of the Bedouins of Arabia, but is purer than that of Syria or the +dialect spoken by the Western Arabs. Besides the Cairenes proper, who are +largely engaged in trade or handicrafts, the inhabitants include Arabs, +numbers of Nubians and Negroes--mostly labourers or domestics in nominal +slavery--and many Levantines, there being considerable colonies of Syrians +and Armenians. The higher classes of native society are largely of Turkish +or semi-Turkish descent. Of other races the most numerous are Greeks, +Italians, British, French and Jews. Bedouins from the desert frequent the +bazaars. + +At the beginning of the 19th century the population was estimated at about +200,000, made up of 120,000 Moslems, 60,000 Copts, 4000 Jews and 16,000 +Greeks, Armenians and "Franks." In 1882 the population had risen to +374,000, in 1897 to 570,062, and in 1907, including Helwan and Mataria, the +total population was 654,476, of whom 46,507 were Europeans. + +_Climate and Health._--In consequence of its insanitary condition, Cairo +used to have a heavy death-rate. Since the British occupation in 1882 much +has been done to better this state of things, notably by a good +water-supply and a proper system of drainage. The death-rate of the native +population is about 35 per 1000. The climate of the city is generally +healthy, with a mean temperature of about 68° F. Though rain seldom falls, +exhalations from the river, especially when the flood has begun to subside, +render the districts near the Nile damp during September, October and +November, and in winter early morning fogs are not uncommon. The prevalent +north wind and the rise of the water tend to keep the air cool in summer. + +_Commerce._--The commerce of Cairo, of considerable extent and variety, +consists mainly in the transit of goods. Gum, ivory, hides, and ostrich +feathers from the Sudan, cotton and sugar from Upper Egypt, indigo and +shawls from India and Persia, sheep and tobacco from Asiatic Turkey, and +European manufactures, such as machinery, hardware, cutlery, glass, and +cotton and woollen goods, are the more important articles. The traffic in +slaves ceased in 1877. In Bulak are several factories founded by Mehemet +Ali for spinning, weaving and printing cotton, and a paper-mill established +by the khedive Ismail in 1870. Various kinds of paper are manufactured, and +especially a fine quality for use in the government offices. In the Island +of Roda there is a sugar-refinery of considerable extent, founded in 1859, +and principally managed by Englishmen. Silk goods, saltpetre, gunpowder, +leather, &c., are also manufactured. An octroi duty of 9% _ad valorem_ +formerly levied on all food stuffs entering the city was abolished in 1903. +It used to produce about £150,000 per annum. + +_Mahommedan Architecture._--Architecturally considered Cairo is still the +most remarkable and characteristic of Arab cities. The edifices raised by +the Moorish kings of Spain and the Moslem [v.04 p.0956] rulers of India may +have been more splendid in their materials, and more elaborate in their +details; the houses of the great men of Damascus may be more costly than +were those of the Mameluke beys; but for purity of taste and elegance of +design both are far excelled by many of the mosques and houses of Cairo. +These mosques have suffered much in the beauty of their appearance from the +effects of time and neglect; but their colour has been often thus softened, +and their outlines rendered the more picturesque. What is most to be +admired in their style of architecture is its extraordinary freedom from +restraint, shown in the wonderful variety of its forms, and the skill in +design which has made the most intricate details to harmonize with grand +outlines. Here the student may best learn the history of Arab art. Like its +contemporary Gothic, it has three great periods, those of growth, maturity +and decline. Of the first, the mosque of Ahmed Ibn-Tulun in the southern +part of Cairo, and the three great gates of the city, the Bab-en-Nasr, +Bab-el-Futuh and Bab-Zuwela, are splendid examples. The design of these +entrance gateways is extremely simple and massive, depending for their +effect on the fine ashlar masonry in which they are built, the decoration +being more or less confined to ornamental disks. The mosque of Tulun was +built entirely in brick, and is the earliest instance of the employment of +the pointed arch in Egypt. The curve of the arch turns in slightly below +the springing, giving a horse-shoe shape. Built in brick, it was found +necessary to give a more monumental appearance to the walls by a casing of +stucco, which remains in fair preservation to the present day. This led to +the enrichment of the archivolts and imposts with that peculiar type of +conventional foliage which characterizes Mahommedan work, and which in this +case was carried out by Coptic craftsmen. The attached angle-shafts of +piers are found here for the first time, and their capitals are enriched, +as also the frieze surmounting the walls, with other conventional patterns. +The second period passes from the highest point to which this art attained +to a luxuriance promising decay. The mosque of sultan Hasan, below the +citadel, those of Muayyad and Kalaun, with the Barkukiya and the mosque of +Barkuk in the cemetery of Kait Bey, are instances of the second and more +matured style of the period. The simple plain ashlar masonry still +predominates, but the wall surface is broken up with sunk panels, sometimes +with geometrical patterns in them. The principal characteristics of this +second period are the magnificent portals, rising sometimes, as in the +mosque of sultan Hasan, to 80 or 90 ft., with elaborate stalactite vaulting +at the top, and the deep stalactite cornices which crown the summit of the +building. The decoration of the interior consists of the casing of the +walls with marble with enriched borders, and (about 20 ft. above the +ground) friezes 3 to 5 ft. in height in which the precepts of the Koran are +carved in relief, with a background of conventional foliage. Of the last +style of this period the Ghuriya and the mosque of Kait Bey in his cemetery +are beautiful specimens. They show an elongation of forms and an excess of +decoration in which the florid qualities predominate. Of the age of decline +the finest monument is the mosque of Mahommad Bey Abu-Dahab. The forms are +now poor, though not lacking in grandeur, and the details are not as well +adjusted as before, with a want of mastery of the most suitable decoration. +The usual plan of a congregational mosque is a large, square, open court, +surrounded by arcades of which the chief, often several bays deep, and +known as the Manksura, or prayer-chamber, faces Mecca (eastward), and has +inside its outer wall a decorated niche to mark the direction of prayer. In +the centre of the court is a fountain for ablutions, often surmounted by a +dome, and in the prayer-chamber a pulpit and a desk for readers. When a +mosque is also the founder's tomb, it has a richly ornamented sepulchral +chamber always covered by a dome (see further MOSQUE, which contains plans +of the mosques of Amr and sultan Hasan, and of the tomb mosque of Kait +Bey). + +After centuries of neglect efforts are now made to preserve the monuments +of Arabic art, a commission with that object having been appointed in 1881. +To this commission the government makes an annual grant of £4000. The +careful and syste-matic work accomplished by this commission has preserved +much of interest and beauty which would otherwise have gone utterly to +ruin. Arrangements were made in 1902 for the systematic repair and +preservation of Coptic monuments. + +_Museums and Library._--The museum of Egyptian antiquities was founded at +Bulak in 1863, being then housed in a mosque, by the French savant Auguste +Mariette. In 1889 the collection was transferred to the Giza (Ghezireh) +palace, and in 1902 was removed to its present quarters, erected at a cost +of over £250,000. A statue of Mariette was unveiled in 1904. The museum is +entirely devoted to antiquities of Pharaonic times, and, except in +historical papyri, in which it is excelled by the British Museum, is the +most valuable collection of such antiquities in existence. + +The Arab museum and khedivial library are housed in a building erected for +the purpose, at a cost of £66,000, and opened in 1903. In the museum are +preserved treasures of Saracenic art, including many objects removed from +the mosques for their better security. The khedivial library contains some +64,000 volumes, over two-thirds being books and MSS. in Arabic, Persian, +Turkish, Amharic and Syriac. The Arabic section includes a unique +collection of 2677 korans. The Persian section is rich in illuminated MSS. +The numismatic collection, as regards the period of the caliphs and later +dynasties, is one of the richest in the world. + +_History._--Before the Arab conquest of Egypt the site of Cairo appears to +have been open country. Memphis was some 12 m. higher up on the opposite +side of the Nile, and Heliopolis was 5 or 6 m. distant on the N.E. The most +ancient known settlement in the immediate neighbourhood of the present city +was the town called Babylon. From its situation it may have been a north +suburb of Memphis, which was still inhabited in the 7th century A.D. +Babylon is said by Strabo to have been founded by emigrants from the +ancient city of the same name in 525 B.C., _i.e._ at the time of the +Persian conquest of Egypt. Here the Romans built a fortress and made it the +headquarters of one of the three legions which garrisoned the country. The +church of Babylon mentioned in 1 Peter v. 13 has been thought by some +writers to refer to this town--an improbable supposition. Amr, the +conqueror of Egypt for the caliph Omar, after taking the town besieged the +fortress for the greater part of a year, the garrison surrendering in April +A.D. 641. The town of Babylon disappeared, but the strong walls of the +fortress in part remain, and the name survived, "Babylon of Egypt," or +"Babylon" simply, being frequently used in medieval writings as synonymous +with Cairo or as denoting the successive Mahommedan dynasties of Egypt. + +Cairo itself is the fourth Moslem capital of Egypt; the site of one of +those that had preceded it is, for the most part, included within its +walls, while the other two were a little to the south. Amr founded +El-Fostat, the oldest of these, close to the fortress which he had +besieged. Fostat signifies "the tent," the town being built where Amr had +pitched his tent. The new town speedily became a place of importance, and +was the residence of the náibs, or lieutenants, appointed by the orthodox +and Omayyad caliphs. It received the name of Masr, properly Misr, which was +also applied by the Arabs to Memphis and to Cairo, and is to-day, with the +Roman town which preceded it, represented by Masr el-Atika, or "Old Cairo." +Shortly after the overthrow of the Omayyad dynasty, and the establishment +of the Abbasids, the city of El-'Askar was founded (A.D. 750) by Suleiman, +the general who subjugated the country, and became the capital and the +residence of the successive lieutenants of the Abbasid caliphs. El-'Askar +was a small town N.E. of and adjacent to El-Fostat, of which it was a kind +of suburb. Its site is now entirely desolate. The third capital, El-Katai, +was founded about A.D. 873 by Ahmed Ibn Tulun, as his capital. It continued +the royal residence of his successors; but was sacked not long after the +fall of the dynasty and rapidly decayed. A part of the present Cairo +occupies its site and contains its great mosque, that of Ahmed Ibn Tulun. + +Jauhar (Gohar) el-Kaid, the conqueror of Egypt for the Fatimite caliph +El-Moizz, founded a new capital, A.D. 968, which [v.04 p.0957] was named +El-Kahira, that is, "the Victorious," a name corrupted into Cairo. The new +city, like that founded by Amr, was originally the camp of the conqueror. +This town occupied about a fourth part, the north-eastern, of the present +metropolis. By degrees it became greater than El-Fostat, and took from it +the name of Misr, or Masr, which is applied to it by the modern Egyptians. +With its rise Fostat, which had been little affected by the establishment +of Askar and Katai, declined. It continually increased so as to include the +site of El-Katai to the south. In A.D. 1176 Cairo was unsuccessfully +attacked by the Crusaders; shortly afterwards Saladin built the citadel on +the lowest point of the mountains to the east, which immediately overlooked +El-Katai, and he partly walled round the towns and large gardens within the +space now called Cairo. Under the prosperous rule of the Mameluke sultans +this great tract was filled with habitations; a large suburb to the north, +the Hoseynia, was added; and the town of Bulak was founded. After the +Turkish conquest (A.D. 1517) the metropolis decayed, but its limits were +the same. In 1798 the city was captured by the French, who were driven out +in 1801 by the Turkish and English forces, the city being handed over to +the Turks. Mehemet Ali, originally the Turkish viceroy, by his massacre of +the Mamelukes in 1811, in a narrow street leading to the citadel, made +himself master of the country, and Cairo again became the capital of a +virtually independent kingdom. Under Mehemet and his successors all the +western part of the city has grown up. The khedive Ismail, in making the +straight road from the citadel to the Ezbekia gardens, destroyed many of +the finest houses of the old town. In 1882 Cairo was occupied by the +British, and British troops continue to garrison the citadel. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S.L. Poole, _The Story of Cairo_ (London, 1902), a +historical and architectural survey of the Moslem city; E. Reynolds-Ball, +_Cairo: the City of the Caliphs_ (Boston, U.S.A., 1897); Prisse d'Avennes, +_L'Art arabe d'après les monuments du Caire_ (Paris, 1847); P. Ravaisse, +_L'Histoire et la topographie du Caire d'après Makrizi_ (Paris, 1887); E.W. +Lane, _Cairo Fifty Years Ago_ (London, 1896), presents a picture of the +city as it was before the era of European "improvements," and gives +extracts from the _Khitat_ of Maqrizi, written in 1417, the chief original +authority on the antiquities of Cairo; Murray's and Baedeker's _Guides_, +and A. and C. Black's _Cairo of To-day_ (1905), contain much useful and +accurate information about Cairo. For the fortress of Babylon and its +churches consult A.J. Butler, _Ancient Coptic Churches in Egypt_ (Oxford, +1884). + +CAIRO, a city and the county-seat of Alexander county, Illinois, U.S.A., in +the S. part of the state, at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi +rivers, 365 m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,324; (1900) 12,566, of whom +5000 were negroes; (1910 census) 14,548. Cairo is served by the Illinois +Central, the Mobile & Ohio, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, +the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, and the St Louis South-Western +railways, and by river steamboat lines. The city, said to be the "Eden" of +Charles Dickens's _Martin Chuzzlewit_, is built on a tongue of land between +the rivers, and has suffered many times from inundations, notably in 1858. +It is now protected by great levees. A fine railway bridge (1888) spans the +Ohio. The city has a large government building, a U.S. marine hospital +(1884), and the A.B. Safford memorial library (1882), and is the seat of St +Joseph's Loretto Academy (Roman Catholic, 1864). In one of the squares +there is a bronze statue, "The Hewer," by G.G. Barnard. In the N. part of +the city is St Mary's park (30 acres). At Mound City (pop. in 1910, 2837), +5 m. N. of Cairo, there is a national cemetery. Lumber and flour are +Cairo's principal manufactured products, and the city is an important +hardwood and cotton-wood market; the Singer Manufacturing Co. has veneer +mills here, and there are large box factories. In 1905 the value of the +city's factory products was $4,381,465, an increase of 40.6% since 1900. +Cairo is a shipping-point for the surrounding agricultural country. The +city owes its origin to a series of commercial experiments. In 1818 a +charter was secured from the legislature of the territory of Illinois +incorporating the city and bank of Cairo. The charter was soon forfeited, +and the land secured by it reverted to the government. In 1835 a new +charter was granted to a second company, and in 1837 the Cairo City & Canal +Co. was formed. By 1842, however, the place was practically abandoned. A +successful settlement was made in 1851-1854 under the auspices of the New +York Trust Co.; the Illinois Central railway was opened in 1856; and Cairo +was chartered as a city in 1857. During the Civil War Cairo was an +important strategic point, and was a military centre and depot of supplies +of considerable importance for the Federal armies in the west. In 1862 +Admiral Andrew H. Foote established at Mound City a naval depot, which was +the basis of his operations on the Mississippi. + +CAIROLI, BENEDETTO (1825-1889), Italian statesman, was born at Pavia on the +28th of January 1825. From 1848 until the completion of Italian unity in +1870, his whole activity was devoted to the Risorgimento, as Garibaldian +officer, political refugee, anti-Austrian conspirator and deputy to +parliament. He commanded a volunteer company under Garibaldi in 1859 and +1860, being wounded slightly at Calatafimi and severely at Palermo in the +latter year. In 1866, with the rank of colonel, he assisted Garibaldi in +Tirol, in 1867 fought at Mentana, and in 1870 conducted the negotiations +with Bismarck, during which the German chancellor is alleged to have +promised Italy possession of Rome and of her natural frontiers if the +Democratic party could prevent an alliance between Victor Emmanuel and +Napoleon. The prestige personally acquired by Benedetto Cairoli was +augmented by that of his four brothers, who fell during the wars of +Risorgimento, and by the heroic conduct of their mother. His refusal of all +compensation or distinction further endeared him to the Italian people. +When in 1876 the Left came into power, Cairoli, then a deputy of sixteen +years' standing, became parliamentary leader of his party, and, after the +fall of Depretis, Nicotera and Crispi, formed his first cabinet in March +1878 with a Francophil and Irredentist policy. After his marriage with the +countess Elena Sizzo of Trent, he permitted the Irredentist agitation to +carry the country to the verge of a war with Austria. General irritation +was caused by his and Count Corti's policy of "clean hands" at the Berlin +Congress, where Italy obtained nothing, while Austria-Hungary secured a +European mandate to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. A few months later +the attempt of Passanante to assassinate King Humbert at Naples (12th of +December 1878) caused his downfall, in spite of the courage displayed and +the severe wound received by him in protecting the king's person on that +occasion. On the 3rd of July 1879 Cairoli returned to power, and in the +following November formed with Depretis a coalition ministry, in which he +retained the premiership and the foreign office. Confidence in French +assurances, and belief that Great Britain would never permit the extension +of French influence in North Africa, prevented him from foreseeing the +French occupation of Tunis (11th of May 1881). In view of popular +indignation he resigned in order to avoid making inopportune declarations +to the chamber. Thenceforward he practically disappeared from political +life. In 1887 he received the knighthood of the Annunziata, the highest +Italian decoration, and on the 8th of August 1889 died while a guest of +King Humbert in the royal palace of Capodimonte near Naples. Cairoli was +one of the most conspicuous representatives of that type of Italian public +men who, having conspired and fought for a generation in the cause of +national unity, were despite their valour little fitted for the responsible +parliamentary and official positions they subsequently attained; and who by +their ignorance of foreign affairs and of internal administration +unwittingly impeded the political development of their country. + +CAISSON (from the Fr. _caisse_, the variant form "cassoon" being adapted +from the Ital. _casone_), a chest or case. When employed as a military +term, it denotes an ammunition wagon or chest; in architecture it is the +term used for a sunk panel or coffer in a ceiling, or in the soffit of an +arch or a vault. + +In civil engineering, however, the word has attained a far wider +signification, and has been adopted in connexion with a considerable +variety of hydraulic works. A caisson in this sense implies a case or +enclosure of wood or iron, generally employed for keeping out water during +the execution of foundations and other works in water-bearing strata, at +the side of or under rivers, and also [v.04 p.0958] in the sea. There are +two distinct forms of this type of caisson:--(1) A caisson open at the top, +whose sides, when it is sunk in position, emerge above the water-level, and +which is either provided with a water-tight bottom or is carried down, by +being weighted at the top and having a cutting edge round the bottom, into +a water-tight stratum, aided frequently by excavation inside; (2) A +bottomless caisson, serving as a sort of diving-bell, in which men can work +when compressed air is introduced to keep out the water in proportion to +the depth below the water-level, which is gradually carried down to an +adequately firm foundation by excavating at the bottom of the caisson, and +building up a quay-wall or pier out of water on the top of its roof as it +descends. An example of a caisson with a water-tight bottom is furnished by +the quays erected alongside the Seine at Rouen, where open-timber caissons +were sunk on to bearing-piles down to a depth of 9¾ ft. below low-water, +the brick and concrete lower portions of the quay-wall being built inside +them out of water (see DOCK). At Bilbao, Zeebrugge and Scheveningen +harbours, large open metal caissons, built inland, ballasted with concrete, +floated out into position, and then sunk and filled with concrete, have +been employed for forming very large foundation blocks for the breakwaters +(see BREAKWATER). Open iron caissons are frequently employed for enclosing +the site of river piers for bridges, where a water-tight stratum can be +reached at a moderate depth, into which the caisson can be taken down, so +that the water can be pumped out of the enclosure and the foundations laid +and the pier carried up in the open air. Thus the two large river piers +carrying the high towers, bascules, and machinery of the Tower Bridge, +London, were each founded and built within a group of twelve plate-iron +caissons open at the top; whilst four of the piers on which the cantilevers +of the Forth Bridge rest, were each erected within an open plate-iron +caisson fitted at the bottom to the sloping rock, where ordinary cofferdams +could not have been adopted. + +Where foundations have to be carried down to a considerable depth in +water-bearing strata, or through the alluvial bed of a river, to reach a +hard stratum, bottomless caissons sunk by excavating under compressed air +are employed. The caisson at the bottom, forming the working chamber, is +usually provided with a strong roof, round the top of which, when the +caisson is floated into a river, plate-iron sides are erected forming an +upper open caisson, inside which the pier or quay-wall is built up out of +water, on the top of the roof, as the sinking proceeds. Shafts through the +roof up to the open air provide access for men and materials to the working +chamber, through an air-lock consisting of a small chamber with an +air-tight door at each end, enabling locking into and out of the +compressed-air portion to be readily effected, on the same principle as a +water-lock on a canal. When a sufficiently reliable stratum has been +reached, the men leave the working chamber; and it is filled with concrete +through the shafts, the bottomless caisson remaining embedded in the work. +The foundations for the two river piers of the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, +carried down to the solid rock, 78 and 45 ft. respectively below +high-water, by means of bottomless timber caissons with compressed air, +were an early instance of this method of carrying out subaqueous +foundations; whilst the Antwerp quay-walls, commenced many years ago in the +river Scheldt at some distance out from the right bank, and the foundations +of six of the piers supporting the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge, carried +down to rock between 64 and 89 ft. below high-water, are notable examples +of works founded under water within wrought iron bottomless caissons by the +aid of compressed air. The foundations of the two piers of the Eiffel Tower +adjoining the Seine were carried down through soft water-bearing strata to +a depth of 33 ft. by means of wrought iron bottomless caissons sunk by the +help of compressed air; and the deep foundations under the sills of the new +large Florida lock at Havre (see DOCK) were laid underneath the water +logged alluvial strata close to the Seine estuary by similar means. +Workmen, after emerging from such caissons, sometimes exhibit symptoms of +illness which is known as _caisson disease_ (_q.v._). + +As in the above system, significantly termed by French engineers _par +caisson perdu_, the materials of the bottomless caisson have to be left in +the work, a more economical system has been adapted for carrying out +similar foundations, at moderate depths, by using movable caissons, which, +after the lowest portions of the foundations have been laid, are raised by +screw-jacks for constructing the next portions. In this way, instead of +building the pier or wall on the roof of the caisson, the work is carried +out under water in successive stages, by raising the bottomless caisson as +the work proceeds; and by this arrangement, the caisson, having completed +the subaqueous portion of the structure, is available for work elsewhere. +This movable system has been used with advantage for the foundations for +some piers of river bridges, some breakwater foundations, and, at the +Florida lock, Havre, for founding portions of the side walls. + +Closed iron caissons, termed ship-caissons, and sliding or rolling +caissons, are generally employed for closing graving-docks, especially the +former (so called from their resemblance in shape to a vessel) on account +of their simplicity, being readily floated into and out of position; whilst +sliding caissons are sometimes used instead of lock-gates at docks, but +require a chamber at the side to receive them when drawn back. They possess +the advantage, particularly for naval dockyards where heavy weights are +transported, of providing in addition a strong movable bridge, thereby +dispensing with a swing-bridge across the opening. + +The term caisson is sometimes applied to flat air-tight constructions used +for raising vessels out of water for cleaning or repairs, by being sunk +under them and then floated; but these floating caissons are more commonly +known as pontoons, or, when air-chambers are added at the sides, as +floating dry-docks. + +(L. F. V.-H.) + +CAISSON DISEASE. In order to exclude the water, the air pressure within a +caisson used for subaqueous works must be kept in excess of the pressure +due to the superincumbent water; that is, it must be increased by one +atmosphere, or 15 lb per sq. in. for every 33½ ft. that the caisson is +submerged below the surface. Hence at a depth of 100 ft. a worker in a +caisson, or a diver in a diving-dress, must be subjected to a pressure of +four atmospheres or 60 lb per sq. in. Exposure to such pressures is apt to +be followed by disagreeable and even dangerous physiological effects, which +are commonly referred to as caisson disease or compressed air illness. The +symptoms are of a very varied character, including pains in the muscles and +joints (the "bends"), deafness, embarrassed breathing, vomiting, paralysis +("divers' palsy"), fainting and sometimes even sudden death. At the St +Louis bridge, where a pressure was employed equal to 4¼ atmospheres, out of +600 workmen, 119 were affected and 14 died. At one time the symptoms were +attributed to congestion produced by the mechanical effects of the pressure +on the internal organs of the body, but this explanation is seen to be +untenable when it is remembered that the pressure is immediately +transmitted by the fluids of the body equally to all parts. They do not +appear during the time that the pressure is being raised nor so long as it +is continued, but only after it has been removed; and the view now +generally accepted is that they are due to the rapid effervescence of the +gases which are absorbed in the body-fluids during exposure to pressure. +Experiment has proved that in animals exposed to compressed air nitrogen is +dissolved in the fluids in accordance with Dalton's law, to the extent of +roughly 1% for each atmosphere of pressure, and also that when the pressure +is suddenly relieved the gas is liberated in bubbles within the body. It is +these bubbles that do the mischief. Set free in the spinal cord, for +instance, they may give rise to partial paralysis, in the labyrinth of the +ear to auditory vertigo, or in the heart to stoppage of the circulation; on +the other hand, they may be liberated in positions where they do no harm. +But if the pressure is relieved gradually they are not formed, because the +gas comes out of solution slowly and is got rid of by the heart and lungs. +Paul Bert exposed 24 dogs to pressure of 7-9½ atmospheres and +"decompressed" them rapidly in 1-4 minutes. The result was that 21 died, +while only one showed no symptoms. In one of his cases, in which the +apparatus burst while at a pressure of 9½ atmospheres, death was +instantaneous and the body was enormously distended, with the right heart +full of gas. [v.04 p.0959] But he also found that dogs exposed, for +moderate periods, to similar pressures suffered no ill effects provided +that the pressure was relieved gradually, in 1-1½ hours; and his results +have been confirmed by subsequent investigators. To prevent caisson +disease, therefore, the decompression should be slow; Leonard Hill suggests +it should be at a rate of not less than 20 minutes for each atmosphere of +pressure. Good ventilation of the caisson is also of great importance +(though experiment does not entirely confirm the view that the presence of +carbonic acid to an amount exceeding 1 or 1¼ parts per thousand exercises a +specific influence on the production of compressed air illness), and long +shifts should be avoided, because by fatigue the circulatory and +respiratory organs are rendered less able to eliminate the absorbed gas. +Another reason against long shifts, especially at high pressures, is that a +high partial pressure of oxygen acts as a general protoplasmic poison. This +circumstance also sets a limit to the pressures that can possibly be used +in caissons and therefore to the depths at which they can be worked, though +there is reason to think that the maximum pressure (4¾ atmospheres) so far +used in caisson work might be considerably exceeded with safety, provided +that proper precautions were observed in regard to slow decompression, the +physique of the workmen, and the hours of labour. As to the remedy for the +symptoms after they have appeared, satisfactory results have been obtained +by replacing the sufferers in a compressed air chamber ("recompression"), +when the gas is again dissolved by the body fluids, and then slowly +"decompressing" them. + +See Paul Bert, _La Pression barométrique_ (1878); and Leonard Hill, _Recent +Advances in Physiology and Biochemistry_ (1906), (both these works contain +bibliographies); also a lecture by Leonard Hill delivered at the Royal +Institution of Great Britain on the 25th of May 1906; "Diving and Caisson +Disease," a summary of recent investigations, by Surgeon Howard Mummery, +_British Medical Journal_, June 27th, 1908; _Diseases of Occupation_, by T. +Oliver (1908); _Diseases of Workmen_, by T. Luson and R. Hyde (1908). + +CAITHNESS, a county occupying the extreme north-east of Scotland, bounded +W. and S. by Sutherlandshire, E. by the North Sea, and N. by the Pentland +Firth. Its area is 446,017 acres, or nearly 697 sq. m. The surface +generally is flat and tame, consisting for the most part of barren moors, +almost destitute of trees. It presents a gradual slope from the north and +east up to the heights in the south and west, where the chief mountains are +Morven (2313 ft.), Scaraben (2054 ft.) and Maiden Pap (1587 ft.). The +principal rivers are the Thurso ("Thor's River"), which, rising in Cnoc +Crom Uillt (1199 ft.) near the Sutherlandshire border, pursues a winding +course till it reaches the sea in Thurso Bay; the Forss, which, emerging +from Loch Shurrery, follows a generally northward direction and enters the +sea at Crosskirk, a fine cascade about a mile from its mouth giving the +river its name (_fors_, Scandinavian, "waterfall;" in English the form is +_force_); and Wick Water, which, draining Loch Watten, flows into the sea +at Wick. There are many other smaller streams well stocked with fish. +Indeed, the county offers fine sport for rod and gun. The lochs are +numerous, the largest being Loch Watten, 2¾ m. by ¾ m., and Loch Calder, 2¼ +by 1 m., and Lochs Colam, Hempriggs, Heilen, Ruard, Scarmclate, St John's, +Toftingale and Wester. So much of the land is low-lying and boggy that +there are no glens, except in the mountainous south-west, although towards +the centre of the county are Strathmore and Strathbeg (the great and little +valleys). Most of the coast-line is precipitous and inhospitable, +particularly at the headlands of the Ord, Noss, Skirsa, Duncansbay, St +John's Point, Dunnet Head (346 ft.), the most northerly point of Scotland, +Holburn and Brims Ness. From Berriedale at frequent intervals round the +coast occur superb "stacks," or detached pillars of red sandstone, which +add much to the grandeur of the cliff scenery. + +Caithness is separated from the Orkneys by the Pentland Firth, a strait +about 14 miles long and from 6 to 8 miles broad. Owing to the rush of the +tide, navigation is difficult, and, in rough weather, dangerous. The tidal +wave races at a speed which varies from 6 to 12 m. an hour. At the meeting +of the western and eastern currents the waves at times rise into the air +like a waterspout, but the current does not always nor everywhere flow at a +uniform rate, being broken up at places into eddies as perilous as itself. +The breakers caused by the sunken reefs off Duncansbay Head create the +Bores of Duncansbay, and eddies off St John's Point are the origin of the +Merry Men of Mey, while off the island of Stroma occurs the whirlpool of +the Swalchie, and off the Orcadian Swona is the vortex of the Wells of +Swona. Nevertheless, as the most direct road from Scandinavian ports to the +Atlantic the Firth is used by at least 5000 vessels every year. In the +eastern entrance to the Firth lies the group of islands known as the +Pentland Skerries. They are four in number--Muckle Skerry, Little Skerry, +Clettack Skerry and Louther Skerry--and the nearest is 4½ m. from the +mainland. On Muckle Skerry, the largest (½ m. by 1/3 m.), stands a +lighthouse with twin towers, 100 ft. apart. The island of Stroma, 1½ m. +from the mainland (pop. 375), belongs to Caithness and is situated in the +parish of Canisbay. It is 2¼ m. long by 1¼ m. broad. In 1862 a remarkable +tide climbed the cliffs (200 ft.) and swept across the island. + +_Geology._--Along the western margin of the county from Reay on the north +coast to the Scaraben Hills there is a narrow belt of country which is +occupied by metamorphic rocks of the types found in the east of Sutherland. +They consist chiefly of granulitic quartzose schists and felspathic +gneisses, permeated in places by strings and veins of pegmatite. On the +Scaraben Hills there is a prominent development of quartz-schists the age +of which is still uncertain. These rocks are traversed by a mass of granite +sometimes foliated, trending north and south, which is traceable from Reay +southwards by Aultnabreac station to Kinbrace and Strath Helmsdale in +Sutherland. Excellent sections of this rock, showing segregation veins, are +exposed in the railway cuttings between Aultnabreac and Forsinard. A rock +of special interest described by Professor Judd occurs on Achvarasdale +Moor, near Loch Scye, and hence named Scyelite. It forms a small isolated +boss, its relations to the surrounding rocks not being apparent. Under the +microscope, the rock consists of biotite, hornblende, serpentinous +pseudo-morphs after olivine and possibly after enstatite and magnetite, and +may be described as a mica-hornblende-picrite. The remainder of the county +is occupied by strata of Old Red Sandstone age, the greater portion being +grouped with the Middle or Orcadian division of that system, and a small +area on the promontory of Dunnet Head being provisionally placed in the +upper division. By means of the fossil fishes, Dr Traquair has arranged the +Caithness flagstone series in three groups, the Achanarras beds at the +base, the Thurso flagstones in the middle, and the John o' Groats beds at +the top. In the extreme south of the county certain minor subdivisions +appear which probably underlie the lowest fossiliferous beds containing the +Achanarras fauna. These comprise (1) the coarse basement conglomerate, (2) +dull chocolate-red sandstones, shales and clays around Braemore in the +Berriedale Water, (3) the brecciated conglomerate largely composed of +granite detritus seen at Badbea, (4) red sandstones, shales and +conglomeratic bands found in the Berriedale Water and further northwards in +the direction of Strathmore. Morven, the highest hill in Caithness, is +formed of gently inclined sandstones and conglomerates resting on an eroded +platform of quartz-schists and quartz-mica-granulites. The flagstones +yielding the fishes of the lowest division of the Orcadian series appear on +Achanarras Hill about three miles south of Halkirk. The members of the +overlying Thurso group have a wide distribution as they extend along the +shore on either side of Thurso and spread across the county by Castletown +and Halkirk to Sinclairs Bay and Wick. They are thrown into folds which are +traversed by faults some of which run in a north and south direction. They +consist of dark grey and cream-coloured flagstones, sometimes thick-bedded +with grey and blue shales and thin limestones and occasional intercalations +of sandstone. In the north-west of the county the members of the Thurso +group appear to overlap the Achanarras beds and to rest directly on the +platform of crystalline schists. In the extreme north-east there is a +passage upwards into the John o' Groats group [v.04 p.0960] with its +characteristic fishes, the strata consisting of sandstones, flagstones with +thin impure limestones. The rocks of Dunnet Head, which are provisionally +classed with the upper Old Red Sandstone, are composed of red and yellow +sandstones, marls and mudstones. Hitherto no fossils have been obtained +from these beds save some obscure plant-like markings, but they are +evidently a continuation southwards of the sandstones of Hoy, which there +rest unconformably on the flagstone series of Orkney. This patch of Upper +Old Red strata is faulted against the Caithness flagstones to the south. +For many years the flagstones have been extensively quarried for pavement +purposes, as for instance near Thurso, at Castletown and Achanarras. Two +instances of volcanic necks occur in Caithness, one piercing the red +sandstones at the Ness of Duncansbay and the other the sandstones of Dunnet +Head north of Brough. They point to volcanic activity subsequent to the +deposition of the John o' Groats beds and of the Dunnet sandstones. The +materials filling these vents consist of agglomerate charged with blocks of +diabase, sandstone, flagstone and limestone. + +An interesting feature connected with the geology of Caithness is the +deposit of shelly boulder clay which is distributed over the low ground, +being deepest in the valleys and in the cliffs surrounding the bays on the +east coast. Apart from the shell fragments, many of which are striated, the +deposit contains blocks foreign to the county, as for instance chalk and +chalk-flints, fragments of Jurassic rocks with fossils and pieces of jet. +The transport of local boulders shows that the ice must have moved from the +south-east towards the north-west, which coincides with the direction +indicated by the striae. The Jurassic blocks may have been derived from the +strip of rocks of that age on the east coast of Sutherland. The shell +fragments, many of which are striated, include arctic, boreal and southern +forms, only a small number being characteristic of the littoral zone. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is variable, and though the winter +storms fall with great severity on the coast, yet owing to proximity to a +vast expanse of sea the cold is not intense and snow seldom lies many days +continuously. In winter and spring the northern shore is subject to +frequent and disastrous gales from the N. and N.W. Only about two-fifths of +the arable land is good. In spite of this and the cold, wet and windy +climate, progressive landlords and tenants keep a considerable part of the +acreage of large farms successfully tilled. In 1824 James Traill of Ratter, +near Dunnet, recognizing that it was impossible to expect tenants to +reclaim and improve the land on a system of short leases, advocated large +holdings on long terms, so that farmers might enjoy a substantial return on +their capital and labour. Thanks to this policy and the farmers' skill and +enterprise, the county has acquired a remarkable reputation for its +produce; notably oats and barley, turnips, potatoes and beans. +Sheep--chiefly Leicester and Cheviots--of which the wool is in especial +request in consequence of its fine quality, cattle, horses and pigs are +raised for southern markets. + +_Other Industries._--The great source of profit to the inhabitants is to be +found in the fisheries of cod, ling, lobster and herring. The last is the +most important, beginning about the end of July and lasting for six weeks, +the centre of operations being at Wick. Besides those more immediately +engaged in manning the boats, the fisheries give employment to a large +number of coopers, curers, packers and helpers. The salmon fisheries on the +coast and at the mouths of rivers are let at high prices. The Thurso is one +of the best salmon streams in the north. The flagstone quarries, mostly +situated in the Thurso, Olrig and Halkirk districts, are another important +source of revenue. Of manufactures there is little beyond tweeds, ropes, +agricultural implements and whisky, and the principal imports consist of +coal, wood, manure, flour and lime. + +The only railway in the county is the Highland railway, which, from a point +some four miles to the south-west of Aultnabreac station, crosses the shire +in a rough semicircle, via Halkirk, to Wick, with a branch from Georgemas +Junction to Thurso. There is also, however, frequent communication by +steamer between Wick and Thurso and the Orkneys and Shetlands, Aberdeen, +Leith and other ports. The deficiency of railway accommodation is partly +made good by coach services between different places. + +_Population and Government._--The population of Caithness in 1891 was +33,177, and in 1901, 33,870, of whom twenty-four persons spoke Gaelic only, +and 2876 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Wick (pop. in 1901, 7911) +and Thurso (3723). The county returns one member to parliament. Wick is the +only royal burgh and one of the northern group of parliamentary burghs +which includes Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall and Tain. Caithness +unites with Orkney and Shetland to form a sheriffdom, and there is a +resident sheriff-substitute at Wick, who sits also at Thurso and Lybster. +The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are academies at +Wick and Thurso. The county council subsidizes elementary schools and +cookery classes and provides apparatus for technical classes. + +_History._--The early history of Caithness may, to some extent, be traced +in the character of its remains and its local nomenclature. Picts' houses, +still fairly numerous, Norwegian names and Danish mounds attest that these +peoples displaced each other in turn, and the number and strength of the +fortified keeps show that its annals include the usual feuds, assaults and +reprisals. Circles of standing stones, as at Stemster Loch and Bower, and +the ruins of Roman Catholic chapels and places of pilgrimage in almost +every district, illustrate the changes which have come over its +ecclesiastical condition. The most important remains are those of Bucholie +Castle, Girnigo Castle, and the tower of Keiss; and, on the S.E. coast, the +castles of Clyth, Swiney, Forse, Laveron, Knockinnon, Berriedale, Achastle +and Dunbeath, the last of which is romantically situated on a detached +stack of sandstone rock. About six miles from Thurso stand the ruins of +Braal Castle, the residence of the ancient bishops of Caithness. On the +coast of the Pentland Firth, 1½ miles west of Dunscansbay Head, is the site +of John o' Groat's house. + +See S. Laing, _Prehistoric Remains of Caithness_ (London and Edinburgh, +1866); James T. Calder, _History of Caithness_ (2nd edition, Wick); John +Home, _In and About Wick_ (Wick); Thomas Sinclair, _Caithness Events_ +(Wick, 1899); _History of the Clan Gunn_ (Wick, 1890); J. Henderson, +_Caithness Family History_ (Edinburgh, 1884); Harvie-Brown, _Fauna of +Caithness_ (Edinburgh, 1887); Principal Miller, _Our Scandinavian +Forefathers_ (Thurso, 1872); Smiles, _Robert Dick, Botanist and Geologist_ +(London, 1878); H. Morrison, _Guide to Sutherland and Caithness_ (Wick, +1883); A. Auld, _Ministers and Men in the Far North_ (Edinburgh, 1891). + +CAIUS or GAIUS, pope from 283 to 296, was the son of Gaius, or of +Concordius, a relative of the emperor Diocletian, and became pope on the +17th of December 283. His tomb, with the original epitaph, was discovered +in the cemetery of Calixtus and in it the ring with which he used to seal +his letters (see Arringhi, _Roma subterr._, l. iv. _c._ xlviii. p. 426). He +died in 296. + +CAIUS [_Anglice_ KEES, KEYS, etc.], JOHN (1510-1573), English physician, +and second founder of the present Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, +was born at Norwich on the 6th of October 1510. He was admitted a student +at what was then Gonville Hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have mainly +studied divinity. After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he +studied under the celebrated Montanus and Vesalius at Padua; and in 1541 he +took his degree in physic at Padua. In 1543 he visited several parts of +Italy, Germany and France; and returned to England. He was a physician in +London in 1547, and was admitted fellow of the College of Physicians, of +which he was for many years president. In 1557, being then physician to +Queen Mary, he enlarged the foundation of his old college, changed the name +from "Gonville Hall" to "Gonville and Caius College," and endowed it with +several considerable estates, adding an entire new court at the expense of +£1834. Of this college he accepted the mastership (24th of January 1558/9) +on the death of Dr Bacon, and held it till about a month before his death. +He was physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. He returned +to Cambridge from London for a few days in June 1573, about a month before +his death, and resigned the mastership to Dr Legge, a tutor at Jesus +College. He died at his London House, in St Bartholomew's, on the 29th +[v.04 p.0961] of July, 1573, but his body was brought to Cambridge, and +buried in the chapel under the well-known monument which he had designed. +Dr Caius was a learned, active and benevolent man. In 1557 he erected a +monument in St Paul's to the memory of Linacre. In 1564 he obtained a grant +for Gonville and Caius College to take the bodies of two malefactors +annually for dissection; he was thus an important pioneer in advancing the +science of anatomy. He probably devised, and certainly presented, the +silver caduceus now in the possession of Caius College as part of its +_insignia_; he first gave it to the College of Physicians, and afterwards +presented the London College with another. + +His works are: _Annals of the College from 1555 to 1572_; translation of +several of Galen's works, printed at different times abroad. _Hippocrates +de Medicamenlis_, first discovered and published by Dr Caius; also _De +Ratione Victus_ (Lov. 1556, 8vo). _De Mendeti Methodo_ (Basel, 1554; +London, 1556, 8vo). _Account of the Sweating Sickness in England_ (London, +1556, 1721), (it is entitled _De Ephemera Britannica_). _History of the +University of Cambridge_ (London, 1568, 8vo; 1574, 4to, in Latin). _De +Thermis Britannicis_; but it is doubtful whether this work was ever +printed. _Of some Rare Plants and Animals_ (London, 1570). _De Canibus +Britannicis_ (1570, 1729). _De Pronunciation Graecae et Latinae Linguae_ +(London, 1574); _De Libris propriis_ (London, 1570). He also wrote numerous +other works which were never printed. + +For further details see the _Biographical History of Caius College_, an +admirable piece of historical work, by Dr John Venn (1897). + +CAJAMARCA, or CAXAMARCA, a city of northern Peru, capital of a department +and province of the same name, 90 m. E. by N. of Pacasmayo, its port on the +Pacific coast. Pop. (1906, estimate) of the department, 333,310; of the +city, 9000. The city is situated in an elevated valley between the Central +and Western Cordilleras, 9400 ft. above sea level, and on the Eriznejas, a +small tributary of the Marañon. The streets are wide and cross at right +angles; the houses are generally low and built of clay. Among the notable +public buildings are the old parish church built at the expense of Charles +II. of Spain, the church of San Antonio, a Franciscan monastery, a nunnery, +and the remains of the palace of Atahualpa, the Inca ruler whom Pizarro +treacherously captured and executed in this place in 1533. The hot sulphur +springs of Pultamarca, called the Baños del Inca (Inca's baths) are a short +distance east of the city and are still frequented. Cajamarca is an +important commercial and manufacturing town, being the distributing centre +for a large inland region, and having long-established manufactures of +woollen and linen goods, and of metal work, leather, etc. It is the seat of +one of the seven superior courts of the republic, and is connected with the +coast by telegraph and telephone. A railway has been undertaken from +Pacasmayo, on the coast, to Cajamarca, and by 1908 was completed as far as +Yonán, 60 m. from its starting-point. + +The department of Cajamarca lies between the Western and Central +Cordilleras and extends from the frontier of Ecuador S. to about 7° S. +lat., having the departments of Piura and Lambayeque on the W. and Amazonas +on the E. Its area according to official returns is 12,542 sq. m. The upper +Marañon traverses the department from S. to N. The department is an +elevated region, well watered with a large number of small streams whose +waters eventually find their way through the Amazon into the Atlantic. Many +of its productions are of the temperate zone, and considerable attention is +given to cattle-raising. Coal is found in the province of Hualgayoc at the +southern extremity of the department, which is also one of the rich +silver-mining districts of Peru. Next to its capital the most important +town of the department is Cajamarquilla, whose population was about 6000 in +1906. + +CAJATAMBO, or CAXATAMBO, a town and province of the department of Ancachs, +Peru, on the western slope of the Andes. Since 1896 the population of the +town has been estimated at 6000, but probably it does not exceed 4500. The +town is 110 m. N. by E. of Lima, in lat. 9° 53' S., long. 76° 57' W. The +principal industries of the province are the raising of cattle and sheep, +and the cultivation of cereals. Cochineal is a product of this region. Near +the town there are silver mines, in which a part of its population is +employed. + +CAJETAN (GAETANUS), CARDINAL (1470-1534), was born at Gaeta in the kingdom +of Naples. His proper name was Tommaso[1] de Vio, but he adopted that of +Cajetan from his birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at the +age of sixteen, and ten years later became doctor of theology at Padua, +where he was subsequently professor of metaphysics. A public disputation at +Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola gave him a great reputation as a +theologian, and in 1508 he became general of his order. For his zeal in +defending the papal pretensions against the council of Pisa, in a series of +works which were condemned by the Sorbonne and publicly burnt by order of +King Louis XII., he obtained the bishopric of Gaeta, and in 1517 Pope Leo +X. made him a cardinal and archbishop of Palermo. The year following he +went as legate into Germany, to quiet the commotions raised by Luther. It +was before him that the Reformer appeared at the diet of Augsburg; and it +was he who, in 1519, helped in drawing up the bull of excommunication +against Luther. Cajetan was employed in several other negotiations and +transactions, being as able in business as in letters. In conjunction with +Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the conclave of 1521-1522, he secured the +election of Adrian Dedel, bishop of Tortosa, as Adrian VI. Though as a +theologian Cajetan was a scholastic of the older Thomist type, his general +position was that of the moderate reformers of the school to which Reginald +Pole, archbishop of Canterbury, also belonged; _i.e._ he desired to retain +the best elements of the humanist revival in harmony with Catholic +orthodoxy illumined by a revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine +of justification. Nominated by Clement VII. a member of the committee of +cardinals appointed to report on the "Nuremberg Recess," he recommended, in +opposition to the majority, certain concessions to the Lutherans, notably +the marriage of the clergy as in the Greek Church, and communion in both +kinds according to the decision of the council of Basel. In this spirit he +wrote commentaries upon portions of Aristotle, and upon the _Summa_ of +Aquinas, and towards the end of his life made a careful translation of the +Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song, the Prophets and the +Revelation of St John. In contrast to the majority of Italian cardinals of +his day, Cajetan was a man of austere piety and fervent zeal; and if, from +the standpoint of the Dominican idea of the supreme necessity of +maintaining ecclesiastical discipline, he defended the extremist claims of +the papacy, he also proclaimed that the pope should be "the mirror of God +on earth." He died at Rome on the 9th of August 1534. + +See "Aktenstücke über das Verhalten der römischen Kurie zur Reformation, +1524-1531," in _Quellen und Forschungen_ (Kön. Preuss. Hist. Inst., Rome), +vol. iii. p. 1-20; T.M. Lindsay, _History of the Reformation_, vol. i. +(Edinburgh, 1906). + +[1] He was christened Giacomo, but afterwards took the name of Tommaso in +honour of Thomas Aquinas. + +CAJUPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of the +myrtaceous tree _Melaleuca leucadendron_, and probably other species. The +trees yielding the oil are found throughout the Indian Archipelago, the +Malay Peninsula and over the hotter parts of the Australian continent; but +the greater portion of the oil is produced from Celebes Island. The name +cajuput is derived from the native _Kayuputi_ or white wood. The oil is +prepared from leaves collected on a hot dry day, which are macerated in +water, and distilled after fermenting for a night. This oil is extremely +pungent to the taste, and has the odour of a mixture of turpentine and +camphor. It consists mainly of cineol (see TERPENES), from which cajuputene +having a hyacinthine odour can be obtained by distillation with phosphorus +pentoxide. The drug is a typical volatile oil, and is used internally in +doses of ½ to 3 minims, for the same purposes as, say, clove oil. It is +frequently employed externally as a counter-irritant. + +CAKCHIQUEL, a tribe of Central American Indians of Mayan stock, inhabiting +parts of Guatemala. Their name is said to be that of a native tree. At the +conquest they were found to be in a much civilized condition. + +See D.G. Brinton, _Annals of the Cakchiquels_. + +[v.04 p.0962] CALABAR (or OLD CALABAR), a seaport of West Africa in the +British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, on the left bank of the Calabar +river in 4° 56' N., 8° 18' E., 5 m. above the point where the river falls +into the Calabar estuary of the Gulf of Guinea. Pop. about 15,000. It is +the capital of the eastern province of the protectorate, and is in regular +steamship and telegraphic communication with Europe. From the beach, where +are the business houses and customs office, rise cliffs of moderate +elevation, and on the sides or summits of the hills are the principal +buildings, such as Government House, the European hospital and the church +of the Presbyterian mission. The valley between the hills is occupied by +the native quarter, called Duke Town. Here are several fine houses in +bungalow style, the residences of the chiefs or wealthy natives. Along the +river front runs a tramway connecting Duke Town with Queen Beach, which is +higher up and provided with excellent quay accommodation. Among the public +institutions are government botanical gardens, primary schools and a high +school. Palms, mangos and other trees grow luxuriantly in the gardens and +open spaces, and give the town a picturesque setting. The trade is very +largely centred in the export of palm oil and palm kernels and the import +of cotton goods and spirits, mostly gin. (See NIGERIA for trade returns.) + +Calabar was the name given by the Portuguese discoverers of the 15th +century to the tribes on this part of the Guinea coast at the time of their +arrival, when as yet the present inhabitants were unknown in the district. +It was not till the early part of the 18th century that the Efik, owing to +civil war with their kindred and the Ibibio, migrated from the +neighbourhood of the Niger to the shores of the river Calabar, and +established themselves at Ikoritungko or Creek Town, a spot 4 m. higher up +the river. To get a better share in the European trade at the mouth of the +river a body of colonists migrated further down and built Obutöng or Old +Town, and shortly afterwards a rival colony established itself at Aqua Akpa +or Duke Town, which thus formed the nucleus of the existing town. The +native inhabitants are still mainly Efik. They are pure negroes. They have +been for several generations the middle men between the white traders on +the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross river and Calabar district. +Christian missions have been at work among the Efiks since the middle of +the 19th century. Many of the natives are well educated, profess +Christianity and dress in European fashion. A powerful bond of union among +the Efik, and one that gives them considerable influence over other tribes, +is the secret society known as the Egbo (_q.v._). The chiefs of Duke Town +and other places in the neighbourhood placed themselves in 1884 under +British protection. From that date until 1906 Calabar was the headquarters +of the European administration in the Niger delta. In 1906 the seat of +government was removed to Lagos. + +Until 1904 Calabar was generally, and officially, known as Old Calabar, to +distinguish it from New Calabar, the name of a river and port about 100 m. +to the east. Since the date mentioned the official style is Calabar simply. +Calabar estuary is mainly formed by the Cross river (_q.v._), but receives +also the waters of the Calabar and other streams. The Rio del Rey creek at +the eastern end of the estuary marks the boundary between (British) Nigeria +and (German) Cameroon. The estuary is 10 to 12 m. broad at its mouth and +maintains the same breadth for about 30 m. + +CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, _Physostigma venenosum_, a +native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific name from a curious +beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the centre of the flower; +this appendage though solid was supposed to be hollow (hence the name from +[Greek: phusa], a bladder, and _stigma_). The plant has a climbing habit +like the scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 ft. with a stem +an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or three +seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 in. in length; and the beans are about the size +of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with a deep chocolate-brown +colour. They constitute the E-ser-e or ordeal beans of the negroes of Old +Calabar, being administered to persons accused of witchcraft or other +crimes. In cases where the poisonous material did its deadly work, it was +held at once to indicate and rightly to punish guilt; but when it was +rejected by the stomach of the accused, innocence was held to be +satisfactorily established. A form of duelling with the seeds is also known +among the natives, in which the two opponents divide a bean, each eating +one-half; that quantity has been known to kill both adversaries. Although +thus highly poisonous, the bean has nothing in external aspect, taste or +smell to distinguish it from any harmless leguminous seed, and very +disastrous effects have resulted from its being incautiously left in the +way of children. The beans were first introduced into England in the year +1840; but the plant was not accurately described till 1861, and its +physiological effects were investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas R. Fraser. + +The bean usually contains a little more than 1% of alkaloids. Of these two +have been identified, one called _calabarine_, and the other, now a highly +important drug, known as _physostigmine_--or occasionally as _eserine_. The +British pharmacopoeia contains an alcoholic extract of the bean, intended +for internal administration; but the alkaloid is now always employed. This +is used as the sulphate, which has the empirical formula of +(C_{15}H_{21}N_3O_2)_2, H_2SO_4, plus an unknown number of molecules of +water. It occurs in small yellowish crystals, which are turned red by +exposure to light or air. They are readily soluble in water or alcohol and +possess a bitter taste. The dose is 1/60-1/30 grain, and should invariably +be administered by hypodermic injection. For the use of the oculist, who +constantly employs this drug, it is also prepared in _lamellae_ for +insertion within the conjunctival sac. Each of these contains +one-thousandth part of a grain of physostigmine sulphate, a quantity which +is perfectly efficient. + +Physostigmine has no action on the unbroken skin. When swallowed it rapidly +causes a great increase in the salivary secretion, being one of the most +powerful _sialogogues_ known. It has been shown that the action is due to a +direct influence on the secreting gland-cells themselves. After a few +minutes the salivation is arrested owing to the constricting influence of +the drug upon the blood-vessels that supply the glands. There is also felt +a sense of constriction in the pharynx, due to the action of the drug on +its muscular fibres. A similar stimulation of the non-striped muscle in the +alimentary canal results in violent vomiting and purging, if a large dose +has been taken. Physostigmine, indeed, stimulates nearly all the +non-striped muscles in the body, and this action upon the muscular coats of +the arteries, and especially of the arterioles, causes a great rise in +blood-pressure shortly after its absorption, which is very rapid. The +terminals of the vagus nerve are also stimulated, causing the heart to beat +more slowly. Later in its action, the drug depresses the intra-cardiac +motor ganglia, causing prolongation of diastole and finally arrest of the +heart in dilatation. A large lethal dose kills by this action, but the +minimum lethal dose by its combined action on the respiration and the +heart. The respiration is at first accelerated by a dose of physostigmine, +but is afterwards slowed and ultimately arrested. The initial hastening is +due to a stimulation of the vagus terminals in the lung, as it does not +occur if these nerves are previously divided. The final arrest is due to +paralysis of the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata, hastened by a +quasi-asthmatic contraction of the non-striped muscular tissue in the +bronchial tubes, and by a "water-logging" of the lungs due to an increase +in the amount of bronchial secretion. It may here be stated that the +non-striped muscular tissue of the bladder, the uterus and the spleen is +also stimulated, as well as that of the iris (see below). It is only in +very large doses that the voluntary muscles are poisoned, there being +induced in them a tremor which may simulate ordinary convulsions. The +action is a direct one upon the muscular tissue (cf. the case of the +gland-cells), since it occurs in an animal whose motor nerves have been +paralysed by curare. + +Consciousness is entirely unaffected by physostigmine, there being +apparently no action on any part of the brain above the medulla oblongata. +But the influence of the alkaloid upon the [v.04 p.0963] spinal cord is +very marked and characteristic. The reflex functions of the cord are +entirely abolished, and it has been experimentally shown that this is due +to a direct influence upon the cells in the anterior cornua. It is +precisely the reverse of the typical action of strychnine. Near the +termination of a fatal case there is a paralysis of the sensory columns of +the cord, so that general sensibility is lowered. The alkaloid calabarine +is, on the other hand, a stimulant of the motor and reflex functions of the +cord, so that only the pure alkaloid physostigmine and not any preparation +of Calabar bean itself should be used when it is desired to obtain this +action. + +Besides the secretions already mentioned as being stimulated, the bile, the +tears and the perspiration are increased by the exhibition of this drug. + +There remains only to consider its highly important action upon the eye. +Whether administered in the form of the official lamella or by subcutaneous +injection, physostigmine causes a contraction of the pupil more marked than +in the case of any other known drug. That this action is a direct and not a +nervous one is shown by the fact that if the eye be suddenly shaded the +pupil will dilate a little, showing that the nerves which cause dilatation +are still competent after the administration of physostigmine. Besides the +_sphincter pupillae_, the fibres of the ciliary muscle are stimulated. +There is consequently spasm of accommodation, so that clear vision of +distant objects becomes impossible. The intra-ocular tension is markedly +lowered. This action, at first sight somewhat obscure, is due to the +extreme pupillary contraction which removes the mass of the iris from +pressing upon the spaces of Fontana, through which the intraocular fluids +normally make a very slow escape from the eye into its efferent lymphatics. + +There is a marked antagonism in nearly all important particulars between +the actions of physostigmine and of atropine. The details of this +antagonism, as well as nearly all our knowledge of this valuable drug, we +owe to Sir Thomas Fraser, who introduced it into therapeutics. + +The clinical uses of physostigmine are based upon the facts of its +pharmacology, as above detailed. It has been recommended in cases of +chronic constipation, and of want of tone in the muscular wall of the +urinary bladder. It has undoubtedly been of value in many cases of tetanus, +in which it must be given in maximal doses. (The tetanus antitoxin should +invariably be employed as well.) Sir Thomas Fraser differs from nearly all +other authorities in regarding the drug as useless in cases of strychnine +poisoning, and the question must be left open. There is some doubtful +evidence of the value of the alkaloid in chorea. The oculist uses it for at +least six purposes. Its stimulant action on the iris and ciliary muscle is +employed when they are weak or paralysed. It is used in all cases where one +needs to reduce the intra-ocular tension, and for this and other reasons in +glaucoma. It is naturally the most efficient agent in relieving the +discomfort or intolerable pain of photophobia; and it is the best means of +breaking down adhesions of the iris, and of preventing prolapse of the iris +after injuries to the cornea. In fact it is hardly possible to +over-estimate its value in ophthalmology. The drug has been highly and +widely recommended in general paralysis, but there remains grave doubt as +to its utility in this disease. + +_Toxicology._--The symptoms of Calabar bean poisoning have all been stated +above. The obvious antidote is atropine, which may often succeed; and the +other measures are those usually employed to stimulate the circulation and +respiration. Unfortunately the antagonism between physostigmine and +atropine is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has shown that in such cases +there comes a time when, if the action of the two drugs be summated, death +results sooner than from either alone. Thus atropine will save life after +three and a half times the fatal dose of physostigmine has been taken, but +will hasten the end if four or more times the fatal dose has been ingested. +Thus it would be advisable to use the physiological antidote only when the +dose of the poison--assuming estimation to be possible--was known to be +comparatively small. + +CALABASH (from the Span. _calabaza_, a gourd or pumpkin, possibly derived +from the Pers. _kharlunza_, a melon), the shell of a gourd or pumpkin made +into a vessel for holding liquids; also a vessel of similar shape made of +other materials. It is the name of a tree (_Crescentia Cujete_) of tropical +America, whose gourd-like fruit is so hard that vessels made of it can be +used over a fire many times before being burned. + +CALABASH TREE, a native of the West Indies and South America, known +botanically as _Crescentia Cujete_ (natural order, Bignoniaceae). The fruit +resembles a gourd, and has a woody rind, which after removal of the pulp +forms a calabash. + +CALABOZO, or CALABOSO, an inland town of Venezuela, once capital of the +province of Caracas in the colonial period, and now capital of the state of +Guárico. Pop. (1891) 5618. Calabozo is situated in the midst of an +extensive _llano_ on the left bank of the Guárico river, 325 ft. above +sea-level and 123 m. S.S.W. of Caracas. The plain lies slightly above the +level of intersecting rivers and is frequently flooded in the rainy season; +in summer the heat is most oppressive, the average temperature being 88°F. +The town is regularly laid out with streets crossing at right angles, and +possesses several fine old churches, a college and public school. It is +also a bishop's see, and a place of considerable commercial importance +because of its situation in the midst of a rich cattle-raising country. It +is said to have been an Indian town originally, and was made one of the +trading stations of the Compañia Guipuzcoana in 1730. However, like most +Venezuelan towns, Calabozo made little growth during the 19th century. In +1820 the Spanish forces under Morales were defeated here by the +revolutionists under Bolívar and Paez. + +CALABRESELLA (sometimes spelt Calabrasella), an Italian card-game ("the +little Calabrian game") for three players. All the tens, nines and eights +are removed from an ordinary pack; the order of the cards is three, two, +ace, king, queen, &c. In scoring the ace counts 3; the three 2; king, queen +and knave 1 each. The last trick counts 3. Each separate hand is a whole +game. One player plays against the other two, paying to each or receiving +from each the difference between the number of points that he and they +hold. Each player receives twelve cards, dealt two at a time. The remainder +form the stock, which is left face downwards. There are no trumps. The +player on the dealer's left declares first: he can either play or pass. The +dealer has the last option. If one person announces that he plays, the +others combine against him. If all decline to play, the deal passes, the +hands being abandoned. The single player may demand any "three" he chooses, +giving a card in exchange. If the three demanded is in the stock, no other +card may be asked for. If a player hold all the threes, he may demand a +two. The single player must take one card from the stock, in exchange for +one of his own (which is never exposed) and may take more. He puts out the +cards he wishes to exchange face downwards, and selects what he wishes from +the stock, which is now exposed; the rejected cards and cards left in the +stock form the "discard." The player on the dealer's left then leads. The +highest card wins the trick, there being no trumps. Players must follow +suit, if they can. The single player and the allies collect all the tricks +they win respectively. The winner of the last trick, besides scoring three, +adds the discard to his heap. The heaps are then searched for the scoring +cards, the scores are compared and the stakes paid. It is important to +remember that the value and the order of the cards are not the same, thus +the ace, whose value is 3, is only third as a trick-winner; also that it is +highly important to win the last trick. Thirty-five is the full score. + +CALABRIA, a territorial district of both ancient and modern Italy. + +(1) The ancient district consisted of the peninsula at its southeast +extremity, between the Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Tarentum, ending in the +lapygian promontory (Lat. _Promunturium Sallentinum_; the village upon it +was called Leuca--Gr. [Greek: Leuka], white, from its colour--and is still +named S. Maria di Leuca) and corresponding in the main with the modern +province of Lecce, Brundisium and Tarentum being its most north-westerly +cities, though the boundary of the latter extends somewhat farther [v.04 +p.0964] west. It is a low terrace of limestone, the highest parts of which +seldom reach 1500 ft.; the cliffs, though not high, are steep, and it has +no rivers of any importance, but despite lack of water it was (and is) +remarkably fertile. Strabo mentions its pastures and trees, and its olives, +vines and fruit trees (which are still the principal source of prosperity) +are frequently spoken of by the ancients. The wool of Tarentum and +Brundisium was also famous, and at the former place were considerable +dye-works. These two towns acquired importance in very early times owing to +the excellence of their harbours. Traces of a prehistoric population of the +stone and early bronze age are to be found all over Calabria. Especially +noticeable are the menhirs (_pietre fitte_) and the round tower-like +_specchie_ or _truddhi_, which are found near Lecce, Gallipolli and Muro +Leccese (and only here in Italy); they correspond to similar monuments, the +_perdas fittas_ and the _nuraghi_, of Sardinia, and the inter-relation +between the two populations which produced them requires careful study. In +272-266 B.C. we find six triumphs recorded in the Roman _fasti_ over the +Tarentini, Sallentini and Messapii, while the name Calabria does not occur; +but after the foundation of a colony at Brundisium in 246-245 B.C., and the +final subjection of Tarentum in 209 B.C., Calabria became the general name +for the peninsula. The population declined to some extent; Strabo (vi. 281) +tells us that in earlier days Calabria had been extremely populous and had +had thirteen cities, but that in his time all except Tarentum and +Brundisium, which retained their commercial importance, had dwindled down +to villages. The Via Appia, prolonged to Brundisium perhaps as early as 190 +B.C., passed through Tarentum; the shorter route by Canusium, Barium and +Gnathia was only made into a main artery of communication by Trajan (see +APPIA, VIA). The only other roads were the two coast roads, the one from +Brundisium by Lupiae, the other from Tarentum by Manduria, Neretum, Aletium +(with a branch to Callipolis) and Veretum (hence a branch to Leuca), which +met at Hydruntum. Augustus joined Calabria to Apulia and the territory of +the Hirpini to form the second region of Italy. From the end of the second +century we find Calabria for juridical purposes associated either with +Apulia or with Lucania and the district of the Bruttii, while Diocletian +placed it under one _corrector_ with Apulia. The loss of the name Calabria +came with the Lombard conquest of this district, when it was transferred to +the land of the Bruttii, which the Byzantine empire still held. + +(2) The modern Calabria consists of the south extremity of Italy (the "toe +of the boot" in the popular simile, while the ancient Calabria, with which +the present province of Lecce more or less coincides, is the "heel"), +bounded on the N. by the province of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the other +three sides by the sea. Area 5819 sq. m. The north boundary is rather +farther north than that of the ancient district of the Bruttii (_q.v._). +Calabria acquired its present name in the time of the Byzantine supremacy, +after the ancient Calabria had fallen into the hands of the Lombards and +been lost to the Eastern empire about A.D. 668. The name is first found in +the modern sense in Paulus Diaconus's _Historia Langobardorum_ (end of the +8th century). It is mainly mountainous; at the northern extremity of the +district the mountains still belong to the Apennines proper (the highest +point, the Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., is on the boundary between Basilicata +and Calabria), but after the plain of Sibari, traversed by the Crati (anc. +Crathis, a river 58 m. long, the only considerable one in Calabria), the +granite mountains of Calabria proper (though still called Apennines in +ordinary usage) begin. They consist of two groups. The first extends as far +as the isthmus, about 22 m. wide, formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia and +Squillace; its highest point is the Botte Donato (6330 ft.). It is in +modern times generally called the Sila, in contradistinction to the second +(southern) group, the Aspromonte (6420 ft.); the ancients on the other hand +applied the name Sila to the southern group. The rivers in both parts of +the chain are short and unimportant. The mountain districts are in parts +covered with forest (though less so than in ancient times), still largely +government property, while in much of the rest there is good pasture. The +scenery is fine, though the country is hardly at all visited by travellers. +The coast strip is very fertile, and though some parts are almost deserted +owing to malaria, others produce wine, olive-oil and fruit (oranges and +lemons, figs, &c.) in abundance, the neighbourhood of Reggio being +especially fertile. The neighbourhood of Cosenza is also highly cultivated; +and at the latter place a school of agriculture has been founded, though +the methods used in many parts of Calabria are still primitive. Wheat, +rice, cotton, liquorice, saffron and tobacco are also cultivated. The coast +fisheries are important, especially in and near the straits of Messina. +Commercial organization is, however, wanting. The climate is very hot in +summer, while snow lies on the mountain-tops for at least half the year. +Earthquakes are frequent and have done great damage: that of the autumn of +1905 was very disastrous (O. Malagodi, _Calabria Desolata_, Rome, 1905), +but it was surpassed in its effects by the terrible earthquake of 1908, by +which Messina (_q.v._) was destroyed, and in Calabria itself Reggio and +numerous smaller places ruined. The railway communications are sufficient +for the coast districts; there are lines along both the east and west +coasts (the latter forms part of the through route by land from Italy to +Sicily, ferry-boats traversing the Strait of Messina with the through +trains on board) which meet at Reggio di Calabria. They are connected by a +branch from Marina di Catanzaro passing through Catanzaro to S. Eufemia; +and there is also a line from Sibari up the valley of the Crati to Cosenza +and Pietrafitta. The interior is otherwise untouched by railways; indeed +many of the villages in the interior can only be approached by paths; and +this is one of the causes of the economic difficulties of Calabria. Another +is the unequal distribution of wealth, there being practically no middle +class; a third is the injudicious disforestation which has been carried on +without regard to the future. The natural check upon torrents is thus +removed, and they sometimes do great damage. The Calabrian costumes are +still much worn in the remoter districts: they vary considerably in the +different villages. There is, and has been, considerable emigration to +America, but many of the emigrants return, forming a slightly higher class, +and producing a rise in the rate of payment to cultivators, which has +increased the difficulties of the small proprietors. The smallness and +large number of the communes, and the consequently large number of the +professional classes and officials, are other difficulties, which, +noticeable throughout Italy, are especially felt in Calabria. The +population of Calabria was 1,439,329 in 1901. The chief towns of the +province of Catanzaro were in 1901:---Catanzaro (32,005), Nicastro +(18,150), Monteleone (13,481), Cotrone (9545), total of province (1871) +412,226; (1901) 498,791; number of communes, 152; of the province of +Cosenza, Cosenza (20,857), Corigliano Calabro (15,379), Rossano (13,354), +S. Giovanni in Fiore (13,288), Castrovillari (9945), total of province +(1871) 440,468; (1901) 503,329, number of communes, 151; of the province of +Reggio, Reggio di Calabria (44,569), Palmi (13,346), Cittanova (11,782), +Gioiosa Ionica(11,200), Bagnara Calabra (11,136), Siderno Marina (10,775), +Gerace (10,572), Polistena (10,112); number of communes 106; total of +province (1871) 353,608; (1901) 437,209. A feature of modern Calabria is +the existence of several Albanian colonies, founded in the 15th century by +Albanians expelled by the Turks, who still speak their own language, wear +their national costume, and worship according to the Greek rite. Similar +colonies exist in Sicily, notably at Piana dei Greci near Palermo. + +(T. AS.) + +CALAFAT, a town of Rumania in the department of Doljiu; on the river +Danube, opposite the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin. Pop. (1900) 7113. Calafat +is an important centre of the grain trade, and is connected by a branch +line with the principal Walachian railways, and by a steam ferry with +Vidin. It was founded in the 14th century by Genoese colonists, who +employed large numbers of workmen (_Calfats_) in repairing ships--which +industry gave its name to the place. In 1854 a Russian force was defeated +at Calafat by the Turks under Ahmed Pasha, who surprised the enemy's camp. + +CALAH (so in the Bible; _Kalah_ in the Assyrian inscriptions), an ancient +city situated in the angle formed by the Tigris and [v.04 p.0965] the upper +Zab, 19 m. S. of Nineveh, and one of the capitals of Assyria. According to +the inscriptions, it was built by Shalmaneser I. about 1300 B.C., as a +residence city in place of the older Assur. After that it seems to have +fallen into decay or been destroyed, but was restored by Assur-nasir-pal, +about 880 B.C., and from that time to the overthrow of the Assyrian power +it remained a residence city of the Assyrian kings. It shared the fate of +Nineveh, was captured and destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians toward the +close of the 7th century, and from that time has remained a ruin. The site +was discovered by Sir A.H. Layard, in 1845, in the _tel_ of Nimrud. Hebrew +tradition (in the J narrative, Genesis x. 11, 12) mentions Calah as built +by Nimrod. Modern Arabic tradition likewise ascribes the ruins, like those +of Birs Nimrud, near Babylon, to Nimrod, because they are the most +prominent ruins of that region. Similarly the ancient dike in the river +Tigris at this point is ascribed to Nimrod. The ruin mounds of Nimrud +consist of an oblong enclosure, formed by the walls of the ancient city, of +which fifty-eight towers have been traced on the N. and about fifty on the +E. In the S.W. corner of this oblong is an elevated platform in the form of +a rectangular parallelogram, some 600 yds. from N. to S. and 400 yds. from +E. to W., raised on an average about 40 ft. above the plain, with a lofty +cone 140 ft. high in the N.W. corner. This is the remains of the raised +platform of unbaked brick, faced with baked bricks and stone, on which +stood the principal palaces and temples of the city, the cone at the N.W. +representing the _ziggurat_, or stage-tower, of the principal temple. +Originally on the banks of the Tigris, this platform now stands some +distance E. of the river. Here Layard conducted excavations from 1845 to +1847, and again from 1849 to 1851. The means at his disposal were +inadequate, his excavations were incomplete and also unscientific in that +his prime object was the discovery of inscriptions and museum objects; but +he was wonderfully successful in achieving the results at which he aimed, +and the numerous statues, monuments, inscribed stones, bronze objects and +the like found by him in the ruins of Calah are among the most precious +possessions of the British Museum. Excavations were also conducted by +Hormuzd Rassan in 1852-1854, and again in 1878, and by George Smith in +1873. But while supplementing in some important respects Layard's +excavations, this later work added relatively little to his discoveries +whether of objects or of facts. The principal buildings discovered at Calah +are:--(_a_) the North-West palace, south of the _ziggurat_, one of the most +complete and perfect Assyrian buildings known, about 350 ft. square, +consisting of a central court, 129 ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a number of +halls and chambers. This palace was originally constructed by +Assur-nasir-pal I. (885-860 B.C.), and restored and reoccupied by Sargon +(722-705 B.C.). In it were found the winged lions, now in the British +Museum, the fine series of sculptured bas-reliefs glorifying the deeds of +Assur-nasir-pal in war and peace, and the large collection of bronze +vessels and implements, numbering over 200 pieces; (_b_) the Central +palace, in the interior of the mound, toward its southern end, erected by +Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) and rebuilt by Tiglath-pileser III. (745-727 +B.C.). Here were found the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser, now in the +British Museum, in the inscription on which the tribute of Jehu, son of +Omri, is mentioned, the great winged bulls, and also a fine series of slabs +representing the battles and sieges of Tiglath-pileser; (_c_) the +South-West palace, in the S.W. corner of the platform, an uncompleted +building of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), who robbed the North-West and +Central palaces, effacing the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, to obtain +material for his construction; (_d_) the smaller West palace, between the +South-West and the North-West palaces, a construction of Hadad-nirari or +Adadnirari III. (812-783 B.C.); (_e_) the South-East palace, built by +Assur-etil-ilani, after 626 B.C., for his harem, in the S.E. corner of the +platform, above the remains of an older similar palace of Shalmaneser; +(_f_) two small temples of Assur-nasir-pal, in connexion with the +_ziggurat_ in the N.W. corner; and (_g_) a temple called E-Zida, and +dedicated to Nebo, near the South-East palace. From the number of colossal +figures of Nebo discovered here it would appear that the cult of Nebo was a +favourite one, at least during the later period. The other buildings on the +E. side of the platform had been ruined by the post-Assyrian use of the +mound for a cemetery, and for tunnels for the storage and concealment of +grain. While the ruins of Calah were remarkably rich in monumental +material, enamelled bricks, bronze and ivory objects and the like, they +yielded few of the inscribed clay tablets found in such great numbers at +Nineveh and various Babylonian sites. Not a few of the astrological and +omen tablets in the Kuyunjik collection of the British Museum, however, +although found at Nineveh, were executed, according to their own testimony, +at Calah for the _rab-dup-sarre_ or principal librarian during the reigns +of Sargon and Sennacherib (716-684 B.C.). From this it would appear that +there was at that time at Calah a library or a collection of archives which +was later removed to Nineveh. In the prestige of antiquity and religious +renown, Calah was inferior to the older capital, Assur, while in population +and general importance it was much inferior to the neighbouring Nineveh. +There is no proper ground for regarding it, as some Biblical scholars of a +former generation did, through a false interpretation of the book of Jonah, +as a part or suburb of Nineveh. + +See A.H. Layard, _Nineveh and its Remains_ (London, 1849); George Smith, +_Assyrian Discoveries_ (London, 1883); Hormuzd Rassam, _Ashur and the Land +of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897). + +(J. P. PE.) + +CALAHORRA (anc. _Calagurris_), a city of northern Spain, in the province of +Logroño; on the left bank of the river Cidacos, which enters the Ebro 3 m. +E., and on the Bilbao-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) 9475. Calahorra is +built on the slope of a hill overlooking the wide Ebro valley, which +supplies its markets with an abundance of grain, wine, oil and flax. Its +cathedral, which probably dates from the foundation of the see of Calahorra +in the 5th century, was restored in 1485, and subsequently so much altered +that little of the original Gothic structure survives. The Casa Santa, +annually visited by many thousands of pilgrims on the 31st of August, is +said to contain the bodies of the martyrs Emeterius and Celedonius, who +were beheaded in the 3rd or 4th century, on the site now occupied by the +cathedral. Their heads, according to local legend, were cast into the Ebro, +and, after floating out to sea and rounding the Iberian peninsula, are now +preserved at Santander. + +The chief remains of the Roman Calagurris are the vestiges of an aqueduct +and an amphitheatre. Calagurris became famous in 76 B.C., when it was +successfully defended against Pompey by the adherents of Sertorius. Four +years later it was captured by Pompey's legate, Afranius, after starvation +had reduced the garrison to cannibalism. Under Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14) +Calagurris received the privileges of Roman citizenship, and at a later +date it was given the additional name of _Nassica_ to distinguish it from +the neighbouring town of _Calagurris Fibularensis_, the exact site of which +is uncertain. The rhetorician Quintilian was born at Calagurris Nassica +about A.D. 35. + +CALAIS, a seaport and manufacturing town of northern France, in the +department of Pas-de-Calais, 18 m. E.S.E. of Dover, and 185 m. N. of Paris +by the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 59,623. Calais, formerly a celebrated +fortress, is defended by four forts, not of modern construction, by a +citadel built in 1560, which overlooks it on the west, and by batteries. +The old town stands on an island hemmed in by the canal and the harbour +basins, which divide it from the much more extensive manufacturing quarter +of St Pierre, enveloping it on the east and south. The demolition of the +ramparts of Old Calais was followed by the construction of a new circle of +defences, embracing both the old and new quarters, and strengthened by a +deep moat. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Armes, in which +stands the former hôtel-de-ville (rebuilt in 1740, restored in 1867), with +busts of Eustache de St Pierre, Francis, duke of Guise, and Cardinal +Richelieu. The belfry belongs to the 16th and early 17th century. Close by +is the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, used as a lighthouse until 1848. The +church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais, has a +[v.04 p.0966] fine high altar of the 17th century; its lofty tower serves +as a landmark for sailors. A gateway flanked by turrets (14th century) is a +relic of the Hôtel de Guise, built as a gild hall for the English +woolstaplers, and given to the duke of Guise as a reward for the recapture +of Calais. The modern town-hall and a church of the 19th century are the +chief buildings of the quarter of St Pierre. Calais has a board of +trade-arbitrators, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, a commercial and +industrial school, and a communal college. + +The harbour is entered from the roads by way of a channel leading to the +outer harbour which communicates with a floating basin 22 acres in extent, +on the east, and with the older and less commodious portion of the harbour +to the north and west of the old town. The harbour is connected by canals +with the river Aa and the navigable waterways of the department. + +Calais is the principal port for the continental passenger traffic with +England carried on by the South-Eastern & Chatham and the Northern of +France railways. The average number of passengers between Dover and Calais +for the years 1902-1906 inclusive was 315,012. Trade is chiefly with the +United Kingdom. The principal exports are wines, especially champagne, +spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, fruit, glass-ware, lace +and metal-ware. Imports include cotton and silk goods, coal, iron and +steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and cork. During the five +years 1901-1905 the average annual value of exports was £8,388,000 +(£6,363,000 in the years 1896-1900), of imports £4,145,000 (£3,759,000 in +1896-1900). In 1905, exclusive of passenger and mail boats, there entered +the port 848 vessels of 312,477 tons and cleared 857 of 305,284 tons, these +being engaged in the general carrying trade of the port. The main industry +of Calais is the manufacture of tulle and lace, for which it is the chief +centre in France. Brewing, saw-milling, boat-building, and the manufacture +of biscuits, soap and submarine cables are also carried on. Deep-sea and +coast fishing for cod, herring and mackerel employ over 1000 of the +inhabitants. + +Calais was a petty fishing-village, with a natural harbour at the mouth of +a stream, till the end of the 10th century. It was first improved by +Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 997, and afterwards, in 1224, was +regularly fortified by Philip Hurepel, count of Boulogne. It was besieged +in 1346, after the battle of Crécy, by Edward III. and held out resolutely +by the bravery of Jean de Vienne, its governor, till after nearly a year's +siege famine forced it to surrender. Its inhabitants were saved from +massacre by the devotion of Eustache de St Pierre and six of the chief +citizens, who were themselves spared at the prayer of Queen Philippa. The +city remained in the hands of the English till 1558, when it was taken by +Francis, duke of Guise, at the head of 30,000 men from the ill-provided +English garrison, only 800 strong, after a siege of seven days. From this +time the _Calaisis_ or territory of Calais was known as the _Pays +Reconquis_. It was held by the Spaniards from 1595 to 1598, but was +restored to France by the treaty of Vervins. + +CALAIS, a city and sub-port of entry of Washington county, Maine, U.S.A., +on the Saint Croix river, 12 m. from its mouth, opposite Saint Stephens, +New Brunswick, with which it is connected by bridges. Pop. (1890) +7290;(1900) 7655 (1908 being foreign-born); (1910) 6116. It is served by +the Washington County railway (102.5 m. to Washington Junction, where it +connects with the Maine Central railway), and by steamboat lines to Boston, +Portland and Saint Johns. In the city limits are the post-offices of +Calais, Milltown and Red Beach. The city has a small public library. The +valley here is wide and deep, the banks of the river bold and picturesque, +and the tide rises and falls about 25 ft. The city has important interests +in lumber, besides foundries, machine shops, granite works--there are +several granite (notably red granite) quarries in the vicinity--a tannery, +and manufactories of shoes and calcined plaster. Big Island, now in the +city of Calais, was visited in the winter of 1604-1605 by Pierre du Guast, +sieur de Monts. Calais was first settled in 1779, was incorporated as a +town in 1809, and was chartered as a city in 1851. + +CALAÏS and ZETES (the Boreadae), in Greek mythology, the winged twin sons +of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival with the Argonauts at Salmydessus +in Thrace, they liberated their sister Cleopatra, who had been thrown into +prison with her two sons by her husband Phineus, the king of the country +(Sophocles, _Antigone_, 966; Diod. Sic. iv. 44). According to another +story, they delivered Phineus from the Harpies (_q.v._), in pursuit of whom +they perished (Apollodorus i. 9; iii. 15). Others say that they were slain +by Heracles near the island of Tenos, in consequence of a quarrel with +Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts, or because they refused to wait during +the search for Hylas, the favourite of Heracles (Hyginus, _Fab._, 14. 273; +schol. on Apollonius Rhodius i. 1304). They were changed by the gods into +winds, and the pillars over their tombs in Tenos were said to wave whenever +the wind blew from the north. Like the Harpies, Calaïs and Zetes are +obvious personifications of winds. Legend attributed the foundation of +Cales in Campania to Calaïs (Silius Italicus viii. 512). + +CALAMINE, a mineral species consisting of zinc carbonate, ZnCO_3, and +forming an important ore of zinc. It is rhombohedral in crystallization and +isomorphous with calcite and chalybite. Distinct crystals are somewhat +rare; they have the form of the primitive rhombohedron (rr' = 72° 20'), the +faces of which are generally curved and rough. Botryoidal and stalactitic +masses are more common, or again the mineral may be compact and granular or +loose and earthy. As in the other rhombohedral carbonates, the crystals +possess perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron. The +hardness is 5; specific gravity, 4.4. The colour of the pure mineral is +white; more often it is brownish, sometimes green or blue: a bright-yellow +variety containing cadmium has been found in Arkansas, and is known locally +as "turkey-fat ore." The pure material contains 52% of zinc, but this is +often partly replaced isomorphously by small amounts of iron and manganese, +traces of calcium and magnesium, and sometimes by copper or cadmium. + +Calamine is found in beds and veins in limestone rocks, and is often +associated with galena and blende. It is a product of alteration of blende, +having been formed from this by the action of carbonated waters; or in many +cases the zinc sulphide may have been first oxidized to sulphate, which in +solution acted on the surrounding limestone, producing zinc carbonate. The +latter mode of origin is suggested by the frequent occurrence of calamine +pseudomorphous after calcite, that is, having the form of calcite crystals. +Deposits of calamine have been extensively mined in the limestones of the +Mendip Hills, in Derbyshire, and at Alston Moor in Cumberland. It also +occurs in large amount in the province of Santander in Spain, in Missouri, +and at several other places where zinc ores are mined. The best crystals of +the mineral were found many years ago at Chessy near Lyons; these are +rhombohedra of a fine apple-green colour. A translucent botryoidal calamine +banded with blue and green is found at Laurion in Greece, and has sometimes +been cut and polished for small ornaments such as brooches. + +The name calamine (German, _Galmei_), from _lapis calaminaris_, a Latin +corruption of cadmia ([Greek: kadmia]), the old name for zinc ores in +general (G. Agricola in 1546 derived it from the Latin _calamus_, a reed), +was early used indiscriminately for the carbonate and the hydrous silicate +of zinc, and even now both species are included by miners under the same +term. The two minerals often closely resemble each other in appearance, and +can usually only be distinguished by chemical analysis; they were first so +distinguished by James Smithson in 1803. F.S. Beudant in 1832 restricted +the name calamine to the hydrous silicate and proposed the name +"smithsonite" for the carbonate, and these meanings of the terms are now +adopted by Dana and many other mineralogists. Unfortunately, however, in +England (following Brooke and Miller, 1852) these designations have been +reversed, calamine being used for the carbonate and smithsonite for the +silicate. This unfortunate confusion is somewhat lessened by the use of the +terms zinc-spar and hemimorphite (_q.v._) for the carbonate and silicate +respectively. + +(L. J. S.) + +[v.04 p.0967] CALAMIS, an Athenian sculptor of the first half of the 5th +century B.C. He made statues of Apollo the averter of ill, Hermes the +ram-bearer, Aphrodite and other deities, as well as part of a chariot group +for Hiero, king of Syracuse. His works are praised by ancient critics for +delicacy and grace, as opposed to breadth and force. Archaeologists are +disposed to regard the bronze charioteer recently found at Delphi as a work +of Calamis; but the evidence is not conclusive (see GREEK ART). + +CALAMY, EDMUND, known as "the elder" (1600-1666), English Presbyterian +divine, was born of Huguenot descent in Walbrook, London, in February 1600, +and educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his opposition to the +Arminian party, then powerful in that society, excluded him from a +fellowship. Nicholas Felton, bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain, +and gave him the living of St Mary, Swaffham Prior, which he held till +1626. He then removed to Bury St Edmunds, where he acted as lecturer for +ten years, retiring when his bishop (Wren) insisted on the observance of +certain ceremonial articles. In 1636 he was appointed rector (or perhaps +only lecturer) of Rochford in Essex, which was so unhealthy that he had +soon to leave it, and in 1639 he was elected to the perpetual curacy of St +Mary Aldermanbury in London, where he had a large following. Upon the +opening of the Long Parliament he distinguished himself in defence of the +Presbyterian cause, and had a principal share in writing the conciliatory +work known as _Smectymnuus_, against Bishop Joseph Hall's presentation of +episcopacy. The initials of the names of the several contributors formed +the name under which it was published, viz., S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T. +Young, M. Newcomen and W. Spurstow. Calamy was an active member in the +Westminster assembly of divines, and, refusing to advance to +Congregationalism, found in Presbyterianism the middle course which best +suited his views of theology and church government. He opposed the +execution of Charles I., lived quietly under the Commonwealth, and was +assiduous in promoting the king's return; for this he was afterwards +offered the bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield, but declined it, it is +said, on his wife's persuasion. He was made one of Charles's chaplains, and +vainly tried to secure the legal ratification of Charles's declaration of +the 25th of October 1660. He was ejected for Nonconformity in 1662, and was +so affected by the sight of the devastation caused by the great fire of +London that he died shortly afterwards, on the 29th of October 1666. He was +buried in the ruins of his church, near the place where the pulpit had +stood. His publications are almost entirely sermons. His eldest son +(Edmund), known as "the younger," was educated at Cambridge, and was +ejected from the rectory of Moreton, Essex, in 1662. He was of a retiring +disposition and moderate views, and died in 1685. + +CALAMY, EDMUND (1671-1732), English Nonconformist divine, the only son of +Edmund Calamy "the younger," was born in London, in the parish of St Mary +Aldermanbury, on the 5th of April 1671. He was sent to various schools, +including Merchant Taylors', and in 1688 proceeded to the university of +Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a professor's chair in the +university of Edinburgh made to him by the principal, William Carstares, +who had gone over on purpose to find suitable men for such posts. After his +return to England in 1691 he began to study divinity, and on Baxter's +advice went to Oxford, where he was much influenced by Chillingworth. He +declined invitations from Andover and Bristol, and accepted one as +assistant to Matthew Sylvester at Blackfriars (1692). In June 1694 he was +publicly ordained at Annesley's meeting-house in Little St Helen's, and +soon afterwards was invited to become assistant to Daniel Williams in Hand +Alley, Bishopsgate. In 1702 he was chosen one of the lecturers in Salters' +Hall, and in 1703 he succeeded Vincent Alsop as pastor of a large +congregation in Westminster. In 1709 Calamy made a tour through Scotland, +and had the degree of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the +universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Glasgow. Calamy's forty-one +publications are mainly sermons, but his fame rests on his nonconformist +biographies. His first essay was a table of contents to Baxter's +_Narrative_ of his life and times, which was sent to the press in 1696; he +made some remarks on the work itself and added to it an index, and, +reflecting on the usefulness of the book, he saw the expediency of +continuing it, as Baxter's history came no further than the year 1684. +Accordingly, he composed an abridgment of it, with an account of many other +ministers who were ejected after the restoration of Charles II.; their +apology, containing the grounds of their nonconformity and practice as to +stated and occasional communion with the Church of England; and a +continuation of their history until the year 1691. This work was published +in 1702. The most important chapter (ix.) is that which gives a detailed +account of the ministers ejected in 1662; it was afterwards published as a +distinct volume. He afterwards published a moderate defence of +Nonconformity, in three tracts, in answer to some tracts of Benjamin, +afterwards Bishop, Hoadly. In 1713 he published a second edition (2 vols.) +of his _Abridgment of Baxter's History_, in which, among various additions, +there is a continuation of the history through the reigns of William and +Anne, down to the passing of the Occasional Bill. At the end is subjoined +the reformed liturgy, which was drawn up and presented to the bishops in +1661. In 1718 he wrote a vindication of his grandfather and several other +persons against certain reflections cast upon them by Laurence Echard in +his _History of England_. In 1719 he published _The Church and the +Dissenters Compar'd as to Persecution_, and in 1728 appeared his +_Continuation of the Account_ of the ejected ministers and teachers, a +volume which is really a series of emendations of the previously published +account. He died on the 3rd of June 1732, having been married twice and +leaving six of his thirteen children to survive him. Calamy was a kindly +man, frankly self-conscious, but very free from jealousy. He was an able +diplomatist and generally secured his ends. His great hero was Baxter, of +whom he wrote three distinct memoirs. His eldest son Edmund (the fourth) +was a Presbyterian minister in London and died 1755; another son (Edmund, +the fifth) was a barrister who died in 1816; and this one's son (Edmund, +the sixth) died in 1850, his younger brother Michael, the last of the +direct Calamy line, surviving till 1876. + +CALARASHI (_Calarasi_), the capital of the Jalomitza department, Rumania, +situated on the left bank of the Borcea branch of the Danube, amid wide +fens, north of which extends the desolate Baragan Steppe. Pop. (1900) +11,024. Calarashi has a considerable transit trade in wheat, linseed, hemp, +timber and fish from a broad mere on the west or from the Danube. Small +vessels carry cargo to Braila and Galatz, and a branch railway from +Calarashi traverses the Steppe from south to north, and meets the main line +between Bucharest and Constantza. + +CALAS, JEAN (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse, whose legal +murder is a celebrated case in French history. His wife was an Englishwoman +of French extraction. They had three sons and three daughters. His son +Louis had embraced the Roman Catholic faith through the persuasions of a +female domestic who had lived thirty years in the family. In October 1761 +another son, Antoine, hanged himself in his father's warehouse. The crowd, +which collected on so shocking a discovery, took up the idea that he had +been strangled by the family to prevent him from changing his religion, and +that this was a common practice among Protestants. The officers of justice +adopted the popular tale, and were supplied by the mob with what they +accepted as conclusive evidence of the fact. The fraternity of White +Penitents buried the body with great ceremony, and performed a solemn +service for the deceased as a martyr; the Franciscans followed their +example; and these formalities led to the popular belief in the guilt of +the unhappy family. Being all condemned to the rack in order to extort +confession, they appealed to the parlement; but this body, being as weak as +the subordinate magistrates, sentenced the father to the torture, ordinary +and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the wheel, and then to be burnt +to ashes; which decree was carried into execution on the 9th of March 1762. +Pierre Calas, the surviving son, was banished for life; the rest were +acquitted. The distracted widow, however, found some friends, and among +them Voltaire, who laid her case before the council of state at [v.04 +p.0968] Versailles. For three years he worked indefatigably to procure +justice, and made the Calas case famous throughout Europe (see VOLTAIRE). +Finally the king and council unanimously agreed to annul the proceeding of +the parlement of Toulouse; Calas was declared to have been innocent, and +every imputation of guilt was removed from the family. + +See _Causes célèbres_, tome iv.; Raoul Allier, _Voltaire et Calas, une +erreur judiciaire au XVIII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1898); and biographies of +Voltaire. + +CALASH (from Fr. _calèche_, derived from Polish _kolaska_, a wheeled +carriage), a light carriage with a folding hood; the Canadian calash is +two-wheeled and has a seat for the driver on the splash-board. The word is +also used for a kind of hood made of silk stretched over hoops, formerly +worn by women. + +CALASIAO, a town of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on a branch of the Agno river, about 4 m. S. by E. of Dagupan, the N. +terminal of the Manila & Dagupan railway. Pop. (1903) 16,539. In 1903, +after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of Santa Barbara +(pop. 10,367) was annexed to Calasiao. It is in the midst of a fertile +district and has manufactures of hats and various woven fabrics. + +CALASIO, MARIO DI (1550-1620), Italian Minorite friar, was born at a small +town in the Abruzzi whence he took his name. Joining the Franciscans at an +early age, he devoted himself to Oriental languages and became an authority +on Hebrew. Coming to Rome he was appointed by Paul V., whose confessor he +was, to the chair of Scripture at Ara Coeli, where he died on the 1st of +February 1620. Calasio is known by his _Concordantiae sacrorum Bibliorum +hebraicorum_, published in 4 vols. (Rome, 1622), two years after his death, +a work which is based on Nathan's _Hebrew Concordance_ (Venice, 1523). For +forty years Calasio laboured on this work, and he secured the assistance of +the greatest scholars of his age. The _Concordance_ evinces great care and +accuracy. All root-words are treated in alphabetical order and the whole +Bible has been collated for every passage containing the word, so as to +explain the original idea, which is illustrated from the cognate usages of +the Chaldee, Syrian, Rabbinical Hebrew and Arabic. Calasio gives under each +Hebrew word the literal Latin translation, and notes any existing +differences from the Vulgate and Septuagint readings. An incomplete English +translation of the work was published in London by Romaine in 1747. Calasio +also wrote a Hebrew grammar, _Canones generates linguae sanctatae_ (Rome, +1616), and the _Dictionarium hebraicum_ (Rome, 1617). + +CALATAFIMI, a town of the province of Trapani, Sicily, 30 m. W.S.W. of +Palermo direct (51½ m. by rail). Pop. (1901) 11,426. The name of the town +is derived from the Saracenic castle of _Kalat-al-Fimi_ (castle of +Euphemius), which stands above it. The principal church contains a fine +Renaissance reredos in marble. Samuel Butler, the author of _Erewhon_, did +much of his work here. The battlefield where Garibaldi won his first +victory over the Neapolitans on the 15th of May 1860, lies 2 m. S.W. + +CALATAYÚD, a town of central Spain, in the province of Saragossa, at the +confluence of the rivers Jalón and Jiloca, and on the Madrid-Saragossa and +Calatayúd-Sagunto railways. Pop. (1900) 11,526. Calatayúd consists of a +lower town, built on the left bank of the Jalón, and an upper or Moorish +town, which contains many dwellings hollowed out of the rock above and +inhabited by the poorer classes. Among a number of ecclesiastical +buildings, two collegiate churches are especially noteworthy. Santa Maria, +originally a mosque, has a lofty octagonal tower and a fine Renaissance +doorway, added in 1528; while Santo Sepulcro, built in 1141, and restored +in 1613, was long the principal church of the Spanish Knights Templar. In +commercial importance Calatayúd ranks second only to Saragossa among the +Aragonese towns, for it is the central market of the exceptionally fertile +expanse watered by the Jalón and Jiloca. About 2 m. E. are the ruins of the +ancient _Bilbilis_, where the poet Martial was born c. A.D. 40. It was +celebrated for its breed of horses, its armourers, its gold and its iron; +but Martial also mentions its unhealthy climate, due to the icy winds which +sweep down from the heights of Moncayo (7705 ft.) on the north. In the +middle ages the ruins were almost destroyed to provide stone for the +building of Calatayúd, which was founded by a Moorish amir named Ayub and +named _Kalat Ayub_, "Castle of Ayub." Calatayúd was captured by Alphonso I. +of Aragon in 1119. + +CALATIA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, 6 m. S.E. of Capua, on the Via +Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia branches off from it. It is +represented by the church of St. Giacomo alle Galazze. The Via Appia here, +as at Capua, abandons its former S.E. direction for a length of 2000 Oscan +ft. (1804½ English ft.), for which it runs due E. and then resumes its +course S.E. There are no ruins, but a considerable quantity of débris; and +the pre-Roman necropolis was partially excavated in 1882. Ten shafts lined +with slabs of tufa which were there found may have been the approaches to +tombs or may have served as wells. The history of Calatia is practically +that of its more powerful neighbour Capua, but as it lay near the point +where the Via Appia turns east and enters the mountains, it had some +strategic importance. In 313 B.C. it was taken by the Samnites and +recaptured by the dictator Q. Fabius; the Samnites captured it again in +311, but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the 3rd century +we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but in 211 B.C. it shared +the fate of Capua. In 174 we hear of its walls being repaired by the +censors. In 59 B.C. a colony was established here by Caesar. + +See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 1334 (Stuttgart, +1899). + +CALAVERAS SKULL, a famous fossil cranium, reported by Professor J.D. +Whitney as found (1886) in the undisturbed auriferous gravels of Calaveras +county, California. The discovery at once raised the still discussed +question of "tertiary man" in the New World. Doubt has been thrown on the +genuineness of the find, as the age of the gravels is disputed and the +skull is of a type corresponding exactly with that of the present Indian +inhabitants of the district. Whitney assigns the fossil to late Tertiary +(Pliocene) times, and concludes that "man existed in California previous to +the cessation of volcanic activity in the Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of +the greatest extension of the glaciers in that region and to the erosion of +the present river cañons and valleys, at a time when the animal and +vegetable creation differed entirely from what they now are...." The +specimen is preserved in the Peabody museum, Cambridge, Mass. + +CALBÁYOG, a town of the province of Sámar, Philippine Islands, on the W. +coast at the mouth of the Calbáyog river, about 30 m. N.W. of Catbalogan, +the capital, in lat. 12° 3' N. Pop. (1903) 15,895. Calbáyog has an +important export trade in hemp, which is shipped to Manila. Copra is also +produced in considerable quantity, and there is fine timber in the +vicinity. There are hot springs near the town. The neighbouring valleys of +the Gándara and Hippatan rivers are exceedingly fertile, but in 1908 were +uncultivated. The climate is very warm, but healthy. The language is +Visayan. + +CALBE, or KALBE, a town of Germany, on the Saale, in Prussian Saxony. It is +known as Calbe-an-der-Saale, to distinguish it from the smaller town of +Calbe on the Milde in the same province. Pop. (1905) 12,281. It is a +railway junction, and among its industries are wool-weaving and the +manufacture of cloth, paper, stoves, sugar and bricks. Cucumbers and onions +are cultivated, and soft coal is mined in the neighbourhood. + +CALCAR (or KALCKER), JOHN DE (1499-1546), Italian painter, was born at +Calcar, in the duchy of Cleves. He was a disciple of Titian at Venice, and +perfected himself by studying Raphael. He imitated those masters so closely +as to deceive the most skilful critics. Among his various pieces is a +Nativity, representing the angels around the infant Christ, which he +arranged so that the light emanated wholly from the child. He died at +Naples. + +CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order +Scrophulariaceae, containing about 150 species of herbaceous or shrubby +plants, chiefly natives of the South American Andes of Peru and Chile. The +calceolaria of the present day has [v.04 p.0969] been developed into a +highly decorative plant, in which the herbaceous habit has preponderated. +The plants are now very generally raised annually from seed, which is sown +about the end of June in a mixture of loam, leaf-mould and sand, and, being +very small, must be only slightly covered. When the plants are large enough +to handle they are pricked out an inch or two apart into 3-inch or 5-inch +pots; when a little more advanced they are potted singly. They should be +wintered in a greenhouse with a night temperature of about 40°, occupying a +shelf near the light. By the end of February they should be moved into +8-inch or 10-inch pots, using a compost of three parts good turfy loam, one +part leaf-mould, and one part thoroughly rotten manure, with a fair +addition of sand. They need plenty of light and air, but must not be +subjected to draughts. When the pots get well filled with roots, they must +be liberally supplied with manure water. In all stages of growth the plants +are subject to the attacks of the green-fly, for which they must be +fumigated. + +The so-called shrubby calceolarias used for bedding are increased from +cuttings, planted in autumn in cold frames, where they can be wintered, +protected from frost by the use of mats and a good layer of litter placed +over the glass and round the sides. + +CALCHAQUI, a tribe of South American Indians, now extinct, who formerly +occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them to have +reached a high degree of civilization. They offered a vigorous resistance +to the first Spanish colonists coming from Chile. + +CALCHAS, of Mycenae or Megara, son of Thestor, the most famous soothsayer +among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war. He foretold the duration of +the siege of Troy, and, when the fleet was detained by adverse winds at +Aulis, he explained the cause and demanded the sacrifice of Iphigeneia. +When the Greeks were visited with pestilence on account of Chryseis, he +disclosed the reasons of Apollo's anger. It was he who suggested that +Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched from Scyros and Lemnos to +Troy, and he was one of those who advised the construction of the wooden +horse. When the Greeks, on their journey home after the fall of Troy, were +overtaken by a storm, Calchas is said to have been thrown ashore at +Colophon. According to another story, he foresaw the storm and did not +attempt to return by sea. It had been predicted that he should die when he +met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was fulfilled in the +person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met in the grove of the Clarian Apollo near +Colophon. Having been beaten in a trial of soothsaying, Calchas died of +chagrin or committed suicide. He had a temple and oracle in Apulia. + +Ovid, _Metam._ xii. 18 ff.; Homer, _Iliad_ i. 68, ii. 322; Strabo vi. p. +284, xiv. p. 642. + +CALCITE, a mineral consisting of naturally occurring calcium carbonate, +CaCO_3, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. With the exception of +quartz, it is the most widely distributed of minerals, whilst in the +beautiful development and extraordinary variety of form of its crystals it +is surpassed by none. In the massive condition it occurs as large +rock-masses (marble, limestone, chalk) which are often of organic origin, +being formed of the remains of molluscs, corals, crinoids, &c., the hard +parts of which consist largely of calcite. + +The name calcite (Lat. _calx_, _calcis_, meaning burnt lime) is of +comparatively recent origin, and was first applied, in 1836, to the +"barleycorn" pseudomorphs of calcium carbonate after celestite from +Sangerhausen in Thuringia; it was not until about 1843 that the name was +used in its present sense. The mineral had, however, long been known under +the names calcareous spar and calc-spar, and the beautifully transparent +variety called Iceland-spar had been much studied. The strong double +refraction and perfect cleavages of Iceland-spar were described in detail +by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 in his book _Experimenta Crystalli Islandici +disdiaclastici_; the study of the same mineral led Christiaan Huygens to +discover in 1690 the laws of double refraction, and E.L. Malus in 1808 the +polarization of light. + +An important property of calcite is the great ease with which it may be +cleaved in three directions; the three perfect cleavages are parallel to +the faces of the primitive rhombohedron, and the angle between them was +determined by W.H. Wollaston in 1812, with the aid of his newly invented +reflective goniometer, to be 74° 55'. The cleavage is of great help in +distinguishing calcite from other minerals of similar appearance. The +hardness of 3 (it is readily scratched with a knife), the specific gravity +of 2.72, and the fact that it effervesces briskly in contact with cold +dilute acids are also characters of determinative value. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1-6.--Crystals of Calcite.] + +Crystals of calcite are extremely varied in form, but, as a rule, they may +be referred to four distinct habits, namely: rhombohedral, prismatic, +scalenohedral and tabular. The primitive rhombohedron, r {100} (fig. 1), is +comparatively rare except in combination with other forms. A flatter +rhombohedron, e {110}, is shown in fig. 2, and a more acute one, f {11-1}, +in fig. 3. These three rhombohedra are related in such a manner that, when +in combination, the faces of r truncate the polar edges of f, and the faces +of e truncate the edges of r. The crystal of prismatic habit shown in fig. +4 is a combination of the prism m {2-1-1} and the rhombohedron e {110}; +fig. 5 is a combination of the scalenohedron v {20-1} and the rhombohedron +r {100}; and the crystal of tabular habit represented in fig. 6 is a +combination of the basal pinacoid c {111}, prism m {2-1-1}, and +rhombohedron e {110}. In these figures only six distinct forms (r, e, f, m, +v, c) are represented, but more than 400 have been recorded for calcite, +whilst the combinations of them are almost endless. + +Depending on the habits of the crystals, certain trivial names have been +used, such, for example, as dog-tooth-spar for the crystals of +scalenohedral habit, so common in the Derbyshire lead mines and limestone +caverns; nail-head-spar for crystals terminated by the obtuse rhombohedron +e, which are common in the lead mines of Alston Moor in Cumberland; +slate-spar (German _Schieferspath_) for crystals of tabular habit, and +sometimes as thin as paper: cannon-spar for crystals of prismatic habit +terminated by the basal pinacoid c. + +Calcite is also remarkable for the variety and perfection of its twinned +crystals. Twinned crystals, though not of infrequent occurrence, are, +however, far less common than simple (untwinned) crystals. No less than +four well-defined twin-laws are to be distinguished:-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 7-10.--Twinned Crystals of Calcite.] + +i. Twin-plane c (111).--Here there is rotation of one portion with respect +to the other through 180° about the principal (trigonal) axis, which is +perpendicular to the plane c (111); or the same result may be obtained by +reflection across this plane. Fig. 7 shows a prismatic crystal (like fig. +4) twinned in this manner, and fig. 8 represents a twinned scalenohedron v +{20-1}. + +ii. Twin-plane e (110).--The principal axes of the two portions are +inclined at an angle of 52° 30½'. Repeated twinning on this plane is very +common, and the twin-lamellae (fig. 9) to which it gives rise are often to +be observed in the grains of calcite of crystalline limestones which have +been subjected to pressure. This lamellar twinning is of secondary origin; +it may be readily produced artificially by pressure, for example, by +pressing a knife into the edge of a cleavage rhombohedron. + +[v.04 p.0970] iii. Twin-plane r (100).--Here the principal axes of the two +portions are nearly at right angles (89° 14'), and one of the directions of +cleavage in both portions is parallel to the twin-plane. Fine crystals of +prismatic habit twinned according to this law were formerly found in +considerable numbers at Wheal Wrey in Cornwall, and of scalenohedral habit +at Eyam in Derbyshire and Cleator Moor in Cumberland; those from the last +two localities are known as "butterfly twins" or "heart-shaped twins" (fig. +10), according to their shape. + +iv. Twin-plane f (11-1).--The principal axes are here inclined at 53° 46'. +This is the rarest twin-law of calcite. + +Calcite when pure, as in the well-known Iceland-spar, is perfectly +transparent and colourless. The lustre is vitreous. Owing to the presence +of various impurities, the transparency and colour may vary considerably. +Crystals are often nearly white or colourless, usually with a slight +yellowish tinge. The yellowish colour is in most cases due to the presence +of iron, but in some cases it has been proved to be due to organic matter +(such as apocrenic acid) derived from the humus overlying the rocks in +which the crystals were formed. An opaque calcite of a grass-green colour, +occurring as large cleavage masses in central India and known as hislopite, +owes its colour to enclosed "green-earth" (glauconite and celadonite). A +stalagmitic calcite of a beautiful purple colour, from Reichelsdorf in +Hesse, is coloured by cobalt. + +Optically, calcite is uniaxial with negative bi-refringence, the index of +refraction for the ordinary ray being greater than for the extraordinary +ray; for sodium-light the former is 1.6585 and the latter 1.4862. The +difference, 0.1723, between these two indices gives a measure of the +bi-refringence or double refraction. + +Although the double refraction of some other minerals is greater than that +of calcite (_e.g._ for cinnabar it is 0.347, and for calomel 0.683), yet +this phenomenon can be best demonstrated in calcite, since it is a mineral +obtainable in large pieces of perfect transparency. Owing to the strong +double refraction and the consequent wide separation of the two polarized +rays of light traversing the crystal, an object viewed through a cleavage +rhombohedron of Iceland-spar is seen double, hence the name +doubly-refracting spar. Iceland-spar is extensively used in the +construction of Nicol's prisms for polariscopes, polarizing microscopes and +saccharimeters, and of dichroscopes for testing the pleochroism of +gem-stones. + +Chemically, calcite has the same composition as the orthorhombic aragonite +(_q.v._), these minerals being dimorphous forms of calcium carbonate. +Well-crystallized material, such as Iceland-spar, usually consists of +perfectly pure calcium carbonate, but at other times the calcium may be +isomorphously replaced by small amounts of magnesium, barium, strontium, +manganese, zinc or lead. When the elements named are present in large +amount we have the varieties dolomitic calcite, baricalcite, +strontianocalcite, ferrocalcite, manganocalcite, zincocalcite and +plumbocalcite, respectively. + +Mechanically enclosed impurities are also frequently present, and it is to +these that the colour is often due. A remarkable case of enclosed +impurities is presented by the so-called Fontainbleau limestone, which +consists of crystals of calcite of an acute rhombohedral form (fig. 3) +enclosing 50 to 60% of quartz-sand. Similar crystals, but with the form of +an acute hexagonal pyramid, and enclosing 64% of sand, have recently been +found in large quantity over a wide area in South Dakota, Nebraska and +Wyoming. The case of hislopite, which encloses up to 20% of "green earth," +has been noted above. + +In addition to the varieties of calcite noted above, some others, depending +on the state of aggregation of the material, are distinguished. A finely +fibrous form is known as satin-spar (_q.v._), a name also applied to +fibrous gypsum: the most typical example of this is the snow-white +material, often with a rosy tinge and a pronounced silky lustre, which +occurs in veins in the Carboniferous shales of Alston Moor in Cumberland. +Finely scaly varieties with a pearly lustre are known as argentine and +aphrite (German _Schaumspath_); soft, earthy and dull white varieties as +agaric mineral, rock-milk, rock-meal, &c.--these form a transition to +marls, chalk, &c. Of the granular and compact forms numerous varieties are +distinguished (see LIMESTONE and MARBLE). In the form of stalactites +calcite is of extremely common occurrence. Each stalactite usually consists +of an aggregate of radially arranged crystalline individuals, though +sometimes it may consist of a single individual with crystal faces +developed at the free end. Onyx-marbles or Oriental alabaster (see +ALABASTER) and other stalagmitic deposits also consist of calcite, and so +do the allied deposits of travertine, calc-sinter or calc-tufa. + +The modes of occurrence of calcite are very varied. It is a common gangue +mineral in metalliferous deposits, and in the form of crystals is often +associated with ores of lead, iron, copper and silver. It is a common +product of alteration in igneous rocks, and frequently occurs as +well-developed crystals in association with zeolites lining the +amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic and other rocks. Veins and cavities in +limestones are usually lined with crystals of calcite. The wide +distribution, under various conditions, of crystallized calcite is readily +explained by the solubility of calcium carbonate in water containing carbon +dioxide, and the ease with which the material is again deposited in the +crystallized state when the carbon dioxide is liberated by evaporation. On +this also depends the formation of stalactites and calc-sinter. + +Localities at which beautifully crystallized specimens of calcite are found +are extremely numerous. For beauty of crystals and variety of forms the +haematite mines of the Cleator Moor district in west Cumberland and the +Furness district in north Lancashire are unsurpassed. The lead mines of +Alston in Cumberland and of Derbyshire, and the silver mines of Andreasberg +in the Harz and Guanajuato in Mexico have yielded many fine specimens. From +the zinc mines of Joplin in Missouri enormous crystals of golden-yellow and +amethystine colours have been recently obtained. At all the localities here +mentioned the crystals occur with metalliferous ores. In Iceland the mode +of occurrence is quite distinct, the mineral being here found in a cavity +in basalt. + +The quarry, which since the 19th century has supplied the famous +Iceland-spar, is in a cavity in basalt, the cavity itself measuring 12 by 5 +yds. in area and about 10 ft. in height. It is situated quite close to the +farm Helgustadir, about an hour's ride from the trading station of +Eskifjordur on Reydar Fjordur, on the east coast of Iceland. This cavity +when first found was filled with pure crystallized masses and enormous +crystals. The crystals measure up to a yard across, and are rhombohedral or +scalenohedral in habit; their faces are usually dull and corroded or coated +with stilbite. In recent years much of the material taken out has not been +of sufficient transparency for optical purposes, and this, together with +the very limited supply, has caused a considerable rise in price. Only very +occasionally has calcite from any locality other than Iceland been used for +the construction of a Nicol's prism. + +(L. J. S.) + +CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (O=16)], a metallic chemical +element, so named by Sir Humphry Davy from its [v.04 p.0971] occurrence in +chalk (Latin _calx_). It does not occur in nature in the free state, but in +combination it is widely and abundantly diffused. Thus the sulphate +constitutes the minerals anhydrite, alabaster, gypsum, and selenite; the +carbonate occurs dissolved in most natural waters and as the minerals +chalk, marble, calcite, aragonite; also in the double carbonates such as +dolomite, bromlite, barytocalcite; the fluoride as fluorspar; the +fluophosphate constitutes the mineral apatite; while all the more important +mineral silicates contain a proportion of this element. + +_Extraction._--Calcium oxide or lime has been known from a very remote +period, and was for a long time considered to be an elementary or +undecomposable earth. This view was questioned in the 18th century, and in +1808 Sir Humphry Davy (_Phil. Trans._, 1808, p. 303) was able to show that +lime was a combination of a metal and oxygen. His attempts at isolating +this metal were not completely successful; in fact, metallic calcium +remained a laboratory curiosity until the beginning of the 20th century. +Davy, inspired by his successful isolation of the metals sodium and +potassium by the electrolysis of their hydrates, attempted to decompose a +mixture of lime and mercuric oxide by the electric current; an amalgam of +calcium was obtained, but the separation of the mercury was so difficult +that even Davy himself was not sure as to whether he had obtained pure +metallic calcium. Electrolysis of lime or calcium chloride in contact with +mercury gave similar results. Bunsen (_Ann._, 1854, 92, p. 248) was more +successful when he electrolysed calcium chloride moistened with +hydrochloric acid; and A. Matthiessen (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1856, p. 28) +obtained the metal by electrolysing a mixture of fused calcium and sodium +chlorides. Henri Moissan obtained the metal of 99% purity by electrolysing +calcium iodide at a low red heat, using a nickel cathode and a graphite +anode; he also showed that a more convenient process consisted in heating +the iodide with an excess of sodium, forming an amalgam of the product, and +removing the sodium by means of absolute alcohol (which has but little +action on calcium), and the mercury by distillation. + +The electrolytic isolation of calcium has been carefully investigated, and +this is the method followed for the commercial production of the metal. In +1902 W. Borchers and L. Stockem (_Zeit. für Electrochemie_, 1902, p. 8757) +obtained the metal of 90% purity by electrolysing calcium chloride at a +temperature of about 780°, using an iron cathode, the anode being the +graphite vessel in which the electrolysis was carried out. In the same +year, O. Ruff and W. Plato (_Ber._ 1902, 35, p. 3612) employed a mixture of +calcium chloride (100 parts) and fluorspar (16.5 parts), which was fused in +a porcelain crucible and electrolysed with a carbon anode and an iron +cathode. Neither of these processes admitted of commercial application, but +by a modification of Ruff and Plato's process, W. Ruthenau and C. Suter +have made the metal commercially available. These chemists electrolyse +either pure calcium chloride, or a mixture of this salt with fluorspar, in +a graphite vessel which serves as the anode. The cathode consists of an +iron rod which can be gradually raised. On electrolysis a layer of metallic +calcium is formed at the lower end of this rod on the surface of the +electrolyte; the rod is gradually raised, the thickness of the layer +increases, and ultimately a rod of metallic calcium, forming, as it were, a +continuation of the iron cathode, is obtained. This is the form in which +calcium is put on the market. + +An idea as to the advance made by this method is recorded in the variation +in the price of calcium. At the beginning of 1904 it was quoted at 5s. per +gram, £250 per kilogram or £110 per pound; about a year later the price was +reduced to 21s. per kilogram, or 12s. per kilogram in quantities of 100 +kilograms. These quotations apply to Germany; in the United Kingdom the +price (1905) varied from 27s. to 30s. per kilogram (12s. to 13s. per lb.). + +_Properties._--A freshly prepared surface of the metal closely resembles +zinc in appearance, but on exposure to the air it rapidly tarnishes, +becoming yellowish and ultimately grey or white in colour owing to the +information of a surface layer of calcium hydrate. A faint smell of +acetylene may be perceived during the oxidation in moist air; this is +probably due to traces of calcium carbide. It is rapidly acted on by water, +especially if means are taken to remove the layer of calcium hydrate formed +on the metal; alcohol acts very slowly. In its chemical properties it +closely resembles barium and strontium, and to some degree magnesium; these +four elements comprise the so-called metals of the "alkaline earths." It +combines directly with most elements, including nitrogen; this can be taken +advantage of in forming almost a perfect vacuum, the oxygen combining to +form the oxide, CaO, and the nitrogen to form the nitride, Ca_3N_2. Several +of its physical properties have been determined by K. Arndt (_Ber._, 1904, +37, p. 4733). The metal as prepared by electrolysis generally contains +traces of aluminium and silica. Its specific gravity is 1.54, and after +remelting 1.56; after distillation it is 1.52. It melts at about 800°, but +sublimes at a lower temperature. + +_Compounds._--Calcium hydride, obtained by heating electrolytic calcium in +a current of hydrogen, appears in commerce under the name hydrolite. Water +decomposes it to give hydrogen free from ammonia and acetylene, 1 gram +yielding about 100 ccs. of gas (Prats Aymerich, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii p. +460). Calcium forms two oxides--the monoxide, CaO, and the dioxide, CaO_2. +The monoxide and its hydrate are more familiarly known as lime (_q.v._) and +slaked-lime. The dioxide was obtained as the hydrate, CaO_2·8H_2O, by P. +Thénard (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1818, 8, p. 213), who precipitated lime-water +with hydrogen peroxide. It is permanent when dry; on heating to 130° C. it +loses water and gives the anhydrous dioxide as an unstable, pale +buff-coloured powder, very sparingly soluble in water. It is used as an +antiseptic and oxidizing agent. + +Whereas calcium chloride, bromide, and iodide are deliquescent solids, the +fluoride is practically insoluble in water; this is a parallelism to the +soluble silver fluoride, and the insoluble chloride, bromide and iodide. +_Calcium fluoride_, CaF_2, constitutes the mineral fluor-spar (_q.v._), and +is prepared artificially as an insoluble white powder by precipitating a +solution of calcium chloride with a soluble fluoride. One part dissolves in +26,000 parts of water. _Calcium chloride_, CaCl_2, occurs in many natural +waters, and as a by-product in the manufacture of carbonic acid (carbon +dioxide), and potassium chlorate. Aqueous solutions deposit crystals +containing 2, 4 or 6 molecules of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride, +prepared by heating the hydrate to 200° (preferably in a current of +hydrochloric acid gas, which prevents the formation of any oxychloride), is +very hygroscopic, and is used as a desiccating agent. It fuses at 723°. It +combines with gaseous ammonia and forms crystalline compounds with certain +alcohols. The crystallized salt dissolves very readily in water with a +considerable absorption of heat; hence its use in forming "freezing +mixtures." A temperature of -55°C. is obtained by mixing 10 parts of the +hexahydrate with 7 parts of snow. A saturated solution of calcium chloride +contains 325 parts of CaCl_2 to 100 of water at the boiling point (179.5°). +Calcium iodide and bromide are white deliquescent solids and closely +resemble the chloride. + +_Chloride of lime_ or "bleaching powder" is a calcium chlor-hypochlorite or +an equimolecular mixture of the chloride and hypochlorite (see ALKALI +MANUFACTURE and BLEACHING). + +_Calcium carbide_, CaC_2, a compound of great industrial importance as a +source of acetylene, was first prepared by F. Wohler. It is now +manufactured by heating lime and carbon in the electric furnace (see +ACETYLENE). Heated in chlorine or with bromine, it yields carbon and +calcium chloride or bromide; at a dull red heat it burns in oxygen, forming +calcium carbonate, and it becomes incandescent in sulphur vapour at 500°, +forming calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide. Heated in the electric +furnace in a current of air, it yields calcium cyanamide (see CYANAMIDE). + +_Calcium carbonate_, CaCO_3, is of exceptionally wide distribution in both +the mineral and animal kingdoms. It constitutes the bulk of the chalk +deposits and limestone rocks; it forms over one-half of the mineral +dolomite and the rock magnesium limestone; it occurs also as the dimorphous +minerals aragonite (_q.v._) and calcite (_q.v._). Tuff (_q.v._) and +travertine are calcareous deposits found in volcanic districts. Most +natural waters contain it dissolved in carbonic acid; this confers +"temporary hardness" on the water. The dissipation of the dissolved carbon +dioxide results in the formation of "fur" in kettles or boilers, and if the +solution is falling, as from the roof of a cave, in the formation of +stalactites and stalagmites. In the animal kingdom it occurs as both +calcite and aragonite in the tests of the foraminifera, echinoderms, +brachiopoda, and mollusca; also in the skeletons of sponges and corals. +Calcium carbonate is obtained as a white precipitate, almost insoluble in +water (1 part requiring 10,000 of water for solution), by mixing solutions +of a carbonate and a calcium salt. Hot or dilute cold solutions deposit +minute orthorhombic crystals of aragonite, cold saturated or moderately +strong solutions, hexagonal (rhombohedral) crystals of calcite. Aragonite +is the least stable form; crystals have been found altered to calcite. + +_Calcium nitride_, Ca_3N_2, is a greyish-yellow powder formed by heating +calcium in air or nitrogen; water decomposes it with evolution of ammonia +(see H. Moissan, _Compt. Rend._, 127, p. 497). + +_Calcium nitrate_, Ca(NO_3)_2·4H_2O, is a highly deliquescent salt, [v.04 +p.0972] crystallizing in monoclinic prisms, and occurring in various +natural waters, as an efflorescence in limestone caverns, and in the +neighbourhood of decaying nitrogenous organic matter. Hence its synonyms, +"wall-saltpetre" and "lime-saltpetre"; from its disintegrating action on +mortar, it is sometimes referred to as "saltpetre rot." The anhydrous +nitrate, obtained by heating the crystallized salt, is very phosphorescent, +and constitutes "Baldwin's phosphorus." A basic nitrate, +Ca(NO_3)_2·Ca(OH)_2·3H_2O, is obtained by dissolving calcium hydroxide in a +solution of the normal nitrate. + +_Calcium phosphide_, Ca_3P_2, is obtained as a reddish substance by passing +phosphorus vapour over strongly heated lime. Water decomposes it with the +evolution of spontaneously inflammable hydrogen phosphide; hence its use as +a marine signal fire ("Holmes lights"), (see L. Gattermann and W. +Haussknecht, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 1176, and H. Moissan, _Compt. Rend._, +128, p. 787). + +Of the calcium orthophosphates, the normal salt, Ca_3(PO_4)_2, is the most +important. It is the principal inorganic constituent of bones, and hence of +the "bone-ash" of commerce (see PHOSPHORUS); it occurs with fluorides in +the mineral apatite (_q.v._); and the concretions known as coprolites +(_q.v._) largely consist of this salt. It also constitutes the minerals +ornithite, Ca_3(PO_4)_2·2H_2O, osteolite and sombrerite. The mineral +brushite, CaHPO_4·2H_2O, which is isomorphous with the acid arsenate +pharmacolite, CaHAsO_4·2H_2O, is an acid phosphate, and assumes monoclinic +forms. The normal salt may be obtained artificially, as a white gelatinous +precipitate which shrinks greatly on drying, by mixing solutions of sodium +hydrogen phosphate, ammonia, and calcium chloride. Crystals may be obtained +by heating di-calcium pyrophosphate, Ca_2P_2O_7, with water under pressure. +It is insoluble in water; slightly soluble in solutions of carbonic acid +and common salt, and readily soluble in concentrated hydrochloric and +nitric acid. Of the acid orthophosphates, the mono-calcium salt, +CaH_4(PO_4)_2, may be obtained as crystalline scales, containing one +molecule of water, by evaporating a solution of the normal salt in +hydrochloric or nitric acid. It dissolves readily in water, the solution +having an acid reaction. The artificial manure known as "superphosphate of +lime" consists of this salt and calcium sulphate, and is obtained by +treating ground bones, coprolites, &c., with sulphuric acid. The di-calcium +salt, Ca_2H_2(PO_4)_2, occurs in a concretionary form in the ureters and +cloaca of the sturgeon, and also in guano. It is obtained as rhombic plates +by mixing dilute solutions of calcium chloride and sodium phosphate, and +passing carbon dioxide into the liquid. Other phosphates are also known. + +_Calcium monosulphide_, CaS, a white amorphous powder, sparingly soluble in +water, is formed by heating the sulphate with charcoal, or by heating lime +in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is particularly noteworthy from +the phosphorescence which it exhibits when heated, or after exposure to the +sun's rays; hence its synonym "Canton's phosphorus," after John Canton +(1718-1772), an English natural philosopher. The sulphydrate or +hydrosulphide, Ca(SH)_2, is obtained as colourless, prismatic crystals of +the composition Ca(SH)_2·6H_2O, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into milk +of lime. The strong aqueous solution deposits colourless, four-sided prisms +of the hydroxy-hydrosulphide, Ca(OH)(SH). The disulphide, CaS_2 and +pentasulphide, CaS_5, are formed when milk of lime is boiled with flowers +of sulphur. These sulphides form the basis of Balmain's luminous paint. An +oxysulphide, 2CaS·CaO, is sometimes present in "soda-waste," and +orange-coloured, acicular crystals of 4CaS·CaSO_4·18H_2O occasionally +settle out on the long standing of oxidized "soda- or alkali-waste" (see +ALKALI MANUFACTURE). + +_Calcium sulphite_, CaSO_3, a white substance, soluble in water, is +prepared by passing sulphur dioxide into milk of lime. This solution with +excess of sulphur dioxide yields the "bisulphite of lime" of commerce, +which is used in the "chemical" manufacture of wood-pulp for paper making. + +_Calcium sulphate_, CaSO_4, constitutes the minerals anhydrite (_q.v._), +and, in the hydrated form, selenite, gypsum (_q.v._), alabaster (_q.v._), +and also the adhesive plaster of Paris (see CEMENT). It occurs dissolved in +most natural waters, which it renders "permanently hard." It is obtained as +a white crystalline precipitate, sparingly soluble in water (100 parts of +water dissolve 24 of the salt at 15°C.), by mixing solutions of a sulphate +and a calcium salt; it is more soluble in solutions of common salt and +hydrochloric acid, and especially of sodium thiosulphate. + +_Calcium silicates_ are exceptionally abundant in the mineral kingdom. +Calcium metasilicate, CaSiO_3, occurs in nature as monoclinic crystals +known as tabular spar or wollastonite; it may be prepared artificially from +solutions of calcium chloride and sodium silicate. H. Le Chatelier +(_Annales des mines_, 1887, p. 345) has obtained artificially the +compounds: CaSiO_3, Ca_2SiO_4, Ca_3Si_2O_7, and Ca_3SiO_5. (See also G. +Oddo, _Chemisches Centralblatt_, 1896, 228.) Acid calcium silicates are +represented in the mineral kingdom by gyrolite, H_2Ca_2(SiO_3)_3·H_2O, a +lime zeolite, sometimes regarded as an altered form of apophyllite +(_q.v._), which is itself an acid calcium silicate containing an alkaline +fluoride, by okenite, H_2Ca(SiO_3)_2·H_2O, and by xonalite 4CaSiO_3·H_2O. +Calcium silicate is also present in the minerals: olivine, pyroxenes, +amphiboles, epidote, felspars, zeolites, scapolites (_qq.v._). + +_Detection and Estimation._--Most calcium compounds, especially when +moistened with hydrochloric acid, impart an orange-red colour to a Bunsen +flame, which when viewed through green glass appears to be finch-green; +this distinguishes it in the presence of strontium, whose crimson +coloration is apt to mask the orange-red calcium flame (when viewed through +green glass the strontium flame appears to be a very faint yellow). In the +spectroscope calcium exhibits two intense lines--an orange line ([alpha]), +([lambda] 6163), a green line ([beta]), ([lambda] 4229), and a fainter +indigo line. Calcium is not precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, but +falls as the carbonate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution. +Sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate of calcium sulphate with strong +solutions; ammonium oxalate gives calcium oxalate, practically insoluble in +water and dilute acetic acid, but readily soluble in nitric or hydrochloric +acid. Calcium is generally estimated by precipitation as oxalate which, +after drying, is heated and weighed as carbonate or oxide, according to the +degree and duration of the heating. + +CALCULATING MACHINES. Instruments for the mechanical performance of +numerical calculations, have in modern times come into ever-increasing use, +not merely for dealing with large masses of figures in banks, insurance +offices, &c., but also, as cash registers, for use on the counters of +retail shops. They may be classified as follows:--(i.) Addition machines; +the first invented by Blaise Pascal (1642). (ii.) Addition machines +modified to facilitate multiplication; the first by G.W. Leibnitz (1671). +(iii.) True multiplication machines; Léon Bollés (1888), Steiger (1894). +(iv.) Difference machines; Johann Helfrich von Müller (1786), Charles +Babbage (1822). (v.) Analytical machines; Babbage (1834). The number of +distinct machines of the first three kinds is remarkable and is being +constantly added to, old machines being improved and new ones invented; +Professor R. Mehmke has counted over eighty distinct machines of this type. +The fullest published account of the subject is given by Mehmke in the +_Encyclopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften_, article "Numerisches +Rechnen," vol. i., Heft 6 (1901). It contains historical notes and full +references. Walther von Dyck's _Catalogue_ also contains descriptions of +various machines. We shall confine ourselves to explaining the principles +of some leading types, without giving an exact description of any +particular one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Practically all calculating machines contain a "counting work," a series of +"figure disks" consisting in the original form of horizontal circular disks +(fig. 1), on which the figures 0, 1, 2, to 9 are marked. Each disk can turn +about its vertical axis, and is covered by a fixed plate with a hole or +"window" in it through which one figure can be seen. On turning the disk +through one-tenth of a revolution this figure will be changed into the next +higher or lower. Such turning may be called a "step," _positive_ [Sidenote: +Addition machines.] if the next higher and _negative_ if the next lower +figure appears. Each positive step therefore adds one unit to the figure +under the window, while two steps add two, and so on. If a series, say six, +of such figure disks be placed side by side, their windows lying in a row, +then any number of six places can be made to appear, for instance 000373. +In order to add 6425 to this number, the disks, counting from right to +left, have to be turned 5, 2, 4 and 6 steps respectively. If this is done +the sum 006798 will appear. In case the sum of the two figures at any disk +is greater than 9, if for instance the last figure to be added is 8 instead +of 5, the sum for this disk is 11 and the 1 only will appear. Hence an +arrangement for "carrying" has to be introduced. This may be done as +follows. The axis of a figure disk contains a wheel with ten teeth. Each +figure disk has, besides, one long tooth which when its 0 passes the window +turns the next wheel to the left, one tooth forward, and hence the figure +disk one step. The actual mechanism is not quite so simple, because the +long teeth as described would gear also into the wheel to the right, and +besides would interfere with each other. They must therefore be replaced by +a somewhat more complicated arrangement, which has been done in various +ways not necessary to describe more fully. On the way in which this is +done, however, depends to a great extent the durability and trustworthiness +of any arithmometer; in fact, it is often its weakest point. If to the +series of figure disks arrangements are added for turning each disk through +a required number of steps, [v.04 p.0973] we have an addition machine, +essentially of Pascal's type. In it each disk had to be turned by hand. +This operation has been simplified in various ways by mechanical means. For +pure addition machines key-boards have been added, say for each disk nine +keys marked 1 to 9. On pressing the key marked 6 the disk turns six steps +and so on. These have been introduced by Stettner (1882), Max Mayer (1887), +and in the comptometer by Dorr Z. Felt of Chicago. In the comptograph by +Felt and also in "Burrough's Registering Accountant" the result is printed. + +These machines can be used for multiplication, as repeated addition, but +the process is laborious, depending for rapid execution [Sidenote: MODIFIED +ADDITION MACHINES.] essentially on the skill of the operator.[1] To adapt +an addition machine, as described, to rapid multiplication the turnings of +the separate figure disks are replaced by one motion, commonly the turning +of a handle. As, however, the different disks have to be turned through +different steps, a contrivance has to be inserted which can be "set" in +such a way that by one turn of the handle each disk is moved through a +number of steps equal to the number of units which is to be added on that +disk. This may be done by making each of the figure disks receive on its +axis a ten-toothed wheel, called hereafter the A-wheel, which is acted on +either directly or indirectly by another wheel (called the B-wheel) in +which the number of teeth can be varied from 0 to 9. This variation of the +teeth has been effected in different ways. Theoretically the simplest seems +to be to have on the B-wheel nine teeth which can be drawn back into the +body of the wheel, so that at will any number from 0 to 9 can be made to +project. This idea, previously mentioned by Leibnitz, has been realized by +Bohdner in the "Brunsviga." Another way, also due to Leibnitz, consists in +inserting between the axis of the handle bar and the A-wheel a "stepped" +cylinder. This may be considered as being made up of ten wheels large +enough to contain about twenty teeth each; but most of these teeth are cut +away so that these wheels retain in succession 9, 8, ... 1, 0 teeth. If +these are made as one piece they form a cylinder with teeth of lengths from +9, 8 ... times the length of a tooth on a single wheel. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +In the diagrammatic vertical section of such a machine (fig. 2) FF is a +figure disk with a conical wheel A on its axis. In the covering plate HK is +the window W. A stepped cylinder is shown at B. The axis Z, which runs +along the whole machine, is turned by a handle, and itself turns the +cylinder B by aid of conical wheels. Above this cylinder lies an axis EE +with square section along which a wheel D can be moved. The same axis +carries at E' a pair of conical wheels C and C', which can also slide on +the axis so that either can be made to drive the A-wheel. The covering +plate MK has a slot above the axis EE allowing a rod LL' to be moved by aid +of a button L, carrying the wheel D with it. Along the slot is a scale of +numbers 0 1 2 ... 9 corresponding with the number of teeth on the cylinder +B, with which the wheel D will gear in any given position. A series of such +slots is shown in the top middle part of Steiger's machine (fig. 3). Let +now the handle driving the axis Z be turned once round, the button being +set to 4. Then four teeth of the B-wheel will turn D and with it the +A-wheel, and consequently the figure disk will be moved four steps. These +steps will be positive or forward if the wheel C gears in A, and +consequently four will be added to the figure showing at the window W. But +if the wheels CC' are moved to the right, C' will gear with A moving +backwards, with the result that four is subtracted at the window. This +motion of all the wheels C is done simultaneously by the push of a lever +which appears at the top plate of the machine, its two positions being +marked "addition" and "subtraction." The B-wheels are in fixed positions +below the plate MK. Level with this, but separate, is the plate KH with the +window. On it the figure disks are mounted. + +This plate is hinged at the back at H and can be lifted up, thereby +throwing the A-wheels out of gear. When thus raised the figure disks can be +set to any figures; at the same time it can slide to and fro so that an +A-wheel can be put in gear with any C-wheel forming with it one "element." +The number of these varies with the size of the machine. Suppose there are +six B-wheels and twelve figure disks. Let these be all set to zero with the +exception of the last four to the right, these showing 1 4 3 2, and let +these be placed opposite the last B-wheels to the right. If now the buttons +belonging to the latter be set to 3 2 5 6, then on turning the B-wheels all +once round the latter figures will be added to the former, thus showing 4 6 +8 8 at the windows. By aid of the axis Z, this turning of the B-wheels is +performed simultaneously by the movement of one handle. We have thus an +addition machine. If it be required to multiply a number, say 725, by any +number up to six figures, say 357, the buttons are set to the figures 725, +the windows all showing zero. The handle is then turned, 725 appears at the +windows, and successive turns add this number to the first. Hence seven +turns show the product seven times 725. Now the plate with the A-wheels is +lifted and moved one step to the right, then lowered and the handle turned +five times, thus adding fifty times 725 to the product obtained. Finally, +by moving the piate again, and turning the handle three times, the required +product is obtained. If the machine has six B-wheels and twelve disks the +product of two six-figure numbers can be obtained. Division is performed by +repeated subtraction. The lever regulating the C-wheel is set to +subtraction, producing negative steps at the disks. The dividend is set up +at the windows and the divisor at the buttons. Each turn of the handle +subtracts the divisor once. To count the number of turns of the handle a +second set of windows is arranged with number disks below. These have no +carrying arrangement, but one is turned one step for each turn of the +handle. The machine described is essentially that of Thomas of Colmar, +which was the first that came into practical use. Of earlier machines those +of Leibnitz, Müller (1782), and Hahn (1809) deserve to be mentioned (see +Dyck, _Catalogue_). Thomas's machine has had many imitations, both in +England and on the Continent, with more or less important alterations. +Joseph Edmondson of Halifax has given it a circular form, which has many +advantages. + +The accuracy and durability of any machine depend to a great extent on the +manner in which the carrying mechanism is constructed. Besides, no wheel +must be capable of moving in any other way than that required; hence every +part must be locked and be released only when required to move. Further, +any disk must carry to the next only after the carrying to itself has been +completed. If all were to carry at the same time a considerable force would +be required to turn the handle, and serious strains would be introduced. It +is for this reason that the B-wheels or cylinders have the greater part of +the circumference free from teeth. Again, the carrying acts generally as in +the machine described, in one sense only, and this involves that the handle +be turned always in the same direction. Subtraction therefore cannot be +done by turning it in the opposite way, hence the two wheels C and C' are +introduced. These are moved all at once by one lever acting on a bar shown +at R in section (fig. 2). + +In the Brunsviga, the figure disks are all mounted on a common horizontal +axis, the figures being placed on the rim. On the side of each disk and +rigidly connected with it lies its A-wheel with which it can turn +independent of the others. The B-wheels, all fixed on another horizontal +axis, gear directly on the A-wheels. By an ingenious contrivance the teeth +are made to appear from out of the rim to any desired number. The carrying +mechanism, too, is different, and so arranged that the handle can be turned +either way, no special setting being required for subtraction or division. +It is extremely handy, taking up much less room than the others. Professor +Eduard Selling of Würzburg has invented an altogether different machine, +which has been made by Max Ott, of Munich. The B-wheels are replaced by +lazy-tongs. To the joints of these the ends of racks are pinned; and as +they are stretched out the racks are moved forward 0 to 9 steps, according +to the joints they are pinned to. The racks gear directly in the A-wheels, +and the figures are placed on cylinders as in the Brunsviga. The carrying +is done continuously by a train of epicycloidal wheels. The working is thus +rendered very smooth, without the jerks which the ordinary carrying tooth +produces; but the arrangement has the disadvantage that the resulting +figures do not appear in a straight line, a figure followed by a 5, for +instance, being already carried half a step forward. This is not a serious +matter in the hands of a mathematician or an operator using the machine +constantly, but it is serious for casual work. Anyhow, it has prevented the +machine from being a commercial success, and it is not any longer made. For +ease and rapidity of working it surpasses all others. Since the lazy-tongs +allow of an extension equivalent to five turnings of the handle, if the +multiplier is 5 or under, one push forward will do the [v.04 p.0974] same +as five (or less) turns of the handle, and more than two pushes are never +required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The _Steiger-Egli_ machine is a multiplication machine, of which fig. 3 +gives a picture as it appears to the manipulator. The lower [Sidenote: +Multiplication machines.] part of the figure contains, under the covering +plate, a carriage with two rows of windows for the figures marked ff and +gg. On pressing down the button W the carriage can be moved to right or +left. Under each window is a figure disk, as in the Thomas machine. The +upper part has three sections. The one to the right contains the handle K +for working the machine, and a button U for setting the machine for +addition, multiplication, division, or subtraction. In the middle section a +number of parallel slots are seen, with indices which can each be set to +one of the numbers 0 to 9. Below each slot, and parallel to it, lies a +shaft of square section on which a toothed wheel, the A-wheel, slides to +and fro with the index in the slot. Below these wheels again lie 9 toothed +racks at right angles to the slots. By setting the index in any slot the +wheel below it comes into gear with one of these racks. On moving the rack, +the wheels turn their shafts and the figure disks gg opposite to them. The +dimensions are such that a motion of a rack through 1 cm. turns the figure +disk through one "step" or adds 1 to the figure under the window. The racks +are moved by an arrangement contained in the section to the left of the +slots. There is a vertical plate called the multiplication table block, or +more shortly, the _block_. From it project rows of horizontal rods of +lengths varying from 0 to 9 centimetres. If one of these rows is brought +opposite the row of racks and then pushed forward to the right through 9 +cm., each rack will move and add to its figure disk a number of units equal +to the number of centimetres of the rod which operates on it. The block has +a square face divided into a hundred squares. Looking at its face from the +right--_i.e._ from the side where the racks lie--suppose the horizontal +rows of these squares numbered from 0 to 9, beginning at the top, and the +columns numbered similarly, the 0 being to the right; then the +multiplication table for numbers 0 to 9 can be placed on these squares. The +row 7 will therefore contain the numbers 63, 56, ... 7, 0. Instead of these +numbers, each square receives two "rods" perpendicular to the plate, which +may be called the units-rod and the tens-rod. Instead of the number 63 we +have thus a tens-rod 6 cm. and a units-rod 3 cm. long. By aid of a lever H +the block can be raised or lowered so that any row of the block comes to +the level of the racks, the units-rods being opposite the ends of the +racks. + +The action of the machine will be understood by considering an example. Let +it be required to form the product 7 times 385. The indices of three +consecutive slots are set to the numbers 3, 8, 5 respectively. Let the +windows gg opposite these slots be called a, b, c. Then to the figures +shown at these windows we have to add 21, 56, 35 respectively. This is the +same thing as adding first the number 165, formed by the units of each +place, and next 2530 corresponding to the tens; or again, as adding first +165, and then moving the carriage one step to the right, and adding 253. +The first is done by moving the block with the units-rods opposite the +racks forward. The racks are then put out of gear, and together with the +block brought back to their normal position; the block is moved sideways to +bring the tens-rods opposite the racks, and again moved forward, adding the +tens, the carriage having also been moved forward as required. This +complicated movement, together with the necessary carrying, is actually +performed by one turn of the handle. During the first quarter-turn the +block moves forward, the units-rods coming into operation. During the +second quarter-turn the carriage is put out of gear, and moved one step to +the right while the necessary carrying is performed; at the same time the +block and the racks are moved back, and the block is shifted so as to bring +the tens-rods opposite the racks. During the next two quarter-turns the +process is repeated, the block ultimately returning to its original +position. Multiplication by a number with more places is performed as in +the Thomas. The advantage of this machine over the Thomas in saving time is +obvious. Multiplying by 817 requires in the Thomas 16 turns of the handle, +but in the Steiger-Egli only 3 turns, with 3 settings of the lever H. If +the lever H is set to 1 we have a simple addition machine like the Thomas +or the Brunsviga. The inventors state that the product of two 8-figure +numbers can be got in 6-7 seconds, the quotient of a 6-figure number by one +of 3 figures in the same time, while the square root to 5 places of a +9-figure number requires 18 seconds. + +Machines of far greater powers than the arithmometers mentioned have been +invented by Babbage and by Scheutz. A description is impossible without +elaborate drawings. The following account will afford some idea of the +working of Babbage's difference machine. Imagine a number of striking +clocks placed in a row, each with only an hour hand, and with only the +striking apparatus retained. Let the hand of the first clock be turned. As +it comes opposite a number on the dial the clock strikes that number of +times. Let this clock be connected with the second in such a manner that by +each stroke of the first the hand of the second is moved from one number to +the next, but can only strike when the first comes to rest. If the second +hand stands at 5 and the first strikes 3, then when this is done the second +will strike 8; the second will act similarly on the third, and so on. Let +there be four such clocks with hands set to the numbers 6, 6, 1, 0 +respectively. Now set the third clock striking 1, this sets the hand of the +fourth clock to 1; strike the second (6), this puts the third to 7 and the +fourth to 8. Next strike the first (6); this moves the other hands to 12, +19, 27 respectively, and now repeat the striking of the first. The hand of +the fourth clock will then give in succession the numbers 1, 8, 27, 64, +&c., being the cubes of the natural numbers. The numbers thus obtained on +the last dial will have the differences given by those shown in succession +on the dial before it, their differences by the next, and so on till we +come to the constant difference on the first dial. A function + + y = a + bx + cx^2 + dx^3 + ex^4 + +gives, on increasing x always by unity, a set of values for which the +fourth difference is constant. We can, by an arrangement like the above, +with five clocks calculate y for x = 1, 2, 3, ... to any extent. This is +the principle of Babbage's difference machine. The clock dials have to be +replaced by a series of dials as in the arithmometers described, and an +arrangement has to be made to drive the whole by turning one handle by hand +or some other power. Imagine further that with the last clock is connected +a kind of typewriter which prints the number, or, better, impresses the +number in a soft substance from which a stereotype casting can be taken, +and we have a machine which, when once set for a given formula like the +above, will automatically print, or prepare stereotype plates for the +printing of, tables of the function without any copying or typesetting, +thus excluding all possibility of errors. Of this "Difference engine," as +Babbage called it, a part was finished in 1834, the government having +contributed £17,000 towards the cost. This great expense was chiefly due to +the want of proper machine tools. + +Meanwhile Babbage had conceived the idea of a much more powerful machine, +the "analytical engine," intended to perform any series of possible +arithmetical operations. Each of these was to be communicated to the +machine by aid of cards with holes punched in them into which levers could +drop. It was long taken for granted that Babbage left complete plans; the +committee of the British Association appointed to consider this question +came, however, to the conclusion (_Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1878, pp. 92-102) +that no detailed working drawings existed at all; that the drawings left +were only diagrammatic and not nearly sufficient to put into the hands of a +draughtsman for making working plans; and "that in the present state of the +design it is not more than a theoretical possibility." A full account of +the work done by Babbage in connexion with calculating machines, and much +else published by others in connexion therewith, is contained in a work +published by his son, General Babbage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +Slide rules are instruments for performing logarithmic calculations +mechanically, and are extensively used, especially where [Sidenote: Slide +rules.] only rough approximations are required. They are almost as old as +logarithms themselves. Edmund Gunter drew a "logarithmic line" on his +"Scales" as follows (fig. 4):--On a line AB lengths are set off to scale to +represent the common logarithms of the numbers 1 2 3 ... 10, and the points +thus obtained are marked with these numbers. [v.04 p.0975] As log 1 = 0, +the beginning A has the number 1 and B the number 10, hence the unit of +length is AB, as log 10 = 1. The same division is repeated from B to C. The +distance 1,2 thus represents log 2, 1,3 gives log 3, the distance between 4 +and 5 gives log 5 - log 4 = log 5/4, and so for others. In order to +multiply two numbers, say 2 and 3, we have log 2 × 3 = log 2 + log 3. +Hence, setting off the distance 1,2 from 3 forward by the aid of a pair of +compasses will give the distance log 2 + log 3, and will bring us to 6 as +the required product. Again, if it is required to find 4/5 of 7, set off +the distance between 4 and 5 from 7 backwards, and the required number will +be obtained. In the actual scales the spaces between the numbers are +subdivided into 10 or even more parts, so that from two to three figures +may be read. The numbers 2, 3 ... in the interval BC give the logarithms of +10 times the same numbers in the interval AB; hence, if the 2 in the latter +means 2 or .2, then the 2 in the former means 20 or 2. + +Soon after Gunter's publication (1620) of these "logarithmic lines," Edmund +Wingate (1672) constructed the slide rule by repeating the logarithmic +scale on a tongue or "slide," which could be moved along the first scale, +thus avoiding the use of a pair of compasses. A clear idea of this device +can be formed if the scale in fig. 4 be copied on the edge of a strip of +paper placed against the line A C. If this is now moved to the right till +its 1 comes opposite the 2 on the first scale, then the 3 of the second +will be opposite 6 on the top scale, this being the product of 2 and 3; and +in this position every number on the top scale will be twice that on the +lower. For every position of the lower scale the ratio of the numbers on +the two scales which coincide will be the same. Therefore multiplications, +divisions, and simple proportions can be solved at once. + +Dr John Perry added log log scales to the ordinary slide rule in order to +facilitate the calculation of a^x or e^x according to the formula log +loga^x = log loga + logx. These rules are manufactured by A.G. Thornton of +Manchester. + +Many different forms of slide rules are now on the market. The handiest for +general use is the Gravet rule made by Tavernier-Gravet in Paris, according +to instructions of the mathematician V.M.A. Mannheim of the École +Polytechnique in Paris. It contains at the back of the slide scales for the +logarithms of sines and tangents so arranged that they can be worked with +the scale on the front. An improved form is now made by Davis and Son of +Derby, who engrave the scales on white celluloid instead of on box-wood, +thus greatly facilitating the readings. These scales have the distance from +one to ten about twice that in fig. 4. Tavernier-Gravet makes them of that +size and longer, even ½ metre long. But they then become somewhat unwieldy, +though they allow of reading to more figures. To get a handy long scale +Professor G. Fuller has constructed a spiral slide rule drawn on a +cylinder, which admits of reading to three and four figures. The handiest +of all is perhaps the "Calculating Circle" by Boucher, made in the form of +a watch. For various purposes special adaptations of the slide rules are +met with--for instance, in various exposure meters for photographic +purposes. General Strachey introduced slide rules into the Meteorological +Office for performing special calculations. At some blast furnaces a slide +rule has been used for determining the amount of coke and flux required for +any weight of ore. Near the balance a large logarithmic scale is fixed with +a slide which has three indices only. A load of ore is put on the scales, +and the first index of the slide is put to the number giving the weight, +when the second and third point to the weights of coke and flux required. + +By placing a number of slides side by side, drawn if need be to different +scales of length, more complicated calculations may be performed. It is +then convenient to make the scales circular. A number of rings or disks are +mounted side by side on a cylinder, each having on its rim a log-scale. + +The "Callendar Cable Calculator," invented by Harold Hastings and +manufactured by Robert W. Paul, is of this kind. In it a number of disks +are mounted on a common shaft, on which each turns freely unless a button +is pressed down whereby the disk is clamped to the shaft. Another disk is +fixed to the shaft. In front of the disks lies a fixed zero line. Let all +disks be set to zero and the shaft be turned, with the first disk clamped, +till a desired number appears on the zero line; let then the first disk be +released and the second clamped and so on; then the fixed disk will add up +all the turnings and thus give the product of the numbers shown on the +several disks. If the division on the disks is drawn to different scales, +more or less complicated calculations may be rapidly performed. Thus if for +some purpose the value of say ab³ [root]c is required for many different +values of a, b, c, three movable disks would be needed with divisions drawn +to scales of lengths in the proportion 1: 3: ½. The instrument now on sale +contains six movable disks. + +_Continuous Calculating Machines or Integrators._--In order to measure the +length of a curve, such as the road on a map, a [Sidenote: Curvometers.] +wheel is rolled along it. For one revolution of the wheel the path +described by its point of contact is equal to the circumference of the +wheel. Thus, if a cyclist counts the number of revolutions of his front +wheel he can calculate the distance ridden by multiplying that number by +the circumference of the wheel. An ordinary cyclometer is nothing but an +arrangement for counting these revolutions, but it is graduated in such a +manner that it gives at once the distance in miles. On the same principle +depend a number of instruments which, under various fancy names, serve to +measure the length of any curve; they are in the shape of a small meter +chiefly for the use of cyclists. They all have a small wheel which is +rolled along the curve to be measured, and this sets a hand in motion which +gives the reading on a dial. Their accuracy is not very great, because it +is difficult to place the wheel so on the paper that the point of contact +lies exactly over a given point; the beginning and end of the readings are +therefore badly defined. Besides, it is not easy to guide the wheel along +the curve to which it should always lie tangentially. To obviate this +defect more complicated curvometers or kartometers have been devised. The +handiest seems to be that of G. Coradi. He uses two wheels; the +tracing-point, halfway between them, is guided along the curve, the line +joining the wheels being kept normal to the curve. This is pretty easily +done by eye; a constant deviation of 8° from this direction produces an +error of only 1%. The sum of the two readings gives the length. E. +Fleischhauer uses three, five or more wheels arranged symmetrically round a +tracer whose point is guided along the curve; the planes of the wheels all +pass through the tracer, and the wheels can only turn in one direction. The +sum of the readings of all the wheels gives approximately the length of the +curve, the approximation increasing with the number of the wheels used. It +is stated that with three wheels practically useful results can be +obtained, although in this case the error, if the instrument is +consistently handled so as always to produce the greatest inaccuracy, may +be as much as 5%. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Planimeters are instruments for the determination by mechanical means of +the area of any figure. A pointer, generally called the [Sidenote: +Planimeters.] "tracer," is guided round the boundary of the figure, and +then the area is read off on the recording apparatus of the instrument. The +simplest and most useful is Amsler's (fig. 5). It consists of two bars of +metal OQ and QT, [v.04 p.0976] which are hinged together at Q. At O is a +needle-point which is driven into the drawing-board, and at T is the +tracer. As this is guided round the boundary of the figure a wheel W +mounted on QT rolls on the paper, and the turning of this wheel measures, +to some known scale, the area. We shall give the theory of this instrument +fully in an elementary manner by aid of geometry. The theory of other +planimeters can then be easily understood. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +Consider the rod QT with the wheel W, without the arm OQ. Let it be placed +with the wheel on the paper, and now moved perpendicular to itself from AC +to BD (fig. 6). The rod sweeps over, or generates, the area of the +rectangle ACDB = lp, where l denotes the length of the rod and p the +distance AB through which it has been moved. This distance, as measured by +the rolling of the wheel, which acts as a curvometer, will be called the +"roll" of the wheel and be denoted by w. In this case p = w, and the area P +is given by P = wl. Let the circumference of the wheel be divided into say +a hundred equal parts u; then w registers the number of u's rolled over, +and w therefore gives the number of areas lu contained in the rectangle. By +suitably selecting the radius of the wheel and the length l, this area lu +may be any convenient unit, say a square inch or square centimetre. By +changing l the unit will be changed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +Again, suppose the rod to turn (fig. 7) about the end Q, then it will +describe an arc of a circle, and the rod will generate an area ½l²[theta], +where [theta] is the angle AQB through which the rod has turned. The wheel +will roll over an arc c[theta], where c is the distance of the wheel from +Q. The "roll" is now w = c[theta]; hence the area generated is + + P = ½ l²/c w, + +and is again determined by w. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +Next let the rod be moved parallel to itself, but in a direction not +perpendicular to itself (fig. 8). The wheel will now not simply roll. +Consider a _small_ motion of the rod from QT to Q'T'. This may be resolved +into the motion to RR' perpendicular to the rod, whereby the rectangle +QTR'R is generated, and the sliding of the rod along itself from RR' to +Q'T'. During this second step no area will be generated. During the first +step the roll of the wheel will be QR, whilst during the second step there +will be no roll at all. The roll of the wheel will therefore measure the +area of the rectangle which equals the parallelogram QTT'Q'. If the whole +motion of the rod be considered as made up of a very great number of small +steps, each resolved as stated, it will be seen that the roll again +measures the area generated. But it has to be noticed that now the wheel +does not only roll, but also slips, over the paper. This, as will be +pointed out later, may introduce an error in the reading. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +We can now investigate the most general motion of the rod. We again resolve +the motion into a number of small steps. Let (fig. 9) AB be one position, +CD the next after a step so small that the arcs AC and BD over which the +ends have passed may be considered as straight lines. The area generated is +ABDC. This motion we resolve into a step from AB to CB', parallel to AB and +a turning about C from CB' to CD, steps such as have been investigated. +During the first, the "roll" will be p the altitude of the parallelogram; +during the second will be c[theta]. Therefore + + w = p + c[theta]. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +The area generated is lp + ½ l^2[theta], or, expressing p in terms of w, lw ++ (½l^2 - lc)[theta]. For a finite motion we get the area equal to the sum +of the areas generated during the different steps. But the wheel will +continue rolling, and give the whole roll as the sum of the rolls for the +successive steps. Let then w denote the whole roll (in fig. 10), and let +[alpha] denote the sum of all the small turnings [theta]; then the area is + + P = lw + (½l^2 - lc)[alpha] . . . (1) + +Here [alpha] is the angle which the last position of the rod makes with the +first. In all applications of the planimeter the rod is brought back to its +original position. Then the angle [alpha] is either zero, or it is 2[pi] if +the rod has been once turned quite round. + +Hence in the first case we have + + P = lw . . . (2a) + +and w gives the area as in case of a rectangle. + +In the other case + + P = lw + lC . . . (2b) + +where C = (½l-c)2[pi], if the rod has once turned round. The number C will +be seen to be always the same, as it depends only on the dimensions of the +instrument. Hence now again the area is determined by w if C is known. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +Thus it is seen that the area generated by the motion of the rod can be +measured by the roll of the wheel; it remains to show how any given area +can be generated by the rod. Let the rod move in any manner but return to +its original position. Q and T then describe closed curves. Such motion may +be called cyclical. Here the theorem holds:--_If a rod QT performs a +cyclical motion, then the area generated equals the difference of the areas +enclosed by the paths of T and Q respectively._ The truth of this +proposition will be seen from a figure. In fig. 11 different positions of +the moving rod QT have been marked, and its motion can be easily followed. +It will be seen that every part of the area TT'BB' will be passed over once +and always by a _forward motion_ of the rod, whereby the wheel will +_increase_ its roll. The area AA'QQ' will also be swept over once, but with +a _backward_ roll; it must therefore be counted as negative. The area +between the curves is passed over twice, once with a forward and once with +a backward roll; it therefore counts once positive and once negative; hence +not at all. In more complicated figures it may happen that the area within +one of the curves, say TT'BB', is passed over several times, but then it +will be passed over once more in the forward direction than in the backward +one, and thus the theorem will still hold. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +To use Amsler's planimeter, place the pole O on the paper _outside_ the +figure to be measured. Then the area generated by QT is that of the figure, +because the point Q moves on an arc of a circle to and fro enclosing no +area. At the same time the rod comes back without making a complete +rotation. We have therefore in formula (1), [alpha] = 0; and hence + + P = lw, + +[v.04 p.0977] which is read off. But if the area is too large the pole O +may be placed within the area. The rod describes the area between the +boundary of the figure and the circle with radius r = OQ, whilst the rod +turns once completely round, making [alpha] = 2[pi]. The area measured by +the wheel is by formula (1), lw + (½l²-lc) 2[pi]. + +To this the area of the circle [pi]r² must be added, so that now + + P = lw + (½l²-lc)2[pi] + [pi]r², + +or + + P = lw + C, + +where + + C = (½l²-lc)2[pi] + [pi]r², + +is a constant, as it depends on the dimensions of the instrument alone. +This constant is given with each instrument. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +Amsler's planimeters are made either with a rod QT of fixed length, which +gives the area therefore in terms of a fixed unit, say in square inches, or +else the rod can be moved in a sleeve to which the arm OQ is hinged (fig. +13). This makes it possible to change the unit lu, which is proportional to +l. + +In the planimeters described the recording or integrating apparatus is a +smooth wheel rolling on the paper or on some other surface. Amsler has +described another recorder, viz. a wheel with a sharp edge. This will roll +on the paper but not slip. Let the rod QT carry with it an arm CD +perpendicular to it. Let there be mounted on it a wheel W, which can slip +along and turn about it. If now QT is moved parallel to itself to Q'T', +then W will roll without slipping parallel to QT, and slip along CD. This +amount of slipping will equal the perpendicular distance between QT and +Q'T', and therefore serve to measure the area swept over like the wheel in +the machine already described. The turning of the rod will also produce +slipping of the wheel, but it will be seen without difficulty that this +will cancel during a cyclical motion of the rod, provided the rod does not +perform a whole rotation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +The first planimeter was made on the following principles:--A frame FF +(fig. 15) can move parallel to OX. It carries a rod TT [Sidenote: Early +forms.] movable along its own length, hence the tracer T can be guided +along any curve ATB. When the rod has been pushed back to Q'Q, the tracer +moves along the axis OX. On the frame a cone VCC' is mounted with its axis +sloping so that its top edge is horizontal and parallel to TT', whilst its +vertex V is opposite Q'. As the frame moves it turns the cone. A wheel W is +mounted on the rod at T', or on an axis parallel to and rigidly connected +with it. This wheel rests on the top edge of the cone. If now the tracer T, +when pulled out through a distance y above Q, be moved parallel to OX +through a distance dx, the frame moves through an equal distance, and the +cone turns through an angle d[theta] proportional to dx. The wheel W rolls +on the cone to an amount again proportional to dx, and also proportional to +y, its distance from V. Hence the roll of the wheel is proportional to the +area ydx described by the rod QT. As T is moved from A to B along the curve +the roll of the wheel will therefore be proportional to the area AA'B'B. If +the curve is closed, and the tracer moved round it, the roll will measure +the area independent of the position of the axis OX, as will be seen by +drawing a figure. The cone may with advantage be replaced by a horizontal +disk, with its centre at V; this allows of y being negative. It may be +noticed at once that the roll of the wheel gives at every moment the area +A'ATQ. It will therefore allow of registering a set of values of +[Integral,a:x] ydx for any values of x, and thus of tabulating the values +of any indefinite integral. In this it differs from Amsler's planimeter. +Planimeters of this type were first invented in 1814 by the Bavarian +engineer Hermann, who, however, published nothing. They were reinvented by +Prof. Tito Gonnella of Florence in 1824, and by the Swiss engineer +Oppikofer, and improved by Ernst in Paris, the astronomer Hansen in Gotha, +and others (see Henrici, _British Association Report_, 1894). But all were +driven out of the field by Amsler's simpler planimeter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +Altogether different from the planimeters described is the hatchet +planimeter, invented by Captain Prytz, a Dane, and made by Herr [Sidenote: +Hatchet planimeters.] Cornelius Knudson in Copenhagen. It consists of a +single rigid piece like fig. 16. The one end T is the tracer, the other Q +has a sharp hatchet-like edge. If this is placed with QT on the paper and T +is moved along any curve, Q will follow, describing a "curve of pursuit." +In consequence of the sharp edge, Q can only move in the direction of QT, +but the whole can turn about Q. Any small step forward can therefore be +considered as made up of a motion along QT, together with a turning about +Q. The latter motion alone generates an area. If therefore a line OA = QT +is turning about a fixed point O, always keeping parallel to QT, it will +sweep over an area equal to that generated by the more general motion of +QT. Let now (fig. 17) QT be placed on OA, and T be guided round the closed +curve in the sense of the arrow. Q will describe a curve OSB. It may be +made visible by putting a piece of "copying paper" under the hatchet. When +T has returned to A the hatchet has the position BA. A line turning from OA +about O kept parallel to QT will describe the circular sector OAC, which is +equal in magnitude and sense to AOB. This therefore measures the area +generated by the motion of QT. To make this motion cyclical, suppose the +hatchet turned about A till Q comes from B to O. Hereby the sector AOB is +again described, and again in the positive sense, if it is remembered that +it turns about the tracer T fixed at A. The whole area now generated is +therefore twice the area of this sector, or equal to OA. OB, where OB is +measured along the arc. According to the theorem given above, this area +also equals the area of the given curve less the area OSBO. To make this +area disappear, a slight modification of the motion of QT is required. Let +the tracer T be moved, both from the first position OA and the last BA of +the rod, along some straight line AX. Q describes curves OF and BH +respectively. Now begin the motion with T at some point R on AX, and move +it along this line to A, round the curve and back to R. Q will describe the +curve DOSBED, if the motion is again made cyclical by turning QT with T +fixed at A. If R is properly selected, the path of Q will cut itself, and +parts of the area will be positive, parts negative, as marked in the +figure, and may therefore be made to vanish. When this is done the area of +the curve will equal twice the area of the sector RDE. It is therefore +equal to the arc DE multiplied by the length QT; if the latter equals 10 +in., then 10 times the number of inches contained in the arc DE gives the +number of square inches contained within the given figure. If the area is +not too large, the arc DE may be replaced by the straight line DE. + +To use this simple instrument as a planimeter requires the possibility of +selecting the point R. The geometrical theory here given has so far failed +to give any rule. In fact, every line through any point in the curve +contains such a point. The analytical theory of the inventor, which is very +similar to that given by F.W. Hill (_Phil. Mag._ 1894), is too complicated +to repeat here. The integrals expressing the area generated by QT have to +be expanded in a series. By retaining only the most important terms a +result is obtained which comes to this, that if the mass-centre of the area +be taken as R, then A may be any point on the curve. This is only +approximate. Captain Prytz gives the following instructions:--Take a point +R as near as you can guess to the mass-centre, put the tracer T on it, the +knife-edge Q outside; make a mark on the paper by pressing the knife-edge +into it; guide the tracer from R along a straight line to a point A on the +boundary, round the boundary, [v.04 p.0978] and back from A to R; lastly, +make again a mark with the knife-edge, and measure the distance c between +the marks; then the area is nearly cl, where l = QT. A nearer approximation +is obtained by repeating the operation after turning QT through 180° from +the original position, and using the mean of the two values of c thus +obtained. The greatest dimension of the area should not exceed ½l, +otherwise the area must be divided into parts which are determined +separately. This condition being fulfilled, the instrument gives very +satisfactory results, especially if the figures to be measured, as in the +case of indicator diagrams, are much of the same shape, for in this case +the operator soon learns where to put the point R. + +Integrators serve to evaluate a definite integral [Integral,a:b] f(x)dx If +we plot out [Sidenote: Integrators.] the curve whose equation is y = f(x), +the integral [Integral]ydx between the proper limits represents the area of +a figure bounded by the curve, the axis of x, and the ordinates at x=a, +x=b. Hence if the curve is drawn, any planimeter may be used for finding +the value of the integral. In this sense planimeters are integrators. In +fact, a planimeter may often be used with advantage to solve problems more +complicated than the determination of a mere area, by converting the one +problem graphically into the other. We give an example:-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.] + +Let the problem be to determine for the figure ABG (fig. 18), not only the +area, but also the first and second moment with regard to the axis XX. At a +distance a draw a line, C'D', parallel to XX. In the figure draw a number +of lines parallel to AB. Let CD be one of them. Draw C and D vertically +upwards to C'D', join these points to some point O in XX, and mark the +points C_1D_1 where OC' and OD' cut CD. Do this for a sufficient number of +lines, and join the points C_1D_1 thus obtained. This gives a new curve, +which may be called the first derived curve. By the same process get a new +curve from this, the second derived curve. By aid of a planimeter determine +the areas P, P_1, P_2, of these three curves. Then, if [=x] is the distance +of the mass-centre of the given area from XX; [=x]_1 the same quantity for +the first derived figure, and I = Ak² the moment of inertia of the first +figure, k its radius of gyration, with regard to XX as axis, the following +relations are easily proved:-- + + P[=x] = aP_1; P_1[=x]_1 = aP_2; I = aP_1[=x]_1 = a²P_1P_2; k² = + [=x][=x]_1, + +which determine P, [=x] and I or k. Amsler has constructed an integrator +which serves to determine these quantities by guiding a tracer once round +the boundary of the given figure (see below). Again, it may be required to +find the value of an integral [Integral]y[phi](x)dx between given limits +where [phi](x) is a simple function like sin nx, and where y is given as +the ordinate of a curve. The harmonic analysers described below are +examples of instruments for evaluating such integrals. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.] + +Amsler has modified his planimeter in such a manner that instead of the +area it gives the first or second moment of a figure about an axis in its +plane. An instrument giving all three quantities simultaneously is known as +Amsler's integrator or moment-planimeter. It has one tracer, but three +recording wheels. It is mounted on a [Sidenote: Amsler's Integrator.] +carriage which runs on a straight rail (fig. 19). This carries a horizontal +disk A, movable about a vertical axis Q. Slightly more than half the +circumference is circular with radius 2a, the other part with radius 3a. +Against these gear two disks, B and C, with radii a; their axes are fixed +in the carriage. From the disk A extends to the left a rod OT of length l, +on which a recording wheel W is mounted. The disks B and C have also +recording wheels, W_1 and W_2, the axis of W_1 being perpendicular, that of +W_2 parallel to OT. If now T is guided round a figure F, O will move to and +fro in a straight line. This part is therefore a simple planimeter, in +which the one end of the arm moves in a straight line instead of in a +circular arc. Consequently, the "roll" of W will record the area of the +figure. Imagine now that the disks B and C also receive arms of length l +from the centres of the disks to points T_1 and T_2, and in the direction +of the axes of the wheels. Then these arms with their wheels will again be +planimeters. As T is guided round the given figure F, these points T_1 and +T_2 will describe closed curves, F_1 and F_2, and the "rolls" of W_1 and +W_2 will give their areas A_1 and A_2. Let XX (fig. 20) denote the line, +parallel to the rail, on which O moves; then when T lies on this line, the +arm BT_1 is perpendicular to XX, and CT_2 parallel to it. If OT is turned +through an angle [theta], clockwise, BT_1 will turn counter-clockwise +through an angle 2[theta], and CT_2 through an angle 3[theta], also +counter-clockwise. If in this position T is moved through a distance x +parallel to the axis XX, the points T_1 and T_2 will move parallel to it +through an equal distance. If now the first arm is turned through a small +angle d[theta], moved back through a distance x, and lastly turned back +through the angle d[theta], the tracer T will have described the boundary +of a small strip of area. We divide the given figure into [v.04 p.0979] +such strips. Then to every such strip will correspond a strip of equal +length x of the figures described by T_1 and T_2. + +The distances of the points, T, T_1, T_2, from the axis XX may be called y, +y_1, y_2. They have the values + + y = l sin [theta], y_1 = l cos 2[theta], y_2 = -l sin 3[theta], + +from which + + dy = l cos [theta].d[theta], dy_1 = - 2l sin 2[theta].d[theta], dy_2 = - + 3l cos 3[theta].d[theta]. + +The areas of the three strips are respectively + + dA = xdy, dA_1 = xdy_1, dA_2 = xdy_2. + +Now dy_1 can be written dy_1 = - 4l sin [theta] cos [theta]d[theta] = - 4 +sin [theta]dy; therefore + + dA_1 = - 4 sin [theta].dA = - (4/l) ydA; + +whence + + A_1 = - 4/l [Integral]ydA = - 4/l A[=y], + +where A is the area of the given figure, and [=y] the distance of its +mass-centre from the axis XX. But A_1 is the area of the second figure F_1, +which is proportional to the reading of W_1. Hence we may say + + A[=y] = C_1w_1, + +where C_1 is a constant depending on the dimensions of the instrument. The +negative sign in the expression for A_1 is got rid of by numbering the +wheel W_1 the other way round. + +Again + + dy_2 = - 3l cos [theta] {4 cos² [theta] - 3} d[theta] = - 3 {4 cos² + [theta] - 3} dy = - 3 {(4/l²) y² - 3} dy, + +which gives + + dA_2 = - (12/l²)y²dA + 9dA, + +and + + A_2 = - (12/l²) [Integral]y²dA + 9A. + +But the integral gives the moment of inertia I of the area A about the axis +XX. As A_2 is proportional to the roll of W_2, A to that of W, we can write + + I = Cw - C_2 w_2, + A[=y] = C_1 w_1, + A = C_c w. + +If a line be drawn parallel to the axis XX at the distance [=y], it will +pass through the mass-centre of the given figure. If this represents the +section of a beam subject to bending, this line gives for a proper choice +of XX the neutral fibre. The moment of inertia for it will be I + A[=y]². +Thus the instrument gives at once all those quantities which are required +for calculating the strength of the beam under bending. One chief use of +this integrator is for the calculation of the displacement and stability of +a ship from the drawings of a number of sections. It will be noticed that +the length of the figure in the direction of XX is only limited by the +length of the rail. + +This integrator is also made in a simplified form without the wheel W_2. It +then gives the area and first moment of any figure. + +While an integrator determines the value of a definite integral, hence a +[Sidenote: Integraphs.] mere constant, an integraph gives the value of an +indefinite integral, which is a function of x. Analytically if y is a given +function f(x) of x and + + Y = [Integral,c:x]ydx or Y = [Integral]ydx + const. + +the function Y has to be determined from the condition + + dY/dx = y. + +Graphically y = f(x) is either given by a curve, or the graph of the +equation is drawn: y, therefore, and similarly Y, is a length. But dY/dx is +in this case a mere number, and cannot equal a length y. Hence we introduce +an arbitrary constant length a, the unit to which the integraph draws the +curve, and write + + dY/dx = y/a and aY = [Integral]ydx + +Now for the Y-curve dY/dx = tan [phi], where [phi] is the angle between the +tangent to the curve, and the axis of x. Our condition therefore becomes + + tan [phi] = y / a. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.] + +This [phi] is easily constructed for any given point on the y-curve:--From +the foot B' (fig. 21) of the ordinate y = B'B set off, as in the figure, +B'D = a, then angle BDB' = [phi]. Let now DB' with a perpendicular B'B move +along the axis of x, whilst B follows the y-curve, then a pen P on B'B will +describe the Y-curve provided it moves at every moment in a direction +parallel to BD. The object of the integraph is to draw this new curve when +the tracer of the instrument is guided along the y-curve. + +The first to describe such instruments was Abdank-Abakanowicz, who in 1889 +published a book in which a variety of mechanisms to obtain the object in +question are described. Some years later G. Coradi, in Zürich, carried out +his ideas. Before this was done, C.V. Boys, without knowing of +Abdank-Abakanowicz's work, actually made an integraph which was exhibited +at the Physical Society in 1881. Both make use of a sharp edge wheel. Such +a wheel will not slip sideways; it will roll forwards along the line in +which its plane intersects the plane of the paper, and while rolling will +be able to turn gradually about its point of contact. If then the angle +between its direction of rolling and the x-axis be always equal to [phi], +the wheel will roll along the Y-curve required. The axis of x is fixed only +in direction; shifting it parallel to itself adds a constant to Y, and this +gives the arbitrary constant of integration. + +In fact, if Y shall vanish for x = c, or if + + Y = [Integral,c:x]ydx, + +then the axis of x has to be drawn through that point on the y-curve which +corresponds to x = c. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.] + +In Coradi's integraph a rectangular frame F_1F_2F_3F_4 (fig. 22) rests with +four rollers R on the drawing board, and can roll freely in the direction +OX, which will be called the axis of the instrument. On the front edge +F_1F_2 travels a carriage AA' supported at A' on another rail. A bar DB can +turn about D, fixed to the frame in its axis, and slide through a point B +fixed in the carriage AA'. Along it a block K can slide. On the back edge +F_3F_4 of the frame another carriage C travels. It holds a vertical spindle +with the knife-edge wheel at the bottom. At right angles to the plane of +the wheel, the spindle has an arm GH, which is kept parallel to a [v.04 +p.0980] similar arm attached to K perpendicular to DB. The plane of the +knife-edge wheel r is therefore always parallel to DB. If now the point B +is made to follow a curve whose y is measured from OX, we have in the +triangle BDB', with the angle [phi] at D, + + tan [phi] = y/a, + +where a = DB' is the constant base to which the instrument works. The point +of contact of the wheel r or any point of the carriage C will therefore +always move in a direction making an angle [phi] with the axis of x, whilst +it moves in the x-direction through the same distance as the point B on the +y-curve--that is to say, it will trace out the integral curve required, and +so will any point rigidly connected with the carriage C. A pen P attached +to this carriage will therefore draw the integral curve. Instead of moving +B along the y-curve, a tracer T fixed to the carriage A is guided along it. +For using the instrument the carriage is placed on the drawing-board with +the front edge parallel to the axis of y, the carriage A being clamped in +the central position with A at E and B at B' on the axis of x. The tracer +is then placed on the x-axis of the y-curve and clamped to the carriage, +and the instrument is ready for use. As it is convenient to have the +integral curve placed directly opposite to the y-curve so that +corresponding values of y or Y are drawn on the same line, a pen P' is +fixed to C in a line with the tracer. + +Boys' integraph was invented during a sleepless night, and during the +following days carried out as a working model, which gives highly +satisfactory results. It is ingenious in its simplicity, and a direct +realization as a mechanism of the principles explained in connexion with +fig. 21. The line B'B is represented by the edge of an ordinary T-square +sliding against the edge of a drawing-board. The points B and P are +connected by two rods BE and EP, jointed at E. At B, E and P are small +pulleys of equal diameters. Over these an endless string runs, ensuring +that the pulleys at B and P always turn through equal angles. The pulley at +B is fixed to a rod which passes through the point D, which itself is fixed +in the T-square. The pulley at P carries the knife-edge wheel. If then B +and P are kept on the edge of the T-square, and B is guided along the +curve, the wheel at P will roll along the Y-curve, it having been +originally set parallel to BD. To give the wheel at P sufficient grip on +the paper, a small loaded three-wheeled carriage, the knife-edge wheel P +being one of its wheels, is added. If a piece of copying paper is inserted +between the wheel P and the drawing paper the Y-curve is drawn very +sharply. + +Integraphs have also been constructed, by aid of which ordinary +differential equations, especially linear ones, can be solved, the solution +being given as a curve. The first suggestion in this direction was made by +Lord Kelvin. So far no really useful instrument has been made, although the +ideas seem sufficiently developed to enable a skilful instrument-maker to +produce one should there be sufficient demand for it. Sometimes a +combination of graphical work with an integraph will serve the purpose. +This is the case if the variables are separated, hence if the equation + + Xdx + Ydy = 0 + +has to be integrated where X = p(x), Y = [phi](y) are given as curves. If +we write + + au = [Integral]Xdx, av = [Integral]Ydy, + +then u as a function of x, and v as a function of y can be graphically +found by the integraph. The general solution is then + + u + v = c + +with the condition, for the determination for c, that y = y_0, for x = x_0. +This determines c = u_0 + v_0, where u_0 and v_0 are known from the graphs +of u and v. From this the solution as a curve giving y a function of x can +be drawn:--For any x take u from its graph, and find the y for which v = c +- u, plotting these y against their x gives the curve required. + +If a periodic function y of x is given by its graph for one period c, it +can, according to the theory of Fourier's Series, be [Sidenote: Harmonic +analysers.] expanded in a series. + + y = A_0 + A_1 cos [theta] + A_2 cos 2[theta] + ... + A_n cos n[theta] + + ... + + B_1 sin [theta] + B_2 sin 2[theta] + ... + B_n sin n[theta] + + ... + +where [theta] = 2[pi]x / c. + +The absolute term A_0 equals the mean ordinate of the curve, and can +therefore be determined by any planimeter. The other co-efficients are + + A_n = 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] y cos n[theta].d[theta]; + + B_n = 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] y sin n[theta].d[theta]. + +A harmonic analyser is an instrument which determines these integrals, and +is therefore an integrator. The first instrument of this kind is due to +Lord Kelvin (_Proc. Roy Soc._, vol xxiv., 1876). Since then several others +have been invented (see Dyck's _Catalogue_; Henrici, _Phil. Mag._, July +1894; _Phys. Soc._, 9th March; Sharp, _Phil. Mag._, July 1894; _Phys. +Soc._, 13th April). In Lord Kelvin's instrument the curve to be analysed is +drawn on a cylinder whose circumference equals the period _c_, and the sine +and cosine terms of the integral are introduced by aid of simple harmonic +motion. Sommerfeld and Wiechert, of Konigsberg, avoid this motion by +turning the cylinder about an axis perpendicular to that of the cylinder. +Both these machines are large, and practically fixtures in the room where +they are used. The first has done good work in the Meteorological Office in +London in the analysis of meteorological curves. Quite different and +simpler constructions can be used, if the integrals determining A_n and B_n +be integrated by parts. This gives + + nA_n = - 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] sin n[theta].dy; + + nB_n = 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] cos n[theta].dy. + +An analyser presently to be described, based on these forms, has been +constructed by Coradi in Zurich (1894). Lastly, a most powerful analyser +has been invented by Michelson and Stratton (U.S.A.) (_Phil Mag._, 1898), +which will also be described. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.] + +The _Henrici-Coradi_ analyser has to add up the values of dy.sin n[theta] +and dy.cos n[theta]. But these are the components of dy in two directions +perpendicular to each other, of which one makes an angle n[theta] with the +axis of x or of [theta]. This decomposition can be performed by Amsler's +registering wheels. Let two of these be mounted, perpendicular to each +other, in one horizontal frame which can be turned about a vertical axis, +the wheels resting on the paper on which the curve is drawn. When the +tracer is placed on the curve at the point [theta] = 0 the one axis is +parallel to the axis of [theta]. As the tracer follows the curve the frame +is made to turn through an angle n[theta]. At the same time the frame moves +with the tracer in the direction of y. For a small motion the two wheels +will then register just the components required, and during the continued +motion of the tracer along the curve the wheels will add these components, +and thus give the values of nA_n and nB_n. The factors 1/[pi] and -1/[pi] +are taken account of in the graduation of the wheels. The readings have +then to be divided by n to give the coefficients required. Coradi's +realization of this idea will be understood from fig. 23. The frame PP' of +the instrument rests on three rollers E, E', and D. The first two drive an +axis with a disk C on it. It is placed parallel to the axis of x of the +curve. The tracer is attached to a carriage WW which runs on the rail P. As +it follows the curve this carriage moves through a distance x whilst the +whole instrument runs forward through a distance y. The wheel C turns +through an angle proportional, during each small motion, to dy. On it rests +a glass sphere which will therefore also turn about its horizontal axis +proportionally, to dy. The registering frame is suspended by aid of a +spindle S, having a disk H. It is turned by aid of a wire connected with +the carriage WW, and turns n times round as the tracer describes the whole +length of the curve. The registering wheels R, R' rest against the glass +sphere and give the values nA_n and nB_n. The value of n can be altered by +changing the disk H into one of different diameter. It is also possible to +mount on the same frame a number of spindles with registering wheels and +glass spheres, each of the latter resting on a separate disk C. As many as +five have been introduced. One guiding of the tracer over the curve gives +then at once the ten coefficients A_n and B_n for n = 1 to 5. + +All the calculating machines and integrators considered so far have been +kinematic. We have now to describe a most remarkable instrument based on +the equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of springs. The body +itself for rigidity's sake is made a hollow [v.04 p.0981] [Sidenote: +Michelson and Stratton analyzer] cylinder H, shown in fig. 24 in end view. +It can turn about its axis, being supported on knife-edges O. To it springs +are attached at the prolongation of a horizontal diameter; to the left a +series of n small springs s, all alike, side by side at equal intervals at +a distance a from the axis of the knife-edges; to the right a single spring +S at distance b. These springs are supposed to follow Hooke's law. If the +elongation beyond the natural length of a spring is [lambda], the force +asserted by it is p = k[lambda]. Let for the position of equilibrium l, L +be respectively the elongation of a small and the large spring, k, K their +constants, then + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + + nkla = KLb. + +The position now obtained will be called the _normal_ one. Now let the top +ends C of the small springs be raised through distances y_1, y_2, ... y_n. +Then the body H will turn; B will move down through a distance z and A up +through a distance (a/b)z. The new forces thus introduced will be in +equilibrium if + + ak([Sigma]y - n (a/b) z) = bKz. + +Or + + z = [Sigma]y / (n a/b + b/a K/k) = [Sigma]y / (n (a/b + l/L)). + +This shows that the displacement z of B is proportional to the sum of the +displacements y of the tops of the small springs. The arrangement can +therefore be used for the addition of a number of displacements. The +instrument made has eighty small springs, and the authors state that from +the experience gained there is no impossibility of increasing their number +even to a thousand. The displacement z, which necessarily must be small, +can be enlarged by aid of a lever OT'. To regulate the displacements y of +the points C (fig. 24) each spring is attached to a lever EC, fulcrum E. To +this again a long rod FG is fixed by aid of a joint at F. The lower end of +this rod rests on another lever GP, fulcrum N, at a changeable distance y" += NG from N. The elongation y of any spring s can thus be produced by a +motion of P. If P be raised through a distance y', then the displacement y +of C will be proportional to y'y"; it is, say, equal to [mu]y'y" where [mu] +is the same for all springs. Now let the points C, and with it the springs +s, the levers, &c., be numbered C_0, C_1, C_2 ... There will be a +zero-position for the points P all in a straight horizontal line. When in +this position the points C will also be in a line, and this we take as axis +of x. On it the points C_0, C_1, C_2 ... follow at equal distances, say +each equal to h. The point C_k lies at the distance kh which gives the x of +this point. Suppose now that the rods FG are all set at unit distance NG +from N, and that the points P be raised so as to form points in a +continuous curve y' = [phi](x), then the points C will lie in a curve y = +[mu][phi](x). The area of this curve is + + [mu] [Integral,0:c][phi](x)dx. + +Approximately this equals [Sigma]hy = h[Sigma]y. Hence we have + + [Integral,0:c][phi](x)dx = h/[mu] [Sigma]y = ([lambda]h/[mu])z, + +where z is the displacement of the point B which can be measured. The curve +y' = [phi](x) may be supposed cut out as a templet. By putting this under +the points P the area of the curve is thus determined--the instrument is a +simple integrator. + +The integral can be made more general by varying the distances NG = y". +These can be set to form another curve y" = f(x). We have now y = [mu]y'y" += [mu] f(x) [phi](x), and get as before + + [Integral,0:c]f(x) [phi](x)dx = ([lambda]h/[mu])z. + +These integrals are obtained by the addition of ordinates, and therefore by +an approximate method. But the ordinates are numerous, there being 79 of +them, and the results are in consequence very accurate. The displacement z +of B is small, but it can be magnified by taking the reading of a point T' +on the lever AB. The actual reading is done at point T connected with T' by +a long vertical rod. At T either a scale can be placed or a drawing-board, +on which a pen at T marks the displacement. + +If the points G are set so that the distances NG on the different levers +are proportional to the terms of a numerical series + + u_0 + u_1 + u_2 + ... + +and if all P be moved through the same distance, then z will be +proportional to the sum of this series up to 80 terms. We get an _Addition +Machine_. + +The use of the machine can, however, be still further extended. Let a +templet with a curve y' = [phi]([xi]) be set under each point P at right +angles to the axis of x hence parallel to the plane of the figure. Let +these templets form sections of a continuous surface, then each section +parallel to the axis of x will form a curve like the old y' = [phi](x), but +with a variable parameter [xi], or y' = [phi]([xi], x). For each value of +[xi] the displacement of T will give the integral + + Y = [Integral,0:c] f(x) [phi]([xi]x) dx = F([xi]), . . . (1) + +where Y equals the displacement of T to some scale dependent on the +constants of the instrument. + +If the whole block of templets be now pushed under the points P and if the +drawing-board be moved at the same rate, then the pen T will draw the curve +Y = F([xi]). The instrument now is an _integraph_ giving the value of a +definite integral as function of a _variable parameter_. + +Having thus shown how the lever with its springs can be made to serve a +variety of purposes, we return to the description of the actual instrument +constructed. The machine serves first of all to sum up a series of harmonic +motions or to draw the curve + + Y = a_1 cos x + a_2 cos 2x + a_3 cos 3x + . . . (2) + +The motion of the points P_1P_2 ... is here made harmonic by aid of a +series of excentric disks arranged so that for one revolution of the first +the other disks complete 2, 3, ... revolutions. They are all driven by one +handle. These disks take the place of the templets described before. The +distances NG are made equal to the amplitudes a_1, a_2, a_3, ... The +drawing-board, moved forward by the turning of the handle, now receives a +curve of which (2) is the equation. If all excentrics are turned through a +right angle a sine-series can be added up. + +It is a remarkable fact that the same machine can be used as a harmonic +analyser of a given curve. Let the curve to be analysed be set off along +the levers NG so that in the old notation it is + + y" = f(x), + +whilst the curves y' = [phi](x[xi]) are replaced by the excentrics, hence +[xi] by the angle [theta] through which the first excentric is turned, so +that y'_k = cos k[theta]. But kh = x and nh = [pi], n being the number of +springs s, and [pi] taking the place of c. This makes + + k[theta] = (n/[pi])[theta].x. + +Hence our instrument draws a curve which gives the integral (1) in the form + + y = 2/[pi] [Integral,0:[pi]] f(x)cos((n/[pi])[theta]x) dx + +as a function of [theta]. But this integral becomes the coefficient a_m in +the cosine expansion if we make + + [theta]n/[pi] = m or [theta] = m[pi]/n. + +The ordinates of the curve at the values [theta] = [pi]/n, 2[pi]/n, ... +give therefore all coefficients up to m = 80. The curve shows at a glance +which and how many of the coefficients are of importance. + +The instrument is described in _Phil. Mag._, vol. xlv., 1898. A number of +curves drawn by it are given, and also examples of the analysis of curves +for which the coefficients a_m are known. These indicate that a remarkable +accuracy is obtained. + +(O. H.) + +[1] For a fuller description of the manner in which a mere addition machine +can be used for multiplication and division, and even for the extraction of +square roots, see an article by C.V. Boys in _Nature_, 11th July 1901. + +CALCUTTA, the capital of British India and also of the province of Bengal. +It is situated in 22° 34' N. and 88° 24' E., on the left or east bank of +the Hugli, about 80 m. from the sea. Including its suburbs it covers an +area of 27,267 acres, and contains a population (1901) of 949,144. Calcutta +and Bombay have long contested the position of the premier city of India in +population and trade; but during the decade 1891-1901 the prevalence of +plague in Bombay gave a considerable advantage to Calcutta, which was +comparatively free from that disease. Calcutta lies only some 20 ft. above +sea-level, and extends about 6 m. along the Hugli, and is bounded elsewhere +by the Circular Canal and the Salt Lakes, and by suburbs which form +separate municipalities. Fort William stands in its centre. + +_Public Buildings._--Though Calcutta was called by Macaulay "the city of +palaces," its modern public buildings cannot compare with those of Bombay. +Its chief glory is the Maidan or park, which is large enough to embrace the +area of Fort William and a racecourse. Many monuments find a place on the +Maidan, among them being modern equestrian statues of Lord Roberts and Lord +Lansdowne, which face one another on each side of the Red Road, where the +rank and [v.04 p.0982] fashion of Calcutta take their evening drive. In the +north-eastern corner of the Maidan the Indian memorial to Queen Victoria, +consisting of a marble hall, with a statue and historical relics, was +opened by the prince of Wales in January 1906. The government acquired +Metcalfe Hall, in order to convert it into a public library and +reading-room worthy of the capital of India; and also the country-house of +Warren Hastings at Alipur, for the entertainment of Indian princes. Lord +Curzon restored, at his own cost, the monument which formerly commemorated +the massacre of the Black Hole, and a tablet let into the wall of the +general post office indicates the position of the Black Hole in the +north-east bastion of Fort William, now occupied by the roadway. Government +House, which is situated near the Maidan and Eden Gardens, is the residence +of the viceroy; it was built by Lord Wellesley in 1799, and is a fine pile +situated in grounds covering six acres, and modelled upon Kedleston Hall in +Derbyshire, one of the Adam buildings. Belvedere House, the official +residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, is situated close to the +botanical gardens in Alipur, the southern suburb of Calcutta. Facing the +Maidan for a couple of miles is the Chowringhee, one of the famous streets +of the world, once a row of palatial residences, but now given up almost +entirely to hotels, clubs and shops. + +_Commerce._--Calcutta owes its commercial prosperity to the fact that it is +situated near the mouth of the two great river systems of the Ganges and +Brahmaputra. It thus receives the produce of these fertile river valleys, +while the rivers afford a cheaper mode of conveyance than any railway. In +addition Calcutta is situated midway between Europe and the Far East and +thus forms a meeting-place for the commerce and peoples of the Eastern and +Western worlds. The port of Calcutta is one of the busiest in the world, +and the banks of the Hugli rival the port of London in their show of +shipping. The total number of arrivals and departures during 1904-1905 was +3027 vessels with an average tonnage of 3734. But though the city is such a +busy commercial centre, most of its industries are carried on outside +municipal limits. Howrah, on the opposite side of the Hugli, is the +terminus of three great railway systems, and also the headquarters of the +jute industry and other large factories. It is connected with Calcutta by +an immense floating bridge, 1530 ft. in length, which was constructed in +1874. Other railways have their terminus at Sealdah, an eastern suburb. The +docks lie outside Calcutta, at Kidderpur, on the south; and at Alipur are +the zoological gardens, the residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, +cantonments for a native infantry regiment, the central gaol and a +government reformatory. The port of Calcutta stretches about 10 m. along +the river. It is under the control of a port trust, whose jurisdiction +extends to the mouth of the Hugli and also over the floating bridge. New +docks were opened in 1892, which cost upwards of two millions sterling. The +figures for the sea-borne trade of Calcutta are included in those of +Bengal. Its inland trade is carried on by country boat, inland steamer, +rail and road, and amounted in 1904-1905 to about four and three quarter +millions sterling. More than half the total is carried by the East Indian +railway, which serves the United Provinces. Country boats hold their own +against inland steamers, especially in imports. + +_Municipality._--The municipal government of Calcutta was reconstituted by +an act of the Bengal legislature, passed in 1899. Previously, the governing +body consisted of seventy-five commissioners, of whom fifty were elected. +Under the new system modelled upon that of the Bombay municipality, this +body, styled the corporation, remains comparatively unaltered; but a large +portion of their powers is transferred to a general committee, composed of +twelve members, of whom one-third are elected by the corporation, one-third +by certain public bodies and one-third are nominated by the government. At +the same time, the authority of the chairman, as supreme executive officer, +is considerably strengthened. The two most important works undertaken by +the old municipality were the provision of a supply of filtered water and +the construction of a main drainage system. The water-supply is derived +from the river Hugli, about 16 m. above Calcutta, where there are large +pumping-stations and settling-tanks. The drainage-system consists of +underground sewers, which are discharged by a pumping-station into a +natural depression to the eastward, called the Salt Lake. Refuse is also +removed to the Salt Lake by means of a municipal railway. + +_Education._--The Calcutta University was constituted in 1857, as an +examining body, on the model of the university of London. The chief +educational institutions are the Government Presidency College; three aided +missionary colleges, and four unaided native colleges; the Sanskrit College +and the Mahommedan Madrasah; the government medical college, the government +engineering college at Sibpur, on the opposite bank of the Hugli, the +government school of art, high schools for boys, the Bethune College and +high schools for girls. + +_Population._--The population of Calcutta in 1710 was estimated at 12,000, +from which figure it rose to about 117,000 in 1752. In the census of 1831 +it was 187,000, in 1839 it had become 229,000 and in 1901, 949,144. Thus in +the century between 1801 and 1901 it increased sixfold, while during the +same period London only increased fivefold. Out of the total population of +town and suburbs in 1901, 615,000 were Hindus, 286,000 Mahommedans and +38,000 Christians. + +_Climate and Health._--The climate of the city was originally very +unhealthy, but it has improved greatly of recent years with modern +sanitation and drainage. The climate is hot and damp, but has a pleasant +cold season from November to March. April, May and June are hot; and the +monsoon months from June to October are distinguished by damp heat and +malaria. The mean annual temperature is 79° F., with a range from 85° in +the hot season and 83° in the rains to 72° in the cool season, a mean +maximum of 102° in May and a mean minimum of 48° in January. Calcutta has +been comparatively fortunate in escaping the plague. The disease manifested +itself in a sporadic form in April 1898, but disappeared by September of +that year. Many of the Marwari traders fled the city, and some trouble was +experienced in shortage of labour in the factories and at the docks. The +plague returned in 1899 and caused a heavy mortality during the early +months of the following year; but the population was not demoralized, nor +was trade interfered with. A yet more serious outbreak occurred in the +early months of 1901, the number of deaths being 7884. For three following +years the totals were (1902-1903) 7284; (1903-1904) 8223; and (1904-1905) +4689; but these numbers compared very favourably with the condition of +Bombay at the same time. + +_History._--The history of Calcutta practically dates from the 24th of +August 1690, when it was founded by Job Charnock (_q.v._) of the English +East India Company. In 1596 it had obtained a brief entry as a rent-paying +village in the survey of Bengal executed by command of the emperor Akbar. +But it was not till ninety years later that it emerged into history. In +1686 the English merchants at Hugli under Charnock's leadership, finding +themselves compelled to quit their factory in consequence of a rupture with +the Mogul authorities, retreated about 26 m. down the river to Sutanati, a +village on the banks of the Hugli, now within the boundaries of Calcutta. +They occupied Sutanati temporarily in December 1686, again in November 1687 +and permanently on the 24th of August 1690. It was thus only at the third +attempt that Charnock was able to obtain the future capital of India for +his centre and the subsequent prosperity of Calcutta is due entirely to his +tenacity of purpose. The new settlement soon extended itself along the +river bank to the then village of Kalikata, and by degrees the cluster of +neighbouring hamlets grew into the present town. In 1696 the English built +the original Fort William by permission of the nawab, and in 1698 they +formally purchased the three villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindpur +from Prince Azim, son of the emperor Aurangzeb. + +The site thus chosen had an excellent anchorage and was defended by the +river from the Mahrattas, who harried the districts on the other side. The +fort, subsequently rebuilt on the Vauban principle, and a moat, designed to +form a semicircle [v.04 p.0983] round the town, and to be connected at both +ends with the river, but never completed, combined with the natural +position of Calcutta to render it one of the safest places for trade in +India during the expiring struggles of the Mogul empire. It grew up without +any fixed plan, and with little regard to the sanitary arrangements +required for a town. Some parts of it lay below high-water mark on the +Hugli, and its low level throughout rendered its drainage a most difficult +problem. Until far on in the 18th century the malarial jungle and paddy +fields closely hemmed in the European mansions; the vast plain (_maidán_), +now covered with gardens and promenades, was then a swamp during three +months of each year; the spacious quadrangle known as Wellington Square was +built upon a filthy creek. A legend relates how one-fourth of the European +inhabitants perished in twelve months, and during seventy years the +mortality was so great that the name of Calcutta, derived from the village +of Kalikata, was identified by mariners with Golgotha, the place of a +skull. + +The chief event in the history of Calcutta is the sack of the town, and the +capture of Fort William in 1756, by Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the nawab of Bengal. +The majority of the English officials took ship and fled to the mouth of +the Hugli river. The Europeans, under John Zephaniah Holwell, who remained +were compelled, after a short resistance, to surrender themselves to the +mercies of the young prince. The prisoners, numbering 146 persons, were +forced into the guard-room, a chamber measuring only 18 ft. by 14 ft. 10 +in., with but two small windows, where they were left for the night. It was +the 20th of June; the heat was intense; and next morning only 23 were taken +out alive, among them Holwell, who left an account of the awful sufferings +endured in the "Black Hole." The site of the Black Hole is now covered with +a black marble slab, and the incident is commemorated by a monument erected +by Lord Curzon in 1902. The Mahommedans retained possession of Calcutta for +about seven months, and during this brief period the name of the town was +changed in official documents to Alinagar. In January 1757 the expedition +despatched from Madras, under the command of Admiral Watson and Colonel +Clive, regained possession of the city. They found many of the houses of +the English residents demolished and others damaged by fire. The old church +of St John lay in ruins. The native portion of the town had also suffered +much. Everything of value had been swept away, except the merchandise of +the Company within the fort, which had been reserved for the nawab. The +battle of Plassey was fought on the 23rd of June 1757, exactly twelve +months after the capture of Calcutta. Mir Jafar, the nominee of the +English, was created nawab of Bengal, and by the treaty which raised him to +this position he agreed to make restitution to the Calcutta merchants for +their losses. The English received £500,000, the Hindus and Mahommedans +£200,000, and the Armenians £70,000. By another clause in this treaty the +Company was permitted to establish a mint, the visible sign in India of +territorial sovereignty, and the first coin, still bearing the name of the +Delhi emperor, was issued on the 19th of August 1757. The restitution money +was divided among the sufferers by a committee of the most respectable +inhabitants. Commerce rapidly revived and the ruined city was rebuilt. +Modern Calcutta dates from 1757. The old fort was abandoned, and its site +devoted to the custom-house and other government offices. A new fort, the +present Fort William, was begun by Clive a short distance lower down the +river, and is thus the second of that name. It was not finished till 1773, +and is said to have cost two millions sterling. At this time also the +_maidán_, the park of Calcutta, was formed; and the healthiness of its +position induced the European inhabitants gradually to shift their +dwellings eastward, and to occupy what is now the Chowringhee quarter. + +Up to 1707, when Calcutta was first declared a presidency, it had been +dependent upon the older English settlement at Madras. From 1707 to 1773 +the presidencies were maintained on a footing of equality; but in the +latter year the act of parliament was passed, which provided that the +presidency of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions +of the Company; that the chief of that presidency should be styled +governor-general; and that a supreme court of judicature should be +established at Calcutta. In the previous year, 1772, Warren Hastings had +taken under the immediate management of the Company's servants the general +administration of Bengal, which had hitherto been left in the hands of the +old Mahommedan officials, and had removed the treasury from Murshidabad to +Calcutta. The latter town thus became the capital of Bengal and the seat of +the supreme government in India. In 1834 the governor-general of Bengal was +created governor-general of India, and was permitted to appoint a +deputy-governor to manage the affairs of Lower Bengal during his occasional +absence. It was not until 1854 that a separate head was appointed for +Bengal, who, under the style of lieutenant-governor, exercises the same +powers in civil matters as those vested in the governors in council of +Madras or Bombay, although subject to closer supervision by the supreme +government. Calcutta is thus at present the seat both of the supreme and +the local government, each with an independent set of offices. (See +BENGAL.) + +See A.K. Ray, _A Short History of Calcutta_ (Indian Census, 1901); H.B. +Hyde, _Parochial Annals of Bengal_ (1901); K. Blechynden, _Calcutta, Past +and Present_ (1905); H.E. Busteed, _Echoes from Old Calcutta_ (1897); G.W. +Forrest, _Cities of India_ (1903); C.R. Wilson, _Early Annals of the +English in Bengal_ (1895); and _Old Fort William in Bengal_ (1906); +_Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), _s.v._ "Calcutta." + +CALDANI, LEOPOLDO MARCO ANTONIO (1725-1813), Italian anatomist and +physician, was born at Bologna in 1725. After studying under G.B. Morgagni +at Padua, he began to teach practical medicine at Bologna, but in +consequence of the intrigues of which he was the object he returned to +Padua, where in 1771 he succeeded Morgagni in the chair of anatomy. He +continued to lecture until 1805 and died at Padua in 1813. His works +include _Institutiones pathologicae_ (1772), _Institutiones physiologicae_ +(1773) and _Icones anatomicae_ (1801-1813). + +His brother, PETRONIO MARIA CALDANI (1735-1808), was professor of +mathematics at Bologna, and was described by J. le R. D'Alembert as the +"first geometer and algebraist of Italy." + +CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH (1846-1886), English artist and illustrator, was born +at Chester on the 22nd of March 1846. From 1861 to 1872 he was a bank +clerk, first at Whitchurch in Shropshire, afterwards at Manchester; but +devoted all his spare time to the cultivation of a remarkable artistic +faculty. In 1872 he migrated to London, became a student at the Slade +School and finally adopted the artist's profession. He gained immediately a +wide reputation as a prolific and original illustrator, gifted with a +genial, humorous faculty, and he succeeded also, though in less degree, as +a painter and sculptor. His health gave way in 1876, and after prolonged +suffering he died in Florida on the 12th of February 1886. His chief book +illustrations are as follows:--_Old Christmas_ (1876) and _Bracebridge +Hall_ (1877), both by Washington Irving; _North Italian Folk_ (1877), by +Mrs Comyns Carr; _The Harz Mountains_ (1883); _Breton Folk_ (1879), by +Henry Blackburn; picture-books (_John Gilpin, The House that Jack Built_, +and other children's favourites) from 1878 onwards; _Some Aesop's Fables +with Modern Instances, &c._ (1883). He held a roving commission for the +_Graphic_, and was an occasional contributor to _Punch_. He was a member of +the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-colours. + +See Henry Blackburn, _Randolph Caldecott, Personal Memoir of his Early +Life_ (London, 1886). + +CALDER, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1745-1818), British admiral, was born at Elgin, +in Scotland, on the 2nd of July 1745 (o.s.). He belonged to a very ancient +family of Morayshire, and was the second son of Sir Thomas Calder of +Muirton. He was educated at the grammar school of Elgin, and at the age of +fourteen entered the British navy as midshipman. In 1766 he was serving as +lieutenant of the "Essex," under Captain the Hon. George Faulkner, in the +West Indies. Promotion came slowly, and it was not till 1782 that he +attained the rank of post-captain. He acquitted himself honourably in the +various services to which he was called, but for a long time had no +opportunity [v.04 p.0984] of distinguishing himself. In 1796 he was named +captain of the fleet by Sir John Jervis, and took part in the great battle +off Cape St Vincent (February 14, 1797). He was selected as bearer of the +despatches announcing the victory, and on that occasion was knighted by +George III. He also received the thanks of parliament, and in the following +year was created a baronet. In 1799 he became rear-admiral; and in 1801 he +was despatched with a small squadron in pursuit of a French force, under +Admiral Gantheaume, conveying supplies to the French in Egypt. In this +pursuit he was not successful, and returning home at the peace he struck +his flag. When the war again broke out he was recalled to service, was +promoted vice-admiral in 1804, and was employed in the following year in +the blockade of the ports of Ferrol and Corunna, in which (amongst other +ports) ships were preparing for the invasion of England by Napoleon I. He +held his position with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy, and +refused to be enticed out to sea. On its becoming known that the first +movement directed by Napoleon was the raising of the blockade of Ferrol, +Rear-Admiral Stirling was ordered to join Sir R. Calder and cruise with him +to intercept the fleets of France and Spain on their passage to Brest. The +approach of the enemy was concealed by a fog; but on the 22nd of July 1805 +their fleet came in sight. It still outnumbered the British force; but Sir +Robert entered into action. After a combat of four hours, during which he +captured two Spanish ships, he gave orders to discontinue the action. He +offered battle again on the two following days, but the challenge was not +accepted. The French admiral Villeneuve, however, did not pursue his +voyage, but took refuge in Ferrol. In the judgment of Napoleon, his scheme +of invasion was baffled by this day's action; but much indignation was felt +in England at the failure of Calder to win a complete victory. In +consequence of the strong feeling against him at home he demanded a +court-martial. This was held on the 23rd of December, and resulted in a +severe reprimand of the vice-admiral for not having done his utmost to +renew the engagement, at the same time acquitting him of both cowardice and +disaffection. False expectations had been raised in England by the +mutilation of his despatches, and of this he indignantly complained in his +defence. The tide of feeling, however, turned again; and in 1815, by way of +public testimony to his services, and of acquittal of the charge made +against him, he was appointed commander of Portsmouth. He died at Holt, +near Bishop's Waltham, in Hampshire, on the 31st of August 1818. + +See _Naval Chronicle_, xvii.; James, _Naval History_, iii. 356-379 (1860). + +CALDER, an ancient district of Midlothian, Scotland. It has been divided +into the parishes of Mid-Calder (pop. in 1901 3132) and West-Calder (pop. +8092), East-Calder belonging to the parish of Kirknewton (pop. 3221). The +whole locality owes much of its commercial importance and prosperity to the +enormous development of the mineral oil industry. Coal-mining is also +extensively pursued, sandstone and limestone are worked, and paper-mills +flourish. Mid-Calder, a town on the Almond (pop. 703), has an ancient +church, and John Spottiswood (1510-1585), the Scottish reformer, was for +many years minister. His sons--John, archbishop of St Andrews, and James +(1567-1645), bishop of Clogher--were both born at Mid-Calder. West-Calder +is situated on Breich Water, an affluent of the Almond, 15 ½ m. S.W. of +Edinburgh by the Caledonian railway, and is the chief centre of the +district. Pop. (1901) 2652. At Addiewell, about 1 ½ m. S.W., the +manufacture of ammonia, naphtha, paraffin oil and candles is carried on, +the village practically dating from 1866, and having in 1901 a population +of 1591. The Highland and Agricultural Society have an experimental farm at +Pumpherston (pop. 1462). The district contains several tumuli, old ruined +castles and a Roman camp in fair preservation. + +CALDERÓN, RODRIGO (d. 1621), COUNT OF OLIVA AND MARQUES DE LAS SIETE +IGLESIAS, Spanish favourite and adventurer, was born at Antwerp. His +father, Francisco Calderón, a member of a family ennobled by Charles V., +was a captain in the army who became afterwards _comendador mayor_ of +Aragon, presumably by the help of his son. The mother was a Fleming, said +by Calderón to have been a lady by birth and called by him Maria Sandelin. +She is said by others to have been first the mistress and then the wife of +Francisco Calderón. Rodrigo is said to have been born out of wedlock. In +1598 he entered the service of the duke of Lerma as secretary. The +accession of Philip III. in that year made Lerma, who had unbounded +influence over the king, master of Spain. Calderón, who was active and +unscrupulous, made himself the trusted agent of Lerma. In the general +scramble for wealth among the worthless intriguers who governed in the name +of Philip III., Calderón was conspicuous for greed, audacity and insolence. +He was created count of Oliva, a knight of Santiago, commendador of Ocaña +in the order, secretary to the king (_secretario de cámara_), was loaded +with plunder, and made an advantageous marriage with Ines de Vargas. As an +insolent upstart he was peculiarly odious to the enemies of Lerma. Two +religious persons, Juan de Santa Mariá, a Franciscan, and Mariana de San +José, prioress of La Encarnacion, worked on the queen Margarita, by whose +influence Calderón was removed from the secretaryship in 1611. He, however, +retained the favour of Lerma, an indolent man to whom Calderón's activity +was indispensable. In 1612 he was sent on a special mission to Flanders, +and on his return was made marques de las Siete Iglesias in 1614. When the +queen Margarita died in that year in childbirth, Calderón was accused of +having used witchcraft against her. Soon after it became generally known +that he had ordered the murder of one Francisco de Juaras. When Lerma was +driven from court in 1618 by the intrigues of his own son, the duke of +Uceda, and the king's confessor, the Dominican Aliaga, Calderón was seized +upon as an expiatory victim to satisfy public clamour. He was arrested, +despoiled, and on the 7th of January 1620 was savagely tortured to make him +confess to the several charges of murder and witchcraft brought against +him. Calderón confessed to the murder of Juaras, saying that the man was a +pander, and adding that he gave the particular reason by word of mouth +since it was more fit to be spoken than written. He steadfastly denied all +the other charges of murder and the witchcraft. Some hope of pardon seems +to have remained in his mind till he heard the bells tolling for Philip +III. in March 1621. "He is dead, and I too am dead" was his resigned +comment. One of the first measures of the new reign was to order his +execution. Calderón met his fate firmly and with a show of piety on the +21st of October 1621, and this bearing, together with his broken and +prematurely aged appearance, turned public sentiment in his favour. The +magnificent devotion of his wife helped materially to placate the hatred he +had aroused. Lord Lytton made Rodrigo Calderón the hero of his story +_Calderon the Courtier_. + +See Modests de la Fuente, _Historia General España_ (Madrid, 1850-1867), +vol. xv. pp. 452 et seq.; Quevedo, _Obras_ (Madrid, 1794), vol. +x.--_Grandes Anales de Quince Dias_. A curious contemporary French pamphlet +on him, _Histoire admirable et declin pitoyable advenue en la personne +d'unfawory de la Cour d'Espagne,_ is reprinted by M.E. Fournier in +_Variétés historiques_ (Paris, 1855), vol. i. + +(D. H.) + +CALDERÓN DE LA BARCA, PEDRO (1600-1681), Spanish dramatist and poet, was +born at Madrid on the 17th of January 1600. His mother, who was of Flemish +descent, died in 1610; his father, who was secretary to the treasury, died +in 1615. Calderón was educated at the Jesuit College in Madrid with a view +to taking orders and accepting a family living; abandoning this project, he +studied law at Salamanca, and competed with success at the literary fêtes +held in honour of St Isaidore at Madrid (1620-1632). According to his +biographer, Vera Tassis, Calderón served with the Spanish army in Italy and +Flanders between 1625 and 1635; but this statement is contradicted by +numerous legal documents which prove that Calderón resided at Madrid during +these years. Early in 1629 his brother Diego was stabbed by an actor who +took sanctuary in the convent of the Trinitarian nuns; Calderón and his +friends broke into the cloister and attempted to seize the offender. This +violation was denounced by the fashionable preacher, Hortensio Félix +Paravicino (_q.v._), in a sermon preached before Philip IV.; [v.04 p.0985] +Calderón retorted by introducing into _El Príncipe constante_ a mocking +reference (afterwards cancelled) to Paravicino's gongoristic verbiage, and +was committed to prison. He was soon released, grew rapidly in reputation +as a playwright, and, on the death of Lope de Vega in 1635, was recognized +as the foremost Spanish dramatist of the age. A volume of his plays, edited +by his brother José in 1636, contains such celebrated and diverse +productions as _La Vida es sueño, El Purgatorío de San Patricia, La +Devoción de la cruz, La Dama duende_ and _Peor está que estaba_. In +1636-1637 he was made a knight of the order of Santiago by Philip IV., who +had already commissioned from him a series of spectacular plays for the +royal theatre in the Buen Retiro. Calderón was almost as popular with the +general public as Lope de Vega had been in his zenith; he was, moreover, in +high favour at court, but this royal patronage did not help to develop the +finer elements of his genius. On the 28th of May 1640 he joined a company +of mounted cuirassiers recently raised by Olivares, took part in the +Catalonian campaign, and distinguished himself by his gallantry at +Tarragona; his health failing, he retired from the army in November 1642, +and three years later was awarded a special military pension in recognition +of his services in the field. The history of his life during the next few +years is obscure. He appears to have been profoundly affected by the death +of his mistress--the mother of his son Pedro José--about the year +1648-1649; his long connexion with the theatre had led him into +temptations, but it had not diminished his instinctive spirit of devotion, +and he now sought consolation in religion. He became a tertiary of the +order of St Francis in 1650, and finally reverted to his original intention +of joining the priesthood. He was ordained in 1651, was presented to a +living in the parish of San Salvador at Madrid, and, according to his +statement made a year or two later, determined to give up writing for the +stage. He did not adhere to this resolution after his preferment to a +prebend at Toledo in 1653, though he confined himself as much as possible +to the composition of _autos sacramentales_--allegorical pieces in which +the mystery of the Eucharist was illustrated dramatically, and which were +performed with great pomp on the feast of Corpus Christi and during the +weeks immediately ensuing. In 1662 two of Calderón's _autos_--_Las órdenes +militares_ and _Místicay real Babilonia_--were the subjects of an inquiry +by the Inquisition; the former was censured, the manuscript copies were +confiscated, and the condemnation was not rescinded till 1671. Calderón was +appointed honorary chaplain to Philip IV, in 1663, and the royal favour was +continued to him in the next reign. In his eighty-first year he wrote his +last secular play, _Hado y Divisa de Leonido y Marfisa_, in honour of +Charles II.'s marriage to Marie-Louise de Bourbon. Notwithstanding his +position at court and his universal popularity throughout Spain, his +closing years seem to have been passed in poverty. He died on the 25th of +May 1681. + +Like most Spanish dramatists, Calderón wrote too much and too speedily, and +he was too often content to recast the productions of his predecessors. His +_Saber del mal y del bien_ is an adaptation of Lope de Vega's play, _Las +Mudanzas de la fortuna y sucesos de Don Beltran de Aragón_; his _Selva +confusa_ is also adapted from a play of Lope's which bears the same title; +his _Encanto sin encanto_ derives from Tirso de Molina's _Amar par señas_, +and, to take an extreme instance, the second act of his _Cabellos de +Absalón _is transferred almost bodily from the third act of Tirso's +_Venganza de Tamar_. It would be easy to add other examples of Calderón's +lax methods, but it is simple justice to point out that he committed no +offence against the prevailing code of literary morality. Many of his +contemporaries plagiarized with equal audacity, but with far less success. +Sometimes, as in _El Alcalde de Zalamea_, the bold procedure is completely +justified by the result; in this case by his individual treatment he +transforms one of Lope de Vega's rapid improvisations into a finished +masterpiece. It was not given to him to initiate a great dramatic movement; +he came at the end of a literary revolution, was compelled to accept the +conventions which Lope de Vega had imposed on the Spanish stage, and he +accepted them all the more readily since they were peculiarly suitable to +the display of his splendid and varied gifts. Not a master of observation +nor an expert in invention, he showed an unexampled skill in contriving +ingenious variants on existing themes; he had a keen dramatic sense, an +unrivalled dexterity in manipulating the mechanical resources of the stage, +and in addition to these minor indispensable talents he was endowed with a +lofty philosophic imagination and a wealth of poetic diction. Naturally, he +had the defects of his great qualities; his ingenuity is apt to degenerate +into futile embellishment; his employment of theatrical devices is the +subject of his own good-humoured satire in _No hay burlas con el amor_; his +philosophic intellect is more interested in theological mysteries than in +human passions; and the delicate beauty of his style is tinged with a +wilful preciosity. Excelling Lope de Vega at many points, Calderón falls +below his great predecessor in the delineation of character. Yet in almost +every department of dramatic art Calderón has obtained a series of +triumphs. In the symbolic drama he is best represented by _El Principe +constante_, by _El Mágico prodigioso_ (familiar to English readers in +Shelley's free translation), and by _La Vida es sueño_, perhaps the most +profound and original of his works. His tragedies are more remarkable for +their acting qualities than for their convincing truth, and the fact that +in _La Niña de Gomez Arias_ he interpolates an entire act borrowed from +Velez de Guevara's play of the same title seems to indicate that this kind +of composition awakened no great interest in him; but in _El Médico de sa +honra_ and _El Mayor monstruo los celos_ the theme of jealousy is handled +with sombre power, while _El Alcalde de Zalamea_ is one of the greatest +tragedies in Spanish literature. Calderón is seen to much less advantage in +the spectacular plays--_dramas de tramoya_--which he wrote at the command +of Philip IV.; the dramatist is subordinated to the stage-carpenter, but +the graceful fancy of the poet preserves even such a mediocre piece as _Los +Tres Mayores prodigies_ (which won him his knighthood) from complete +oblivion. A greater opportunity is afforded in the more animated _comedias +palaciegas_, or melodramatic pieces destined to be played before courtly +audiences in the royal palace: _La Banda y la flor_ and _El Galán fantasma_ +are charming illustrations of Calderón's genial conception and refined +artistry. His historical plays (_La Gran Cenobia, Las armas de la +hermosura_, &c.) are the weakest of all his formal dramatic productions; +_El Golfo de la sirenas_ and _La Púrpura de la rosa_ are typical +_zarzuelas_, to be judged by the standard of operatic libretti, and the +_entremeses_ are lacking in the lively humour which should characterize +these dramatic interludes. On the other hand, Calderón's faculty of +ingenious stagecraft is seen at its best in his "cloak-and-sword" plays +(_comedias de capa y espada_) which are invaluable pictures of contemporary +society. They are conventional, no doubt, in the sense that all +representations of a specially artificial society must be conventional; but +they are true to life, and are still as interesting as when they first +appeared. In this kind _No siempre lo peor es cierto, La Dama duende, Una +casa con dos puertas mala es de guardar_ and _Guárdate del agua mansa_ are +almost unsurpassed. But it is as a writer of _autos sacramentales_ that +Calderón defies rivalry: his intense devotion, his subtle intelligence, his +sublime lyrism all combine to produce such marvels of allegorical poetry as +_La Cena del rey Baltasar, La Viña del Senor_ and _La Serpiente de metal_. +The _autos_ lingered on in Spain till 1765, but they may be said to have +died with Calderón, for his successors merely imitated him with a tedious +fidelity. Almost alone among Spanish poets, Calderón had the good fortune +to be printed in a fairly correct and readable edition (1682-1691), thanks +to the enlightened zeal of his admirer, Juan de Vera Tassis y Villaroel, +and owing to this happy accident he came to be regarded generally as the +first of Spanish dramatists. The publication of the plays of Lope de Vega +and of Tirso de Molina has affected the critical estimate of Calderón's +work; he is seen to be inferior to Lope de Vega in creative power, and +inferior to Tirso de Molina in variety of conception. But, setting aside +the extravagances of his admirers, he is admittedly an exquisite poet, an +expert in the dramatic form, and a typical representative of the [v.04 +p.0986] devout, chivalrous, patriotic and artificial society in which he +moved. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Breymann, _Calderon-Studien_ (München and Berlin, 1905), +i. Teil, contains a fairly exhaustive list of editions, translations and +arrangements; _Autos sacramentales_ (Madrid, 1759-1760, 6 vols.), edited by +Juan Fernandez de Apontes; _Comedias_ (Madrid, 1848-1850, 4 vols.), edited +by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbuch; Max Krenkel, _Klassische Buhnendichtungen der +Spanier_, containing _La Vida es sueño, El mágico prodigioso_ and _El +Alcalde de Zalamca_ (Leipzig, 1881-1887, 3 vols.); _Teatro selecto_ +(Madrid, 1884, 4 vols.), edited by M. Menéndez y Pelayo; _El Mágico +prodigioso_ (Heilbronn, 1877), edited by Alfred Morel-Fatio; _Select Plays +of Calderón_ (London, 1888), edited by Norman MacColl; F.W.V. Schmidt, _Die +Schauspiele Calderon's_ (Elberfeld, 1857); E. Günthner, _Calderon und seine +Werke_ (Freiburg i. B., 1888, 2 vols.); Felipe Picatoste y Rodriguez, +_Biografia de Don Pedro Calderón de la Barca_ in _Homenage á Calderón_ +(Madrid, 1881); Antonio Sánchez Moguel, _Memoria acerca de "El Mágico +prodigioso"_ (Madrid, 1881); M. Menéndez y Pelayo, _Calderón y su teatro_ +(Madrid, 1881); Ernest Martinenche, _La Comedia espagnole en France de +Hardy á Racine_ (Paris, 1900). + +(J. F.-K.) + +CALDERWOOD, DAVID (1575-1650), Scottish divine and historian, was born in +1575. He was educated at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.A. in +1593. About 1604 he became minister of Crailing, near Jedburgh, where he +became conspicuous for his resolute opposition to the introduction of +Episcopacy. In 1617, while James was in Scotland, a Remonstrance, which had +been drawn up by the Presbyterian clergy, was placed in Calderwood's hands. +He was summoned to St Andrews and examined before the king, but neither +threats nor promises could make him deliver up the roll of signatures to +the Remonstrance. He was deprived of his charge, committed to prison at St +Andrews and afterwards removed to Edinburgh. The privy council ordered him +to be banished from the kingdom for refusing to acknowledge the sentence of +the High Commission. He lingered in Scotland, publishing a few tracts, till +the 27th of August 1619, when he sailed for Holland. During his residence +in Holland he published his _Altare Damascenum_. Calderwood appears to have +returned to Scotland in 1624, and he was soon afterwards appointed minister +of Pencaitland, in the county of Haddington. He continued to take an active +part in the affairs of the church, and introduced in 1649 the practice, now +confirmed by long usage, of dissenting from the decision of the Assembly, +and requiring the protest to be entered in the record. His last years were +devoted to the preparation of a _History of the Church of Scotland_. In +1648 the General Assembly urged him to complete the work he had designed, +and voted him a yearly pension of £800. He left behind him a historical +work of great extent and of great value as a storehouse of authentic +materials for history. An abridgment, which appears to have been prepared +by himself, was published after his death. An excellent edition of the +complete work was published by the Wodrow Society, 8 vols., 1842-1849. The +manuscript, which belonged to General Calderwood Durham, was presented to +the British Museum. Calderwood died at Jedburgh on the 29th of October +1650. + +CALDERWOOD, HENRY (1830-1897), Scottish philosopher and divine, was born at +Peebles on the 10th of May 1830. He was educated at the Royal High school, +and later at the university of Edinburgh. He studied for the ministry of +the United Presbyterian Church, and in 1856 was ordained pastor of the +Greyfriars church, Glasgow. He also examined in mental philosophy for the +university of Glasgow from 1861 to 1864, and from 1866 conducted the moral +philosophy classes at that university, until in 1868 he became professor of +moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He was made LL.D. of Glasgow in 1865. He +died on the 19th of November 1897. His first and most famous work was _The +Philosophy of the Infinite_ (1854), in which he attacked the statement of +Sir William Hamilton that we can have no knowledge of the Infinite. +Calderwood maintained that such knowledge, though imperfect, is real and +ever-increasing; that Faith implies Knowledge. His moral philosophy is in +direct antagonism to Hegelian doctrine, and endeavours to substantiate the +doctrine of divine sanction. Beside the data of experience, the mind has +pure activity of its own whereby it apprehends the fundamental realities of +life and combat. He wrote in addition _A Handbook of Moral Philosophy, On +the Relations of Mind and Brain, Science and Religion, The Evolution of +Man's Place in Nature_. Among his religious works the best-known is his +_Parables of Our Lord_, and just before his death he finished a _Life of +David Hume_ in the "Famous Scots" series. His interests were not confined +to religious and intellectual matters; as the first chairman of the +Edinburgh school board, he worked hard to bring the Education Act into +working order. He published a well-known treatise on education. In the +cause of philanthropy and temperance he was indefatigable. In politics he +was at first a Liberal, but became a Liberal Unionist at the time of the +Home Rule Bill. + +A biography of Calderwood was published in 1900 by his son W.C. Calderwood +and the Rev. David Woodside, with a special chapter on his philosophy by +Professor A.S. Pringle-Pattison. + +CALEB (Heb. _keleb_, "dog"), in the Bible, one of the spies sent by Moses +from Kadesh in South Palestine to spy out the land of Canaan. For his +courage and confidence he alone was rewarded by the promise that he and his +seed should obtain a possession in it (Num. xiii. seq.). The later +tradition includes Joshua, the hero of the conquest of the land. +Subsequently Caleb settled in Kirjath-Arba (Hebron), but the account of the +occupation is variously recorded. Thus (_a_) Caleb by himself drove out the +Anakites, giants of Hebron, and promised to give his daughter Achsah to the +hero who could take Kirjath-Sepher (Debir). This was accomplished by +Othniel, the brother of Caleb (Josh. xv. 14-19). Both are "sons" of Kenaz, +and Kenaz is an Edomite clan (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 42). Elsewhere (_b_) +Caleb the Kenizzite reminds Joshua of the promise at Kadesh; he asks that +he may have the "mountain whereof Yahweh spake," and hopes to drive out the +giants from its midst. Joshua blesses him and thus Hebron becomes the +inheritance of Caleb (Josh. xiv. 6-15). Further (_c_) the capture of Hebron +and Debir is ascribed to Judah who gives them to Caleb (Judg. i. 10 seq. +20); and finally (_d_) these cities are taken by Joshua himself in the +course of a great and successful campaign against South Canaan (Josh. x. +36-39). Primarily the clan Caleb was settled in the south of Judah but +formed an independent unit (i Sam. xxv., xxx. 14). Its seat was at Carmel, +and Abigail, the wife of the Calebite Nabal, was taken by David after her +husband's death. Not until later are the small divisions of the south +united under the name Judah, and this result is reflected in the +genealogies where the brothers Caleb and Jerahmeel are called "sons of +Hezron" (the name typifies nomadic life) and become descendants of JUDAH. + +Similarly in Num. xiii. 6, xxxiv. 19 (post-exilic), Caleb becomes the +representative of the tribe of Judah, and also in _c_ (above) Caleb's +enterprise was later regarded as the work of the tribe with which it became +incorporated, _b_ and _d_ are explained in accordance with the aim of the +book to ascribe to the initiation or the achievements of one man the +conquest of the whole of Canaan (see JOSHUA). The mount or hill-country in +_b_ appears to be that which the Israelites unsuccessfully attempted to +take (Num. xiv. 41-45), but according to another old fragment Hormah was +the scene of a victory (Num. xxi. 1-3), and it seems probable that Caleb, +at least, was supposed to have pushed his way northward to Hebron. (See +JERAHMEEL, KENITES, SIMEON.) + +The genealogical lists place the earliest seats of Caleb in the south of +Judah (1 Chron. ii. 42 sqq.; Hebron, Maon, &c.). Another list numbers the +more northerly towns of Kirjath-jearim, Bethlehem, &c., and adds the +"families of the scribes," and the Kenites (ii. 50 seq.). This second move +is characteristically expressed by the statements that Caleb's first wife +was Azubah ("abandoned," desert region)--Jerioth ("tent curtains") appears +to have been another--and that after the death of Hezron he united with +Ephrath (p. 24 Bethlehem). On the details in 1 Chron. ii., iv., see +further, J. Wellhausen, _De Gent. et Famil. Judaeorum_ (1869); S. Cook, +_Critical Notes on O.T. History, Index_, s.v.; E. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. +400 sqq.; and the commentaries on Chronicles (_q.v._). + +(S. A. C.) + +CALEDON (1) a town of the Cape Province, 81 m. by rail E.S.E. of Cape Town. +Pop. (1904) 3508. The town is 15 m. N. of the sea at Walker Bay and is +built on a spur of the Zwartberg, 800 ft. high. The streets are lined with +blue gums and oaks. From the early day of Dutch settlement at the Cape +Caledon has been noted for the curative value of its mineral springs, which +yield 150,000 gallons daily. There are seven springs, six with a natural +temperature of 120° F., the seventh [v.04 p.0987] being cold. The district +is rich in flowering heaths and everlasting flowers. The name Caledon was +given to the town and district in honour of the 2nd earl of Caledon, +governor of the Cape 1807-1811. (2) A river of South Africa, tributary to +the Orange (_q.v._), also named after Lord Caledon. + +CALEDONIA, the Roman name of North Britain, still used especially in poetry +for Scotland. It occurs first in the poet Lucan (A.D. 64), and then often +in Roman literature. There were (1) a district Caledonia, of which the +southern border must have been on or near the isthmus between the Clyde and +the Forth, (2) a Caledonian Forest (possibly in Perthshire), and (3) a +tribe of Caledones or Calidones, named by the geographer Ptolemy as living +within boundaries which are now unascertainable. The Romans first invaded +Caledonia under Agricola (about A.D. 83). They then fortified the Forth and +Clyde Isthmus with a line of forts, two of which, those at Camelon and +Barhill, have been identified and excavated, penetrated into Perthshire, +and fought the decisive battle of the war (according to Tacitus) on the +slopes of Mons Graupius.[1] The site--quite as hotly contested among +antiquaries as between Roman and Caledonian--may have been near the Roman +encampment of Inchtuthill (in the policies of Delvine, 10 m. N. of Perth +near the union of Tay and Isla), which is the most northerly of the +ascertained Roman encampments in Scotland and seems to belong to the age of +Agricola. Tacitus represents the result as a victory. The home government, +whether averse to expensive conquests of barren hills, or afraid of a +victorious general, abruptly recalled Agricola, and his northern +conquests--all beyond the Tweed, if not all beyond Cheviot--were abandoned. +The next advance followed more than fifty years later. About A.D. 140 the +district up to the Firth of Forth was definitely annexed, and a rampart +with forts along it, the Wall of Antoninus Pius, was drawn from sea to sea +(see BRITAIN: _Roman_; and GRAHAM'S DYKE). At the same time the Roman forts +at Ardoch, north of Dunblane, Carpow near Abernethy, and perhaps one or two +more, were occupied. But the conquest was stubbornly disputed, and after +several risings, the land north of Cheviot seems to have been lost about +A.D. 180-185. About A.D. 208 the emperor Septimius Severus carried out an +extensive punitive expedition against the northern tribes, but while it is +doubtful how far he penetrated, it is certain that after his death the +Roman writ never again ran north of Cheviot. Rome is said, indeed, to have +recovered the whole land up to the Wall of Pius in A.D. 368 and to have +established there a province, Valentia. A province with that name was +certainly organized somewhere. But its site and extent is quite uncertain +and its duration was exceedingly brief. Throughout, Scotland remained +substantially untouched by Roman influences, and its Celtic art, though +perhaps influenced by Irish, remained free from Mediterranean infusion. +Even in the south of Scotland, where Rome ruled for half a century (A.D. +142-180), the occupation was military and produced no civilizing effects. +Of the actual condition of the land during the period of Roman rule in +Britain, we have yet to learn the details by excavation. The curious +carvings and ramparts, at Burghead on the coast of Elgin, and the +underground stone houses locally called "wheems," in which Roman fragments +have been found, may represent the native forms of dwelling, &c., and some +of the "Late Celtic" metal-work may belong to this age. But of the +political divisions, the boundaries and capitals of the tribes, and the +like, we know nothing. Ptolemy gives a list of tribe and place-names. But +hardly one can be identified with any approach to certainty, except in the +extreme south. Nor has any certainty been reached about the ethnological +problems of the population, the Aryan or non-Aryan character of the Picts +and the like. That the Caledonians, like the later Scots, sometimes sought +their fortunes in the south, is proved by a curious tablet of about A.D. +220, found at Colchester, dedicated to an unknown equivalent of Mars, +Medocius, by one "Lossio Veda, nepos [ = kin of] Vepogeni, Caledo." The +name Caledonia is said to survive in the second syllable of Dunkeld and in +the mountain name Schiehallion (Sith-chaillinn). + +AUTHORITIES.--Tacitus, _Agricola_; Hist. Augusta, _Vita Severi_; Dio +lxxvi.; F. Haverfield, _The Antonine Wail Report_ (Glasgow, 1899), pp. +154-168; J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (ed. 3). On Burghead, see H.W. Young, +_Proc. of Scottish Antiq._ xxv., xxvii.; J. Macdonald, _Trans. Glasgow +Arch. Society_. The Roman remains of Scotland are described in Rob. +Stuart's _Caled. Romana_ (Edinburgh, 1852), the volumes of the Scottish +Antiq. Society, the _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vol. vii., and +elsewhere. + +(F. J. H.) + +[1] This, not Grampius, is the proper spelling, though Grampius was at one +time commonly accepted and indeed gave rise to the modern name Grampian. + +CALEDONIAN CANAL. The chain of fresh-water lakes--Lochs Ness, Oich and +Lochy--which stretch along the line of the Great Glen of Scotland in a S.W. +direction from Inverness early suggested the idea of connecting the east +and west coasts of Scotland by a canal which would save ships about 400 m. +of coasting voyage round the north of Great Britain through the stormy +Pentland Firth. In 1773 James Watt was employed by the government to make a +survey for such a canal, which again was the subject of an official report +by Thomas Telford in 1801. In 1803 an act of parliament was passed +authorizing the construction of the canal, which was begun forthwith under +Telford's direction, and traffic was started in 1822. From the northern +entrance on Beauly Firth to the southern, near Fort William, the total +length is about 60 m., that of the artificial portion being about 22 m. The +number of locks is 28, and their standard dimensions are:--length 160 ft, +breadth 38 ft., water-depth 15 ft. Their lift is in general about 8 ft., +but some of them are for regulating purposes only. A flight of 8 at +Corpach, with a total lift of 64 ft., is known as "Neptune's Staircase." +The navigation is vested in and managed by the commissioners of the +Caledonian Canal, of whom the speaker of the House of Commons is _ex +officio_ chairman. Usually the income is between £7000 and £8000 annually, +and exceeds the expenditure by a few hundred pounds; but the commissioners +are not entitled to make a profit, and the credit balances, though +sometimes allowed to accumulate, must be expended on renewals and +improvements of the canal. They have not, however, always proved sufficient +for their purposes, and parliament is occasionally called upon to make +special grants. In the commissioners is also vested the Crinan Canal, which +extends from Ardrishaig on Loch Gilp to Crinan on Loch Crinan. This canal +was made by a company incorporated by act of parliament in 1793, and was +opened for traffic in 1801. At various times it received grants of public +money, and ultimately in respect of these it passed into the hands of the +government. In 1848 it was vested by parliament in the commissioners of the +Caledonian Canal (who had in fact administered it for many years +previously); the act contained a proviso that the company might take back +the undertaking on repayment of the debt within 20 years, but the power was +not exercised. The length of the canal is 9 m., and it saves vessels +sailing from the Clyde a distance of about 85 m. as compared with the +alternative route round the Mull of Kintyre. Its highest reach is 64 ft. +above sea level, and its locks, 15 in number, are 96 ft. long, by 24 ft. +wide, the depth of water being such as to admit vessels up to a draught of +9 ½ ft. The revenue is over £6000 a year, and there is usually a small +credit balance which, as with the Caledonian Canal, must be applied to the +purposes of the undertaking. + +CALENBERG, or KALENBERG, the name of a district, including the town of +Hanover, which was formerly part of the duchy of Brunswick. It received its +name from a castle near Schulenburg, and is traversed by the rivers Weser +and Leine, its area being about 1050 sq. m. The district was given to +various cadets of the ruling house of Brunswick, one of these being Ernest +Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover, and the ancestor of the Hanoverian +kings of Great Britain and Ireland. + +CALENDAR, so called from the Roman Calends or Kalends, a method of +distributing time into certain periods adapted to the purposes of civil +life, as hours, days, weeks, months, years, &c. + +Of all the periods marked out by the motions of the celestial bodies, the +most conspicuous, and the most intimately connected with the affairs of +mankind, are the _solar day_, which is [v.04 p.0988] distinguished by the +diurnal revolution of the earth and the alternation of light and darkness, +and the _solar year_, which completes the circle of the seasons. But in the +early ages of the world, when mankind were chiefly engaged in rural +occupations, the phases of the moon must have been objects of great +attention and interest,--hence the _month_, and the practice adopted by +many nations of reckoning time by the motions of the moon, as well as the +still more general practice of combining lunar with solar periods. The +solar day, the solar year, and the lunar month, or lunation, may therefore +be called the _natural_ divisions of time. All others, as the hour, the +week, and the civil month, though of the most ancient and general use, are +only arbitrary and conventional. + +_Day._--The subdivision of the day (_q.v._) into twenty-four parts, or +hours, has prevailed since the remotest ages, though different nations have +not agreed either with respect to the epoch of its commencement or the +manner of distributing the hours. Europeans in general, like the ancient +Egyptians, place the commencement of the civil day at midnight, and reckon +twelve morning hours from midnight to midday, and twelve evening hours from +midday to midnight. Astronomers, after the example of Ptolemy, regard the +day as commencing with the sun's culmination, or noon, and find it most +convenient for the purposes of computation to reckon through the whole +twenty-four hours. Hipparchus reckoned the twenty-four hours from midnight +to midnight. Some nations, as the ancient Chaldeans and the modern Greeks, +have chosen sunrise for the commencement of the day; others, again, as the +Italians and Bohemians, suppose it to commence at sunset. In all these +cases the beginning of the day varies with the seasons at all places not +under the equator. In the early ages of Rome, and even down to the middle +of the 5th century after the foundation of the city, no other divisions of +the day were known than sunrise, sunset, and midday, which was marked by +the arrival of the sun between the Rostra and a place called Graecostasis, +where ambassadors from Greece and other countries used to stand. The Greeks +divided the natural day and night into twelve equal parts each, and the +hours thus formed were denominated _temporary hours_, from their varying in +length according to the seasons of the year. The hours of the day and night +were of course only equal at the time of the equinoxes. The whole period of +day and night they called [Greek: nuchthêmeron]. + +_Week._--The week is a period of seven days, having no reference whatever +to the celestial motions,--a circumstance to which it owes its unalterable +uniformity. Although it did not enter into the calendar of the Greeks, and +was not introduced at Rome till after the reign of Theodosius, it has been +employed from time immemorial in almost all eastern countries; and as it +forms neither an aliquot part of the year nor of the lunar month, those who +reject the Mosaic recital will be at a loss, as Delambre remarks, to assign +it to an origin having much semblance of probability. It might have been +suggested by the phases of the moon, or by the number of the planets known +in ancient times, an origin which is rendered more probable from the names +universally given to the different days of which it is composed. In the +Egyptian astronomy, the order of the planets, beginning with the most +remote, is Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, the Moon. Now, +the day being divided into twenty-four hours, each hour was consecrated to +a particular planet, namely, one to Saturn, the following to Jupiter, the +third to Mars, and so on according to the above order; and the day received +the name of the planet which presided over its first hour. If, then, the +first hour of a day was consecrated to Saturn, that planet would also have +the 8th, the 15th, and the 22nd hour; the 23rd would fall to Jupiter, the +24th to Mars, and the 25th, or the first hour of the second day, would +belong to the Sun. In like manner the first hour of the 3rd day would fall +to the Moon, the first of the 4th day to Mars, of the 5th to Mercury, of +the 6th to Jupiter, and of the 7th to Venus. The cycle being completed, the +first hour of the 8th day would return to Saturn, and all the others +succeed in the same order. According to Dio Cassius, the Egyptian week +commenced with Saturday. On their flight from Egypt, the Jews, from hatred +to their ancient oppressors, made Saturday the last day of the week. + +The English names of the days are derived from the Saxon. The ancient +Saxons had borrowed the week from some Eastern nation, and substituted the +names of their own divinities for those of the gods of Greece. In +legislative and justiciary acts the Latin names are still retained. + + Latin. English. Saxon. + Dies Solis. Sunday. Sun's day. + Dies Lunae. Monday. Moon's day. + Dies Martis. Tuesday. Tiw's day. + Dies Mercurii. Wednesday. Woden's day. + Dies Jovis. Thursday. Thor's day. + Dies Veneris. Friday. Frigg's day. + Dies Saturni. Saturday. Seterne's day. + +_Month._--Long before the exact length of the year was determined, it must +have been perceived that the synodic revolution of the moon is accomplished +in about 29½ days. Twelve lunations, therefore, form a period of 354 days, +which differs only by about 11¼ days from the solar year. From this +circumstance has arisen the practice, perhaps universal, of dividing the +year into twelve _months_. But in the course of a few years the accumulated +difference between the solar year and twelve lunar months would become +considerable, and have the effect of transporting the commencement of the +year to a different season. The difficulties that arose in attempting to +avoid this inconvenience induced some nations to abandon the moon +altogether, and regulate their year by the course of the sun. The month, +however, being a convenient period of time, has retained its place in the +calendars of all nations; but, instead of denoting a synodic revolution of +the moon, it is usually employed to denote an arbitrary number of days +approaching to the twelfth part of a solar year. + +Among the ancient Egyptians the month consisted of thirty days invariably; +and in order to complete the year, five days were added at the end, called +supplementary days. They made use of no intercalation, and by losing a +fourth of a day every year, the commencement of the year went back one day +in every period of four years, and consequently made a revolution of the +seasons in 1461 years. Hence 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460 Julian +years of 365¼ days each. This year is called _vague_, by reason of its +commencing sometimes at one season of the year, and sometimes at another. + +The Greeks divided the month into three decades, or periods of ten days,--a +practice which was imitated by the French in their unsuccessful attempt to +introduce a new calendar at the period of the Revolution. This division +offers two advantages: the first is, that the period is an exact measure of +the month of thirty days; and the second is, that the number of the day of +the decade is connected with and suggests the number of the day of the +month. For example, the 5th of the decade must necessarily be the 5th, the +15th, or the 25th of the month; so that when the day of the decade is +known, that of the month can scarcely be mistaken. In reckoning by weeks, +it is necessary to keep in mind the day of the week on which each month +begins. + +The Romans employed a division of the month and a method of reckoning the +days which appear not a little extraordinary, and must, in practice, have +been exceedingly inconvenient. As frequent allusion is made by classical +writers to this embarrassing method of computation, which is carefully +retained in the ecclesiastical calendar, we here give a table showing the +correspondence of the Roman months with those of modern Europe. + +Instead of distinguishing the days by the ordinal numbers first, second, +third, &c., the Romans counted _backwards_ from three fixed epochs, namely, +the _Calends_, the _Nones_ and the _Ides_. The Calends (or Kalends) were +invariably the first day of the month, and were so denominated because it +had been an ancient custom of the pontiffs to call the people together on +that day, to apprize them of the festivals, or days that were to be kept +sacred during the month. The Ides (from an obsolete verb _iduare_, to +divide) were at the middle of the month, either the 13th or the 15th day; +and the Nones were the _ninth_ day before the [v.04 p.0989] Ides, counting +inclusively. From these three terms the days received their denomination in +the following manner:--Those which were comprised between the Calends and +the Nones were called _the days before the Nones_; those between the Nones +and the Ides were called _the days before the Ides_; and, lastly, all the +days after the Ides to the end of the month were called _the days before +the Calends_ of the succeeding month. In the months of March, May, July and +October, the Ides fell on the 15th day, and the Nones consequently on the +7th; so that each of these months had six days named from the Nones. In all +the other months the Ides were on the 13th and the Nones on the 5th; +consequently there were only four days named from the Nones. Every month +had eight days named from the Ides. The number of days receiving their +denomination from the Calends depended on the number of days in the month +and the day on which the Ides fell. For example, if the month contained 31 +days and the Ides fell on the 13th, as was the case in January, August and +December, there would remain 18 days after the Ides, which, added to the +first of the following month, made 19 days of Calends. In January, +therefore, the 14th day of the month was called the _nineteenth before the +Calends of February_ (counting inclusively), the 15th was the 18th before +the Calends and so on to the 30th, which was called the third before the +Calend (_tertio Calendas_), the last being the second of the Calends, or +the day before the Calends (_pridie Calendas_). + + +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | March. | | April. | | + |Days of| May. | January. | June. | | + | the | July. | August. | September. | February. | + | Month.| October. | December. | November. | | + +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | 1 | Calendae. | Calendae. | Calendae. | Calendae. | + | 2 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | + | 4 | 4 |Prid. Nonas.|Prid. Nonas.|Prid. Nonas.| + | 5 | 3 | Nonae. | Nonae. | Nonae. | + | 6 |Prid. Nonas.| 8 | 8 | 8 | + | 7 | Nonae. | 7 | 7 | 7 | + | 8 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 6 | + | 9 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | + | 10 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | Prid. Idus.| Prid. Idus.| Prid. Idus.| + | 13 | 3 | Idus. | Idus. | Idus. | + | 14 | Prid. Idus.| 19 | 18 | 16 | + | 15 | Idus. | 18 | 17 | 15 | + | 16 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 14 | + | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 13 | + | 18 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 12 | + | 19 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 11 | + | 20 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 10 | + | 21 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 9 | + | 22 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 8 | + | 23 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 7 | + | 24 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | + | 25 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 5 | + | 26 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 4 | + | 27 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 3 | + | 28 | 5 | 5 | 4 |Prid. Calen.| + | 29 | 4 | 4 | 3 | Mart. | + | 30 | 3 | 3 |Prid. Calen.| | + | 31 |Prid. Calen.|Prid. Calen.| | | + +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +YEAR.--The year is either astronomical or civil. The solar astronomical +year is the period of time in which the earth performs a revolution in its +orbit about the sun, or passes from any point of the ecliptic to the same +point again; and consists of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. and 46 sec. of mean +solar time. The civil year is that which is employed in chronology, and +varies among different nations, both in respect of the season at which it +commences and of its subdivisions. When regard is had to the sun's motion +alone, the regulation of the year, and the distribution of the days into +months, may be effected without much trouble; but the difficulty is greatly +increased when it is sought to reconcile solar and lunar periods, or to +make the subdivisions of the year depend on the moon, and at the same time +to preserve the correspondence between the whole year and the seasons. + +_Of the Solar Year._--In the arrangement of the civil year, two objects are +sought to be accomplished,--first, the equable distribution of the days +among twelve months; and secondly, the preservation of the beginning of the +year at the same distance from the solstices or equinoxes. Now, as the year +consists of 365 days and a fraction, and 365 is a number not divisible by +12, it is impossible that the months can all be of the same length and at +the same time include all the days of the year. By reason also of the +fractional excess of the length of the year above 365 days, it likewise +happens that the years cannot all contain the same number of days if the +epoch of their commencement remains fixed; for the day and the civil year +must necessarily be considered as beginning at the same instant; and +therefore the extra hours cannot be included in the year till they have +accumulated to a whole day. As soon as this has taken place, an additional +day must be given to the year. + +The civil calendar of all European countries has been borrowed from that of +the Romans. Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten months only, +including in all 304 days, and it is not very well known how the remaining +days were disposed of. The ancient Roman year commenced with March, as is +indicated by the names September, October, November, December, which the +last four months still retain. July and August, likewise, were anciently +denominated Quintilis and Sextilis, their present appellations having been +bestowed in compliment to Julius Caesar and Augustus. In the reign of Numa +two months were added to the year, January at the beginning and February at +the end; and this arrangement continued till the year 452 B.C., when the +Decemvirs changed the order of the months, and placed February after +January. The months now consisted of twenty-nine and thirty days +alternately, to correspond with the synodic revolution of the moon, so that +the year contained 354 days; but a day was added to make the number odd, +which was considered more fortunate, and the year therefore consisted of +355 days. This differed from the solar year by ten whole days and a +fraction; but, to restore the coincidence, Numa ordered an additional or +intercalary month to be inserted every second year between the 23rd and +24th of February, consisting of twenty-two and twenty-three days +alternately, so that four years contained 1465 days, and the mean length of +the year was consequently 366¼ days. The additional month was called +_Mercedinus_ or _Mercedonius_, from _merces_, wages, probably because the +wages of workmen and domestics were usually paid at this season of the +year. According to the above arrangement, the year was too long by one day, +which rendered another correction necessary. As the error amounted to +twenty-four days in as many years, it was ordered that every third period +of eight years, instead of containing four intercalary months, amounting in +all to ninety days, should contain only three of those months, consisting +of twenty-two days each. The mean length of the year was thus reduced to +365¼ days; but it is not certain at what time the octennial periods, +borrowed from the Greeks, were introduced into the Roman calendar, or +whether they were at any time strictly followed. It does not even appear +that the length of the intercalary month was regulated by any certain +principle, for a discretionary power was left with the pontiffs, to whom +the care of the calendar was committed, to intercalate more or fewer days +according as the year was found to differ more or less from the celestial +motions. This power was quickly abused to serve political objects, and the +calendar consequently thrown into confusion. By giving a greater or less +number of days to the intercalary month, the pontiffs were enabled to +prolong the term of a magistracy or hasten the annual elections; and so +little care had been taken to regulate the year, that, at the time of +Julius Caesar, the civil equinox differed from the astronomical by three +months, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn and the +autumnal into summer. + +In order to put an end to the disorders arising from the negligence or +ignorance of the pontiffs, Caesar abolished the use of the lunar year and +the intercalary month, and regulated the civil year entirely by the sun. +With the advice and assistance of Sosigenes, he fixed the mean length of +the year at 365¼ days, and decreed that every fourth year should have 366 +days, the [v.04 p.0990] other years having each 365. In order to restore +the vernal equinox to the 25th of March, the place it occupied in the time +of Numa, he ordered two extraordinary months to be inserted between +November and December in the current year, the first to consist of +thirty-three, and the second of thirty-four days. The intercalary month of +twenty-three days fell into the year of course, so that the ancient year of +355 days received an augmentation of ninety days; and the year on that +occasion contained in all 445 days. This was called the last year of +confusion. The first Julian year commenced with the 1st of January of the +46th before the birth of Christ, and the 708th from the foundation of the +city. + +In the distribution of the days through the several months, Caesar adopted +a simpler and more commodious arrangement than that which has since +prevailed. He had ordered that the first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth and +eleventh months, that is January, March, May, July, September and November, +should have each thirty-one days, and the other months thirty, excepting +February, which in common years should have only twenty-nine, but every +fourth year thirty days. This order was interrupted to gratify the vanity +of Augustus, by giving the month bearing his name as many days as July, +which was named after the first Caesar. A day was accordingly taken from +February and given to August; and in order that three months of thirty-one +days might not come together, September and November were reduced to thirty +days, and thirty-one given to October and December. For so frivolous a +reason was the regulation of Caesar abandoned, and a capricious arrangement +introduced, which it requires some attention to remember. + +The additional day which occured every fourth year was given to February, +as being the shortest month, and was inserted in the calendar between the +24th and 25th day. February having then twenty-nine days, the 25th was the +6th of the calends of March, _sexto calendas_; the preceding, which was the +additional or intercalary day, was called _bis-sexto calendas_,--hence the +term _bissextile_, which is still employed to distinguish the year of 366 +days. The English denomination of _leap-year_ would have been more +appropriate if that year had differed from common years in _defect_, and +contained only 364 days. In the modern calendar the intercalary day is +still added to February, not, however, between the 24th and 25th, but as +the 29th. + +The regulations of Caesar were not at first sufficiently understood; and +the pontiffs, by intercalating every third year instead of every fourth, at +the end of thirty-six years had intercalated twelve times, instead of nine. +This mistake having been discovered, Augustus ordered that all the years +from the thirty-seventh of the era to the forty-eighth inclusive should be +common years, by which means the intercalations were reduced to the proper +number of twelve in forty-eight years. No account is taken of this blunder +in chronology; and it is tacitly supposed that the calendar has been +correctly followed from its commencement. + +Although the Julian method of intercalation is perhaps the most convenient +that could be adopted, yet, as it supposes the year too long by 11 minutes +14 seconds, it could not without correction very long answer the purpose +for which it was devised, namely, that of preserving always the same +interval of time between the commencement of the year and the equinox. +Sosigenes could scarcely fail to know that this year was too long; for it +had been shown long before, by the observations of Hipparchus, that the +excess of 365¼ days above a true solar year would amount to a day in 300 +years. The real error is indeed more than double of this, and amounts to a +day in 128 years; but in the time of Caesar the length of the year was an +astronomical element not very well determined. In the course of a few +centuries, however, the equinox sensibly retrograded towards the beginning +of the year. When the Julian calendar was introduced, the equinox fell on +the 25th of March. At the time of the council of Nice, which was held in +325, it fell on the 21st; and when the reformation of the calendar was made +in 1582, it had retrograded to the 11th. In order to restore the equinox to +its former place, Pope Gregory XIII. directed ten days to be suppressed in +the calendar; and as the error of the Julian intercalation was now found to +amount to three days in 400 years, he ordered the intercalations to be +omitted on all the centenary years excepting those which are multiples of +400. According to the Gregorian rule of intercalation, therefore, every +year of which the number is divisible by four without a remainder is a leap +year, excepting the centurial years, which are only leap years when +divisible by four after omitting the two ciphers. Thus 1600 was a leap +year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 are common years; 2000 will be a leap year, +and so on. + +As the Gregorian method of intercalation has been adopted in all Christian +countries, Russia excepted, it becomes interesting to examine with what +degrees of accuracy it reconciles the civil with the solar year. According +to the best determinations of modern astronomy (Le Verrier's _Solar +Tables_, Paris, 1858, p. 102), the mean geocentric motion of the sun in +longitude, from the mean equinox during a Julian year of 365.25 days, the +same being brought up to the present date, is 360° + 27".685. Thus the mean +length of the solar year is found to be + + 360° + ---------------- × 365.25 = 365.2422 + 360° + 27".685 + +days, or 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 46 sec. Now the Gregorian rule gives 97 +intercalations in 400 years; 400 years therefore contain 365 × 400 + 97, +that is, 146,097 days; and consequently one year contains 365.2425 days, or +365 days 5 hours 49 min. 12 sec. This exceeds the true solar year by 26 +seconds, which amount to a day in 3323 years. It is perhaps unnecessary to +make any formal provision against an error which can only happen after so +long a period of time; but as 3323 differs little from 4000, it has been +proposed to correct the Gregorian rule by making the year 4000 and all its +multiples common years. With this correction the rule of intercalation is +as follows:-- + +Every year the number of which is divisible by 4 is a leap year, excepting +the last year of each century, which is a leap year only when the number of +the century is divisible by 4; but 4000, and its multiples, 8000, 12,000, +16,000, &c. are common years. Thus the uniformity of the intercalation, by +continuing to depend on the number four, is preserved, and by adopting the +last correction the commencement of the year would not vary more than a day +from its present place in two hundred centuries. + +In order to discover whether the coincidence of the civil and solar year +could not be restored in shorter periods by a different method of +intercalation, we may proceed as follows:--The fraction 0.2422, which +expresses the excess of the solar year above a whole number of days, being +converted into a continued fraction, becomes + + 1 + ----- + 4 + 1 + ----- + 7 + 1 + ----- + 1 + 1 + ----- + 3 + 1 + ----- + 4 + 1 + ----- + 1 +, &c. + +which gives the series of approximating fractions, + + 1/4, 7/29, 8/33, 31/128, 132/545, 163/673, &c. + +The first of these, 1/4, gives the Julian intercalation of one day in four +years, and is considerably too great. It supposes the year to contain 365 +days 6 hours. + +The second, 7/29, gives seven intercalary days in twenty-nine years, and +errs in defect, as it supposes a year of 365 days 5 hours 47 min. 35 sec. + +The third, 8/33, gives eight intercalations in thirty-three years or seven +successive intercalations at the end of four years respectively, and the +eighth at the end of five years. This supposes the year to contain 365 days +5 hours 49 min. 5.45 sec. + +The fourth fraction, + + 31/128 = (24 + 7) / (99 + 29) = (3 × 8 + 7) / (3 × 33 + 29) + +combines three periods of thirty-three years with one of twenty-nine, and +would consequently be very convenient in application. It supposes the year +to consist of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 45 sec., and is practically exact. + +The fraction 8/33 offers a convenient and very accurate method of +intercalation. It implies a year differing in excess from the true year +only by 19.45 sec., while the Gregorian year is too long by 26 sec. It +produces a much nearer coincidence between the civil and solar years than +the Gregorian method; and, by reason of its shortness of period, confines +the evagations of the mean equinox from the true within much narrower +limits. It has been stated by Scaliger, Weidler, Montucla, and others, that +the modern Persians actually follow this method, and intercalate eight days +in thirty-three [v.04 p.0991] years. The statement has, however, been +contested on good authority; and it seems proved (see Delambre, _Astronomie +Moderne_, tom. i. p.81) that the Persian intercalation combines the two +periods 7/29 and 8/33. If they follow the combination (7 + 3 × 8) / (29 + 3 +× 33) = 31/128 their determination of the length of the tropical year has +been extremely exact. The discovery of the period of thirty-three years is +ascribed to Omar Khayyam, one of the eight astronomers appointed by Jelal +ud-Din Malik Shah, sultan of Khorasan, to reform or construct a calendar, +about the year 1079 of our era. + +If the commencement of the year, instead of being retained at the same +place in the seasons by a uniform method of intercalation, were made to +depend on astronomical phenomena, the intercalations would succeed each +other in an irregular manner, sometimes after four years and sometimes +after five; and it would occasionally, though rarely indeed, happen, that +it would be impossible to determine the day on which the year ought to +begin. In the calendar, for example, which was attempted to be introduced +in France in 1793, the beginning of the year was fixed at midnight +preceding the day in which the true autumnal equinox falls. But supposing +the instant of the sun's entering into the sign Libra to be very near +midnight, the small errors of the solar tables might render it doubtful to +which day the equinox really belonged; and it would be in vain to have +recourse to observation to obviate the difficulty. It is therefore +infinitely more commodious to determine the commencement of the year by a +fixed rule of intercalation; and of the various methods which might be +employed, no one perhaps is on the whole more easy of application, or +better adapted for the purpose of computation, than the Gregorian now in +use. But a system of 31 intercalations in 128 years would be by far the +most perfect as regards mathematical accuracy. Its adoption upon our +present Gregorian calendar would only require the suppression of the usual +bissextile once in every 128 years, and there would be no necessity for any +further correction, as the error is so insignificant that it would not +amount to a day in 100,000 years. + +_Of the Lunar Year and Luni-solar Periods._--The lunar year, consisting of +twelve lunar months, contains only 354 days; its commencement consequently +anticipates that of the solar year by eleven days, and passes through the +whole circle of the seasons in about thirty-four lunar years. It is +therefore so obviously ill-adapted to the computation of time, that, +excepting the modern Jews and Mahommedans, almost all nations who have +regulated their months by the moon have employed some method of +intercalation by means of which the beginning of the year is retained at +nearly the same fixed place in the seasons. + +In the early ages of Greece the year was regulated entirely by the moon. +Solon divided the year into twelve months, consisting alternately of +twenty-nine and thirty days, the former of which were called _deficient_ +months, and the latter _full_ months. The lunar year, therefore, contained +354 days, falling short of the exact time of twelve lunations by about 8.8 +hours. The first expedient adopted to reconcile the lunar and solar years +seems to have been the addition of a month of thirty days to every second +year. Two lunar years would thus contain 25 months, or 738 days, while two +solar years, of 365¼ days each, contain 730½ days. The difference of 7½ +days was still too great to escape observation; it was accordingly proposed +by Cleostratus of Tenedos, who flourished shortly after the time of Thales, +to omit the biennary intercalation every eighth year. In fact, the 7½ days +by which two lunar years exceeded two solar years, amounted to thirty days, +or a full month, in eight years. By inserting, therefore, three additional +months instead of four in every period of eight years, the coincidence +between the solar and lunar year would have been exactly restored if the +latter had contained only 354 days, inasmuch as the period contains 354 × 8 ++ 3 × 30 = 2922 days, corresponding with eight solar years of 365¼ days +each. But the true time of 99 lunations is 2923.528 days, which exceeds the +above period by 1.528 days, or thirty-six hours and a few minutes. At the +end of two periods, or sixteen years, the excess is three days, and at the +end of 160 years, thirty days. It was therefore proposed to employ a period +of 160 years, in which one of the intercalary months should be omitted; but +as this period was too long to be of any practical use, it was never +generally adopted. The common practice was to make occasional corrections +as they became necessary, in order to preserve the relation between the +octennial period and the state of the heavens; but these corrections being +left to the care of incompetent persons, the calendar soon fell into great +disorder, and no certain rule was followed till a new division of the year +was proposed by Meton and Euctemon, which was immediately adopted in all +the states and dependencies of Greece. + +The mean motion of the moon in longitude, from the mean equinox, during a +Julian year of 365.25 days (according to Hansen's _Tables de la Lune_, +London, 1857, pages 15, 16) is, at the present date, 13 × 360° + +477644".409; that of the sun being 360° + 27".685. Thus the corresponding +relative mean geocentric motion of the moon from the sun is 12 × 360° + +477616".724; and the duration of the mean synodic revolution of the moon, +or lunar month, is therefore 360° / (12 × 360° + 477616".724) × 365.25 = +29.530588 days, or 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min. 2.8 sec. + +The _Metonic Cycle_, which may be regarded as the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of +ancient astronomy, is a period of nineteen solar years, after which the new +moons again happen on the same days of the year. In nineteen solar years +there are 235 lunations, a number which, on being divided by nineteen, +gives twelve lunations for each year, with seven of a remainder, to be +distributed among the years of the period. The period of Meton, therefore, +consisted of twelve years containing twelve months each, and seven years +containing thirteen months each; and these last formed the third, fifth, +eighth, eleventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, and nineteenth years of the cycle. +As it had now been discovered that the exact length of the lunation is a +little more than twenty-nine and a half days, it became necessary to +abandon the alternate succession of full and deficient months; and, in +order to preserve a more accurate correspondence between the civil month +and the lunation, Meton divided the cycle into 125 full months of thirty +days, and 110 deficient months of twenty-nine days each. The number of days +in the period was therefore 6940. In order to distribute the deficient +months through the period in the most equable manner, the whole period may +be regarded as consisting of 235 full months of thirty days, or of 7050 +days, from which 110 days are to be deducted. This gives one day to be +suppressed in sixty-four; so that if we suppose the months to contain each +thirty days, and then omit every sixty-fourth day in reckoning from the +beginning of the period, those months in which the omission takes place +will, of course, be the deficient months. + +The number of days in the period being known, it is easy to ascertain its +accuracy both in respect of the solar and lunar motions. The exact length +of nineteen solar years is 19 × 365.2422 = 6939.6018 days, or 6939 days 14 +hours 26.592 minutes; hence the period, which is exactly 6940 days, exceeds +nineteen revolutions of the sun by nine and a half hours nearly. On the +other hand, the exact time of a synodic revolution of the moon is 29.530588 +days; 235 lunations, therefore, contain 235 × 29.530588 = 6939.68818 days, +or 6939 days 16 hours 31 minutes, so that the period exceeds 235 lunations +by only seven and a half hours. + +After the Metonic cycle had been in use about a century, a correction was +proposed by Calippus. At the end of four cycles, or seventy-six years, the +accumulation of the seven and a half hours of difference between the cycle +and 235 lunations amounts to thirty hours, or one whole day and six hours. +Calippus, therefore, proposed to quadruple the period of Meton, and deduct +one day at the end of that time by changing one of the full months into a +deficient month. The period of Calippus, therefore, consisted of three +Metonic cycles of 6940 days each, and a period of 6939 days; and its error +in respect of the moon, consequently, amounted only to six hours, or to one +day in 304 years. This period exceeds seventy-six true solar years by +fourteen hours and a quarter nearly, but coincides exactly with seventy-six +Julian years; and in the time of Calippus the length of the solar year was +almost universally supposed to be exactly 365¼ days. The Calippic period is +frequently referred to as a date by Ptolemy. + +_Ecclesiastical Calendar._--The ecclesiastical calendar, which is adopted +in all the Catholic, and most of the Protestant countries of Europe, is +luni-solar, being regulated partly by the solar, and partly by the lunar +year,--a circumstance which gives rise to the [v.04 p.0992] distinction +between the movable and immovable feasts. So early as the 2nd century of +our era, great disputes had arisen among the Christians respecting the +proper time of celebrating Easter, which governs all the other movable +feasts. The Jews celebrated their passover on the 14th day of _the first +month_, that is to say, the lunar month of which the fourteenth day either +falls on, or next follows, the day of the vernal equinox. Most Christian +sects agreed that Easter should be celebrated on a Sunday. Others followed +the example of the Jews, and adhered to the 14th of the moon; but these, as +usually happened to the minority, were accounted heretics, and received the +appellation of Quartodecimans. In order to terminate dissensions, which +produced both scandal and schism in the church, the council of Nicaea, +which was held in the year 325, ordained that the celebration of Easter +should thenceforth always take place on the Sunday which immediately +follows the full moon that happens upon, or next after, the day of the +vernal equinox. Should the 14th of the moon, which is regarded as the day +of full moon, happen on a Sunday, the celebration Of Easter was deferred to +the Sunday following, in order to avoid concurrence with the Jews and the +above-mentioned heretics. The observance of this rule renders it necessary +to reconcile three periods which have no common measure, namely, the week, +the lunar month, and the solar year; and as this can only be done +approximately, and within certain limits, the determination of Easter is an +affair of considerable nicety and complication. It is to be regretted that +the reverend fathers who formed the council of Nicaea did not abandon the +moon altogether, and appoint the first or second Sunday of April for the +celebration of the Easter festival. The ecclesiastical calendar would in +that case have possessed all the simplicity and uniformity of the civil +calendar, which only requires the adjustment of the civil to the solar +year; but they were probably not sufficiently versed in astronomy to be +aware of the practical difficulties which their regulation had to +encounter. + +_Dominical Letter._--The first problem which the construction of the +calendar presents is to connect the week with the year, or to find the day +of the week corresponding to a given day of any year of the era. As the +number of days in the week and the number in the year are prime to one +another, two successive years cannot begin with the same day; for if a +common year begins, for example, with Sunday, the following year will begin +with Monday, and if a leap year begins with Sunday, the year following will +begin with Tuesday. For the sake of greater generality, the days of the +week are denoted by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, +F, G, which are placed in the calendar beside the days of the year, so that +A stands opposite the first day of January, B opposite the second, and so +on to G, which stands opposite the seventh; after which A returns to the +eighth, and so on through the 365 days of the year. Now if one of the days +of the week, Sunday for example, is represented by E, Monday will be +represented by F, Tuesday by G, Wednesday by A, and so on; and every Sunday +through the year will have the same character E, every Monday F, and so +with regard to the rest. The letter which denotes Sunday is called the +_Dominical Letter_, or the _Sunday Letter_; and when the dominical letter +of the year is known, the letters which respectively correspond to the +other days of the week become known at the same time. + +_Solar Cycle._--In the Julian calendar the dominical letters are readily +found by means of a short cycle, in which they recut in the same order +without interruption. The number of years in the intercalary period being +four, and the days of the week being seven, their product is 4 × 7 = 28; +twenty-eight years is therefore a period which includes all the possible +combinations of the days of the week with the commencement of the year. +This period is called the _Solar Cycle_, or the _Cycle of the Sun_, and +restores the first day of the year to the same day of the week. At the end +of the cycle the dominical letters return again in the same order on the +same days of the month; hence a table of dominical letters, constructed for +twenty-eight years, will serve to show the dominical letter of any given +year from the commencement of the era to the Reformation. The cycle, though +probably not invented before the time of the council of Nicaea, is regarded +as having commenced nine years before the era, so that the year _one_ was +the tenth of the solar cycle. To find the year of the cycle, we have +therefore the following rule:--_Add nine to the date, divide the sum by +twenty-eight; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the +remainder is the year of the cycle._ Should there be no remainder, the +proposed year is the twenty-eighth or last of the cycle. This rule is +conveniently expressed by the formula + + ((x + 9) / 28)_r, + +in which x denotes the date, and the symbol r denotes that the remainder, +which arises from the division of x + 9 by 28, is the number required. +Thus, for 1840, we have + + (1840 + 9) / 28 = 66-1/28 + +therefore + + ((1840 + 9) / 28)_r = 1, + +and the year 1840 is the first of the solar cycle. In order to make use of +the solar cycle in finding the dominical letter, it is necessary to know +that the first year of the Christian era began with Saturday. The dominical +letter of that year, which was the tenth of the cycle, was consequently B. +The following year, or the 11th of the cycle, the letter was A; then G. The +fourth year was bissextile, and the dominical letters were F, E; the +following year D, and so on. In this manner it is easy to find the +dominical letter belonging to each of the twenty-eight years of the cycle. +But at the end of a century the order is interrupted in the Gregorian +calendar by the secular suppression of the leap year; hence the cycle can +only be employed during a century. In the reformed calendar the intercalary +period is four hundred years, which number being multiplied by seven, gives +two thousand eight hundred years as the interval in which the coincidence +is restored between the days of the year and the days of the week. This +long period, however, may be reduced to four hundred years; for since the +dominical letter goes back five places every four years, its variation in +four hundred years, in the Julian calendar, was five hundred places, which +is equivalent to only three places (for five hundred divided by seven +leaves three); but the Gregorian calendar suppresses exactly three +intercalations in four hundred years, so that after four hundred years the +dominical letters must again return in the same order. Hence the following +table of dominical letters for four hundred years will serve to show the +dominical letter of any year in the Gregorian calendar for ever. It +contains four columns of letters, each column serving for a century. In +order to find the column from which the letter in any given case is to be +taken, strike off the last two figures of the date, divide the preceding +figures by four, and the remainder will indicate the column. The symbol X, +employed in the formula at the top of the column, denotes the number of +centuries, that is, the figures remaining after the last two have been +struck off. For example, required the dominical letter of the year 1839? In +this case X = 18, therefore (X/4)_r = 2; and in the second column of +letters, opposite 39, in the table we find F, which is the letter of the +proposed year. + +It deserves to be remarked, that as the dominical letter of the first year +of the era was B, the first column of the following table will give the +dominical letter of every year from the commencement of the era to the +Reformation. For this purpose divide the date by 28, and the letter +opposite the remainder, in the first column of figures, is the dominical +letter of the year. For example, supposing the date to be 1148. On dividing +by 28, the remainder is 0, or 28; and opposite 28, in the first column of +letters, we find D, C, the dominical letters of the year 1148. + +_Lunar Cycle and Golden Number._--In connecting the lunar month with the +solar year, the framers of the ecclesiastical calendar adopted the period +of Meton, or lunar cycle, which they supposed to be exact. A different +arrangement has, however, been followed with respect to the distribution of +the months. The lunations are supposed to consist of twenty-nine and thirty +days alternately, or the lunar year of 354 days; and in order to make up +nineteen solar years, six embolismic or intercalary months, of thirty days +each, are introduced in the course of the cycle, and one of twenty-nine +days is added at the [v.04 p.0993] end. This gives 19 × 354 + 6 × 30 + 29 = +6935 days, to be distributed among 235 lunar months. But every leap year +one day must be added to the lunar month in which the 29th of February is +included. Now if leap year happens on the first, second or third year of +the period, there will be five leap years in the period, but only four when +the first leap year falls on the fourth. In the former case the number of +days in the period becomes 6940 and in the latter 6939. The mean length of +the cycle is therefore 6939¾ days, agreeing exactly with nineteen Julian +years. + + Table I.--_Dominical Letters._ + + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | | | + |Years of the Century.|(X/4)_r = 1|(X/4)_r = 2|(X/4)_r = 3|(X/4)_r = 0| + | | | | | | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 0 | C | E | G | B,A | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 1 29 57 85 | B | D | F | G | + | 2 30 58 86 | A | C | E | F | + | 3 31 59 87 | G | B | D | E | + | 4 32 60 88 | F,E | A,G | C,B | D,C | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 5 33 61 89 | D | F | A | B | + | 6 34 62 90 | C | E | G | A | + | 7 35 63 91 | B | D | F | G | + | 8 36 64 92 | A,G | C,B | E,D | F,E | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 9 37 65 93 | F | A | C | D | + | 10 38 66 94 | E | G | B | C | + | 11 39 67 95 | D | F | A | B | + | 12 40 68 96 | C,B | E,D | G,F | A,G | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 13 41 69 97 | A | C | E | F | + | 14 42 70 98 | G | B | D | E | + | 15 43 71 99 | F | A | C | D | + | 16 44 72 | E,D | G,F | B,A | C,B | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 17 45 73 | C | E | G | A | + | 18 46 74 | B | D | F | G | + | 19 47 75 | A | C | E | F | + | 20 48 76 | G,F | B,A | D,C | E,D | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 21 49 77 | E | G | B | C | + | 22 50 78 | D | F | A | B | + | 23 51 79 | C | E | G | A | + | 24 52 80 | B,A | D,C | F,E | G,F | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 25 53 81 | G | B | D | E | + | 26 54 82 | F | A | C | D | + | 27 55 83 | E | G | B | C | + | 28 56 84 | D,C | F,E | A,G | B,A | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + Table II.--_The Day of the Week._ + + +-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+ + | Month. | Dominical Letter. | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Jan. Oct. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Feb. Mar. Nov. | D | E | F | G | A | B | C | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | April July | G | A | B | C | D | E | F | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | May | B | C | D | E | F | G | A | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | June | E | F | G | A | B | C | D | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | August | C | D | E | F | G | A | B | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Sept. Dec. | F | G | A | B | C | D | E | + +---+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | 1 | 8 | 15 | 22 | 29 |Sun. |Sat |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues |Mon. | + | 2 | 9 | 16 | 23 | 30 |Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues.| + | 3 | 10 | 17 | 24 | 31 |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. | + | 4 | 11 | 18 | 25 | |Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.| + | 5 | 12 | 19 | 26 | |Thur.|Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.| + | 6 | 13 | 20 | 27 | |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. | + | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. | + +---+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +By means of the lunar cycle the new moons of the calendar were indicated +before the Reformation. As the cycle restores these phenomena to the same +days of the civil month, they will fall on the same days in any two years +which occupy the same place in the cycle; consequently a table of the +moon's phases for 19 years will serve for any year whatever when we know +its number in the cycle. This number is called the _Golden Number_, either +because it was so termed by the Greeks, or because it was usual to mark it +with red letters in the calendar. The Golden Numbers were introduced into +the calendar about the year 530, but disposed as they would have been if +they had been inserted at the time of the council of Nicaea. The cycle is +supposed to commence with the year in which the new moon falls on the 1st +of January, which took place the year preceding the commencement of our +era. Hence, to find the Golden Number N, for any year x, we have N = ((x + +1) / 19)_r, which gives the following rule: _Add 1 to the date, divide the +sum by 19; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder +is the Golden Number._ When the remainder is 0, the proposed year is of +course the last or 19th of the cycle. It ought to be remarked that the new +moons, determined in this manner, may differ from the astronomical new +moons sometimes as much as two days. The reason is that the sum of the +solar and lunar inequalities, which are compensated in the whole period, +may amount in certain cases to 10°, and thereby cause the new moon to +arrive on the second day before or after its mean time. + +_Dionysian Period._--The cycle of the sun brings back the days of the month +to the same day of the week; the lunar cycle restores the new moons to the +same day of the month; therefore 28 × 19 = 532 years, includes all the +variations in respect of the new moons and the dominical letters, and is +consequently a period after which the new moons again occur on the same day +of the month and the same day of the week. This is called the _Dionysian_ +or Great _Paschal Period_, from its having been employed by Dionysius +Exiguus, familiarly styled "Denys the Little," in determining Easter +Sunday. It was, however, first proposed by Victorius of Aquitain, who had +been appointed by Pope Hilary to revise and correct the church calendar. +Hence it is also called the _Victorian Period_. It continued in use till +the Gregorian reformation. + +_Cycle of Indiction._--Besides the solar and lunar cycles, there is a third +of 15 years, called the cycle of indiction, frequently employed in the +computations of chronologists. This period is not astronomical, like the +two former, but has reference to certain judicial acts which took place at +stated epochs under the Greek emperors. Its commencement is referred to the +1st of January of the year 313 of the common era. By extending it +backwards, it will be found that the first of the era was the fourth of the +cycle of indiction. The number of any year in this cycle will therefore be +given by the formula (x + 3) / 15)_r¸ that is to say, _add 3 to the date, +divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the year of the indiction_. When +the remainder is 0, the proposed year is the fifteenth of the cycle. + +_Julian Period._--The Julian period, proposed by the celebrated Joseph +Scaliger as an universal measure of chronology, is formed by taking the +continued product of the three cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the +indiction, and is consequently 28 × 19 × 15 = 7980 years. In the course of +this long period no two years can be expressed by the same numbers in all +the three cycles. Hence, when the number of any proposed year in each of +the cycles is known, its number in the Julian period can be determined by +the resolution of a very simple problem of the indeterminate analysis. It +is unnecessary, however, in the present case to exhibit the general +solution of the problem, because when the number in the period +corresponding to any one year in the era has been ascertained, it is easy +to establish the correspondence for all other years, without having again +recourse to the direct solution of the problem. We shall therefore find the +number of the Julian period corresponding to the first of our era. + +We have already seen that the year 1 of the era had 10 for its number in +the solar cycle, 2 in the lunar cycle, and 4 in the cycle of indiction; the +question is therefore to find a number such, that [v.04 p.0994] when it is +divided by the three numbers 28, 19, and 15 respectively the three +remainders shall be 10, 2, and 4. + +Let x, y, and z be the three quotients of the divisions; the number sought +will then be expressed by 28 x + 10, by 19 y + 2, or by 15 z + 4. Hence the +two equations + + 28 x + 10 = 19 y + 2 = 15 z + 4. + +To solve the equations 28 x + 10 = 19 y + 2, or y = (9 x + 8) / 19, let m = +(9 x + 8) / 19, we have then x = 2 m + (m - 8) / 9. Let (m - 8) / 9 = m'; +then m = 9 m' + 8; hence + + x = 18 m' + 16 + m' = 19 m' + 16 . . . (1). + +Again, since 28 x + 10 = 15 z + 4, we have + + 15 z = 28 x + 6, or z = 2 x - (2 x - 6) / 15. + +Let (2 x - 6) / 15 = n; then 2 x = 15 n + 6, and x = 7 n + 3 + n / 2. + +Let n / 2 = n'; then n = 2 n'; consequently + + x = 14 n' + 3 + n' = 15 n' + 3 . . . (2). + +Equating the above two values of x, we have + + 15 n' + 3 = 19 m' + 16; whence n' = m' + (4 m' + 13) / 15. + +Let (4 m' + 13) / 15 = p; we have then + + 4 m' = 15 p - 13, and m' = 4 p - (p + 13) / 4. + +Let (p + 13) / 4 = p'; then p = 4 p' - 13; + + whence m' = 16 p' - 52 - p' = 15 p' - 52. + +Now in this equation p' may be any number whatever, provided 15 p' exceed +52. The smallest value of p' (which is the one here wanted) is therefore 4; +for 15 × 4 = 60. Assuming therefore p' = 4, we have m' = 60 - 52 = 8; and +consequently, since x = 19 m' + 16, x = 19 × 8 + 16 = 168. The number +required is consequently 28 × 168 + 10 = 4714. + +Having found the number 4714 for the first of the era, the correspondence +of the years of the era and of the period is as follows:-- + + Era, 1, 2, 3, ... x, + Period, 4714, 4715, 4716, ... 4713 + x; + +from which it is evident, that if we take P to represent the year of the +Julian period, and x the corresponding year of the Christian era, we shall +have + + P = 4713 + x, and x = P - 4713. + +With regard to the numeration of the years previous to the commencement of +the era, the practice is not uniform. Chronologists, in general, reckon the +year preceding the first of the era -1, the next preceding -2, and so on. +In this case + + Era, -1, -2, -3, ... -x, + Period, 4713, 4712, 4711, ... 4714 - x; + +whence + + P = 4714 - x, and x = 4714 - P. + +But astronomers, in order to preserve the uniformity of computation, make +the series of years proceed without interruption, and reckon the year +preceding the first of the era 0. Thus + + Era, 0, -1, -2, ... -x, + Period, 4713, 4712, 4711, ... 4713 - x; + +therefore, in this case + + P = 4713 - x, and x = 4713 - P. + +_Reformation of the Calendar._--The ancient church calendar was founded on +two suppositions, both erroneous, namely, that the year contains 365¼ days, +and that 235 lunations are exactly equal to nineteen solar years. It could +not therefore long continue to preserve its correspondence with the +seasons, or to indicate the days of the new moons with the same accuracy. +About the year 730 the venerable Bede had already perceived the +anticipation of the equinoxes, and remarked that these phenomena then took +place about three days earlier than at the time of the council of Nicaea. +Five centuries after the time of Bede, the divergence of the true equinox +from the 21st of March, which now amounted to seven or eight days, was +pointed out by Johannes de Sacro Bosco (John Holywood, _fl._ 1230) in his +_De Anni Ratione_; and by Roger Bacon, in a treatise _De Reformatione +Calendarii_, which, though never published, was transmitted to the pope. +These works were probably little regarded at the time; but as the errors of +the calendar went on increasing, and the true length of the year, in +consequence of the progress of astronomy, became better known, the project +of a reformation was again revived in the 15th century; and in 1474 Pope +Sixtus IV. invited Regiomontanus, the most celebrated astronomer of the +age, to Rome, to superintend the reconstruction of the calendar. The +premature death of Regiomontanus caused the design to be suspended for the +time; but in the following century numerous memoirs appeared on the +subject, among the authors of which were Stoffler, Albert Pighius, Johann +Schöner, Lucas Gauricus, and other mathematicians of celebrity. At length +Pope Gregory XIII. perceiving that the measure was likely to confer a great +_éclat_ on his pontificate, undertook the long-desired reformation; and +having found the governments of the principal Catholic states ready to +adopt his views, he issued a brief in the month of March 1582, in which he +abolished the use of the ancient calendar, and substituted that which has +since been received in almost all Christian countries under the name of the +_Gregorian Calendar_ or _New Style_ The author of the system adopted by +Gregory was Aloysius Lilius, or Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, a learned astronomer +and physician of Naples, who died, however, before its introduction; but +the individual who most contributed to give the ecclesiastical calendar its +present form, and who was charged with all the calculations necessary for +its verification, was Clavius, by whom it was completely developed and +explained in a great folio treatise of 800 pages, published in 1603, the +title of which is given at the end of this article. + +It has already been mentioned that the error of the Julian year was +corrected in the Gregorian calendar by the suppression of three +intercalations in 400 years. In order to restore the beginning of the year +to the same place in the seasons that it had occupied at the time of the +council of Nicaea, Gregory directed the day following the feast of St +Francis, that is to say the 5th of October, to be reckoned the 15th of that +month. By this regulation the vernal equinox which then happened on the +11th of March was restored to the 21st. From 1582 to 1700 the difference +between the old and new style continued to be ten days; but 1700 being a +leap year in the Julian calendar, and a common year in the Gregorian, the +difference of the styles during the 18th century was eleven days. The year +1800 was also common in the new calendar, and, consequently, the difference +in the 19th century was twelve days. From 1900 to 2100 inclusive it is +thirteen days. + +The restoration of the equinox to its former place in the year and the +correction of the intercalary period, were attended with no difficulty; but +Lilius had also to adapt the lunar year to the new rule of intercalation. +The lunar cycle contained 6939 days 18 hours, whereas the exact time of 235 +lunations, as we have already seen, is 235 × 29.530588 = 6939 days 16 hours +31 minutes. The difference, which is 1 hour 29 minutes, amounts to a day in +308 years, so that at the end of this time the new moons occur one day +earlier than they are indicated by the golden numbers. During the 1257 +years that elapsed between the council of Nicaea and the Reformation, the +error had accumulated to four days, so that the new moons which were marked +in the calendar as happening, for example, on the 5th of the month, +actually fell on the 1st. It would have been easy to correct this error by +placing the golden numbers four lines higher in the new calendar; and the +suppression of the ten days had already rendered it necessary to place them +ten lines lower, and to carry those which belonged, for example, to the 5th +and 6th of the month, to the 15th and 16th. But, supposing this correction +to have been made, it would have again become necessary, at the end of 308 +years, to advance them one line higher, in consequence of the accumulation +of the error of the cycle to a whole day. On the other hand, as the golden +numbers were only adapted to the Julian calendar, every omission of the +centenary intercalation would require them to be placed one line lower, +opposite the 6th, for example, instead of the 5th of the month; so that, +generally speaking, the places of the golden numbers would have to be +changed every century. On this account Lilius thought fit to reject the +golden numbers from the calendar, and supply their place by another set of +numbers called _Epacts_, the use of which we shall now proceed to explain. + +_Epacts._--Epact is a word of Greek origin, employed in the calendar to +signify the moon's age at the beginning of the year. [v.04 p.0995] The +common solar year containing 365 days, and the lunar year only 354 days, +the difference is eleven; whence, if a new moon fall on the 1st of January +in any year, the moon will be eleven days old on the first day of the +following year, and twenty-two days on the first of the third year. The +numbers eleven and twenty-two are therefore the epacts of those years +respectively. Another addition of eleven gives thirty-three for the epact +of the fourth year; but in consequence of the insertion of the intercalary +month in each third year of the lunar cycle, this epact is reduced to +three. In like manner the epacts of all the following years of the cycle +are obtained by successively adding eleven to the epact of the former year, +and rejecting thirty as often as the sum exceeds that number. They are +therefore connected with the golden numbers by the formula (11 n / 30) in +which n is any whole number; and for a whole lunar cycle (supposing the +first epact to be 11), they are as follows:--11, 22, 3, 14, 25, 6, 17, 28, +9, 20, 1, 12, 23, 4, 15, 26, 7, 18, 29. But the order is interrupted at the +end of the cycle; for the epact of the following year, found in the same +manner, would be 29 + 11 = 40 or 10, whereas it ought again to be 11 to +correspond with the moon's age and the golden number 1. The reason of this +is, that the intercalary month, inserted at the end of the cycle, contains +only twenty-nine days instead of thirty; whence, after 11 has been added to +the epact of the year corresponding to the golden number 19, we must reject +twenty-nine instead of thirty, in order to have the epact of the succeeding +year; or, which comes to the same thing, we must add twelve to the epact of +the last year of the cycle, and then reject thirty as before. + +This method of forming the epacts might have been continued indefinitely if +the Julian intercalation had been followed without correction, and the +cycle been perfectly exact; but as neither of these suppositions is true, +two equations or corrections must be applied, one depending on the error of +the Julian year, which is called the solar equation; the other on the error +of the lunar cycle, which is called the lunar equation. The solar equation +occurs three times in 400 years, namely, in every secular year which is not +a leap year; for in this case the omission of the intercalary day causes +the new moons to arrive one day later in all the following months, so that +the moon's age at the end of the month is one day less than it would have +been if the intercalation had been made, and the epacts must accordingly be +all diminished by unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, 14, &c., become 10, 21, +2, 13, &c. On the other hand, when the time by which the new moons +anticipate the lunar cycle amounts to a whole day, which, as we have seen, +it does in 308 years, the new moons will arrive one day earlier, and the +epacts must consequently be increased by unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, +14, &c., in consequence of the lunar equation, become 12, 23, 4, 15, &c. In +order to preserve the uniformity of the calendar, the epacts are changed +only at the commencement of a century; the correction of the error of the +lunar cycle is therefore made at the end of 300 years. In the Gregorian +calendar this error is assumed to amount to one day in 312½ years or eight +days in 2500 years, an assumption which requires the line of epacts to be +changed seven times successively at the end of each period of 300 years, +and once at the end of 400 years; and, from the manner in which the epacts +were disposed at the Reformation, it was found most correct to suppose one +of the periods of 2500 years to terminate with the year 1800. + +The years in which the solar equation occurs, counting from the +Reformation, are 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2500, &c. Those in +which the lunar equation occurs are 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300, +3600, 3900, after which, 4300, 4600 and so on. When the solar equation +occurs, the epacts are diminished by unity; when the lunar equation occurs, +the epacts are augmented by unity; and when both equations occur together, +as in 1800, 2100, 2700, &c., they compensate each other, and the epacts are +not changed. + +In consequence of the solar and lunar equations, it is evident that the +epact or moon's age at the beginning of the year, must, in the course of +centuries, have all different values from one to thirty inclusive, +corresponding to the days in a full lunar month. Hence, for the +construction of a perpetual calendar, there must be thirty different sets +or lines of epacts. These are exhibited in the subjoined table (Table III.) +called the _Extended Table of Epacts_, which is constructed in the +following manner. The series of golden numbers is written in a line at the +top of the table, and under each golden number is a column of thirty +epacts, arranged in the order of the natural numbers, beginning at the +bottom and proceeding to the top of the column. The first column, under the +golden number 1, contains the epacts, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., to 30 or 0. The +second column, corresponding to the following year in the lunar cycle, must +have all its epacts augmented by 11; the lowest number, therefore, in the +column is 12, then 13, 14, 15 and so on. The third column corresponding to +the golden number 3, has for its first epact 12 + 11 = 23; and in the same +manner all the nineteen columns of the table are formed. Each of the thirty +lines of epacts is designated by a letter of the alphabet, which serves as +its index or argument. The order of the letters, like that of the numbers, +is from the bottom of the column upwards. + +In the tables of the church calendar the epacts are usually printed in +Roman numerals, excepting the last, which is designated by an asterisk (*), +used as an indefinite symbol to denote 30 or 0, and 25, which in the last +eight columns is expressed in Arabic characters, for a reason that will +immediately be explained. In the table here given, this distinction is made +by means of an accent placed over the last figure. + +At the Reformation the epacts were given by the line D. The year 1600 was a +leap year; the intercalation accordingly took place as usual, and there was +no interruption in the order of the epacts; the line D was employed till +1700. In that year the omission of the intercalary day rendered it +necessary to diminish the epacts by unity, or to pass to the line C. In +1800 the solar equation again occurred, in consequence of which it was +necessary to descend one line to have the epacts diminished by unity; but +in this year the lunar equation also occurred, the anticipation of the new +moons having amounted to a day; the new moons accordingly happened a day +earlier, which rendered it necessary to take the epacts in the next higher +line. There was, consequently, no alteration; the two equations destroyed +each other. The line of epacts belonging to the present century is +therefore C. In 1900 the solar equation occurs, after which the line is B. +The year 2000 is a leap year, and there is no alteration. In 2100 the +equations again occur together and destroy each other, so that the line B +will serve three centuries, from 1900 to 2200. From that year to 2300 the +line will be A. In this manner the line of epacts belonging to any given +century is easily found, and the method of proceeding is obvious. When the +solar equation occurs alone, the line of epacts is changed to the next +lower in the table; when the lunar equation occurs alone, the line is +changed to the next higher; when both equations occur together, no change +takes place. In order that it may be perceived at once to what centuries +the different lines of epacts respectively belong, they have been placed in +a column on the left hand side of the table on next page. + +The use of the epacts is to show the days of the new moons, and +consequently the moon's age on any day of the year. For this purpose they +are placed in the calendar (Table IV.) along with the days of the month and +dominical letters, in a retrograde order, so that the asterisk stands +beside the 1st of January, 29 beside the 2nd, 28 beside the 3rd and so on +to 1, which corresponds to the 30th. After this comes the asterisk, which +corresponds to the 31st of January, then 29, which belongs to the 1st of +February, and so on to the end of the year. The reason of this distribution +is evident. If the last lunation of any year ends, for example, on the 2nd +of December, the new moon falls on the 3rd; and the moon's age on the 31st, +or at the end of the year, is twenty-nine days. The epact of the following +year is therefore twenty-nine. Now that lunation having commenced on the +3rd of December, and consisting of thirty days, will end on the 1st of +January. The 2nd of January is therefore the day [v.04 p.0996] of the new +moon, which is indicated by the epact twenty-nine. In like manner, if the +new moon fell on the 4th of December, the epact of the following year would +be twenty-eight, which, to indicate the day of next new moon, must +correspond to the 3rd of January. + +When the epact of the year is known, the days on which the new moons occur +throughout the whole year are shown by Table IV., which is called the +_Gregorian Calendar of Epacts_. For example, the golden number of the year +1832 is ((1832 + 1) / 19)_r = 9, and the epact, as found in Table III., is +twenty-eight. This epact occurs at the 3rd of January, the 2nd of February, +the 3rd of March, the 2nd of April, the 1st of May, &c., and these days are +consequently the days of the ecclesiastical new moons in 1832. The +astronomical new moons generally take place one or two days, sometimes even +three days, earlier than those of the calendar. + +There are some artifices employed in the construction of this table, to +which it is necessary to pay attention. The thirty epacts correspond to the +thirty days of a full lunar month; but the lunar months consist of +twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, therefore in six months of the +year the thirty epacts must correspond only to twenty-nine days. For this +reason the epacts twenty-five and twenty-four are placed together, so as to +belong only to one day in the months of February, April, June, August, +September and November, and in the same months another 25', distinguished +by an accent, or by being printed in a different character, is placed +beside 26, and belongs to the same day. The reason for doubling the 25 was +to prevent the new moons from being indicated in the calendar as happening +twice on the same day in the course of the lunar cycle, a thing which +actually cannot take place. For example, if we observe the line B in Table +III., we shall see that it contains both the epacts twenty-four and +twenty-five, so that if these correspond to the same day of the month, two +new moons would be indicated as happening on that day within nineteen +years. Now the three epacts 24, 25, 26, can never occur in the same line; +therefore in those lines in which 24 and 25 occur, the 25 is accented, and +placed in the calendar beside 26. When 25 and 26 occur in the same line of +epacts, the 25 is not accented, and in the calendar stands beside 24. The +lines of epacts in which 24 and 25 both occur, are those which are marked +by one of the eight letters b, e, k, n, r, B, E, N, in all of which 25' +stands in a column corresponding to a golden number higher than 11. There +are also eight lines in which 25 and 26 occur, namely, c, f, l, p, s, C, F, +P. In the other 14 lines, 25 either does not occur at all, or it occurs in +a line in which neither 24 nor 26 is found. From this it appears that if +the golden number of the year exceeds 11, the epact 25, in six months of +the year, must correspond to the same day in the calendar as 26; but if the +golden number does not exceed 11, that epact must correspond to the same +day as 24. Hence the reason for distinguishing 25 and 25'. In using the +calendar, if the epact of the year is 25, and the golden number not above +11, take 25; but if the golden number exceeds 11, take 25'. + +Another peculiarity requires explanation. The epact 19' (also distinguished +by an accent or different character) is placed in the same line with 20 at +the 31st of December. It is, however, only used in those years in which the +epact 19 concurs with the golden number 19. When the golden number is 19, +that is to say, in the last year of the lunar cycle, the supplementary +month contains only 29 days. Hence, if in that year the epact should be 19, +a new moon would fall on the 2nd of December, and the lunation would +terminate on the 30th, so that the next new moon would arrive on the 31st. +The epact of the year, therefore, or 19, must stand beside that day, +whereas, according to the regular order, the epact corresponding to the +31st of December is 20; and this is the reason for the distinction. + + TABLE III. _Extended Table of Epacts._ + + Golden Numbers. + Years. Index. + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 + +1700 1800 8700 C * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 +1900 2000 2100 B 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 +2200 2400 A 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 +2300 2500 u 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 +2600 2700 2800 t 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 + +2900 3000 s 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 +3100 3200 3300 r 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 +3400 3600 q 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 +3500 3700 p 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 +3800 3900 4000 n 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 + + 4100 m 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 +4200 4300 4400 l 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 +4500 4600 k 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 +4700 4800 4900 i 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 +5000 5200 h 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 + +5100 5300 g 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 +5400 5500 5600 f 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 +5700 5800 e 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 20 1 +5900 6000 6100 d 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * +6200 6400 c 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 + +6300 6500 b 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 +6600 6800 a 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 +6700 6900 P 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 +7000 7100 7200 N 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' +7300 7400 M 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 + +7500 7600 7700 H 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 +7800 8000 G 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 +7900 8100 F 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 +8200 8300 8400 E 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 20 +1500 1600 8500 D 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 + +As an example of the use of the preceding tables, suppose it were required +to determine the moon's age on the 10th of April 1832. In 1832 the golden +number is ((1832 + 1) / 19)_r = 9 and the line of epacts belonging to the +century is C. In Table III, under 9, and in the line C, we find the epact +28. In the calendar, Table IV., look for April, and the epact 28 is found +opposite the second day. The 2nd of April is therefore the first day of the +moon, [v.04 p.0997] and the 10th is consequently the ninth day of the moon. +Again, suppose it were required to find the moon's age on the 2nd of +December in the year 1916. In this case the golden number is ((1916 + 1) / +19)_r = 17, and in Table III., opposite to 1900, the line of epacts is B. +Under 17, in line B, the epact is 25'. In the calendar this epact first +occurs before the 2nd of December at the 26th of November. The 26th of +November is consequently the first day of the moon, and the 2nd of December +is therefore the seventh day. + +_Easter._--The next, and indeed the principal use of the calendar, is to +find Easter, which, according to the traditional regulation of the council +of Nice, must be determined from the following conditions:--_1st_, Easter +must be celebrated on a Sunday; _2nd_, this Sunday must _follow_ the 14th +day of the paschal moon, so that if the 14th of the paschal moon falls on a +Sunday then Easter must be celebrated on the Sunday following; _3rd_, the +paschal moon is that of which the 14th day falls on or next follows the day +of the vernal equinox; _4th_ the equinox is fixed invariably in the +calendar on the 21st of March. Sometimes a misunderstanding has arisen from +not observing that this regulation is to be construed according to the +tabular full moon as determined from the epact, and not by the true full +moon, which, in general, occurs one or two days earlier. + +From these conditions it follows that the paschal full moon, or the 14th of +the paschal moon, cannot happen before the 21st of March, and that Easter +in consequence cannot happen before the 22nd of March. If the 14th of the +moon falls on the 21st, the new moon must fall on the 8th; for 21 - 13 = 8; +and the paschal new moon cannot happen before the 8th; for suppose the new +moon to fall on the 7th, then the full moon would arrive on the 20th, or +the day before the equinox. The following moon would be the paschal moon. +But the fourteenth of this moon falls at the latest on the 18th of April, +or 29 days after the 20th of March; for by reason of the double epact that +occurs at the 4th and 5th of April, this lunation has only 29 days. Now, if +in this case the 18th of April is Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated on +the following Sunday, or the 25th of April. Hence Easter Sunday cannot +happen earlier than the 22nd of March, or later than the 25th of April. + +Hence we derive the following rule for finding Easter Sunday from the +tables:--_1st_, Find the golden number, and, from Table III., the epact of +the proposed year. _2nd_, Find in the calendar (Table IV.) the first day +after the 7th of March which corresponds to the epact of the year; this +will be the first day of the paschal moon, _3rd_, Reckon thirteen days +after that of the first of the moon, the following will be the 14th of the +moon or the day of the full paschal moon. _4th_, Find from Table I. the +dominical letter of the year, and observe in the calendar the first day, +after the fourteenth of the moon, which corresponds to the dominical +letter; this will be Easter Sunday. + + TABLE IV.--_Gregorian Calendar._ + + |-----------------------------------------------------| + |Days.| Jan. | Feb. |March. |April. | May. | June. | + |-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 1 | * |A| 29 |D| * |D| 29 |G| 28 |B| 27 |E| + | 2 | 29 |B| 28 |E| 29 |E| 28 |A| 27 |C|25 26|F| + | 3 | 28 |C| 27 |F| 28 |F| 27 |B| 26 |D|25 24|G| + | 4 | 27 |D|25 26|G| 27 |G|25'26|C|25'25|E| 23 |A| + | 5 | 26 |E|25 24|A| 26 |A|25 24|D| 24 |F| 22 |B| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 6 |25'25|F| 23 |B|25'25|B| 23 |E| 23 |G| 21 |C| + | 7 | 24 |G| 22 |C| 24 |C| 22 |F| 22 |A| 20 |D| + | 8 | 23 |A| 21 |D| 23 |D| 21 |G| 21 |B| 19 |E| + | 9 | 22 |B| 20 |E| 22 |E| 20 |A| 20 |C| 18 |F| + | 10 | 21 |C| 19 |F| 21 |F| 19 |B| 19 |D| 17 |G| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 11 | 20 |D| 18 |G| 20 |G| 18 |C| 18 |E| 16 |A| + | 12 | 19 |E| 17 |A| 19 |A| 17 |D| 17 |F| 15 |B| + | 13 | 18 |F| 16 |B| 18 |B| 16 |E| 16 |G| 14 |C| + | 14 | 17 |G| 15 |C| 17 |C| 15 |F| 15 |A| 13 |D| + | 15 | 16 |A| 14 |D| 16 |D| 14 |G| 14 |B| 12 |E| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 16 | 15 |B| 13 |E| 15 |E| 13 |A| 13 |C| 11 |F| + | 17 | 14 |C| 12 |F| 14 |F| 12 |B| 12 |D| 10 |G| + | 18 | 13 |D| 11 |G| 13 |G| 11 |C| 11 |E| 9 |A| + | 19 | 12 |E| 10 |A| 12 |A| 10 |D| 10 |F| 8 |B| + | 20 | 11 |F| 9 |B| 11 |B| 9 |E| 9 |G| 7 |C| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 21 | 10 |G| 8 |C| 10 |C| 8 |F| 8 |A| 6 |D| + | 22 | 9 |A| 7 |D| 9 |D| 7 |G| 7 |B| 5 |E| + | 23 | 8 |B| 6 |E| 8 |E| 6 |A| 6 |C| 4 |F| + | 24 | 7 |C| 5 |F| 7 |F| 5 |B| 5 |D| 3 |G| + | 25 | 6 |D| 4 |G| 6 |G| 4 |C| 4 |E| 2 |A| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 26 | 5 |E| 3 |A| 5 |A| 3 |D| 3 |F| 1 |B| + | 27 | 4 |F| 2 |B| 4 |B| 2 |E| 2 |G| * |C| + | 28 | 3 |G| 1 |C| 3 |C| 1 |F| 1 |A| 29 |D| + | 29 | 2 |A| | | 2 |D| * |G| * |B| 28 |E| + | 30 | 1 |B| | | 1 |E| 29 |A| 29 |C| 29 |F| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 31 | * |C| | | * |F| | | 28 |D| | | + |------------------------------------------------------ + + |------------------------------------------------------| + |Days.| July. |August.| Sept. |October.| Nov. | Dec. | + |-----+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L | E |L| E |L| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 1 | 26 |G|25 24|C| 23 |F| 22 |A | 21 |D| 20 |F| + | 2 |25'25|A| 23 |D| 22 |G| 21 |B | 20 |E| 19 |G| + | 3 | 24 |B| 22 |E| 21 |A| 20 |C | 19 |F| 18 |A| + | 4 | 23 |C| 21 |F| 20 |B| 19 |D | 18 |G| 17 |B| + | 5 | 22 |D| 20 |G| 19 |C| 18 |E | 17 |A| 16 |C| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 6 | 21 |E| 19 |A| 18 |D| 17 |F | 16 |B| 15 |D| + | 7 | 20 |F| 18 |B| 17 |E| 16 |G | 15 |C| 14 |E| + | 8 | 19 |G| 17 |C| 16 |F| 15 |A | 14 |D| 13 |F| + | 9 | 18 |A| 16 |D| 15 |G| 14 |B | 13 |E| 12 |G| + | 10 | 17 |B| 15 |E| 14 |A| 13 |C | 12 |F| 11 |A| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 11 | 16 |C| 14 |F| 13 |B| 12 |D | 11 |G| 10 |B| + | 12 | 15 |D| 13 |G| 12 |C| 11 |E | 10 |A| 9 |C| + | 13 | 14 |E| 12 |A| 11 |D| 10 |F | 9 |B| 8 |D| + | 14 | 13 |F| 11 |B| 10 |E| 9 |G | 8 |C| 7 |E| + | 15 | 12 |G| 10 |C| 9 |F| 8 |A | 7 |D| 6 |F| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 16 | 11 |A| 9 |D| 8 |G| 7 |B | 6 |E| 5 |G| + | 17 | 10 |B| 8 |E| 7 |A| 6 |C | 5 |F| 4 |A| + | 18 | 9 |C| 7 |F| 6 |B| 5 |D | 4 |G| 3 |B| + | 19 | 8 |D| 6 |G| 5 |C| 4 |E | 3 |A| 2 |C| + | 20 | 7 |E| 5 |A| 4 |D| 3 |F | 2 |B| 1 |D| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 21 | 6 |F| 4 |B| 3 |E| 2 |G | 2 |C| * |E| + | 22 | 5 |G| 3 |C| 2 |F| 1 |A | * |D| 29 |F| + | 23 | 4 |A| 2 |D| 1 |G| * |B | 29 |E| 28 |G| + | 24 | 3 |B| 1 |E| * |A| 29 |C | 28 |F| 27 |A| + | 25 | 2 |C| * |F| 29 |B| 28 |D | 27 |G| 26 |B| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 26 | 1 |D| 29 |G| 28 |C| 27 |E |25'26|A|25'25|C| + | 27 | * |E| 28 |A| 27 |D| 26 |F |25 24|B| 24 |D| + | 28 | 29 |F| 27 |B|25'26|E|25'25|G | 23 |C| 23 |E| + | 29 | 28 |G| 26 |C|25 24|F| 24 |A | 22 |D| 22 |F| + | 30 | 27 |A|25'25|D| 23 |G| 23 |B | 21 |E| 21 |G| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 31 |25'26|B| 24 |B| | | 22 |C | | |19'20|A| + |------------------------------------------------------| + +_Example._--Required the day on which Easter Sunday falls in the year 1840? +_1st_, For this year the golden number is ((1840 + 1) / 19)_r = 17, and the +epact (Table III. line C) is 26. _2nd_, After the 7th of March the epact 26 +first occurs in Table III. at the 4th of April, which, therefore, is the +day of the new moon. _3rd_, Since the new moon falls on the 4th, the full +moon is on the 17th (4 + 13 = 17). _4th_, The dominical letters of 1840 are +E, D (Table I.), of which D must be taken, as E belongs only to January and +February. After the 17th of April D first occurs in the calendar (Table +IV.) at the 19th. Therefore, in 1840, Easter Sunday falls on the 19th of +April. The operation is in all cases much facilitated by means of the table +on next page. + +Such is the very complicated and artificial, though highly ingenious +method, invented by Lilius, for the determination of Easter and the other +movable feasts. Its principal, though perhaps least obvious advantage, +consists in its being entirely independent of astronomical tables, or +indeed of any celestial phenomena whatever; so that all chances of +disagreement arising from the inevitable errors of tables, or the +uncertainty of observation, are avoided, and Easter determined without the +[v.04 p.0998] possibility of mistake. But this advantage is only procured +by the sacrifice of some accuracy; for notwithstanding the cumbersome +apparatus employed, the conditions of the problem are not always exactly +satisfied, nor is it possible that they can be always satisfied by any +similar method of proceeding. The equinox is fixed on the 21st of March, +though the sun enters Aries generally on the 20th of that month, sometimes +even on the 19th. It is accordingly quite possible that a full moon may +arrive after the true equinox, and yet precede the 21st of March. This, +therefore, would not be the paschal moon of the calendar, though it +undoubtedly ought to be so if the intention of the council of Nice were +rigidly followed. The new moons indicated by the epacts also differ from +the astronomical new moons, and even from the mean new moons, in general by +one or two days. In imitation of the Jews, who counted the time of the new +moon, not from the moment of the actual phase, but from the time the moon +first became visible after the conjunction, the fourteenth day of the moon +is regarded as the full moon: but the moon is in opposition generally on +the 16th day; therefore, when the new moons of the calendar nearly concur +with the true new moons, the full moons are considerably in error. The +epacts are also placed so as to indicate the full moons generally one or +two days after the true full moons; but this was done purposely, to avoid +the chance of concurring with the Jewish passover, which the framers of the +calendar seem to have considered a greater evil than that of celebrating +Easter a week too late. + + TABLE V.--_Perpetual Table, showing Easter._ + + -------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | + | | Dominical Letter. | + |Epact.| For Leap Years use the SECOND Letter. | + | |-------------------------------------------------------| + | | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | + |------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------| + | * |Apr. 16|Apr. 17|Apr. 18|Apr. 19|Apr. 20|Apr. 14|Apr. 15| + | 1 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 2 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 3 | " 16| " 17| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 4 | " 16| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 5 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 6 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 8| + | 7 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 7| " 8| + | 8 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 9 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 10 | " 9| " 10| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 11 | " 9| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 12 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 13 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 1| + | 14 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6|Mar. 31| " 1| + | 15 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5|Mar. 30| " 31| " 1| + | 16 | " 2| " 3| " 4|Mar. 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 17 | " 2| " 3|Mar. 28| " 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 18 | " 2|Mar. 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 19 |Mar. 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 20 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 31|Mar. 25| + | 21 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 24| " 25| + | 22 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 23| " 24| " 25| + | 23 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 22| " 23| " 24| " 25| + | 24 |Apr. 23|Apr. 24|Apr. 25|Apr. 19|Apr. 20|Apr. 21|Apr. 22| + | 25 | " 23| " 24| " 25| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 26 | " 23| " 24| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 27 | " 23| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 28 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 29 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 15| + -------------------------------------------------------------- + +We will now show in what manner this whole apparatus of methods and tables +may be dispensed with, and the Gregorian calendar reduced to a few simple +formulae of easy computation. + +And, first, to find the dominical letter. Let L denote the number of the +dominical letter of any given year of the era. Then, since every year which +is not a leap year ends with the same day as that with which it began, the +dominical letter of the following year must be L - 1, retrograding one +letter every common year. After x years, therefore, the number of the +letter will be L - x. But as L can never exceed 7, the number x will always +exceed L after the first seven years of the era. In order, therefore, to +render the subtraction possible, L must be increased by some multiple of 7, +as 7m, and the formula then becomes 7m + L - x. In the year preceding the +first of the era, the dominical letter was C; for that year, therefore, we +have L = 3; consequently for any succeeding year x, L = 7m + 3 - x, the +years being all supposed to consist of 365 days. But every fourth year is a +leap year, and the effect of the intercalation is to throw the dominical +letter one place farther back. The above expression must therefore be +diminished by the number of units in x/4, or by (x/4)_w (this notation +being used to denote the quotient, _in a whole number_, that arises from +dividing x by 4). Hence in the Julian calendar the dominical letter is +given by the equation + + L = 7m + 3 - x - (x/4)_w. + +This equation gives the dominical letter of any year from the commencement +of the era to the Reformation. In order to adapt it to the Gregorian +calendar, we must first add the 10 days that were left out of the year +1582; in the second place we must add one day for every century that has +elapsed since 1600, in consequence of the secular suppression of the +intercalary day; and lastly we must deduct the units contained in a fourth +of the same number, because every fourth centesimal year is still a leap +year. Denoting, therefore, the number of the century (or the date after the +two right-hand digits have been struck out) by c, the value of L must be +increased by 10 + (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w. We have then + + L = 7m + 3 - x - (x/4)_w + 10 + (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w; + +that is, since 3 + 10 = 13 or 6 (the 7 days being rejected, as they do not +affect the value of L), + + L = 7m + 6 - x - (x/4)_w + (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w; + +This formula is perfectly general, and easily calculated. + +As an example, let us take the year 1839. this case, x = 1839, (x/4)_w = +(1839/4)_w = 459, c = 18, c - 16 = 2, and ((c - 16) / 4)_w = 0. Hence + + L = 7m + 6 - 1839 - 459 + 2 - 0 + L = 7m - 2290 = 7 × 328 - 2290. + L = 6 = letter F. + +The year therefore begins with Tuesday. It will be remembered that in a +leap year there are always two dominical letters, one of which is employed +till the 29th of February, and the other till the end of the year. In this +case, as the formula supposes the intercalation already made, the resulting +letter is that which applies after the 29th of February. Before the +intercalation the dominical letter had retrograded one place less. Thus for +1840 the formula gives D; during the first two months, therefore, the +dominical letter is E. + +In order to investigate a formula for the epact, let us make + + E = the true epact of the given year; + + J = the Julian epact, that is to say, the number the epact would + have been if the Julian year had been still in use and the lunar + cycle had been exact; + + S = the correction depending on the solar year; + + M = the correction depending on the lunar cycle; + +then the equation of the epact will be + + E = J + S + M; + +so that E will be known when the numbers J, S, and M are determined. + +The epact J depends on the golden number N, and must be determined from the +fact that in 1582, the first year of the reformed calendar, N was 6, and J +26. For the following years, then, the golden numbers and epacts are as +follows: + + 1583, N = 7, J = 26 + 11 - 30 = 7; + 1584, N = 8, J = 7 + 11 = 18; + 1585, N = 9, J = 18 + 11 = 29; + 1586, N = 10, J = 29 + 11 - 30 = 10; + +and, therefore, in general J = ((26 + 11(N - 6)) / 30)_r. But the numerator +of this fraction becomes by reduction 11 N - 40 or 11 N - 10 (the 30 being +rejected, as the remainder only is sought) = N + 10(N - 1); therefore, +ultimately, + + J = ((N + 10(N - 1)) / 30)_r. + +On account of the solar equation S, the epact J must be diminished by unity +every centesimal year, excepting always the fourth. After x centuries, +therefore, it must be diminished by x - (x/4)_w. Now, as 1600 was a leap +year, the first correction of the Julian intercalation took place in 1700; +hence, taking c to denote the number of the century as before, the +correction becomes (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w, which [v.04 p.0999] must be +deducted from J. We have therefore + + S = - (c - 16) + ((c - 16) / 4)_w + +With regard to the lunar equation M, we have already stated that in the +Gregorian calendar the epacts are increased by unity at the end of every +period of 300 years seven times successively, and then the increase takes +place once at the end of 400 years. This gives eight to be added in a +period of twenty-five centuries, and 8x/25 in x centuries. But 8x/25 = 1/3 +(x - x/25). Now, from the manner in which the intercalation is directed to +be made (namely, seven times successively at the end of 300 years, and once +at the end of 400), it is evident that the fraction x/25 must amount to +unity when the number of centuries amounts to twenty-four. In like manner, +when the number of centuries is 24 + 25 = 49, we must have x/25 = 2; when +the number of centuries is 24 + 2 × 25 = 74, then x/25 = 3; and, generally, +when the number of centuries is 24 + n × 25, then x/25 = n + 1. Now this is +a condition which will evidently be expressed in general by the formula n - +((n + 1) / 25)_w. Hence the correction of the epact, or the number of days +to be intercalated after x centuries reckoned from the commencement of one +of the periods of twenty-five centuries, is {(x - ((x+1) / 25)_w) / 3}_w. +The last period of twenty-five centuries terminated with 1800; therefore, +in any succeeding year, if c be the number of the century, we shall have x += c - 18 and x + 1 = c - 17. Let ((c - 17) / 25)_w = a, then for all years +after 1800 the value of M will be given by the formula ((c - 18 - a) / +3)_w; therefore, counting from the beginning of the calendar in 1582, + + M={(c - 15 - a) / 3}_w. + +By the substitution of these values of J, S and M, the equation of the +epact becomes + + E = (((N + 10(N - 1)) / 30)_r - (c - 16) + ((c - 16) / 4)_w + ((c - 15 - + a) / 3)_w. + +It may be remarked, that as a = ((c - 17) / 25)_w, the value of a will be 0 +till c - 17 = 25 or c = 42; therefore, till the year 4200, a may be +neglected in the computation. Had the anticipation of the new moons been +taken, as it ought to have been, at one day in 308 years instead of 312½, +the lunar equation would have occurred only twelve times in 3700 years, or +eleven times successively at the end of 300 years, and then at the end of +400. In strict accuracy, therefore, a ought to have no value till c - 17 = +37, or c = 54, that is to say, till the year 5400. The above formula for +the epact is given by Delambre (_Hist. de l'astronomie moderne,_ t. i. p. +9); it may be exhibited under a variety of forms, but the above is perhaps +the best adapted for calculation. Another had previously been given by +Gauss, but inaccurately, inasmuch as the correction depending on a was +omitted. + +Having determined the epact of the year, it only remains to find Easter +Sunday from the conditions already laid down. Let + + P = the number of days from the 21st of March to the 15th of the + paschal moon, which is the first day on which Easter Sunday can fall; + + p = the number of days from the 21st of March to Easter Sunday; + + L = the number of the dominical letter of the year; + + l = letter belonging to the day on which the 15th of the moon falls: + +then, since Easter is the Sunday following the 14th of the moon, we have + + p = P + (L - l), + +which is commonly called the _number of direction_. + +The value of L is always given by the formula for the dominical letter, and +P and l are easily deduced from the epact, as will appear from the +following considerations. + +When P = 1 the full moon is on the 21st of March, and the new moon on the +8th (21 - 13 = 8), therefore the moon's age on the 1st of March (which is +the same as on the 1st of January) is twenty-three days; the epact of the +year is consequently twenty-three. When P = 2 the new moon falls on the +ninth, and the epact is consequently twenty-two; and, in general, when P +becomes 1 + x, E becomes 23 - x, therefore P + E = 1 + x + 23 - x = 24, and +P = 24 - E. In like manner, when P = 1, l = D = 4; for D is the dominical +letter of the calendar belonging to the 22nd of March. But it is evident +that when l is increased by unity, that is to say, when the full moon falls +a day later, the epact of the year is diminished by unity; therefore, in +general, when l = 4 + x, E = 23 - x, whence, l + E = 27 and l = 27 - E. But +P can never be less than 1 nor l less than 4, and in both cases E = 23. +When, therefore, E is greater than 23, we must add 30 in order that P and l +may have positive values in the formula P = 24 - E and l = 27 - E. Hence +there are two cases. + + When E < 24, P = 24 - E; l = 27 - E, or ((27 - E) / 7)_r, + When E > 23, P = 54 - E; l = 57 - E, or ((57 - E) / 7)_r. + +By substituting one or other of these values of P and l, according as the +case may be, in the formula p = P + (L - l), we shall have p, or the number +of days from the 21st of March to Easter Sunday. It will be remarked, that +as L - l cannot either be 0 or negative, we must add 7 to L as often as may +be necessary, in order that L - l may be a positive whole number. + +By means of the formulae which we have now given for the dominical letter, +the golden number and the epact, Easter Sunday may be computed for any year +after the Reformation, without the assistance of any tables whatever. As an +example, suppose it were required to compute Easter for the year 1840. By +substituting this number in the formula for the dominical letter, we have x += 1840, c - 16 = 2, ((c - 16) / 4)_w = 0, therefore + + L = 7m + 6 - 1840 - 460 + 2 + = 7m - 2292 + = 7 × 328 - 2292 = 2296 - 2292 = 4 + L = 4 = letter D . . . (1). + +For the golden number we have N = ((1840 + 1) / 19)_w therefore N = 17 . . +. (2). + +For the epact we have + + ((N + 10(N - 1)) / 30)_r = ((17 + 160) / 30)_r = (177 / 30)_r = 27; + +likewise c - 16 = 18 - 16 = 2, (c - 15) / 3 = 1, a = 0; therefore + + E = 27 - 2 + 1 = 26 . . . (3). + +Now since E > 23, we have for P and l, + + P = 54 - E = 54 - 26 = 28, + l = ((57 - E) / 7)_r = ((57 - 26) / 7)_r = (31 / 7)_r = 3; + +consequently, since p = P + (L - l), + + p = 28 + (4 - 3) = 29; + +that is to say, Easter happens twenty-nine days after the 21st of March, or +on the 19th April, the same result as was before found from the tables. + +The principal church feasts depending on Easter, and the times of their +celebration are as follows:-- + + Septuagesima Sunday } { 9 weeks } + First Sunday in Lent } is { 6 weeks } before Easter. + Ash Wednesday } { 46 days } + + Rogation Sunday { 5 weeks } + Ascension day or Holy Thursday } { 39 days } + Pentecost or Whitsunday } is { 7 weeks } after Easter. + Trinity Sunday } { 8 weeks } + +The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, Portugal and part of +Italy the same day as at Rome. In France it was received in the same year +in the month of December, and by the Catholic states of Germany the year +following. In the Protestant states of Germany the Julian calendar was +adhered to till the year 1700, when it was decreed by the diet of +Regensburg that the new style and the Gregorian correction of the +intercalation should be adopted. Instead, however, of employing the golden +numbers and epacts for the determination of Easter and the movable feasts, +it was resolved that the equinox and the paschal moon should be found by +astronomical computation from the Rudolphine tables. But this method, +though at first view it may appear more accurate, was soon found to be +attended with numerous inconveniences, and was at length in 1774 abandoned +at the instance of Frederick II., king of Prussia. In Denmark and Sweden +the reformed calendar was received about the same time as in the Protestant +states of Germany. It is remarkable that Russia still adheres to the Julian +reckoning. + +In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for a long time +successfully opposed by popular prejudice. The inconvenience, however, of +using a different date from that employed by the greater part of Europe in +matters of history and chronology began to be generally felt; and at length +the Calendar (New [v.04 p.1000] Style) Act 1750 was passed for the adoption +of the new style in all public and legal transactions. The difference of +the two styles, which then amounted to eleven days, was removed by ordering +the day following the 2nd of September of the year 1752 to be accounted the +14th of that month; and in order to preserve uniformity in future, the +Gregorian rule of intercalation respecting the secular years was adopted. +At the same time, the commencement of the legal year was changed from the +25th of March to the 1st of January. In Scotland, January 1st was adopted +for New Year's Day from 1600, according to an act of the privy council in +December 1599. This fact is of importance with reference to the date of +legal deeds executed in Scotland between that period and 1751, when the +change was effected in England. With respect to the movable feasts, Easter +is determined by the rule laid down by the council of Nice; but instead of +employing the new moons and epacts, the golden numbers are prefixed to the +days of the _full_ moons. In those years in which the line of epacts is +changed in the Gregorian calendar, the golden numbers are removed to +different days, and of course a new table is required whenever the solar or +lunar equation occurs. The golden numbers have been placed so that Easter +may fall on the same day as in the Gregorian calendar. The calendar of the +church of England is therefore from century to century the same in form as +the old Roman calendar, excepting that the golden numbers indicate the full +moons instead of the new moons. + +_Hebrew Calendar._--In the construction of the Jewish calendar numerous +details require attention. The calendar is dated from the Creation, which +is considered to have taken place 3760 years and 3 months before the +commencement of the Christian era. The year is luni-solar, and, according +as it is ordinary or embolismic, consists of twelve or thirteen lunar +months, each of which has 29 or 30 days. Thus the duration of the ordinary +year is 354 days, and that of the embolismic is 384 days. In either case, +it is sometimes made a day more, and sometimes a day less, in order that +certain festivals may fall on proper days of the week for their due +observance. The distribution of the embolismic years, in each cycle of 19 +years, is determined according to the following rule:-- + +The number of the Hebrew year (Y) which has its commencement in a Gregorian +year (x) is obtained by the addition of 3761 years; that is, Y = x + 3761. +Divide the Hebrew year by 19; then the quotient is the number of the last +completed cycle, and the remainder is the year of the current cycle. If the +remainder be 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 or 19 (0), the year is embolismic; if any +other number, it is ordinary. Or, otherwise, if we find the remainder + + R=((7Y+1) / 19)_r + +the year is embolismic when R < 7. + +The calendar is constructed on the assumptions that the mean lunation is 29 +days 12 hours 44 min. 3-1/3 sec., and that the year commences on, or +immediately after, the new moon following the autumnal equinox. The mean +solar year is also assumed to be 365 days 5 hours 55 min. 25-25/57 sec., so +that a cycle of nineteen of such years, containing 6939 days 16 hours 33 +min. 3-1/3 sec., is the exact measure of 235 of the assumed lunations. The +year 5606 was the first of a cycle, and the mean new moon, appertaining to +the 1st of Tisri for that year, was 1845, October 1, 15 hours 42 min. +43-1/3 sec., as computed by Lindo, and adopting the civil mode of reckoning +from the previous midnight. The times of all future new moons may +consequently be deduced by successively adding 29 days 12 hours 44 min. +3-1/3 sec. to this date. + +To compute the times of the new moons which determine the commencement of +successive years, it must be observed that in passing from an ordinary year +the new moon of the following year is deduced by subtracting the interval +that twelve lunations fall short of the corresponding Gregorian year of 365 +or 366 days; and that, in passing from an embolismic year, it is to be +found by adding the excess of thirteen lunations over the Gregorian year. +Thus to deduce the new moon of Tisri, for the year immediately following +any given year (Y), when Y is + + ordinary, subtract (10;11) days 15 hours 11 min. 20 sec., + embolismic, add (18;17) days 21 hours 32 min. 43½ sec. + +the second-mentioned number of days being used, in each case, whenever the +following or new Gregorian year is bissextile. + +Hence, knowing which of the years are embolismic, from their ordinal +position in the cycle, according to the rule before stated, the times of +the commencement of successive years may be thus carried on indefinitely +without any difficulty. But some slight adjustments will occasionally be +needed for the reasons before assigned, viz. to avoid certain festivals +falling on incompatible days of the week. Whenever the computed conjunction +falls on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, the new year is in such case to be +fixed on the day after. It will also be requisite to attend to the +following conditions:-- + +If the computed new moon be after 18 hours, the following day is to be +taken, and if that happen to be Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, it must be +further postponed one day. If, for an ordinary year, the new moon falls on +a Tuesday, as late as 9 hours 11 min. 20 sec., it is not to be observed +thereon; and as it may not be held on a Wednesday, it is in such case to be +postponed to Thursday. If, for a year immediately following an embolismic +year, the computed new moon is on Monday, as late as 15 hours 30 min. 52 +sec., the new year is to be fixed on Tuesday. + +After the dates of commencement of the successive Hebrew years are finally +adjusted, conformably with the foregoing directions, an estimation of the +consecutive intervals, by taking the differences, will show the duration +and character of the years that respectively intervene. According to the +number of days thus found to be comprised in the different years, the days +of the several months are distributed as in Table VI. + +The signs + and - are respectively annexed to Hesvan and Kislev to indicate +that the former of these months may sometimes require to have one day more, +and the latter sometimes one day less, than the number of days shown in the +table--the result, in every case, being at once determined by the total +number of days that the year may happen to contain. An ordinary year may +comprise 353, 354 or 355 days; and an embolismic year 383, 384 or 385 days. +In these cases respectively the year is said to be imperfect, common or +perfect. The intercalary month, Veadar, is introduced in embolismic years +in order that Passover, the 15th day of Nisan, may be kept at its proper +season, which is the full moon of the vernal equinox, or that which takes +place after the sun has entered the sign Aries. It always precedes the +following new year by 163 days, or 23 weeks and 2 days; and Pentecost +always precedes the new year by 113 days, or 16 weeks and 1 day. + + TABLE VI.--_Hebrew Months._ + + ---------------------------------- + | |Ordinary |Embolismic| + |Hebrew Month.| Year. | Year. | + |-------------|---------|----------| + |Tisri | 30 | 30 | + |Hesvan | 29 + | 29 + | + |Kislev | 30 - | 30 - | + |Tebet | 29 | 29 | + |Sebat | 30 | 30 | + |Adar | 29 | 30 | + |(Veadar) | (...) | (29) | + |Nisan | 30 | 30 | + |Yiar | 29 | 29 | + |Sivan | 30 | 30 | + |Tamuz | 29 | 29 | + |Ab | 30 | 30 | + |Elul | 29 | 29 | + |----------------------------------| + |Total | 354 | 384 | + |----------------------------------| + +The Gregorian epact being the age of the moon of Tebet at the beginning of +the Gregorian year, it represents the day of Tebet which corresponds to +January 1; and thus the approximate date of Tisri 1, the commencement of +the Hebrew year, may be otherwise deduced by subtracting the epact from + + Sept. 24 after an ordinary Hebrew year. + Oct. 24 after an embolismic Hebrew year. + +[v.04 p.1001] + +The result so obtained would in general be more accurate than the Jewish +calculation, from which it may differ a day, as fractions of a day do not +enter alike in these computations. Such difference may also in part be +accounted for by the fact that the assumed duration of the solar year is 6 +min. 39-25/57 sec. in excess of the true astronomical value, which will +cause the dates of commencement of future Jewish years, so calculated, to +advance forward from the equinox a day in error in 216 years. The lunations +are estimated with much greater precision. + +The following table is extracted from Woolhouse's _Measures, Weights and +Moneys of all Nations_:-- + +TABLE VII.--_Hebrew Years._ + + +Jewish Number Commencement Jewish Number Commencement +Year. of (1st of Tisri). Year. of (1st of Tisri). + Days. Days. + 296 Cycle. 302 Cycle. +5606 354 Thur. 2 Oct. 1845 5720 355 Sat. 3 Oct. 1959 + 07 355 Mon. 21 Sept. 1846 21 354 Thur. 22 Sept. 1960 + 08 383 Sat. 11 Sept. 1847 22 383 Mon. 11 Sept. 1961 + 09 354 Thur. 28 Sept. 1848 23 355 Sat. 29 Sept. 1962 + 10 355 Mon. 17 Sept. 1849 24 354 Thur. 19 Sept. 1963 + 11 385 Sat. 7 Sept. 1850 25 385 Mon. 7 Sept. 1964 + 12 353 Sat. 27 Sept. 1851 26 353 Mon. 27 Sept. 1965 + 13 384 Tues. 14 Sept. 1852 27 385 Thur. 15 Sept. 1966 + 14 355 Mon. 3 Oct. 1853 28 354 Thur. 5 Oct. 1967 + 15 355 Sat. 23 Sept. 1854 29 355 Mon. 23 Sept. 1968 + 16 383 Thur. 13 Sept. 1855 30 383 Sat. 13 Sept. 1969 + 17 354 Tues. 30 Sept. 1856 31 354 Thur. 1 Oct. 1970 + 18 355 Sat. 19 Sept. 1857 32 355 Mon. 20 Sept. 1971 + 19 385 Thur. 9 Sept. 1858 33 383 Sat. 9 Sept. 1972 + 20 354 Thur. 29 Sept. 1859 34 355 Thur. 27 Sept. 1973 + 21 353 Mon. 17 Sept. 1860 35 354 Tues. 17 Sept. 1974 + 22 385 Thur. 5 Sept. 1861 36 385 Sat. 6 Sept. 1975 + 23 354 Thur. 25 Sept. 1862 37 353 Sat. 25 Sept. 1976 + 24 383 Mon. 14 Sept. 1863 38 384 Tues. 13 Sept. 1977 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 297 Cycle. 303 Cycle. +5625 355 Sat. 1 Oct. 1864 5739 355 Mon. 2 Oct. 1978 + 26 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 1865 40 355 Sat. 22 Sept. 1979 + 27 385 Mon. 10 Sept. 1866 41 383 Thur. 11 Sept. 1980 + 28 353 Mon. 30 Sept. 1867 42 354 Tues. 29 Sept. 1981 + 29 354 Thur. 17 Sept. 1868 43 355 Sat. 18 Sept. 1982 + 30 385 Mon. 6 Sept. 1869 44 385 Thur. 8 Sept. 1983 + 31 355 Mon. 26 Sept. 1870 45 354 Thur. 27 Sept. 1984 + 32 383 Sat. 16 Sept. 1871 46 383 Mon. 16 Sept. 1985 + 33 354 Thur. 3 Oct. 1872 47 355 Sat. 4 Oct. 1986 + 34 355 Mon. 22 Sept. 1873 48 354 Thur. 24 Sept. 1987 + 35 383 Sat. 12 Sept. 1874 49 383 Mon. 12 Sept. 1988 + 36 355 Thur. 30 Sept. 1875 50 355 Sat. 30 Sept. 1989 + 37 354 Tues. 19 Sept. 1876 51 354 Thur. 20 Sept. 1990 + 38 385 Sat. 8 Sept. 1877 52 385 Mon. 9 Sept. 1991 + 39 355 Sat. 28 Sept. 1878 53 353 Mon. 28 Sept. 1992 + 40 354 Thur. 18 Sept. 1879 54 355 Thur. 16 Sept. 1993 + 41 383 Mon. 6 Sept. 1880 55 384 Tues. 6 Sept. 1994 + 42 355 Sat. 24 Sept. 1881 56 355 Mon. 25 Sept. 1995 + 43 383 Thur. 14 Sept. 1882 57 383 Sat. 14 Sept. 1996 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 298 Cycle. 304 Cycle. +5644 354 Tues. 2 Oct. 1883 5758 354 Thur. 2 Oct. 1997 + 45 355 Sat. 20 Sept. 1884 59 355 Mon. 21 Sept. 1998 + 46 385 Thur. 10 Sept. 1885 60 385 Sat. 11 Sept. 1999 + 47 354 Thur. 30 Sept. 1886 61 353 Sat. 30 Sept. 2000 + 48 353 Mon. 19 Sept. 1887 62 354 Tues. 18 Sept. 2001 + 49 385 Thur. 6 Sept. 1888 63 385 Sat. 7 Sept. 2002 + 50 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 1889 64 355 Sat. 27 Sept. 2003 + 51 383 Mon. 15 Sept. 1890 65 383 Thur. 16 Sept. 2004 + 52 355 Sat. 3 Oct. 1891 66 354 Tues. 4 Oct. 2005 + 53 354 Thur. 22 Sept. 1892 67 355 Sat. 23 Sept. 2006 + 54 385 Mon. 11 Sept. 1893 68 383 Thur. 13 Sept. 2007 + 55 353 Mon. 1 Oct. 1894 69 354 Tues. 30 Sept. 2008 + 56 355 Thur. 19 Sept. 1895 70 355 Sat. 19 Sept. 2009 + 57 384 Tues. 8 Sept. 1896 71 385 Thur. 8 Sept. 2010 + 58 355 Mon. 27 Sept. 1897 72 354 Thur. 29 Sept. 2011 + 59 353 Sat. 17 Sept. 1898 73 353 Mon. 17 Sept. 2012 + 60 384 Tues. 5 Sept. 1899 74 385 Thur. 5 Sept. 2013 + 61 355 Mon. 24 Sept. 1900 75 354 Thur. 25 Sept. 2014 + 62 383 Sat 14 Sept. 1901 76 385 Mon. 14 Sept. 2015 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 299 Cycle. 305 Cycle. +5663 355 Thur. 2 Oct. 1902 5777 353 Mon. 3 Oct. 2016 + 64 354 Tues. 22 Sept. 1903 78 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 2017 + 65 385 Sat. 10 Sept. 1904 79 385 Mon. 10 Sept. 2018 + 66 355 Sat. 30 Sept. 1905 80 355 Mon. 30 Sept. 2019 + 67 354 Thur. 20 Sept. 1906 81 353 Sat. 19 Sept. 2020 + 68 383 Mon. 9 Sept. 1907 82 384 Tues. 7 Sept. 2021 + 69 355 Sat. 26 Sept. 1908 83 355 Mon. 26 Sept. 2022 + 70 383 Thur. 16 Sept. 1909 84 383 Sat. 16 Sept. 2023 + 71 354 Tues. 4 Oct. 1910 85 355 Thur. 3 Oct. 2024 + 72 355 Sat. 23 Sept. 1911 86 354 Tues. 23 Sept. 2025 + 73 385 Thur. 12 Sept. 1912 87 385 Sat. 12 Sept. 2026 + 74 354 Thur. 2 Oct. 1913 88 355 Sat. 2 Oct. 2027 + 75 353 Mon. 21 Sept. 1914 89 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 2028 + 76 385 Thur. 9 Sept. 1915 90 383 Mon. 10 Sept. 2029 + 77 354 Thur. 28 Sept. 1916 91 355 Sat. 28 Sept. 2030 + 78 355 Mon. 17 Sept. 1917 92 354 Thur. 18 Sept. 2031 + 79 383 Sat. 7 Sept. 1918 93 383 Mon. 6 Sept. 2032 + 80 354 Thur. 25 Sept. 1919 94 355 Sat. 24 Sept. 2033 + 81 385 Mon. 13 Sept. 1920 95 385 Thur. 14 Sept. 2034 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 300 Cycle. 306 Cycle. +5682 355 Mon. 3 Oct. 1921 5796 354 Thur. 4 Oct. 2035 + 83 353 Sat. 23 Sept. 1922 97 353 Mon. 22 Sept. 2036 + 84 384 Tues. 11 Sept. 1923 98 385 Thur. 10 Sept. 2037 + 85 355 Mon. 29 Sept. 1924 99 354 Thur. 30 Sept. 2038 + 86 355 Sat. 19 Sept. 1925 5800 355 Mon. 19 Sept. 2039 + 87 383 Thur. 9 Sept. 1926 01 383 Sat. 8 Sept. 2040 + 88 354 Tues. 27 Sept. 1927 02 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 2041 + 89 385 Sat. 15 Sept. 1928 03 385 Mon. 15 Sept. 2042 + 90 353 Sat. 5 Oct. 1929 04 353 Mon. 5 Oct. 2043 + 91 354 Tues. 23 Sept. 1930 05 355 Thur. 22 Sept. 2044 + 92 385 Sat. 12 Sept. 1931 06 384 Tues. 12 Sept. 2045 + 93 355 Sat. 1 Oct. 1932 07 355 Mon. 1 Oct. 2046 + 94 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 1933 08 353 Sat. 21 Sept. 2047 + 95 383 Mon. 10 Sept. 1934 09 384 Tues. 8 Sept. 2048 + 96 355 Sat. 28 Sept. 1935 10 355 Mon. 27 Sept. 2049 + 97 354 Thur. 17 Sept. 1936 11 355 Sat. 17 Sept. 2050 + 98 385 Mon. 6 Sept. 1937 12 383 Thur. 7 Sept. 2051 + 99 353 Mon. 26 Sept. 1938 13 354 Tues. 24 Sept. 2052 +5700 385 Thur. 14 Sept. 1939 14 385 Sat. 13 Sept. 2053 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 301 Cycle. 307 Cycle. +5701 354 Thur. 3 Oct. 1940 5815 355 Sat. 3 Oct. 2054 + 02 355 Mon. 22 Sept. 1941 16 354 Thur. 23 Sept. 2055 + 03 383 Sat. 12 Sept. 1942 17 383 Mon. 11 Sept. 2056 + 04 354 Thur. 30 Sept. 1943 18 355 Sat. 29 Sept. 2057 + 05 355 Mon. 18 Sept. 1944 19 354 Thur. 19 Sept. 2058 + 06 383 Sat. 8 Sept. 1945 20 383 Mon. 8 Sept. 2059 + 07 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 1946 21 355 Sat. 25 Sept. 2060 + 08 385 Mon. 15 Sept. 1947 22 385 Thur. 15 Sept. 2061 + 09 355 Mon. 4 Oct. 1948 23 354 Thur. 5 Oct. 2062 + 10 353 Sat. 24 Sept. 1949 24 353 Mon. 24 Sept. 2063 + 11 384 Tues. 12 Sept. 1950 25 385 Thur. 11 Sept. 2064 + 12 355 Mon. 1 Oct. 1951 26 354 Thur. 1 Oct. 2065 + 13 355 Sat. 20 Sept. 1952 27 355 Mon. 20 Sept. 2066 + 14 383 Thur. 10 Sept. 1953 28 383 Sat. 10 Sept. 2067 + 15 354 Tues. 28 Sept. 1954 29 354 Thur. 27 Sept. 2068 + 16 355 Sat. 17 Sept. 1955 30 355 Mon. 16 Sept. 2069 + 17 385 Thur. 6 Sept. 1956 31 383 Sat. 6 Sept. 2070 + 18 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 1957 32 355 Thur. 24 Sept. 2071 + 19 383 Mon. 15 Sept. 1958 33 384 Tues. 13 Sept. 2072 + +_Mohammedan Calendar._--The Mahommedan era, or era of the Hegira, used in +Turkey, Persia, Arabia, &c., is dated from the first day of the month +preceding the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, _i.e._ Thursday the +15th of July A.D. 622, and it commenced on the day following. The years of +the Hegira are purely lunar, and always consist of twelve lunar months, +commencing with the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keep +them to the same season with respect to the sun, so that they retrograde +through all the seasons in about 32½ years. They are also partitioned into +cycles of 30 years, 19 of which are common years of 354 days each, and the +other 11 are intercalary years having an additional day appended to the +last month. The mean length of the year is therefore 354-11/30 days, or 354 +days 8 hours 48 min., which divided by 12 gives 29-191/360 days, or 29 days +12 hours 44 min., as the time of a mean lunation, and this differs from the +astronomical mean lunation by only 2.8 seconds. This small error will only +amount to a day in about 2400 years. + +To find if a year is intercalary or common, divide it by 30; the quotient +will be the number of completed cycles and the remainder will be the year +of the current cycle; if this last be one of the numbers 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, +16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29, the year is intercalary and consists of 355 days; +if it be any other number, the year is ordinary. + +Or if Y denote the number of the Mahommedan year, and + + R = ((11 Y + 14) / 30)_r, + +the year is intercalary when R < 11. + +[v.04 p.1002] Also the number of intercalary years from the year 1 up to +the year Y inclusive = ((11 Y + 14) / 30)_w; and the same up to the year Y +- 1 = (11 Y + 3 / 30)_w. + +To find the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira begins, we +observe that the year 1 began on a Friday, and that after every common year +of 354 days, or 50 weeks and 4 days, the day of the week must necessarily +become postponed 4 days, besides the additional day of each intercalary +year. + + Hence if w = 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 + indicate Sun. | Mon. | Tue. | Wed. | Thur. | Frid. | Sat. + +the day of the week on which the year Y commences will be + + w = 2 + 4(Y / 7)_r + ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w (rejecting sevens). + + But, 30 ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w + ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r = 11 Y + 3 + + gives 120((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w = 12 + 44 Y - 4((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r, + + or ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w = 5 + 2 Y + 3((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r (rejecting + sevens). + +So that + + w = 6(Y / 7)_r + 3((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r (rejecting sevens), + +the values of which obviously circulate in a period of 7 times 30 or 210 +years. + +Let C denote the number of completed cycles, and y the year of the cycle; +then Y = 30 C + y, and + + w = 5(C / 7)_r + 6(y / 7)_r + 3((11 y +3) / 30)_r (rejecting sevens). + +From this formula the following table has been constructed:-- + + TABLE VIII. + + Year of the Number of the Period of Seven Cycles = (C/7)_r + Current Cycle (y) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 + 0 8 Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. + 1 9 17 25 Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. + *2 *10 *18 *26 Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. + 3 11 19 27 Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. + 4 12 20 28 Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. + *5 *13 *21 *29 Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. + 6 14 22 30 Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. + *7 15 23 Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. + *16 *24 Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. + +To find from this table the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira +commences, the rule to be observed will be as follows:-- + +_Rule._--Divide the year of the Hegira by 30; the quotient is the number of +cycles, and the remainder is the year of the current cycle. Next divide the +number of cycles by 7, and the second remainder will be the Number of the +Period, which being found at the top of the table, and the year of the +cycle on the left hand, the required day of the week is immediately shown. + +The intercalary years of the cycle are distinguished by an asterisk. + +For the computation of the Christian date, the ratio of a mean year of the +Hegira to a solar year is + + Year of Hegira / Mean solar year = 354-11/30 / 365.2422 = 0.970224. + +The year 1 began 16 July 622, Old Style, or 19 July 622, according to the +New or Gregorian Style. Now the day of the year answering to the 19th of +July is 200, which, in parts of the solar year, is 0.5476, and the number +of years elapsed = Y - 1. Therefore, as the intercalary days are +distributed with considerable regularity in both calendars, the date of +commencement of the year Y expressed in Gregorian years is + + 0.970224 (Y - 1) + 622.5476, + or 0.970224 Y + 621.5774. + +This formula gives the following rule for calculating the date of the +commencement of any year of the Hegira, according to the Gregorian or New +Style. + +_Rule._--Multiply 970224 by the year of the Hegira, cut off six decimals +from the product, and add 621.5774. The sum will be the year of the +Christian era, and the day of the year will be found by multiplying the +decimal figures by 365. + +The result may sometimes differ a day from the truth, as the intercalary +days do not occur simultaneously; but as the day of the week can always be +accurately obtained from the foregoing table, the result can be readily +adjusted. + +_Example._--Required the date on which the year 1362 of the Hegira begins. + + 970224 + 1362 + -------- + 1940448 + 5821344 + 2910672 + 970224 +----------- +1321.445088 + 621.5774 +----------- +1943.0225 + 365 + ---- + 1225 + 1350 + 675 + ------ + 8.2125 +Thus the date is the 8th day, or the 8th of January, of the year 1943. + +To find, as a test, the accurate day of the week, the proposed year of the +Hegira, divided by 30, gives 45 cycles, and remainder 12, the year of the +current cycle. + +Also 45, divided by 7, leaves a remainder 3 for the number of the period. + +Therefore, referring to 3 at the top of the table, and 12 on the left, the +required day is Friday. + +The tables, page 571, show that 8th January 1943 is a Friday, therefore the +date is exact. + +For any other date of the Mahommedan year it is only requisite to know the +names of the consecutive months, and the number of days in each; these +are-- + + Muharram . . . . . . . 30 + Saphar . . . . . . . . 29 + Rabia I. . . . . . . . 30 + Rabia II. . . . . . . . 29 + Jomada I. . . . . . . . 30 + Jomada II. . . . . . . 29 + Rajab . . . . . . . . . 30 + Shaaban . . . . . . . . 29 + Ramadan . . . . . . . . 30 + Shawall (Shawwal) . . . 29 + Dulkaada (Dhu'l Qa'da) 30 + Dulheggia (Dhu'l Hijja) 29 ) + and in intercalary ) + years . . . . . . . . 30 ) + +The ninth month, Ramadan, is the month of Abstinence observed by the +Moslems. + +The Moslem calendar may evidently be carried on indefinitely by successive +addition, observing only to allow for the additional day that occurs in the +bissextile and intercalary years; but for any remote date the computation +according to the preceding rules will be most efficient, and such +computation may be usefully employed as a check on the accuracy of any +considerable extension of the calendar by induction alone. + +The following table, taken from Woolhouse's _Measures, Weights and Moneys +of all Nations_, shows the dates of commencement of Mahommedan years from +1845 up to 2047, or from the 43rd to the 49th cycle inclusive, which form +the whole of the seventh period of seven cycles. Throughout the next period +of seven cycles, and all other like periods, the days of the week will +recur in exactly the same order. All the tables of this kind previously +published, which extend beyond the year 1900 of the Christian era, are +erroneous, not excepting the celebrated French work, _L'Art de vérifier les +dates_, so justly regarded as the greatest authority in chronological +matters. The errors have probably arisen from a continued excess of 10 in +the discrimination of the intercalary years. + + TABLE IX.--_Mahommedan Years._ + + 43rd Cycle. 46th Cycle. (continued.) + Year of Commencement Year of Commencement + Hegira. (1st of Muharram). Hegira. (1st of Muharram). + 1261 Frid. 10 Jan. 1845 1365 Thur. 6 Dec. 1945 + 1262* Tues. 30 Dec. 1845 1366* Mon. 25 Nov. 1946 + 1263 Sun. 20 Dec. 1846 1367 Sat. 15 Nov. 1947 + 1264 Thur. 9 Dec. 1847 1368* Wed. 3 Nov. 1948 + 1265* Mon. 27 Nov. 1848 1369 Mon. 24 Oct. 1949 + 1266 Sat. 17 Nov. 1849 1370 Frid. 13 Oct. 1950 + 1267* Wed. 6 Nov. 1850 1371* Tues. 2 Oct. 1951 + 1268 Mon. 27 Oct. 1851 1372 Sun. 21 Sept. 1952 + 1269 Frid. 15 Oct. 1852 1373 Thur. 10 Sept. 1953 + 1270* Tues. 4 Oct. 1853 1374* Mon. 30 Aug. 1954 + 1271 Sun. 24 Sept. 1854 1375 Sat. 20 Aug. 1955 + 1272 Thur. 13 Sept. 1855 1376* Wed. 8 Aug. 1956 + 1273* Mon. 1 Sept. 1856 1377 Mon. 29 July 1957 + 1274 Sat. 22 Aug. 1857 1378 Frid. 18 July 1958 + 1275 Wed. 11 Aug. 1858 1379* Tues. 7 July 1959 + 1276* Sun. 31 July 1859 1380 Sun. 26 June 1960 + 1277* Frid. 20 July 1860 + 1278* Tues. 9 July 1861 47th Cycle. + 1279 Sun. 29 June 1862 1381 Thur. 15 June 1961 + 1280 Thur. 18 June 1863 1382* Mon. 4 June 1962 + 1281* Mon. 6 June 1864 1383 Sat. 25 May 1963 + 1282 Sat. 27 May 1865 1384 Wed. 13 May 1964 + 1283 Wed. 16 May 1866 1385* Sun. 2 May 1965 + 1284* Sun. 5 May 1867 1386 Frid. 22 April 1966 + 1285 Frid. 24 April 1868 1387* Tues. 11 April 1967 + 1286* Tues. 13 April 1869 1388 Sun. 31 Mar. 1968 + 1287 Sun. 3 April 1870 1389 Thur. 20 Mar. 1969 + 1288 Thur. 23 Mar. 1871 1390* Mon. 9 Mar. 1970 + 1289* Mon. 11 Mar. 1872 1391 Sat. 27 Feb. 1971 + 1290 Sat. 1 Mar. 1873 1392 Wed. 16 Feb. 1972 + 1393* Sun. 4 Feb. 1973 + 44th Cycle. 1394 Frid. 25 Jan. 1974 + 1291 Wed. 18 Feb. 1874 1395 Tues. 14 Jan. 1975 + 1292* Sun. 7 Feb. 1875 1396* Sat. 3 Jan. 1976 + 1293 Frid. 28 Jan. 1876 1397 Thur. 23 Dec. 1976 + 1294 Tues. 16 Jan. 1877 1398* Mon. 12 Dec. 1977 + 1295* Sat. 5 Jan. 1878 1399 Sat. 2 Dec. 1978 + 1296 Thur. 26 Dec. 1878 1400 Wed. 21 Nov. 1979 + 1297* Mon. 15 Dec. 1879 1401* Sun. 9 Nov. 1980 + 1298 Sat. 4 Dec. 1880 1402 Frid. 30 Oct. 1981 + 1299 Wed. 23 Nov. 1881 1403 Tues. 19 Oct. 1982 + 1300* Sun. 12 Nov. 1882 1404* Sat. 8 Oct. 1983 + 1301 Frid. 2 Nov. 1883 1405 Thur. 27 Sept. 1984 + 1302 Tues. 21 Oct. 1884 1406* Mon. 16 Sept. 1985 + 1303* Sat. 10 Oct. 1885 1407 Sat. 6 Sept. 1986 + 1304 Thur. 30 Sept. 1886 1408 Wed. 26 Aug. 1987 + 1305 Mon. 19 Sept. 1887 1409* Sun. 14 Aug. 1988 + 1306* Frid. 7 Sept. 1888 1410 Frid. 4 Aug. 1989 + 1307 Wed. 28 Aug. 1889 + 1308* Sun. 17 Aug. 1890 48th Cycle. + 1309 Frid. 7 Aug. 1891 1411 Tues. 24 July 1990 + 1310 Tues. 26 July 1892 1412* Sat. 13 July 1991 + 1311* Sat. 15 July 1893 1413 Thur. 2 July 1992 + 1312 Thur. 5 July 1894 1414 Mon. 21 June 1993 + 1313 Mon. 24 June 1895 1415* Frid. 10 June 1994 + 1314* Frid. 12 June 1896 1416 Wed. 31 May 1995 + 1315 Wed. 2 June 1897 1417* Sun. 19 May 1996 + 1316* Sun. 22 May 1898 1418 Frid. 9 May 1997 + 1317 Frid. 12 May 1899 1419 Tues. 28 April 1998 + 1318 Tues. 1 May 1900 1420* Sat. 17 April 1999 + 1319* Sat. 20 April 1901 1421 Thur. 6 April 2000 + 1320 Thur. 10 April 1902 1422 Mon. 26 Mar. 2001 + 1423 Frid. 15 Mar. 2002 + 45th Cycle. 1424 Wed. 5 Mar. 2003 + 1321 Mon. 30 Mar. 1903 1425 Sun. 22 Feb. 2004 + 1322* Frid. 18 Mar. 1904 1426* Thur. 10 Feb. 2005 + 1323 Wed. 8 Mar. 1905 1427 Tues. 31 Jan. 2006 + 1324 Sun. 25 Feb. 1906 1428* Sat. 20 Jan. 2007 + 1325 Thur. 14 Feb. 1907 1429 Thur. 10 Jan. 2008 + 1326 Tues. 4 Feb. 1908 1430 Mon. 29 Dec. 2008 + 1327* Sat. 23 Jan. 1909 1431* Frid. 18 Dec. 2009 + 1328 Thur. 13 Jan. 1910 1432 Wed. 8 Dec. 2010 + 1329 Mon. 2 Jan. 1911 1433 Sun. 27 Nov. 2011 + 1330* Frid. 22 Dec. 1911 1434* Thur. 15 Nov. 2012 + 1331 Wed. 11 Dec. 1912 1435 Tues. 5 Nov. 2013 + 1332 Sun. 30 Nov. 1913 1436* Sat. 25 Oct. 2014 + 1333* Thur. 19 Nov. 1914 1437 Thur. 15 Oct. 2015 + 1334 Tues. 9 Nov. 1915 1438 Mon. 3 Oct. 2016 + 1335 Sat. 28 Oct. 1916 1439* Frid. 22 Sept. 2017 + 1336* Wed. 17 Oct. 1917 1440 Wed. 12 Sept. 2018 + 1337 Mon. 7 Oct. 1918 + [v.04 p.1003] + 1338* Frid. 26 Sept. 1919 49th Cycle. + 1339 Wed. 15 Sept. 1920 1441 Sun. 1 Sept. 2019 + 1340 Sun. 4 Sept. 1921 1442* Thur. 20 Aug. 2020 + 1341* Thur. 24 Aug. 1922 1443 Tues. 10 Aug. 2021 + 1342 Tues. 14 Aug. 1923 1444 Sat. 30 July 2022 + 1343 Sat. 2 Aug. 1924 1445* Wed. 19 July 2023 + 1344* Wed. 22 July 1925 1446 Mon. 8 July 2024 + 1345 Mon. 12 July 1926 1447* Frid. 27 June 2025 + 1346* Frid. 1 July 1927 1448 Wed. 17 June 2026 + 1347 Wed. 20 June 1928 1449 Sun. 6 June 2027 + 1348 Sun. 9 June 1929 1450* Thur. 25 May 2028 + 1349* Thur. 29 May 1930 1451 Tues. 15 May 2029 + 1350 Tues. 19 May 1931 1452 Sat. 4 May 2030 + 1453* Wed. 23 April 2031 + 46th Cycle. 1454 Mon. 12 April 2032 + 1351 Sat. 7 May 1932 1455 Frid. 1 April 2033 + 1352* Wed. 26 April 1933 1456* Tues. 21 Mar. 2034 + 1353 Mon. 16 April 1934 1457 Sun. 11 Mar. 2035 + 1354 Frid. 5 April 1935 1458* Thur. 28 Feb. 2036 + 1355* Tues. 24 Mar. 1936 1459 Tues. 17 Feb. 2037 + 1356 Sun. 14 Mar. 1937 1460 Sat. 6 Feb. 2038 + 1357* Thur. 3 Mar. 1938 1461* Wed. 26 Jan. 2039 + 1358 Tues. 21 Feb. 1939 1462 Mon. 16 Jan. 2040 + 1359 Sat. 10 Feb. 1940 1463 Frid. 4 Jan. 2041 + 1360* Wed. 29 Jan. 1941 1464* Tues. 24 Dec. 2041 + 1361 Mon. 19 Jan. 1942 1465 Sun. 14 Dec. 2042 + 1362 Frid. 8 Jan. 1943 1466* Thur. 3 Dec. 2043 + 1363* Tues. 28 Dec. 1943 1467 Tues. 22 Nov. 2044 + 1364 Sun. 17 Dec. 1944 1468 Sat. 11 Nov. 2045 + + TABLE X.--_Principal Days of the Hebrew Calendar._ + + Tisri 1, New Year, Feast of Trumpets. + " 3,[1] Fast of Guedaliah. + " 10, Fast of Expiation. + " 15, Feast of Tabernacles. + " 21, Last Day of the Festival. + " 22, Feast of the 8th Day. + " 23, Rejoicing of the Law. + Kislev 25, Dedication of the Temple. + Tebet 10, Fast, Siege of Jerusalem. + Adar 13,[2] Fast of Esther, } In embolismic + " 14, Purim, } years. Veadar. + Nisan 15, Passover. + Sivan 6, Pentecost. + Tamuz 17,[1] Fast, Taking of Jerusalem. + Ab 9.[1] Fast, Destruction of the Temple. + +[1] If Saturday, substitute Sunday immediately following. + +[2] If Saturday, substitute Thursday immediately preceding. + + TABLE XI.--_Principal Days of the Mahommedan Calendar._ + + Muharram 1, New Year. + " 10, Ashura. + Rabia I. 11, Birth of Mahomet. + Jornada I. 20, Taking of Constantinople. + Rajab 15, Day of Victory. + " 20, Exaltation of Mahomet. + Shaaban 15, Borak's Night. + Shawall 1,2,3, Kutshuk Bairam. + Dulheggia 10, Qurban Bairam. + + TABLE XII.--_Epochs, Eras, and Periods._ + + Name. Christian Date of Commencement. + + Grecian Mundane era 1 Sep. 5598 B.C. + Civil era of Constantinople 1 Sep. 5508 " + Alexandrian era 29 Aug. 5502 " + Ecclesiastical|era of Antioch 1 Sep. 5492 " + Julian Period 1 Jan. 4713 " + Mundane era Oct. 4008 " + Jewish Mundane era Oct. 3761 " + Era of Abraham 1 Oct. 2015 " + Era of the Olympiads 1 July 776 " + Roman era 24 April 753 " + Era of Nabonassar 26 Feb. 747 " + Metonic Cycle 15 July 432 " + Grecian or Syro-Macedonian era 1 Sep. 312 " + Tyrian era 19 Oct. 125 " + Sidonian era Oct. 110 " + Caesarean era of Antioch 1 Sep. 48 " + Julian year 1 Jan. 45 " + Spanish era 1 Jan. 38 " + Actian era 1 Jan. 30 " + Augustan era 14 Feb. 27 " + Vulgar Christian era 1 Jan. 1 A.D. + Destruction of Jerusalem 1 Sep. 69 " + Era of Maccabees 24 Nov. 166 " + Era of Diocletian 17 Sep. 284 " + Era of Ascension 12 Nov. 295 " + Era of the Armenians 7 July 552 " + Mahommedan era of the Hegira 16 July 622 " + Persian era of Yezdegird 16 June 632 " + +For the Revolutionary Calendar see FRENCH REVOLUTION _ad fin._ + +The principal works on the calendar are the following:--Clavius, _Romani +Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P.M. restituti Explicatio_ (Rome, 1603); _L'Art +de vérifier les dates_; Lalande, _Astronomie_ tome ii.; _Traité de la +sphère et du calendrier_, par M. Revard (Paris, 1816); Delambre, _Traité de +l'astronomie théorique et pratique_, tome iii.; _Histoire de l'astronomie +moderne; Methodus technica brevis, perfacilis, ac perpetua construendi +Calendarium Ecclesiasticum, Stylo tam novo quam vetere, pro cunctis +Christianis Europae populis, &c._, auctore Paulo Tittel (Gottingen, 1816); +_Formole analitiche pel calcolo delta Pasgua, e correzione di quello di +Gauss, con critiche osservazioni sù quanta ha scritto del calendario il +Delambri_, di Lodovico Ciccolini (Rome, 1817); E.H. Lindo, _Jewish Calendar +for Sixty-four Years_ (1838); W.S.B. Woolhouse, _Measures, Weights, and +Moneys of all Nations_ (1869). + +(T. G.; W. S. B. W.) + +CALENDER, (1) (Fr. _calendre_, from the Med. Lat. _calendra_, a corruption +of the Latinized form of the Gr. [Greek: kulindros], a cylinder), a machine +consisting of two or more rollers or cylinders in close contact with each +other, and often heated, through which are passed cotton, calico and other +fabrics, for the purpose of having a finished smooth surface given to them; +the process flattens the fibres, removes inequalities, and also gives a +glaze to the surface. It is similarly employed in paper manufacture +(_q.v._). (2) (From the Arabic _qalandar_), an order of dervishes, who +separated from the Baktashite order in the 14th century; they were vowed to +perpetual travelling. Other forms of the name by which they are known are +Kalenderis, Kalenderites, and Qalandarites (see DERVISH). + +CALENUS, QUINTUS FUFIUS, Roman general. As tribune of the people in 61 +B.C., he wa$ chiefly instrumental in securing the acquittal of the +notorious Publius Clodius when charged with having profaned the mysteries +of Bona Dea (Cicero, _Ad. Att._ i. 16). In 59 Calenus was praetor, and +brought forward a law that the senators, knights, and tribuni aerarii, who +composed the judices, should vote separately, so that it might be known how +they gave their votes (Dio Cassius xxxviii. 8). He fought in Gaul (51) and +Spain (49) under Caesar, who, after he had crossed over to Greece (48), +sent Calenus from Epirus to bring over the rest of the troops from Italy. +On the passage to Italy, most of the ships were captured by Bibulus and +Calenus himself escaped with difficulty. In 47 he was raised to the +consulship through the influence of Caesar. After the death of the +dictator, he joined Antony, whose legions he afterwards commanded in the +north of Italy. He died in 41, while stationed with his army at the foot of +the Alps, just as he was on the point of marching against Octavianus. + +Caesar, _B.G._ viii. 39; _B.C._ i. 87, iii. 26; Cic. _Philippicae_, viii. +4. + +CALEPINO, AMBROGIO (1435-1511), Italian lexicographer, born at Bergamo in +1435, was descended of an old family of Calepio, whence he took his name. +Becoming an Augustinian monk, he devoted his whole life to the composition +of a polyglott dictionary, first printed at Reggio in 1502. This gigantic +work was afterwards augmented by Passerat and others. The most complete +edition, published at Basel in 1590, comprises no fewer than eleven +languages. The best edition is that published at Padua in seven languages +in 1772. Calepino died blind in 1511. + +CALES (mod. _Calvi_), an ancient city of Campania, belonging Originally to +the Aurunci, on the Via Latina, 8 m. N.N.W. of Casilinum. It was taken by +the Romans in 335 B.C., and, a colony with Latin rights of 2500 citizens +having been established there, it was for a long time the centre of the +Roman dominion in Campania, and the seat of the quaestor for southern Italy +even down to the days of Tacitus.[1] It was an important base in the war +against Hannibal, and at last refused further contributions for the war. +Before 184 more settlers were sent there. After the Social War it became a +_municipium_. The fertility of its territory and its manufacture of black +glazed pottery, which was even exported to Etruria, made it prosperous. At +the end of the 3rd century it appears as a colony, and in the 5th century +it became an episcopal see, which (jointly with Teano since 1818) it still +is, though it is now a mere village. The cathedral, of the 12th century, +has a carved portal and three apses decorated with small arches and +pilasters, and contains a fine pulpit and episcopal throne in marble +mosaic. Near it are two grottos [v.04 p.1004] which have been used for +Christian worship and contain frescoes of the 10th and 11th centuries (E. +Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie méridionale_ (Paris, 1904), i. 244, &c.). +Inscriptions name six gates of the town: and there are considerable remains +of antiquity, especially of an amphitheatre and theatre, of a supposed +temple, and other edifices. A number of tombs belonging to the Roman +necropolis were discovered in 1883. + +See C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 1351 (Stuttgart, +1899). + +(T. AS.) + +[1] To the period after 335 belong numerous silver and bronze coins with +the legend _Caleno_. + +CALF. (1) (A word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. German +_Kalb_, and Dutch _kalf_), the young of the family of _Bovidae_, and +particularly of the domestic cow, also of the elephant, and of marine +mammals, as the whale and seal. The word is applied to a small island close +to a larger one, like a calf close to its mother's side, as in the "Calf of +Man," and to a mass of ice detached from an iceberg. (2) (Of unknown +origin, possibly connected with the Celtic _calpa_, a leg), the fleshy +hinder part of the leg, between the knee and the ankle. + +CALF, THE GOLDEN, a molten image made by the Israelites when Moses had +ascended the Mount of Yahweh to receive the Law (Ex. xxxii.). Alarmed at +his lengthy absence the people clamoured for "gods" to lead them, and at +the instigation of Aaron, they brought their jewelry and made the calf out +of it. This was celebrated by a sacred festival, and it was only through +the intervention of Moses that the people were saved from the wrath of +Yahweh (cp. Deut. ix. 19 sqq.). Nevertheless 3000 of them fell at the hands +of the Levites who, in answer to the summons of Moses, declared themselves +on the side of Yahweh. The origin of this particular form of worship can +scarcely be sought in Egypt; the Apis which was worshipped there was a live +bull, and image-worship was common among the Canaanites in connexion with +the cult of Baal and Astarte (_qq.v._). In early Israel it was considered +natural to worship Yahweh by means of images (cp. the story of Gideon, +Judg. viii. 24 sqq.), and even to Moses himself was attributed the +bronze-serpent whose cult at Jerusalem was destroyed in the time of +Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 4, Num. xxi. 4-9). The condemnation which later +writers, particularly those imbued with the spirit of the Deuteronomic +reformation, pass upon all image-worship, is in harmony with the judgment +upon Jeroboam for his innovations at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings xii. 28 sqq., +xvi. 26, &c.). But neither Elijah nor Elisha raised a voice against the +cult; then, as later, in the time of Amos, it was nominally Yahweh-worship, +and Hosea is the first to regard it as the fundamental cause of Israel's +misery. + +See further, W.R. Smith, _Prophets of Israel_, pp. 175 sqq.; Kennedy, +Hastings' _Dict. Bib._ i. 342; and HEBREW RELIGION. + +(S. A. C.) + +CALGARY, the oldest city in the province of Alberta. Pop. (1901) 4091; +(1907) 21,112. It is situated in 114° 15' W., and 51° 4½' N., on the Bow +river, which flows with its crystal waters from the pass in the Rocky +Mountains, by which the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway crosses +the Rocky Mountains. The pass proper--Kananaskis--penetrates the mountains +beginning 40 m. west of Calgary, and the well-known watering-place, Banff, +lies 81 m. west of it, in the Canadian national park. The streets are wide +and laid out on a rectangular system. The buildings are largely of stone, +the building stone used being the brown Laramie sandstone found in the +valley of the Bow river in the neighbourhood of the city. Calgary is an +important point on the Canadian Pacific railway, which has a general +superintendent resident here. It is an important centre of wholesale +dealers, and also of industrial establishments. Calgary is near the site of +Fort La Jonquiere founded by the French in 1752. Old Bow fort was a trading +post for many years though now in ruins. The present city was created by +the building of the Canadian Pacific railway about 1883. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +p. 795, Bülow, Hans Guido von: "married in his twenty-eighth year": +'twenty-eight' in original + +p. 843, Internal Communications: "a great deal of road construction": +'constuction' in original + +p. 884, 6th para: "Throughout the whole of the Analogy it is manifest": +'manfest' in original. + +p. 904, 4th para: "additions to already existing types": 'exsiting' in +original + +p. 914, Cabasilas, Nicolaus: "a speech against usurers": 'againt' in +original + +p. 970, 3rd para: "coloured by cobalt": 'colbalt' in original + +p. 976, 1st equation: "P = ½ l²/c w": the = sign is printed vertically in +original + +p. 979, 11th piece of text: "A_2 is proportional to the roll of W_2": 'roll +of w_2' in original: but properly W_2 is the wheel, w_2 is the measure of +its roll. + +p. 996, Table III: column 11 begins 20-17-19-17-16 in original, this should +be 20-19-18-17-16 (as described earlier, the columns are arranged in the +order of the natural numbers, beginning at the bottom and proceeding to the +top of the column.) + +p. 997, Table IV: Nov 27. contains "25'24" in original: according to the +text, 25 beside 24 should not be accented. + +p. 1000, Table VII: 5620 shown starting "29 Sept. 1858" in original: must +be 1859. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Part 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 19846-8.txt or 19846-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/4/19846/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of +public domain material from the Robinson Curriculum.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/2006-11-17-19846-8.zip b/old/2006-11-17-19846-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d6e8c8b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2006-11-17-19846-8.zip diff --git a/old/2006-11-17-19846-h.zip b/old/2006-11-17-19846-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6addd77 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2006-11-17-19846-h.zip diff --git a/old/2006-11-17-19846.txt b/old/2006-11-17-19846.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..45d042a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2006-11-17-19846.txt @@ -0,0 +1,31781 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Part 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4 + "Bulgaria" to "Calgary" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 17, 2006 [EBook #19846] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of +public domain material from the Robinson Curriculum.) + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been +incorporated into the text of each page as: v.04 p.0001. + +In the article CALCITE, negative Miller Indices, e.g. "1-bar" in the +original are shown as "-1". + +In the article CALCULATING MACHINES, [Integral,a:b] indicates a definite +integral between lower limit a and upper limit b. [Integral] by itself +indicates an indefinite integral. [=x] and [=y] indicate x-bar and y-bar in +the original. + +[v.04 p.0773] [Illustration] + +the mean interval being 60 m.; the summits are, as a rule, rounded, and the +slopes gentle. The culminating points are in the centre of the range: +Yumrukchal (7835 ft.), Maraguduk (7808 ft.), and Kadimlia (7464 ft.). The +Balkans are known to the people of the country as the _Stara Planina_ or +"Old Mountain," the adjective denoting their greater size as compared with +that of the adjacent ranges: "Balkan" is not a distinctive term, being +applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the Turks, to all mountains. Closely +parallel, on the south, are the minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or "Middle +Mountains" (highest summit 5167 ft.) and the Karaja Dagh, enclosing +respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlyk. At its eastern +extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central +terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Emine ("Haemus"), the northern forming +the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the rivers falling +directly into the Black Sea. The Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether +distinct from the Balkans, with which, however, it is connected by the +Malka Planina and the Ikhtiman hills, respectively west and east of Sofia; +it may be regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine system which +traverses the Peninsula from the Dinaric Alps and the Shar Planina on the +west to the Shabkhana Dagh near the Aegean coast; its sharper outlines and +pine-clad steeps reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than that of the +Balkans. The imposing summit of Musalla (9631 ft.), next to Olympus, the +highest in the Peninsula, forms the centre-point of the group; it stands +within the Bulgarian frontier at the head of the Mesta valley, on either +side of which the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and +south-east respectively towards the Aegean. The chain of Rhodope proper +radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already +mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the +Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytke (7179 ft.) and +Karlyk (6828 ft.), are within the frontier. From Musalla in a westerly +direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a +picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this +chain attain 7000 ft. Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the +Osogovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen (7392 ft.). To the north of the +Rilska Planina the almost isolated mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs +Sofia. Snow and ice remain in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the +Balkans throughout the summer. The fertile slope trending northwards from +the Balkans to the Danube is for the most part gradual and broken by hills; +the eastern portion known as the _Deli Orman_, or "Wild Wood," is covered +by forest, and thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes precipitous +character of the Bulgarian bank of the Danube contrasts with the swampy +lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side. Northern Bulgaria is watered by +the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern Lom, all, except the +Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing into the Danube. The channels +of these rivers are deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; irrigation is +consequently difficult and navigation impossible. The course of the Iskr is +remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into the basin +of Samakov, passing thence through a serpentine defile into the plateau of +Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a lake; it now forces its way +through the Balkans by the picturesque gorge of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly +the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik breaks the central chain of the Balkans near +their eastern extremity and, uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the +Black Sea. The Maritza, the ancient _Hebrus_, springs from the slopes of +Musalla, and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the wide +plain of Eastern Rumelia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek _Strymon_) +drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza, flows into the +Aegean. The elevated basins of Samakov (lowest altitude 3050 ft.), Trn +(2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia (1640 ft.), and +Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature of the western highlands. + +_Geology._--The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety, almost +all the systems being exemplified. The Archean, composed of gneiss and +crystalline schists, and traversed by eruptive veins, extends over the +greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina, Rhodope, +and the adjacent ranges. North of the Balkans it appears only in the +neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The other earlier Palaeozoic systems are +wanting, but the Carboniferous appears in the western Balkans with a +continental _facies_ (Kulm). Here anthracitiferous coal is found in beds of +argillite and sandstone. Red sandstone and conglomerate, representing the +Permian system, appear especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these, +in the western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper +Jurassic, also occurring in the central part of the range. The Cretaceous +system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears +throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the +Balkans to the Danube. Gosau beds are found on the southern declivity of +the chain. Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and Eocene systems, is +widely distributed. The Eocene, or older Tertiary, further appears with +nummulitic formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene +only near the Black Sea coast at Burgas. Of the Neogene, or younger +Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears near Pleven (Plevna) +in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between Varna and Burgas with beds +of spaniodons, as in the Crimea; the Sarmatian stage in the plain of the +Danube and in the districts of Silistria and Varna. A rich mammaliferous +deposit (_Hipparion_, _Rhinoceros_, _Dinotherium_, _Mastodon_, &c.) of this +period has been found near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more +limited space. The Quaternary era is represented by the typical loess, +which covers most of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the +alluvial deposits of the riparian districts with remains of the _Ursus_, +_Equus_, &c., found in bone-caverns. Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans +and Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern [v.04 +p.0774] ranges, presenting granite, syenite, diorite, diabase, +quartz-porphyry, melaphyre, liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt, &c. + +_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, although, with +the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited. The minerals which +are commercially valuable include gold (found in small quantities), silver, +graphite, galena, pyrite, marcasite, chalcosine, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, +bornite, cuprite, hematite, limonite, ochre, chromite, magnetite, azurite, +manganese, malachite, gypsum, &c. The combustibles are anthracitiferous +coal, coal, "brown coal" and lignite. The lignite mines opened by the +government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons. Coal beds have +been discovered at Trevna and elsewhere. Thermal springs, mostly +sulphureous, exist in forty-three localities along the southern slope of +the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of Sofia and Kiustendil; +maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near Dupnitza, 180.5 deg. (Fahrenheit), at +Sofia 118.4 deg.. Many of these are frequented now, as in Roman times, owing to +their valuable therapeutic qualities. The mineral springs on the north of +the Balkans are, with one exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), cold. + +_Climate._--The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison with that +of other European regions of the same latitude is attributable in part to +the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in part to the general +configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme heat in summer and cold in +winter, great local contrasts, and rapid transitions of temperature occur +here as in the adjoining countries. The local contrasts are remarkable. In +the districts extending from the Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed +to the bitter north wind, the winter cold is intense, and the river, +notwithstanding the volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently +frozen over; the temperature has been known to fall to 24 deg. below zero. +Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans against hot southerly winds, +the summer heat in this region is not unbearable; its maximum is 99 deg.. The +high tableland of Sofia is generally covered with snow in the winter +months; it enjoys, however, a somewhat more equable climate than the +northern district, the maximum temperature being 86 deg., the minimum 2 deg.; the +air is bracing, and the summer nights are cool and fresh. In the eastern +districts the proximity of the sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold; +the sea is occasionally frozen at Varna. The coast-line is exposed to +violent north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the [Greek: pontos axeinos] or +"inhospitable sea" of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation for storms. +The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a comparatively warm +climate; spring begins six weeks earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and +the vegetation is that of southern Europe. In general the Bulgarian winter +is short and severe; the spring short, changeable and rainy; the summer +hot, but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (_yasen_, "the clear time") +magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month of December. The +mean temperature is 52 deg.. The climate is healthy, especially in the +mountainous districts. Malarial fever prevails in the valley of the +Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the +upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage. The mean annual +rainfall is 25-59 in. (Gabrovo, 41-73; Sofia, 27-68; Varna, 18-50). + +_Fauna._--Few special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian fauna. Bears +are still abundant in the higher mountain districts, especially in the +Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian bear is small and of brown +colour, like that of the Carpathians. Wolves are very numerous, and in +winter commit great depredations even in the larger country towns and +villages; in hard weather they have been known to approach the outskirts of +Sofia. The government offers a reward for the destruction of both these +animals. The roe deer is found in all the forests, the red deer is less +common; the chamois haunts the higher regions of the Rilska Planina, +Rhodope and the Balkans. The jackal (_Canis aureus_) appears in the +district of Burgas; the lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild +boar, otter, fox, badger, hare, wild cat, marten, polecat (_Foetorius +putorius_; the rare tiger polecat, _Foetorius sarmaticus_, is also found), +weasel and shrewmouse (_Spermophilus citillus_) are common. The beaver +(Bulg. _bebr_) appears to have been abundant in certain localities, _e.g._ +Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently extinct. Snakes (_Coluber +natrix_ and other species), vipers (_Vipera berus_ and _V. ammodytes_), and +land and water tortoises are numerous. The domestic animals are the same as +in the other countries of southeastern Europe; the fierce shaggy grey +sheep-dog leaves a lasting impression on most travellers in the interior. +Fowls, especially turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of +geese may be seen in the Moslem villages. The ornithology of Bulgaria is +especially interesting. Eagles (_Aquila imperialis_ and the rarer _Aquila +fulva_), vultures (_Vultur monachus_, _Gyps fulvus_, _Neophron +percnopterus_), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of prey are +extraordinarily abundant; singing birds are consequently rare. The +lammergeier (_Gypaetus barbatus_) is not uncommon. Immense flocks of wild +swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube and the +lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of the woods (_Tetrao urogallus_) +is found in the Balkan and Rhodope forests, the wild pheasant in the Tunja +valley, the bustard (_Otis tarda_) in the Eastern Rumelian plain. Among the +migratory birds are the crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley, +woodcock, snipe and quail; the great spotted cuckoo (_Coccystes +glandarius_) is an occasional visitant. The red starling (_Pastor roseus_) +sometimes appears in large flights. The stork, which is never molested, +adds a picturesque feature to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water fish, +the sturgeon (_Acipenser sturio_ and _A. huso_), sterlet, salmon (_Salmo +hucho_), and carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams abound in +trout. The Black Sea supplies turbot, mackerel, &c.; dolphins and flying +fish may sometimes be seen. + +_Flora._--In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (1) the +northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the southern +plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts adjoining the +Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov and Kiustendil, (5) +the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans and the southern mountain +group. In the first-mentioned region the vegetation resembles that of the +Russian and Rumanian steppes; in the spring the country is adorned with the +flowers of the crocus, orchis, iris, tulip and other bulbous plants, which +in summer give way to tall grasses, umbelliferous growths, _dianthi_, +_astragali_, &c. In the more sheltered district south of the Balkans the +richer vegetation recalls that of the neighbourhood of Constantinople and +the adjacent parts of Asia Minor. On the Black Sea coast many types of the +Crimean, Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora present +themselves. The plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish specimens of +sub-alpine plants, while the vine disappears; the hollow of Kiustendil, +owing to its southerly aspect, affords the vegetation of the Macedonian +valleys. The flora of the Balkans corresponds with that of the Carpathians; +the Rila and Rhodope group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with +those of the central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The +Alpine types are often represented by variants: _e.g._ the _Campanula +alpina_ by the _Campanula orbelica_, the _Primula farinosa_ by the _Primula +frondosa_ and _P. exigua_, the _Gentiana germanica_ by the _Gentiana +bulgarica_, &c. The southern mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the +unexplored highlands of Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown +elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases corresponding with those of the +Caucasus. Among the more characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are +the following:--_Centaurea_, _Cirsium_, _Linaria_, _Scrophularia_, +_Verbascum_, _Dianthus_, _Silene_, _Trifolium_, _Euphorbia_, _Cytisus_, +_Astragalus_, _Ornithogalum_, _Allium_, _Crocus_, _Iris_, _Thymus_, +_Umbellifera_, _Sedum_, _Hypericum_, _Scabiosa_, _Ranunculus_, _Orchis_, +_Ophrys_. + +_Forests._--The principal forest trees are the oak, beech, ash, elm, +walnut, cornel, poplar, pine and juniper. The oak is universal in the +thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnificent forests of +beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the +northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the +southern slope is bare. The walnut and chestnut are mainly confined to +eastern Rumelia. Conifers (_Pinus silvestris_, _Picea excelsa_, _Pinus +laricis_, _Pinus mughus_) are rare in the Balkans, but abundant in the +higher regions of the southern mountain group, where the _Pinus peuce_, +otherwise peculiar to the Himalayas, also flourishes. The wild lilac forms +a beautiful feature in the spring landscape. Wild fruit trees, such as the +apple, pear and plum, are common. The vast forests of the middle ages +disappeared under the supine Turkish administration, which took no measures +for their protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of +towns and highways in order to deprive brigands of shelter. A law passed in +1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting timber, and places +the state forests under the control of inspectors. According to official +statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of the whole superficies of the +kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion of this area is covered +only by brushwood and scrub. The beautiful forests of the Rila district are +rapidly disappearing under exploitation. + +_Agriculture._--Agriculture, the main source of wealth to the country, is +still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignorance and conservatism +of the peasantry, the habits engendered by widespread insecurity and the +fear of official rapacity under Turkish rule, insufficiency of +communications, want of capital, and in some districts sparsity of +population, have all tended to retard the development of this most +important industry. The peasants cling to traditional usage, and look with +suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of production. The +plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only partially +practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown. The government has +sedulously endeavoured to introduce more enlightened methods and ideas by +the establishment of agricultural schools, the appointment of itinerant +professors and inspectors, the distribution of better kinds of seeds, +improved implements, &c. Efforts have been made to improve the breeds of +native cattle and horses, and stallions have been introduced from Hungary +and distributed throughout the country. Oxen and buffaloes are the +principal animals of draught; the buffalo, which was apparently introduced +from Asia in remote times, is much prized by the peasants for its patience +and strength; it is, however, somewhat delicate and requires much care. In +[v.04 p.0775] the eastern districts camels are also employed. The Bulgarian +horses are small, but remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a +rule unfitted for draught and cavalry purposes. The best sheep are found in +the district of Karnobat in Eastern Rumelia. The number of goats in the +country tends to decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these +animals owing to the injury they inflict on young trees. The average price +of oxen is L5 each, draught oxen L12 the pair, buffaloes L14 the pair, cows +L2, horses L6, sheep, 7s., goats 5s., each. The principal cereals are +wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats and millet. The cultivation of maize is +increasing in the Danubian and eastern districts. Rice-fields are found in +the neighbourhood of Philippopolis. Cereals represent about 80% of the +total exports. Besides grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of +roses, silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could +the peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of +wine-making the Bulgarian vintages would rank among the best European +growths. The tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in +considerable quantities for home consumption and only an insignificant +amount is exported. The best tobacco-fields in Bulgaria are on the northern +slopes of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which produces the famous +Kavala growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The +rose-fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between +the Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh. +About 6000 lb of the rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from +L12 to L14 per lb. Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia. +Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to disease +among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with promise +of success. Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern Rumelia. + +Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averaging about 18 +acres each. There are scarcely any large estates owned by individuals, but +some of the monasteries possess considerable domains. The large +_tchifliks_, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish landowners, have been +divided among the peasants. The rural proprietors enjoy the right of +pasturing their cattle on the common lands belonging to each village, and +of cutting wood in the state forests. They live in a condition of rude +comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in the towns. A +peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricultural life is the +_zadruga_, or house-community, a patriarchal institution apparently dating +from prehistoric times. Family groups, sometimes numbering several dozen +persons, dwell together on a farm in the observance of strictly communistic +principles. The association is ruled by a house-father (_domakin_, +_stareishina_), and a house-mother (_domakinia_), who assign to the members +their respective tasks. In addition to the farm work the members often +practise various trades, the proceeds of which are paid into the general +treasury. The community sometimes includes a priest, whose fees for +baptisms, &c., augment the common fund. The national aptitude for +combination is also displayed in the associations of market gardeners +(_gradinarski druzhini_, _taifi_), who in the spring leave their native +districts for the purpose of cultivating gardens in the neighbourhood of +some town, either in Bulgaria or abroad, returning in the autumn, when they +divide the profits of the enterprise; the number of persons annually thus +engaged probably exceeds 10,000. Associations for various agricultural, +mining and industrial undertakings and provident societies are numerous: +the handicraftsmen in the towns are organized in _esnafs_ or gilds. + +_Manufactures._--The development of manufacturing enterprise on a large +scale has been retarded by want of capital. The principal establishments +for the native manufactures of _aba_ and _shayak_ (rough and fine +homespuns), and of _gaitan_ (braided embroidery) are at Sliven and Gabrovo +respectively. The Bulgarian homespuns, which are made of pure wool, are of +admirable quality. The exportation of textiles is almost exclusively to +Turkey: value in 1806, L104,046; in 1898, L144,726; in 1904, L108,685. +Unfortunately the home demand for native fabrics is diminishing owing to +foreign competition; the smaller textile industries are declining, and the +picturesque, durable, and comfortable costume of the country is giving way +to cheap ready-made clothing imported from Austria. The government has +endeavoured to stimulate the home industry by ordering all persons in its +employment to wear the native cloth, and the army is supplied almost +exclusively by the factories at Sliven. A great number of small +distilleries exist throughout the country; there are breweries in all the +principal towns, tanneries at Sevlievo, Varna, &c., numerous corn-mills +worked by water and steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain torrents, +in the Balkans and Rhodope. A certain amount of foreign capital has been +invested in industrial enterprises; the most notable are sugar-refineries +in the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis, and a cotton-spinning mill +at Varna, on which an English company has expended about L60,000. + +_Commerce._--The usages of internal commerce have been considerably +modified by the development of communications. The primitive system of +barter in kind still exists in the rural districts, but is gradually +disappearing. The great fairs (_panairi_, [Greek: panegureis]) held at +Eski-Jumaia, Dobritch and other towns, which formerly attracted multitudes +of foreigners as well as natives, have lost much of their importance; a +considerable amount of business, however, is still transacted at these +gatherings, of which ninety-seven were held in 1898. The principal seats of +the export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on the Black Sea, and +Svishtov, Rustchuk, Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo, and Vidin on the Danube. +The chief centres of distribution for imports are Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk, +Philippopolis and Burgas. About 10% of the exports passes over the Turkish +frontier, but the government is making great efforts to divert the trade to +Varna and Burgas, and important harbour works have been carried out at both +these ports. The new port of Burgas was formally opened in 1904, that of +Varna in 1906. + +In 1887 the total value of Bulgarian foreign commerce was L4,419,589. The +following table gives the values for the six years ending 1904. The great +fluctuations in the exports are due to the variations of the harvest, on +which the prosperity of the country practically depends:-- + + Year. Exports. Imports. Total. + + L L L + 1899 2,138,684 2,407,123 4,545,807 + 1900 2,159,305 1,853,684 4,012,989 + 1901 3,310,790 2,801,762 6,112,552 + 1902 4,147,381 2,849,059 7,996,440 + 1903 4,322,945 3,272,103 7,595,048 + 1904 6,304,756 5,187,583 11,492,339 + +The principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hides, cheese, +eggs, attar of roses. Exports to the United Kingdom in 1900 were valued at +L239,665; in 1904 at L989,127. The principal imports are textiles, metal +goods, colonial goods, implements, furniture, leather, petroleum. Imports +from the United Kingdom in 1900, L301,150; in 1904, L793,972. + +The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of L400,000, has its +central establishment at Sofia, and branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk, +Varna, Trnovo and Burgas. Besides conducting the ordinary banking +operations, it issues loans on mortgage. Four other banks have been founded +at Sofia by groups of foreign and native capitalists. There are several +private banks in the country. The Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Industrial +Bank of Kiev have branches at Philippopolis and Sofia respectively. The +agricultural chests, founded by Midhat Pasha in 1863, and reorganized in +1894, have done much to rescue the peasantry from the hands of usurers. +They serve as treasuries for the local administration, accept deposits at +interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage or the security of two +solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887 was L569,260; in 1904, +L1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been constituted as the "Bulgarian +Agricultural Bank"; the central direction is at Sofia. The post-office +savings bank, established 1896, had in 1905 a capital of L1,360,560. + +There are over 200 registered provident societies in the country. The legal +rate of interest is 10%, but much higher rates are not uncommon. + +Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has adopted the +metric system. Turkish weights and measures, however, are still largely +employed in local commerce. The monetary unit is the _lev_, or "lion" (pl. +_leva_), nominally equal to the franc, with its submultiple the _stotinka_ +(pl. _-ki_), or centime. The coinage consists of nickel and bronze coins +(21/2, 5, 10 and 20 _stotinki_) and silver coins [v.04 p.0776] (50 +_stotinki_; 1, 2 and 5 _leva_). A gold coinage was struck in 1893 with +pieces corresponding to those of the Latin Union. The Turkish pound and +foreign gold coins are also in general circulation. The National Bank +issues notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 _leva_, payable in gold. Notes +payable in silver are also issued. + +_Finance._--It is only possible here to deal with Bulgarian finance prior +to the declaration of independence in 1908. At the outset of its career the +principality was practically unencumbered with any debt, external or +internal. The stipulations of the Berlin Treaty (Art. ix.) with regard to +the payment of a tribute to the sultan and the assumption of an "equitable +proportion" of the Ottoman Debt were never carried into effect. In 1883 the +claim of Russia for the expenses of the occupation (under Art. xx. of the +treaty) was fixed at 26,545,625 fr. (L1,061,820) payable in annual +instalments of 2,100,000 fr. (L84,000). The union with Eastern Rumelia in +1885 entailed liability for the obligations of that province consisting of +an annual tribute to Turkey of 2,951,000 fr. (L118,040) and a loan of +3,375,000 fr. (L135,000) contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank. In 1888 +the purchase of the Varna-Rustchuk railway was effected by the issue of +treasury bonds at 6% to the vendors. In 1889 a loan of 30,000,000 fr. +(L1,200,000) bearing 6% interest was contracted with the Vienna Laenderbank +and Bankverein at 851/2. In 1892 a further 6% loan of 142,780,000 fr. +(L5,711,200) was contracted with the Laenderbank at 83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a +5% loan of 106,000,000 fr. (L4,240,000), secured on the tobacco dues and +the stamp-tax, was contracted with the Banque de l'Etat de Russie and the +Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas at 811/2, for the purpose of consolidating +the floating debt, and in 1904 a 5% loan of 99,980,000 fr. (L3,999,200) at +82, with the same guarantees, was contracted with the last-named bank +mainly for the purchase of war material in France and the construction of +railways. In January 1906 the national debt stood as follows:--Outstanding +amount of the consolidated loans, 363,070,500 fr. (L14,522,820); internal +debt, 15,603,774 fr. (L624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208 +(L76,408). In February 1907 a 41/2% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85, secured on +the surplus proceeds of the revenues already pledged to the loans of 1902 +and 1904, was contracted with the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas +associated with some German and Austrian banks for the conversion of the +loans of 1888 and 1889 (requiring about 53,000,000 fr.) and for railway +construction and other purposes. The total external debt was thus raised to +upwards of 450,000,000 fr. The Eastern Rumelian tribute and the rent of the +Sarambey-Belovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a further +sum of 50,919,100 fr. (L2,036,765). The national debt was not +disproportionately great in comparison with annual revenue. After the union +with Eastern Rumelia the budget receipts increased from 40,803,262 leva +(L1,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (L4,786,220) in 1904; the +estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva (L4,476,800), of which +41,179,000 (L1,647,160) were derived from direct and 38,610,000 +(L1,544,400) from indirect taxation; the estimated expenditure was +111,903,281 leva (L4,476,131), the principal items being: public debt, +31,317,346 (L1,252,693); army, 26,540,720 (L1,061,628); education, +10,402,470 (L416,098); public works, 14,461,171 (L578,446); interior, +7,559,517 (L302,380). The actual receipts in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. In +1895 direct taxation, which pressed heavily on the agricultural class, was +diminished and indirect taxation (import duties and excise) considerably +increased. In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c., indirect to 8 +fr. 58 c., per head of the population. The financial difficulties in which +the country was involved at the close of the 19th century were attributable +not to excessive indebtedness but to heavy outlay on public works, the +army, and education, and to the maintenance of an unnecessary number of +officials, the economic situation being aggravated by a succession of bad +harvests. The war budget during ten years (1888-1897) absorbed the large +sum of 275,822,017 leva (L11,033,300) or 35.77% of the whole national +income within that period. In subsequent years military expenditure +continued to increase; the total during the period since the union with +Eastern Rumelia amounting to 599,520,698 leva (L23,980,800). + +_Communications._--In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria was the +Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English company in 1867. In +Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to Philippopolis and the Turkish +frontier (122 m.), with a branch to Yamboli (66 m.), had been built by +Baron Hirsch in 1873, and leased by the Turkish government to the Oriental +Railways Company until 1958. It was taken over by the Bulgarian government +in 1908 (see _History_, below). The construction of a railway from the +Servian frontier at Tzaribrod to the Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel +was imposed on the principality by the Berlin Treaty, but political +difficulties intervened, and the line, which touches Sofia, was not +completed till 1888. In that year the Bulgarian government seized the short +connecting line Belovo-Sarambey belonging to Turkey, and railway +communication between Constantinople and the western capitals was +established. Since that time great progress has been made in railway +construction. In 1888, 240 m. of state railways were open to traffic; in +1899, 777 m.; in 1902, 880 m. Up to October 1908 all these lines were +worked by the state, and, with the exception of the Belovo-Sarambey line +(29 m.), which was worked under a convention with Turkey, were its +property. The completion of the important line Radomir-Sofia-Shumen +(November 1899) opened up the rich agricultural district between the +Balkans and the Danube and connected Varna with the capital. Branches to +Samovit and Rustchuk establish connexion with the Rumanian railway system +on the opposite side of the river. It was hoped, with the consent of the +Turkish government, to extend the line Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to Uskub, +and thus to secure a direct route to Salonica and the Aegean. Road +communication is still in an unsatisfactory condition. Roads are divided +into three classes: "state roads," or main highways, maintained by the +government; "district roads" maintained by the district councils; and +"inter-village roads" (_mezhduselski shosseta_), maintained by the +communes. Repairs are effected by the _corvee_ system with requisitions of +material. There are no canals, and inland navigation is confined to the +Danube. The Austrian _Donaudampschiffahrtsgesellschaft_ and the Russian +_Gagarine_ steamship company compete for the river traffic; the grain trade +is largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants. The coasting +trade on the Black Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian steamship company; the +steamers of the Austrian Lloyd, and other foreign companies call at Varna, +and occasionally at Burgas. + +The development of postal and telegraphic communication has been rapid. In +1886, 1,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 29,063,043. Receipts of posts +and telegraphs in 1886 were L40,975, in 1903 L134,942. In 1903 there were +3261 m. of telegraph lines and 531 m. of telephones. + +_Towns._--The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the capital (Bulgarian +_Sredetz_, a name now little used), pop. in January 1906, 82,187; +Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Rumelia (Bulg. _Plovdiv_), pop. +45,572; Varna, 37,155; Rustchuk (Bulg. _Russe_), 33,552; Sliven, 25,049; +Shumla (Bulg. _Shumen_), 22,290; Plevna (Bulg. _Pleven_), 21,208; +Stara-Zagora, 20,647; Tatar-Pazarjik, 17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek +_Hyampolis_), 15,708; Dobritch (Turkish _Hajiolu-Pazarjik_), 15,369; +Haskovo, 15,061; Vratza, 14,832; Stanimaka (Greek _Stenimachos_), 14,120; +Razgrad, 13,783; Sistova (Bulg. _Svishtov_), 13,408; Burgas, 12,846; +Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the ancient capital, 12,171. All these are +described in separate articles. + +_Population._--The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq. m.; of Eastern +Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240 sq. m. According to the +census of the 12th of January 1906, the population of northern Bulgaria was +2,853,704; of Eastern Rumelia, 1,174,535; of united Bulgaria, 4,028,239 or +88 per sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between Rumania and Portugal in regard to +area; between the Netherlands and Switzerland in regard to population: in +density of population it may be compared with Spain and Greece. + +The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave the total +population as 3,154,375. In January 1893 the population was 3,310,713; in +January 1901, 3,744,283. + +The movement of the population at intervals of five years has been as +follows:-- + + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + | Year. | Marriages. | Births | Still- | Deaths. | Natural | + | | |(living). | born. | |Increase.[1]| + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + | 1882 | 19,795 | 74,642 | 300 | 38,884 | 35,758 | + | 1887 | 20,089 | 83,179 | 144 | 39,396 | 43,783 | + | 1892 | 27,553 | 117,883 | 321 | 103,550 | 14,333 | + | 1897 | 29,227 | 149,631 | 858 | 90,134 | 59,497 | + | 1902 | 36,041 | 149,542 | 823 | 91,093 | 58,449 | + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[1] Excess of births over deaths. + +The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the five years 1882-1886 the +mean death-rate was 18.0 per 1000; in 1887-1891, 20.4; in 1892-1896, 27.0; +in 1897-1902, 23.92. Infant mortality is high, especially among the +peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely survive, the adult population +is in general robust, hardy and long-lived. The census of January 1901 +gives 2719 persons of 100 years and upwards. Young men, as a rule, marry +betore the age of twenty-five, girls before eighteen. The number of +illegitimate births is inconsiderable, averaging only 0.12 of the total. +The population according to sex in 1901 is given as 1,909,567 males and +1,834,716 females, or 51 males to 49 females. A somewhat similar disparity +may be observed in the other countries of the Peninsula. Classified +according to occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or 74.85% of the population, +are engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various productive industries; +118,824 in the service of the government or the exercise of liberal +professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population according to race +cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is approximately shown by +the census of 1901, which gives the various nationalities according to +language as follows:--Bulgars, 2,888,219; Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063; +Greeks, 66,635; Gipsies (Tziganes), 89,549; Jews (Spanish speaking), +33,661; Tatars, [v.04 p.0777] 18,884; Armenians, 14,581; other +nationalities, 30,451. The Bulgarian inhabitants of the Peninsula beyond +the limits of the principality may, perhaps, be estimated at 1,500,000 or +1,600,000, and the grand total of the race possibly reaches 5,500,000. + +_Ethnology._--The Bulgarians, who constitute 77.14% of the inhabitants of +the kingdom, are found in their purest type in the mountain districts, the +Ottoman conquest and subsequent colonization having introduced a mixed +population into the plains. + +The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish invasion resulted +in the extirpation or flight of a large proportion of the Bulgarian +inhabitants of the lowlands, who were replaced by Turkish colonists. The +mountainous districts, however, retained their original population and +sheltered large numbers of the fugitives. The passage of the Turkish armies +during the wars with Austria, Poland and Russia led to further Bulgarian +emigrations. The flight to the Banat, where 22,000 Bulgarians still remain, +took place in 1730. At the beginning of the 19th century the majority of +the population of the Eastern Rumelian plain was Turkish. The Turkish +colony, however, declined, partly in consequence of the drain caused by +military service, while the Bulgarian remnant increased, notwithstanding a +considerable emigration to Bessarabia before and after the Russo-Turkish +campaign of 1828. Efforts were made by the Porte to strengthen the Moslem +element by planting colonies of Tatars in 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The +advance of the Russian army in 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus of the +Turkish population, of which only a small proportion returned to settle +permanently. The emigration continued after the conclusion of peace, and is +still in progress, notwithstanding the efforts of the Bulgarian government +to arrest it. In twenty years (1879-1899), at least 150,000 Turkish +peasants left Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains +unoccupied. On the other hand, a considerable influx of Bulgarians from +Macedonia, the vilayet of Adrianople, Bessarabia, and the Dobrudja took +place within the same period, and the inhabitants of the mountain villages +show a tendency to migrate into the richer districts of the plains. + +The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to Elena are inhabited +almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in Eastern Rumelia the national element +is strongest in the Sredna Gora and Rhodope. Possibly the most genuine +representatives of the race are the Pomaks or Mahommedan Bulgarians, whose +conversion to Islam preserved their women from the licence of the Turkish +conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope and certain districts in +the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch) and Plevna. Retaining their +Bulgarian speech and many ancient national usages, they may be compared +with the indigenous Cretan, Bosnian and Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks in the +principality are estimated at 26,000, but their numbers are declining. In +the north-eastern district between the Yantra and the Black Sea the +Bulgarian race is as yet thinly represented; most of the inhabitants are +Turks, a quiet, submissive, agricultural population, which unfortunately +shows a tendency to emigrate. The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a variety +of races. The Greek element is strong in the maritime towns, and displays +its natural aptitude for navigation and commerce. The Gagaeuzi, a peculiar +race of Turkish-speaking Christians, inhabit the littoral from Cape Emine +to Cape Kaliakra: they are of Turanian origin and descend from the ancient +Kumani. The valleys of the Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed +population consisting of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the principal Greek +colonies are in Stanimaka, Kavakly and Philippopolis. The origin of the +peculiar Shop tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of Sofia, Breznik +and Radomir is a mystery. The Shops are conceivably a remnant of the +aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in its mountain home during the +Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions: they cling with much tenacity to their +distinctive customs, apparel and dialect. The considerable Vlach or Ruman +colony in the Danubian districts dates from the 18th century, when large +numbers of Walachian peasants sought a refuge on Turkish soil from the +tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the department of Vidin alone contains 36 +Ruman villages with a population of 30,550. Especially interesting is the +race of nomad shepherds from the Macedonian and the Aegean coast who come +in thousands every summer to pasture their flocks on the Bulgarian +mountains; they are divided into two tribes--the Kutzovlachs, or "lame +Vlachs," who speak Rumanian, and the Hellenized Karakatchans or "black +shepherds" (compare the Morlachs, or Mavro-vlachs, [Greek: mauroi blaches], +of Dalmatia), who speak Greek. The Tatars, a peaceable, industrious race, +are chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Varna and Silistria; they were +introduced as colonists by the Turkish government in 1861. They may be +reckoned at 12,000. The gipsies, who are scattered in considerable numbers +throughout the country, came into Bulgaria in the 14th century. They are +for the most part Moslems, and retain their ancient Indian speech. They +live in the utmost poverty, occupy separate cantonments in the villages, +and are treated as outcasts by the rest of the population. The Bulgarians, +being of mixed origin, possess few salient physical characteristics. The +Slavonic type is far less pronounced than among the kindred races; the +Ugrian or Finnish cast of features occasionally asserts itself in the +central Balkans. The face is generally oval, the nose straight, the jaw +somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are rather below middle height, +compactly built, and, among the peasantry, very muscular; the women are +generally deficient in beauty and rapidly grow old. The upper class, the +so-called _intelligenzia_, is physically very inferior to the rural +population. + +_National Character._--The character of the Bulgarians presents a singular +contrast to that of the neighbouring nations. Less quick-witted than the +Greeks, less prone to idealism than the Servians, less apt to assimilate +the externals of civilization than the Rumanians, they possess in a +remarkable degree the qualities of patience, perseverance and endurance, +with the capacity for laborious effort peculiar to an agricultural race. +The tenacity and determination with which they pursue their national aims +may eventually enable them to vanquish their more brilliant competitors in +the struggle for hegemony in the Peninsula. Unlike most southern races, the +Bulgarians are reserved, taciturn, phlegmatic, unresponsive, and extremely +suspicious of foreigners. The peasants are industrious, peaceable and +orderly; the vendetta, as it exists in Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia, +and the use of the knife in quarrels, so common in southern Europe, are +alike unknown. The tranquillity of rural life has, unfortunately, been +invaded by the intrigues of political agitators, and bloodshed is not +uncommon at elections. All classes practise thrift bordering on parsimony, +and any display of wealth is generally resented. The standard of sexual +morality is high, especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is +an object of public contempt, and in former times was punished with death. +Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the case in most +primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but usually take place with +the consent of the parents on both sides, in order to avoid the expense of +a regular wedding. The principal amusement on Sundays and holidays is the +_choro_ ([Greek: choros]), which is danced on the village green to the +strains of the _gaida_ or bagpipe, and the _gusla_, a rudimentary fiddle. +The Bulgarians are religious in a simple way, but not fanatical, and the +influence of the priesthood is limited. Many ancient superstitions linger +among the peasantry, such as the belief in the vampire and the evil eye; +witches and necromancers are numerous and are much consulted. + +_Government._--Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by Art. iii. of the +Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the family of a prince "freely +elected by the population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the +assent of the powers." According to the constitution of Trnovo, voted by +the Assembly of Notables on the 29th of April 1879, revised by the Grand +Sobranye on the 27th of May 1893, and modified by the proclamation of a +Bulgarian kingdom on the 5th of October 1908, the royal dignity descends in +the direct male line. The king must profess the Orthodox faith, only the +first elected sovereign and his immediate heir being released from this +obligation. The legislative power is vested in the king in conjunction with +the [v.04 p.0778] national assembly; he is supreme head of the army, +supervises the executive power, and represents the country in its foreign +relations. In case of a minority or an interregnum, a regency of three +persons is appointed. The national representation is embodied in the +Sobranye, or ordinary assembly (Bulgarian, _Subranie_, the Russian form +_Sobranye_ being usually employed by foreign writers), and the Grand +Sobranye, which is convoked in extraordinary circumstances. The Sobranye is +elected by manhood suffrage, in the proportion of 1 to 20,000 of the +population, for a term of five years. Every Bulgarian citizen who can read +and write and has completed his thirtieth year is eligible as a deputy. +Annual sessions are held from the 27th of October to the 27th of December. +All legislative and financial measures must first be discussed and voted by +the Sobranye and then sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The +government is responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether +deputies or not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which is elected +in the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants, is convoked to elect a +new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction a change in the constitution, +or to ratify an alteration in the boundaries of the kingdom. The executive +is entrusted to a cabinet of eight members--the ministers of foreign +affairs and religion, finance, justice, public works, the interior, +commerce and agriculture, education and war. Local administration, which is +organized on the Belgian model, is under the control of the minister of the +interior. The country is divided into twenty-two departments (_okrug_, pl. +_okruzi_), each administered by a prefect (_upravitel_), assisted by a +departmental council, and eighty-four sub-prefectures (_okolia_), each +under a sub-prefect (_okoliiski natchalnik_). The number of these +functionaries is excessive. The four principal towns have each in addition +a prefect of police (_gradonatchalnik_) and one or more commissaries +(_pristav_). The gendarmery numbers about 4000 men, or 1 to 825 of the +inhabitants. The prefects and sub-prefects have replaced the Turkish +_mutessarifs_ and _kaimakams_; but the system of municipal government, left +untouched by the Turks, descends from primitive times. Every commune +(_obshtina_), urban or rural, has its _kmet_, or mayor, and council; the +commune is bound to maintain its primary schools, a public library or +reading-room, &c.; the kmet possesses certain magisterial powers, and in +the rural districts he collects the taxes. Each village, as a rule, forms a +separate commune, but occasionally two or more villages are grouped +together. + +_Justice._--The civil and penal codes are, for the most part, based on the +Ottoman law. While the principality formed a portion of the Turkish empire, +the privileges of the capitulations were guaranteed to foreign subjects +(Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.). The lowest civil and criminal court is that of +the village kmet, whose jurisdiction is confined to the limits of the +commune; no corresponding tribunal exists in the towns. Each sub-prefecture +and town has a justice of the peace--in some cases two or more; the number +of these officials is 130. Next follows the departmental tribunal or court +of first instance, which is competent to pronounce sentences of death, +penal servitude and deprivation of civil rights; in specified criminal +cases the judges are aided by three assessors chosen by lot from an +annually prepared panel of forty-eight persons. Three courts of appeal sit +respectively at Sofia, Rustchuk and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is +the court of cassation, sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president, two +vice-presidents and nine judges. There is also a high court of audit +(_vrkhovna smetna palata_), similar to the French _cour des comptes._ The +judges are poorly paid and are removable by the government. In regard to +questions of marriage, divorce and inheritance the Greek, Mahommedan and +Jewish communities enjoy their own spiritual jurisdiction. + +_Army and Navy._--The organization of the military forces of the +principality was undertaken by Russian officers, who for a period of six +years (1879-1885) occupied all the higher posts in the army. In Eastern +Rumelia during the same period the "militia" was instructed by foreign +officers; after the union it was merged in the Bulgarian army. The present +organization is based on the law of the 1st of January 1904. The army +consists of: (1) the active or field army (_deistvuyushta armia_), divided +into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active army reserve; (2) the reserve +army (_reservna armia_); (3) the _opltchenie_ or militia; the two former +may operate outside the kingdom, the latter only within the frontier for +purposes of defence. In time of peace the active army (i.) alone is on a +permanent footing. + +The peace strength in 1905 was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and 8000 horses, +the active army being composed of 9 divisions of infantry, each of 4 +regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together with 12 squadrons attached to +the infantry divisions, 9 regiments of artillery each of 3 groups of 3 +batteries, together with 2 groups of mountain artillery, each of 3 +batteries, and 3 battalions of siege artillery; 9 battalions of engineers +with 1 railway and balloon section and 1 bridging section. At the same date +the army was locally distributed in nine divisional areas with headquarters +at Sofia, Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, Vratza, Plevna, +Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area being subdivided into four +districts, from each of which one regiment of four battalions was recruited +and completed with reservists. In case of mobilization each of the nine +areas would furnish 20,106 men (16,000 infantry, 1200 artillery, 1000 +engineers, 300 divisional cavalry and 1606 transport and hospital services, +&c.). The war strength thus amounted to 180,954 of the active army and its +reserve, exclusive of the five regiments of cavalry. In addition the 36 +districts each furnished 3 battalions of the reserve army and one battalion +of opltchenie, or 144,000 infantry, which with the cavalry regiments (3000 +men) and the reserves of artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry, &c. +(about 10,000), would bring the grand total in time of war to about 338,000 +officers and men with 18,000 horses. The men of the reserve battalions are +drafted into the active army as occasion requires, but the militia serves +as a separate force. Military service is obligatory, but Moslems may claim +exemption on payment of L20; the age of recruitment in time of peace is +nineteen, in time of war eighteen. Each conscript serves two years in the +infantry and subsequently eight years in the active reserve, or three years +in the other corps and six years in the active reserve; he is then liable +to seven years' service in the reserve army and finally passes into the +opltchenie. The Bulgarian peasant makes an admirable soldier--courageous, +obedient, persevering, and inured to hardship; the officers are painstaking +and devoted to their duties. The active army and reserve, with the +exception of the engineer regiments, are furnished with the .315" +Mannlicher magazine rifle, the engineer and militia with the Berdan; the +artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of 8.7- and 7.5-cm. Krupp guns (field) +and 6.5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12 cm. Krupp and 15 cm. Creuzot (Schneider) +howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp and 12 cm. Creuzot siege guns, and 7.5 cm. Creuzot +quick-firing guns; total of all description, 1154. Defensive works were +constructed at various strategical points near the frontier and elsewhere, +and at Varna and Burgas. The naval force consisted of a flotilla stationed +at Rustchuk and Varna, where a canal connects Lake Devno with the sea. It +was composed in 1905 of 1 prince's yacht, 1 armoured cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3 +torpedo boats and 10 other small vessels, with a complement of 107 officers +and 1231 men. + +_Religion._--The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims to be an +indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, and asserts historic +continuity with the autocephalous Bulgarian church of the middle ages. It +was, however, declared schismatic by the Greek patriarch of Constantinople +in 1872, although differing in no point of doctrine from the Greek Church. +The Exarch, or supreme head of the Bulgarian Church, resides at +Constantinople; he enjoys the title of "Beatitude" (_negovo Blazhenstvo_), +receives an annual subvention of about L6000 from the kingdom, and +exercises jurisdiction over the Bulgarian hierarchy in all parts of the +Ottoman empire. The exarch is elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy +Synod, and a general assembly (_obshti sbor_), in which the laity is +represented; their choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian +independence, was subject to the sultan's approval. The occupant of the +dignity is titular metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The organization of +the church within the principality was regulated [v.04 p.0779] by statute +in 1883. There are eleven eparchies or dioceses in the country, each +administered by a metropolitan with a diocesan council; one diocese has +also a suffragan bishop. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, +consisting of four metropolitans, which assembles once a year. The laity +take part in the election of metropolitans and parish priests, only the +"black clergy," or monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All +ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the government. +There are 2106 parishes (_eporii_) in the kingdom with 9 archimandrites, +1936 parish priests and 21 deacons, 78 monasteries with 184 monks, and 12 +convents with 346 nuns. The celebrated monastery of Rila possesses a vast +estate in the Rilska Planina; its abbot or _hegumen_ owns no spiritual +superior but the exarch. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of +the minister of public worship; the clergy of all denominations are paid by +the state, being free, however, to accept fees for baptisms, marriages, +burials, the administering of oaths, &c. The census of January 1901 gives +3,019,999 persons of the Orthodox faith (including 66,635 Patriarchist +Greeks), 643,300 Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews, 28,569 Catholics, 13,809 +Gregorian Armenians, 4524 Protestants and 419 whose religion is not stated. +The Greek Orthodox community has four metropolitans dependent on the +patriarchate. The Mahommedan community is rapidly diminishing; it is +organized under 16 muftis who with their assistants receive a subvention +from the government. The Catholics, who have two bishops, are for the most +part the descendants of the medieval Paulicians; they are especially +numerous in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova. The Armenians +have one bishop. The Protestants are mostly Methodists; since 1857 Bulgaria +has been a special field of activity for American Methodist missionaries, +who have established an important school at Samakov. The Berlin Treaty +(Art. V.) forbade religious disabilities in regard to the enjoyment of +civil and political rights, and guaranteed the free exercise of all +religions. + +_Education._--No educational system existed in many of the rural districts +before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance, and the older generation +remained totally illiterate. In the towns the schools were under the +superintendence of the Greek clergy, and Greek was the language of +instruction. The first Bulgarian school was opened at Gabrovo in 1835 by +the patriots Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski. After the Crimean War, Bulgarian +schools began to appear in the villages of the Balkans and the +south-eastern districts. The children of the wealthier class were generally +educated abroad. The American institution of Robert College on the Bosporus +rendered an invaluable service to the newly created state by providing it +with a number of well-educated young men fitted for positions of +responsibility. In 1878, after the liberation of the country, there were +1658 schools in the towns and villages. Primary education was declared +obligatory from the first, but the scarcity of properly qualified teachers +and the lack of all requisites proved serious impediments to educational +organization. The government has made great efforts and incurred heavy +expenditure for the spread of education; the satisfactory results obtained +are largely due to the keen desire for learning which exists among the +people. The present educational system dates from 1891. Almost all the +villages now possess "national" (_narodni_) primary schools, maintained by +the communes with the aid of a state subvention and supervised by +departmental and district inspectors. The state also assists a large number +of Turkish primary schools. The penalties for non-attendance are not very +rigidly enforced, and it has been found necessary to close the schools in +the rural districts during the summer, the children being required for +labour in the fields. + +The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890, 47.01% of the +boys and 16.11% of the girls attended the primary schools; in 1898, 85% of +the boys and 40% of the girls. In 1904 there were 4344 primary schools, of +which 3060 were "national," or communal, and 1284 denominational (Turkish, +Greek, Jewish, &c.), attended by 340,668 pupils, representing a proportion +of 9.1 per hundred inhabitants. In addition to the primary schools, 40 +infant schools for children of 3 to 6 years of age were attended by 2707 +pupils. In 1888 only 327,766 persons, or 11% of the population, were +literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to 19.88%; in 1901 to 23.9%. + +In the system of secondary education the distinction between the classical +and "real" or special course of study is maintained as in most European +countries; in 1904 there were 175 secondary schools and 18 gymnasia (10 for +boys and 8 for girls). In addition to these there are 6 technical and 3 +agricultural schools; 5 of pedagogy, 1 theological, 1 commercial, 1 of +forestry, 1 of design, 1 for surgeons' assistants, and a large military +school at Sofia. Government aid is given to students of limited means, both +for secondary education and the completion of their studies abroad. The +university of Sofia, formerly known as the "high school," was reorganized +in 1904; it comprises 3 faculties (philology, mathematics and law), and +possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 lecturers. The number of students +in 1905 was 943. + +POLITICAL HISTORY + +The ancient Thraco-Illyrian race which inhabited the district between the +Danube and the Aegean was expelled, or more probably absorbed, by the great +Slavonic immigration which took place at various intervals between the end +of the 3rd century after Christ and the beginning of the 6th. The numerous +tumuli which are found in all parts of the country (see Herodotus v. 8) and +some stone tablets with bas-reliefs remain as monuments of the aboriginal +population; and certain structural peculiarities, which are common to the +Bulgarian and Rumanian languages, may conceivably be traced to the +influence of the primitive Illyrian speech, now probably represented by the +Albanian. The Slavs, an agricultural people, were governed, even in those +remote times, by the democratic local institutions to which they are still +attached; they possessed no national leaders or central organization, and +their only political unit was the _pleme_, or tribe. They were considerably +influenced by contact with Roman civilization. It was reserved for a +foreign race, altogether distinct in origin, religion and customs, to give +unity and coherence to the scattered Slavonic groups, and to weld them into +a compact and powerful state which for some centuries played an important +part in the history of eastern Europe and threatened the existence of the +Byzantine empire. + +_The Bulgars._--The Bulgars, a Turanian race akin to the Tatars, Huns, +Avars, Petchenegs and Finns, made their appearance on the banks of the +Pruth in the latter part of the 7th century. They were a horde of wild +horsemen, fierce and barbarous, practising polygamy, and governed +despotically by their _khans_ (chiefs) and _boyars_ or _bolyars_ (nobles). +Their original abode was the tract between the Ural mountains and the +Volga, where the kingdom of Great (or Black) Bolgary existed down to the +13th century. In 679, under their khan Asparukh (or Isperikh), they crossed +the Danube, and, after subjugating the Slavonic population of Moesia, +advanced to the gates of Constantinople and Salonica. The East Roman +emperors were compelled to cede to them the province of Moesia and to pay +them an annual tribute. The invading horde was not numerous, and during the +next two centuries it became gradually merged in the Slavonic population. +Like the Franks in Gaul the Bulgars gave their name and a political +organization to the more civilized race which they conquered, but adopted +its language, customs and local institutions. Not a trace of the Ugrian or +Finnish element is to be found in the Bulgarian speech. This complete +assimilation of a conquering race may be illustrated by many parallels. + +_Early Dynasties._--The history of the early Bulgarian dynasties is little +else than a record of continuous conflicts with the Byzantine emperors. The +tribute first imposed on the Greeks by Asparukh was again exacted by Kardam +(791-797) and Krum (802-815), a sovereign noted alike for his cruelty and +his military and political capacity. Under his rule the Bulgarian realm +extended from the Carpathians to the neighbourhood of Adrianople; Serdica +(the present Sofia) was taken, and the valley of the Struma conquered. +Preslav, the Bulgarian capital, was attacked and burned by the emperor +Nicephorus, but the Greek army on its return was annihilated in one of the +Balkan passes; the emperor was slain, and his skull was converted by Krum +into a goblet. The reign of Boris (852-884) is memorable [v.04 p.0780] for +the introduction of Christianity into Bulgaria. Two monks of Salonica, SS. +Cyril and Methodius, are generally reverenced as the national apostles; the +scene of their labours, however, was among the Slavs of Moravia, and the +Bulgars were evangelized by their disciples. Boris, finding himself +surrounded by Christian states, decided from political motives to abandon +paganism. He was baptized in 864, the emperor Michael III. acting as his +sponsor. It was at this time that the controversies broke out which ended +in the schism between the Churches of the East and West. Boris long wavered +between Constantinople and Rome, but the refusal of the pope to recognize +an autocephalous Bulgarian church determined him to offer his allegiance to +the Greek patriarch. The decision was fraught with momentous consequences +for the future of the race. The nation altered its religion in obedience to +its sovereign, and some of the boyars who resisted the change paid with +their lives for their fidelity to the ancient belief. The independence of +the Bulgarian church was recognized by the patriarchate, a fact much dwelt +upon in recent controversies. The Bulgarian primates subsequently received +the title of patriarch; their see was transferred from Preslav to Sofia, +Voden and Prespa successively, and finally to Ochrida. + +_The First Empire._--The national power reached its zenith under Simeon +(893-927), a monarch distinguished in the arts of war and peace. In his +reign, says Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a rank among the civilized powers of +the earth." His dominions extended from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, and +from the borders of Thessaly to the Save and the Carpathians. Having become +the most powerful monarch in eastern Europe, Simeon assumed the style of +"Emperor and Autocrat of all the Bulgars and Greeks" (_tsar i samodrzhetz +vsem Blgarom i Grkom_), a title which was recognized by Pope Formosus. +During the latter years of his reign, which were spent in peace, his people +made great progress in civilization, literature nourished, and Preslav, +according to contemporary chroniclers, rivalled Constantinople in +magnificence. After the death of Simeon the Bulgarian power declined owing +to internal dissensions; the land was distracted by the Bogomil heresy (see +BOGOMILS), and a separate or western empire, including Albania and +Macedonia, was founded at Ochrida by Shishman, a boyar from Trnovo. A +notable event took place in 967, when the Russians, under Sviatoslav, made +their first appearance in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian tsar, Boris II., with the +aid of the emperor John Zimisces, expelled the invaders, but the Greeks +took advantage of their victory to dethrone Boris, and the first Bulgarian +empire thus came to an end after an existence of three centuries. The +empire at Ochrida, however, rose to considerable importance under Samuel, +the son of Shishman (976-1014), who conquered the greater part of the +Peninsula, and ruled from the Danube to the Morea. After a series of +campaigns this redoubtable warrior was defeated at Belasitza by the emperor +Basil II., surnamed Bulgaroktonos, who put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners +taken in the fight, and sent them into the camp of his adversary. The +Bulgarian tsar was so overpowered by the spectacle that he died of grief. A +few years later his dynasty finally disappeared, and for more than a +century and a half (1018-1186) the Bulgarian race remained subject to the +Byzantine emperors. + +_The Second Empire._--In 1186, after a general insurrection of Vlachs and +Bulgars under the brothers Ivan and Peter Asen of Trnovo, who claimed +descent from the dynasty of the Shishmanovtzi, the nation recovered its +independence, and Ivan Asen assumed the title of "Tsar of the Bulgars and +Greeks." The seat of the second, or "Bulgaro-Vlach" empire was at Trnovo, +which the Bulgarians regard as the historic capital of their race. Kaloyan, +the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nish +and Skopie (Uskub); he acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope, +and received the royal crown from a papal legate. The greatest of all +Bulgarian rulers was Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241), a man of humane and +enlightened character. After a series of victorious campaigns he +established his sway over Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace, and +governed his wide dominions with justice, wisdom and moderation. In his +time the nation attained a prosperity hitherto unknown: commerce, the arts +and literature flourished; Trnovo, the capital, was enlarged and +embellished; and great numbers of churches and monasteries were founded or +endowed. The dynasty of the Asens became extinct in 1257, and a period of +decadence began. Two other dynasties, both of Kuman origin, followed--the +Terterovtzi, who ruled at Trnovo, and the Shishmanovtzi, who founded an +independent state at Vidin, but afterwards reigned in the national capital. +Eventually, on the 28th June 1330, a day commemorated with sorrow in +Bulgaria, Tsar Michael Shishman was defeated and slain by the Servians, +under Stephen Urosh III., at the battle of Velbuzhd (Kiustendil). Bulgaria, +though still retaining its native rulers, now became subject to Servia, and +formed part of the short-lived empire of Stephen Dushan (1331-1355). The +Servian hegemony vanished after the death of Dushan, and the Christian +races of the Peninsula, distracted by the quarrels of their petty princes, +fell an easy prey to the advancing might of the Moslem invader. + +_The Turkish Conquest._--In 1340 the Turks had begun to ravage the valley +of the Maritza; in 1362 they captured Philippopolis, and in 1382 Sofia. In +1366 Ivan Shishman III., the last Bulgarian tsar, was compelled to declare +himself the vassal of the sultan Murad I., and to send his sister to the +harem of the conqueror. In 1389 the rout of the Servians, Bosnians and +Croats on the famous field of Kossovo decided the fate of the Peninsula. +Shortly afterwards Ivan Shishman was attacked by the Turks; and Trnovo, +after a siege of three months, was captured, sacked and burnt in 1393. The +fate of the last Bulgarian sovereign is unknown: the national legend +represents him as perishing in a battle near Samakov. Vidin, where Ivan's +brother, Strazhimir, had established himself, was taken in 1396, and with +its fall the last remnant of Bulgarian independence disappeared. + +The five centuries of Turkish rule (1396-1878) form a dark epoch in +Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and sword through the land; +towns, villages and monasteries were sacked and destroyed, and whole +districts were converted into desolate wastes. The inhabitants of the +plains fled to the mountains, where they founded new settlements. Many of +the nobles embraced the creed of Islam, and were liberally rewarded for +their apostasy; others, together with numbers of the priests and people, +took refuge across the Danube. All the regions formerly ruled by the +Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and Thrace, were placed under the +administration of a governor-general, styled the beylerbey of Rum-ili, +residing at Sofia; Bulgaria proper was divided into the sanjaks of Sofia, +Nikopolis, Vidin, Silistria and Kiustendil. Only a small proportion of the +people followed the example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity; the +conversion of the isolated communities now represented by the Pomaks took +place at various intervals during the next three centuries. A new kind of +feudal system replaced that of the boyars, and fiefs or _spahiliks_ were +conferred on the Ottoman chiefs and the renegade Bulgarian nobles. The +Christian population was subjected to heavy imposts, the principal being +the _haratch_, or capitation-tax, paid to the imperial treasury, and the +tithe on agricultural produce, which was collected by the feudal lord. +Among the most cruel forms of oppression was the requisitioning of young +boys between the ages of ten and twelve, who were sent to Constantinople as +recruits for the corps of janissaries. Notwithstanding the horrors which +attended the Ottoman conquest, the condition of the peasantry during the +first three centuries of Turkish government was scarcely worse than it had +been under the tyrannical rule of the boyars. The contemptuous indifference +with which the Turks regarded the Christian _rayas_ was not altogether to +the disadvantage of the subject race. Military service was not exacted from +the Christians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either their +religion or their language, and within certain limits they were allowed to +retain their ancient local administration and the jurisdiction of their +clergy in regard to inheritances and family affairs. At the time of the +conquest certain towns and villages, known as the _voinitchki sela_, +obtained important privileges which were not infringed till the 18th +century; on condition of [v.04 p.0781] furnishing contingents to the +Turkish army or grooms for the sultan's horses they obtained exemption from +most of the taxes and complete self-government under their _voivodi_ or +chiefs. Some of them, such as Koprivshtitza in the Sredna Gora, attained +great prosperity, which has somewhat declined since the establishment of +the principality. While the Ottoman power was at its height the lot of the +subject-races was far less intolerable than during the period of decadence, +which began with the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683. Their rights and +privileges were respected, the law was enforced, commerce prospered, good +roads were constructed, and the great caravans of the Ragusan merchants +traversed the country. Down to the end of the 18th century there appears to +have been only one serious attempt at revolt--that occasioned by the +advance of Prince Sigismund Bathory into Walachia in 1595. A kind of +guerilla warfare was, however, maintained in the mountains by the +_kaiduti_, or outlaws, whose exploits, like those of the Greek _klepkts_, +have been highly idealized in the popular folk-lore. As the power of the +sultans declined anarchy spread through the Peninsula. In the earlier +decades of the 18th century the Bulgarians suffered terribly from the +ravages of the Turkish armies passing through the land during the wars with +Austria. Towards its close their condition became even worse owing to the +horrors perpetrated by the Krjalis, or troops of disbanded soldiers and +desperadoes, who, in defiance of the Turkish authorities, roamed through +the country, supporting themselves by plunder and committing every +conceivable atrocity. After the peace of Belgrade (1737), by which Austria +lost her conquests in the Peninsula, the Servians and Bulgarians began to +look to Russia for deliverance, their hopes being encouraged by the treaty +of Kuchuk Kainarji (1774), which foreshadowed the claim of Russia to +protect the Orthodox Christians in the Turkish empire. In 1794 Pasvanoglu, +one of the chiefs of the Krjalis, established himself as an independent +sovereign at Vidin, putting to flight three large Turkish armies which were +despatched against him. This adventurer possessed many remarkable +qualities. He adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained order, +levied taxes and issued a separate coinage. He died in 1807. The memoirs of +Sofronii, bishop of Vratza, present a vivid picture of the condition of +Bulgaria at this time. "My diocese," he writes, "was laid desolate; the +villages disappeared--they had been burnt by the Krjalis and Pasvan's +brigands; the inhabitants were scattered far and wide over Walachia and +other lands." + +_The National Revival._--At the beginning of the 19th century the existence +of the Bulgarian race was almost unknown in Europe, even to students of +Slavonic literature. Disheartened by ages of oppression, isolated from +Christendom by their geographical position, and cowed by the proximity of +Constantinople, the Bulgarians took no collective part in the +insurrectionary movement which resulted in the liberation of Servia and +Greece. The Russian invasions of 1810 and 1828 only added to their +sufferings, and great numbers of fugitives took refuge in Bessarabia, +annexed by Russia under the treaty of Bucharest. But the long-dormant +national spirit now began to awake under the influence of a literary +revival. The precursors of the movement were Paisii, a monk of Mount Athos, +who wrote a history of the Bulgarian tsars and saints (1762), and Bishop +Sofronii, whose memoirs have been already mentioned. After 1824 several +works written in modern Bulgarian began to appear, but the most important +step was the foundation, in 1835, of the first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo. +Within ten years at least 53 Bulgarian schools came into existence, and +five Bulgarian printing-presses were at work. The literary movement led the +way to a reaction against the influence and authority of the Greek clergy. +The spiritual domination of the Greek patriarchate had tended more +effectually than the temporal power of the Turks to the effacement of +Bulgarian nationality. After the conquest of the Peninsula the Greek +patriarch became the representative at the Sublime Porte of the +_Rum-millet_, the Roman nation, in which all the Christian nationalities +were comprised. The independent patriarchate of Trnovo was suppressed; that +of Ochrida was subsequently Hellenized. The Phanariot clergy--unscrupulous, +rapacious and corrupt--succeeded in monopolizing the higher ecclesiastical +appointments and filled the parishes with Greek priests, whose schools, in +which Greek was exclusively taught, were the only means of instruction open +to the population. By degrees Greek became the language of the upper +classes in all the Bulgarian towns, the Bulgarian language was written in +Greek characters, and the illiterate peasants, though speaking the +vernacular, called themselves Greeks. The Slavonic liturgy was suppressed +in favour of the Greek, and in many places the old Bulgarian manuscripts, +images, testaments and missals were committed to the flames. The patriots +of the literary movement, recognizing in the patriarchate the most +determined foe to a national revival, directed all their efforts to the +abolition of Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy and the restoration of the +Bulgarian autonomous church. Some of the leaders went so far as to open +negotiations with Rome, and an archbishop of the Uniate Bulgarian church +was nominated by the pope. The struggle was prosecuted with the utmost +tenacity for forty years. Incessant protests and memorials were addressed +to the Porte, and every effort was made to undermine the position of the +Greek bishops, some of whom were compelled to abandon their sees. At the +same time no pains were spared to diffuse education and to stimulate the +national sentiment. Various insurrectionary movements were attempted by the +patriots Rakovski, Panayot Khitoff, Haji Dimitr, Stephen Karaja and others, +but received little support from the mass of the people. The recognition of +Bulgarian nationality was won by the pen, not the sword. The patriarchate +at length found it necessary to offer some concessions, but these appeared +illusory to the Bulgarians, and long and acrimonious discussions followed. +Eventually the Turkish government intervened, and on the 28th of February +1870 a firman was issued establishing the Bulgarian exarchate, with +jurisdiction over fifteen dioceses, including Nish, Pirot and Veles; the +other dioceses in dispute were to be added to these in case two-thirds of +the Christian population so desired. The election of the first exarch was +delayed till February 1872, owing to the opposition of the patriarch, who +immediately afterwards excommunicated the new head of the Bulgarian church +and all his followers. The official recognition now acquired tended to +consolidate the Bulgarian nation and to prepare it for the political +developments which were soon to follow. A great educational activity at +once displayed itself in all the districts subjected to the new +ecclesiastical power. + +_The Revolt of 1876._--Under the enlightened administration of Midhat Pasha +(1864-1868) Bulgaria enjoyed comparative prosperity, but that remarkable +man is not remembered with gratitude by the people owing to the severity +with which he repressed insurrectionary movements. In 1861, 12,000 Crimean +Tatars, and in 1864 a still larger number of Circassians from the Caucasus, +were settled by the Turkish government on lands taken without compensation +from the Bulgarian peasants. The Circassians, a lawless race of +mountaineers, proved a veritable scourge to the population in their +neighbourhood. In 1875 the insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina produced +immense excitement throughout the Peninsula. The fanaticism of the Moslems +was aroused, and the Bulgarians, fearing a general massacre of Christians, +endeavoured to anticipate the blow by organizing a general revolt. The +rising, which broke out prematurely at Koprivshtitza and Panagurishte in +May 1876, was mainly confined to the sanjak of Philippopolis. Bands of +bashi-bazouks were let loose throughout the district by the Turkish +authorities, the Pomaks, or Moslem Bulgarians, and the Circassian colonists +were called to arms, and a succession of horrors followed to which a +parallel can scarcely be found in the history of the middle ages. The +principal scenes of massacre were Panagurishte, Perushtitza, Bratzigovo and +Batak; at the last-named town, according to an official British report, +5000 men, women and children were put to the sword by the Pomaks under +Achmet Aga, who was decorated by the sultan for this exploit. Altogether +some 15,000 persons were massacred in the [v.04 p.0782] district of +Philippopolis, and fifty-eight villages and five monasteries were +destroyed. Isolated risings which took place on the northern side of the +Balkans were crushed with similar barbarity. These atrocities, which were +first made known by an English journalist and an American consular +official, were denounced by Gladstone in a celebrated pamphlet which +aroused the indignation of Europe. The great powers remained inactive, but +Servia declared war in the following month, and her army was joined by 2000 +Bulgarian volunteers. A conference of the representatives of the powers, +held at Constantinople towards the end of the year, proposed, among other +reforms, the organization of the Bulgarian provinces, including the greater +part of Macedonia, in two vilayets under Christian governors, with popular +representation. These recommendations were practically set aside by the +Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS, and +PLEVNA). In the campaign which followed the Bulgarian volunteer contingent +in the Russian army played an honourable part; it accompanied Gourko's +advance over the Balkans, behaved with great bravery at Stara Zagora, where +it lost heavily, and rendered valuable services in the defence of Shipka. + +_Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin._--The victorious advance of the +Russian army to Constantinople was followed by the treaty of San Stefano +(3rd March 1878), which realized almost to the full the national +aspirations of the Bulgarian race. All the provinces of European Turkey in +which the Bulgarian element predominated were now included in an autonomous +principality, which extended from the Black Sea to the Albanian mountains, +and from the Danube to the Aegean, enclosing Ochrida, the ancient capital +of the Shishmans, Dibra and Kastoria, as well as the districts of Vranya +and Pirot, and possessing a Mediterranean port at Kavala. The Dobrudja, +notwithstanding its Bulgarian population, was not included in the new +state, being reserved as compensation to Rumania for the Russian annexation +of Bessarabia; Adrianople, Salonica and the Chalcidian peninsula were left +to Turkey. The area thus delimited constituted three-fifths of the Balkan +Peninsula, with a population of 4,000,000 inhabitants. The great powers, +however, anticipating that this extensive territory would become a Russian +dependency, intervened; and on the 13th of July of the same year was signed +the treaty of Berlin, which in effect divided the "Big Bulgaria" of the +treaty of San Stefano into three portions. The limits of the principality +of Bulgaria, as then defined, and the autonomous province of Eastern +Rumelia, have been already described; the remaining portion, including +almost the whole of Macedonia and part of the vilayet of Adrianople, was +left under Turkish administration. No special organization was provided for +the districts thus abandoned; it was stipulated that laws similar to the +organic law of Crete should be introduced into the various parts of Turkey +in Europe, but this engagement was never carried out by the Porte. Vranya, +Pirot and Nish were given to Servia, and the transference of the Dobrudja +to Rumania was sanctioned. This artificial division of the Bulgarian nation +could scarcely be regarded as possessing elements of permanence. It was +provided that the prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the +population, and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the +powers, and that, before his election, an assembly of Bulgarian notables, +convoked at Trnovo, should draw up the organic law of the principality. The +drafting of a constitution for Eastern Rumelia was assigned to a European +commission. + +_The Constitution of Trnovo._--Pending the completion of their political +organization, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia were occupied by Russian troops +and administered by Russian officials. The assembly of notables, which met +at Trnovo in 1879, was mainly composed of half-educated peasants, who from +the first displayed an extremely democratic spirit, in which they proceeded +to manipulate the very liberal constitution submitted to them by Prince +Dondukov-Korsakov, the Russian governor-general. The long period of Turkish +domination had effectually obliterated all social distinctions, and the +radical element, which now formed into a party under Tzankoff and +Karaveloff, soon gave evidence of its predominance. Manhood suffrage, a +single chamber, payment of deputies, the absence of property qualification +for candidates, and the prohibition of all titles and distinctions, formed +salient features in the constitution now elaborated. The organic statute of +Eastern Rumelia was largely modelled on the Belgian constitution. The +governor-general, nominated for five years by the sultan with the +approbation of the powers, was assisted by an assembly, partly +representative, partly composed of _ex-officio_ members; a permanent +committee was entrusted with the preparation of legislative measures and +the general supervision of the administration, while a council of six +"directors" fulfilled the duties of a ministry. + +_Prince Alexander._--On the 29th of April 1879 the assembly at Trnovo, on +the proposal of Russia, elected as first sovereign of Bulgaria Prince +Alexander of Battenberg, a member of the grand ducal house of Hesse and a +nephew of the tsar Alexander II. Arriving in Bulgaria on the 7th of July, +Prince Alexander, then in his twenty-third year, found all the authority, +military and civil, in Russian hands. The history of the earlier portion of +his reign is marked by two principal features--a strong Bulgarian reaction +against Russian tutelage and a vehement struggle against the autocratic +institutions which the young ruler, under Russian guidance, endeavoured to +inaugurate. Both movements were symptomatic of the determination of a +strong-willed and egoistic race, suddenly liberated from secular +oppression, to enjoy to the full the moral and material privileges of +liberty. In the assembly at Trnovo the popular party had adopted the +watchword "Bulgaria for the Bulgarians," and a considerable anti-Russian +contingent was included in its ranks. Young and inexperienced, Prince +Alexander, at the suggestion of the Russian consul-general, selected his +first ministry from a small group of "Conservative" politicians whose views +were in conflict with those of the parliamentary majority, but he was soon +compelled to form a "Liberal" administration under Tzankoff and Karaveloff. +The Liberals, once in power, initiated a violent campaign against +foreigners in general and the Russians in particular; they passed an alien +law, and ejected foreigners from every lucrative position. The Russians +made a vigorous resistance, and a state of chaos ensued. Eventually the +prince, finding good government impossible, obtained the consent of the +tsar to a change of the constitution, and assumed absolute authority on the +9th of May 1881. The Russian general Ernroth was appointed sole minister, +and charged with the duty of holding elections for the Grand Sobranye, to +which the right of revising the constitution appertained. So successfully +did he discharge his mission that the national representatives, almost +without debate, suspended the constitution and invested the prince with +absolute powers for a term of seven years (July 1881). A period of Russian +government followed under Generals Skobelev and Kaulbars, who were +specially despatched from St Petersburg to enhance the authority of the +prince. Their administration, however, tended to a contrary result, and the +prince, finding himself reduced to impotence, opened negotiations with the +Bulgarian leaders and effected a coalition of all parties on the basis of a +restoration of the constitution. The generals, who had made an unsuccessful +attempt to remove the prince, withdrew; the constitution of Trnovo was +restored by proclamation (19th September 1883), and a coalition ministry +was formed under Tzankoff. Prince Alexander, whose relations with the court +of St Petersburg had become less cordial since the death of his uncle, the +tsar Alexander II., in 1881, now incurred the serious displeasure of +Russia, and the breach was soon widened by the part which he played in +encouraging the national aspirations of the Bulgarians. + +_Union with Eastern Rumelia._--In Eastern Rumelia, where the Bulgarian +population never ceased to protest against the division of the race, +political life had developed on the same lines as in the principality. +Among the politicians two parties had come into existence--the +Conservatives or self-styled "Unionists," and the Radicals, derisively +called by their opponents [v.04 p.0783] "Kazioni" or treasury-seekers; both +were equally desirous of bringing about the union with the principality. +Neither party, however, while in power would risk the sweets of office by +embarking in a hazardous adventure. It was reserved for the Kazioni, under +their famous leader Zakharia Stoyanoff, who in early life had been a +shepherd, to realize the national programme. In 1885 the Unionists were in +office, and their opponents lost no time in organizing a conspiracy for the +overthrow of the governor-general, Krstovitch Pasha. Their designs were +facilitated by the circumstance that Turkey had abstained from sending +troops into the province. Having previously assured themselves of Prince +Alexander's acquiescence, they seized the governor-general and proclaimed +the union with Bulgaria (18th September). The revolution took place without +bloodshed, and a few days later Prince Alexander entered Philippopolis amid +immense enthusiasm. His position now became precarious. The powers were +scandalized at the infraction of the Berlin Treaty; Great Britain alone +showed sympathy, while Russia denounced the union and urged the Porte to +reconquer the revolted province--both powers thus reversing their +respective attitudes at the congress of Berlin. + +_War with Servia._--The Turkish troops were massed at the frontier, and +Servia, hoping to profit by the difficulties of her neighbour, suddenly +declared war (14th November). At the moment of danger the Russian officers, +who filled all the higher posts in the Bulgarian army, were withdrawn by +order of the tsar. In these critical circumstances Prince Alexander +displayed considerable ability and resource, and the nation gave evidence +of hitherto unsuspected qualities. Contrary to general expectation, the +Bulgarian army, imperfectly equipped and led by subaltern officers, +successfully resisted the Servian invasion. After brilliant victories at +Slivnitza (19th November) and Tsaribrod, Prince Alexander crossed the +frontier and captured Pirot (27th November), but his farther progress was +arrested by the intervention of Austria (see SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR). The +treaty of Bucharest followed (3rd of March 1886), declaring, in a single +clause, the restoration of peace. Servia, notwithstanding her aggression, +escaped a war indemnity, but the union with Eastern Rumelia was practically +secured. By the convention of Top-Khane (5th April) Prince Alexander was +recognized by the sultan as governor-general of eastern Rumelia; a personal +union only was sanctioned, but in effect the organic statute disappeared +and the countries were administratively united. These military and +diplomatic successes, which invested the prince with the attributes of a +national hero, quickened the decision of Russia to effect his removal. An +instrument was found in the discontent of several of his officers, who +considered themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards, and a +conspiracy was formed in which Tzankoff, Karaveloff (the prime minister), +Archbishop Clement, and other prominent persons were implicated. On the +night of the 21st of August the prince was seized in his palace by several +officers and compelled, under menace of death, to sign his abdication; he +was then hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo and transported to Russian soil +at Reni. This violent act met with instant disapproval on the part of the +great majority of the nation. Stamboloff, the president of the assembly, +and Colonel Mutkuroff, commandant of the troops at Philippopolis, initiated +a counter-revolution; the provisional government set up by the conspirators +immediately fell, and a few days later the prince, who had been liberated +by the Russian authorities, returned to the country amid every +demonstration of popular sympathy and affection. His arrival forestalled +that of a Russian imperial commissioner, who had been appointed to proceed +to Bulgaria. He now committed the error of addressing a telegram to the +tsar in which he offered to resign his crown into the hands of Russia. This +unfortunate step, by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and +represented Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern +rebuff, and fatally compromised his position. The national leaders, after +obtaining a promise from the Russian representative at Sofia that Russia +would abstain from interference in the internal affairs of the country, +consented to his departure; on the 8th of September he announced his +abdication, and on the following day he left Bulgaria. + +_The Regency._--A regency was now formed, in which the prominent figure was +Stamboloff, the most remarkable man whom modern Bulgaria has produced. A +series of attempts to throw the country into anarchy were firmly dealt +with, and the Grand Sobranye was summoned to elect a new prince. The +candidature of the prince of Mingrelia was now set up by Russia, and +General Kaulbars was despatched to Bulgaria to make known to the people the +wishes of the tsar. He vainly endeavoured to postpone the convocation of +the Grand Sobranye in order to gain time for the restoration of Russian +influence, and proceeded on an electoral tour through the country. The +failure of his mission was followed by the withdrawal of the Russian +representatives from Bulgaria. The Grand Sobranye, which assembled at +Trnovo, offered the crown to Prince Valdemar of Denmark, brother-in-law of +the tsar, but the honour was declined, and an anxious period ensued, during +which a deputation visited the principal capitals of Europe with the +twofold object of winning sympathy for the cause of Bulgarian independence +and discovering a suitable candidate for the throne. + +_Prince Ferdinand._--On the 7th of July 1887, the Grand Sobranye +unanimously elected Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a grandson, +maternally, of King Louis Philippe. The new prince, who was twenty-six +years of age, was at this time a lieutenant in the Austrian army. +Undeterred by the difficulties of the international situation and the +distracted condition of the country, he accepted the crown, and took over +the government on the 14th of August at Trnovo. His arrival, which was +welcomed with enthusiasm, put an end to a long and critical interregnum, +but the dangers which menaced Bulgarian independence were far from +disappearing. Russia declared the newly-elected sovereign a usurper; the +other powers, in deference to her susceptibilities, declined to recognize +him, and the grand vizier informed him that his presence in Bulgaria was +illegal. Numerous efforts were made by the partisans of Russia to disturb +internal tranquillity, and Stamboloff, who became prime minister on the 1st +of September, found it necessary to govern with a strong hand. A raid led +by the Russian captain Nabokov was repulsed; brigandage, maintained for +political purposes, was exterminated; the bishops of the Holy Synod, who, +at the instigation of Clement, refused to pay homage to the prince, were +forcibly removed from Sofia; a military conspiracy organized by Major +Panitza was crushed, and its leader executed. An attempt to murder the +energetic prime minister resulted in the death of his colleague, Beltcheff, +and shortly afterwards Dr Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian representative at +Constantinople, was assassinated. While contending with unscrupulous +enemies at home, Stamboloff pursued a successful policy abroad. Excellent +relations were established with Turkey and Rumania, valuable concessions +were twice extracted from the Porte in regard to the Bulgarian episcopate +in Macedonia, and loans were concluded with foreign financiers on +comparatively favourable terms. His overbearing character, however, +increased the number of his opponents, and alienated the goodwill of the +prince. + +In the spring of 1893 Prince Ferdinand married Princess Marie-Louise of +Bourbon-Parma, whose family insisted on the condition that the issue of the +marriage should be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith. In view of the +importance of establishing a dynasty, Stamboloff resolved on the unpopular +course of altering the clause of the constitution which required that the +heir to the throne should belong to the Orthodox Church, and the Grand +Sobranye, which was convoked at Trnovo in the summer, gave effect to this +decision. The death of Prince Alexander, which took place in the autumn, +and the birth of an heir, tended to strengthen the position of Prince +Ferdinand, who now assumed a less compliant attitude towards the prime +minister. In 1894 Stamboloff resigned office; a ministry was formed under +Dr Stoiloff, and Prince Ferdinand inaugurated a policy of conciliation +towards Russia with a view to obtaining his recognition by the powers. A +Russophil [v.04 p.0784] reaction followed, large numbers of political +refugees returned to Bulgaria, and Stamboloff, exposed to the vengeance of +his enemies, was assassinated in the streets of Sofia (15th July 1895). + +The prince's plans were favoured by the death of the tsar Alexander III. in +November 1894, and the reconciliation was practically effected by the +conversion of his eldest son, Prince Boris, to the Orthodox faith (14th +February 1896). The powers having signified their assent, he was nominated +by the sultan prince of Bulgaria and governor-general of Eastern Rumelia +(14th March). Russian influence now became predominant in Bulgaria, but the +cabinet of St Petersburg wisely abstained from interfering in the internal +affairs of the principality. In February 1896 Russia proposed the +reconciliation of the Greek and Bulgarian churches and the removal of the +exarch to Sofia. The project, which involved a renunciation of the exarch's +jurisdiction in Macedonia, excited strong opposition in Bulgaria, and was +eventually dropped. The death of Princess Marie-Louise (30th January 1899), +caused universal regret in the country. In the same month the Stoiloff +government, which had weakly tampered with the Macedonian movement (see +MACEDONIA) and had thrown the finances into disorder, resigned, and a +ministry under Grekoff succeeded, which endeavoured to mend the economic +situation by means of a foreign loan. The loan, however, fell through, and +in October a new government was formed under Ivanchoff and Radoslavoff. +This, in its turn, Was replaced by a _cabinet d'affaires_ under General +Petroff (January 1901). + +In the following March Karaveloff for the third time became prime minister. +His efforts to improve the financial situation, which now became alarming, +proved abortive, and in January 1902 a Tzankovist cabinet was formed under +Daneff, who succeeded in obtaining a foreign loan. Russian influence now +became predominant, and in the autumn the grand-duke Nicholas, General +Ignatiev, and a great number of Russian officers were present at the +consecration of a Russian church and monastery in the Shipka pass. But the +appointment of Mgr. Firmilian, a Servian prelate, to the important see of +Uskub at the instance of Russia, the suspected designs of that power on the +ports of Varna and Burgas, and her unsympathetic attitude in regard to the +Macedonian Question, tended to diminish her popularity and that of the +government. A cabinet crisis was brought about in May 1903, by the efforts +of the Russian party to obtain control of the army, and the Stambolovists +returned to power under General Petroff. A violent recrudescence of the +Macedonian agitation took place in the autumn of 1902; at the suggestion of +Russia the leaders were imprisoned, but the movement nevertheless gained +force, and in August 1903 a revolt broke out in the vilayet of Monastir, +subsequently spreading to the districts of northern Macedonia and +Adrianople (see MACEDONIA). The barbarities committed by the Turks in +repressing the insurrection caused great exasperation in the principality; +the reserves were partially mobilized, and the country was brought to the +brink of war. In pursuance of the policy of Stamboloff, the Petroff +government endeavoured to inaugurate friendly relations with Turkey, and a +Turco-Bulgarian convention was signed (8th April 1904) which, however, +proved of little practical value. + +The outrages committed by numerous Greek bands in Macedonia led to +reprisals on the Greek population in Bulgaria in the summer of 1906, and +the town of Anchialo was partially destroyed. On the 6th of November in +that year Petroff resigned, and Petkoff, the leader of the Stambolovist +party, formed a ministry. The prime minister, a statesman of undoubted +patriotism but of overbearing character, was assassinated on the 11th of +March 1907 by a youth who had been dismissed from a post in one of the +agricultural banks, and the cabinet was reconstituted under Gudeff, a +member of the same party. + +_Declaration of Independence._--During the thirty years of its existence +the principality had made rapid and striking progress. Its inhabitants, +among whom a strong sense of nationality had grown up, were naturally +anxious to escape from the restrictions imposed by the treaty of Berlin. +That Servia should be an independent state, while Bulgaria, with its +greater economic and military resources, remained tributary to the Sultan, +was an anomaly which all classes resented; and although the Ottoman +suzerainty was little more than a constitutional fiction, and the tribute +imposed in 1878 was never paid, the Bulgarians were almost unanimous in +their desire to end a system which made their country the vassal of a +Moslem state notorious for its maladministration and corruption. This +desire was strengthened by the favourable reception accorded to Prince +Ferdinand when he visited Vienna in February 1908, and by the so-called +"Geshoff incident," _i.e._ the exclusion of M. Geshoff, the Bulgarian +agent, from a dinner given by Tewfik Pasha, the Ottoman minister for +foreign affairs, to the ministers of all the sovereign states represented +at Constantinople (12th of September 1908). This was interpreted as an +insult to the Bulgarian nation, and as the explanation offered by the grand +vizier was unsatisfactory, M. Geshoff was recalled to Sofia. At this time +the bloodless revolution in Turkey seemed likely to bring about a +fundamental change in the settled policy of Bulgaria. For many years past +Bulgarians had hoped that their own orderly and progressive government, +which had contrasted so strongly with the evils of Turkish rule, would +entitle them to consideration, and perhaps to an accession of territory, +when the time arrived for a definite settlement of the Macedonian Question. +Now, however, the reforms introduced or foreshadowed by the Young Turkish +party threatened to deprive Bulgaria of any pretext for future +intervention; there was nothing to be gained by further acquiescence in the +conditions laid down at Berlin. An opportunity for effective action +occurred within a fortnight of M. Geshoff's recall, when a strike broke out +on those sections of the Eastern Rumelian railways which were owned by +Turkey and leased to the Oriental Railways Company. The Bulgarians alleged +that during the strike Turkish troops were able to travel on the lines +which were closed to all other traffic, and that this fact constituted a +danger to their own autonomy. The government therefore seized the railway, +in defiance of European opinion, and in spite of the protests of the +suzerain power and the Oriental Railways Company. The bulk of the Turkish +army was then in Asia, and the new regime was not yet firmly established, +while the Bulgarian government were probably aware that Russia would not +intervene, and that Austria-Hungary intended to annex Bosnia and +Herzegovina, and thus incidentally to divert attention from their own +violation of the treaty of Berlin. On the 5th of October Prince Ferdinand +publicly proclaimed Bulgaria, united since the 6th of September 1885 +(_i.e._ including Eastern Rumelia), an independent kingdom. This +declaration was read aloud by the king in the church of the Forty Martyrs +at Trnovo, the ancient capital of the Bulgarian tsars. The Porte +immediately protested to the powers, but agreed to accept an indemnity. In +February 1909 the Russian government proposed to advance to Bulgaria the +difference between the L4,800,000 claimed by Turkey and the L1,520,000 +which Bulgaria undertook to pay. A preliminary Russo-Turkish protocol was +signed on the 16th of March, and in April, after the final agreement had +been concluded, the independence of Bulgaria was recognized by the powers. +Of the indemnity, L1,680,000 was paid on account of the Eastern Rumelian +railways; the allocation of this sum between Turkey and the Oriental +railways was submitted to arbitration. (See TURKEY: _History_.) + +LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE + +_Language._--The Bulgarian is at once the most ancient and the most modern +of the languages which constitute the Slavonic group. In its groundwork it +presents the nearest approach to the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, the +liturgical language common to all the Orthodox Slavs, but it has undergone +more important modifications than any of the sister dialects in the +simplification of its grammatical forms; and the analytical character of +its development may be compared with that of the neo-Latin and Germanic +languages. The introduction of the definite article, which appears in the +form of a suffix, and the almost total disappearance of the ancient +declensions, for which the use of [v.04 p.0785] prepositions has been +substituted, distinguish the Bulgarian from all the other members of the +Slavonic family. Notwithstanding these changes, which give the language an +essentially modern aspect, its close affinity with the ecclesiastical +Slavonic, the oldest written dialect, is regarded as established by several +eminent scholars, such as Safarik, Schleicher, Leskien and Brugman, and by +many Russian philologists. These authorities agree in describing the +liturgical language as "Old Bulgarian." A different view, however, is +maintained by Miklosich, Kopitar and some others, who regard it as "Old +Slovene." According to the more generally accepted theory, the dialect +spoken by the Bulgarian population in the neighbourhood of Salonica, the +birthplace of SS. Cyril and Methodius, was employed by the Slavonic +apostles in their translations from the Greek, which formed the model for +subsequent ecclesiastical literature. This view receives support from the +fact that the two nasal vowels of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and +lesser _us_), which have been modified in all the cognate languages except +Polish, retain their original pronunciation locally in the neighbourhood of +Salonica and Castoria; in modern literary Bulgarian the _rhinesmus_ has +disappeared, but the old nasal vowels preserve a peculiar pronunciation, +the greater _us_ changing to _u_, as in English "but," the lesser to _e_, +as in "bet," while in Servian, Russian and Slovene the greater _us_ becomes +_u_ or _o_, the lesser _e_ or _ya_. The remnants of the declensions still +existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pronominal and adverbial forms) show a +close analogy to those of the old ecclesiastical language. + +The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died in 869, St +Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have not been preserved. +The oldest existing copies, which date from the 10th century, already +betray the influence of the contemporary vernacular speech, but as the +alterations introduced by the copyists are neither constant nor regular, it +is possible to reconstruct the original language with tolerable certainty. +The "Old Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an inflexional language of +the synthetic type, containing few foreign elements in its vocabulary. The +Christian terminology was, of course, mainly Greek; the Latin or German +words which occasionally occur were derived from Moravia and Pannonia, +where the two saints pursued their missionary labours. In course of time it +underwent considerable modifications, both phonetic and structural, in the +various Slavonic countries in which it became the liturgical language, and +the various MSS. are consequently classified as "Servian-Slavonic," +"Croatian-Slavonic," "Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the different +recensions. The "Russian-Slavonic" is the liturgical language now in +general use among the Orthodox Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula owing to the +great number of ecclesiastical books introduced from Russia in the 17th and +18th centuries; until comparatively recent times it was believed to be the +genuine language of the Slavonic apostles. Among the Bulgarians the spoken +language of the 9th century underwent important changes during the next +three hundred years. The influence of these changes gradually asserts +itself in the written language; in the period extending from the 12th to +the 15th century the writers still endeavoured to follow the archaic model, +but it is evident that the vernacular had already become widely different +from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language of the MSS. of +this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands midway between +the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern speech. + +In the first half of the 16th century the characteristic features of the +modern language became apparent in the literary monuments. These features +undoubtedly displayed themselves at a much earlier period in the oral +speech; but the progress of their development has not yet been completely +investigated. Much light may be thrown on this subject by the examination +of many hitherto little-known manuscripts and by the scientific study of +the folk-songs. In addition to the employment of the article, the loss of +the noun-declensions, and the modification of the nasal vowels above +alluded to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the final vowels +_yer-golem_ and _yer-maluk_, the loss of the infinitive, and the increased +variety of the conjugations, distinguish the modern from the ancient +language. The suffix-article, which is derived from the demonstrative +pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the Bulgarian among Slavonic and to the +Rumanian among Latin languages. This and other points of resemblance +between these remotely related members of the Indo-European group are +shared by the Albanian, probably the representative of the old Illyrian +language, and have consequently been attributed to the influence of the +aboriginal speech of the Peninsula. A demonstrative suffix, however, is +sometimes found in Russian and Polish, and traces of the article in an +embryonic state occur in the "Old Bulgarian" MSS. of the 10th and 11th +centuries. In some Bulgarian dialects it assumes different forms according +to the proximity or remoteness of the object mentioned. Thus _zhena-ta_ is +"the woman"; _zhena-va_ or _zhena-sa_, "the woman close by"; _zhena-na_, +"the woman yonder." In the borderland between the Servian and Bulgarian +nationalities the local use of the article supplies the means of drawing an +ethnological frontier; it is nowhere more marked than in the immediate +neighbourhood of the Servian population, as, for instance, at Dibra and +Prilep. The modern Bulgarian has admitted many foreign elements. It +contains about 2000 Turkish and 1000 Greek words dispersed in the various +dialects; some Persian and Arabic words have entered through the Turkish +medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian words are found. Most of these are +rejected by the purism of the literary language, which, however, has been +compelled to borrow the phraseology of modern civilization from the +Russian, French and other European languages. The dialects spoken in the +kingdom may be classed in two groups--the eastern and the western. The main +point of difference is the pronunciation of the letter _yedvoino_, which in +the eastern has frequently the sound of _ya_, in the western invariably +that of _e_ in "pet." The literary language began in the western dialect +under the twofold influence of Servian literature and the Church Slavonic. +In a short time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and the influence +of Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Russian reaction was +initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been maintained by numerous +writers educated in the German and Austrian universities. Since the +foundation of the university of Sofia the literary language has taken a +middle course between the ultra-Russian models of the past generation and +the dialectic Bulgarian. Little uniformity, however, has yet been attained +in regard to diction, orthography or pronunciation. + +The Bulgarians of pagan times are stated by the monk Khrabr, a contemporary +of Tsar Simeon, to have employed a peculiar writing, of which inscriptions +recently found near Kaspitchan may possibly be specimens. The earliest +manuscripts of the "Old Bulgarian" are written in one or other of the two +alphabets known as the glagolitic and Cyrillic (see SLAVS). The former was +used by Bulgarian writers concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th +century. Among the orthodox Slavs the Cyrillic finally superseded the +glagolitic; as modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian alphabet, +which, with the revival of literature, was introduced into Servia and +Bulgaria. Some Russian letters which are superfluous in Bulgarian have been +abandoned by the native writers, and a few characters have been restored +from the ancient alphabet. + +_Literature._--The ancient Bulgarian literature, originating in the works +of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, consisted for the most part +of theological works translated from the Greek. From the conversion of +Boris down to the Turkish conquest the religious character predominates, +and the influence of Byzantine literature is supreme. Translations of the +gospels and epistles, lives of the saints, collections of sermons, exegetic +religious works, translations of Greek chronicles, and miscellanies such as +the _Sbornik_ of St Sviatoslav, formed the staple of the national +literature. In the time of Tsar Simeon, himself an author, considerable +literary activity prevailed; among the more remarkable works of this period +was the _Shestodnev_, or Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account of the +creation. A little later the heresy of the Bogomils gave an impulse to +controversial writing. The principal champions of orthodoxy were St Kosmas +and the monk Athanas of Jerusalem; among the Bogomils the _Questions of St +Ivan Bogosloff_, a work containing a description of the beginning and the +end of the world, was held in high esteem. Contemporaneously with the +spread of this sect a number of apocryphal works, based on the Scripture +narrative, but embellished with Oriental legends of a highly imaginative +character, obtained great popularity. Together with these religious +writings works of fiction, also of Oriental origin, made their appearance, +such as the life of Alexander the Great, the story of Troy, the tales of +_Stephanit and Ichnilat_ and _Barlaam and Josaphat_, the latter founded on +the biography of Buddha. These were for the most part reproductions or +variations of the fantastical romances which circulated through Europe in +the middle ages, and many of them have left traces in the national legends +and folk-songs. In the 13th century, under the Asen dynasty, numerous +historical works or chronicles (_letopisi_) were composed. State records +appear to have existed, but none of them have been preserved. With the +Ottoman conquest literature disappeared; the manuscripts became the food of +moths and worms, or fell a prey to the fanaticism of the Phanariot clergy. +The library of the patriarchs of Trnovo was committed to the flames by the +Greek metropolitan Hilarion in 1825. + +The monk Paisii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii (1739-1815) have +already been mentioned as the precursors of the literary [v.04 p.0786] +revival. The _Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska_ (1762) of Paisii, written in the +solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of little historical value, but its +influence upon the Bulgarian race was immense. An ardent patriot, Paisii +recalls the glories of the Bulgarian tsars and saints, rebukes his +fellow-countrymen for allowing themselves to be called Greeks, and +denounces the arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot prelates. The _Life +and Sufferings of sinful Sofronii_ (1804) describes in simple and touching +language the condition of Bulgaria at the beginning of the 19th century. +Both works were written in a modified form of the church Slavonic. The +first printed work in the vernacular appears to have been the +_Kyriakodromion_, a translation of sermons, also by Sofronii, published in +1806. The Servian and Greek insurrections quickened the patriotic +sentiments of the Bulgarian refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia +and southern Russia, and Bucharest became the centre of their political and +literary activity. A modest _bukvar_, or primer, published at Kronstadt by +Berovitch in 1824, was the first product of the new movement. Translations +of the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories and various +elementary treatises now appeared. With the multiplication of books came +the movement for establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the monk Neophyt +Rilski (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the author of the first +Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational works, and translated the +New Testament into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary +renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the +patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national zeal, Liuben +Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff +(1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend Haji Dimitr, +an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language, and Petko +Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical and erotic, +moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a great influence over +the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly governor-general of eastern +Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have written +historical works. Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of +revolutionary and satirical ballads; his friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d. +1889), who began life as a shepherd, has left some interesting memoirs. The +most distinguished Bulgarian man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose +epic and lyric poems and prose works form the best specimens of the modern +literary language. His novel _Pod Igoto_ (Under the Yoke) has been +translated into several European languages. The best dramatic work is +_Ivanko_, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote some +novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological +treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and Urumoff to +Velnovski's _Flora Bulgarica_, no original works on natural science have as +yet been produced; a like dearth is apparent in the fields of philosophy, +criticism and fine art, but it must be remembered that the literature is +still in its infancy. The ancient folk-songs have been preserved in several +valuable collections; though inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they +deserve scientific attention. Several periodicals and reviews have been +founded in modern times. Of these the most important are the +_Perioditchesko Spisanie_, issued since 1869 by the Bulgarian Literary +Society, and the _Sbornik_, a literary and scientific miscellany, formerly +edited by Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published +by the government at irregular intervals. + +AUTHORITIES.--C.J. Jirecek, _Das Furstenthum Bulgarien_ (Prague, 1891), and +_Cesty po Bulharsku_ (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works of +the first importance; Leon Lamouche, _La Bulgarie dans le passe et le +present_ (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, _Die +Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgarians_ (Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz, +_Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan_ (Leipzig, 1882); A.G. Drander, _Evenements +politiques en Bulgarie_ (Paris, 1896); and _Le Prince Alexandre de +Battenberg_ (Paris, 1884); A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipzig, 1898); A. +Tuma, _Die oestliche Balkanhalbinsel_ (Vienna, 1886); A. de Gubernatis, _La +Bulgarie et les Bulgares_ (Florence, 1899); E. Blech, _Consular Report on +Bulgaria in 1889_ (London, 1890); _La Bulgarie contemporaine_ (issued by +the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905). +Geology: F. Toula, _Reisen und geologische Untersuchungen in Bulgarien_ +(Vienna, 1890); J. Cvijic, "Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," in _C.R. IX. +Cong. geol. intern. de Vienne_, pp. 348-370, with map, 1904. History: C.J. +Jirecek, _Geschichte der Bulgaren_ (Prague, 1876); (a summary in _The +Balkans_, by William Miller, London, 1896); Sokolov, _Iz drevnei istorii +Bolgar_ (Petersburg, 1879); Uspenski, _Obrazovanie vtorago Bolgarskago +tsarstva_ (Odessa, 1879); _Acta Bulgariae ecclesiastica_, published by the +South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887). Language: F. Miklosich, +_Vergleichende Grammatik_ (Vienna, 1879); and _Geschichte d. +Lautbezeichnung im Bulgarischen_ (Vienna, 1883); A. Leskien, _Handbuch d. +altbulgarischen Sprache_ (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich, +_Staroblgarska Gramatika_ (Sofia, 1896); _Das Ostbulgarische_ (Vienna, +1903); Labrov, _Obzor zvulkovikh i formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago +yesika_ (Moscow, 1893); W.R. Morfill, _A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian +Language_ (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, _Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache +leicht und schnell zu erlernen_ (Vienna, 1888). Literature: L.A.H. Dozon, +_Chansons populaires bulgares inedites_ (with French translations), (Paris, +1875); A. Strausz, _Bulgarische Volksdichtungen_ (translations with a +preface and notes), (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, _Legendes +religieuses bulgares_ (Paris, 1896); Pypin and Spasovich, _History of the +Slavonic Literature_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French +translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, _Bulgarian Chrestomathy_ +(Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov, _Blgarska Literatura_ (Philippopolis, +1896); Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov +(Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882), +Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveikov (Sofia, +1899). See also _The Shade of the Balkans_, by Pencho Slaveikov, H. Bernard +and E.J. Dillon (London, 1904). + +(J. D. B.) + +BULGARIA, EASTERN, formerly a powerful kingdom which existed from the 5th +to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present territory of the +provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and N. Astrakhan, perhaps extending +also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzan, surrounded by numerous +graves in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made, +occupies the site of one of the cities--perhaps the capital--of that +extinct kingdom. The history, _Tarikh Bulgar_, said to have been written in +the 12th century by an Arabian cadi of the city Bolgari, has not yet been +discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid +Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited the +kingdom, beginning with the 10th century, have left descriptions of it. The +Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have assimilated +Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the 5th century they attacked +the Russians in the Black Sea prairies, and afterwards made raids upon the +Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them +not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and houses +in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by Arabian architects. Ibn +Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides cattle breeding. Trade with +Persia and India, as also with the Khazars and the Russians, and +undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation, +their main riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After +their conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which are +mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod +(Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often raided by the Russians. In +the 13th century it was conquered by the Mongols, and became for a time the +seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. In the second half of the 15th +century Bolgari became part of the Kazan kingdom, lost its commercial and +political importance, and was annexed to Russia after the fall of Kazan. + +(P. A. K.) + +BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna, sometimes +erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of +the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors" +of the law school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of +the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden +Mouth" (_os aureum_). He died in 1166 A.D., at a very advanced age. Popular +tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo +de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (_q.v._), +but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting +this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general +tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus +were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many +respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being +at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents +styled the equity of "the purse" (_aequitas bursalis_), whilst Bulgarus +adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus +ultimately prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes +Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a +commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus +took the leading part amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in +1158, and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. +His most celebrated work is his commentary _De Regulis Juris_, which was at +one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly +reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence +contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the +pen of Placentinus. This [v.04 p.0787] _Commentary_, which is the earliest +extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Gloss-writers, is, +according to Savigny, a model specimen of the excellence of the method +introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results +which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and +exclusive study of the sources of law. + +BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on the 25th of +March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter +College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his +refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained +privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was that of St +George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively to be rector of +Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary of Gloucester (1678), +archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on +the 17th of February 1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered +to the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached +strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display great erudition +and powerful thinking. The _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1670) is an attempt to +show the fundamental agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with +regard to justification. The _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ (1685), his greatest +work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the +ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a +thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church +literature. The _Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (1694) and _Primitiva et +Apostolica Traditio_ (1710) won high praise from Bossuet and other French +divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of the _Judicium_, Bull wrote a +treatise on _The Corruptions of the Church of Rome_, which became very +popular. + +The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at Oxford by +the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This +edition contains the _Life_ by Robert Nelson. The _Harmonia, Defensio_ and +_Judicium_ are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology +(Oxford, 1842-1855). + +BULL, JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist, was born in +Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he +joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of +Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in +succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education. +In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University; +and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he +was unable to lecture in Latin according to the foundation-rules of that +college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his +favour by permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture +on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and +Germany, and was everywhere received with the respect due to his talents. +Anthony Wood tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed +the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition +already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him +by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to +England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in +1606. He played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on the +16th of July 1607, in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been +appointed one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he +resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 he +again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post as +one of the organists in the arch-duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was +appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died +in that city on the 12th or 13th of March 1628. Little of his music has +been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its merits +(see Dr Willibald Nagel's _Geschichte der Musik in England_, ii. (1897), p. +155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's _Geschichte der Klaviermusik_ (1899), p. 54, +&c.). Contemporary writers speak in the highest terms of Bull's skill as a +performer on the organ and the virginals, and there is no doubt that he +contributed much to the development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck +(1562-1621), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on +composition as complete without placing in it a canon by John Bull, and the +latter wrote a fantasia upon a fugue of Swielinck. For the ascription to +Bull of the composition of the British national anthem, see NATIONAL +ANTHEMS. Good modern reprints, _e.g._ of the Fitzwilliam _Virginal-Book_, +"The King's Hunting Jig," and one or two other pieces, are in the +repertories of modern pianists from Rubinstein onwards. + +BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist, was born in Bergen, +Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At first a pupil of the violinist +Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught, he was intended for the church, but +failed in his examinations in 1828 and became a musician, directing the +philharmonic and dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he went to Cassel, +on a visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He now began to study +law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence of Paganini, and +definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso. He made his first +appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin at a concert of his own in +Paris in 1832. Successful tours in Italy and England followed soon +afterwards, and he was not long in obtaining European celebrity by his +brilliant playing of his own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to +the United States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he +formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in Bergen; this +became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in consequence of harassing +business complications he went again to America. During this visit +(1852-1857) he bought 125,000 acres in Potter county, Pennsylvania, for a +Norwegian colony, which was to have been called Oleana after his name; but +his title turned out to be fraudulent, and the troubles he went through in +connexion with the undertaking were enough to affect his health very +seriously, though not to hinder him for long from the exercise of his +profession. Another attempt to found an academy of music in Christiania had +no permanent result. In 1836 he had married Alexandrine Felicie Villeminot, +the grand-daughter of a lady to whom he owed much at the beginning of his +musical career in Paris; she died in 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C. +Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he confined himself to the career of a +violinist. He died at Lysoe, near Bergen, on the 17th of August 1880. Ole +Bull's "polacca guerriera" and many of his other violin pieces, among them +two concertos, are interesting to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his +prodigious technique. The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains +many illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives a +picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression in a +somewhat boisterous form of practical humour. + +There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the Ole Bulls +Plads in Bergen. + +BULL, (1) The male of animals belonging to the section _Bovina_ of the +family _Bovidae_ (_q.v._), particularly the uncastrated male of the +domestic ox (_Bos taurus_). (See CATTLE.) The word, which is found in M.E. +as _bole, bolle_ (cf. Ger. _Bulle_, and Dutch _bul_ or _bol_), is also used +of the males of other animals of large size, _e.g._ the elephant, whale, +&c. The O.E. diminutive form _bulluc_, meaning originally a young bull, or +bull calf, survives in bullock, now confined to a young castrated male ox +kept for slaughter for beef. + +On the London and New York stock exchanges "bull" and "bear" are +correlative technical slang terms. A "bull" is one who "buys for a rise," +_i.e._ he buys stocks or securities, grain or other commodities (which, +however, he never intends to take up), in the hope that before the date on +which he must take delivery he will be able to sell the stocks, &c., at a +higher price, taking as a profit the difference between the buying and +selling price. A "bear" is the reverse of a "bull." He is one who "sells +for a fall," _i.e._ he sells stock, &c., which he does not actually +possess, in the hope of buying it at a lower price before the time at which +he has contracted to deliver (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE). The word +"bull," according to the _New English Dictionary_, was used in this sense +as early as the beginning of the 18th century. The origin of the use is not +known, though it is tempting to connect it with the fable of the frog and +the bull. + +[v.04 p.0788] The term "bull's eye" is applied to many circular objects, +and particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of a sheet +of blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used for windows in small +leaded panes. The French term _oeil de boeuf_ is used of a circular window. +Other circular objects to which the word is applied are the centre of a +target or a shot that hits the central division of the target, a +plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex glass in it, a +thick circular piece of glass let into the deck or side of a ship, &c., for +lighting the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge, +and with a hole through the centre through which a rope can be passed, and +also a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes presages a hurricane. + +(2) The use of the word "bull," for a verbal blunder, involving a +contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense it is used +with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Milton's _True +Religion_, "and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Roman Catholick, +it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope's Bulls, as if he should say a +universal particular, a Catholick schismatick." Probably this use may be +traced to a M.E. word _bul_, first found in the _Cursor Mundi_, c. 1300, in +the sense of falsehood, trickery, deceit; the _New English Dictionary_ +compares an O.Fr. _boul_, _boule_ or _bole_, in the same sense. Although +modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, possibly +owing to the many famous "bulls" attributed to Sir Boyle Roche (_q.v._), +the early quotations show that in the 17th century, when the meaning now +attached to the word begins, no special country was credited with them. + +(3) _Bulla_ (Lat for "bubble"), which gives us another "bull" in English, +was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on +doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes. It was applied, however, more +particularly to an ornament, generally of gold, a round or heart-shaped box +containing an amulet, worn suspended from the neck by children of noble +birth until they assumed the _toga virilis_, when it was hung up and +dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing the bulla, which was +regarded as a charm against sickness and the evil eye, was of Etruscan +origin. After the Second Punic War all children of free birth were +permitted to wear it; but those who did not belong to a noble or wealthy +family were satisfied with a bulla of leather. Its use was only permitted +to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrated a triumph. Young +girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and even favourite +animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, _La Bolla d' Oro_, 1732; Yates, +_Archaeological Journal_, vi., 1849; viii., 1851). In ecclesiastical and +medieval Latin, _bulla_ denotes the seal of oval or circular form, bearing +the name and generally the image of its owner, which was attached to +official documents. A metal was used instead of wax in the warm countries +of southern Europe. The best-known instances are the papal _bullae_, which +have given their name to the documents (bulls) to which they are attached. +(See DIPLOMATIC; SEALS; CURIA ROMANA; GOLDEN BULL.) + +BULLER, CHARLES (1806-1848), English politician, son of Charles Buller (d. +1848), a member of a well-known Cornish family (see below), was born in +Calcutta on the 6th of August 1806; his mother, a daughter of General +William Kirkpatrick, was an exceptionally talented woman. He was educated +at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and afterwards at +Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1831. Before this date, +however, he had succeeded his father as member of parliament for West Looe; +after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 and the consequent +disenfranchisement of this borough, he was returned to parliament by the +voters of Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died in London on the +29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles Greville says, "a +memory cherished for his delightful social qualities and a vast credit for +undeveloped powers." An eager reformer and a friend of John Stuart Mill, +Buller voted for the great Reform Bill, favoured other progressive +measures, and presided over the committee on the state of the records and +the one appointed to inquire into the state of election law in Ireland in +1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord Durham as private secretary, and +after rendering conspicuous service to his chief, returned with him to +England in the same year. After practising as a barrister, Buller was made +judge-advocate-general in 1846, and became chief commissioner of the poor +law about a year before his death. For a long time it was believed that +Buller wrote Lord Durham's famous "Report on the affairs of British North +America." However, this is now denied by several authorities, among them +being Durham's biographer, Stuart J. Reid, who mentions that Buller +described this statement as a "groundless assertion" in an article which he +wrote for the _Edinburgh Review_. Nevertheless it is quite possible that +the "Report" was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly bears +traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man, witty, popular and +generous, and is described by Carlyle as "the genialest radical I have ever +met." Among his intimate friends were Grote, Thackeray, Monckton Milnes and +Lady Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster Abbey, and another was +unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote "A Sketch of Lord Durham's mission +to Canada," which has not been printed. + +See T. Carlyle, _Reminiscences_ (1881); and S.J. Reid, _Life and Letters of +the 1st earl of Durham_ (1906). + +BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY (1839-1908), British general, son of James +Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton, Devonshire, and the descendant of an +old Cornish family, long established in Devonshire, tracing its ancestry in +the female line to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated at Eton. He +entered the army in 1858, and served with the 60th (King's Royal Rifles) in +the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became captain, and went on the Red +River expedition, where he was first associated with Colonel (afterwards +Lord) Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee +campaign as head of the Intelligence Department, and was slightly wounded +at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in despatches, made a C.B., and +raised to the rank of major. In 1874 he inherited the family estates. In +the Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an +intrepid and popular leader, and acquired a reputation for courage and +dogged determination. In particular his conduct of the retreat at Inhlobane +(March 28, 1879) drew attention to these qualities, and on that occasion he +earned the V.C.; he was also created C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and +A.D.C. to the queen. In the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief +of staff; and thus added to his experience of South African conditions of +warfare. In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence department in the +Egyptian campaign, and was knighted for his services. Two years later he +commanded an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was +at the battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for +distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord +Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of the desert column +when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his +conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu Klea +(February 16-17), and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland +to inquire into the "moonlighting" outrages, and for a short time he acted +as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was appointed +quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890 to 1897 he held the +office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank of lieutenant-general in +1891. At the war office his energy and ability inspired the belief that he +was fitted for the highest command, and in 1895, when the duke of Cambridge +was about to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's cabinet +intended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a scheme of +reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's commission. On the eve of +this change, however, the government was defeated, and its successors +appointed Lord Wolseley to the command under the old title of +commander-in-chief. In 1896 he was made a full general. + +In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer War +broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African Field Force +(see TRANSVAAL), and landed [v.04 p.0789] at Cape Town on the 31st of +October. Owing to the Boer investment of Ladysmith and the consequent +gravity of the military situation in Natal, he unexpectedly hurried thither +in order to supervise personally the operations, but on the 15th of +December his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso (see LADYSMITH) +was repulsed. The government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic +tone of Buller's messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the +chief command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal +force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27) proved +another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (January 24) +causing consternation in England. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, February +5-7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task in +the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill and +the relief of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Buller +remained in command of the Natal army till October 1900, when he returned +to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the meanwhile slowly done a +great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15), +forcing Lang's Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). But +though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his reputation +for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence of his own +men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and difficult +operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, therefore, in +1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command met with a +vigorous press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his +conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly to a message +to Sir George White in which he seriously contemplated and provided for the +contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On the 10th of October +1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer +to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of discipline, +and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. For the remaining years of +his life he played an active part as a country gentleman, accepting in +dignified silence the prolonged attacks on his failures in South Africa; +among the public generally, and particularly in his own county, he never +lost his popularity. He died on the 2nd of June 1908. He had married in +1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him +with one daughter. + +A _Memoir_, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909. + +BULLET (Fr. _boulet_, diminutive of _boule_, ball). The original meaning (a +"small ball") has, since the end of the 16th century, been narrowed down to +the special case of the projectile used with small arms of all kinds, +irrespective of its size or shape. (For details see AMMUNITION; GUN; RIFLE, +&c.) + +BULL-FIGHTING, the national Spanish sport. The Spanish name is +_tauromaquia_ (Gr. [Greek: tauros], bull, and [Greek: mache], combat). +Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the +amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature of +worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting formerly common in England. +The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it is probable +that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered that province. +It is certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman +amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and other places, and +that these constituted the favourite sport of the Moorish chieftains. +Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid himself as the original +Spanish bull-fighter, it is probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull +in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the +lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in the sport, +proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish knights. A spirited +rivalry in the art between the Christian and Moorish warriors resulted, in +which even the kings of Castile and other Spanish princes took an ardent +interest. After the Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II., +bull-fighting continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the +method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the time of the +accession of the house of Austria it had become an indispensable accessory +of every court function, and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the +people by killing a bull with his own lance on the birthday of his son, +Philip II. Philip IV. is also known to have taken a personal part in +bull-fights. During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the +short spear (_rejoncillo_), and the leg armour still worn by the +_picadores_ was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon witnessed +a radical transformation in the character of the bullfight, which the +aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the combats +professional subordinates who, by the end of the 17th century, had become +the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great professional +_espada_ (_i.e._ swordsman, the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the +bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who +introduced the _estoque_, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the +_muleta_, the red flag carried by the _espada_ (see below), the spear +falling into complete disuse. + +For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed gradually +into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish bull-fights have +been repeatedly introduced into France and Italy, but the cruelty of the +sport has prevented its taking firm root. In Portugal a kind of +bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the +bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never being killed. In +Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the sport, by Ferdinand +II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella, by Charles III., by Ferdinand +VI., and by Charles IV.; and several popes placed its devotees under the +ban of excommunication with no perceptible effect upon its popularity. +Before the introduction of railways there were comparatively few bull-rings +(_plazas de toros_) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied in recent +years, in both Spain and Spanish America. At the present day nearly every +larger town and city in Spain has its _plaza de toros_ (about 225 +altogether), built in the form of the Roman circuses with an oval open +arena covered with sand, surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high. +Between this and the seats of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where +those bull-fighters who are not at the moment engaged take their stations. +The _plazas de toros_ are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds +more than 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two or three +thousand. Every bull-ring has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel +where the _toreros_ (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist. + +The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and are +reared in special establishments (_vacadas_), the most celebrated of which +is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When quite young they are +branded with the emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of +their courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained +further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character of horns, +and action in attack are all objects of the keenest observation and study. +The best bulls are worth from L40 to L60. About 1300 bulls are killed +annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians, +consist of _espadas_ (or _matadores_), _banderilleros_ and _picadores_, in +addition to whom there are numbers of assistants (_chulos_), drivers and +other servants. For each bull-fight two or three _espadas_ are engaged, +each providing his own quadrille (_cuadrilla_), composed of several +_banderilleros_ and _picadores_. Six bulls are usually killed during one +_corrida_ (bull-fight), the _espadas_ engaged taking them in turn. The +_espada_ must have passed through a trying novitiate in the art at the +royal school of bull-fighting, after which he is given his _alternativa_, +or licence. + +The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters with +_alguaciles_, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head, followed, +in three rows, by the _espadas, banderilleros, picadores, chulos_ and the +richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from the arena the +carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest possible brilliance +of costume and accoutrements is aimed at, and the picture presented is one +of dazzling colour. The _espadas_ and _banderilleros_ wear short jackets +and small-clothes of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with +[v.04 p.0790] light silk stockings and heelless shoes; the _picadores_ +(pikemen on horseback) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in +steel armour covered with leather as a protection against the horns of the +bull. + +The fight is divided into three divisions (_suertes_). When the opening +procession has passed round the arena the president of the _corrida_, +usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the _alguaciles_ the key +to the _toril_, or bull-cells. As soon as the supernumeraries have left the +ring, and the _picadores_, mounted upon blindfolded horses in wretched +condition, have taken their places against the barrier, the door of the +_toril_ is opened, and the bull, which has been goaded into fury by the +affixing to his shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of the colours of +his breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the _suerte de picar_, +or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the mounted _picadores_, +ripping up and wounding the horses, often to the point of complete +disembowelment. As the bull attacks the horse, the _picador_, who is armed +with a short-pointed, stout pike (_garrocha_), thrusts this into the bull's +back with all his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its +attention to another _picador_. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the +bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both +animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger by the +_chulos_ and _banderilleros_, who, by means of their red cloaks (_capas_), +divert the bull from the fallen _picador_, who either escapes from the ring +or mounts a fresh horse. The number of horses killed in this manner is one +of the chief features of the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned +accordingly. About 6000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound +of a trumpet the _picadores_ retire from the ring, the dead horses are +dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the _suerte de +banderillear_, or planting the darts, begins. The _banderillas_ are barbed +darts about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper, one being held in +each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30 yds. from the bull, +draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull +charges, the _banderillero_ steps towards him, dexterously plants both +darts in the beast's neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its +horns. Four pairs of _banderillas_ are planted in this way, rendering the +bull mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardly nature +and refuse to attack repeatedly, _banderillas de fuego_ (fire) are used. +These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which explode with terrific +noise as the bull careers about the ring. During this division numerous +manoeuvres are sometimes indulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull +out, such as leaping between his horns, vaulting over his back with the +_garrocha_ as he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate +flauntings of the cloak (_floreos_, flourishes). + +Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of the fight, +the _suerte de matar_ (killing). This is carried out by the _espada_, +alone, his assistants being present only in the case of emergency or to get +the bull back to the proper part of the ring, should he bolt to a distance. +The _espada_, taking his stand before the box of the president, holds aloft +in his left hand sword and _muleta_ and in his right his hat, and in set +phrases formally dedicates (_brinde_) the death of the bull to the +president or some other personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat +behind his back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull. +This is a process accompanied by much formality. The _espada_, armed with +the _estoque_, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the +proper position by means of passes with the _muleta_, a small red silk flag +mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a single thrust, +delivered through the back of the neck close to the head and downward into +the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one, requiring long practice as +well as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object, +the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The stroke +(_estocada_) is usually given _a volapie_ (half running), the _espada_ +delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull usually standing +still. Another method is _recibiendo_ (receiving), the _espada_ receiving +the onset of the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need a +_coup de grace_, it is given by a _chulo_, called _puntillero_, with a +dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out +of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the _espada_ makes a tour of +honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the most +extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is +introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such as a +coronation, a _corrida_ in the ancient style is given by amateurs, who are +clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and mounted upon steeds +of good breed and condition. They are armed with sharp lances, with which +they essay to kill the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds +from his horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened by +many wounds and tired out by much running, the performances of the +gentlemen fighters are remarkable for pluck and dexterity. + +See Moratin, _Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros_; Bedoya's _Historia +del Toreo_; J.S. Lozano, _Manual de Tauromaquia_ (Seville, 1882); A. +Chapman and W.T. Buck, _Wild Spain_ (London, 1893). + +BULLFINCH (_Pyrrhula vulgaris_), the ancient English name given to a bird +belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), of a bluish-grey and +black colour above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female +differing chiefly in having its under-parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy +bird, not associating with other species, and frequents well-wooded +districts, being very rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds +a shallow nest composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or +thick underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four or five +eggs of a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with purple. The young +remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring, not +building their nests, however, till May. In spring and summer they feed on +the buds of trees and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as contain +the incipient blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards and +gardens. In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits and on +seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and pleasant, +but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses, however, great powers +of imitation, and considerable memory, and can thus be taught to whistle a +variety of tunes. Bullfinches are very abundant in the forests of Germany, +and it is there that most of the piping bullfinches are trained. They are +taught continuously for nine months, and the lesson is repeated throughout +the first moulting, as during that change the young birds are apt to forget +all that they have previously acquired. The bullfinch is a native of the +northern countries of Europe, occurring in Italy and other southern parts +only as a winter visitor. White and black varieties are occasionally met +with; the latter are often produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on +hempseed, when its plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely breeds in +confinement, and hybrids between it and the canary have been produced on +but few occasions. + +BULLI, a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Australia, 59 m. by rail +S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the headquarters of the Bulli Mining +Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra Mountains is worked +by a tunnel, 2 m. long, driven into the heart of the mountain. From this +tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for 11/2 m. to a pier, whence it is +shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet of steam colliers. The +beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea, over the Illawarra range, is +one of the most attractive tourist resorts in Australia. + +BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son of Dean Heinrich +Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, on +the 18th of July 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the +teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to +first-hand study of the Bible. Next the writings of Luther and Melanchthon +appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in the cloister school of Cappel, +he lectured on Melanchthon's _Loci Communes_ (1521). He heard Zwingli at +Zuerich in 1527, and next year accompanied him to the disputation at Berne. +He was made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a +nun, by whom he had eleven children. After the battle [v.04 p.0791] of +Cappel (11th of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten. +On the 9th of December 1531 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief +pastor of Zuerich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially +unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little +sympathy. His controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his +correspondence with Lelio Sozini (see SOCINUS), exhibit, in different +connexions, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he +concluded (1549) the _Consensus Tigurinus_ on the Lord's Supper. The +(second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in Switzerland, Hungary, +Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of the _Zurich Letters_, +published by the Parker Society, testify to his influence on the English +reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into +English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and +polemical, have not been collected. He died at Zuerich on the 17th of +September 1575. + +See Carl Pestalozzi, _Leben_ (1858); Raget Christoffel, _H. Bullinger_ +(1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897). + +(A. GO.*) + +BULLION, a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a +standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the +French form "puissent sauvement porter a les exchanges ou bullion ... +argent en plate, vessel d'argent, &c."; and apparently it is connected with +_bouillon_, the sense of "boiling" being transferred in English to the +melting of metal, so that _bullion_ in the passage quoted meant +"melting-house" or "mint." The first recorded instance of the use of the +word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the +use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they +should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and +though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in +silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine in gold, has been reduced to +infinitesimal differences in the bullion of commerce, and is a prime +element of value even in gold and silver plate, jewelry, and other articles +of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and +ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not +only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value. + +BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740), English actor, "of great glee and much +comic vivacity," was the original Clincher in Farquhar's _Constant Couple_ +(1699), Boniface in _The Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall +in Pavener's _Artful Wife_ (1717). He played at all the London theatres of +his time, and in the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three +sons, all actors, of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (c. +1690-1724), who at Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln's Inn Fields +displayed "a considerable versatility of talent." Christopher created a few +original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or +adapter:--_A Woman's Revenge_ (1715); _Slip_; _Adventures of Half an Hour_ +(1716); _The Cobbler of Preston_; _Woman's a Riddle_; _The Perjurer_ +(1717); and _The Traitor_ (1718). + +BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made of a small flat slip of +wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round +rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by +Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic significance and +sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the case in Australia, +where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the +utmost awe by the "blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or sacred "tunduns," +are of two types, the "grandfather" or "man tundun," distinguished by its +deep tone, and the "woman tundun," which, being smaller, gives forth a +weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are +never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the +bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice of the "Great Spirit," and on +hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the +British Museum, and travellers in Africa state that it is known and held +sacred there. Thus among the Egba tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed +"Voice of Oro," their god of vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which +is actually worshipped as the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer +has been shown to be very widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus +[Greek: rhombos] which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among +North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the +procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The +instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians +(J.G. Bourke, _Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._, 1892), +among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, "Social Organization, &c., +of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_), +and in Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres +Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is used +as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), and in +Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a +woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. Sometimes, as +among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man +renowned for his bravery. + +See A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (1884); J.D.E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_ +(Hamburg, 1896); A.C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_, and in the _Journ. +Anthrop. Instit._ xix., 1890; G.M.C. Theal, _Kaffir Folk-Lore_; A.B. Ellis, +_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_ (1894); R.C. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ +(1891). + +BULL RUN, a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the name to two +famous battles in the American Civil War. + +(1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) was +fought on the 21st of July 1861 between the Union forces under +Brigadier-General Irvin McDowell and the Confederates under General Joseph +E. Johnston. Both armies were newly raised and almost untrained. After a +slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies prepared for +a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding all the +passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway bridge. McDowell's +forces rendezvoused around Centreville, and both commanders, sensible of +the temper of their troops, planned a battle for the 21st. On his part +McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to attack the Stone Bridge, two +to make a turning movement via Sudley Springs, the remaining division +(partly composed of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to watch the +lower fords. The local Confederate commander, Brigadier-General P.G.T. +Beauregard, had also intended to advance, and General Johnston, who arrived +by rail on the evening of the 20th with the greater part of a fresh army, +and now assumed command of the whole force, approved an offensive movement +against Centreville for the 21st; but orders miscarried, and the Federal +attack opened before the movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then +decided to fight a defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the +single brigade of Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no +serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day. + +[Illustration] + +The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions [v.04 +p.0792] engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary checks. +At 6 A.M., when the troops told off for the frontal attack appeared before +the Stone Bridge, the turning movement was by no means well advanced. Evans +had time to change position so as to command both the Stone Bridge and +Sudley Springs, and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee, +Bartow and T.J. Jackson. About 9.30 the leading Federal brigade from Sudley +Springs came into action, and two hours later Evans, Bee and Bartow had +been driven off the Matthews hill in considerable confusion. But on the +Henry House hill Jackson's brigade stood, as General Bee said to his men, +"like a stone wall," and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were +continually reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very +severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusiastic +volunteers, continued to attack. About 1.30 P.M. he brought up two regular +batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being mistaken +for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns by close +rifle fire, and from that time, though the hill was taken and retaken +several times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At 2.45 more of +Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade charged with the +bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in flank by the +last brigades of Johnston's army, which arrived at the critical moment from +the railway. They gave way at once, tired out, and conscious that the day +was lost, and after one rally melted away slowly to the rear, the handful +of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, at the defile of the Cub +Run, they came under shell fire the retreat became a panic flight to the +Potomac. The victors were too much exhausted to pursue, and the U.S. +regulars of the reserve division formed a strong and steady rearguard. The +losses were--Federals, 2896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates, +1982 men out of 18,000. + +(2) The operations of the last days of August 1862, which include the +second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are amongst the most +complicated of the war. At the outset the Confederate general Lee's army +(Longstreet's and Jackson's corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the +Federal Army of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be +reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength of 150,000 +men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon forced Lee to move, +though not to retreat, and his plan for attacking Pope was one of the most +daring in all military history. Jackson with half the army was despatched +on a wide turning movement which was to bring him via Salem and +Thoroughfare Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's task +was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the same route. +Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his march round the right of +Pope's army; on the 26th the column passed Thoroughfare Gap, and Bristoe +Station, directly in Pope's rear, was reached on the same evening, while a +detachment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. On the 27th the +immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed. On his side Pope had soon +discovered Jackson's departure, and had arranged for an immediate attack on +Longstreet. When, however, the direction of Jackson's march on Thoroughfare +Gap became clear, Pope fell back in order to engage him, at the same time +ordering his army to concentrate on Warrenton, Greenwich and Gainesville. +He was now largely reinforced. On the evening of the 27th one of his +divisions, marching to its point of concentration, met a division of +Jackson's corps, near Bristoe Station; after a sharp fight the Confederate +general, Ewell, retired on Manassas. Pope now realized that he had +Jackson's corps in front of him at the Junction, and at once took steps to +attack Manassas with all his forces. He drew off even the corps at +Gainesville for his intended battle of the 28th; McDowell, however, its +commander, on his own responsibility, left Ricketts's division at +Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in the air. When he arrived at +Manassas on the 28th he found nothing but the ruins of his magazines, and +one of McDowell's divisions (King's) marching from Gainesville on Manassas +Junction met Jackson's infantry near Groveton. The situation had again +changed completely. Jackson had no intention of awaiting Pope at Manassas, +and after several feints made with a view to misleading the Federal scouts +he finally withdrew to a hidden position between Groveton and Sudley +Springs, to await the arrival of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as +Jackson had done, arrived on the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap and, engaging +Ricketts's division, finally drove it back to Gainesville. On the evening +of this day Jackson's corps held the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his +right wing near Groveton opposing King's division; and Longstreet held +Thoroughfare Gap, facing Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was +King near Groveton, and the line was continued thence by McDowell's +remaining division and by Sigel's corps to the Stone Bridge. At +Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope with three divisions, a fourth was +north-east of Manassas Junction, and Porter's corps at Bristoe Station. +Thus, while Ricketts continued at Gainesville to mask Longstreet, Pope +could concentrate a superior force against Jackson, whom he now believed to +be meditating a retreat to the Gap. But a series of misunderstandings +resulted in the withdrawal of Ricketts and King, so that nothing now +intervened between Longstreet and Jackson; while Sigel and McDowell's other +division alone remained to face Jackson until such time as Pope could bring +up the rest of his scattered forces. Jackson now closed on his left and +prepared for battle, and on the morning of the 29th the Confederates, +posted behind a high railway embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by +Sigel. Pope arrived at noon with the divisions from Centreville, which, led +by the general himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the bravest officers +in the Union army, made a third and most desperate attack on Jackson's +line. The latter, repulsing it with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke +too far and was in turn repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division. +Grover then made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss. +The last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under Kearny and +Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; but a Confederate +counter-attack, led by the brave Jubal Early, dislodged the assailants with +the bayonet. + +In the meanwhile events had taken place near Groveton which were, for +twenty years after the war, the subject of controversy and recrimination +(see PORTER, FITZ-JOHN). When Porter's and part of McDowell's corps, acting +on various orders sent by Pope, approached Gainesville from the south-east, +Longstreet had already reached that place, and the Federals thus +encountered a force of unknown strength at the moment when Sigel's guns to +the northward showed him to be closely engaged with Jackson. The two +generals consulted, and McDowell marched off to join Sigel, while Porter +remained to hold the new enemy in check. In this he succeeded; Longstreet, +though far superior in numbers, made no forward move, and his advanced +guard alone came into action. On the night of the 29th Lee reunited the +wings of his army on the field of battle. He had forced Pope back many +miles from the Rappahannock, and expecting that the Federals would retire +to the line of Bull Run before giving battle, he now decided to wait for +the last divisions of Longstreet's corps, which were still distant. But +Pope, still sanguine, ordered a "general pursuit" of Jackson for the 30th. +There was some ground for his suppositions, for Jackson had retired a short +distance and Longstreet's advanced guard had also fallen back. McDowell, +however, who was in general charge of the Federal right on the 30th, soon +saw that Jackson was not retreating and stopped the "pursuit," and the +attack on Jackson's right, which Pope had ordered Porter to make, was +repulsed by Longstreet's overwhelming forces. Then Lee's whole line, 4 m. +long, made its grand counter-stroke (4 P.M.). There was now no hesitation +in Longstreet's attack; the Federal left was driven successively from every +position it took up, and Longstreet finally captured Bald Hill. Jackson, +though opposed by the greater part of Pope's forces, advanced to the +Matthews hill, and his artillery threatened the Stone Bridge. The Federals, +driven back to the banks of Bull Run, were only saved by the gallant +defence of the Henry House hill by the Pennsylvanian division of Reynolds +and the regulars [v.04 p.0793] under Sykes. Pope withdrew under cover of +night to Centreville. Here he received fresh reinforcements, but Jackson +was already marching round his new right, and after the action of Chantilly +(1st of September) the whole Federal army fell back to Washington. The +Union forces present on the field on the 29th and 30th numbered about +63,000, the strength of Lee's army being on the same dates about 54,000. +Besides their killed and wounded the Federals lost very heavily in +prisoners. + +BULLY (of uncertain origin, but possibly connected with a Teutonic word +seen in many compounds, as the Low Ger. _bullerjaan_, meaning "noisy"; the +word has also, with less probability, been derived from the Dutch _boel_, +and Ger. _Buhle_, a lover), originally a fine, swaggering fellow, as in +"Bully Bottom" in _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, later an overbearing +ruffian, especially a coward who abuses his strength by ill-treating the +weak; more technically a _souteneur_, a man who lives on the earnings of a +prostitute. The term in its early use of "fine" or "splendid" survives in +American slang. + +BUeLOW, BERNHARD ERNST VON (1815-1879), Danish and German statesman, was the +son of Adolf von Buelow, a Danish official, and was born at Cismar in +Holstein on the 2nd of August 1815. He studied law at the universities of +Berlin, Goettingen and Kiel, and began his political career in the service +of Denmark, in the chancery of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen, +and afterwards in the foreign office. In 1842 he became councillor of +legation, and in 1847 Danish _charge d'affaires_ in the Hanse towns, where +his intercourse with the merchant princes led to his marriage in 1848 with +a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Ruecker. When the insurrection broke out +in the Elbe duchies (1848) he left the Danish service, and offered his +services to the provisional government of Kiel, an offer that was not +accepted. In 1849, accordingly, he re-entered the service of Denmark, was +appointed a royal chamberlain and in 1850 sent to represent the duchies of +Schleswig and Holstein at the restored federal diet of Frankfort. Here he +came into intimate touch with Bismarck, who admired his statesmanlike +handling of the growing complications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. +With the radical "Eider-Dane" party he was utterly out of sympathy; and +when, in 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was recalled from +Frankfort. He now entered the service of the grand-duke of +Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and remained at the head of the grand-ducal +government until 1867, when he became plenipotentiary for the two +Mecklenburg duchies in the council of the German Confederation (Bundesrat), +where he distinguished himself by his successful defence of the medieval +constitution of the duchies against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck, who +was in thorough sympathy with his views, persuaded him to enter the service +of Prussia as secretary of state for foreign affairs, and from this time +till his death he was the chancellor's most faithful henchman. In 1875 he +was appointed Prussian plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became +Bismarck's lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the +Empire; and in 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian +plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort on the 20th +of October 1879, his end being hastened by his exertions in connexion with +the political crisis of that year. Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard +Heinrich Karl (see below), became chancellor of the Empire. + +See the biography of H. von Petersdorff in _Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie_, Band 47, p. 350. + +BUeLOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE VON (1849- ), German +statesman, was born on the 3rd of May 1849, at Klein-Flottbeck, in +Holstein. The Buelow family is one very widely extended in north Germany, +and many members have attained distinction in the civil and military +service of Prussia, Denmark and Mecklenburg. Prince Buelow's great-uncle, +Heinrich von Buelow, who was distinguished for his admiration of England and +English institutions, was Prussian ambassador in England from 1827 to 1840, +and married a daughter of Wilhelm von Humboldt (see the letters of +Gabrielle von Buelow). His father, Bernhard Ernst von Buelow, is separately +noticed above. + +Prince Buelow must not be confused with his contemporary Otto v. Buelow +(1827-1901), an official in the Prussian foreign office, who in 1882 was +appointed German envoy at Bern, from 1892 to 1898 was Prussian envoy to the +Vatican, and died at Rome on the 22nd of November 1901. + +Bernhard von Buelow, after serving in the Franco-Prussian War, entered the +Prussian civil service, and was then transferred to the diplomatic service. +In 1876 he was appointed attache to the German embassy in Paris, and after +returning for a while to the foreign office at Berlin, became second +secretary to the embassy in Paris in 1880. From 1884 he was first secretary +to the embassy at St Petersburg, and acted as _charge d'affaires_; in 1888 +he was appointed envoy at Bucharest, and in 1893 to the post of German +ambassador at Rome. In 1897, on the retirement of Baron Marshall von +Bieberstein, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs (the +same office which his father had held) under Prince Hohenlohe, with a seat +in the Prussian ministry. The appointment caused much surprise at the time, +as Buelow was little known outside diplomatic circles. The explanations +suggested were that he had made himself very popular at Rome and that his +appointment was therefore calculated to strengthen the loosening bonds of +the Triple Alliance, and also that his early close association with +Bismarck would ensure the maintenance of the Bismarckian tradition. As +foreign secretary Herr von Buelow was chiefly responsible for carrying out +the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor had identified +himself, and in 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the +negotiations by which the Caroline Islands were acquired by Germany, he was +raised to the rank of count. On the resignation of Hohenlohe in 1900 he was +chosen to succeed him as chancellor of the empire and president of the +Prussian ministry. + +The _Berliner Neueste Nachrichten_, commenting on this appointment, very +aptly characterized the relations of the new chancellor to the emperor, in +contrast to the position occupied by Bismarck. "The Germany of William +II.," it said, "does not admit a Titan in the position of the highest +official of the Empire. A cautious and versatile diplomatist like Bernhard +von Buelow appears to be best adapted to the personal and political +necessities of the present situation." Count Buelow, indeed, though, like +Bismarck, a "realist," utilitarian and opportunist in his policy, made no +effort to emulate the masterful independence of the great chancellor. He +was accused, indeed, of being little more than the complacent executor of +the emperor's will, and defended himself in the Reichstag against the +charge. The substance of the relations between the emperor and himself, he +declared, rested on mutual good-will, and added: "I must lay it down most +emphatically that the prerogative of the emperor's personal initiative must +not be curtailed, and will not be curtailed, by any chancellor.... As +regards the chancellor, however, I say that no imperial chancellor worthy +of the name ... would take up any position which in his conscience he did +not regard as justifiable." It is clear that the position of a chancellor +holding these views in relation to a ruler so masterful and so impulsive as +the emperor William II. could be no easy one; and Buelow's long continuance +in office is the best proof of his genius. His first conspicuous act as +chancellor was a masterly defence in the Reichstag of German action in +China, a defence which was, indeed, rendered easier by the fact that Prince +Hohenlohe had--to use his own words--"dug a canal" for the flood of +imperial ambition of which warning had been given in the famous "mailed +fist" speech. Such incidents as this, however, though they served to +exhibit consummate tact and diplomatic skill, give little index to the +fundamental character of his work as chancellor. Of this it may be said, in +general, that it carried on the best traditions of the Prussian service in +whole-hearted devotion to the interests of the state. The accusation that +he was an "agrarian" he thought it necessary to rebut in a speech delivered +on the 18th of February 1906 to the German Handelstag. He was an agrarian, +he declared, in so far as he came of a land-owning family, and was +interested in the prosperity of agriculture; but as chancellor, whose +function it is to watch over the welfare [v.04 p.0794] of all classes, he +was equally concerned with the interests of commerce and industry +(_Koelnische Zeitung_, Feb. 20, 1906). Some credit for the immense material +expansion of Germany under his chancellorship is certainly due to his zeal +and self-devotion. This was generously recognized by the emperor in a +letter publicly addressed to the chancellor on the 21st of May 1906, +immediately after the passage of the Finance Bill. "I am fully conscious," +it ran, "of the conspicuous share in the initiation and realization of this +work of reform... which must be ascribed to the statesmanlike skill and +self-sacrificing devotion with which you have conducted and promoted those +arduous labours." Rumours had from time to time been rife of a "chancellor +crisis" and Buelow's dismissal; in the _Berliner Tageblatt_ this letter was +compared to the "Never!" with which the emperor William I. had replied to +Bismarck's proffered resignation. + +On the 6th of June 1905 Count Buelow was raised to the rank of prince +(_Fuerst_), on the occasion of the marriage of the crown prince. The +coincidence of this date with the fall of M. Delcasse, the French minister +for foreign affairs--a triumph for Germany and a humiliation for +France--was much commented on at the time (see _The Times_, June 7, 1905); +and the elevation of Bismarck to the rank of prince in the Hall of Mirrors +at Versailles was recalled. Whatever element of truth there may have been +in this, however, the significance of the incident was much exaggerated. + +On the 5th of April 1906, while attending a debate in the Reichstag, Prince +Buelow was seized with illness, the result of overwork and an attack of +influenza, and was carried unconscious from the hall. At first it was +thought that the attack would be fatal, and Lord Fitzmaurice in the House +of Lords compared the incident with that of the death of Chatham, a +compliment much appreciated in Germany. The illness, however, quickly took +a favourable turn, and after a month's rest the chancellor was able to +resume his duties. In 1907 Prince Buelow was made the subject of a +disgraceful libel, which received more attention than it deserved because +it coincided with the Harden-Moltke scandals; his character was, however, +completely vindicated, and the libeller, a journalist named Brand, received +a term of imprisonment. + +The parliamentary skill of Prince Buelow in holding together the +heterogeneous elements of which the government majority in the Reichstag +was composed, no less than the diplomatic tact with which he from time to +time "interpreted" the imperial indiscretions to the world, was put to a +rude test by the famous "interview" with the German emperor, published in +the London _Daily Telegraph_ of the 28th of October 1908 (see WILLIAM II., +German emperor), which aroused universal reprobation in Germany. Prince +Buelow assumed the official responsibility, and tendered his resignation to +the emperor, which was not accepted; but the chancellor's explanation in +the Reichstag on the 10th of November showed how keenly he felt his +position. He declared his conviction that the disastrous results of the +interview would "induce the emperor in future to observe that strict +reserve, even in private conversations, which is equally indispensable in +the interest of a uniform policy and for the authority of the crown," +adding that, in the contrary case, neither he nor any successor of his +could assume the responsibility (_The Times_, Nov. 11, 1908, p. 9). The +attitude of the emperor showed that he had taken the lesson to heart. It +was not the imperial indiscretions, but the effect of his budget proposals +in breaking up the Liberal-Conservative _bloc_, on whose support he +depended in the Reichstag, that eventually drove Prince Buelow from office +(see GERMANY: _History_). At the emperor's request he remained to pilot the +mutilated budget through the House; but on the 14th of July 1909 the +acceptance of his resignation was announced. + +Prince Buelow married, on the 9th of January 1886, Maria Anna Zoe Rosalia +Beccadelli di Bologna, Princess Camporeale, whose first marriage with Count +Karl von Doenhoff had been dissolved and declared null by the Holy See in +1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil at Liszt, was a +step-daughter of the Italian statesman Minghetti. + +See J. Penzler, _Graf Buelows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beitraegen zu seiner +Politik_ (Leipzig, 1903). + +BUeLOW, DIETRICH HEINRICH, FREIHERR VON (1757-1807), Prussian soldier and +military writer, and brother of General Count F.W. Buelow, entered the +Prussian army in 1773. Routine work proved distasteful to him, and he read +with avidity the works of the chevalier Folard and other theoretical +writers on war, and of Rousseau. After sixteen years' service he left +Prussia, and endeavoured without success to obtain a commission in the +Austrian army. He then returned to Prussia, and for some time managed a +theatrical company. The failure of this undertaking involved Buelow in heavy +losses, and soon afterwards he went to America, where he seems to have been +converted to, and to have preached, Swedenborgianism. On his return to +Europe he persuaded his brother to engage in a speculation for exporting +glass to the United States, which proved a complete failure. After this for +some years he made a precarious living in Berlin by literary work, but his +debts accumulated, and it was under great disadvantages that he produced +his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1799) and _Der Feldzug +1800_ (Berlin, 1801). His hopes of military employment were again +disappointed, and his brother, the future field marshal, who had stood by +him in all his troubles, finally left him. After wandering in France and +the smaller German states, he reappeared at Berlin in 1804, where he wrote +a revised edition of his _Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems_ (Hamburg, 1805), +_Lehrsaetze des Neueren Kriegs_ (Berlin, 1805), _Geschichte des Prinzen +Heinrich von Preussen_ (Berlin, 1805), _Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein +sollte_ (Leipzig, 1805), and _Der Feldzug 1805_ (Leipzig, 1806). He also +edited, with G.H. von Behrenhorst (1733-1814) and others, _Annalen des +Krieges_ (Berlin, 1806). These brilliant but unorthodox works, +distinguished by an open contempt of the Prussian system, cosmopolitanism +hardly to be distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a +disappointed man, brought upon Buelow the enmity of the official classes and +of the government. He was arrested as insane, but medical examination +proved him sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he +was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his +condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga +in 1807, probably as a result of ill-treatment. + +In Buelow's writings there is evident a distinct contrast between the spirit +of his strategical and that of his tactical ideas. As a strategist (he +claimed to be the first of strategists) he reduces to mathematical rules +the practice of the great generals of the 18th century, ignoring +"friction," and manoeuvring his armies _in vacuo_. At the same time he +professes that his system provides working rules for the armies of his own +day, which in point of fact were "armed nations," infinitely more affected +by "friction" than the small dynastic and professional armies of the +preceding age. Buelow may therefore be considered as anything but a reformer +in the domain of strategy. With more justice he has been styled the "father +of modern tactics." He was the first to recognize that the conditions of +swift and decisive war brought about by the French Revolution involved +wholly new tactics, and much of his teaching had a profound influence on +European warfare of the 19th century. His early training had shown him +merely the pedantic _minutiae_ of Frederick's methods, and, in the absence +of any troops capable of illustrating the real linear tactics, he became an +enthusiastic supporter of the methods, which (more of necessity than from +judgment) the French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in +small columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were won by +skirmishers. "We must organize disorder," he said; indeed, every argument +of writers of the modern "extended order" school is to be found _mutatis +mutandis_ in Buelow, whose system acquired great prominence in view of the +mechanical improvements in armament. But his tactics, like his strategy, +were vitiated by the absence of "friction," and their dependence on the +realization of an unattainable standard of bravery. + +See von Voss, _H. von Buelow_ (Koeln, 1806); P. von Buelow, _Familienbuch der +v. Buelow_ (Berlin, 1859); Ed. von Buelow, _Aus dem Leben Dietrichs v. +Buelow_, also _Vermischte Schriften aus dem Nachlass von Behrenhorst_ +(1845); Ed. von Buelow and von Ruestow, _Militaerische und vermischte +Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. Buelow_ (Leipzig, 1853); Memoirs by +Freiherr v. Meerheimb in _Allgemeine deutsche [v.04 p.0795] Biographie_, +vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1876), and "Behrenhorst und Buelow" (_Historische +Zeitschrift_, 1861, vi.); Max Jaehns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_, +vol. iii. pp. 2133-2145 (Munich, 1891); General von Caemmerer (transl. von +Donat), _Development of Strategical Science_ (London, 1905), ch. i. + +BUeLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, FREIHERR VON, count of Dennewitz (1755-1816), +Prussian general, was born on the 16th of February 1755, at Falkenberg in +the Altmark; he was the elder brother of the foregoing. He received an +excellent education, and entered the Prussian army in 1768, becoming ensign +in 1772, and second lieutenant in 1775. He took part in the "Potato War" of +1778, and subsequently devoted himself to the study of his profession and +of the sciences and arts. He was throughout his life devoted to music, his +great musical ability bringing him to the notice of Frederick William II., +and about 1790 he was conspicuous in the most fashionable circles of +Berlin. He did not, however, neglect his military studies, and in 1792 he +was made military instructor to the young prince Louis Ferdinand, becoming +at the same time full captain. He took part in the campaigns of 1792-93-94 +on the Rhine, and received for signal courage during the siege of Mainz the +order _pour le merite_ and promotion to the rank of major. After this he +went to garrison duty at Soldau. In 1802 he married the daughter of Colonel +v. Auer, and in the following year he became lieutenant-colonel, remaining +at Soldau with his corps. The vagaries and misfortunes of his brother +Dietrich affected his happiness as well as his fortune. The loss of two of +his children was followed in 1806 by the death of his wife, and a further +source of disappointment was the exclusion of his regiment from the field +army sent against Napoleon in 1806. The disasters of the campaign aroused +his energies. He did excellent service under Lestocq's command in the +latter part of the war, was wounded in action, and finally designated for a +brigade command in Bluecher's force. In 1808 he married the sister of his +first wife, a girl of eighteen. He was made a major-general in the same +year, and henceforward he devoted himself wholly to the regeneration of +Prussia. The intensity of his patriotism threw him into conflict even with +Bluecher and led to his temporary retirement; in 1811, however, he was again +employed. In the critical days preceding the War of Liberation he kept his +troops in hand without committing himself to any irrevocable step until the +decision was made. On the 14th of March 1813 he was made a +lieutenant-general. He fought against Oudinot in defence of Berlin (see +NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), and in the summer came under the command of +Bernadotte, crown prince of Sweden. At the head of an army corps Buelow +distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Gross Beeren, a victory +which was attributed almost entirely to his leadership. A little later he +won the great victory of Dennewitz, which for the third time checked +Napoleon's advance on Berlin. This inspired the greatest enthusiasm in +Prussia, as being won by purely Prussian forces, and rendered Buelow's +popularity almost equal to that of Bluecher. Buelow's corps played a +conspicuous part in the final overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig, and he was +then entrusted with the task of evicting the French from Holland and +Belgium. In an almost uniformly successful campaign he won a signal victory +at Hoogstraaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he invaded France from the +north-west, joined Bluecher, and took part in the brilliant victory of Laon +in March. He was now made general of infantry and received the title of +Count Buelow von Dennewitz. In the short peace of 1814-1815 he was at +Konigsberg as commander-in-chief in Prussia proper. He was soon called to +the field again, and in the Waterloo campaign commanded the IV. corps of +Bluecher's army. He was not present at Ligny, but his corps headed the flank +attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, and bore the heaviest part in the +fighting of the Prussian troops. He took part in the invasion of France, +but died suddenly on the 25th of February 1816, a month after his return to +the Koenigsberg command. + +See _General Graf Buelow von Dennewitz, 1813-1814_ (Leipzig, 1843); +Varnhagen von Ense, _Leben des G. Grafen B. von D._ (Berlin, 1854). + +BUeLOW, HANS GUIDO VON (1830-1894), German pianist and conductor, was born +at Dresden, on the 8th of January 1830. At the age of nine he began to +study music under Friedrich Wieck as part of a genteel education. It was +only after an illness while studying law at Leipzig University in 1848 that +he determined upon music as a career. At this time he was a pupil of Moritz +Hauptmann. In 1849 revolutionary politics took possession of him. In the +Berlin _Abendpost_, a democratic journal, the young aristocrat poured forth +his opinions, which were strongly coloured by Wagner's _Art and +Revolution_. Wagner's influence was musical no less than political, for a +performance of _Lohengrin_ under Liszt at Weimar in 1850 completed von +Buelow's determination to abandon a legal career. From Weimar he went to +Zuerich, where the exile Wagner instructed him in the elements of +conducting. But he soon returned to Weimar and Liszt; and in 1853 he made +his first concert tour, which extended from Vienna to Berlin. Next he +became principal professor of the piano at the Stern Academy, and married +in his twenty-eighth year Liszt's daughter Cosima. For the following nine +years von Buelow laboured incessantly in Berlin as pianist, conductor and +writer of musical and political articles. Thence he removed to Munich, +where, thanks to Wagner, he had been appointed _Hofkapellmeister_ to Louis +II., and chief of the Conservatorium. There, too, he organized model +performances of _Tristan_ and _Die Meistersinger_. In 1869 his marriage was +dissolved, his wife subsequently marrying Wagner, an incident which, while +preventing Buelow from revisiting Bayreuth, never dimmed his enthusiasm for +Wagner's dramas. After a temporary stay in Florence, Buelow set out on tour +again as a pianist, visiting most European countries as well as the United +States of America, before taking up the post of conductor at Hanover, and, +later, at Meiningen, where he raised the orchestra to a pitch of excellence +till then unparalleled. In 1885 he resigned the Meiningen office, and +conducted a number of concerts in Russia and Germany. At Frankfort he held +classes for the higher development of piano-playing. He constantly visited +England, for the last time in 1888, in which year he went to live in +Hamburg. Nevertheless he continued to conduct the Berlin Philharmonic +Concerts. He died at Cairo, on the 13th of February 1894. Buelow was a +pianist of the highest order of intellectual attainment, an artist of +remarkably catholic tastes, and a great conductor. A passionate hater of +humbug and affectation, he had a ready pen, and a biting, sometimes almost +rude wit, yet of his kindness and generosity countless tales were told. His +compositions are few and unimportant, but his annotated editions of the +classical masters are of great value. Buelow's writings and letters (_Briefe +und Schriften_), edited by his widow, have been published in 8 vols. +(Leipzig, 1895-1908). + +BULRUSH, a name now generally given to _Typha latifolia_, the reed-mace or +club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges of rivers and similar +localities, with a creeping underground stem, narrow, nearly flat leaves, 3 +to 6 ft. long, arranged in opposite rows, and a tall stem ending in a +cylindrical spike, half to one foot long, of closely packed male (above) +and female (below) flowers. The familiar brown spike is a dense mass of +minute one-seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk and covered with +long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and readily carried by +the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied to _Scirpus +lacustris_, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae), a common plant in +wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless stems, bearing a tuft of +many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for matting, &c. The bulrush of +Scripture, associated with the hiding of Moses, was the _Papyrus_ (_q.v._), +also a member of the order Cyperaceae, which was abundant in the Nile. + +BULSTRODE, SIR RICHARD (1610-1711), English author and soldier, was a son +of Edward Bulstrode (1588-1659), and was educated at Pembroke College, +Cambridge; after studying law in London he joined the army of Charles I. on +the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642. In 1673 he became a resident agent +of Charles II. at Brussels; in 1675 he was knighted; then following James +II. into exile he died at St Germain on the 3rd of October 1711. Bulstrode +is chiefly known by his _Memoirs and Reflections upon the Reign and +Government of King Charles I. and King Charles II._, published after his +death in 1721. He also [v.04 p.0796] wrote _Life of James II._, and +_Original Letters written to the Earl of Arlington_ (1712). The latter +consists principally of letters written from Brussels giving an account of +the important events which took place in the Netherlands during 1674. + +His second son, WHITELOCKE BULSTRODE (1650-1724), remained in England after +the flight of James II.; he held some official positions, and in 1717 wrote +a pamphlet in support of George I. and the Hanoverian succession. He +published _A Discourse of Natural Philosophy_, and was a prominent +Protestant controversialist. He died in London on the 27th of November +1724. + +BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from _bol_ or _bole_, a +tree-trunk, and _werk_, work, in Ger. _Bollwerk_, which has also been +derived from an old German _bolen_, to throw, and so a machine for throwing +missiles), a barricade of beams, earth, &c., a work in 15th and 16th +century fortifications designed to mount artillery (see BOULEVARD). On +board ship the term is used of the woodwork running round the ship above +the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence. + +BUMBOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions, &c., to ships +lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably connected with the +Dutch _bumboat_ or _boomboot_, a broad Dutch fishing-boat, the derivation +of which is either from _boom_, cf. Ger. _baum_, a tree, or from _bon_, a +place in which fish is kept alive, and _boot_, a boat. It appears first in +English in the Trinity House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging +boats attending ships lying in the Thames. + +BUMBULUM, BOMBULUM or BUNIBULOM, a fabulous musical instrument described in +an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to Dardanus,[1] and illustrated in a +series of illuminated MSS. of the 9th to the 11th century, together with +other instruments described in the same letter. These MSS. are the _Psalter +of Emmeran_, 9th century, described by Martin Gerbert,[2] who gives a few +illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. _Tiberius C. VI._ in the British +Museum, 11th century; the famous _Boulogne Psalter_, A.D. 1000; and the +_Psalter of Angers_, 9th century.[3] In the Cotton MS. the instrument +consists of an angular frame, from which depends by a chain a rectangular +metal plate having twelve bent arms attached in two rows of three on each +side, one above the other. The arms appear to terminate in small +rectangular bells or plates, and it is supposed that the standard frame was +intended to be shaken like a sistrum in order to set the bells jangling. +Sebastian Virdung[4] gives illustrations of these instruments of Jerome, +and among them of the one called bumbulum in the Cotton MS., which Virdung +calls _Fistula Hieronimi_. The general outline is the same, but instead of +metal arms there is the same number of bent pipes with conical bore. +Virdung explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand +resembling the draughtsman's square represents the Holy Cross, the +rectangular object dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the Cross, and +the twelve pipes are the twelve apostles. Virdung's illustration, probably +copied from an older work in manuscript, conforms more closely to the text +of the letter than does the instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no +evidence whatever of the actual existence of such an instrument during the +middle ages, with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn +to illustrate an instrument known from description only. The word +_bombulum_ was probably derived from the same root as the [Greek: +bombaulios] of Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 866) ([Greek: bombos] and +[Greek: aulos]), a comic compound for a bag-pipe with a play on [Greek: +bombulios], an insect that hums or buzzes (see BAG-PIPE). The original +described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an early type of +organ. + +(K. S.) + +[1] _Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum._ + +[2] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774). + +[3] For illustrations see _Annales archeologiques_, iii. p. 82 et seq. + +[4] _Musica getutscht und aussgezogen_ (Basle, 1511). + +BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the word is used +for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north of Ireland for a round +loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word has been much disputed. +It has been affiliated to the old provincial French _bugne_, "swelling," in +the sense of a "fritter," but the _New English Dictionary_ doubts the usage +of the word. It is quite as probable that it has a far older and more +interesting origin, as is suggested by an inquiry into the origin of hot +cross buns. These cakes, which are now solely associated with the Christian +Good Friday, are traceable to the remotest period of pagan history. Cakes +were offered by ancient Egyptians to their moon-goddess; and these had +imprinted on them a pair of horns, symbolic of the ox at the sacrifice of +which they were offered on the altar, or of the horned moon-goddess, the +equivalent of Ishtar of the Assyro-Babylonians. The Greeks offered such +sacred cakes to Astarte and other divinities. This cake they called _bous_ +(ox), in allusion to the ox-symbol marked on it, and from the accusative +_boun_ it is suggested that the word "bun" is derived. Diogenes Laertius +(c. A.D. 200), speaking of the offering made by Empedocles, says "He +offered one of the sacred liba, called a _bouse_, made of fine flour and +honey." Hesychrus (c. 6th century) speaks of the _boun_, and describes it +as a kind of cake with a representation of two horns marked on it. In time +the Greeks marked these cakes with a cross, possibly an allusion to the +four quarters of the moon, or more probably to facilitate the distribution +of the sacred bread which was eaten by the worshippers. Like the Greeks, +the Romans eat cross-bread at public sacrifices, such bread being usually +purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them,--a custom +alluded to by St Paul in I Cor. x. 28. At Herculaneum two small loaves +about 5 in. in diameter, and plainly marked with a cross, were found. In +the Old Testament a reference is made in Jer. vii. 18-xliv. 19, to such +sacred bread being offered to the moon goddess. The cross-bread was eaten +by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eoster, their goddess of light. The +Mexicans and Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. The custom, +in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church adroitly adopted +the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist. The _boun_ with its +Greek cross became akin to the Eucharistic bread or cross-marked wafers +mentioned in St Chrysostom's _Liturgy_. In the medieval church, buns made +from the dough for the consecrated Host were distributed to the +communicants after Mass on Easter Sunday. In France and other Catholic +countries, such blessed bread is still given in the churches to +communicants who have a long journey before they can break their fast. The +Holy Eucharist in the Greek church has a cross printed on it. In England +there seems to have early been a disposition on the part of the bakers to +imitate the church, and they did a good trade in buns and cakes stamped +with a cross, for as far back as 1252 the practice was forbidden by royal +proclamation; but this seems to have had little effect. With the rise of +Protestantism the cross bun lost its sacrosanct nature, and became a mere +eatable associated for no particular reason with Good Friday. Cross-bread +is not, however, reserved for that day; in the north of England people +usually crossmark their cakes with a knife before putting them in the oven. +Many superstitions cling round hot cross buns. Thus it is still a common +belief that one bun should be kept for luck's sake to the following Good +Friday. In Dorsetshire it is thought that a cross-loaf baked on that day +and hung over the chimneypiece prevents the bread baked in the house during +the year from "going stringy." + +BUNBURY, HENRY WILLIAM (1750-1811), English caricaturist, was the second +son of Sir William Bunbury, 5th baronet, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, and came +of an old Norman family. He was educated at Westminster school and St +Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for drawing, and +especially for humorous subjects. His more serious efforts did not rise to +a high level, but his caricatures are as famous as those of his +contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being his "Country +Club" (1788), "Barber's Shop" (1811) and "A Long Story" (1782.) He was a +popular character, and the friend of most of the notabilities of his day, +whom he never offended by attempting political satire; and his easy +circumstances and social position (he was colonel of the West Suffolk +Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787) enabled him +to exercise his talents in comfort. + +[v.04 p.0797] His son Sir HENRY EDWARD BUNBURY, Bart. (1778-1860), who +succeeded to the family title on the death of his uncle, was a +distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general; he was an +active member of parliament, and the author of several historical works of +value; and the latter's second son, Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, also a +member of parliament, was well known as a geographer and archaeologist, and +author of a _History of Ancient Geography._ + +BUNBURY, a seaport and municipal town of Wellington county, Western +Australia, 112 m. by rail S. by W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2455. The harbour, +known as Koombanah Bay, is protected by a breakwater built on a coral reef. +Coal is worked on the Collie river, 30 m. distant, and is shipped from this +port, together with tin, timber, sandal-wood and agricultural produce. + +BUNCOMBE, or BUNKUM (from Buncombe county, North Carolina, United States), +a term used for insincere political action or speaking to gain support or +the favour of a constituency, and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase +"to talk for (or to) Buncombe" arose in 1820, during the debate on the +Missouri Compromise in Congress; the member for the district containing +Buncombe county confessed that his long and much interrupted speech was +only made because his electors expected it, and that he was "speaking for +Buncombe." + +BUNCRANA, a market-town and watering-place of Co. Donegal, Ireland, in the +north parliamentary division on the east shore of Lough Swilly, on the +Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. Pop. (1901) 1316. There +is a trade in agricultural produce, a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and a +manufacture of linen. The town is beautifully situated, being flanked on +the east and south by hills exceeding 1000 ft. The picturesque square keep +of an ancient castle remains, but the present Buncrana Castle is a +residence erected in 1717. The golf-links are well known. + +BUNDABERG, a municipal town and river port of Cook county, Queensland, +Australia, 10 m. from the mouth of the river Burnett, and 217 m. by rail N. +by W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 5200. It lies on both sides of the river, +and connexion between the two ports is maintained by road and railway +bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and distilleries in +the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity, notably at +Millaquin, on the river below the town. There are wharves on both sides of +the river, and the staple exports are sugar, golden-syrup and timber. The +climate is remarkably healthy. + +BUNDELKHAND, a tract of country in Central India, lying between the United +and the Central Provinces. Historically it includes the five British +districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Banda, which now form +part of the Allahabad division of the United Provinces, but politically it +is restricted to a collection of native states, under the Bundelkhand +agency. There are 9 states, 13 estates and the pargana of Alampur belonging +to Indore state, with a total area of 9851 sq. m. and a total population +(1901) of 1,308,326, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the +effects of famine. The most important of the states are Orchha, Panna, +Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Bijawar and Ajaigarh. A branch of +the Great Indian Peninsula railway traverses the north of the country. A +garrison of all arms is stationed at Nowgong. + +The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the north-east +part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines scooped out by +torrents during the periodical rains. The plains of Bundelkhand are +intersected by three mountain ranges, the Bindhachal, Panna and Bander +chains, the highest elevation not exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level. +Beyond these ranges the country is further diversified by isolated hills +rising abruptly from a common level, and presenting from their steep and +nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and strongholds, +whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently set at defiance the +most powerful of the native states of India. The general slope of the +country is towards the north-east, as indicated by the course of the rivers +which traverse or bound the territory, and finally discharge themselves +into the Jumna. + +The principal rivers are the Sind, Betwa, Ken, Baighin, Paisuni, Tons, +Pahuj, Dhasan, Berma, Urmal and Chandrawal. The Sind, rising near Sironj in +Malwa, marks the frontier line of Bundelkhand on the side of Gwalior. +Parallel to this river, but more to the eastward, is the course of the +Betwa. Still farther to the east flows the Ken, followed in succession by +the Baighin, Paisuni and Tons. The Jumna and the Ken are the only two +navigable rivers. Notwithstanding the large number of streams, the +depression of their channels and height of their banks render them for the +most part unsuitable for the purposes of irrigation,--which is conducted by +means of _jhils_ and tanks. These artificial lakes are usually formed by +throwing embankments across the lower extremities of valleys, and thus +arresting and accumulating the waters flowing through them. Some of the +tanks are of great capacity; the Barwa Sagar, for instance, is 21/2 m. in +diameter. Diamonds are found, particularly near the town of Panna, in a +range of hills called by the natives Band-Ahil. + +The mines of Maharajpur, Rajpur, Kimera and Gadasia have been famous for +magnificent diamonds; and a very large one dug from the last was kept in +the fort of Kalinjar among the treasures of Raja Himmat Bahadur. In the +reign of the emperor Akbar the mines of Panna produced diamonds to the +amount of L100,000 annually, and were a considerable source of revenue, but +for many years they have not been so profitable. + +The tree vegetation consists rather of jungle or copse than forest, +abounding in game which is preserved by the native chiefs. There are also +within these coverts several varieties of wild animals, such as the tiger, +leopard, hyena, wild boar, _nilgai_ and jackal. + +The people represent various races. The Bundelas--the race who gave the +name to the country--still maintain their dignity as chieftains, by +disdaining to cultivate the soil, although by no means conspicuous for +lofty sentiments of honour or morality. An Indian proverb avers that "one +native of Bundelkhand commits as much fraud as a hundred Dandis" (weighers +of grain and notorious rogues). About Datia and Jhansi the inhabitants are +a stout and handsome race of men, well off and contented. The prevailing +religion in Bundelkhand is Hinduism. + +The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand were the +Garhwas, who were succeeded by the Parihars; but nothing is known of +either. About A.D. 800 the Parihars are said to have been ousted by the +Chandels, and Dangha Varma, chief of the Chandel Rajputs, appears to have +established the earliest paramount power in Bundelkhand towards the close +of the 10th century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its +greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its raja, +whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the +head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with 640 elephants, to oppose the +invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by +Prithwi Raj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country remained +in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the Bundelas, +a spurious offshoot of the Garhwa tribe of Rajputs, established themselves +on the right bank of the Jumna. One of these took possession of Orchha by +treacherously poisoning its chief. His successor succeeded in further +aggrandizing the Bundela state, but he is represented to have been a +notorious plunderer, and his character is further stained by the +assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and historian +of Akbar. Jajhar Singh, the third Bundela chief, unsuccessfully revolted +against the court of Delhi, and his country became incorporated for a short +time with the empire. The struggles of the Bundelas for independence +resulted in the withdrawal of the royal troops, and the admission of +several petty states as feudatories of the empire on condition of military +service. The Bundelas, under Champat Rai and his son. Chhatar Sal, offered +a successful resistance to the proselytizing efforts of Aurangzeb. On the +occasion of a Mahommedan invasion in 1732, Chhatar Sal asked and obtained +the assistance of the Mahratta Peshwa, whom he adopted as his son, giving +him a third of his dominions. The Mahrattas gradually extended their +influence over Bundelkhand, [v.04 p.0798] and in 1792 the peshwa was +acknowledged as the lord paramount of the country. The Mahratta power was, +however, on the decline; the flight of the peshwa from his capital to +Bassein before the British arms changed the aspect of affairs, and by the +treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British government, the +districts of Banda and Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. Two chiefs +then held the ceded districts, Himmat Bahadur, the leader of the Sanyasis, +who promoted the views of the British, and Shamsher, who made common cause +with the Mahrattas. In September 1803, the united forces of the English and +Himmat Bahadur compelled Shamsher to retreat with his army. In 1809 +Ajaigarh was besieged by a British force, and again three years later +Kalinjar was besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In 1817, by the treaty +of Poona, the British government acquired from the peshwa all his rights, +interests and pretensions, feudal, territorial or pecuniary, in +Bundelkhand. In carrying out the provisions of the treaty, an assurance was +given by the British government that the rights of those interested in the +transfer should be scrupulously respected, and the host of petty native +principalities in the province is the best proof of the sincerity and good +faith with which this clause has been carried out. During the mutiny of +1857, however, many of the chiefs rose against the British, the rani of +Jhansi being a notable example. + +BUNDI, or BOONDEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, lying +on the north-east of the river Chambal, in a hilly tract historically known +as Haraoti, from the Hara sept of the great clan of Chauhan Rajputs, to +which the maharao raja of Bundi belongs. It has an area of 2220 sq. m. Many +parts of the state are wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina +population, formerly notorious as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the +Chambia and the Mej, water the state; the former is navigable by boats. In +1901 the population was 171,227, showing a decrease of 42% due to the +effects of famine. The estimated revenue is L46,000, the tribute L8000. +There is no railway, but the metalled road from Kotah to the British +cantonment of Deoli passes through the state. The town of Bundi had a +population in 1901 of 19,313. A school for the education of boys of high +rank was opened in 1897. + +The state of Bundi was founded about A.D. 1342 by the Hara chief Rao Dewa, +or Deoraj, who captured the town from the Minas. Its importance, however, +dates from the time of Rao Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in +1554 and by throwing in his lot with the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi +(1569) received a considerable accession of territory. From this time the +rulers of Bundi bore the title of rao raja. In the 17th century their power +was curtailed by the division of Haraoti into the two states of Kotah and +Bundi; but they continued to play a prominent part in Indian history, and +the title of maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played +by him in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after the death +of Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja Bishan Singh gave valuable +assistance to Colonel Monson in his disastrous retreat before Holkar, in +revenge for which the Mahratas and Pindaris continually ravaged his state +up to 1817. On the 10th of February 1818, by a treaty concluded with Bishan +Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In 1821 Bishan Singh was +succeeded by his son Ram Singh, who ruled till 1889. He is described as a +grand specimen of the Rajput gentleman, and "the most conservative prince +in conservative Rajputana." His rule was popular and beneficent; and though +during the mutiny of 1857 his attitude was equivocal, he continued to enjoy +the favour of the British government, being created G.C.S.I. and a +counsellor of the empire in 1877 and C.I.E. in 1878. He was succeeded by +his son Raghubir Singh, who was made a K.C.S.I. in 1897 and a G.C.I.E. in +1901. + +BUNER, a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier Province +of India. It is a small mountain valley, dotted with villages and divided +into seven sub-divisions. The Mora Hills and the Ilam range divide it from +Swat, the Sinawar range from Yusafzai, the Guru mountains from the Chamla +valley, and the Duma range from the Puran Valley. It is inhabited by the +Iliaszai and Malizai divisions of the Pathan tribe of Yusafzais, who are +called after their country the Bunerwals. There is no finer race on the +north-west frontier of India than the Bunerwals. Simple and austere in +their habits, religious and truthful in their ways, hospitable to all who +seek shelter amongst them, free from secret assassinations, they are bright +examples of the Pathan character at its best. They are a powerful and +warlike tribe, numbering 8000 fighting men. The Umbeyla Expedition of 1863 +under Sir Neville Chamberlain was occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with +the Hindostani Fanatics, who had settled down at Malka in their territory. +In the end the Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9000 British troops, +and Malka was destroyed, but they made so fierce a resistance, in +particular in their attack upon the "Crag" picket, that the Indian medal +with a clasp for "Umbeyla" was granted in 1869 to the survivors of the +expedition. The government of India refrained from interfering with the +tribe again until the Buner campaign of 1897 under Sir Bindon Blood. Many +Bunerwals took part in the attack of the Swatis on the Malakand fort, and a +force of 3000 British troops was sent to punish them; but the tribe made +only a feeble resistance at the passes into their country, and speedily +handed in the arms demanded of them and made complete submission. + +BUNGALOW (an Anglo-Indian word from the Hindustani _bangla_, belonging to +Bengal), a one-storeyed house with a verandah and a projecting roof, the +typical dwelling for Europeans in India; the name is also used for similar +buildings which have become common for seaside and summer residences in +America and Great Britain. Dak or dawk bungalows (from _dak_ or _dawk_, a +post, a relay of men for carrying the mails, &c.) are the government +rest-houses established at intervals for the use of travellers on the high +roads of India. + +BUNGAY, a market-town in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, +England; 113 m. N.E. from London on a branch from Beccles of the Great +Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 3314. It is picturesquely placed in a deep +bend of the river Waveney, the boundary with Norfolk. Of the two parish +churches that of St Mary has a fine Perpendicular tower, and that of Holy +Trinity a round tower of which the lower part is Norman. St Mary's was +attached to a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1160. The ruins of the castle +date from 1281. They are fragmentary though massive; and there are traces +of earth-works of much earlier date. The castle was a stronghold of the +powerful family of Bigod, being granted to Roger Bigod, a Norman follower +of the Conqueror, in 1075. A grammar school was founded in 1592. There are +large printing-works, and founding and malting are prosecuted. There is a +considerable carrying trade on the Waveney. + +BUNION (a word usually derived from the Ital. _bugnone_, a swelling, but, +according to the _New English Dictionary_, the late and rare literary use +of the word makes an Italian derivation unlikely; there is an O. Eng. word +"bunny," also meaning a swelling, and an O. Fr. _buigne_, modern _bigne_, +showing a probable common origin now lost, cf. also "bunch"), an inflamed +swelling of the _bursa mucosa_, the sac containing synovial fluid on the +metatarsal joint of the big toe, or, more rarely, of the little toe. This +may be accompanied by corns or suppuration, leading to an ulcer or even +gangrene. The cause is usually pressure; removal of this, and general +palliative treatment by dressings, &c. are usually effective, but in severe +and obstinate cases a surgical operation may be necessary. + +BUNKER HILL, the name of a small hill in Charlestown (Boston), +Massachusetts, U.S.A., famous as the scene of the first considerable +engagement in the American War of Independence (June 17, 1775). Bunker Hill +(110 ft.) was connected by a ridge with Breed's Hill (75 ft.), both being +on a narrow peninsula a short distance to the north of Boston, joined by a +causeway with the mainland. Since the affair of Lexington (April 19, 1775) +General Gage, who commanded the British forces, had remained inactive at +Boston awaiting reinforcements from England; the headquarters of the +Americans were at Cambridge, with advanced posts occupying much of the 4 m. +separating [v.04 p.0799] Cambridge from Bunker Hill. When Gage received his +reinforcements at the end of May, he determined to repair his strange +neglect by which the hills on the peninsula had been allowed to remain +unoccupied and unfortified. As soon as the Americans became aware of Gage's +intention they determined to frustrate it, and accordingly, on the night of +the 16th of June, a force of about 1200 men, under Colonel William Prescott +and Major-General Israel Putnam, with some engineers and a few field-guns, +occupied Breed's Hill--to which the name Bunker Hill is itself now +popularly applied--and when daylight disclosed their presence to the +British they had already strongly entrenched their position. Gage lost no +time in sending troops across from Boston with orders to assault. The +British force, between 2000 and 3000 strong, under (Sir) William Howe, +supported by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and floating batteries +stationed in the anchorage on either side of the peninsula, were fresh and +well disciplined. The American force consisted for the most part of +inexperienced volunteers, numbers of whom were already wearied by the +trench work of the night. As communication was kept up with their camp the +numbers engaged on the hill fluctuated during the day, but at no time +exceeded about 1500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which a galling +musketry fire was directed against the British, was by General Howe's +orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot during the attack. Instead of +attempting to cut off the Americans by occupying the neck to the rear of +their position, Gage ordered the advance to be made up the steep and +difficult ascent facing the works on the hill. Whether or not in +obedience--as tradition asserts--to an order to reserve fire until they +could see the whites of their assailants' eyes, the American volunteers +with admirable steadiness waited till the attack was on the point of being +driven home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and deadly that the +British line broke in disorder. A second assault, made like the first, with +the precision and discipline of the parade-ground met the same fate, but +Gage's troops had still spirit enough for a third assault, and this time +they carried the position with the bayonet, capturing five pieces of +ordnance and putting the enemy to flight. The loss of the British was 1054 +men killed and wounded, among whom were 89 commissioned officers; while the +American casualties amounted to 420 killed and wounded, including General +Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners. (See AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.) + +The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however, to be gauged +by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in proportion to the +numbers engaged, nor by its purely military results, but by the moral +effect which it produced; and when it is considered from this standpoint +its far-reaching consequences can hardly be over-estimated. "It roused at +once the fierce instinct of combat in America ..., and dispelled ... the +almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering regular +troops with hastily levied volunteers ... No one questioned the conspicuous +gallantry with which the provincial troops had supported a long fire from +the ships and awaited the charge of the enemy, and British soldiers had +been twice driven back in disorder before their fire."[1] The pride which +Americans naturally felt in such an achievement, and the self-confidence +which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that the small force on +Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced, and that their ammunition was +running short before they were dislodged from their position.[2] Had the +character of the fighting on that day been other than it was; had the +American volunteers been easily, and at the first assault, driven from +their fortified position by the troops of George III., it is not impossible +that the resistance to the British government would have died out in the +North American colonies through lack of confidence in their own power on +the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it may have to teach the +student of war, taught the American colonists in 1775 that the odds against +them in the enterprise in which they had embarked were not so overwhelming +as to deny them all prospect of ultimate success. + +In 1843 a monument, 221 ft. high, in the form of an obelisk, of Quincy +granite, was completed on Breed's Hill (now Bunker Hill) to commemorate the +battle, when an address was delivered by Daniel Webster, who had also +delivered the famous dedicatory oration at the laying of the corner-stone +in 1825. Bunker Hill day is a state holiday. + +See R. Frothingham, _The Centennial: Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1895), +and _Life and Times of Joseph Warren_ (Boston, 1865); Boston City Council, +_Celebration of Centen. Aniv. of Battle of Bunker Hill_ (Boston, 1875); +G.E. Ellis, _Hist. of Battle of Bunker's_ (Breed's) _Hill_ (Boston, 1875); +S. Sweet, _Who was the Commander at Bunker Hill?_ (Boston, 1850); W.E.H. +Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. iii (London, +1883); Sir George O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (London, 1899); +Fortescue, _History of the British Army_, vol. iii. pp. 153 seq. (London, +1902). + +(R. J. M.) + +[1] W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, iii. 428. + +[2] General Gage's despatch. _American Remembrancer_, 1776, part 11, p. +132. + +BUNN, ALFRED (1796-1860), English theatrical manager, was appointed +stage-manager of Drury Lane theatre, London, in 1823. In 1826 he was +managing the Theatre Royal, Birmingham, and in 1833 he undertook the joint +management of Drury Lane and Covent Garden, London. In this undertaking he +met with vigorous opposition. A bill for the abolition of the patent +theatres was passed in the House of Commons, but on Bunn's petition was +thrown out by the House of Lords. He had difficulties first with his +company, then with the lord chamberlain, and had to face the keen rivalry +of the other theatres. A longstanding quarrel with Macready resulted in the +tragedian assaulting the manager. In 1840 Bunn was declared a bankrupt, but +he continued to manage Drury Lane till 1848. Artistically his control of +the two chief English theatres was highly successful. Nearly every leading +English actor played under his management, and he made a courageous attempt +to establish English opera, producing the principal works of Balfe. He had +some gift for writing, and most of the libretti of these operas were +translated by himself. In _The Stage Before and Behind the Curtain_ (3 +vols., 1840) he gave a full account of his managerial experiences. He died +at Boulogne on the 20th of December 1860. + +BUNNER, HENRY CUYLER (1855-1896), American writer, was born in Oswego, New +York, on the 3rd of August 1855. He was educated in New York City. From +being a clerk in an importing house, he turned to journalism, and after +some work as a reporter, and on the staff of the _Arcadian_ (1873), he +became in 1877 assistant editor of the comic weekly _Puck_. He soon assumed +the editorship, which he held until his death in Nutley, N.J., on the 11th +of May 1896. He developed _Puck_ from a new struggling periodical into a +powerful social and political organ. In 1886 he published a novel, _The +Midge_, followed in 1887 by _The Story of a New York House_. But his best +efforts in fiction were his short stories and sketches--_Short Sixes_ +(1891), _More Short Sixes_ (1894), _Made in France_ (1893), _Zadoc Pine and +Other Stories_ (1891), _Love in Old Cloathes and Other Stories_ (1896), and +_Jersey Street and Jersey Lane_ (1896). His verses--_Airs from Arcady and +Elsewhere_ (1884), containing the well-known poem, _The Way to Arcady; +Rowen_ (1892); and _Poems_ (1896), edited by his friend Brander +Matthews--display a light play of imagination and a delicate workmanship. +He also wrote clever _vers de societe_ and parodies. Of his several plays +(usually written in collaboration), the best was _The Tower of Babel_ +(1883). + +BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BARON VON (1791-1860), Prussian +diplomatist and scholar, was born on the 25th of August 1791 at Korbach, an +old town in the little German principality of Waldeck. His father was a +farmer who was driven by poverty to become a soldier. Having studied at the +Korbach grammar school and Marburg university, Bunsen went in his +nineteenth year to Goettingen, where he supported himself by teaching and +later by acting as tutor to W.B. Astor, the American merchant. He won the +university prize essay of the year 1812 by a treatise on the _Athenian Law +of Inheritance_, and a few months later the university of Jena granted him +the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. During 1813 he travelled with +Astor in South Germany, and then turned to the study of the religion, laws, +language and literature of the Teutonic [v.04 p.0800] races. He had read +Hebrew when a boy, and now worked at Arabic at Munich, Persian at Leiden, +and Norse at Copenhagen. At the close of 1815 he went to Berlin, to lay +before Niebuhr the plan of research which he had mapped out. Niebuhr was so +impressed with Bunsen's ability that, two years later, when he became +Prussian envoy to the papal court, he made the young scholar his secretary. +The intervening years Bunsen spent in assiduous labour among the libraries +and collections of Paris and Florence. In July 1817 he married Frances +Waddington, eldest daughter and co-heiress of B. Waddington of Llanover, +Monmouthshire. + +As secretary to Niebuhr, Bunsen was brought into contact with the Vatican +movement for the establishment of the papal church in the Prussian +dominions, to provide for the largely increased Catholic population. He was +among the first to realize the importance of this new vitality on the part +of the Vatican, and he made it his duty to provide against its possible +dangers by urging upon the Prussian court the wisdom of fair and impartial +treatment of its Catholic subjects. In this object he was at first +successful, and both from the Vatican and from Frederick William III., who +put him in charge of the legation on Niebuhr's resignation, he received +unqualified approbation. Owing partly to the wise statesmanship of Count +Spiegel, archbishop of Cologne, an arrangement was made by which the thorny +question of "mixed" marriages (_i.e._ between Catholic and Protestant) +would have been happily solved; but the archbishop died in 1835, the +arrangement was never ratified, and the Prussian king was foolish enough to +appoint as Spiegel's successor the narrow-minded partisan Baron Droste. The +pope gladly accepted the appointment, and in two years the forward policy +of the Jesuits had brought about the strife which Bunsen and Spiegel had +tried to prevent. Bunsen rashly recommended that Droste should be seized, +but the _coup_ was so clumsily attempted, that the incriminating documents +were, it is said, destroyed in advance. The government, in this _impasse_, +took the safest course, refused to support Bunsen, and accepted his +resignation in April 1838. + +After leaving Rome, where he had become intimate with all that was most +interesting in the cosmopolitan society of the papal capital, Bunsen went +to England, where, except for a short term as Prussian ambassador to +Switzerland (1830-1841), he was destined to pass the rest of his official +life. The accession to the throne of Prussia of Frederick William IV., on +June 7th, 1840, made a great change in Bunsen's career. Ever since their +first meeting in 1828 the two men had been close friends and had exchanged +ideas in an intimate correspondence, published under Ranke's editorship in +1873. Enthusiasm for evangelical religion and admiration for the Anglican +Church they held in common, and Bunsen was the instrument naturally +selected for realizing the king's fantastic scheme of setting up at +Jerusalem a Prusso-Anglican bishopric as a sort of advertisement of the +unity and aggressive force of Protestantism. The special mission of Bunsen +to England, from June to November 1841, was completely successful, in spite +of the opposition of English high churchmen and Lutheran extremists. The +Jerusalem bishopric, with the consent of the British government and the +active encouragement of the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of +London, was duly established, endowed with Prussian and English money, and +remained for some forty years an isolated symbol of Protestant unity and a +rock of stumbling to Anglican Catholics. + +During his stay in England Bunsen had made himself very popular among all +classes of society, and he was selected by Queen Victoria, out of three +names proposed by the king of Prussia, as ambassador to the court of St +James's. In this post he remained for thirteen years. His tenure of the +office coincided with the critical period in Prussian and European affairs +which culminated in the revolutions of 1848. With the visionary schemes of +Frederick William, whether that of setting up a strict episcopal +organization in the Evangelical Church, or that of reviving the defunct +ideal of the medieval Empire, Bunsen found himself increasingly out of +sympathy. He realized the significance of the signs that heralded the +coming storm, and tried in vain to move the king to a policy which would +have placed him at the head of a Germany united and free. He felt bitterly +the humiliation of Prussia by Austria after the victory of the reaction; +and in 1852 he set his signature reluctantly to the treaty which, in his +view, surrendered the "constitutional rights of Schleswig and Holstein." +His whole influence was now directed to withdrawing Prussia from the +blighting influence of Austria and Russia, and attempting to draw closer +the ties that bound her to Great Britain. On the outbreak of the Crimean +War he urged Frederick William to throw in his lot with the western powers, +and create a diversion in the north-east which would have forced Russia at +once to terms. The rejection of his advice, and the proclamation of +Prussia's attitude of "benevolent neutrality," led him in April 1854 to +offer his resignation, which was accepted. + +Bunsen's life as a public man was now practically at an end. He retired +first to a villa on the Neckar near Heidelberg and later to Bonn. He +refused to stand for a seat, in the Liberal interest, in the Lower House of +the Prussian diet, but continued to take an active interest in politics, +and in 1855 published in two volumes a work, _Die Zeichen der Zeit: Briefe, +&c._, which exercised an immense influence in reviving the Liberal movement +which the failure of the revolution had crushed. In September 1857 Bunsen +attended, as the king's guest, a meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at +Berlin; and one of the last papers signed by Frederick William, before his +mind gave way in October, was that which conferred upon him the title of +baron and a peerage for life. In 1858, at the special request of the regent +(afterwards the emperor) William, he took his seat in the Prussian Upper +House, and, though remaining silent, supported the new ministry, of which +his political and personal friends were members. + +Literary work was, however, his main preoccupation during all this period. +Two discoveries of ancient MSS. made during his stay in London, the one +containing a shorter text of the _Epistles of St Ignatius_, and the other +an unknown work _On all the Heresies_, by Bishop Hippolytus, had already +led him to write his _Hippolytus and his Age: Doctrine and Practice of Rome +under Commodus and Severus_ (1852). He now concentrated all his efforts +upon a translation of the Bible with commentaries. While this was in +preparation he published his _God in History_, in which he contends that +the progress of mankind marches parallel to the conception of God formed +within each nation by the highest exponents of its thought. At the same +time he carried through the press, assisted by Samuel Birch, the concluding +volumes of his work (published in English as well as in German) _Egypt's +Place in Universal History_--containing a reconstruction of Egyptian +chronology, together with an attempt to determine the relation in which the +language and the religion of that country stand to the development of each +among the more ancient non-Aryan and Aryan races. His ideas on this subject +were most fully developed in two volumes published in London before he +quitted England--_Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History as +applied to Language and Religion_ (2 vols., 1854). + +In 1858 Bunsen's health began to fail; visits to Cannes in 1858 and 1859 +brought no improvement, and he died on November 28th, 1860. One of his last +requests having been that his wife would write down recollections of their +common life, she published his _Memoirs_ in 1868, which contain much of his +private correspondence. The German translation of these _Memoirs_ has added +extracts from unpublished documents, throwing a new light upon the +political events in which he played a part. Baron Humboldt's letters to +Bunsen were printed in 1869. + +Bunsen's English connexion, both through his wife (d. 1876) and through his +own long residence in London, was further increased in his family. He had +ten children, including five sons, Henry (1818-1855), Ernest (1810-1903), +Karl (1821-1887), Georg (1824-1896) and Theodor (1832-1892). Of these Karl +(Charles) and Theodor had careers in the German diplomatic service; and +Georg, who for some time was an active politician in Germany, eventually +retired to live in London; Henry, who was an English clergyman, became a +naturalized Englishman, [v.04 p.0801] and Ernest, who in 1845 married an +Englishwoman, Miss Gurney, subsequently resided and died in London. The +form of "de" Bunsen was adopted for the surname in England. Ernest de +Bunsen was a scholarly writer, who published various works both in German +and in English, notably on Biblical chronology and other questions of +comparative religion. His son, Sir Maurice de Bunsen (b. 1852), entered the +English diplomatic service in 1877, and after a varied experience became +minister at Lisbon in 1905. + +See also L. von Ranke, _Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit +Bunsen_ (Berlin, 1873). The biography in the 9th edition of this +encyclopaedia, which has been drawn upon above, was by Georg von Bunsen. + +BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM VON (1811-1899), German chemist, was born at +Goettingen on the 31st of March 1811, his father, Christian Bunsen, being +chief librarian and professor of modern philology at the university. He +himself entered the university in 1828, and in 1834 became _Privat-docent_. +In 1836 he became teacher of chemistry at the Polytechnic School of Cassel, +and in 1839 took up the appointment of professor of chemistry at Marburg, +where he remained till 1851. In 1852, after a brief period in Breslau, he +was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Heidelberg, where he spent the +rest of his life, in spite of an urgent invitation to migrate to Berlin as +successor to E. Mitscherlich. He retired from active work in 1889, and died +at Heidelberg on the 16th of August 1899. The first research by which +attention was drawn to Bunsen's abilities was concerned with the cacodyl +compounds (see ARSENIC), though he had already, in 1834, discovered the +virtues of freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide as an antidote to +arsenical poisoning. It was begun in 1837 at Cassel, and during the six +years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one eye through an +explosion, but nearly killed himself by arsenical poisoning. It represents +almost his only excursion into organic chemistry, and apart from its +accuracy and completeness it is of historical interest in the development +of that branch of the science as being the forerunner of the fruitful +investigations on the organo-metallic compounds subsequently carried out by +his English pupil, Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his work on +cacodyl, he was studying the composition of the gases given off from blast +furnaces. He showed that in German furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by +the fuel was being allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he came +to England, and in conjunction with Lyon Playfair investigated the +conditions obtaining in English furnaces, he found the waste to amount to +over 80%. These researches marked a stage in the application of scientific +principles to the manufacture of iron, and they led also to the elaboration +of Bunsen's famous methods of measuring gaseous volumes, &c., which form +the subject of the only book he ever published (_Gasometrische Methoden_, +1857). In 1841 he invented the carbon-zinc electric cell which is known by +his name, and which conducted him to several important achievements. He +first employed it to produce the electric arc, and showed that from 44 +cells a light equal to 1171.3 candles could be obtained with the +consumption of one pound of zinc per hour. To measure this light he +designed in 1844 another instrument, which in various modifications has +come into extensive use--the grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began to +carry out electrolytical decompositions by the aid of the battery. By means +of a very ingenious arrangement he obtained magnesium for the first time in +the metallic state, and studied its chemical and physical properties, among +other things demonstrating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the +flame it gives when burnt in air. From 1855 to 1863 he published with +Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measurements, which W. +Ostwald has called the "classical example for all future researches in +physical chemistry." Perhaps the best known of the contrivances which the +world owes to him is the "Bunsen burner" which he devised in 1855 when a +simple means of burning ordinary coal gas with a hot smokeless flame was +required for the new laboratory at Heidelberg. Other appliances invented by +him were the ice-calorimeter (1870), the vapour calorimeter (1887), and the +filter pump (1868), which was worked out in the course of a research on the +separation of the platinum metals. Mention must also be made of another +piece of work of a rather different character. Travelling was one of his +favourite relaxations, and in 1846 he paid a visit to Iceland. There he +investigated the phenomena of the geysers, the composition of the gases +coming off from the fumaroles, their action on the rocks with which they +came into contact, &c., and on his observations was founded a noteworthy +contribution to geological theory. But the most far-reaching of his +achievements was the elaboration, about 1859, jointly with G.R. Kirchhoff, +of spectrum analysis, which has put a new weapon of extraordinary power +into the hands both of chemists and astronomers. It led Bunsen himself +almost immediately to the isolation of two new elements of the alkali +group, caesium and rubidium. Having noticed some unknown lines in the +spectra of certain salts he was examining, he set to work to obtain the +substance or substances to which these were due. To this end he evaporated +large quantities of the Duerkheim mineral water, and it says much both for +his perseverance and powers of manipulation that he dealt with 40 tons of +the water to get about 17 grammes of the mixed chlorides of the two +substances, and that with about one-third of that quantity of caesium +chloride was able to prepare the most important compounds of the element +and determine their characteristics, even making goniometrical measurements +of their crystals. + +Bunsen founded no school of chemistry; that is to say, no body of chemical +doctrine is associated with his name. Indeed, he took little or no part in +discussions of points of theory, and, although he was conversant with the +trend of the chemical thought of his day, he preferred to spend his +energies in the collection of experimental data. One fact, he used to say, +properly proved is worth all the theories that can be invented. But as a +teacher of chemistry he was almost without rival, and his success is +sufficiently attested by the scores of pupils who flocked from every part +of the globe to study under him, and by the number of those pupils who +afterwards made their mark in the chemical world. The secret of this +success lay largely in the fact that he never delegated his work to +assistants, but was constantly present with his pupils in the laboratory, +assisting each with personal direction and advice. He was also one of the +first to appreciate the value of practical work to the student, and he +instituted a regular practical course at Marburg so far back as 1840. +Though alive to the importance of applied science, he considered truth +alone to be the end of scientific research, and the example he set his +pupils was one of single-hearted devotion to the advancement of knowledge. + +See Sir Henry Roscoe's "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," _Trans. Chem. Soc._, +1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary notices in an +edition of Bunsen's collected works published by Ostwald and Bodenstein in +3 vols. at Leipzig in 1904. + +BUNTER, the name applied by English geologists to the lower stage or +subdivision of the Triassic rocks in the United Kingdom. The name has been +adapted from the German _Buntsandstein, Der bunte Sandstein_, for it was in +Germany that this continental type of Triassic deposit was first carefully +studied. In France, the Bunter is known as the _Gres bigarre_. In northern +and central Germany, in the Harz, Thuringia and Hesse, the Bunter is +usually conformable with the underlying Permian formation; in the +south-west and west, however, it transgresses on to older rocks, on to Coal +Measures near Saarbruck, and upon the crystalline schists of Odenwald and +the Black Forest. + +The German subdivisions of the Bunter are as follows:--(1) _Upper +Buntsandstein_, or _Roet_, mottled red and green marls and clays with +occasional beds of shale, sandstone, gypsum, rocksalt and dolomite. In +Hesse and Thuringia, a quartzitic sandstone prevails in the lower part. The +"Rhizocorallium Dolomite" (_R. Jenense_, probably a sponge) of the latter +district contains the only Bunter fauna of any importance. In Lorraine and +the Eifel and Saar districts there are micaceous clays and sandstones with +plant remains--the _Voltzia_ sandstone. The lower beds in the Black Forest, +Vosges, Odenwald and Lorraine very generally contain strings of dolomite +and carnelian--the so-called "Carneol bank." (2) _Middle +Buntsandstein-Hauptbuntsandstein_ (900 ft.), the bulk [v.04 p.0802] of this +subdivision is made up of weakly-cemented, coarse-grained sandstones, +oblique lamination is very prevalent, and occasional conglomeratic beds +make their appearance. The uppermost bed is usually fine-grained and bears +the footprints of _Cheirotherium_. In the Vosges district, this subdivision +of the Bunter is called the _Gres des Vosges, _or the _Gres principal_, +which comprises: (i.) red micaceous and argillaceous sandstone; (ii.) the +_conglomerat principal_; and (iii.) _Gres bigarre principal_ (=_gres des +Vosges_, properly so-called). (3) _Lower Buntsandstein_, fine-grained +clayey and micaceous sandstones, red-grey, yellow, white and mottled. The +cement of the sandstones is often felspathic; for this reason they yield +useful porcelain clays in the Thuringerwald. Clay galls are common in the +sandstones of some districts, and in the neighbourhood of the Harz an +oolitic calcareous sandstone, _Rogenstein_, occurs. In eastern Hesse, the +lowest beds are crumbly, shaly clays, _Brockelschiefern_. + +The following are the subdivisions usually adopted in England:--(1) Upper +Mottled Sandstone, red variegated sandstones, soft and generally free from +pebbles. (2) Bunter Pebble Beds, harder red and brown sandstones with +quartzose pebbles, very abundant in some places. (3) Lower Mottled +Sandstone, very similar to the upper division. The Bunter beds occupy a +large area in the midland counties where they form dry, healthy ground of +moderate elevation (Cannock Chase, Trentham, Sherwood Forest, Sutton +Coldfield, &c.). Southward they may be followed through west Somerset to +the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in Devon; while northward they pass +through north Staffordshire, Cheshire and Lancashire to the Vale of Eden +and St Bees, reappearing in Elgin and Arran. A deposit of these rocks lies +in the Vale of Clwyd and probably flanks the eastern side of the Pennine +Hills, although here it is not so readily differentiated from the Keuper +beds. The English Bunter rests with a slight unconformity upon the older +formations. It is generally absent in the south-eastern counties, but +thickens rapidly in the opposite direction, as is shown by the following +table:-- + + +----------------+----------------+---------------------+ + | Lancashire and | | Leicestershire and | + | W. Cheshire. | Staffordshire. | Warwickshire. | + +----------------+----------------+---------------------+ + |(1) 500 ft. | 50-200 ft. | Absent | + |(2) 500-750 ft. | 100-300 ft. | 0-100 ft. | + |(3) 200-500 ft. | 0-100 ft. | Absent | + +----------------+----------------+---------------------+ + +The material forming the Bunter beds of England came probably from the +north-west, but in Devonshire there are indications which point to an +additional source. + +In the Alpine region, most of the Trias differs markedly from that of +England and northern Germany, being of distinctly marine origin; here the +Bunter is represented by the _Werfen beds_ (from Werfen in Salzburg) in the +northern Alps, a series of red and greenish-grey micaceous shales with +gypsum, rock salt and limestones in the upper part; while in the southern +Alps (S. Tirol) there is an upper series of red clays, the _Campil beds_, +and a lower series of thin sandstones, the _Seis beds_. Mojsisovics von +Mojsvar has pointed out that the Alpine Bunter belongs to the single zone +of _Natica costata_ and _Tirolites cassianus_. + +Fossils in the Bunter are very scarce; in addition to the footprints of +_Cheirotherium_, direct evidence of amphibians is found in such forms as +_Trematosaurus_ and _Mastodonsaurus. Myophoria costata_ and _Gervillea +Murchisoni_ are characteristic fossils. Plants are represented by _Voltzia_ +and by equisetums and ferns. + +In England, the Bunter sandstones frequently act as valuable reservoirs of +underground water; sometimes they are used for building stone or for +foundry sand. In Germany some of the harder beds have yielded building +stones, which were much used in the middle ages in the construction of +cathedrals and castles in southern Germany and on the Rhine. In the +northern Eifel region, at Mechernich and elsewhere, this formation contains +lead ore in the form of spots and patches (_Knotenerz_) in the sandstone; +some of the lead ore was worked by the Romans. + +For a consideration of the relationship of the Bunter beds to formations of +the like age in other parts of the world, see TRIASSIC SYSTEM. + +(J. A. H.) + +BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858), English Wesleyan divine, was born of humble +parentage at Manchester on the 13th of May 1779. He was educated at +Manchester grammar school, and at the age of nineteen began to preach, +being received into full connexion in 1803. He continued to minister for +upwards of fifty-seven years in Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool, +London and elsewhere. In 1835 he was appointed president of the first +Wesleyan theological college (at Hoxton), and in this position he succeeded +in materially raising the standard of education among Wesleyan ministers. +He was four times chosen to be president of the conference, was repeatedly +secretary of the "Legal Hundred," and for eighteen years was secretary to +the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Under him Methodism ceased to be a society +based upon Anglican foundation, and became a distinct church. He favoured +the extension of lay power in committees, and was particularly zealous in +the cause of foreign missions. Bunting was a popular preacher, and an +effective platform speaker; in 1818 he was given the degree of M.A. by +Aberdeen University, and in 1834 that of D.D. by Wesleyan University of +Middletown, Conn., U.S.A. He died on the 16th of June 1858. His eldest son, +William Maclardie Bunting (1805-1866), was also a distinguished Wesleyan +minister; and his grandson Sir Percy William Bunting (b. 1836), son of T.P. +Bunting, became prominent as a liberal nonconformist and editor of the +_Contemporary Review_ from 1882, being knighted in 1908. + +See _Lives_ of Jabez Bunting (1859) and W.M. Bunting (1870) by Thomas +Percival Bunting. + +BUNTING, properly the common English name of the bird called by Linnaeus +_Emberiza miliaria_, but now used in a general sense for all members of the +family _Emberizidae_, which are closely allied to the finches +(_Fringillidae_), though, in Professor W.K. Parker's opinion, to be easily +distinguished therefrom--the _Emberizidae_ possessing what none of the +_Fringillidae_ do, an additional pair of palatal bones, +"palato-maxillaries." It will probably follow from this diagnosis that some +forms of birds, particularly those of the New World, which have hitherto +been commonly assigned to the latter, really belong to the former, and +among them the genera _Cardinalis_ and _Phrygilus_. The additional palatal +bones just named are also found in several other peculiarly American +families, namely, _Tanagridae_, _Icteridae_ and _Mniotiltidae_--whence it +may be perhaps inferred that the _Emberizidae_ are of Transatlantic origin. +The buntings generally may be also outwardly distinguished from the finches +by their angular gape, the posterior portion of which is greatly deflected; +and most of the Old-World forms, together with some of those of the New +World, have a bony knob on the palate--a swollen outgrowth of the dentary +edges of the bill. Correlated with this peculiarity the maxilla usually has +the tomia sinuated, and is generally concave, and smaller and narrower than +the mandible, which is also concave to receive the palatal knob. In most +other respects the buntings greatly resemble the finches, but their eggs +are generally distinguishable by the irregular hair-like markings on the +shell. In the British Islands by far the commonest species of bunting is +the yellow-hammer (_E. citrinella_), but the true bunting (or corn-bunting, +or bunting-lark, as it is called in some districts) is a very well-known +bird, while the reed-bunting (_E. schoeniclus_) frequents marshy soils +almost to the exclusion of the two former. In certain localities in the +south of England the cirl-bunting (_E. cirlus_) is also a resident; and in +winter vast flocks of the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_), at once +recognizable by its pointed wings and elongated hind-claws, resort to our +shores and open grounds. This last is believed to breed sparingly on the +highest mountains of Scotland, but the majority of the examples which visit +us come from northern regions, for it is a species which in summer inhabits +the whole circumpolar area. The ortolan (_E. hortulana_), so highly prized +for its delicate flavour, occasionally appears in England, but the British +Islands seem to lie outside its proper range. On the continent of Europe, +in Africa and throughout Asia, many other species are found, while in +America the number belonging to the family cannot at present be computed. +The beautiful and melodious cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), commonly +called the Virginian nightingale, must be included in this family. + +(A. N.) + +BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with _bunt_, to +sift, or with the Ger. _bunt_, of varied colour), a loosely woven woollen +cloth for making flags; the term is also used of a collection of flags, and +particularly those of a ship. + +[v.04 p.0803] BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688), English religious writer, was born +at Elstow, about a mile from Bedford, in November 1628. His father, Thomas +Bunyan,[1] was a tinker, or, as he described himself, a "brasier." The +tinkers then formed a hereditary caste, which was held in no high +estimation. Bunyan's father had a fixed residence, and was able to send his +son to a village school where reading and writing were taught. + +The years of John's boyhood were those during which the Puritan spirit was +in the highest vigour all over England; and nowhere had that spirit more +influence than in Bedfordshire. It is not wonderful, therefore, that a lad +to whom nature had given a powerful imagination and sensibility which +amounted to a disease, should have been early haunted by religious terrors. +Before he was ten his sports were interrupted by fits of remorse and +despair; and his sleep was disturbed by dreams of fiends trying to fly away +with him. As he grew older his mental conflicts became still more violent. +The strong language in which he described them strangely misled all his +earlier biographers except Southey. It was long an ordinary practice with +pious writers to cite Bunyan as an instance of the supernatural power of +divine grace to rescue the human soul from the lowest depths of wickedness. +He is called in one book the most notorious of profligates; in another, the +brand plucked from the burning. Many excellent persons, whose moral +character from boyhood to old age has been free from any stain discernible +to their fellow-creatures, have, in their autobiographies and diaries, +applied to themselves, and doubtless with sincerity, epithets as severe as +could be applied to Titus Oates or Mrs Brownrigg. It is quite certain that +Bunyan was, at eighteen, what, in any but the most austerely puritanical +circles, would have been considered as a young man of singular gravity and +innocence. Indeed, it may be remarked that he, like many other penitents +who, in general terms, acknowledge themselves to have been the worst of +mankind, fired up, and stood vigorously on his defence, whenever any +particular charge was brought against him by others. He declares, it is +true, that he had let loose the reins on the neck of his lusts, that he had +delighted in all transgressions against the divine law, and that he had +been the ringleader of the youth of Elstow in all manner of vice. But when +those who wished him ill accused him of licentious amours, he called on God +and the angels to attest his purity. No woman, he said, in heaven, earth or +hell, could charge him with having ever made any improper advances to her. +Not only had he been strictly faithful to his wife; but he had, even before +his marriage, been perfectly spotless. It does not appear from his own +confessions, or from the railings of his enemies, that he ever was drunk in +his life. One bad habit he contracted, that of using profane language; but +he tells us that a single reproof cured him so effectually that he never +offended again. The worst that can be laid to his charge is that he had a +great liking for some diversions, quite harmless in themselves, but +condemned by the rigid precisians among whom he lived, and for whose +opinion he had a great respect. The four chief sins of which he was guilty +were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church, playing at tipcat and +reading the history of Sir Bevis of Southampton. A rector of the school of +Laud would have held such a young man up to the whole parish as a model. +But Bunyan's notions of good and evil had been learned in a very different +school; and he was made miserable by the conflict between his tastes and +his scruples. + +When he was about seventeen the ordinary course of his life was interrupted +by an event which gave a lasting colour to his thoughts. He enlisted in the +Parliamentary army,[2] and served during the Decisive campaign of 1645. All +that we know of his military career is, that, at the siege of some town,[3] +one of his comrades, who had marched with the besieging army instead of +him, was killed by a shot. Bunyan ever after considered himself as having +been saved from death by the special interference of Providence. It may be +observed that his imagination was strongly impressed by the glimpse which +he had caught of the pomp of war. To the last he loved to draw his +illustrations of sacred things from camps and fortresses, from guns, drums, +trumpets, flags of truce, and regiments arrayed each under its own banner. +His Greatheart, his Captain Boanerges and his Captain Credence are +evidently portraits, of which the originals were among those martial saints +who fought and expounded in Fairfax's army. + +In 1646 Bunyan returned home and married about two years later. His wife +had some pious relations, and brought him as her only portion some pious +books. His mind, excitable by nature, very imperfectly disciplined by +education, and exposed to the enthusiasm which was then epidemic in +England, began to be fearfully disordered. The story of the struggle is +told in Bunyan's _Grace Abounding_. + +In outward things he soon became a strict Pharisee. He was constant in +attendance at prayers and sermons. His favourite amusements were, one after +another, relinquished, though not without many painful struggles. In the +middle of a game at tipcat he paused, and stood staring wildly upwards with +his stick in his hand. He had heard a voice asking him whether he would +leave his sins and go to heaven, or keep his sins and go to hell; and he +had seen an awful countenance frowning on him from the sky. The odious vice +of bell-ringing he renounced; but he still for a time ventured to go to the +church tower and look on while others pulled the ropes. But soon the +thought struck him that, if he persisted in such wickedness, the steeple +would fall on his head; and he fled in terror from the accursed place. To +give up dancing on the village green was still harder; and some months +elapsed before he had the fortitude to part with his darling sin. When this +last sacrifice had been made, he was, even when tried by the maxims of that +austere time, faultless. All Elstow talked of him as an eminently pious +youth. But his own mind was more unquiet than ever. Having nothing more to +do in the way of visible reformation, yet finding in religion no pleasures +to supply the place of the juvenile amusements which he had relinquished, +he began to apprehend that he lay under some special malediction; and he +was tormented by a succession of fantasies which seemed likely to drive him +to suicide or to Bedlam. At one time he took it into his head that all +persons of Israelite blood would be saved, and tried to make out that he +partook of that blood; but his hopes were speedily destroyed by his father, +who seems to have had no ambition to be regarded as a Jew. At another time +Bunyan was disturbed by a strange dilemma: "If I have not faith, I am lost; +if I have faith, I can work miracles." He was tempted to cry to the puddles +between Elstow and Bedford, "Be ye dry," and to stake his eternal hopes on +the event. Then he took up a notion that the day of grace for Bedford and +the neighbouring villages was past; that all who were to be saved in that +part of England were already converted; and that he had begun to pray and +strive some months too late. Then he was harassed by doubts whether the +Turks were not in the right and the Christians in the wrong. Then he was +troubled by a maniacal impulse which prompted him to pray to the trees, to +a broomstick, to the parish bull. + +As yet, however, he was only entering the valley of the shadow of death. +Soon the darkness grew thicker. Hideous forms floated before him. Sounds of +cursing and wailing were in his ears. His way ran through stench and fire, +close to the mouth of the bottomless pit. He began to be haunted by a +strange curiosity about the unpardonable sin, and by a morbid longing to +commit it. But the most frightful of all the forms which [v.04 p.0804] his +disease took was a propensity to utter blasphemy, and especially to +renounce his share in the benefits of the redemption. Night and day, in +bed, at table, at work, evil spirits, as he imagined, were repeating close +to his ear the words, "Sell him, sell him." He struck at the hobgoblins; he +pushed them from him; but still they were ever at his side. He cried out in +answer to them, hour after hour, "Never, never; not for thousands of +worlds; not for thousands." At length, worn out by this long agony, he +suffered the fatal words to escape him, "Let him go if he will." Then his +misery became more fearful than ever. He had done what could not be +forgiven. He had forfeited his part of the great sacrifice. Like Esau, he +had sold his birthright; and there was no longer any place for repentance. +"None," he afterwards wrote, "knows the terrors of those days but myself." +He has described his sufferings with singular energy, simplicity and +pathos. He envied the brutes; he envied the very stones on the street, and +the tiles on the houses. The sun seemed to withhold its light and warmth +from him. His body, though cast in a sturdy mould, and though still in the +highest vigour of youth, trembled whole days together with the fear of +death and judgment. He fancied that this trembling was the sign set on the +worst reprobates, the sign which God had put on Cain. The unhappy man's +emotion destroyed his power of digestion. He had such pains that he +expected to burst asunder like Judas, whom he regarded as his prototype. + +Neither the books which Bunyan read, nor the advisers whom he consulted, +were likely to do much good in a case like his. His small library had +received a most unseasonable addition, the account of the lamentable end of +Francis Spira. One ancient man of high repute for piety, whom the sufferer +consulted, gave an opinion which might well have produced fatal +consequences. "I am afraid," said Bunyan, "that I have committed the sin +against the Holy Ghost." "Indeed," said the old fanatic, "I am afraid that +you have." + +At length the clouds broke; the light became clearer and clearer; and the +enthusiast who had imagined that he was branded with the mark of the first +murderer, and destined to the end of the arch-traitor, enjoyed peace and a +cheerful confidence in the mercy of God. Years elapsed, however, before his +nerves, which had been so perilously overstrained, recovered their tone. +When he had joined a Baptist society at Bedford, and was for the first time +admitted to partake of the eucharist, it was with difficulty that he could +refrain from imprecating destruction on his brethren while the cup was +passing from hand to hand. After he had been some time a member of the +congregation he began to preach; and his sermons produced a powerful +effect. He was indeed illiterate; but he spoke to illiterate men. The +severe training through which he had passed had given him such an +experimental knowledge of all the modes of religious melancholy as he could +never have gathered from books; and his vigorous genius, animated by a +fervent spirit of devotion, enabled him not only to exercise a great +influence over the vulgar, but even to extort the half-contemptuous +admiration of scholars. Yet it was long before he ceased to be tormented by +an impulse which urged him to utter words of horrible impiety in the +pulpit.[4] Bunyan was finally relieved from the internal sufferings which +had embittered his life by sharp persecution from without. He had been five +years a preacher when the Restoration put it in the power of the Cavalier +gentlemen and clergymen all over the country to oppress the dissenters. In +November 1660 he was flung into Bedford gaol; and there he remained, with +some intervals of partial and precarious liberty, during twelve years. The +authorities tried to extort from him a promise that he would abstain from +preaching; but he was convinced that he was divinely set apart and +commissioned to be a teacher of righteousness, and he was fully determined +to obey God rather than man. He was brought before several tribunals, +laughed at, caressed, reviled, menaced, but in vain. He was facetiously +told that he was quite right in thinking that he ought not to hide his +gift; but that his real gift was skill in repairing old kettles. He was +compared to Alexander the coppersmith. He was told that if he would give up +preaching he should be instantly liberated. He was warned that if he +persisted in disobeying the law he would be liable to banishment, and that +if he were found in England after a certain time his neck would be +stretched. His answer was, "If you let me out to-day, I will preach again +to-morrow." Year after year he lay patiently in a dungeon, compared with +which the worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace.[5] His +fortitude is the more extraordinary because his domestic feelings were +unusually strong. Indeed, he was considered by his stern brethren as +somewhat too fond and indulgent a parent. He had four small children, and +among them a daughter who was blind, and whom he loved with peculiar +tenderness. He could not, he said, bear even to let the wind blow on her; +and now she must suffer cold and hunger; she must beg; she must be beaten; +"yet," he added, "I must, I must do it." + +His second wife, whom he had married just before his arrest, tried in vain +for his release; she even petitioned the House of Lords on his behalf. +While he lay in prison he could do nothing in the way of his old trade for +the support of his family. He determined, therefore, to take up a new +trade. He learned to make long-tagged thread laces; and many thousands of +these articles were furnished by him to the hawkers. While his hands were +thus busied he had other employments for his mind and his lips. He gave +religious instruction to his fellow-captives, and formed from among them a +little flock, of which he was himself the pastor. He studied indefatigably +the few books which he possessed. His two chief companions were the Bible +and Fox's _Book of Martyrs_. His knowledge of the Bible was such that he +might have been called a living concordance; and on the margin of his copy +of the _Book of Martyrs_ are still legible the ill-spelt lines of doggerel +in which he expressed his reverence for the brave sufferers, and his +implacable enmity to the mystical Babylon. + +Prison life gave him leisure to write, and during his first imprisonment he +wrote, in addition to several tracts and some verse, _Grace Abounding to +the Chief of Sinners_, the narrative of his own religious experience. The +book was published in 1666. A short period of freedom was followed by a +second offence and a further imprisonment. Bunyan's works were coarse, +indeed, but they showed a keen mother wit, a great command of the homely +mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the English Bible, and a vast and +dearly bought spiritual experience. They therefore, when the corrector of +the press had improved the syntax and the spelling, were well received. + +Much of Bunyan's time was spent in controversy. He wrote sharply against +the Quakers, whom he seems always to have held in utter abhorrence. He +wrote against the liturgy of the Church of England. No two things, +according to him, had less affinity than the form of prayer and the spirit +of prayer. Those, he said with much point, who have most of the spirit of +prayer are all to be found in gaol; and those who have most zeal for the +form of prayer are all to be found at the alehouse. The doctrinal Articles, +on the other hand, he warmly praised and defended. The most acrimonious of +all his works is his _Defence of Justification by Faith_, an answer to what +Bunyan calls "the brutish and beastly latitudinarianism" of Edward Fowler, +afterwards bishop of Gloucester, an excellent man, but not free from the +taint of Pelagianism. + +Bunyan had also a dispute with some of the chiefs of the sect to which he +belonged. He doubtless held with perfect sincerity [v.04 p.0805] the +distinguishing tenet of that sect, but he did not consider that tenet as +one of high importance, and willingly joined in communion with pious +Presbyterians and Independents. The sterner Baptists, therefore, loudly +pronounced him a false brother. A controversy arose which long survived the +original combatants. The cause which Bunyan had defended with rude logic +and rhetoric against Kiffin and Danvers has since been pleaded by Robert +Hall with an ingenuity and eloquence such as no polemical writer has ever +surpassed. + +During the years which immediately followed the Restoration, Bunyan's +confinement seems to have been strict. But as the passions of 1660 cooled, +as the hatred with which the Puritans had been regarded while their reign +was recent gave place to pity, he was less and less harshly treated. The +distress of his family, and his own patience, courage and piety, softened +the hearts of his judges. Like his own Christian in the cage, he found +protectors even among the crowd at Vanity Fair. The bishop of the diocese, +Dr Barlow, is said to have interceded for him. At length the prisoner was +suffered to pass most of his time beyond the walls of the gaol, on +condition, as it should seem, that he remained within the town of Bedford. + +He owed his complete liberation to one of the worst acts of one of the +worst governments that England has ever seen. In 1671 the Cabal was in +power. Charles II. had concluded the treaty by which he bound himself to +set up the Roman Catholic religion in England. The first step which he took +towards that end was to annul, by an unconstitutional exercise of his +prerogative, all the penal statutes against the Roman Catholics; and in +order to disguise his real design, he annulled at the same time the penal +statutes against Protestant nonconformists. Bunyan was consequently set at +large.[6] In the first warmth of his gratitude he published a tract, in +which he compared Charles to that humane and generous Persian king, who, +though not himself blest with the light of the true religion, favoured the +chosen people, and permitted them, after years of captivity, to rebuild +their beloved temple. + +Before he left his prison he had begun the book which has made his name +immortal.[7] The history of that book is remarkable. The author was, as he +tells us, writing a treatise, in which he had occasion to speak of the +stages of the Christian progress. He compared that progress, as many others +had compared it, to a pilgrimage. Soon his quick wit discovered innumerable +points of similarity which had escaped his predecessors. Images came +crowding on his mind faster than he could put them into words, quagmires +and pits, steep hills, dark and horrible glens, soft vales, sunny pastures, +a gloomy castle, of which the courtyard was strewn with the skulls and +bones of murdered prisoners, a town all bustle and splendour, like London +on the Lord Mayor's Day, and the narrow path, straight as a rule could make +it, running on up hill and down hill, through city and through wilderness, +to the Black River and the Shining Gate. He had found out, as most people +would have said, by accident, as he would doubtless have said, by the +guidance of Providence, where his powers lay. He had no suspicion, indeed, +that he was producing a masterpiece. He could not guess what place his +allegory would occupy in English literature; for of English literature he +knew nothing. Those who suppose him to have studied the _Faery Queen_ might +easily be confuted, if this were the proper place for a detailed +examination of the passages in which the two allegories have been thought +to resemble each other. The only work of fiction, in all probability, with +which he could compare his _Pilgrim_ was his old favourite, the legend of +Sir Bevis of Southampton. He would have thought it a sin to borrow any time +from the serious business of his life, from his expositions, his +controversies and his lace tags, for the purpose of amusing himself with +what he considered merely as a trifle. It was only, he assures us, at spare +moments that he returned to the House Beautiful, the Delectable Mountains +and the Enchanted Ground. He had no assistance. Nobody but himself saw a +line till the whole was complete. He then consulted his pious friends. Some +were pleased. Others were much scandalized. It was a vain story, a mere +romance, about giants, and lions, and goblins, and warriors, sometimes +fighting with monsters, and sometimes regaled by fair ladies in stately +palaces. The loose atheistical wits at Will's might write such stuff to +divert the painted Jezebels of the court; but did it become a minister of +the gospel to copy the evil fashions of the world? There had been a time +when the cant of such fools would have made Bunyan miserable. But that time +was past; and his mind was now in a firm and healthy state. He saw that in +employing fiction to make truth clear and goodness attractive, he was only +following the example which every Christian ought to propose to himself; +and he determined to print. + +The _Pilgrim's Progress_ was published in February 1678. Soon the +irresistible charm of a book which gratified the imagination of the reader +with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale, which exercised his +ingenuity by setting him to discover a multitude of curious analogies, +which interested his feelings for human beings, frail like himself, and +struggling with temptations from within and from without, which every +moment drew a smile from him by some stroke of quaint yet simple +pleasantry, and nevertheless left on his mind a sentiment of reverence for +God and of sympathy for man, began to produce its effect. In puritanical +circles, from which plays and novels were strictly excluded, that effect +was such as no work of genius, though it were superior to the _Iliad_, to +_Don Quixote_ or to _Othello_, can ever produce on a mind accustomed to +indulge in literary luxury. A second edition came out in the autumn with +additions; and the demand became immense. The eighth edition, which +contains the last improvements made by the author, was published in 1682, +the ninth in 1684, the tenth in 1685. The help of the engraver had early +been called in; and tens of thousands of children looked with terror and +delight on execrable copperplates, which represented Christian thrusting +his sword into Apollyon, or writhing in the grasp of Giant Despair. In +Scotland, and in some of the colonies, the _Pilgrim_ was even more popular +than in his native country. Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable +vanity, that in New England his dream was the daily subject of the +conversation of thousands, and was thought worthy to appear in the most +superb binding. He had numerous admirers in Holland, and amongst the +Huguenots of France. + +He continued to work the gold-field which he had discovered, and to draw +from it new treasures, not indeed with quite such ease and in quite such +abundance as when the precious soil was still virgin, but yet with success, +which left all competition far behind. In 1680 appeared the _Life and Death +of Mr Badman_; in 1684 the second part of the _Pilgrim's Progress_. In 1682 +appeared the _Holy War_, which if the _Pilgrim's Progress_ did not exist, +would be the best allegory that ever was written. + +Bunyan's place in society was now very different from what it had been. +There had been a time when many dissenting ministers, who could talk Latin +and read Greek, had affected to treat him with scorn. But his fame and +influence now far exceeded theirs. He had so great an authority among the +Baptists that he was popularly called Bishop Bunyan. His episcopal +visitations were annual. From Bedford he rode every year to London, and +preached there to large and attentive congregations. From London he went +his circuit through the country, animating the zeal of his brethren, +collecting and distributing alms and making up quarrels. The magistrates +seem in general to have given him little trouble. But there is reason to +believe that, in the year 1685, he was in some danger of again occupying +his old quarters in Bedford gaol. In that year the rash and wicked +enterprise of Monmouth gave the government a pretext for prosecuting the +nonconformists; and scarcely one eminent divine of the Presbyterian. +Independent [v.04 p.0806] or Baptist persuasion remained unmolested. Baxter +was in prison: Howe was driven into exile: Henry was arrested. + +Two eminent Baptists, with whom Bunyan had been engaged in controversy, +were in great peril and distress. Danvers was in danger of being hanged; +and Kiffin's grandsons were actually hanged. The tradition is that, during +those evil days, Bunyan was forced to disguise himself as a wagoner, and +that he preached to his congregation at Bedford in a smock-frock, with a +cart-whip in his hand. But soon a great change took place. James II. was at +open war with the church, and found it necessary to court the dissenters. +Some of the creatures of the government tried to secure the aid of Bunyan. +They probably knew that he had written in praise of the indulgence of 1672, +and therefore hoped that he might be equally pleased with the indulgence of +1687. But fifteen years of thought, observation and commerce with the world +had made him wiser. Nor were the cases exactly parallel. Charles was a +professed Protestant; James was a professed Papist. The object of Charles's +indulgence was disguised; the object of James's indulgence was patent. +Bunyan was not deceived. He exhorted his hearers to prepare themselves by +fasting and prayer for the danger which menaced their civil and religious +liberties, and refused even to speak to the courtier who came down to +remodel the corporation of Bedford, and who, as was supposed, had it in +charge to offer some municipal dignity to the bishop of the Baptists. + +Bunyan did not live to see the Revolution.[8] In the summer of 1688 he +undertook to plead the cause of a son with an angry father, and at length +prevailed on the old man not to disinherit the young one. This good work +cost the benevolent intercessor his life. He had to ride through heavy +rain. He came drenched to his lodgings on Snow Hill, was seized with a +violent fever, and died in a few days (August 31). He was buried in Bunhill +Fields; and many Puritans, to whom the respect paid by Roman Catholics to +the reliques and tombs of saints seemed childish or sinful, are said to +have begged with their dying breath that their coffins might be placed as +near as possible to the coffin of the author of the _Pilgrim's Progress_. + +The fame of Bunyan during his life, and during the century which followed +his death, was indeed great, but was almost entirely confined to religious +families of the middle and lower classes. Very seldom was he during that +time mentioned with respect by any writer of great literary eminence. Young +coupled his prose with the poetry of the wretched D'Urfey. In the +_Spiritual Quixote_, the adventures of Christian are ranked with those of +Jack the Giant-Killer and John Hickathrift. Cowper ventured to praise the +great allegorist, but did not venture to name him. It is a significant +circumstance that, for a long time all the numerous editions of the +_Pilgrim's Progress_ were evidently meant for the cottage and the servants' +hall. The paper, the printing, the plates, were all of the meanest +description. In general, when the educated minority and the common people +differ about the merit of a book, the opinion of the educated minority +finally prevails. The _Pilgrim's Progress_ is perhaps the only book about +which the educated minority has come over to the opinion of the common +people. + +The attempts which have been made to improve and to imitate this book are +not to be numbered. It has been done into verse; it has been done into +modern English. The Pilgrimage of Tender Conscience, the Pilgrimage of Good +Intent, the Pilgrimage of Seek Truth, the Pilgrimage of Theophilus, the +Infant Pilgrim, the Hindoo Pilgrim, are among the many feeble copies of the +great original. But the peculiar glory of Bunyan is that those who most +hated his doctrines have tried to borrow the help of his genius. A Catholic +version of his parable may be seen with the head of the virgin in the +title-page. On the other hand, those Antinomians for whom his Calvinism is +not strong enough, may study the Pilgrimage of Hephzibah, in which nothing +will be found which can be construed into an admission of free agency and +universal redemption. But the most extraordinary of all the acts of +Vandalism by which a fine work of art was ever defaced was committed in the +year 1853. It was determined to transform the _Pilgrim's Progress_ into a +Tractarian book. The task was not easy; for it was necessary to make two +sacraments the most prominent objects in the allegory, and of all Christian +theologians, avowed Quakers excepted, Bunyan was the one in whose system +the sacraments held the least prominent place. However, the Wicket Gate +became a type of baptism, and the House Beautiful of the eucharist. The +effect of this change is such as assuredly the ingenious person who made it +never contemplated. For, as not a single pilgrim passes through the Wicket +Gate in infancy, and as Faithful hurries past the House Beautiful without +stopping, the lesson which the fable in its altered shape teaches, is that +none but adults ought to be baptized, and that the eucharist may safely be +neglected. Nobody would have discovered from the original _Pilgrim's +Progress_ that the author was not a Paedobaptist. To turn his book into a +book against Paedobaptism, was an achievement reserved for an +Anglo-Catholic divine. Such blunders must necessarily be committed by every +man who mutilates parts of a great work, without taking a comprehensive +view of the whole. + +(M.) + +The above article has been slightly corrected as to facts, as compared with +its form in the 9th edition. Bunyan's works were first partially collected +in a folio volume (1692) by his friend Charles Doe. A larger edition (2 +vols., 1736-1737) was edited by Samuel Wilson of the Barbican. In 1853 a +good edition (3 vols., Glasgow) was produced by George Offer. Southey's +edition (1830) of the _Pilgrim's Progress_ contained his _Life_ of Bunyan. +Since then various editions of the _Pilgrim's Progress_, many illustrated +(by Cruikshank, Byam Shaw, W. Strang and others), have appeared. An +interesting life by "the author of _Mark Rutherford_" (W. Hale White) was +published in 1904. Other lives are by J.A. Froude (1880) in the "English +Men of Letters" series, and E. Venables (1888); but the standard work on +the subject is _John Bunyan; his Life, Times and Work_ (1885), by the Rev. +J. Brown of Bedford. A bronze statue, by Boehm, was presented to the town +by the duke of Bedford in 1874. + +[1] The name, in various forms as Buignon, Buniun, Bonyon or Binyan, +appears in the local records of Elstow and the neighbouring parishes at +intervals from as far back as 1199. They were small freeholders, but all +the property except the cottage had been lost in the time of Bunyan's +grandfather. Bunyan's own account of his family as the "meanest and most +despised of all the families of the land" must be put down to his habitual +self-depreciation. Thomas Bunyan had a forge and workshop at Elstow. + +[2] There is no direct evidence to show on which side he fought, but the +balance of probability justifies this view. + +[3] There is no means of identifying the place besieged. It has been +assumed to be Leicester, which was captured by the Royalists in May 1645, +and recovered by Fairfax in the next month. + +[4] Bunyan had joined, in 1653, the nonconformist community which met under +a certain Mr Gifford at St John's church, Bedford. This congregation was +not Baptist, properly so called, as the question of baptism, with other +doctrinal points, was left open. When Bunyan removed to Bedford in 1655, he +became a deacon of this church, and two years later he was formally +recognized as a preacher, his fame soon spreading through the neighbouring +counties. His wife died soon after their removal to Bedford, and he also +lost his friend and pastor, Mr Gifford. His earliest work was directed +against Quaker mysticism and appeared in 1656. It was entitled _Some Gospel +Truths Opened_; it was followed in the same year by a second tract in the +same sense, _A Vindication of Gospel Truths_. + +[5] He was not, however, as has often been stated, confined in the old gaol +which stood on the bridge over the Ouse, but in the county gaol. + +[6] His formal pardon is dated the 13th of September 1672; but five months +earlier he had received a royal licence to preach, and acted for the next +three years as pastor of the nonconformist body to which he belonged, in a +barn on the site of which stands the present Bunyan Meeting. + +[7] It is now generally supposed that Bunyan wrote his _Pilgrim's +Progress_, not during his twelve years' imprisonment, but during a short +period of incarceration in 1675, probably in the old gaol on the bridge. + +[8] He had resumed his pastorate in Bedford after his imprisonment of 1675, +and, although he frequently preached in London to crowded congregations, +and is said in the last year of his life to have been, of course +unofficially, chaplain to Sir John Shorter, lord mayor of London, he +remained faithful to his own congregation. + +BUNZLAU, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, on the right bank of the +Bober, 27 m. from Liegnitz on the Berlin-Breslau railway, which crosses the +river by a great viaduct. Pop. (1900) 14,590. It has a handsome market +square, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and monuments to the +Russian field marshal Kutusov, who died here, and to the poet Martin Opitz +von Boberfeld. The Bunzlau pottery is famous; woollen and linen cloth are +manufactured, and there is a considerable trade in grain and cattle. +Bunzlau (Boleslavia) received its name in the 12th century from Duke +Boleslav, who separated it from the duchy of Glogau. Its importance was +increased by numerous privileges and the possession of extensive mining +works. It was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars of the 17th +century, and in 1739 was completely destroyed by fire. On the 30th of +August 1813 the French were here defeated on the retreat from the Katzbach +by the Silesian army of the allies. + +BUONAFEDE, APPIANO (1716-1793), Italian philosopher, was born at Comachio, +in Ferrara, and died in Rome. He became professor of theology at Naples in +1740, and, entering the religious body of the Celestines, rose to be +general of the order. His principal works, generally published under the +assumed name of "Agatopisto Cromazione," are on the history of +philosophy:--_Della Istoria e delle Indole di ogni Filosofia_, 7 vols., +1772 seq.; and _Della Restaurazione di ogni Filosofia ne' Secoli_, xvi., +xvii., xviii., 3 vols., 1789 (German trans. by C. Heydenreich). The latter +gives a valuable account of 16th-century Italian philosophy. His other +works are _Istoria critica e filosofica del suicidio_ (1761); _Delle +conquiste celebri esaminate col naturale diritto delle genti_ (1763); +_Storia critica del moderno diritto di natura e delle genti_ (1789); and a +few poems and philosophic comedies. + +BUOY (15th century "boye"; through O.Fr. or Dutch, from Lat. _boia_, +fetter; the word is now usually pronounced as "boy," and it has been spelt +in that form; but Hakluyt's [v.04 p.0807] _Voyages_ spells it "bwoy," and +this seems to indicate a different pronunciation, which is also given in +some modern dictionaries), a floating body employed to mark the navigable +limits of channels, their fairways, sunken dangers or isolated rocks, mined +or torpedo grounds, telegraph cables, or the position of a ship's anchor +after letting go; buoys are also used for securing a ship to instead of +anchoring. They vary in size and construction from a log of wood to steel +mooring buoys for battleships or a steel gas buoy. + +In 1882 a conference was held upon a proposal to establish a uniform system +of buoyage. It was under the presidency of the then duke of Edinburgh, and +consisted of representatives from the various bodies interested. The +questions of colour, visibility, shape and size were considered, and any +modifications necessary owing to locality. The committee proposed the +following uniform system of buoyage, and it is now adopted by the general +lighthouse authorities of the United Kingdom:-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +(1) The mariner when approaching the coast must determine his position on +the chart, and note the direction of flood tide. (2) The term +"starboard-hand" shall denote that side which would be on the right hand of +the mariner either going with the main stream of the flood, or entering a +harbour, river or estuary from seaward; the term "port-hand" shall denote +the left hand of the mariner in the same circumstances. (3)[1] Buoys +showing the pointed top of a cone above water shall be called conical (fig. +1) and shall always be starboard-hand buoys, as above defined. (4)[1] Buoys +showing a flat top above water shall be called can (fig. 2) and shall +always be port-hand buoys, as above defined. (5) Buoys showing a domed top +above water shall be called spherical (fig. 3) and shall mark the ends of +middle grounds. (6) Buoys having a tall central structure on a broad face +shall be called pillar buoys (fig. 4), and like all other special buoys, +such as bell buoys, gas buoys, and automatic sounding buoys, shall be +placed to mark special positions either on the coast or in the approaches +to harbours. (7) Buoys showing only a mast above water shall be called +spar-buoys (fig. 5).[2] (8) Starboard-hand buoys shall always be painted in +one colour only. (9) Port-hand buoys shall be painted of another +characteristic colour, either single or parti-colour. (10) Spherical buoys +(fig. 3) at the ends of middle grounds shall always be distinguished by +horizontal stripes of white colour, (11) Surmounting beacons, such as staff +and globe and others,[3] shall always be painted of one dark colour. (12) +Staff and globe (fig. 1) shall only be used on starboard-hand buoys, staff +and cage (fig. 2) on port hand; diamonds (fig. 7) at the outer ends of +middle grounds; and triangles (fig. 3) at the inner ends. (13) Buoys on the +same side of a channel, estuary or tideway may be distinguished from each +other by names, numbers or letters, and where necessary by a staff +surmounted with the appropriate beacon. (14) Buoys intended for moorings +(fig. 6) may be of shape and colour according to the discretion of the +authority within whose jurisdiction they are laid, but for marking +submarine telegraph cables the colour shall be green with the word +"Telegraph" painted thereon in white letters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Buoying and Marking of Wrecks._--(15) Wreck buoys in the open sea, or in +the approaches to a harbour or estuary, shall be coloured green, with the +word "Wreck" painted in white letters on them. (16) When possible, the buoy +should be laid near to the side of the wreck next to mid-channel. (17) When +a wreck-marking vessel is used, it shall, if possible, have its top sides +coloured green, with the word "Wreck" in white letters thereon, and shall +exhibit by day, three balls on a yard 20 ft. above the sea, two placed +vertically at one end and one at the other, the single ball being on the +side nearer to the wreck; in fog a gong or bell is rung in quick succession +at intervals not exceeding one minute (wherever practicable); by night, +three white fixed lights are similarly arranged as the balls in daytime, +but the ordinary riding lights are not shown. (18) In narrow waters or in +rivers and harbours under the jurisdiction of local authorities, the same +rules may be adopted, or at discretion, varied as follows:--When a +wreck-marking vessel is used she shall carry a cross-yard on a mast with +two balls by day, placed horizontally not less than 6 nor more than 12 ft. +apart, and by night two lights similarly placed. When a barge or open boat +only is used, a flag or ball may be shown in the daytime. (19) The position +in which the marking vessel is placed with reference to the wreck shall be +at the discretion of the local authority having jurisdiction. A uniform +system by shape has been adopted by the Mersey Dock and Harbour Board, to +assist a mariner by night, and, in addition, where practicable, a uniform +colour; the fairway buoys are specially marked by letter, shape and colour. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +British India has practically adopted the British system, United States and +Canada have the same uniform system; in the majority of European maritime +countries and China various uniform systems have been adopted. In Norway +and Russia the compass system is used, the shape, colour and surmountings +of the buoys indicating the compass bearing of the danger from the buoy; +this method is followed in the open sea by Sweden. An international uniform +system of buoyage, although desirable, appears impracticable. Germany +employs yellow buoys to mark boundaries of quarantine stations. The +question of shape versus colour, irrespective of size, is a disputed one; +the shape is a better guide at night and colour in the daytime. All +markings (figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11) should be subordinate to the main colour +of the buoy; the varying backgrounds and atmospheric conditions render the +question a complex one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +London Trinity House buoys are divided into five classes, their use +depending on whether the spot to be marked is in the open sea or otherwise +exposed position, or in a sheltered harbour, or according to the depth of +water and weight of moorings, or the importance of the danger. Buoys are +moored with specially tested cables; the eye at the base of the buoy is of +wrought iron to prevent it becoming "reedy" and the cable is secured to +blocks (see ANCHOR) or mushroom anchors according to the nature of the +ground. London Trinity House buoys are [v.04 p.0808] built of steel, with +bulkheads to lessen the risk of their sinking by collision, and, with the +exception of bell buoys, do not contain water ballast. In 1878 gas buoys, +with fixed and occulting lights of 10-candle power, were introduced. In +1896 Mr T. Matthews, engineer-in-chief in the London Trinity Corporation, +developed the present design (fig. 12). It is of steel, the lower plates +being 5/8 in. and the upper 7/16 in. in thickness, thus adding to the +stability. The buoy holds 380 cub. ft. of gas, and exhibits an occulting +light for 2533 hours. This light is placed 10 ft. above the sea, and, with +an intensity of 50 candles, is visible 8 m. It occults every ten seconds, +and there is seven seconds' visibility, with three seconds' obscuration. +The occultations are actuated by a double valve arrangement. In the body of +the apparatus there is a gas chamber having sufficient capacity, in the +case of an occulting light, for maintaining the flame in action for seven +seconds, and by means of a by-pass a jet remains alight in the centre of +the burner. During the period of three seconds' darkness the gas chamber is +re-charged, and at the end of that period is again opened to the main +burner by a tripping arrangement of the valve, and remains in action seven +seconds. The gas chamber of the buoy, charged to five atmospheres, is +replenished from a steamer fitted with a pump and transport receivers +carrying indicating valves, the receivers being charged to ten atmospheres. +Practically no inconvenience has resulted from saline or other deposits, +the glazing (glass) of the lantern being thoroughly cleaned when +re-charging the buoy. Acetylene, generated from calcium carbide inside the +buoy, is also used. Electric light is exhibited from some buoys in the +United States. In England an automatic electric buoy has been suggested, +worked by the motion of the waves, which cause a stream of water to act on +a turbine connected with a dynamo generating electricity. Boat-shaped buoys +are also used (river Humber) for carrying a light and bell. The Courtenay +whistling buoy (fig. 13) is actuated by the undulating movement of the +waves. A hollow cylinder extends from the lower part of the buoy to still +water below the movement of the waves, ensuring that the water inside keeps +at mean level, whilst the buoy follows the movements of the waves. By a +special apparatus the compressed air is forced through the whistle at the +top of the buoy, and the air is replenished by two tubes at the upper part +of the buoy. It is fitted with a rudder and secured in the usual manner. +Automatic buoys cannot be relied on in calm days with a smooth sea. The nun +buoy (fig. 14) for indicating the position of an anchor after letting go, +is secured to the crown of the anchor by a buoy rope. It is usually made of +galvanized iron, and consists of two cones joined together at the base. It +is painted red for the port anchor and green for the starboard. + +Mooring buoys (fig. 6) for battleships are built of steel in four +watertight compartments, and have sufficient buoyancy to keep afloat should +a compartment be pierced; they are 13 ft. long with a diameter of 61/2 ft. +The mooring cable (bridle) passes through a watertight 16-in. trunk pipe, +built vertically in the centre of the buoy, and is secured to a "rocking +shackle" on the upper surface of the buoy. Large mooring buoys are usually +protected by horizontal wooden battens and are fitted with life chains. + +(J. W. D.) + +[1] In carrying out the above system the Northern Lights Commissioners have +adopted a red colour for conical or starboard-hand buoys, and black colour +for can or port-hand buoys, and this system is applicable to the whole of +Scotland. + +[2] Useful where floating ice is encountered. + +[3] St George and St Andrew crosses are principally employed to surmount +shore beacons. + +BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, sons of Archermus, and members of the celebrated +school of sculpture in marble which flourished in Chios in the 6th century +B.C. They were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax (about 540 B.C.), whom +they were said to have caricatured. Their works consisted almost entirely +of draped female figures, Artemis, Fortune, the Graces, whence the Chian +school has been well called a school of Madonnas. Augustus brought many of +the works of Bupalus and Athenis to Rome, and placed them on the gable of +the temple of Apollo Palatinus. + +BUPHONIA, in Greek antiquities, a sacrificial ceremony, forming part of the +Diipolia, a religious festival held on the 14th of the month Skirophorion +(June-July) at Athens, when a labouring ox was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus +as protector of the city in accordance with a very ancient custom. The ox +was driven forward to the altar, on which grain was spread, by members of +the family of the Kentriadae (from [Greek: kentron], a goad), on whom this +duty devolved hereditarily. When it began to eat, one of the family of the +Thaulonidae advanced with an axe, slew the ox, then immediately threw away +the axe and fled. The axe, as being polluted by murder, was now carried +before the court of the Prytaneum (which tried inanimate objects for +homicide) and there charged with having caused the death of the ox, for +which it was thrown into the sea. Apparently this is an early instance +analogous to deodand (_q.v._). Although the slaughter of a labouring ox was +forbidden, it was considered excusable in the exceptional circumstances; +none the less it was regarded as a murder. + +Porphyrius, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 29; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Schol. +Aristoph. _Nubes_, 485; Pausanias, i. 24, 28; see also Band, _De +Diipoliorum Sacro Atheniensium_ (1873). + +BUR, or BURR (apparently the same word as Danish _borre_, burdock, cf. +Swed. _kard-boore_), a prickly fruit or head of fruits, as of the burdock. +In the sense of a woody outgrowth on the trunk of a tree, or "gnaur," the +effect of a crowded bud-development, the word is probably adapted from the +Fr. _bourre_, a vine-bud. + +BURANO, a town of Venetia, in the province of Venice, on an island in the +lagoons, 6 m. N.E. of Venice by sea. Pop. (1901) 8169. It is a fishing +town, with a large royal school of lace-making employing some 500 girls. It +was founded, like all the towns in the lagoons, by fugitives from the +mainland cities at the time of the barbarian invasions. Torcello is a part +of the commune of Burano. + +BURAUEN, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine +Islands, on the Dagitan river, 21 m. S. by W. of Tacloban, the capital. +Pop. (1903) 18,197. Burauen is situated in a rich hemp-growing region, and +hemp is its only important product. The language is Visayan. + +BURBAGE, JAMES (d. 1597), English actor, is said to have been born at +Stratford-on-Avon. He was a member of the earl of Leicester's players, +probably for several years before he is first mentioned (1574) as being at +the head of the company. In 1576, having secured the lease of land at +Shoreditch, Burbage erected there the successful house which was known for +twenty years as _The_ Theatre from the fact that it was the first ever +erected in London. He seems also to have been concerned in the erection of +a second theatre in the same locality, the Curtain, and later, in spite of +all difficulties and a great deal of local opposition, he started what +became the most celebrated home of the rising drama,--the Blackfriars +theatre, built in 1596 near the old Dominican friary. + +His son RICHARD BURBAGE (c. 1567-1619), more celebrated than his father, +was the Garrick of the Elizabethan stage, and acted all the great parts in +Shakespeare's plays. He, too, is said to have been born at +Stratford-on-Avon, and made his first appearance at an early age at one of +his father's theatres. He had established a reputation by the time he was +twenty, and in the next dozen years was the most popular English actor, the +"Roscius" of his day. At the time of his father's death, a lawsuit was in +progress against the lessor from whom James Burbage held the land on which +The Theatre stood. This suit was continued by Richard and his brother +Cuthbert, and in 1569 they pulled down the Shoreditch house and used the +materials to erect the Globe theatre, famous for its connexion with +Shakespeare. They occupied it as a summer playhouse, retaining the +Blackfriars, which was roofed in, for winter performances. In this venture +Richard Burbage had Shakespeare and others [v.04 p.0809] as his partners, +and it was in one or the other of these houses that he gained his greatest +triumphs, taking the leading part in almost every new play. He was +specially famous for his impersonation of Richard III. and other +Shakespearian characters, and it was in tragedy that he especially +excelled. Every playwright of his day endeavoured to secure his services. +He died on the 13th of March 1619. Richard Burbage was a painter as well as +an actor. The Felton portrait of Shakespeare is attributed to him, and +there is a portrait of a woman, undoubtedly by him, preserved at Dulwich +College. + +BURBOT, or EEL-POUT (_Lota vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which +differs from the ling in the dorsal and anal fins reaching the caudal, and +in the small size of all the teeth. It exceeds a length of 3 ft. and is a +freshwater fish, although examples are exceptionally taken in British +estuaries and in the Baltic; some specimens are handsomely marbled with +dark brown, with black blotches on the back and dorsal fins. It is very +locally distributed in central and northern Europe, and an uncommon fish in +England. Its flesh is excellent. The American burbot (_Lota maculosa_) is +coarser, and not favoured for the table. + +BURCKHARDT, JAKOB (1818-1897), Swiss writer on art, was born at Basel on +the 25th of May 1818; he was educated there and at Neuchatel, and till 1839 +was intended to be a pastor. In 1838 he made his first journey to Italy, +and also published his first important articles _Bemerkungen ueber +schweizerische Kathedralen_. In 1839 he went to the university of Berlin, +where he studied till 1843, spending part of 1841 at Bonn, where he was a +pupil of Franz Kugler, the art historian, to whom his first book, _Die +Kunstwerke D. belgischen Staedte_ (1842), was dedicated. He was professor of +history at the university of Basel (1845-1847, 1849-1855 and 1858-1893) and +at the federal polytechnic school at Zurich (1855-1858). In 1847 he brought +out new editions of Kugler's two great works, _Geschichte der Malerei_ and +_Kunstgeschichte_, and in 1853 published his own work, _Die Zeit +Constantins des Grossen_. He spent the greater part of the years 1853-1854 +in Italy, where he collected the materials for one of his most famous +works, _Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung sum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens_, +which was dedicated to Kugler and appeared in 1855 (7th German edition, +1899; English translation of the sections relating to paintings, by Mrs +A.H. Clough, London, 1873). This work, which includes sculpture and +architecture, as well as painting, has become indispensable to the art +traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition was devoted to the +art of the Renaissance, so that Burckhardt was naturally led on to the +preparation of his two other celebrated works, _Die Cultur der Renaissance +in Italien_ (1860, 5th German edition 1896, and English translation, by +S.G.C. Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and the _Geschichte der +Renaissance in Italien_ (1867, 3rd German edition 1891). In 1867 he refused +a professorship at Tuebingen, and in 1872 another (that left vacant by +Ranke) at Berlin, remaining faithful to Basel. He died in 1897. + +See Life by Hans Trog in the _Basler Jahrbuch_ for 1898, pp. 1-172. + +(W. A. B. C.) + +BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS [JOHANN LUDWIG] (1784-1817), Swiss traveller and +orientalist, was born at Lausanne on the 24th of November 1784. After +studying at Leipzig and Goettingen he visited England in the summer of 1806, +carrying a letter of introduction from the naturalist Blumenbach to Sir +Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the African Association, +accepted his offer to explore the interior of Africa. After studying in +London and Cambridge, and inuring himself to all kinds of hardships and +privations, Burckhardt left England in March 1809 for Malta, whence he +proceeded, in the following autumn, to Aleppo. In order to obtain a better +knowledge of oriental life he disguised himself as a Mussulman, and took +the name of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah. After two years passed in the +Levant he had thoroughly mastered Arabic, and had acquired such accurate +knowledge of the Koran, and of the commentaries upon its religion and laws, +that after a critical examination the most learned Mussulmans entertained +no doubt of his being really what he professed to be, a learned doctor of +their law. During his residence in Syria he visited Palmyra, Damascus, +Lebanon and thence journeyed via Petra to Cairo with the intention of +joining a caravan to Fezzan, and of exploring from there the sources of the +Niger. In 1812, whilst waiting for the departure of the caravan, he +travelled up the Nile as far as Dar Mahass; and then, finding it impossible +to penetrate westward, he made a journey through the Nubian desert in the +character of a poor Syrian merchant, passing by Berber and Shendi to +Suakin, on the Red Sea, whence he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca by way +of Jidda. At Mecca he stayed three months and afterwards visited Medina. +After enduring privations and sufferings of the severest kind, he returned +to Cairo in June 1815 in a state of great exhaustion; but in the spring of +1816 he travelled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned to Cairo in June, and +there again made preparations for his intended journey to Fezzan. Several +hindrances prevented his prosecuting this intention, and finally, in April +1817, when the long-expected caravan prepared to depart, he was seized with +illness and died on the 15th of October. He had from time to time carefully +transmitted to England his journals and notes, and a very copious series of +letters, so that nothing which appeared to him to be interesting in the +various journeys he made has been lost. He bequeathed his collection of 800 +vols. of oriental MSS. to the library of Cambridge University. + +His works were published by the African Association in the following +order:--_Travels in Nubia_ (to which is prefixed a biographical memoir) +(1819); _Travels in Syria and the Holy Land_ (1822); _Travels in Arabia_ +(1829); _Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and Customs of the Modern +Egyptians_ (1830); _Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys_ (1831). + +BURDEAU, AUGUSTE LAURENT (1851-1894), French politician, was the son of a +labourer at Lyons. Forced from childhood to earn his own living, he was +enabled to secure an education by bursarships at the Lycee at Lyons and at +the Lycee Louis Le Grand in Paris. In 1870 he was at the Ecole Normale +Superieure in Paris, but enlisted in the army, and was wounded and made +prisoner in 1871. In 1874 he became professor of philosophy, and translated +several works of Herbert Spencer and of Schopenhauer into French. His +extraordinary aptitude for work secured for him the position of _chef de +cabinet _under Paul Bert, the minister of education, in 1881. In 1885 he +was elected deputy for the department of the Rhone, and distinguished +himself in financial questions. He was several times minister, and became +minister of finance in the cabinet of Casimir-Perier (from the 3rd of +November 1893 to the 22nd of May 1894). On the 5th of July 1894 he was +elected president of the chamber of deputies. He died on the 12th of +December 1894, worn out with overwork. + +BURDEN, or BURTHEN, (1) (A.S. _byrthen_, from _beran_, to bear), a load, +both literally and figuratively; especially the carrying capacity of a +ship; in mining and smelting, the tops or heads of stream-work which lie +over the stream of tin, and the proportion of ore and flux to fuel in the +charge of a blast-furnace. In Scots and English law the term is applied to +an encumbrance on real or personal property. (2) (From the Fr. _bourdon_, a +droning, humming sound) an accompaniment to a song, or the refrain of a +song; hence a chief or recurrent topic, as "the burden of a speech." + +BURDER, GEORGE (1752-1832), English Nonconformist divine, was born in +London on the 5th of June 1752. In early manhood he was an engraver, but in +1776 he began preaching, and was minister of the Independent church at +Lancaster from 1778 to 1783. Subsequently he held charges at Coventry +(1784-1803) and at Fetter Lane, London (1803-1832). He was one of the +founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Religious Tract +Society, and the London Missionary Society, and was secretary to the +last-named for several years. As editor of the _Evangelical Magazine_ and +author of _Village Sermons_, he commanded a wide influence. He died on the +29th of May 1832, and a Life (by H. Burder) appeared in 1833. + +BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS (1770-1844), English politician, was the son of +Francis Burdett by his wife Eleanor, daughter of William Jones of Ramsbury +manor, Wiltshire, and grandson of [v.04 p.0810] Sir Robert Burdett, Bart. +Born on the 25th of January 1770, he was educated at Westminster school and +Oxford, and afterwards travelled in France and Switzerland. He was in Paris +during the earlier days of the French Revolution, a visit which doubtless +influenced his political opinions. Returning to England he married in 1793 +Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts the banker, and this lady brought him a +large fortune. In 1796 he became member of parliament for Boroughbridge, +having purchased this seat from the representatives of the 4th duke of +Newcastle, and in 1797 succeeded his grandfather as fifth baronet. In +parliament he soon became prominent as an opponent of Pitt, and as an +advocate of popular rights. He denounced the war with France, the +suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the proposed exclusion of John Horne +Tooke from parliament, and quickly became the idol of the people. He was +instrumental in securing an inquiry into the condition of Coldbath Fields +prison, but as a result of this step he was for a time prevented by the +government from visiting any prison in the kingdom. In 1797 he made the +acquaintance of Horne Tooke, whose pupil he became, not only in politics, +but also in philology. At the general election of 1802 Burdett was a +candidate for the county of Middlesex, but his return was declared void in +1804, and in the subsequent contest he was defeated. In 1805 this return +was amended in his favour, but as this was again quickly reversed, Burdett, +who had spent an immense sum of money over the affair, declared he would +not stand for parliament again. + +At the general election of 1806 Burdett was a leading supporter of James +Paull, the reform candidate for the city of Westminster; but in the +following year a misunderstanding led to a duel between Burdett and Paull +in which both combatants were wounded. At the general election in 1807 +Burdett, in spite of his reluctance, was nominated for Westminster, and +amid great enthusiasm was returned at the top of the poll. He took up again +the congenial work of attacking abuses and agitating for reform, and in +1810 came sharply into collision with the House of Commons. A radical named +John Gale Jones had been committed to prison by the House, a proceeding +which was denounced by Burdett, who questioned the power of the House to +take this step, and vainly attempted to secure the release of Jones. He +then issued a revised edition of his speech on this occasion, and it was +published by William Cobbett in the _Weekly Register_. The House voted this +action a breach of privilege, and the speaker issued a warrant for +Burdett's arrest. Barring himself in his house, he defied the authorities, +while the mob gathered in his defence. At length his house was entered, and +under an escort of soldiers he was conveyed to the Tower. Released when +parliament was prorogued, he caused his supporters much disappointment by +returning to Westminster by water, and so avoiding a demonstration in his +honour. He then brought actions against the speaker and the +serjeant-at-arms, but the courts upheld the action of the House. In +parliament Burdett denounced corporal punishment in the army, and supported +all attempts to check corruption, but his principal efforts were directed +towards procuring a reform of parliament, and the removal of Roman Catholic +disabilities. In 1809 he had proposed a scheme of parliamentary reform, and +returning to the subject in 1817 and 1818 he anticipated the Chartist +movement by suggesting universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts, +vote by ballot, and annual parliaments; but his motions met with very +little support. He succeeded, however, in carrying a resolution in 1825 +that the House should consider the laws concerning Roman Catholics. This +was followed by a bill embodying his proposals, which passed the Commons +but was rejected by the Lords. In 1827 and 1828 he again proposed +resolutions on this subject, and saw his proposals become law in 1829. In +1820 Burdett had again come into serious conflict with the government. +Having severely censured its action with reference to the "Manchester +massacre," he was prosecuted at Leicester assizes, fined L1000, and +committed to prison for three months. After the passing of the Reform Bill +in 1832 the ardour of the veteran reformer was somewhat abated, and a +number of his constituents soon took umbrage at his changed attitude. +Consequently he resigned his seat early in 1837, but was re-elected. +However, at the general election in the same year he forsook Westminster +and was elected member for North Wiltshire, which seat he retained, acting +in general with the Conservatives, until his death on the 23rd of January +1844. He left a son, Robert, who succeeded to the baronetcy, and five +daughters, the youngest of whom became the celebrated Baroness +Burdett-Coutts. Impetuous and illogical, Burdett did good work as an +advocate of free speech, and an enemy of corruption. He was exceedingly +generous, and spent money lavishly in furthering projects of reform. + +See A. Stephens, _Life of Horne Tooke_ (London, 1813); Spencer Walpole, +_History of England_ (London, 1878-1886); C. Abbot, Baron Colchester, +_Diary and Correspondence_ (London, 1861). + +(A. W. H.*) + +BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA BURDETT-COUTTS, BARONESS (1814-1906), +English philanthropist, youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born +on the 21st of April 1814. When she was three-and-twenty, she inherited +practically the whole of the immense wealth of her grandfather Thomas +Coutts (approaching two millions sterling, a fabulous sum in those days), +by the will of the duchess of St Albans, who, as the actress Henrietta +Mellon, had been his second wife and had been left it on his death in 1821. +Miss Burdett then took the name of Coutts in addition to her own. "The +faymale heiress, Miss Anjaley Coutts," as the author of the _Ingoldsby +Legends_ called her in his ballad on the queen's coronation in that year +(1837), at once became a notable subject of public curiosity and private +cupidity; she received numerous offers of marriage, but remained resolutely +single, devoting herself and her riches to philanthropic work, which made +her famous for well-applied generosity. In May 1871 she was created a +peeress, as Baroness Burdett-Coutts of Highgate and Brookfield, Middlesex. +On the 18th of July 1872 she was presented at the Guildhall with the +freedom of the city of London, the first case of a woman being admitted to +that fellowship. It was not till 1881 that, when sixty-seven years old, she +married William Lehman Ashmead-Bartlett, an American by birth, and brother +of Sir E.A. Ashmead-Bartlett, the Conservative member of parliament; and he +then took his wife's name, entering the House of Commons as member for +Westminster, 1885. Full of good works, and of social interest and +influence, the baroness lived to the great age of ninety-two, dying at her +house in Stratton Street, Piccadilly, on the 30th of December 1906, of +bronchitis. She was buried in Westminster Abbey. + +The extent of her benefactions during her long and active life can only be +briefly indicated; but the baroness must remain a striking figure in the +social history of Victorian England, for the thoughtful and conscientious +care with which she "held her wealth in trust" for innumerable good +objects. It was her aim to benefit the working-classes in ways involving no +loss of independence or self-respect. She carefully avoided taking any side +in party politics, but she was actively interested in phases of Imperial +extension which were calculated to improve the condition of the black +races, as in Africa, or the education and relief of the poor or suffering +in any part of the world. Though she made no special distinction of creed +in her charities, she was a notable benefactor of the Church of England, +building and endowing churches and church schools, endowing the bishoprics +of Cape Town and of Adelaide (1847), and founding the bishopric of British +Columbia (1857). Among her many educational endowments may be specified the +St Stephen's Institute in Vincent Square, Westminster (1846); she started +sewing schools in Spitalfields when the silk trade began to fail; helped to +found the shoe-black brigade; and placed hundreds of destitute boys in +training-ships for the navy and merchant service. She established Columbia +fish market (1869) in Bethnal Green, and presented it to the city, but +owing to commercial difficulties this effort, which cost her over L200,000, +proved abortive. She supported various schemes of emigration to the +colonies; and in Ireland helped to promote the fishing industry by starting +schools, and providing boats, besides [v.04 p.0811] advancing L250,000 in +1880 for supplying seed to the impoverished tenants. She was devoted to the +protection of animals and prevention of cruelty, and took up with +characteristic zeal the cause of the costermongers' donkeys, building +stables for them on her Columbia market estate, and giving prizes for the +best-kept animals. She helped to inaugurate the society for the prevention +of cruelty to children, and was a keen supporter of the ragged school +union. Missionary efforts of all sorts; hospitals and nursing; industrial +homes and refuges; relief funds, &c., found in her a generous supporter. +She was associated with Louisa Twining and Florence Nightingale; and in +1877-1878 raised the Turkish compassionate fund for the starving peasantry +and fugitives in the Russo-Turkish War (for which she obtained the order of +the Medjidieh, a solitary case of its conference on a woman). She relieved +the distressed in far-off lands as well as at home, her helping hand being +stretched out to the Dyaks of Borneo and the aborigines of Australia. She +was a liberal patroness of the stage, literature and the arts, and +delighted in knowing all the cultured people of the day. In short, her +position in England for half a century may well be summed up in words +attributed to King Edward VII., "after my mother (Queen Victoria) the most +remarkable woman in the kingdom." + +BURDON-SANDERSON, SIR JOHN SCOTT, Bart. (1828-1905), English physiologist, +was born at West Jesmand, near Newcastle, on the 21st of December 1828. A +member of a well-known Northumbrian family, he received his medical +education at the university of Edinburgh and at Paris. Settling in London, +he became medical officer of health for Paddington in 1856 and four years +later physician to the Middlesex and the Brompton Consumption hospitals. +When diphtheria appeared in England in 1858 he was sent to investigate the +disease at the different points of outbreak, and in subsequent years he +carried out a number of similar inquiries, _e.g._ into the cattle plague +and into cholera in 1866. He became first principal of the Brown +Institution at Lambeth in 1871, and in 1874 was appointed Jodrell professor +of physiology at University College, London, retaining that post till 1882. +When the Waynflete chair of physiology was established at Oxford in 1882, +he was chosen to be its first occupant, and immediately found himself the +object of a furious anti-vivisectionist agitation. The proposal that the +university should spend L10,000 in providing him with a suitable +laboratory, lecture-rooms, &c., in which to carry on his work, was strongly +opposed, by some on grounds of economy, but largely because he was an +upholder of the usefulness and necessity of experiments upon animals. It +was, however, eventually carried by a small majority (88 to 85), and in the +same year the Royal Society awarded him a royal medal in recognition of his +researches into the electrical phenomena exhibited by plants and the +relations of minute organisms to disease, and of the services he had +rendered to physiology and pathology. In 1885 the university of Oxford was +asked to vote L500 a year for three years for the purposes of the +laboratory, then approaching completion. This proposal was fought with the +utmost bitterness by Sanderson's opponents, the anti-vivisectionists +including E.A. Freeman, John Ruskin and Bishop Mackarness of Oxford. +Ultimately the money was granted by 412 to 244 votes. In 1895 Sanderson was +appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, resigning the post in +1904; in 1899 he was created a baronet. His attainments, both in biology +and medicine, brought him many honours. He was Croonian lecturer to the +Royal Society in 1867 and 1877 and to the Royal College of Physicians in +1891; gave the Harveian oration before the College of Physicians in 1878; +acted as president of the British Association at Nottingham in 1893; and +served on three royal commissions--Hospitals (1883), Tuberculosis, Meat and +Milk (1890), and University for London (1892). He died at Oxford on the +23rd of November 1905. + +BURDWAN, or BARDWAN, a town of British India, in Bengal, which gives its +name to a district and to a division. It has a station on the East Indian +railway, 67 m. N.W. from Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 35,022. The town consists +really of numerous villages scattered over an area of 9 sq. m., and is +entirely rural in character. It contains several interesting ancient tombs, +and at Nawab Hat, some 2 m. distant, is a group of 108 Siva _lingam_ +temples built in 1788. The place was formerly very unhealthy, but this has +been to a large extent remedied by the establishment of water-works, a good +supply of water being derived from the river Banka. Within the town, the +principal objects of interest are the palaces and gardens of the maharaja. +The chief educational institution is the Burdwan Raj college, which is +entirely supported out of the maharaja's estate. + +The town owes its importance entirely to being the headquarters of the +maharaja of Burdwan, the premier nobleman of lower Bengal, whose rent-roll +is upwards of L300,000. The _raj_ was founded in 1657 by Abu Ra Kapur, of +the Kapur Khatri family of Kotli in Lahore, Punjab, whose descendants +served in turn the Mogul emperors and the British government. The great +prosperity of the _raj_ was due to the excellent management of Maharaja +Mahtab Chand (d. 1879), whose loyalty to the government--especially during +the Santal rebellion of 1855 and the mutiny of 1857--was rewarded with the +grant of a coat of arms in 1868 and the right to a personal salute of 13 +guns in 1877. Maharaja Bijai Chand Mahtab (b. 1881), who succeeded his +adoptive father in 1888, earned great distinction by the courage with which +he risked his life to save that of Sir Andrew Fraser, the +lieutenant-governor of Bengal, on the occasion of the attempt to +assassinate him made by Bengali malcontents on the 7th of November 1908. + +The DISTRICT OF BURDWAN lies along the right bank of the river Bhagirathi +or Hugli. It has an area of 2689 sq. m. It is a flat plain, and its scenery +is uninteresting. Chief rivers are the Bhagirathi, Damodar, Ajai, Banka, +Kunur and Khari, of which only the Bhagirathi is navigable by country cargo +boats throughout the year. The district was acquired by the East India +Company under the treaty with Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760, and confirmed by the +emperor Shah Alam in 1765. The land revenue was fixed in perpetuity with +the zemindar in 1793. In 1901 the population was 1,532,475, showing an +increase of 10% in the decade. There are several indigo factories. The +district suffered from drought in 1896-1897. The Eden Canal, 20 m. long, +has been constructed for irrigation. The weaving of silk is the chief +native industry. As regards European industries, Burdwan takes the first +place in Bengal. It contains the great coal-field of Raniganj, first opened +in 1874, with an output of more than three million tons. The Barrakur +ironworks produce pig-iron, which is reported to be as good as that of +Middlesbrough. Apart from Burdwan town and Raniganj, the chief places are +the river-marts of Katwa and Kalna. The East Indian railway has several +lines running through the district. + +The DIVISION OF BURDWAN comprises the six districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, +Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli and Howrah, with a total area of 13,949 sq. m., +and a population in 1901 of 8,240,076. + +BUREAU (a Fr. word from _burel_ or _bureau_, a coarse cloth used for +coverings), a writing-table or desk (_q.v._), also in America a low chest +of drawers. From the meaning of "desk," the word is applied to an office or +place of business, and particularly a government department; in the United +States the term is used of certain subdivisions of the executive +departments, as the bureau of statistics, a division of the treasury +department. The term "bureaucracy" is often employed to signify the +concentration of administrative power in bureaux or departments, and the +undue interference by officials not only in the details of government, but +in matters outside the scope of state interference. The word is also +frequently used in the sense of "red-tapism." + +BURFORD, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division of +Oxfordshire, England, 18 m. W.N.W. of Oxford. Pop. (1901) 1146. It is +pleasantly situated in the valley of the Windrush, the broad, picturesque +main street sloping upward from the stream, beside which stands the fine +church, to the summit of the ridge flanking the valley on the south, along +which runs the high road from Oxford. The church of St John the Baptist has +a nave and aisles, mainly Perpendicular in appearance owing to alterations +in that period, but actually of [v.04 p.0812] earlier construction, the +south aisle flanked by two beautiful chapels and an ornate porch; transepts +and a central tower, and choir with flanking chapels. The massive Norman +tower contrasts strongly with the delicate Perpendicular spire rising upon +it. The church contains many interesting memorials, and, in the nave, a +Perpendicular shrine dedicated to St Peter. Near the church is the +half-ruined priory house, built in the 17th century, and containing much +fine plaster ornament characteristic of the period; a curious chapel +adjoins it. William Lenthall, speaker of the Long Parliament, was granted +this mansion, died here in 1662, and is buried in the church. In the High +Street nearly every house is of some antiquity. The Tolsey or old town hall +is noteworthy among them; and under one of the houses is an Early English +crypt. Burford is mentioned as the scene of a synod in 705; in 752 Cuthred, +king of the West Saxons, fighting for independence, here defeated +AEthelbald, king of Mercia; and in 1649 the town and district were the scene +of victorious operations by Cromwell. + +BURG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the river Ihle, and the +railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 m. N.E. of the latter. Pop. (1900) +22,432. It is noted for its cloth manufactures and boot-making, which +afford employment to a great part of its population. The town belonged +originally to the lordship of Querfurt, passed with this into the +possession of the archbishops of Magdeburg in 1496, and was ceded in 1635 +with other portions of the Magdeburg territories to Saxony; in 1687 it was +ceded to Brandenburg. It owes its prosperity to the large influx of +industrious French, Palatinate and Walloon refugees, which took place about +the end of the 17th century. + +BURGAGE (from Lat. _burgus_, a borough), a form of tenure, both in England +and Scotland, applicable to the property connected with the old municipal +corporations and their privileges. In England, it was a tenure whereby +houses or tenements in an ancient borough were held of the king or other +person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less practical importance +in the English than in the Scottish system, where it held an important +place in the practice of conveyancing, real property having been generally +divided into feudal-holding and burgage-holding. Since the Conveyancing +(Scotland) Act 1874, there is, however, not much distinction between +burgage tenure and free holding. It is usual to speak of the English +burgage-tenure as a relic of Saxon freedom resisting the shock of the +Norman conquest and its feudalism, but it is perhaps more correct to +consider it a local feature of that general exemption from feudality +enjoyed by the _municipia_ as a relic of their ancient Roman constitution. +The reason for the system preserving for so long its specifically distinct +form in Scottish conveyancing was because burgage-holding was an exception +to the system of subinfeudation which remained prevalent in Scotland when +it was suppressed in England. While other vassals might hold of a graduated +hierarchy of overlords up to the crown, the burgess always held directly of +the sovereign. It is curious that while in England the burgage-tenure was +deemed a species of socage, to distinguish it from the military holdings, +in Scotland it was strictly a military holding, by the service of watching +and warding for the defence of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed +by burgesses, freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies in burghs, +were dependent on the character of the burgage-tenure. Tenure by burgage +was subject to a variety of customs, the principal of which was +Borough-English (_q.v._). + +See Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898). + +BURGAS (sometimes written _Burghaz, Bourgas_ or _Borgas_, and, in the +middle ages, _Pyrgos_), a seaport, and capital of the department of Burgas, +in Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), on the gulf of Burgas, an inlet of the Black +Sea, in 42 deg. 27' N. and 27 deg. 35' E. Pop. (1906) 12,846. Burgas is built on a +low foreland, between the lagoons of Ludzha, on the north, and Kara-Yunus, +on the west; it faces towards the open sea on the east, and towards its own +harbour on the south. The principal approach is a broad isthmus on the +north-west, along which runs the railway to Philippopolis and Adrianople. +Despite its small population and the rivalry of Varna and the Turkish port +of Dedeagatch, Burgas has a considerable transit trade. Its fine harbour, +formally opened in 1904, has an average depth of five fathoms; large +vessels can load at the quays, and the outer waters of the gulf are well +lit by lighthouses on the islets of Hagios Anastasios and Megalo-Nisi. In +1904, the port accommodated over 1400 ships, of about 700,000 tons. These +included upwards of 800 Bulgarian and Turkish sailing-vessels, engaged in +the coasting trade. Fuel, machinery and miscellaneous goods are imported, +chiefly from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom; the +exports include grain, wool, tallow, cheese, butter, attar of roses, &c. +Pottery and pipes are manufactured from clay obtained in the neighbourhood. + +BURGDORF (Fr. _Berthoud_), an industrial town in the Swiss canton of Bern. +It is built on the left bank of the Emme and is 14 m. by rail N.E. of Bern. +The lower (or modern) town is connected by a curious spiral street with the +upper (or old) town. The latter is picturesquely perched on a hill, at a +height of 1942 ft. above sea-level (or 167 ft. above the river); it is +crowned by the ancient castle and by the 15th-century parish church, in the +former of which Pestalozzi set up his educational establishment between +1798 and 1804. A large trade is carried on at Burgdorf in the cheese of the +Emmenthal, while among the industrial establishments are railway works, and +factories of cloth, white lead and tinfoil. In 1900 the population was +8404, practically all Protestants and German-speaking. A fine view of the +Bernese Alps is obtained from the castle, while a still finer one may be +enjoyed from the Lueg hill (2917 ft.), north-east of the town. The castle +dates from the days of the dukes of Zaeringen (11th-12th centuries), the +last of whom (Berchtold V.) built walls round the town at its foot, and +granted it a charter of liberties. On the extinction (1218) of that dynasty +both castle and town passed to the counts of Kyburg, and from them, with +the rest of their possessions, in 1272 by marriage to the cadet line of the +Habsburgs. By that line they were sold in 1384, with Thun, to the town of +Bern, whose bailiffs ruled in the castle till 1798. + +(W. A. B. C.) + +BURGEE (of unknown origin), a small three-cornered or swallow-tailed flag +or pennant used by yachts or merchant vessels; also a kind of small coal +burnt in engine furnaces. + +BUeRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST (1748-1794), German poet, was born on the 1st of +January 1748 at Molmerswende near Halberstadt, of which village his father +was the Lutheran pastor. He was a backward child, and at the age of twelve +was practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, Bauer, at +Aschersleben, who sent him to the _Paedagogium_ at Halle. Hence in 1764 he +passed to the university, as a student of theology, which, however, he soon +abandoned for the study of jurisprudence. Here he fell under the influence +of C.A. Klotz (1738-1771), who directed Buerger's attention to literature, +but encouraged rather than discouraged his natural disposition to a wild +and unregulated life. In consequence of his dissipated habits, he was in +1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on promising to reform was in 1768 +allowed to enter the university of Goettingen as a law student. As he +continued his wild career, however, his grandfather withdrew his support +and he was left to his own devices. Meanwhile he had made fair progress +with his legal studies, and had the good fortune to form a close friendship +with a number of young men of literary tastes. In the Goettingen +_Musenalmanach_, edited by H. Boie and F.W. Gotter, Buerger's first poems +were published, and by 1771 he had already become widely known as a poet. +In 1772, through Boie's influence, Buerger obtained the post of "_Amtmann_" +or district magistrate at Altengleichen near Goettingen. His grandfather was +now reconciled to him, paid his debts and established him in his new sphere +of activity. Meanwhile he kept in touch with his Goettingen friends, and +when the "Goettinger Bund" or "Hain" was formed, Buerger, though not himself +a member, kept in close touch with it. In 1773 the ballad _Lenore_ was +published in the _Musenalmanach_. This poem, which in dramatic force and in +its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural remains without a +rival, made his name a household word in Germany. In 1774 Buerger married +Dorette Leonhart, the [v.04 p.0813] daughter of a Hanoverian official; but +his passion for his wife's younger sister Auguste (the "Molly" of his poems +and elegies) rendered the union unhappy and unsettled his life. In 1778 +Buerger became editor of the _Musenalmanach_, and in the same year published +the first collection of his poems. In 1780 he took a farm at Appenrode, but +in three years lost so much money that he had to abandon the venture. +Pecuniary troubles oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his +official duties, and feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official +position and removed in 1784 to Goettingen, where he established himself as +_Privat-docent_. Shortly before his removal thither his wife died (30th of +July 1784), and on the 29th of June in the next year he married his +sister-in-law "Molly." Her death on the 9th of January 1786 affected him +deeply. He appeared to lose at once all courage and all bodily and mental +vigour. He still continued to teach in Goettingen; at the jubilee of the +foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary doctor of +philosophy, and in 1789 was appointed extraordinary professor in that +faculty, though without a stipend. In the following year he married a third +time, his wife being a certain Elise Hahn, who, enchanted with his poems, +had offered him her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of married life with +his "Schwabenmaedchen" sufficed to prove his mistake, and after two and a +half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded by Schiller's criticism, in the +14th and 15th part of the _Allgemeine Literaturzeitung_ of 1791, of the 2nd +edition of his poems, disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Buerger +eked out a precarious existence as a teacher in Goettingen until his death +there on the 8th of June 1794. + +Buerger's character, in spite of his utter want of moral balance, was not +lacking in noble and lovable qualities. He was honest in purpose, generous +to a fault, tender-hearted and modest. His talent for popular poetry was +very considerable, and his ballads are among the finest in the German +language. Besides _Lenore, Das Lied vom braven Manne, Die Kuh, Der Kaiser +und der Abt_ and _Der wilde Jaeger_ are famous. Among his purely lyrical +poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but mention may be made of +_Das Bluemchen Wunderhold, Lied an den lieben Mond_, and a few love songs. +His sonnets, particularly the elegies, are of great beauty. + +Editions of Buerger's _Samtliche Schriften_ appeared at Goettingen, 1817 +(incomplete); 1829-1833 (8 vols.), and 1835 (one vol.); also a selection by +E. Grisebach (5th ed., 1894). The _Gedichte_ have been published in +innumerable editions, the best being that by A. Sauer (2 vols., 1884). +_Briefe von und an Burger_ were edited by A. Strodtmann in 4 vols. (1874). +On Buerger's life see the biography by H. Prohle (1856), the introduction to +Sauer's edition of the poems, and W. von Wurzbach, _G.A. Burger_ (1900). + +BURGERS, THOMAS FRANCOIS (1834-1881), president of the Transvaal Republic, +was born in Cape Colony on the 15th of April 1834, and was educated at +Utrecht, Holland, where he took the degree of doctor of theology. On his +return to South Africa he was ordained minister of the Dutch Reformed +Church, and stationed at Hanover in Cape Colony, where he exercised his +ministrations for eight years. In 1862 his preaching attracted attention, +and two years later an ecclesiastical tribunal suspended him for heretical +opinions. He appealed, however, to the colonial government, which had +appointed him, and obtained judgment in his favour, which was confirmed by +the privy council of England on appeal in 1865. On the resignation of M.W. +Pretorius and the refusal of President Brand of the Orange Free State to +accept the office, Burgers was elected president of the Transvaal, taking +the oath on the 1st of July 1872. In 1873 he endeavoured to persuade +Montsioa to agree to an alteration in the boundary of the Barolong +territory as fixed by the Keate award, but failed (see BECHUANALAND). In +1875 Burgers, leaving the Transvaal in charge of Acting-President Joubert, +went to Europe mainly to promote a scheme for linking the Transvaal to the +coast by a railway from Delagoa Bay, which was that year definitely +assigned to Portugal by the MacMahon award. With the Portuguese Burgers +concluded a treaty, December 1875, providing for the construction of the +railway. After meeting with refusals of financial help in London, Burgers +managed to raise L90,000 in Holland, and bought a quantity of railway +plant, which on its arrival at Delagoa Bay was mortgaged to pay freight, +and this, so far as Burgers was concerned, was the end of the matter. In +June 1876 he induced the raad to declare war against Sikukuni (Secocoeni), +a powerful native chief in the eastern Transvaal. The campaign was +unsuccessful, and with its failure the republic fell into a condition of +lawlessness and insolvency, while a Zulu host threatened invasion. Burgers +in an address to the raad (3rd of March 1877) declared "I would rather be a +policeman under a strong government than the president of such a state. It +is you---you members of the raad and the Boers--who have lost the country, +who have sold your independence for a drink." Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who +had been sent to investigate the condition of affairs in the Transvaal, +issued on the 12th of April a proclamation annexing the Transvaal to Great +Britain. Burgers fully acquiesced in the necessity for annexation. He +accepted a pension from the British government, and settled down to farming +in Hanover, Cape Colony. He died at Richmond in that colony on the 9th of +December 1881, and in the following year a volume of short stories, +_Tooneelen uit ons dorp_, originally written by him for the Cape +_Volksblad_, was published at the Hague for the benefit of his family. A +patriot, a fluent speaker both in Dutch and in English, and possessed of +unbounded energy, the failure of Burgers was due to his fondness for large +visionary plans, which he attempted to carry out with insufficient means +(see TRANSVAAL: _History_). + +For the annexation period see John Martineau, _The Life of Sir Bartle +Frere_, vol. ii. chap, xviii. (London, 1895). + +BURGERSDYK, or BUROERSDICIUS, FRANCIS (1590-1629), Dutch logician, was born +at Lier, near Delft, and died at Leiden. After a brilliant career at the +university of Leiden, he studied theology at Saumur, where while still very +young he became professor of philosophy. After five years he returned to +Leiden, where he accepted the chair of logic and moral philosophy, and +afterwards that of natural philosophy. His _Logic_ was at one time widely +used, and is still valuable. He wrote also _Idea Philosophiae Moralis_ +(1644). + +BURGES, GEORGE (1786-1864), English classical scholar, was born in India. +He was educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Cambridge, +taking his degree in 1807, and obtaining one of the members' prizes both in +1808 and 1809. He stayed up at Cambridge and became a most successful +"coach." He had a great reputation as a Greek scholar, and was a somewhat +acrimonious critic of rival scholars, especially Bishop Blomfield. +Subsequently he fell into embarrassed circumstances through injudicious +speculation, and in 1841 a civil list pension of L100 per annum was +bestowed upon him. He died at Ramsgate, on the 11th of January 1864. Burges +was a man of great learning and industry, but too fond of introducing +arbitrary emendations into the text of classical authors. His chief works +are: Euripides' _Troades_ (1807) and _Phoenissae_ (1809); Aeschylus' +_Supplices_ (1821), _Eumenides_ (1822) and _Prometheus_ (1831); Sophocles' +_Philoctetes_ (1833); E.F. Poppo's _Prolegomena to Thucydides_ (1837), an +abridged translation with critical remarks; _Hermesianactis Fragmenta_ +(1839). He also edited some of the dialogues of Plato with English notes, +and translated nearly the whole of that author and the Greek anthology for +Bohn's Classical library. He was a frequent contributor to the _Classical +Journal_ and other periodicals, and dedicated to Byron a play called _The +Son of Erin_, or, _The Cause of the Greeks_ (1823). + +BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713), English Presbyterian divine, was born at +Staines, in Middlesex, where his father was minister. He was educated under +Busby at Westminster school, and in 1660 was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford, +but not being able conscientiously to subscribe the necessary formulae he +quitted the university without taking his degree. In 1667, after taking +orders, he was appointed by Roger Boyle, first Lord Orrery, to the +headmastership of a school recently established by that nobleman at +Charleville, Co. Cork, and soon after he became private chaplain to Lady +Mervin, near Dublin. There he was [v.04 p.0814] ordained by the local +presbytery, and on returning to England was imprisoned for preaching at +Marlborough. He soon regained his liberty, and went to London, where he +speedily gathered a large and influential congregation, as much by the +somewhat excessive fervour of his piety as by the vivacious illustrations +which he frequently employed in his sermons. He was a master of epigram, +and theologically inclined to Calvinism. The Sacheverell mob gutted his +chapel in 1710, but the government repaired the building. Besides +preaching, he gave instruction to private pupils, of whom the most +distinguished was Henry St John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke. His son, +Daniel Burgess (d. 1747), was secretary to the princess of Wales, and in +1723 obtained a _regium donum_ or government grant of L500 half-yearly for +dissenting ministers. + +BURGESS, THOMAS (1756-1837), English divine, was born at Odiham, in +Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester, and at Corpus Christi College, +Oxford. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of John Burton's +_Pentalogia_. In 1781 he brought out an annotated edition of Richard +Dawes's _Miscellanea Critica_ (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). In 1783 he became +a fellow of his college, and in 1785 was appointed chaplain to Shute +Barrington, bishop of Salisbury, through whose influence he obtained a +prebendal stall, which he held till 1803. In 1788 he published his +_Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery_, in which he advocated the +principle of gradual emancipation. In 1791 he accompanied Barrington to +Durham, where he did evangelistic work among the poorer classes. In 1803 he +was appointed to the vacant bishopric of St David's, which he held for +twenty years with great success. He founded the Society for Promoting +Christian Knowledge in the diocese, and also St David's College at +Lampeter, which he liberally endowed. In 1820 he was appointed first +president of the recently founded Royal Society of Literature; and three +years later he was promoted to the see of Salisbury, over which he presided +for twelve years, prosecuting his benevolent designs with unwearied +industry. As at St David's, so at Salisbury, he founded a Church Union +Society for the assistance of infirm and distressed clergymen. He +strenuously opposed both Unitarianism and Catholic emancipation. He died on +the 19th of February 1837. + +A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his +biography by J.S. Harford (2nd ed., 1841). In addition to those already +referred to may be mentioned his _Essay on the Study of Antiquities_, _The +First Principles of Christian Knowledge_; _Reflections on the Controversial +Writings of Dr Priestley_, _Emendationes in Suidam et Hesychium et alios +Lexicographos Graecos_; _The Bible, and nothing but the Bible, the Religion +of the Church of England_. + +BURGESS (Med. Lat. _burgensis_, from _burgus_, a borough, a town), a term, +in its earliest sense, meaning an inhabitant of a borough, one who occupied +a tenement therein, but now applied solely to a registered parliamentary, +or more strictly, municipal voter. An early use of the word was to denote a +member elected to parliament by his fellow citizens in a borough. In some +of the American colonies (_e.g._ Virginia), a "burgess" was a member of the +legislative body, which was termed the "House of Burgesses." Previously to +the Municipal Reform Act 1835, burgess was an official title in some +English boroughs, and in this sense is still used in some of the states of +the United States, as in Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. _The +Burgess-roll_ is the register or official list of burgesses in a borough. + +BURGH [BOURKE, BURKE], the name of an historic Irish house, associated with +Connaught for more than seven centuries. It was founded by William de +Burgh, brother of Hubert de Burgh (_q.v._). Before the death of Henry II. +(1189) he received a grant of lands from John as lord of Ireland. At John's +accession (1199) he was installed in Thomond and was governor of Limerick. +In 1199-1201 he was supporting in turn Cathal Carrach and Cathal Crovderg +for the native throne, but he was expelled from Limerick in 1203, and, +losing his Connaught, though not his Munster estates, died in 1205. His son +Richard, in 1227, received the land of "Connok" [Connaught], as forfeited +by its king, whom he helped to fight. From 1228 to 1232 he held the high +office of justiciar of Ireland. In 1234 he sided with the crown against +Richard, earl marshal, who fell in battle against him. Dying in 1243, he +was succeeded as lord of Connaught by his son Richard, and then (1248) by +his younger son Walter, who carried on the family warfare against the +native chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining (c. +1255) from Prince Edward a grant of "the county of Ulster," in consequence +of which he was styled later earl of Ulster. At his death in 1271, he was +succeeded by his son Richard as 2nd earl. In 1286 Richard ravaged and +subdued Connaught, and deposed Bryan O'Neill as chief native king, +substituting a nominee of his own. The native king of Connaught was also +attacked by him, in favour of that branch of the O'Conors whom his own +family supported. He led his forces from Ireland to support Edward I. in +his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315 +Richard marched against him, but he had given his daughter Elizabeth in +marriage to Robert Bruce, afterwards king of Scotland, about 1304. +Occasionally summoned to English parliaments, he spent most of his forty +years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of his day, +usually fighting the natives or his Anglo-Norman rivals. The patent roll of +1290 shows that in addition to his lands in Ulster, Connaught and Munster, +he had held the Isle of Man, but had surrendered it to the king. + +His grandson and successor William, the 3rd earl (1326-1333), was the son +of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare, sister and co-heir of the +last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314). He married a daughter of Henry, earl +of Lancaster, and was appointed lieutenant of Ireland in 1331, but was +murdered in his 21st year, leaving a daughter, the sole heiress, not only +of the de Burgh possessions, but of vast Clare estates. She was married in +childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III., who was recognized in her right as +earl of Ulster, and their direct representative, the duke of York, ascended +the throne in 1461 as Edward IV., since when the earldom of Ulster has been +only held by members of the royal family. + +On the murder of the 3rd earl (1333), his male kinsmen, who had a better +right, by native Irish ideas, to the succession than his daughter, adopted +Irish names and customs, and becoming virtually native chieftains succeeded +in holding the bulk of the de Burgh territories. Their two main branches +were those of "MacWilliam Eighter" in southern Connaught, and "MacWilliam +Oughter" to the north of them, in what is now Mayo. The former held the +territory of Clanricarde, lying in the neighbourhood of Galway, and in 1543 +their chief, as Ulick "Bourck, _alias_ Makwilliam," surrendered it to Henry +VIII., receiving it back to hold, by English custom, as earl of Clanricarde +and Lord Dunkellin. The 4th earl (1601-1635) distinguished himself on the +English side in O'Neill's rebellion and afterwards, and obtained the +English earldom of St Albans in 1628, his son Ulick receiving further the +Irish marquessate of Clanricarde (1646). His cousin and heir, the 6th earl +(1657-1666) was uncle of the 8th and 9th earls (1687-1722), both of whom +fought for James II. and paid the penalty for doing so in 1691, but the 9th +earl was restored in 1702, and his great-grandson, the 12th earl, was +created marquess of Clanricarde in 1789. He left no son, but the +marquessate was again revived in 1825, for his nephew the 14th earl, whose +heir is the present marquess. The family, which changed its name from +Bourke to de Burgh in 1752, and added that of Canning in 1862, still own a +vast estate in County Galway. + +In 1603 "the MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke, similarly resigned his +territory in Mayo, and received it back to hold by English tenure. In 1627 +he was created Viscount Mayo. The 2nd and 3rd viscounts (1629-1663) +suffered at Cromwell's hands, but the 4th was restored to his estates (some +50,000 acres) in 1666. The peerage became extinct or dormant on the death +of the 8th viscount in 1767. In 1781 John Bourke, a Mayo man, believed to +be descended from the line of "MacWilliam Oughter," was created Viscount +Mayo, and four years later earl of Mayo, a peerage still extant. In 1872 +the 6th earl was murdered in the Andaman Islands when viceroy of India. + +The baronies of Bourke of Connell (1580) and Bourke of Brittas (1618), both +forfeited in 1691, were bestowed on branches [v.04 p.0815] of the family +which has also still representatives in the baronetage and landed gentry of +Ireland. + +The lords Burgh or Borough of Gainsborough (1487-1599) were a Lincolnshire +family believed to be descended from a younger son of Hubert de Burgh. The +5th baron was lord deputy of Ireland in 1597, and his younger brother, Sir +John (d. 1594), a distinguished soldier and sailor. + +(J. H. R.) + +BURGH, HUBERT DE (d. 1243), chief justiciar of England in the reign of John +and Henry III., entered the royal service in the reign of Richard I. He +traced his descent from Robert of Mortain, half brother of the Conqueror +and first earl of Cornwall; he married about 1200 the daughter of William +de Vernon, earl of Devon; and thus, from the beginning of his career, he +stood within the circle of the great ruling families. But he owed his high +advancement to exceptional ability as an administrator and a soldier. +Already in 1201 he was chamberlain to King John, the sheriff of three +shires, the constable of Dover and Windsor castles, the warden of the +Cinque Ports and of the Welsh Marches. He served with John in the +continental wars which led up to the loss of Normandy. It was to his +keeping that the king first entrusted the captive Arthur of Brittany. +Coggeshall is our authority for the tale, which Shakespeare has +immortalized, of Hubert's refusal to permit the mutilation of his prisoner; +but Hubert's loyalty was not shaken by the crime to which Arthur +subsequently fell a victim. In 1204 Hubert distinguished himself by a long +and obstinate defence of Chinon, at a time when nearly the whole of Poitou +had passed into French hands. In 1213 he was appointed seneschal of Poitou, +with a view to the invasion of France which ended disastrously for John in +the next year. + +Both before and after the issue of the Great Charter Hubert adhered loyally +to the king; he was rewarded, in June 1215, with the office of chief +justiciar. This office he retained after the death of John and the election +of William, the earl marshal, as regent. But, until the expulsion of the +French from England, Hubert was entirely engaged with military affairs. He +held Dover successfully through the darkest hour of John's fortunes; he +brought back Kent to the allegiance of Henry III.; he completed the +discomfiture of the French and their allies by the naval victory which he +gained over Eustace the Monk, the noted privateer and admiral of Louis, in +the Straits of Dover (Aug. 1217). The inferiority of the English fleet has +been much exaggerated, for the greater part of the French vessels were +transports carrying reinforcements and supplies. But Hubert owed his +success to the skill with which he manoeuvred for the weather-gage, and his +victory was not less brilliant than momentous. It compelled Louis to accept +the treaty of Lambeth, under which he renounced his claims to the crown and +evacuated England. As the saviour of the national cause the justiciar +naturally assumed after the death of William Marshal (1219) the leadership +of the English loyalists. He was opposed by the legate Pandulf (1218-1221), +who claimed the guardianship of the kingdom for the Holy See; by the +Poitevin Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester, who was the young king's +tutor; by the foreign mercenaries of John, among whom Falkes de Breaute +took the lead; and by the feudal party under the earls of Chester and +Albemarle. On Pandulf's departure the pope was induced to promise that no +other legate should be appointed in the lifetime of Archbishop Stephen +Langton. Other opponents were weakened by the audacious stroke of 1223, +when the justiciar suddenly announced the resumption of all the castles, +sheriffdoms and other grants which had been made since the king's +accession. A plausible excuse was found in the next year for issuing a +sentence of confiscation and banishment against Falkes de Breaute. Finally +in 1227, Hubert having proclaimed the king of age, dismissed the bishop of +Winchester from his tutorship. + +Hubert now stood at the height of his power. His possessions had been +enlarged by four successive marriages, particularly by that which he +contracted in 1221 with Margaret, the sister of Alexander II. of Scotland; +in 1227 he received the earldom of Kent, which had been dormant since the +disgrace of Odo of Bayeux. But the favour of Henry III. was a precarious +foundation on which to build. The king chafed against the objections with +which his minister opposed wild plans of foreign conquest and inconsiderate +concessions to the papacy. They quarrelled violently in 1229, at +Portsmouth, when the king was with difficulty prevented from stabbing +Hubert, because a sufficient supply of ships was not forthcoming for an +expedition to France. In 1231 Henry lent an ear to those who asserted that +the justiciar had secretly encouraged armed attacks upon the aliens to whom +the pope had given English benefices. Hubert was suddenly disgraced and +required to render an account of his long administration. The blow fell +suddenly, a few weeks after his appointment as justiciar of Ireland. It was +precipitated by one of those fits of passion to which the king was prone; +but the influence of Hubert had been for some time waning before that of +Peter des Roches and his nephew Peter des Rievaux. Some colour was given to +their attacks by Hubert's injudicious plea that he held a charter from King +John which exempted him from any liability to produce accounts. But the +other charges, far less plausible than that of embezzlement, which were +heaped upon the head of the fallen favourite, are evidence of an intention +to crush him at all costs. He was dragged from the sanctuary at Bury St +Edmunds, in which he had taken refuge, and was kept in strait confinement +until Richard of Cornwall, the king's brother, and three other earls +offered to be his sureties. Under their protection he remained in +honourable detention at Devizes Castle. On the outbreak of Richard +Marshal's rebellion (1233), he was carried off by the rebels to the Marshal +stronghold of Striguil, in the hope that his name would add popularity to +their cause. In 1234 he was admitted, along with the other supporters of +the fallen Marshal, to the benefit of a full pardon. He regained his +earldom and held it till his death, although he was once in serious danger +from the avarice of the king (1239), who was tempted by Hubert's enormous +wealth to revive the charge of treason. + +In his lifetime Hubert was a popular hero; Matthew Paris relates how, at +the time of his disgrace, a common smith refused with an oath to put +fetters on the man "who restored England to the English." Hubert's ambition +of founding a great family was not realized. His earldom died with him, +though he left two sons. In constitutional history he is remembered as the +last of the great justiciars. The office, as having become too great for a +subject, was now shorn of its most important powers and became politically +insignificant. + +See Roger of Wendover's _Flores Historiarum_, edited for the English +Historical Society by H.O. Coxe (4 vols., 1841-1844); the _Chronica Majora_ +of Matthew Paris, edited by H.R. Luard for the Rolls Series (7 vols., +1872-1883); the _Histoire des ducs de Normandie_, edited by F. Michel for +the Soc. de l'Hist. de France (Paris, 1840); the _Histoire de Guillaume le +Marechal_, edited by Paul Meyer for the same society (3 vols., Paris, 1891, +&c.); J.E. Doyle's _Official Baronage of England_, ii. pp. 271-274; R. +Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol. iii.; W. Stubbs's _Constitutional +History of England_, vol. ii. + +(H. W. C. D.) + +BURGHERSH, HENRY (1292-1340), English bishop and chancellor, was a younger +son of Robert, Baron Burghersh (d. 1305), and a nephew of Bartholomew, Lord +Badlesmere, and was educated in France. In 1320 owing to Badlesmere's +influence Pope John XXII. appointed him bishop of Lincoln in spite of the +fact that the chapter had already made an election to the vacant bishopric, +and he secured the position without delay. After the execution of +Badlesmere in 1322 Burghersh's lands were seized by Edward II., and the +pope was urged to deprive him; about 1326, however, his possessions were +restored, a proceeding which did not prevent him from joining Edward's +queen, Isabella, and taking part in the movement which led to the +deposition and murder of the king. Enjoying the favour of the new king, +Edward III., the bishop became chancellor of England in 1328; but he failed +to secure the archbishopric of Canterbury which became vacant about the +same time, and was deprived of his office of chancellor and imprisoned when +Isabella lost her power in 1330. But he was soon released and again in a +position of influence. He was treasurer of England from 1334 to 1337, and +high in the favour and often in the company of Edward III.; he was sent on +several important [v.04 p.0816] errands, and entrusted with important +commissions. He died at Ghent on the 4th of December 1340. + +The bishop's brother, Bartholomew Burghersh (d. 1355), became Baron +Burghersh on the death of his brother Stephen in 1310. He acted as +assistant to Badlesmere until the execution of the latter; and then, +trusted by Edward III., was constable of Dover Castle and warden of the +Cinque Ports. He filled other important positions, served Edward III. both +as a diplomatist and a soldier, being present at the battle of Crecy in +1346; and retaining to the last the royal confidence, died in August 1355. +His son and successor, Bartholomew (d. 1369), was one of the first knights +of the order of the Garter, and earned a great reputation as a soldier, +specially distinguishing himself at the battle of Poitiers in 1356. + +BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (1521-1508), was born, according to his own +statement, on the 13th of September 1521 at the house of his mother's +father at Bourne, Lincolnshire. Pedigrees, elaborated by Cecil himself with +the help of Camden, the antiquary, associated him with the Cecils or +Sitsyllts of Altyrennes in Herefordshire, and traced his descent from an +Owen of the time of King Harold and a Sitsyllt of the reign of Rufus. The +connexion with the Herefordshire family is not so impossible as the descent +from Sitsyllt; but the earliest authentic ancestor of the lord treasurer is +his grandfather, David, who, according to Burghley's enemies, "kept the +best inn" in Stamford. David somehow secured the favour of Henry VII., to +whom he seems to have been yeoman of the guard. He was serjeant-at-arms to +Henry VIII. in 1526, sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532, and a justice of +the peace for Rutland. His eldest son, Richard, yeoman of the wardrobe (d. +1554), married Jane, daughter of William Heckington of Bourne, and was +father of three daughters and Lord Burghley. + +William, the only son, was put to school first at Grantham and then at +Stamford. In May 1535, at the age of fourteen, he went up to St John's +College, Cambridge, where he was brought into contact with the foremost +educationists of the time, Roger Ascham and John Cheke, and acquired an +unusual knowledge of Greek. He also acquired the affections of Cheke's +sister, Mary, and was in 1541 removed by his father to Gray's Inn, without, +after six years' residence at Cambridge, having taken a degree. The +precaution proved useless, and four months later Cecil committed one of the +rare rash acts of his life in marrying Mary Cheke. The only child of this +marriage, Thomas, the future earl of Exeter, was born in May 1542, and in +February 1543 Cecil's first wife died. Three years later he married (21st +of December 1546) Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who was ranked by +Ascham with Lady Jane Grey as one of the two most learned ladies in the +kingdom, and whose sister, Anne, became the wife of Sir Nicholas, and the +mother of Sir Francis, Bacon. + +Cecil, meanwhile, had obtained the reversion to the office of _custos +rotulorum brevium_, and, according to his autobiographical notes, sat in +parliament in 1543; but his name does not occur in the imperfect +parliamentary returns until 1547, when he was elected for the family +borough of Stamford. Earlier in that year he had accompanied Protector +Somerset on his Pinkie campaign, being one of the two "judges of the +Marshalsea," _i.e._ in the courts-martial. The other was William Patten, +who states that both he and Cecil began to write independent accounts of +the campaign, and that Cecil generously communicated his notes for Patten's +narrative, which has been reprinted more than once. + +In 1548 he is described as the protector's master of requests, which +apparently means that he was clerk or registrar of the court of requests +which the protector, possibly at Latimer's instigation, illegally set up in +Somerset House "to hear poor men's complaints." He also seems to have acted +as private secretary to the protector, and was in some danger at the time +of the protector's fall (October 1549). The lords opposed to Somerset +ordered his detention on the 10th of October, and in November he was in the +Tower. On the 25th of January 1550 he was bound over in recognizances to +the value of a thousand marks. However, he soon ingratiated himself with +Warwick, and on the 15th of September 1550 he was sworn one of the king's +two secretaries. He was knighted on the 11th of October 1551, on the eve of +Somerset's second fall, and was congratulated on his success in escaping +his benefactor's fate. In April he became chancellor of the order of the +Garter. But service under Northumberland was no bed of roses, and in his +diary Cecil recorded his release in the phrase _ex misero aulico factus +liber et mei juris_. His responsibility for Edward's illegal "devise" of +the crown has been studiously minimized by Cecil himself and by his +biographers. Years afterwards, he pretended that he had only signed the +"devise" as a witness, but in his apology to Queen Mary he did not venture +to allege so flimsy an excuse; he preferred to lay stress on the extent to +which he succeeded in shifting the responsibility on to the shoulders of +his brother-in-law, Sir John Cheke, and other friends, and on his intrigues +to frustrate the queen to whom he had sworn allegiance. There is no doubt +that he saw which way the wind was blowing, and disliked Northumberland's +scheme; but he had not the courage to resist the duke to his face. As soon, +however, as the duke had set out to meet Mary, Cecil became the most active +intriguer against him, and to these efforts, of which he laid a full +account before Queen Mary, he mainly owed his immunity. He had, moreover, +had no part in the divorce of Catherine or in the humiliation of Mary in +Henry's reign, and he made no scruple about conforming to the religious +reaction. He went to mass, confessed, and out of sheer zeal and in no +official capacity went to meet Cardinal Pole on his pious mission to +England in December 1554, again accompanying him to Calais in May 1555. It +was rumoured in December 1554 that Cecil would succeed Sir William Petre as +secretary, an office which, with his chancellorship of the Garter, he had +lost on Mary's accession. Probably the queen had more to do with the +falsification of this rumour than Cecil, though he is said to have opposed +in the parliament of 1555--in which he represented Lincolnshire--a bill for +the confiscation of the estates of the Protestant refugees. But the story, +even as told by his biographer (Peck, _Desiderata Curiosa_, i. 11), does +not represent Cecil's conduct as having been very courageous; and it is +more to his credit that he found no seat in the parliament of 1558, for +which Mary had directed the return of "discreet and good Catholic members." + +By that time Cecil had begun to trim his sails to a different breeze. He +was in secret communication with Elizabeth before Mary died, and from the +first the new queen relied on Cecil as she relied on no one else. Her +confidence was not misplaced; Cecil was exactly the kind of minister +England then required. Personal experience had ripened his rare natural +gift for avoiding dangers. It was no time for brilliant initiative or +adventurous politics; the need was to avoid Scylla and Charybdis, and a +_via media_ had to be found in church and state, at home and abroad. Cecil +was not a political genius; no great ideas emanated from his brain. But he +was eminently a safe man, not an original thinker, but a counsellor of +unrivalled wisdom. Caution was his supreme characteristic; he saw that +above all things England required time. Like Fabius, he restored the +fortunes of his country by deliberation. He averted open rupture until +England was strong enough to stand the shock. There was nothing heroic +about Cecil or his policy; it involved a callous attitude towards +struggling Protestants abroad. Huguenots and Dutch Were aided just enough +to keep them going in the struggles which warded danger off from England's +shores. But Cecil never developed that passionate aversion from decided +measures which became a second nature to his mistress. His intervention in +Scotland in 1559-1560 showed that he could strike on occasion; and his +action over the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, proved that he was +willing to take responsibility from which Elizabeth shrank. Generally he +was in favour of more decided intervention on behalf of continental +Protestants than Elizabeth would admit, but it is not always easy to +ascertain the advice he gave. He has left endless memoranda lucidly setting +forth the pros and cons of every course of action; but there are few +indications of the line which he actually recommended when it came to a +decision. How far he was personally responsible for the Anglican +Settlement, the Poor Laws, and the foreign policy of the reign, how far he +was [v.04 p.0817] thwarted by the baleful influence of Leicester and the +caprices of the queen, remains to a large extent a matter of conjecture. +His share in the settlement of 1559 was considerable, and it coincided +fairly with his own somewhat indeterminate religious views. Like the mass +of the nation, he grew more Protestant as time wore on; he was readier to +persecute Papists than Puritans; he had no love for ecclesiastical +jurisdiction, and he warmly remonstrated with Whitgift over his persecuting +Articles of 1583. The finest encomium was passed on him by the queen +herself, when she said, "This judgment I have of you, that you will not be +corrupted with any manner of gifts, and that you will be faithful to the +state." + +From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost +indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth and from the history of England. +Of personal incident, apart from his mission to Scotland in 1560, there is +little. He represented Lincolnshire in the parliament of 1559, and +Northamptonshire in that of 1563, and he took an active part in the +proceedings of the House of Commons until his elevation to the peerage; but +there seems no good evidence for the story that he was proposed as speaker +in 1563. In January 1561 he was given the lucrative office of master of the +court of wards in succession to Sir Thomas Parry, and he did something to +reform that instrument of tyranny and abuse. In February 1559 he was +elected chancellor of Cambridge University in succession to Cardinal Pole; +he was created M.A. of that university on the occasion of Elizabeth's visit +in 1564, and M.A. of Oxford on a similar occasion in 1566. On the 25th of +February 1571 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Burghley of Burghley[1] +(or Burleigh); the fact that he continued to act as secretary after his +elevation illustrates the growing importance of that office, which under +his son became a secretaryship of state. In 1572, however, the marquess of +Winchester, who had been lord high treasurer under Edward, Mary and +Elizabeth, died, and Burghley succeeded to his post. It was a signal +triumph over Leicester; and, although Burghley had still to reckon with +cabals in the council and at court, his hold over the queen strengthened +with the lapse of years. Before he died, Robert, his only surviving son by +his second wife, was ready to step into his shoes as the queen's principal +adviser. Having survived all his rivals, and all his children except Robert +and the worthless Thomas, Burghley died at his London house on the 4th of +August 1598, and was buried in St Martin's, Stamford. + +Burghley's private life was singularly virtuous; he was a faithful husband, +a careful father and a considerate master. A book-lover and antiquary, he +made a special hobby of heraldry and genealogy. It was the conscious and +unconscious aim of the age to reconstruct a new landed aristocracy on the +ruins of the old, and Burghley was a great builder and planter. All the +arts of architecture and horticulture were lavished on Burghley House and +Theobalds, which his son exchanged for Hatfield. His public conduct does +not present itself in quite so amiable a light. As the marquess of +Winchester said of himself, he was sprung from the willow rather than the +oak, and he was not the man to suffer for convictions. The interest of the +state was the supreme consideration, and to it he had no hesitation in +sacrificing individual consciences. He frankly disbelieved in toleration; +"that state," he said, "could never be in safety where there was a +toleration of two religions. For there is no enmity so great as that for +religion; and therefore they that differ in the service of their God can +never agree in the service of their country." With a maxim such as this, it +was easy for him to maintain that Elizabeth's coercive measures were +political and not religious. To say that he was Machiavellian is +meaningless, for every statesman is so more or less; especially in the 16th +century men preferred efficiency to principle. On the other hand, +principles are valueless without law and order; and Burghley's craft and +subtlety prepared a security in which principles might find some scope. + +The sources and authorities for Burghley's life are endless. The most +important collection of documents is at Hatfield, where there are some ten +thousand papers covering the period down to Burghley's death; these have +been calendared in 8 volumes by the Hist. MSS. Comm. At least as many +others are in the Record Office and British Museum, the Lansdowne MSS. +especially containing a vast mass of his correspondence; see the catalogues +of Cotton, Harleian, Royal, Sloane, Egerton and Additional MSS. in the +British Museum, and the Calendars of Domestic, Foreign, Spanish, Venetian, +Scottish and Irish State Papers. + +Other official sources are the _Acts of the Privy Council_ (vols. +i.-xxix.); Lords' and Commons' Journals, D'Ewes' Journals, Off. Ret. +M.P.'s; Rymer's _Foedera_; Collins's _Sydney State Papers_; Nichols's +_Progresses of Elizabeth_. See also Strype's Works (26 vols.), Parker, Soc. +Publ. (56 vols.); Camden's _Annales_; Holinshed, Stow and Speed's _Chron._; +Hayward's _Annals_; Machyn's _Diary_, Leycester Corr., Egerton Papers +(Camden Soc.). For Burghley's early life, see Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._; +Baker's _St John's Coll., Camb._, ed. Mayor; _Letters and. Papers of Henry +VIII._; Tytler's _Edward VI._; Nichols's _Lit. Remains of Edward VI._; +Leadam's _Court of Requests, Chron. of Queen Jane_ (Camden Soc.) and +throughout Froude's _Hist_. No satisfactory life of Burghley has yet +appeared; some valuable anonymous notes, probably by Burghley's servant +Francis Alford, were printed in Peck's _Desiderata Curiosa_ (1732), i. +1-66; other notes are in Naunton's _Fragmenta Regalia_. Lives by Collins +(1732), Charlton and Melvil (1738), were followed by Nares's biography in +three of the most ponderous volumes (1828-1831) in the language; this +provoked Macaulay's brilliant but misleading essay. M.A.S. Hume's _Great +Lord Burghley_ (1898) is largely a piecing together of the references to +Burghley in the same author's _Calendar of Simancas MSS._ The life by Dr +Jessopp (1904) is an expansion of his article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; it +is still only a sketch, though the volume contains a mass of genealogical +and other incidental information by other hands. + +(A. F. P.) + +[1] This was the form always used by Cecil himself. + +BURGKMAIR, HANS or JOHN (1473-? 1531), German painter and engraver on wood, +believed to have been a pupil of Albrecht Duerer, was born at Augsburg. +Professor Christ ascribes to him about 700 woodcuts, most of them +distinguished by that spirit and freedom which we admire in the works of +his supposed master. His principal work is the series of 135 prints +representing the triumphs of the emperor Maximilian I. They are of large +size, executed in chiaroscuro, from two blocks, and convey a high idea of +his powers. Burgkmair was also an excellent painter in fresco and in +distemper, specimens of which are in the galleries of Munich and Vienna, +carefully and solidly finished in the style of the old German school. + +BURGLARY (_burgi latrocinium_; in ancient English law, _hamesucken_[1]), at +common law, the offence of breaking and entering the dwelling-house of +another with intent to commit a felony. The offence and its punishment are +regulated in England by the Larceny Act 1861. The four important points to +be considered in connexion with the offence of burglary are (1) the time, +(2) the place, (3) the manner and (4) the intent. The _time_, which is now +the essence of the offence, was not considered originally to have been very +material, the gravity of the crime lying principally in the invasion of the +sanctity of a man's domicile. But at some period before the reign of Edward +VI. it had become settled that time was essential to the offence, and it +was not adjudged burglary unless committed by night. The day was then +accounted as beginning at sunrise, and ending immediately after sunset, but +it was afterwards decided that if there were left sufficient daylight or +twilight to discern the countenance of a person, it was no burglary. This, +again, was superseded by the Larceny Act 1861, for the purpose of which +night is deemed to commence at nine o'clock in the evening of each day, and +to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the next succeeding day. + +The _place_ must, according to Sir E. Coke's definition, be a +mansion-house, _i.e._ a man's dwelling-house or private residence. No +building, although within the same curtilage as the dwelling-house, is +deemed to be a part of the dwelling-house for the purposes of burglary, +unless there is a communication between such building and dwelling-house +either immediate or by means of a covered and enclosed passage leading from +the one to the other. Chambers in a college or in an inn of court are the +dwelling-house of the owner; so also are rooms or lodgings in a private +house, provided the owner dwells elsewhere, or enters by a different outer +door from his lodger, otherwise the lodger is merely an inmate and his +apartment a parcel of the one dwelling-house. + +[v.04 p.0818] As to the _manner_, there must be both a breaking and an +entry. Both must be at night, but not necessarily on the same night, +provided that in the breaking and in the entry there is an intent to commit +a felony. The breaking may be either an actual breaking of any external +part of a building; or opening or lifting any closed door, window, shutter +or lock; or entry by means of a threat, artifice or collusion with persons +inside; or by means of such a necessary opening as a chimney. If an entry +is obtained through an open window, it will not be burglary, but if an +inner door is afterwards opened, it immediately becomes so. Entry includes +the insertion through an open door or window, or any aperture, of any part +of the body or of any instrument in the hand to draw out goods. The entry +may be before the breaking, for the Larceny Act 1861 has extended the +definition of burglary to cases in which a person enters another's dwelling +with intent to commit felony, or being in such house commits felony +therein, and in either case _breaks out_ of such dwelling-house by night. + +Breaking and entry must be with the _intent_ to commit a felony, otherwise +it is only trespass. The felony need not be a larceny, it may be either +murder or rape. The punishment is penal servitude for life, or any term not +less than three years, or imprisonment not exceeding two years, with or +without hard labour. + +_Housebreaking_ in English law is to be distinguished from burglary, in +that it is not essential that it should be committed at night, nor in a +dwelling-house. It may, according to the Larceny Act 1861, be committed in +a school-house, shop, warehouse or counting-house. Every burglary involves +housebreaking, but every housebreaking does not amount to burglary. The +punishment for housebreaking is penal servitude for any term not exceeding +fourteen years and not less than three years, or imprisonment for any term +not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour. + +In the United States the common-law definition of burglary has been +modified by statute in many states, so as to cover what is defined in +England as housebreaking; the maximum punishment nowhere exceeds +imprisonment for twenty years. + +AUTHORITIES.--Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen, +_History of Criminal Law_; Archbold, _Pleading and Evidence in Criminal +Cases_; Russell, _On Crimes and Misdemeanours_; Stephen, _Commentaries_. + +[1] In Scots law, the word _hamesucken_ meant the feloniously beating or +assaulting a man in his own house. + +BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM (1813-1888), English divine, was born at Smyrna on the +21st of August 1813, the son of a Turkey merchant, who was a skilled +numismatist and afterwards became an assistant in the antiquities +department of the British Museum. His mother was a Greek. After a few years +of business life, Burgon went to Worcester College, Oxford, in 1841, gained +the Newdigate prize, took his degree in 1845, and won an Oriel fellowship +in 1846. He was much influenced by his brother-in-law, the scholar and +theologian Henry John Rose (1800-1873), a churchman of the old conservative +type, with whom he used to spend his long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his +headquarters, while holding a living at some distance. In 1863 he was made +vicar of St Mary's, having attracted attention by his vehement sermons +against _Essays and Reviews_. In 1867 he was appointed Gresham professor of +divinity. In 1871 he published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve +last verses of St Mark's Gospel. He now began an attack on the proposal for +a new lectionary for the Church of England, based largely upon his +objections to the principles for determining the authority of MS. readings +adopted by Westcott and Hort, which he assailed in a memorable article in +the _Quarterly Review_ for 1881. This, with his other articles, was +reprinted in 1884 under the title of _The Revision Revised_. His +biographical essays on H.L. Mansel and others were also collected, and +published under the title of _Twelve Good Men_ (1888). Protests against the +inclusion of Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the nomination of +Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the university of Oxford, and against +the address in favour of toleration in the matter of ritual, followed in +succession. In 1876 Burgon was made dean of Chichester. He died on the 4th +of August 1888. His life was written by Dean E.M. Goulburn (1892). Vehement +and almost passionate in his convictions, Burgon nevertheless possessed a +warm and kindly heart. He may be described as a high churchman of the type +prevalent before the rise of the Tractarian school. His extensive +collection of transcripts from the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of +the New Testament, was bequeathed to the British Museum. + +BURGONET, or BURGANET (from Fr. _bourguignote_, Burgundian helmet), a form +of light helmet or head-piece, which was in vogue in the 16th and 17th +centuries. In its normal form the burgonet was a large roomy cap with a +brim shading the eyes, cheek-pieces or flaps, a comb, and a guard for the +back of the neck. In many cases a vizor, or other face protection, and a +chin-piece are found in addition, so that this piece of armour is sometimes +mistaken for an armet (_q.v._), but it can always be distinguished by the +projecting brim in front. The morion and cabasset have no face, cheek or +neck protection. The typical head-piece of the 17th-century soldier in +England and elsewhere is a burgonet skull-cap with a straight brim, +neck-guard and often, in addition, a fixed vizor of three thin iron bars +which are screwed into, and hang down from, the brim in front of the eyes. + +BURGOS, a province of northern Spain; bounded on the N.E. by Biscay and +Alava, E. by Logrono, S.E. by Soria, S. by Segovia, S.W. by Valladolid, W. +by Palencia, and N.W. by Santander. Pop. (1900) 338,828; area, 5480 sq. m. +Burgos includes the isolated county of Trevino, which is shut in on all +sides by territory belonging to Alava. The northern and north-eastern +districts of the province are mountainous, and the central and southern +form part of the vast and elevated plateau of Old Castile. The extreme +northern region is traversed by part of the great Cantabrian chain. +Eastwards are the highest peaks of the province in the Sierra de la Demanda +(with the Cerro de San Millan, 6995 ft. high) and in the Sierra de Neila. +On the eastern frontier, midway between these highlands and the Cantabrian +chain, two comparatively low ranges, running east and west of Pancorbo, +kave a gap through which run the railway and roads connecting Castile with +the valley of the Ebro. This Pancorbo Pass has often been called the "Iron +Gates of Castile," as a handful of men could hold it against an army. South +and west of this spot begins the plateau, generally covered with snow in +winter, and swept by such cold winds that Burgos is considered, with Soria +and Segovia, one of the coldest regions of the peninsula. The Ebro runs +eastwards through the northern half of the province, but is not navigable. +The Douro, or Duero, crosses the southern half, running west-north-west; it +also is unnavigable in its upper valley. The other important streams are +the Pisuerga, flowing south towards Palencia and Valladolid, and the +Arlanzon, which flows through Burgos for over 75m. + +The variations of temperature are great, as from 9 deg. to 20 deg. of frost have +frequently been recorded in winter, while the mean summer temperature is +64 deg. (Fahr.). As but little rain falls in summer, and the soil is poor, +agriculture thrives only in the valleys, especially that of the Ebro. In +live-stock, however, Burgos is one of the richest of Spanish provinces. +Horses, mules, asses, goats, cattle and pigs are bred in considerable +numbers, but the mainstay of the peasantry is sheep-farming. Vast ranges of +almost uninhabited upland are reserved as pasture for the flocks, which at +the beginning of the 20th century contained more than 500,000 head of +sheep. Coal, china-clay and salt are obtained in small quantities, but, out +of more than 150 mines registered, only 4 were worked in 1903. The other +industries of the province are likewise undeveloped, although there are +many small potteries, stone quarries, tanneries and factories for the +manufacture of linen and cotton of the coarsest description. The ancient +cloth and woollen industries, for which Burgos was famous in the past, have +almost disappeared. Trade is greatly hindered by the lack of adequate +railway communication, and even of good roads. The Northern railways from +Madrid to the French frontier cross the province in the central districts; +the Valladolid-Bilbao line traverses the Cantabrian mountains, in the +north; and the Valladolid-Saragossa line skirts the Douro valley, in the +south. The only [v.04 p.0819] important town in the province is Burgos, the +capital (pop. 30,167). Few parts of Spain are poorer; education makes +little progress, and least of all in the thinly peopled rural districts, +with their widely scattered hamlets. The peasantry have thus every +inducement to migrate to the Basque Provinces, Catalonia and other +relatively prosperous regions; and consequently the population does not +increase, despite the excess of births over deaths. + +BURGOS, the capital formerly of Old Castile, and since 1833 of the Spanish +province of Burgos, on the river Arlanzon, and on the Northern railways +from Madrid to the French frontier. Pop. (1900) 30,167. Burgos, in the form +of an amphitheatre, occupies the lower slopes of a hill crowned by the +ruins of an ancient citadel. It faces the Arlanzon, a broad and swift +stream, with several islands in mid-channel. Three stone bridges lead to +the suburb of La Vega, on the opposite bank. On all sides, except up the +castle hill, fine avenues and public gardens are laid out, notably the +Paseo de la Isla, extending along the river to the west. Burgos itself was +originally surrounded by a wall, of which few fragments remain; but +although its streets and broad squares, such as the central Plaza Mayor, or +Plaza de la Constitucion, have often quite a modern appearance, the city +retains much of its picturesque character, owing to the number and beauty +of its churches, convents and palaces. Unaffected by the industrial +activity of the neighbouring Basque Provinces, it has little trade apart +from the sale of agricultural produce and the manufacture of paper and +leathern goods. + +But it is rich in architectural and antiquarian interest. The citadel was +founded in 884 by Diego Rodriguez Porcelos, count of Castile; in the 10th +century it was held against the kings of Leon by Count Fernan Gonzalez, a +mighty warrior; and even in 1812 it was successfully defended by a French +garrison against Lord Wellington and his British troops. Within its walls +the Spanish national hero, the Cid Campeador, was wedded to Ximena of +Oviedo in 1074; and Prince Edward of England (afterwards King Edward I.) to +Eleanor of Castile in 1254. Statues of Porcelos, Gonzalez and the Cid, of +Nuno Rasura and Lain Calvo, the first elected magistrates of Burgos, during +its brief period of republican rule in the 10th century, and of the emperor +Charles V., adorn the massive Arco de Santa Maria, which was erected +between 1536 and 1562, and commemorates the return of the citizens to their +allegiance, after the rebellion against Charles V. had been crushed in +1522. The interior of this arch serves as a museum. Tradition still points +to the site of the Cid's birthplace; and a reliquary preserved in the town +hall contains his bones, and those of Ximena, brought hither after many +changes, including a partial transference to Sigmaringen in Germany. + +Other noteworthy buildings in Burgos are the late 15th century Casa del +Cordon, occupied by the captain-general of Old Castile; the Casa de +Miranda, which worthily represents the best domestic architecture of Spain +in the 16th century; and the barracks, hospitals and schools. Burgos is the +see of an archbishop, whose province comprises the diocese of Palencia, +Pamplona, Santander and Tudela. The cathedral, founded in 1221 by Ferdinand +III. of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of Burgos, is a fine example +of florid Gothic, built of white limestone (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate II. +fig. 65). It was not completed until 1567, and the architects principally +responsible for its construction were a Frenchman in the 13th century and a +German in the 15th. Its cruciform design is almost hidden by the fifteen +chapels added at all angles to the aisles and transepts, by the beautiful +14th-century cloister on the north-west and the archiepiscopal palace on +the south-west. Over the three central doorways of the main or western +facade rise two lofty and graceful towers. Many of the monuments within the +cathedral are of considerable artistic and historical interest. The chapel +of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid is said to have filled +with sand and subsequently pawned for a large sum to the credulous Jews of +Burgos. The legend adds that he redeemed his pledge. In the aisleless +Gothic church of Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadea, tradition relates that the +Cid compelled Alphonso VI. of Leon, before his accession to the throne of +Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the murder of Sancho his +brother and predecessor on the throne. San Esteban, completed between 1280 +and 1350, and San Nicolas, dating from 1505, are small Gothic churches, +each with a fine sculptured doorway. Many of the convents of Burgos have +been destroyed, and those which survive lie chiefly outside the city. At +the end of the Paseo de la Isla stands the nunnery of Santa Maria la Real +de las Huelgas, originally a summer palace (_huelga_, "pleasure-ground") of +the kings of Castile. In 1187 it was transformed into a Cistercian convent +by Alphonso VIII., who invested the abbess with almost royal prerogatives, +including the power of life and death, and absolute rule over more than +fifty villages. Alphonso and his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry II. of +England, are buried here. The Cartuja de Miraflores, a Carthusian convent, +founded by John II. of Castile (1406-1454), lies 2 m. south-east of Burgos. +Its church contains a monument of exceptional beauty, carved by Gil de +Siloe in the 15th century, for the tomb of John and his second wife, +Isabella of Portugal. The convent of San Pedro de Cardena, 7 m. south-east +of Burgos, was the original burial-place of the Cid, in 1099, and of +Ximena, in 1104. About 50 m. from the city is the abbey of Silos, which +appears to have been founded under the Visigothic kings, as early as the +6th century. It was restored in 919 by Fernan Gonzalez, and in the 11th +century became celebrated throughout Europe, under the rule of St Dominic +or Domingo. It was reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks. + +The known history of Burgos begins in 884 with the foundation of the +citadel. From that time forward it steadily increased in importance, +reaching the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, when, +alternately with Toledo, it was occupied as a royal residence, but rapidly +declining when the court was finally removed to Madrid in 1560. Being on +one of the principal military roads of the kingdom, it suffered severely +during the Peninsular War. In 1808 it was the scene of the defeat of the +Spanish army by the French under Marshal Soult. It was unsuccessfully +besieged by Wellington in 1812, but was surrendered to him at the opening +of the campaign of the following year. + +Of the extensive literature relating to Burgos, much remains unedited and +in manuscript. A general description of the city and its monuments is given +by A. Llacayo y Santa Maria in _Burgos, &c._ (Burgos, 1889). See also +_Architectural, Sculptural and Picturesque Studies in Burgos and its +Neighbourhood_, a valuable series of architectural drawings in folio, by +J.B. Waring (London, 1852). The following are monographs on particular +buildings:--_Historia de la Catedral de Burgos, &c._, by P. Orcajo (Burgos, +1856); _El Castillo de Burgos_, by E. de Oliver-Copons (Barcelona, 1893); +_La Real Cartuja de Miraflores_, by F. Tarin y Juaneda (Burgos, 1896). For +the history of the city see _En Burgos_, by V. Balaguer (Burgos, 1895); +_Burgos en las comunidades de Castilla_ and _Cosas de la vieja Burgos_, +both by A. Salva (Burgos, 1895 and 1892). The following relate both to the +city and to the province of Burgos:--_Burgos, &c._, by R. Amador de los +Rios, in the series entitled _Espana_ (Barcelona, 1888); _Burgos y su +provincia_, anon. (Vitoria, 1898); _Intento de un diccionario biografico y +bibliografico de autores de la prov. de Burgos_, by M. Anibarro and M. +Rives (Madrid, 1890). + +BURGOYNE, JOHN (1722-1792), English general and dramatist, entered the army +at an early age. In 1743 he made a runaway marriage with a daughter of the +earl of Derby, but soon had to sell his commission to meet his debts, after +which he lived abroad for seven years. By Lord Derby's interest Burgoyne +was then reinstated at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and in 1758 he +became captain and lieutenant-colonel in the foot guards. In 1758-1759 he +participated in expeditions made against the French coast, and in the +latter year he was instrumental in introducing light cavalry into the +British army. The two regiments then formed were commanded by Eliott +(afterwards Lord Heathfield) and Burgoyne. In 1761 he sat in parliament for +Midhurst, and in the following year he served as brigadier-general in +Portugal, winning particular distinction by his capture of Valencia +d'Alcantara and of Villa Velha. In 1768 he became M.P. for Preston, and for +the next few years he occupied himself chiefly with his parliamentary +duties, in which he was remarkable for his general outspokenness [v.04 +p.0820] and, in particular, for his attacks on Lord Clive. At the same time +he devoted much attention to art and drama (his first play, _The Maid of +the Oaks_, being produced by Garrick in 1775), and gambled recklessly. In +the army he had by this time become a major-general, and on the outbreak of +the American War of Independence he was appointed to a command. In 1777 he +was at the head of the British reinforcements designed for the invasion of +the colonies from Canada. In this disastrous expedition he gained +possession of Ticonderoga (for which he was made a lieutenant-general) and +Fort Edward; but, pushing on, was detached from his communications with +Canada, and hemmed in by a superior force at Saratoga (_q.v._). On the 17th +of October his troops, about 3500 in number, laid down their arms. The +success was the greatest the colonists had yet gained, and it proved the +turning-point in the war. The indignation in England against Burgoyne was +great, but perhaps unjust. He returned at once, with the leave of the +American general, to defend his conduct, and demanded, but never obtained, +a trial. He was deprived of his regiment and a governorship which he held. +In 1782, however, when his political friends came into office, he was +restored to his rank, given a colonelcy, and made commander-in-chief in +Ireland and a privy councillor. After the fall of the Rockingham government +in 1783, Burgoyne withdrew more and more into private life, his last public +service being his participation in the impeachment of Warren Hastings. In +his latter years he was principally occupied in literary and dramatic work. +His comedy, _The Heiress_, which appeared in 1786, ran through ten editions +within a year, and was translated into several foreign tongues. He died +suddenly on the 4th of June 1792. General Burgoyne, whose wife died in June +1776 during his absence in Canada, had several natural children (born +between 1782 and 1788) by Susan Caulfield, an opera singer, one of whom +became Field Marshal Sir J.F. Burgoyne. His _Dramatic and Poetical Works_ +appeared in two vols., 1808. + +See E.B. de Fonblanque, _Political and Military Episodes from the Life and +Correspondence of Right Hon. J. Burgoyne_ (1876); and W.L. Stone, _Campaign +of Lieut.-Gen. J. Burgoyne, &c._ (Albany, N.Y., 1877). + +BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN FOX, Bart. (1782-1871), British field marshal, was an +illegitimate son of General John Burgoyne (_q.v._). He was educated at Eton +and Woolwich, obtained his commission in 1798, and served in 1800 in the +Mediterranean. In 1805, when serving on the staff of General Fox in Sicily, +he was promoted second captain. He accompanied the unfortunate Egyptian +expedition of 1807, and was with Sir John Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in +Portugal in 1808-9. In the Corunna campaign Burgoyne held the very +responsible position of chief of engineers with the rear-guard of the +British army (see PENINSULAR WAR). He was with Wellesley at the Douro in +1809, and was promoted captain in the same year, after which he was engaged +in the construction of the lines of Torres Vedras in 1810. He blew up Fort +Concepcion on the river Turones, and was present at Busaco and Torres +Vedras. In 1811 he was employed in the unsuccessful siege of Badajoz, and +in 1812 he won successively the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel, +for his skilful performance of engineer duties at the historic sieges of +Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. He was present in the same year (1812) at the +siege and battle of Salamanca, and after the battle of Vittoria in 1813 he +became commanding engineer on Lord Wellington's staff. At the close of the +war he received the C.B., a reward which, he justly considered, was not +commensurate with his services. In 1814-1815 he served at New Orleans and +Mobile. Burgoyne was largely employed, during the long peace which followed +Waterloo, in other public duties as well as military work. He sat on +numerous commissions, and served for fifteen years as chairman of the Irish +board of public works. He became a major-general and K.C.B. in 1838, and +inspector-general of fortifications in 1845. In 1851 he was promoted +lieutenant-general, and in the following year received the G.C.B. When the +Crimean War broke out he accompanied Lord Raglan's headquarters to the +East, superintended the disembarkation at Old Fort, and was in effect the +principal engineer adviser to the English commander during the first part +of the siege of Sevastopol. He was recalled early in 1855, and though he +was at first bitterly criticized by the public for his part in the earlier +and unsuccessful operations against the fortress the wisdom of his advice +was ultimately recognized. In 1856 he was created a baronet, and promoted +to the full rank of general. In 1858 he was present at the second funeral +of Napoleon I. as Queen Victoria's representative, and in 1865 he was made +constable of the Tower of London. Three years later, on resigning his post +as inspector-general of fortifications, he was made a field marshal. +Parliament granted him, at the same time, a pension of L1500. He died on +the 7th of October 1871, a year after the tragic death of his only son, +Captain Hugh Talbot Burgoyne, V.C. (1833-1870), who was in command of +H.M.S. "Captain" when that vessel went down in the Bay of Biscay (September +7, 1870). + +See _Life and Correspondence of F.M. Sir John Fox Burgoyne_ (edited by +Lt.-Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, R.E., London, 1873); Sir Francis Head, _A +Sketch of the Life and Death of F.M. Sir John Burgoyne_ (London, 1872); +_Military Opinions of General Sir John Burgoyne_ (ed. Wrottesley, London, +1859), a collection of the most important of Burgoyne's contributions to +military literature. + +BURGRAVE, the Eng. form, derived through the Fr., of the Ger. _Burggraf_ +and Flem. _burg_ or _burch-graeve_ (med. Lat. _burcgravius_ or +_burgicomes_), _i.e._ count of a castle or fortified town. The title is +equivalent to that of castellan (Lat. _castellanus_) or, _chatelain_ +(_q.v._). In Germany, owing to the peculiar conditions of the Empire, +though the office of burgrave had become a sinecure by the end of the 13th +century, the title, as borne by feudal nobles having the status of princes +of the Empire, obtained a quasi-royal significance. It is still included +among the subsidiary titles of several sovereign princes; and the king of +Prussia, whose ancestors were burgraves of Nuremberg for over 200 years, is +still styled burgrave of Nuremberg. + +BURGRED, king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 852, and in 852 or 853 +called upon AEthelwulf of Wessex to aid him in subduing the North Welsh. The +request was granted and the campaign proved successful, the alliance being +sealed by the marriage of Burgred to AEthelswith, daughter of AEthelwulf. In +868 the Mercian king appealed to AEthelred and Alfred for assistance against +the Danes, who were in possession of Nottingham. The armies of Wessex and +Mercia did no serious fighting, and the Danes were allowed to remain +through the winter. In 874 the march of the Danes from Lindsey to Repton +drove Burgred from his kingdom. He retired to Rome and died there. + +See _Saxon Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), years 852-853,868,874. + +BURGUNDIO, sometimes erroneously styled BURGUNDIUS, an Italian jurist of +the 12th century. He was a professor at the university of Paris, and +assisted at the Lateran Council in 1179, dying at a very advanced age in +1194. He was a distinguished Greek scholar, and is believed on the +authority of Odofredus to have translated into Latin, soon after the +Pandects were brought to Bologna, the various Greek fragments which occur +in them, with the exception of those in the 27th book, the translation of +which has been attributed to Modestinus. The Latin translations ascribed to +Burgundio were received at Bologna as an integral part of the text of the +Pandects, and form part of that known as _The Vulgate_ in distinction from +the Florentine text. + +BURGUNDY. The name of Burgundy (Fr. _Bourgogne_, Lat. _Burgundia_) has +denoted very diverse political and geographical areas at different periods +of history and as used by different writers. The name is derived from the +Burgundians (_Burgundi, Burgondiones_), a people of Germanic origin, who at +first settled between the Oder and the Vistula. In consequence of wars +against the Alamanni, in which the latter had the advantage, the +Burgundians, after having taken part in the great invasion of Radagaisus in +407, were obliged in 411 to take refuge in Gaul, under the leadership of +their chief Gundicar. Under the title of allies of the Romans, they +established themselves in certain cantons of the Sequani and of upper +Germany, receiving a part of the lands, houses and serfs that belonged to +the inhabitants. Thus was founded the first kingdom of Burgundy, the +boundaries of which were widened at different times by Gundicar and his son +[v.04 p.0821] Gunderic; its chief towns being Vienne, Lyons, Besancon, +Geneva, Autun and Macon. Gundibald (d. 516), grandson of Gunderic, is +famous for his codification of the Burgundian law, known consequently as +_Lex Gundobada, _in French _Loi Gombette_. His son Sigismund, who was +canonized by the church, founded the abbey of St Maurice at Agaunum. But, +incited thereto by Clotilda, the daughter of Chilperic (a brother of +Gundibald, and assassinated by him), the Merovingian kings attacked +Burgundy. An attempt made in 524 by Clodomer was unsuccessful; but in 534 +Clotaire (Chlothachar) and his brothers possessed themselves of the lands +of Gundimar, brother and successor of Sigismund, and divided them between +them. In 561 the kingdom of Burgundy was reconstructed by Guntram, son of +Clotaire I., and until 613 it formed a separate state under the government +of a prince of the Merovingian family. + +After 613 Burgundy was one of the provinces of the Frankish kingdom, but in +the redistributions that followed the reign of Charlemagne the various +parts of the ancient kingdom had different fortunes. In 843, by the treaty +of Verdun, Autun, Chalon, Macon, Langres, &c., were apportioned to Charles +the Bald, and Lyons with the country beyond the Saone to Lothair I. On the +death of the latter the duchy of Lyons (Lyonnais and Viennois) was given to +Charles of Provence, and the diocese of Besancon with the country beyond +the Jura to Lothair, king of Lorraine. In 879 Boso founded the kingdom of +Provence, wrongly called the kingdom of Cisjuran Burgundy, which extended +to Lyons, and for a short time as far as Macon (see PROVENCE). + +In 888 the kingdom of Juran Burgundy was founded by Rudolph I., son of +Conrad, count of Auxerre, and the German king Arnulf could not succeed in +expelling the usurper, whose authority was recognized in the diocese of +Besancon, Basel, Lausanne, Geneva and Sion. For a short time his son and +successor Rudolph II. (912-937) disputed the crown of Italy with Hugh of +Provence, but finally abandoned his claims in exchange for the ancient +kingdom of Provence, _i.e._ the country bounded by the Rhone, the Alps and +the Mediterranean. His successor, Conrad the Peaceful (93 7-993), whose +sister Adelaide married Otto the Great, was hardly more than a vassal of +the German kings. The last king of Burgundy, Rudolph III. (993-1032), being +deprived of all but a shadow of power by the development of the secular and +ecclesiastical aristocracy--especially by that of the powerful feudal +houses of the counts of Burgundy (see FRANCHE-COMTE), Savoy and +Provence--died without issue, bequeathing his lands to the emperor Conrad +II. Such was the origin of the imperial rights over the kingdom designated +after the 13th century as the kingdom of Arles, which extended over a part +of what is now Switzerland (from the Jura to the Aar), and included +Franche-Comte, Lyonnais, Dauphine, Savoy and Provence. + +The name of Burgundy now gradually became restricted to the countship of +that name, which included the district between the Jura and the Saone, in +later times called Franche-Comte, and to the _duchy_ which had been created +by the Carolingian kings in the portion of Burgundy that had remained +French, with the object of resisting Boso. This duchy had been granted to +Boso's brother, Richard the Justiciary, count of Autun. It comprised at +first the countships of Autun, Macon, Chalon-sur-Saone, Langres, Nevers, +Auxerre and Sens, but its boundaries and designations changed many times in +the course of the 10th century. Duke Henry died in 1002; and in 1015, after +a war which lasted thirteen years, the French king Robert II. reunited the +duchy to his kingdom, despite the opposition of Otto William, count of +Burgundy, and gave it to his son Henry, afterwards King Henry I. As king of +France, the latter in 1032 bestowed the duchy upon his brother Robert, from +whom sprang that first ducal house of Burgundy which flourished until 1361. +A grandson of this Robert, who went to Spain to fight the Arabs, became the +founder of the kingdom of Portugal; but in general the first Capet dukes of +Burgundy were pacific princes who took little part in the political events +of their time, or in that religious movement which was so marked in +Burgundy, at Cluny to begin with, afterwards among the disciples of William +of St Benigne of Dijon, and later still among the monks of Citeaux. In the +12th and 13th centuries we may mention Duke Hugh III. (1162-1193), who +played an active part in the wars that marked the beginning of Philip +Augustus's reign; Odo (Eudes) III. (1193-1218), one of Philip Augustus's +principal supporters in his struggle with King John of England; Hugh IV. +(1218-1272), who acquired the countships of Chalon and Auxonne, Robert II. +(1272-1309), one of whose daughters, Margaret, married Louis X. of France, +and another, Jeanne, Philip of Valois; Odo (Eudes) IV. (1315-1350), who +gained the countship of Artois in right of his wife, Jeanne of France, +daughter of Philip V. the Tall and of Jeanne, countess of Burgundy. + +In 1361, on the death of Duke Philip de Rouvres, son of Jeanne of Auvergne +and Boulogne, who had married the second time John II. of France, surnamed +the Good, the duchy of Burgundy returned to the crown of France. In 1363 +John gave it, with hereditary rights, to his son Philip, surnamed the Bold, +thus founding that second Capet house of Burgundy which filled such an +important place in the history of France during the 14th and 15th +centuries, acquiring as it did a territorial power which proved redoubtable +to the kingship itself. By his marriage with Margaret of Flanders Philip +added to his duchy, on the death of his father-in-law, Louis of Male, in +1384, the countships of Burgundy and Flanders; and in the same year he +purchased the countship of Charolais from John, count of Armagnac. On the +death of Charles V. in 1380 Philip and his brothers, the dukes of Anjou and +Berry, had possessed themselves of the regency, and it was he who led +Charles VI. against the rebellious Flemings, over whom the young king +gained the victory of Roosebeke in 1382. Momentarily deprived of power +during the period of the "Marmousets'" government, he devoted himself to +the administration of his own dominions, establishing in 1386 an +audit-office (_chambre des comptes_) at Dijon and another at Lille. In 1396 +he refused to take part personally in the expedition against the Turks +which ended in the disaster of Nicopolis, and would only send his son John, +then count of Nevers. In 1392 the king's madness caused Philip's recall to +power along with the other princes of the blood, and from this time dates +that hostility between the party of Burgundy and the party of Orleans which +was to become so intense when in May 1404 Duke Philip had been succeeded by +his son, John the Fearless. + +In 1407 the latter caused the assassination of his political rival, Louis +of Orleans, the king's brother. Forced to quit Paris for a time, he soon +returned, supported in particular by the gild of the butchers and by the +university. The monk Jean Petit pronounced an apology for the murder +(1408). + +The victory of Hasbain which John achieved on the 23rd of September 1408 +over the Liegeois, who had attacked his brother-in-law, John of Bavaria, +bishop of Liege, still further strengthened his power and reputation, and +during the following years the struggle between the Burgundians and the +partisans of the duke of Orleans--or Armagnacs, as they were called--went +on with varying results. In 1413 a reaction took place in Paris; John the +Fearless was once more expelled from the capital, and only returned there +in 1418, thanks to the treason of Perrinet Leclerc, who yielded up the town +to him. In 1419, just when he was thinking of making advances towards the +party of the dauphin (Charles VII.), he was assassinated by members of that +party, during an interview between himself and the dauphin at the bridge of +Montereau. + +This event inclined the new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, towards an +alliance with England. In 1420 he signed the treaty of Troyes, which +recognized Henry V. as the legitimate successor of Charles VI.; in 1423 he +gave his sister Anne in marriage to John, duke of Bedford; and during the +following years the Burgundian troops supported the English pretender. But +a dispute between him and the English concerning the succession in Hainaut, +their refusal to permit the town of Orleans to place itself under his rule, +and the defeats sustained by them, all combined to embroil him with his +allies, and in 1435 he concluded the treaty of Arras with Charles VII. The +king relieved the duke of all homage for his estates during his lifetime, +[v.04 p.0822] and gave up to him the countships of Macon, Auxerre, +Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu; and, reserving the right of redemption, the +towns of the Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Peronne, &c.). Besides this Philip +had acquired Brabant and Holland in 1433 as the inheritance of his mother. +He gave an asylum to the dauphin Louis when exiled from Charles VII.'s +court, but refused to assist him against his father, and henceforth rarely +intervened in French affairs. He busied himself particularly with the +administration of his state, founding the university of Dole, having +records made of Burgundian customs, and seeking to develop the commerce and +industries of Flanders. A friend to letters and the arts, he was the +protector of writers like Olivier de la Marche, and of sculptors of the +school of Dijon. He also desired to revive ancient chivalry as he conceived +it, and in 1429 founded the order of the Golden Fleece; while during the +last years of his life he devoted himself to the preparation of a crusade +against the Turks. Neither these plans, however, nor his liberality, +prevented his leaving a well-filled treasury and enlarged dominions when he +died in 1467. + +Philip's successor was his son by his third wife, Isabel of Portugal, +Charles, surnamed the Bold, count of Charolois, born in 1433. To him his +father had practically abandoned his authority during his last years. +Charles had taken an active part in the so-called wars "for the public +weal," and in the coalitions of nobles against the king which were so +frequent during the first years of Louis XI.'s reign. His struggle against +the king is especially marked by the interview at Peronne in 1468, when the +king had to confirm the duke in his possession of the towns of the Somme, +and by a fruitless attempt which Charles the Bold made on Beauvais in 1472. +Charles sought above all to realize a scheme already planned by his father. +This was to annex territory which would reunite Burgundy with the northern +group of her possessions (Flanders, Brabant, &c.), and to obtain the +emperor's recognition of the kingdom of "Belgian Gaul." In 1469 he bought +the landgraviate of Alsace and the countship of Ferrette from the archduke +Sigismund of Austria, and in 1473 the aged duke Arnold ceded the duchy of +Gelderland to him. In the same year he had an interview at Trier with the +emperor Frederick III., when he offered to give his daughter and heiress, +Mary of Burgundy, in marriage to the emperor's son Maximilian in exchange +for the concession of the royal title. But the emperor, uneasy at the +ambition of the "grand-duke of the West," did not pursue the negotiations. + +Meanwhile the tyranny of the duke's lieutenant Peter von Hagenbach, who was +established at Ferrette as governor (_grand bailli_ or _Landvogt_) of Upper +Alsace, had brought about an insurrection. The Swiss supported the cause of +their allies, the inhabitants of the free towns of Alsace, and Duke Rene +II. of Lorraine also declared war against Charles. In 1474 the Swiss +invaded Franche-Comte and achieved the victory of Hericourt. In 1475 +Charles succeeded in conquering Lorraine, but an expedition against the +Swiss ended in the defeat of Grandson (February 1476). In the same year the +duke was again beaten at Morat, and the Burgundian nobles had to abandon to +the victors a considerable amount of booty. Finally the duke of Lorraine +returned to his dominions; Charles advanced against him, but on the 6th of +January 1477 he was defeated and killed before Nancy. + +By his wife, Isabella of Bourbon, he only left a daughter, Mary, and Louis +XI. claimed possession of her inheritance as guardian to the young +princess. He succeeded in getting himself acknowledged in the duchy and +countship of Burgundy, which were occupied by French garrisons. But Mary, +alarmed by this annexation, and by the insurrection at Ghent (secretly +fomented by Louis), decided to marry the archduke Maximilian of Austria, to +whom she had already been promised (August 1477), and hostilities soon +broke out between the two princes. Mary died through a fall from her horse +in March 1482, and in the same year the treaty of Arras confirmed Louis XI. +in possession of the duchy. Franche-Comte and Artois were to form the dowry +of the little Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Mary and Maximilian, who +was promised in marriage to the dauphin. As to the lands proceeding from +the succession of Charles the Bold, which had returned to the Empire +(Brabant, Hainaut, Limburg, Namur, Gelderland, &c.), they constituted the +"Circle of Burgundy" from 1512 onward. + +We know that the title of duke of Burgundy was revived in 1682 for a short +time by Louis XIV. in favour of his grandson Louis, the pupil of Fenelon. +But from the 16th to the 18th century Burgundy constituted a military +government bounded on the north by Champagne, on the south by Lyonnais, on +the east by Franche-Comte, on the west by Bourbonnais and Nivernais. It +comprised Dijonnais, Autunois, Auxois, and the _pays de la montagne_ or +Country of the Mountain (Chatillon-sur-Seine), with the "counties" of +Chalonnais, Maconnais, Auxerrois and Bar-sur-Seine, and, so far as +administration went, the annexes of Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the country +of Gex. Burgundy was a _pays d'etats_. The estates, whose privileges the +dukes at first, and later Louis XI., had to swear to maintain, had their +assembly at Dijon, usually under the presidency of the governor of the +province, the bishop of Autun as representing the clergy, and the mayor of +Dijon representing the third estate. In the judiciary point of view the +greater part of Burgundy depended on the parlement of Dijon; but Auxerrois +and Maconnais were amenable to the parlement of Paris. + +See also U. Plancher, _Histoire generale et particuliere de Bourgogne_ +(Dijon, 1739--1781, 4 vols. 8vo); Courtepee, _Description generale et +particuliere du duche de Bourgogne_ (Dijon, 1774-1785, 7 vols. 8vo); O. +Jahn. _Geschichte der Burgundionen_ (Halle, 1874, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Petit de +Vausse, _Histoire des dues de Bourgogne de la race capetienne_ (Paris, +1885-1905, 9 vols. 8vo); B. de Barante, _Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de +la maison de Valois_ (Paris, 1833--1836, 13 vols. 8vo); the marquis Leon +E.S.J. de Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne: Etudes sur les lettres, les arts +et l'industrie pendant le XV siecle_ (Paris, 1849-1851, 3 vols. 8vo). + +(R. PO.) + +BURHANPUR, a town of British India in the Nimar district of the Central +Provinces, situated on the north bank of the river Tapti, 310 m. N.E. of +Bombay, and 2 m. from the Great Indian Peninsula railway station of +Lalbagh. It was founded in A.D. 1400 by a Mahommedan prince of the Farukhi +dynasty of Khandesh, whose successors held it for 200 years, when the +Farukhi kingdom was annexed to the empire of Akbar. It formed the chief +seat of the government of the Deccan provinces of the Mogul empire till +Shah Jahan removed the capital to Aurangabad in 1635. Burhanpur was +plundered in 1685 by the Mahrattas, and repeated battles were fought in its +neighbourhood in the struggle between that race and the Mussulmans for the +supremacy of India. In 1739 the Mahommedans finally yielded to the demand +of the Mahrattas for a fourth of the revenue, and in 1760 the Nizam of the +Deccan ceded Burhanpur to the peshwa, who in 1778 transferred it to +Sindhia. In the Mahratta War the army under General Wellesley, afterwards +the duke of Wellington, took Burhanpur (1803), but the treaty of the same +year restored it to Sindhia. It remained a portion of Sindhia's dominions +till 1860-1861, when, in consequence of certain territorial arrangements, +the town and surrounding estates were ceded to the British government. +Under the Moguls the city covered an area of about 5 sq. m., and was about +101/2 m. in circumference. In the _Ain-i-Akbari_ it is described as a "large +city, with many gardens, inhabited by all nations, and abounding with +handicraftsmen." Sir Thomas Roe, who visited it in 1614, found that the +houses in the town were "only mud cottages, except the prince's house, the +chan's and some few others." In 1865-1866 the city contained 8000 houses, +with a population of 34,137, which had decreased to 33,343 in 1901. +Burhanpur is celebrated for its muslins, flowered silks, and brocades, +which, according to Tavernier, who visited it in 1668, were exported in +great quantities to Persia, Egypt, Turkey, Russia and Poland. The gold and +silver wires used in the manufacture of these fabrics are drawn with +considerable care and skill; and in order to secure the purity of the +metals employed for their composition, the wire-drawing under the native +rule was done under government inspection. The town of Burhanpur and its +manufactures were long on the decline, but during recent times have made a +slight recovery. The buildings of interest [v.04 p.0823] in the town are a +palace, built by Akbar, called the Lal Kila or the Red Fort, and the Jama +Masjid or Great Mosque, built by Ali Khan, one of the Farukhi dynasty, in +1588. A considerable number of Boras, a class of commercial Mahommedans, +reside here. + +BURI, or BURE, in Norse mythology, the grandfather of Odin. In the creation +of the world he was born from the rocks, licked by the cow Andhumla +(darkness). He was the father of Bor, and the latter, wedded to Bestla, the +daughter of the giant Bolthorn (evil), became the father of Odin, the +Scandinavian Jove. + +BURIAL and BURIAL ACTS (in O. Eng. _byrgels_, whence _byriels_, wrongly +taken as a plural, and so Mid. Eng. _buryel_, from O. Eng. _byrgan_, +properly to protect, cover, to bury). The main lines of the law of burial +in England may be stated very shortly. Every person has the right to be +buried in the churchyard or burial ground of the parish where he dies, with +the exception of executed felons, who are buried in the precincts of the +prison or in a place appointed by the home office. At common law the person +under whose roof a death takes place has a duty to provide for the body +being carried to the grave decently covered; and the executors or legal +representatives of the deceased are bound to bury or dispose of the body in +a manner becoming the estate of the deceased, according to their +discretion, and they are not bound to fulfil the wishes he may have +expressed in this respect. The disposal must be such as will not expose the +body to violation, or offend the feelings or endanger the health of the +living; and cremation under proper restrictions is allowable. In the case +of paupers dying in a parish house, or shipwrecked persons whose bodies are +cast ashore, the overseers or guardians are responsible for their burial; +and in the case of suicides the coroner has a similar duty. The expenses of +burial are payable out of the deceased's estate in priority to all other +debts. A husband liable for the maintenance of his wife is liable for her +funeral expenses; the parents for those of their children, if they have the +means of paying. Legislation has principally affected (1) places of burial, +(2) mode of burial, (3) fees for burial, and (4) disinterment. + +1. The overcrowded state of churchyards and burial grounds gradually led to +the passing of a group of statutes known as the Burial Acts, extending from +1852 up to 1900. By these acts a general system was set up, the aim of +which was to remedy the existing deficiencies of accommodation by providing +new burial grounds and closing old ones which should be dangerous to +health, and to establish a central authority, the home office (now for most +purposes the Local Government Board) to superintend all burial grounds with +a view to the protection of the public health and the maintenance of public +decency in burials. The Local Government Board thus has the power to obtain +by order in council the closing of any burial ground it thinks fit, while +its consent is necessary to the opening of any new burial ground; and it +also has power to direct inspection of any burial ground or cemetery, and +to regulate burials in common graves in statutory cemeteries and to compel +persons in charge of vaults or places of burial to take steps necessary for +preventing their becoming dangerous or injurious to health. The vestry of +any parish, whether a common-law or ecclesiastical one, was thus authorized +to provide itself with a new burial ground, if its existing one was no +longer available; such ground might be wholly or partly consecrated, and +chapels might be provided for the performance of burial service. The ground +was put under the management of a burial board, consisting of ratepayers +elected by the vestry, and the consecrated portion of it took the place of +the churchyard in all respects. Disused churchyards and burial grounds in +the metropolis may be used as open spaces for recreation, and only +buildings for religious purposes can be built on them (1881, 1884, 1887). +The Local Government Act 1894 introduced a change into the government of +burial grounds (consequent on the general change made in parochial +government) by transferring, or allowing to be transferred, the powers, +duties, property and liabilities of the burial boards in urban districts to +the district councils, and in rural parishes to the parish councils and +parish meetings; and by allowing rural parishes to adopt the Burials Acts, +and provide and manage new burial grounds by the parish council, or a +burial board elected by the parish meeting. + +2. The mode of burial is a matter of ecclesiastical cognizance; in the case +of churchyards and elsewhere it is in the discretion of the owners of the +burial ground. The Local Government Board now makes regulations for burials +in burial grounds provided under the Burial Acts; for cemeteries provided +under the Public Health Act 1879. Private cemeteries and burial grounds +make their own regulations. Burial may now take place either with or +without a religious service in consecrated ground. Before 1880 no body +could be buried in consecrated ground except with the service of the +Church, which the incumbent of the parish or a person authorized by him was +bound to perform; but the canons and prayer-book refused the use of the +office for excommunicated persons, _majori excommunicatione_, for some +grievous and notorious crime, and no person able to testify of his +repentance, unbaptized persons, and persons against whom a verdict of _felo +de se_ had been found. But by the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880, the +bodies of persons entitled to be buried in parochial burial grounds, +whether churchyards or graveyards, may be buried there, on proper notice +being given to the minister, without the performance of the service of the +Church of England, and either without any religious service or with a +Christian and orderly religious service at the grave, which may be +conducted by any person invited to do so by the person in charge of the +funeral. Clergymen of the Church of England are also by the act allowed, +but are not obliged, to use the burial service in any unconsecrated burial +ground or cemetery, or building therein, in any case in which it could be +used in consecrated ground. In cases where it may not be so used, and where +such is the wish of those in charge of the service, the clergy may use a +form of service approved by the bishop without being liable to any +ecclesiastical or temporal penalty. Except as altered by this act, it is +still the law that "the Church knows no such indecency as putting a body +into consecrated ground without the service being at the same time +performed"; and nothing in the act authorizes the use of the service on the +burial of a _felo de se_, which, however, may take place in any way allowed +by the act of 1880. The proper performance of the burial office is provided +for by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874. Statutory provision is made +by the criminal law in this act for the preservation of order in burial +grounds and protection of funeral services. + +3. Fees are now payable by custom or under statutory powers on all burials. +In a churchyard the parson must perform the office of burial for +parishioners, even if the customary fee is denied, and it is doubtful who +is liable to pay it. The custom must be immemorial and invariable. If not +disputed, its payment can be enforced in the ecclesiastical court; if +disputed, its validity must be tried by a temporal court. A special +contract for the payment of an annual fee in the case of a non-parishioner +can be enforced in the latter court. In the case of paupers and shipwrecked +persons the fees are payable by the parish. In other parochial burial +grounds and cemeteries the duties and rights to fees of the incumbents, +clerks and sextons of the parishes for which the ground has been provided +are the same as in burials in the churchyard. Burial authorities may fix +the fees payable in such grounds, subject to the approval of the home +secretary; but the fees for services rendered by ministers of religion and +sextons must be the same in the consecrated as in the unconsecrated part of +the burial ground, and no incumbent of a parish or a clerk may receive any +fee upon burials except for services rendered by them (act of 1900). On +burials under the act of 1880 the same fees are payable as if the burial +had taken place with the service of the Church. + +4. A corpse is not the subject of property, nor capable of holding +property. If interred in consecrated ground, it is under the protection of +the ecclesiastical court; if in unconsecrated, it is under that of the +temporal court. In the former case it is an ecclesiastical offence, and in +either case it is a misdemeanour, to disinter or remove it without proper +authority, [v.04 p.0824] whatever the motive for such an act may be. Such +proper authority is (1) a faculty from the ordinary, where it is to be +removed from one consecrated place of burial to another, and this is often +done on sanitary grounds or to meet the wishes of relatives, and has been +done for secular purposes, _e.g._ widening a thoroughfare, by allowing part +of the burial ground (disused) to be thrown into it; but it has been +refused where the object was to cremate the remains, or to transfer them +from a churchyard to a Roman Catholic burial ground; (2) a licence from the +home secretary, where it is desired to transfer remains from one +unconsecrated place of burial to another; (3) by order of the coroner, in +cases of suspected crime. There has been considerable discussion as to the +boundary line of jurisdiction between (1) and (2), and whether the +disinterment of a body from consecrated ground for purposes of +identification falls within, (1) only or within both (1) and (2); and an +attempt by the ecclesiastical court to enforce a penalty for that purpose +without a licence has been prohibited by the temporal court. + +See also CHURCHYARD; and, for methods of disposal of the dead, CEMETERY; +CREMATION, and FUNERAL RITES. + +AUTHORITIES.--Baker, _Law of Burials_ (6th ed. by Thomas, London, 1898); +Phillimore, _Ecclestastical Law_ (2nd ed., London, 1895); Cripps, _Law of +Church and Clergy_ (6th ed., London, 1886). + +(G. G. P.*) + +BURIAL SOCIETIES, a form of friendly societies, existing mainly in England, +and constituted for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions, +for insuring money to be paid on the death of a member, or for the funeral +expenses of the husband, wife or child of a member, or of the widow of a +deceased member. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.) + +BURIATS, a Mongolian race, who dwell in the vicinity of the Baikal Lake, +for the most part in the government of Irkutsk and the Trans-Baikal +Territory. They are divided into various tribes or clans, which generally +take their names from the locality they frequent. These tribes are +subdivided according to kinship. The Buriats are a broad-shouldered race +inclined to stoutness, with small slanting eyes, thick lips, high +cheekbones, broad and flat noses and scanty beards. The men shave their +heads and wear a pigtail like the Chinese. In summer they dress in silk and +cotton gowns, in winter in furs and sheepskins. Their principal occupation +is the rearing of cattle and horses. The Buriat horse is famous for its +power of endurance, and the attachment between master and animal is very +great. At death the horse should, according to their religion, be +sacrificed at its owner's grave; but the frugal Buriat heir usually +substitutes an old hack, or if he has to tie up the valuable steed to the +grave to starve he does so only with the thinnest of cords so that the +animal soon breaks his tether and gallops off to join the other horses. In +some districts the Buriats have learned agriculture from the Russians, and +in Irkutsk are really better farmers than the latter. They are +extraordinarily industrious at manuring and irrigation. They are also +clever at trapping and fishing. In religion the Buriats are mainly +Buddhists; and their head lama (Khambo Lama) lives at the Goose Lake +(Guisinoe Ozero). Others are Shamanists, and their most sacred spot is the +Shamanic stone at the mouth of the river Angar. Some thousands of them +around Lake Baikal are Christians. A knowledge of reading and writing is +common, especially among the Trans-Baikal Buriats, who possess books of +their own, chiefly translated from the Tibetan. Their own language is +Mongolian, and of three distinct dialects. It was in the 16th century that +the Russians first came in touch with the Buriats, who were long known by +the name of Bratskiye, "Brotherly," given them by the Siberian colonists. +In the town of Bratskiyostrog, which grew up around the block-house built +in 1631 at the confluence of the Angara and Oka to bring them into +subjection, this title is perpetuated. The Buriats made a vigorous +resistance to Russian aggression, but were finally subdued towards the end +of the 17th century, and are now among the most peaceful of Russian +peoples. + +See J.G. Gruelin, _Siberia_; Pierre Simon Pallas, _Sammlungen historischer +Nachrichten ueber die mongolischen Volkerschaften_ (St Petersburg, +1776-1802); M.A. Castren, _Versuch einer buriatischen Sprachlehre_ (1857); +Sir H.H. Howorth, _History of the Mongols_ (1876-1888). + +BURIDAN, JEAN [JOANNES BURIDANUS] (c. 1297-c. 1358), French philosopher, +was born at Bethune in Artois. He studied in Paris under William of Occam. +He was professor of philosophy in the university of Paris, was rector in +1327, and in 1345 was deputed to defend its interests before Philip of +Valois and at Rome. He was more than sixty years old in 1358, but the year +of his death is not recorded. The tradition that he was forced to flee from +France along with other nominalists, and founded the university of Vienna +in 1356, is unsupported and in contradiction to the fact that the +university was founded by Frederick II. in 1237. An ordinance of Louis XI., +in 1473, directed against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of his +works. In philosophy Buridan was a rationalist, and followed Occam in +denying all objective reality to universals, which he regarded as mere +words. The aim of his logic is represented as having been the devising of +rules for the discovery of syllogistic middle terms; this system for aiding +slow-witted persons became known as the _pons asinorum_. The parts of logic +which he treated with most minuteness are modal propositions and modal +syllogisms. In commenting on Aristotle's _Ethics_ he dealt in a very +independent manner with the question of free will, his conclusions being +remarkably similar to those of John Locke. The only liberty which he admits +is a certain power of suspending the deliberative process and determining +the direction of the intellect. Otherwise the will is entirely dependent on +the view of the mind, the last result of examination. The comparison of the +will unable to act between two equally balanced motives to an ass dying of +hunger between two equal and equidistant bundles of hay is not found in his +works, and may have been invented by his opponents to ridicule his +determinism. That he was not the originator of the theory known as "liberty +of indifference" (_liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_) is shown in G. +Fonsegrive's _Essai sur le libre arbitre_, pp. 119, 199 (1887). + +His works are:--_Summula de dialectica_ (Paris, 1487); _Compendium logicae_ +(Venice, 1489); _Quaestiones in viii. libros physicorum_ (Paris, 1516); _In +Aristotelis Metaphysica_ (1518); _Quaestiones in x. libros ethicorum +Aristotelis_ (Paris, 1489; Oxford, 1637); _Quaestiones in viii. libros +politicorum Aristotelis_ (1500). See K. Prantl's _Geschichte der Logik_, +bk. iv. 14-38; Stoeckl's _Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters_, ii. +1023-1028; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. (1897). + +BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797), British statesman and political writer. His is +one of the greatest names in the history of political literature. There +have been many more important statesmen, for he was never tried in a +position of supreme responsibility. There have been many more effective +orators, for lack of imaginative suppleness prevented him from penetrating +to the inner mind of his hearers; defects in delivery weakened the +intrinsic persuasiveness of his reasoning; and he had not that commanding +authority of character and personality which has so often been the secret +of triumphant eloquence. There have been many subtler, more original and +more systematic thinkers about the conditions of the social union. But no +one that ever lived used the general ideas of the thinker more successfully +to judge the particular problems of the statesman. No one has ever come so +close to the details of practical politics, and at the same time remembered +that these can only be understood and only dealt with by the aid of the +broad conceptions of political philosophy. And what is more than all for +perpetuity of fame, he was one of the great masters of the high and +difficult art of elaborate composition. + +A certain doubtfulness hangs over the circumstances of Burke's life +previous to the opening of his public career. The very date of his birth is +variously stated. The most probable opinion is that he was born at Dublin +on the 12th of January 1729, new style. Of his family we know little more +than his father was a Protestant attorney, practising in Dublin, and that +his mother was a Catholic, a member of the family of Nagle. He had at least +one sister, from whom descended the only existing representatives of +Burke's family; and he had at least two brothers, Garret Burke and Richard +Burke, the one older and the other younger than Edmund. The sister, +afterwards Mrs French, was brought up and remained throughout life in the +religious faith of her [v.04 p.0825] mother; Edmund and his brothers +followed that of their father. In 1741 the three brothers were sent to +school at Ballitore in the county of Kildare, kept by Abraham Shackleton, +an Englishman, and a member of the Society of Friends. He appears to have +been an excellent teacher and a good and pious man. Burke always looked +back on his own connexion with the school at Ballitore as among the most +fortunate circumstances of his life. Between himself and a son of his +instructor there sprang up a close and affectionate friendship, and, unlike +so many of the exquisite attachments of youth, this was not choked by the +dust of life, nor parted by divergence of pursuit. Richard Shackleton was +endowed with a grave, pure and tranquil nature, constant and austere, yet +not without those gentle elements that often redeem the drier qualities of +his religious persuasion. When Burke had become one of the most famous men +in Europe, no visitor to his house was more welcome than the friend with +whom long years before he had tried poetic flights, and exchanged all the +sanguine confidences of boyhood. And we are touched to think of the +simple-minded guest secretly praying, in the solitude of his room in the +fine house at Beaconsfield, that the way of his anxious and overburdened +host might be guided by a divine hand. + +In 1743 Burke became a student at Trinity College, Dublin, where Oliver +Goldsmith was also a student at the same time. But the serious pupil of +Abraham Shackleton would not be likely to see much of the wild and squalid +sizar. Henry Flood, who was two years younger than Burke, had gone to +complete his education at Oxford. Burke, like Goldsmith, achieved no +academic distinction. His character was never at any time of the academic +cast. The minor accuracies, the limitation of range, the treading and +re-treading of the same small patch of ground, the concentration of +interest in success before a board of examiners, were all uncongenial to a +nature of exuberant intellectual curiosity and of strenuous and +self-reliant originality. His knowledge of Greek and Latin was never +thorough, nor had he any turn for critical niceties. He could quote Homer +and Pindar, and he had read Aristotle. Like others who have gone through +the conventional course of instruction, he kept a place in his memory for +the various charms of Virgil and Horace, of Tacitus and Ovid; but the +master whose page by night and by day he turned with devout hand, was the +copious, energetic, flexible, diversified and brilliant genius of the +declamations for Archias the poet and for Milo, against Catiline and +against Antony, the author of the disputations at Tusculum and the orations +against Verres. Cicero was ever to him the mightiest of the ancient names. +In English literature Milton seems to have been more familiar to him than +Shakespeare, and Spenser was perhaps more of a favourite with him than +either. + +It is too often the case to be a mere accident that men who become eminent +for wide compass of understanding and penetrating comprehension, are in +their adolescence unsettled and desultory. Of this Burke is a signal +illustration. He left Trinity in 1748, with no great stock of well-ordered +knowledge. He neither derived the benefits nor suffered the drawbacks of +systematic intellectual discipline. + +After taking his degree at Dublin he went in the year 1750 to London to +keep terms at the Temple. The ten years that followed were passed in +obscure industry. Burke was always extremely reserved about his private +affairs. All that we know of Burke exhibits him as inspired by a resolute +pride, a certain stateliness and imperious elevation of mind. Such a +character, while free from any weak shame about the shabby necessities of +early struggles, yet is naturally unwilling to make them prominent in after +life. There is nothing dishonourable in such an inclination. "I was not +swaddled and rocked and dandled into a legislator," wrote Burke when very +near the end of his days: "_Nitor in adversum_ is the motto for a man like +me. At every step of my progress in life (for in every step I was traversed +and opposed), and at every turnpike I met, I was obliged to show my +passport. Otherwise no rank, no toleration even, for me." + +All sorts of whispers have been circulated by idle or malicious gossip +about Burke's first manhood. He is said to have been one of the numerous +lovers of his fascinating countrywoman, Margaret Woffington. It is hinted +that he made a mysterious visit to the American colonies. He was for years +accused of having gone over to the Church of Rome, and afterwards +recanting. There is not a tittle of positive evidence for these or any of +the other statements to Burke's discredit. The common story that he was a +candidate for Adam Smith's chair of moral philosophy at Glasgow, when Hume +was rejected in favour of an obscure nobody (1751), can be shown to be +wholly false. Like a great many other youths with an eminent destiny before +them, Burke conceived a strong distaste for the profession of the law. His +father, who was an attorney of substance, had a distaste still stronger for +so vagrant a profession as letters were in that day. He withdrew the annual +allowance, and Burke set to work to win for himself by indefatigable +industry and capability in the public interest that position of power or +pre-eminence which his detractors acquired either by accident of birth and +connexions or else by the vile arts of political intrigue. He began at the +bottom of the ladder, mixing with the Bohemian society that haunted the +Temple, practising oratory in the free and easy debating societies of +Covent Garden and the Strand, and writing for the booksellers. + +In 1756 he made his first mark by a satire upon Bolingbroke entitled _A +Vindication of Natural Society_. It purported to be a posthumous work from +the pen of Bolingbroke, and to present a view of the miseries and evils +arising to mankind from every species of artificial society. The imitation +of the fine style of that magnificent writer but bad patriot is admirable. +As a satire the piece is a failure, for the simple reason that the +substance of it might well pass for a perfectly true, no less than a very +eloquent statement of social blunders and calamities. Such acute critics as +Chesterfield and Warburton thought the performance serious. Rousseau, whose +famous discourse on the evils of civilization had appeared six years +before, would have read Burke's ironical vindication of natural society +without a suspicion of its irony. There have indeed been found persons who +insist that the _Vindication_ was a really serious expression of the +writer's own opinions. This is absolutely incredible, for various reasons. +Burke felt now, as he did thirty years later, that civil institutions +cannot wisely or safely be measured by the tests of pure reason. His +sagacity discerned that the rationalism by which Bolingbroke and the +deistic school believed themselves to have overthrown revealed religion, +was equally calculated to undermine the structure of political government. +This was precisely the actual course on which speculation was entering in +France at that moment. His _Vindication_ is meant to be a reduction to an +absurdity. The rising revolutionary school in France, if they had read it, +would have taken it for a demonstration of the theorem to be proved. The +only interest of the piece for us lies in the proof which it furnishes, +that at the opening of his life Burke had the same scornful antipathy to +political rationalism which flamed out in such overwhelming passion at its +close. + +In the same year (1756) appeared the _Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin +of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful_, a crude and narrow performance +in many respects, yet marked by an independent use of the writer's mind, +and not without fertile suggestion. It attracted the attention of the +rising aesthetic school in Germany. Lessing set about the translation and +annotation of it, and Moses Mendelssohn borrowed from Burke's speculation +at least one of the most fruitful and important ideas of his own +influential theories on the sentiments. In England the _Inquiry_ had +considerable vogue, but it has left no permanent trace in the development +of aesthetic thought. + +Burke's literary industry in town was relieved by frequent excursions to +the western parts of England, in company with William Burke. There was a +lasting intimacy between the two namesakes, and they seem to have been +involved together in some important passages of their lives; but we have +Edmund Burke's authority for believing that they were probably not kinsmen. +The seclusion of these rural sojourns, originally dictated by delicate +health, was as wholesome to the mind as to [v.04 p.0826] the body. Few men, +if any, have ever acquired a settled mental habit of surveying human +affairs broadly, of watching the play of passion, interest, circumstance, +in all its comprehensiveness, and of applying the instruments of general +conceptions and wide principles to its interpretation with respectable +constancy, unless they have at some early period of their manhood resolved +the greater problems of society in independence and isolation. By 1756 the +cast of Burke's opinions was decisively fixed, and they underwent no +radical change. + +He began a series of _Hints on the Drama_. He wrote a portion of an +_Abridgment of the History of England_, and brought it down as far as the +reign of John. It included, as was natural enough in a warm admirer of +Montesquieu, a fragment on law, of which he justly said that it ought to be +the leading science in every well-ordered commonwealth. Burke's early +interest in America was shown by an _Account of the European Settlements_ +on that continent. Such works were evidently a sign that his mind was +turning away from abstract speculation to the great political and economic +fields, and to the more visible conditions of social stability and the +growth of nations. This interest in the concrete phenomena of society +inspired him with the idea of the _Annual Register_ (1759), which he +designed to present a broad grouping of the chief movements of each year. +The execution was as excellent as the conception, and if we reflect that it +was begun in the midst of that momentous war which raised England to her +climax of territorial greatness in East and West, we may easily realize how +the task of describing these portentous and far-reaching events would be +likely to strengthen Burke's habits of wide and laborious observation, as +well as to give him firmness and confidence in the exercise of his own +judgment. Dodsley gave him L100 for each annual volume, and the sum was +welcome enough, for towards the end of 1756 Burke had married. His wife was +the daughter of a Dr Nugent, a physician at Bath. She is always spoken of +by his friends as a mild, reasonable and obliging person, whose amiability +and gentle sense did much to soothe the too nervous and excitable +temperament of her husband. She had been brought up, there is good reason +to believe, as a Catholic, and she was probably a member of that communion +at the time of her marriage. Dr Nugent eventually took up his residence +with his son-in-law in London, and became a popular member of that famous +group of men of letters and artists whom Boswell has made so familiar and +so dear to all later generations. Burke, however, had no intention of being +dependent. His consciousness of his own powers animated him with a most +justifiable ambition, if ever there was one, to play a part in the conduct +of national affairs. Friends shared this ambition on his behalf; one of +these was Lord Charlemont. He introduced Burke to William Gerard Hamilton +(1759), now only remembered by the nickname "single-speech," derived from +the circumstance of his having made a single brilliant speech in the House +of Commons, which was followed by years of almost unbroken silence. +Hamilton was by no means devoid of sense and acuteness, but in character he +was one of the most despicable men then alive. There is not a word too many +nor too strong in the description of him by one of Burke's friends, as "a +sullen, vain, proud, selfish, cankered-hearted, envious reptile." The +reptile's connexion, however, was for a time of considerable use to Burke. +When he was made Irish secretary, Burke accompanied him to Dublin, and +there learnt Oxenstiern's eternal lesson, that awaits all who penetrate +behind the scenes of government, _quam parva sapientia mundus regitur_. + +The penal laws against the Catholics, the iniquitous restrictions on Irish +trade and industry, the selfish factiousness of the parliament, the jobbery +and corruption of administration, the absenteeism of the landlords, and all +the other too familiar elements of that mischievous and fatal system, were +then in full force. As was shown afterwards, they made an impression upon +Burke that was never effaced. So much iniquity and so much disorder may +well have struck deep on one whose two chief political sentiments were a +passion for order and a passion for justice. He may have anticipated with +something of remorse the reflection of a modern historian, that the +absenteeism of her landlords has been less of a curse to Ireland than the +absenteeism of her men of genius. At least he was never an absentee in +heart. He always took the interest of an ardent patriot in his unfortunate +country; and, as we shall see, made more than one weighty sacrifice on +behalf of the principles which he deemed to be bound up with her welfare. + +When Hamilton retired from his post, Burke accompanied him back to London, +with a pension of L300 a year on the Irish Establishment. This modest +allowance he hardly enjoyed for more than a single year. His patron having +discovered the value of so laborious and powerful a subaltern, wished to +bind Burke permanently to his service. Burke declined to sell himself into +final bondage of this kind. When Hamilton continued to press his odious +pretensions they quarrelled (1765), and Burke threw up his pension. He soon +received a more important piece of preferment than any which he could ever +have procured through Hamilton. + +The accession of George III. to the throne in 1760 had been followed by the +disgrace of Pitt, the dismissal of Newcastle, and the rise of Bute. These +events marked the resolution of the court to change the political system +which had been created by the Revolution of 1688. That system placed the +government of the country in the hands of a territorial oligarchy, composed +of a few families of large possessions, fairly enlightened principles, and +shrewd political sense. It had been preserved by the existence of a +Pretender. The two first kings of the house of Hanover could only keep the +crown on their own heads by conciliating the Revolution families and +accepting Revolution principles. By 1760 all peril to the dynasty was at an +end. George III., or those about him, insisted on substituting for the +aristocratic division of political power a substantial concentration of it +in the hands of the sovereign. The ministers were no longer to be the +members of a great party, acting together in pursuance of a common policy +accepted by them all as a united body; they were to become nominees of the +court, each holding himself answerable not to his colleagues but to the +king, separately, individually and by department. George III. had before +his eyes the government of his cousin the great Frederick; but not every +one can bend the bow of Ulysses, and, apart from difference of personal +capacity and historic tradition, he forgot that a territorial and +commercial aristocracy cannot be dealt with in the spirit of the barrack +and the drill-ground. But he made the attempt, and resistance to that +attempt supplies the keynote to the first twenty-five years of Burke's +political life. + +Along with the change in system went high-handed and absolutist tendencies +in policy. The first stage of the new experiment was very short. Bute, in a +panic at the storm of unpopularity that menaced him, resigned in 1763. +George Grenville and the less enlightened section of the Whigs took his +place. They proceeded to tax the American colonists, to interpose +vexatiously against their trade, to threaten the liberty of the subject at +home by general warrants, and to stifle the liberty of public discussion by +prosecutions of the press. Their arbitrary methods disgusted the nation, +and the personal arrogance of the ministers at last disgusted the king. The +system received a temporary check. Grenville fell, and the king was forced +to deliver himself into the hands of the orthodox section of the Whigs. The +marquess of Rockingham (July 10, 1765) became prime minister, and he was +induced to make Burke his private secretary. Before Burke had begun his +duties, an incident occurred which illustrates the character of the two +men. The old duke of Newcastle, probably desiring a post for some nominee +of his own, conveyed to the ear of the new minister various absurd rumours +prejudicial to Burke,--that he was an Irish papist, that his real name was +O'Bourke, that he had been a Jesuit, that he was an emissary from St +Omer's. Lord Rockingham repeated these tales to Burke, who of course denied +them with indignation. His chief declared himself satisfied, but Burke, +from a feeling that the indispensable confidence between them was impaired, +at once expressed a strong desire to resign his post. Lord Rockingham +prevailed upon him to reconsider his resolve, and from that day until Lord +Rockingham's death in [v.04 p.0827] 1782, their relations were those of the +closest friendship and confidence. + +The first Rockingham administration only lasted a year and a few days, +ending in July 1766. The uprightness and good sense of its leaders did not +compensate for the weakness of their political connexions. They were unable +to stand against the coldness of the king, against the hostility of the +powerful and selfish faction of Bedford Whigs, and, above all, against the +towering predominance of William Pitt. That Pitt did not join them is one +of the many fatal miscarriages of history, as it is one of the many serious +reproaches to be made against that extraordinary man's chequered and uneven +course. An alliance between Pitt and the Rockingham party was the surest +guarantee of a wise and liberal policy towards the colonies. He went +further than they did, in holding, like Lord Camden, the doctrine that +taxation went with representation, and that therefore parliament had no +right to tax the unrepresented colonists. The ministry asserted, what no +competent jurist would now think of denying, that parliament is sovereign; +but they went heartily with Pitt in pronouncing the exercise of the right +of taxation in the case of the American colonists to be thoroughly +impolitic and inexpedient. No practical difference, therefore, existed upon +the important question of the hour. But Pitt's prodigious egoism, +stimulated by the mischievous counsels of men of the stamp of Lord +Shelburne, prevented the fusion of the only two sections of the Whig party +that were at once able, enlightened and disinterested enough to carry on +the government efficiently, to check the arbitrary temper of the king, and +to command the confidence of the nation. Such an opportunity did not +return. + +The ministerial policy towards the colonies was defended by Burke with +splendid and unanswerable eloquence. He had been returned to the House of +Commons for the pocket borough of Wendover, and his first speech (January +27, 1766) was felt to be the rising of a new light. For the space of a +quarter of a century, from this time down to 1790, Burke was one of the +chief guides and inspirers of a revived Whig party. The "age of small +factions" was now succeeded by an age of great principles, and selfish ties +of mere families and persons were transformed into a union resting on +common conviction and patriotic aims. It was Burke who did more than any +one else to give to the Opposition, under the first half of the reign of +George III., this stamp of elevation and grandeur. Before leaving office +the Rockingham government repealed the Stamp Act; confirmed the personal +liberty of the subject by forcing on the House of Commons one resolution +against general warrants, and another against the seizure of papers; and +relieved private houses from the intrusion of officers of excise, by +repealing the cider tax. Nothing so good was done in an English parliament +for nearly twenty years to come. George Grenville, whom the Rockinghams had +displaced, and who was bitterly incensed at their formal reversal of his +policy, printed a pamphlet to demonstrate his own wisdom and statesmanship. +Burke replied in his _Observations on a late Publication on the Present +State of the Nation_ (1769), in which he showed for the first time that he +had not only as much knowledge of commerce and finance, and as firm a hand, +in dealing with figures as Grenville himself, but also a broad, general and +luminous way of conceiving and treating politics, in which neither then nor +since has he had any rival among English publicists. + +It is one of the perplexing points in Burke's private history to know how +he lived during these long years of parliamentary opposition. It is +certainly not altogether mere impertinence to ask of a public man how he +gets what he lives upon, for independence of spirit, which is so hard to +the man who lays his head on the debtor's pillow, is the prime virtue in +such men. Probity in money is assuredly one of the keys to character, +though we must be very careful in ascertaining and proportioning all the +circumstances. Now, in 1769, Burke bought an estate at Beaconsfield, in the +county of Buckingham. It was about 600 acres in extent, was worth some L500 +a year, and cost L22,000. People have been asking ever since how the +penniless man of letters was able to raise so large a sum in the first +instance, and how he was able to keep up a respectable establishment +afterwards. The suspicions of those who are never sorry to disparage the +great have been of various kinds. Burke was a gambler, they hint, in Indian +stock, like his kinsmen Richard and William, and like Lord Verney, his +political patron at Wendover. Perhaps again, his activity on behalf of +Indian princes, like the raja of Tanjore, was not disinterested and did not +go unrewarded. The answer to all these calumnious innuendoes is to be found +in documents and title-deeds of decisive authority, and is simple enough. +It is, in short, this. Burke inherited a small property from his elder +brother, which he realized. Lord Rockingham advanced him a certain sum +(L6000). The remainder, amounting to no less than two-thirds of the +purchase-money, was raised on mortgage, and was never paid off during +Burke's life. The rest of the story is equally simple, but more painful. +Burke made some sort of income out of his 600 acres; he was for a short +time agent for New York, with a salary of L700; he continued to work at the +_Annual Register_ down to 1788. But, when all is told, he never made as +much as he spent; and in spite of considerable assistance from Lord +Rockingham, amounting it is sometimes said to as much as L30,000, Burke, +like the younger Pitt, got every year deeper into debt. Pitt's debts were +the result of a wasteful indifference to his private affairs. Burke, on the +contrary, was assiduous and orderly, and had none of the vices of +profusion. But he had that quality which Aristotle places high among the +virtues--the noble mean of Magnificence, standing midway between the two +extremes of vulgar ostentation and narrow pettiness. He was indifferent to +luxury, and sought to make life, not commodious nor soft, but high and +dignified in a refined way. He loved art, filled his house with statues and +pictures, and extended a generous patronage to the painters. He was a +collector of books, and, as Crabbe and less conspicuous men discovered, a +helpful friend to their writers. Guests were ever welcome at his board; the +opulence of his mind and the fervid copiousness of his talk naturally made +the guests of such a man very numerous. _Non invideo equidem, miror magis_, +was Johnson's good-natured remark, when he was taken over his friend's fine +house and pleasant gardens. Johnson was of a very different type. There was +something in this external dignity which went with Burke's imperious +spirit, his spacious imagination, his turn for all things stately and +imposing. We may say, if we please, that Johnson had the far truer and +loftier dignity of the two; but we have to take such men as Burke with the +defects that belong to their qualities. And there was no corruption in +Burke's outlay. When the Pitt administration was formed in 1766, he might +have had office, and Lord Rockingham wished him to accept it, but he +honourably took his fate with the party. He may have spent L3000 a year, +where he would have been more prudent to spend only L2000. But nobody was +wronged; his creditors were all paid in time, and his hands were at least +clean of traffic in reversions, clerkships, tellerships and all the rest of +the rich sinecures which it was thought no shame in those days for the +aristocracy of the land and the robe to wrangle for, and gorge themselves +upon, with the fierce voracity of famishing wolves. The most we can say is +that Burke, like Pitt, was too deeply absorbed in beneficent service in the +affairs of his country, to have for his own affairs the solicitude that +would have been prudent. + +In the midst of intense political preoccupations, Burke always found time +to keep up his intimacy with the brilliant group of his earlier friends. He +was one of the commanding figures at the club at the Turk's Head, with +Reynolds and Garrick, Goldsmith and Johnson. The old sage who held that the +first Whig was the Devil, was yet compelled to forgive Burke's politics for +the sake of his magnificent gifts. "I would not talk to him of the +Rockingham party," he used to say, "but I love his knowledge, his genius, +his diffusion and affluence of conversation." And everybody knows Johnson's +vivid account of him: "Burke, Sir, is such a man that if you met him for +the first time in the street, where you were stopped by a drove of oxen, +and you and he stepped aside to take shelter but for five minutes, he'd +talk [v.04 p.0828] to you in such a manner that when you parted you would +say, 'This is an extraordinary man.'" They all grieved that public business +should draw to party what was meant for mankind. They deplored that the +nice and difficult test of answering Berkeley had not been undertaken, as +was once intended, by Burke, and sighed to think what an admirable display +of subtlety and brilliance such a contention would have afforded them, had +not politics "turned him from active philosophy aside." There was no +jealousy in this. They did not grudge Burke being the first man in the +House of Commons, for they admitted that he would have been the first man +anywhere. + +With all his hatred for the book-man in politics, Burke owed much of his +own distinction to that generous richness and breadth of judgment which had +been ripened in him by literature and his practice in it. He showed that +books are a better preparation for statesmanship than early training in the +subordinate posts and among the permanent officials of a public department. +There is no copiousness of literary reference in his work, such as +over-abounded in the civil and ecclesiastical publicists of the 17th +century. Nor can we truly say that there is much, though there is certainly +some, of that tact which literature is alleged to confer on those who +approach it in a just spirit and with the true gift. The influence of +literature on Burke lay partly in the direction of emancipation from the +mechanical formulae of practical politics; partly in the association which +it engendered, in a powerful understanding like his, between politics and +the moral forces of the world, and between political maxims and the old and +great sentences of morals; partly in drawing him, even when resting his +case on prudence and expediency, to appeal to the widest and highest +sympathies; partly, and more than all, in opening his thoughts to the many +conditions, possibilities and "varieties of untried being," in human +character and situation, and so giving an incomparable flexibility to his +methods of political approach. + +This flexibility is not to be found in his manner of composition. That +derives its immense power from other sources; from passion, intensity, +imagination, size, truth, cogency of logical reason. Those who insist on +charm, on winningness in style, on subtle harmonies and fine exquisiteness +of suggestion, are disappointed in Burke: they even find him stiff and +over-coloured. And there are blemishes of this kind. His banter is nearly +always ungainly, his wit blunt, as Johnson said, and often unseasonable. As +is usual with a man who has not true humour, Burke is also without true +pathos. The thought of wrong or misery moved him less to pity for the +victim than to anger against the cause. Again, there are some gratuitous +and unredeemed vulgarities; some images that make us shudder. But only a +literary fop can be detained by specks like these. + +The varieties of Burke's literary or rhetorical method are very striking. +It is almost incredible that the superb imaginative amplification of the +description of Hyder Ali's descent upon the Carnatic should be from the +same pen as the grave, simple, unadorned _Address to the King_ (1777), +where each sentence falls on the ear with the accent of some golden-tongued +oracle of the wise gods. His stride is the stride of a giant, from the +sentimental beauty of the picture of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, or the +red horror of the tale of Debi Sing in Rungpore, to the learning, +positiveness and cool judicial mastery of the _Report on the Lords' +Journals_ (1794), which Philip Francis, no mean judge, declared on the +whole to be the "most eminent and extraordinary" of all his productions. +But even in the coolest and driest of his pieces there is the mark of +greatness, of grasp, of comprehension. In all its varieties Burke's style +is noble, earnest, deep-flowing, because his sentiment was lofty and +fervid, and went with sincerity and ardent disciplined travail of judgment. +He had the style of his subjects; the amplitude, the weightiness, the +laboriousness, the sense, the high flight, the grandeur, proper to a man +dealing with imperial themes, with the fortunes of great societies, with +the sacredness of law, the freedom of nations, the justice of rulers. Burke +will always be read with delight and edification, because in the midst of +discussions on the local and the accidental, he scatters apophthegms that +take us into the regions of lasting wisdom. In the midst of the torrent of +his most strenuous and passionate deliverances, he suddenly rises aloof +from his immediate subject, and in all tranquillity reminds us of some +permanent relation of things, some enduring truth of human life or human +society. We do not hear the organ tones of Milton, for faith and freedom +had other notes in the 18th century. There is none of the complacent and +wise-browed sagacity of Bacon, for Burke's were days of personal strife and +fire and civil division. We are not exhilarated by the cheerfulness, the +polish, the fine manners of Bolingbroke, for Burke had an anxious +conscience, and was earnest and intent that the good should triumph. And +yet Burke is among the greatest of those who have wrought marvels in the +prose of our English tongue. + +Not all the transactions in which Burke was a combatant could furnish an +imperial theme. We need not tell over again the story of Wilkes and the +Middlesex election. The Rockingham ministry had been succeeded by a +composite government, of which it was intended that Pitt, now made Lord +Chatham and privy seal, should be the real chief. Chatham's health and mind +fell into disorder almost immediately after the ministry had been formed. +The duke of Grafton was its nominal head, but party ties had been broken, +the political connexions of the ministers were dissolved, and, in truth, +the king was now at last a king indeed, who not only reigned but governed. +The revival of high doctrines of prerogative in the crown was accompanied +by a revival of high doctrines of privilege in the House of Commons, and +the ministry was so smitten with weakness and confusion as to be unable to +resist the current of arbitrary policy, and not many of them were even +willing to resist it. The unconstitutional prosecution of Wilkes was +followed by the fatal recourse to new plans for raising taxes in the +American colonies. These two points made the rallying ground of the new +Whig opposition. Burke helped to smooth matters for a practical union +between the Rockingham party and the powerful triumvirate, composed of +Chatham, whose understanding had recovered from its late disorder, and of +his brothers-in-law, Lord Temple and George Grenville. He was active in +urging petitions from the freeholders of the counties, protesting against +the unconstitutional invasion of the right of election. And he added a +durable masterpiece to political literature in a pamphlet which he called +_Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents_ (1770). The immediate +object of this excellent piece was to hold up the court scheme of weak, +divided and dependent administrations in the light of its real purpose and +design; to describe the distempers which had been engendered in parliament +by the growth of royal influence and the faction of the king's friends; to +show that the newly formed Whig party had combined for truly public ends, +and was no mere family knot like the Grenvilles and the Bedfords; and, +finally, to press for the hearty concurrence both of public men and of the +nation at large in combining against "a faction ruling by the private +instructions of a court against the general sense of the people." The +pamphlet was disliked by Chatham on the one hand, on no reasonable grounds +that we can discover; it was denounced by the extreme popular party of the +Bill of Rights, on the other hand, for its moderation and conservatism. In +truth, there is as strong a vein of conservative feeling in the pamphlet of +1770 as in the more resplendent pamphlet of 1790. "Our constitution," he +said, "stands on a nice equipoise, with steep precipices and deep waters +upon all sides of it. In removing it from a dangerous leaning towards one +side, there may be a risk of oversetting it on the other. Every project of +a material change in a government so complicated as ours is a matter full +of difficulties; in which a considerate man will not be too ready to +decide, a prudent man too ready to undertake, or an honest man too ready to +promise." Neither now nor ever had Burke any other real conception of a +polity for England than government by the territorial aristocracy in the +interests of the nation at large, and especially in the interests of +commerce, to the vital importance of which in our economy he was always +keenly and wisely alive. The policy of George III., and the support which +it found among [v.04 p.0829] men who were weary of Whig factions, disturbed +this scheme, and therefore Burke denounced both the court policy and the +court party with all his heart and all his strength. + +Eloquence and good sense, however, were impotent in the face of such forces +as were at this time arrayed against a government at once strong and +liberal. The court was confident that a union between Chatham and the +Rockinghams was impossible. The union was in fact hindered by the +waywardness and the absurd pretences of Chatham, and the want of force in +Lord Rockingham. In the nation at large, the late violent ferment had been +followed by as remarkable a deadness and vapidity, and Burke himself had to +admit a year or two later that any remarkable robbery at Hounslow Heath +would make more conversation than all the disturbances of America. The duke +of Grafton went out, and Lord North became the head of a government, which +lasted twelve years (1770-1782), and brought about more than all the +disasters that Burke had foretold as the inevitable issue of the royal +policy. For the first six years of this lamentable period Burke was +actively employed in stimulating, informing and guiding the patrician +chiefs of his party. "Indeed, Burke," said the duke of Richmond, "you have +more merit than any man in keeping us together." They were well-meaning and +patriotic men, but it was not always easy to get them to prefer politics to +fox-hunting. When he reached his lodgings at night after a day in the city +or a skirmish in the House of Commons, Burke used to find a note from the +duke of Richmond or the marquess of Rockingham, praying him to draw a +protest to be entered on the Journals of the Lords, and in fact he drew all +the principal protests of his party between 1767 and 1782. The accession of +Charles James Fox to the Whig party, which took place at this time, and was +so important an event in its history, was mainly due to the teaching and +influence of Burke. In the House of Commons his industry was almost +excessive. He was taxed with speaking too often, and with being too +forward. And he was mortified by a more serious charge than murmurs about +superfluity of zeal. Men said and said again that he was Junius. His very +proper unwillingness to stoop to deny an accusation, that would have been +so disgraceful if it had been true, made ill-natured and silly people the +more convinced that it was not wholly false. But whatever the London world +may have thought of him, Burke's energy and devotion of character impressed +the better minds in the country. In 1774 he received the great distinction +of being chosen as one of its representatives by Bristol, then the second +town in the kingdom. + +In the events which ended in the emancipation of the American colonies from +the monarchy, Burke's political genius shone with an effulgence that was +worthy of the great affairs over which it shed so magnificent an +illumination. His speeches are almost the one monument of the struggle on +which a lover of English greatness can look back with pride and a sense of +worthiness, such as a churchman feels when he reads Bossuet, or an Anglican +when he turns over the pages of Taylor or of Hooker. Burke's attitude in +these high transactions is really more impressive than Chatham's, because +he was far less theatrical than Chatham; and while he was no less nobly +passionate for freedom and justice, in his passion was fused the most +strenuous political argumentation and sterling reason of state. On the +other hand he was wholly free from that quality which he ascribed to Lord +George Sackville, a man "apt to take a sort of undecided, equivocal, narrow +ground, that evades the substantial merits of the question, and puts the +whole upon some temporary, local, accidental or personal consideration." He +rose to the full height of that great argument. Burke here and everywhere +else displayed the rare art of filling his subject with generalities, and +yet never intruding commonplaces. No publicist who deals as largely in +general propositions has ever been as free from truisms; no one has ever +treated great themes with so much elevation, and yet been so wholly secured +against the pitfalls of emptiness and the vague. And it is instructive to +compare the foundation of all his pleas for the colonists with that on +which they erected their own theoretic declaration of independence. The +American leaders were impregnated with the metaphysical ideas of rights +which had come to them from the rising revolutionary school in France. +Burke no more adopted the doctrines of Jefferson in 1776 than he adopted +the doctrines of Robespierre in 1793. He says nothing about men being born +free and equal, and on the other hand he never denies the position of the +court and the country at large, that the home legislature, being sovereign, +had the right to tax the colonies. What he does say is that the exercise of +such a right was not practicable; that if it were practicable, it was +inexpedient; and that, even if this had not been inexpedient, yet, after +the colonies had taken to arms, to crush their resistance by military force +would not be more disastrous to them than it would be unfortunate for the +ancient liberties of Great Britain. Into abstract discussion he would not +enter. "Show the thing you contend for to be reason; show it to be common +sense; show it to be the means of attaining some useful end." "The question +with me is not whether you have a right to render your people miserable, +but whether it is not your interest to make them happy." There is no +difference in social spirit and doctrine between his protests against the +maxims of the English common people as to the colonists, and his protests +against the maxims of the French common people as to the court and the +nobles; and it is impossible to find a single principle either asserted or +implied in the speeches on the American revolution which was afterwards +repudiated in the writings on the revolution in France. + +It is one of the signs of Burke's singular and varied eminence that hardly +any two people agree precisely which of his works to mark as the +masterpiece. Every speech or tract that he composed on a great subject +becomes, as we read it, the rival of every other. But the _Speech on +Conciliation_ (1775) has, perhaps, been more universally admired than any +of his other productions, partly because its maxims are of a simpler and +less disputable kind than those which adorn the pieces on France, and +partly because it is most strongly characterized by that deep ethical +quality which is the prime secret of Burke's great style and literary +mastery. In this speech, moreover, and in the only less powerful one of the +preceding year upon American taxation, as well as in the _Letter to the +Sheriffs of Bristol_ in 1777, we see the all-important truth conspicuously +illustrated that half of his eloquence always comes of the thoroughness +with which he gets up his case. No eminent man has ever done more than +Burke to justify the definition of genius as the consummation of the +faculty of taking pains. Labour incessant and intense, if it was not the +source, was at least an inseparable condition of his power. And magnificent +rhetorician though he was, his labour was given less to his diction than to +the facts; his heart was less in the form than the matter. It is true that +his manuscripts were blotted and smeared, and that he made so many +alterations in the proofs that the printer found it worth while to have the +whole set up in type afresh. But there is no polish in his style, as in +that of Junius for example, though there is something a thousand times +better than polish. "Why will you not allow yourself to be persuaded," said +Francis after reading the _Reflections_, "that polish is material to +preservation?" Burke always accepted the rebuke, and flung himself into +vindication of the sense, substance and veracity of what he had written. +His writing is magnificent, because he knew so much, thought so +comprehensively, and felt so strongly. + +The succession of failures in America, culminating in Cornwallis's +surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, wearied the nation, and at length +the persistent and powerful attacks of the opposition began to tell. "At +this time," wrote Burke, in words of manly self-assertion, thirteen years +afterwards, "having a momentary lead (1780-1782), so aided and so +encouraged, and as a feeble instrument in a mighty hand--I do not say I +saved my country--I am sure I did my country important service. There were +few indeed at that time that did not acknowledge it. It was but one voice, +that no man in the kingdom better deserved an honourable provision should +be made for him." In the spring of 1782 Lord North resigned. It seemed as +if the court system which Burke had been denouncing [v.04 p.0830] for a +dozen years was now finally broken, and as if the party which he had been +the chief instrument in instructing, directing and keeping together must +now inevitably possess power for many years to come. Yet in a few months +the whole fabric had fallen, and the Whigs were thrown into opposition for +the rest of the century. The story cannot be omitted in the most summary +account of Burke's life. Lord Rockingham came into office on the fall of +North. Burke was rewarded for services beyond price by being made paymaster +of the forces, with the rank of a privy councillor. He had lost his seat +for Bristol two years before, in consequence of his courageous advocacy of +a measure of tolerance for the Catholics, and his still more courageous +exposure of the enormities of the commercial policy of England towards +Ireland. He sat during the rest of his parliamentary life (to 1794) for +Malton, a pocket borough first of Lord Rockingham's, then of Lord +Fitzwilliam's. Burke's first tenure of office was very brief. He had +brought forward in 1780 a comprehensive scheme of economical reform, with +the design of limiting the resources of jobbery and corruption which the +crown was able to use to strengthen its own sinister influence in +parliament. Administrative reform was, next to peace with the colonies, the +part of the scheme of the new ministry to which the king most warmly +objected. It was carried out with greater moderation than had been +foreshadowed in opposition. But at any rate Burke's own office was not +spared. While Charles Fox's father was at the pay-office (1765-1778) he +realized as the interest of the cash balances which he was allowed to +retain in his hands, nearly a quarter of a million of money. When Burke +came to this post the salary was settled at L4000 a year. He did not enjoy +the income long. In July 1782 Lord Rockingham died; Lord Shelburne took his +place; Fox, who inherited from his father a belief in Lord Shelburne's +duplicity, which his own experience of him as a colleague during the last +three months had made stronger, declined to serve under him. Burke, though +he had not encouraged Fox to take this step, still with his usual loyalty +followed him out of office. This may have been a proper thing to do if +their distrust of Shelburne was incurable, but the next step, coalition +with Lord North against him, was not only a political blunder, but a shock +to party morality, which brought speedy retribution. Either they had been +wrong, and violently wrong, for a dozen years, or else Lord North was the +guiltiest political instrument since Strafford. Burke attempted to defend +the alliance on the ground of the substantial agreement between Fox and +North in public aims. The defence is wholly untenable. The Rockingham Whigs +were as substantially in agreement on public affairs with the Shelburne +Whigs as they were with Lord North. The movement was one of the worst in +the history of English party. It served its immediate purpose, however, for +Lord Shelburne found himself (February 24, 1783) too weak to carry on the +government, and was succeeded by the members of the coalition, with the +duke of Portland for prime minister (April 2, 1783). Burke went back to his +old post at the pay-office and was soon engaged in framing and drawing the +famous India Bill. This was long supposed to be the work of Fox, who was +politically responsible for it. We may be sure that neither he nor Burke +would have devised any government for India which they did not honestly +believe to be for the advantage both of that country and of England. But it +cannot be disguised that Burke had thoroughly persuaded himself that it was +indispensable in the interests of English freedom to strengthen the party +hostile to the court. As we have already said, dread of the peril to the +constitution from the new aims of George III. was the main inspiration of +Burke's political action in home affairs for the best part of his political +life. The India Bill strengthened the anti-court party by transferring the +government of India to seven persons named in the bill, and neither +appointed nor removable by the crown. In other words, the bill gave the +government to a board chosen directly by the House of Commons; and it had +the incidental advantage of conferring on the ministerial party patronage +valued at L300,000 a year, which would remain for a fixed term of years out +of reach of the king. In a word, judging the India Bill from a party point +of view, we see that Burke was now completing the aim of his project of +economic reform. That measure had weakened the influence of the crown by +limiting its patronage. The measure for India weakened the influence of the +crown by giving a mass of patronage to the party which the king hated. But +this was not to be. The India Bill was thrown out by means of a royal +intrigue in the Lords, and the ministers were instantly dismissed (December +18, 1783). Young William Pitt, then only in his twenty-fifth year, had been +chancellor of the exchequer in Lord Shelburne's short ministry, and had +refused to enter the coalition government from an honourable repugnance to +join Lord North. He was now made prime minister. The country in the +election of the next year ratified the king's judgment against the Portland +combination; and the hopes which Burke had cherished for a political +lifetime were irretrievably ruined. + +The six years that followed the great rout of the orthodox Whigs were years +of repose for the country, but it was now that Burke engaged in the most +laborious and formidable enterprise of his life, the impeachment of Warren +Hastings for high crimes and misdemeanours in his government of India. His +interest in that country was of old date. It arose partly from the fact of +William Burke's residence there, partly from his friendship with Philip +Francis, but most of all, we suspect, from the effect which he observed +Indian influence to have in demoralizing the House of Commons. "Take my +advice for once in your life," Francis wrote to Shee; "lay aside 40,000 +rupees for a seat in parliament: in this country that alone makes all the +difference between somebody and nobody." The relations, moreover, between +the East India Company and the government were of the most important kind, +and occupied Burke's closest attention from the beginning of the American +war down to his own India Bill and that of Pitt and Dundas. In February +1785 he delivered one of the most famous of all his speeches, that on the +nabob of Arcot's debts. The real point of this superb declamation was +Burke's conviction that ministers supported the claims of the fraudulent +creditors in order to secure the corrupt advantages of a sinister +parliamentary interest. His proceedings against Hastings had a deeper +spring. The story of Hastings's crimes, as Macaulay says, made the blood of +Burke boil in his veins. He had a native abhorrence of cruelty, of +injustice, of disorder, of oppression, of tyranny, and all these things in +all their degrees marked Hastings's course in India. They were, moreover, +concentrated in individual cases, which exercised Burke's passionate +imagination to its profoundest depths, and raised it to such a glow of +fiery intensity as has never been rivalled in our history. For it endured +for fourteen years, and was just as burning and as terrible when Hastings +was acquitted in 1795, as in the select committee of 1781 when Hastings's +enormities were first revealed. "If I were to call for a reward," wrote +Burke, "it would be for the services in which for fourteen years, without +intermission, I showed the most industry and had the least success, I mean +in the affairs of India; they are those on which I value myself the most; +most for the importance; most for the labour; most for the judgment; most +for constancy and perseverance in the pursuit." Sheridan's speech in the +House of Commons upon the charge relative to the begums of Oude probably +excelled anything that Burke achieved, as a dazzling performance abounding +in the most surprising literary and rhetorical effects. But neither +Sheridan nor Fox was capable of that sustained and overflowing indignation +at outraged justice and oppressed humanity, that consuming moral fire, +which burst forth again and again from the chief manager of the +impeachment, with such scorching might as drove even the cool and intrepid +Hastings beyond all self-control, and made him cry out with protests and +exclamations like a criminal writhing under the scourge. Burke, no doubt, +in the course of that unparalleled trial showed some prejudice; made some +minor overstatements of his case; used many intemperances; and suffered +himself to be provoked into expressions of heat and impatience by the +cabals of the defendant and his party, and the intolerable incompetence of +the tribunal. It is one of the inscrutable perplexities of human affairs, +that in the logic of practical [v.04 p.0831] life, in order to reach +conclusions that cover enough for truth, we are constantly driven to +premises that cover too much, and that in order to secure their right +weight to justice and reason good men are forced to fling the two-edged +sword of passion into the same scale. But these excuses were mere trifles, +and well deserve to be forgiven, when we think that though the offender was +in form acquitted, yet Burke succeeded in these fourteen years of laborious +effort in laying the foundations once for all of a moral, just, +philanthropic and responsible public opinion in England with reference to +India, and in doing so performed perhaps the most magnificent service that +any statesman has ever had it in his power to render to humanity. + +Burke's first decisive step against Hastings was a motion for papers in the +spring of 1786; the thanks of the House of Commons to the managers of the +impeachment were voted in the summer of 1794. But in those eight years some +of the most astonishing events in history had changed the political face of +Europe. Burke was more than sixty years old when the states-general met at +Versailles in the spring of 1789. He had taken a prominent part on the side +of freedom in the revolution which stripped England of her empire in the +West. He had taken a prominent part on the side of justice, humanity and +order in dealing with the revolution which had brought to England new +empire in the East. The same vehement passion for freedom, justice, +humanity and order was roused in him at a very early stage of the third +great revolution in his history--the revolution which overthrew the old +monarchy in France. From the first Burke looked on the events of 1789 with +doubt and misgiving. He had been in France in 1773, where he had not only +the famous vision of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, "glittering like the +morning star, full of life, and splendour and joy," but had also supped and +discussed with some of the destroyers, the encyclopaedists, "the +sophisters, economists and calculators." His first speech on his return to +England was a warning (March 17, 1773) that the props of good government +were beginning to fail under the systematic attacks of unbelievers, and +that principles were being propagated that would not leave to civil society +any stability. The apprehension never died out in his mind; and when he +knew that the principles and abstractions, the un-English dialect and +destructive dialectic, of his former acquaintances were predominant in the +National Assembly, his suspicion that the movement would end in disastrous +miscarriage waxed into certainty. + +The scene grew still more sinister in his eyes after the march of the mob +from Paris to Versailles in October, and the violent transport of the king +and queen from Versailles to Paris. The same hatred of lawlessness and +violence which fired him with a divine rage against the Indian malefactors +was aroused by the violence and lawlessness of the Parisian insurgents. The +same disgust for abstractions and naked doctrines of right that had stirred +him against the pretensions of the British parliament in 1774 and 1776, was +revived in as lively a degree by political conceptions which he judged to +be identical in the French assembly of 1789. And this anger and disgust +were exasperated by the dread with which certain proceedings in England had +inspired him, that the aims, principles, methods and language which he so +misdoubted or abhorred in France were likely to infect the people of Great +Britain. + +In November 1790 the town, which had long been eagerly expecting a +manifesto from Burke's pen, was electrified by the _Reflections on the +Revolution in France, and on the proceedings in certain societies in London +relative to that event_. The generous Windham made an entry in his diary of +his reception of the new book. "What shall be said," he added, "of the +state of things, when it is remembered that the writer is a man decried, +persecuted and proscribed; not being much valued even by his own party, and +by half the nation considered as little better than an ingenious madman?" +But the writer now ceased to be decried, persecuted and proscribed, and his +book was seized as the expression of that new current of opinion in Europe +which the more recent events of the Revolution had slowly set flowing. Its +vogue was instant and enormous. Eleven editions were exhausted in little +more than a year, and there is probably not much exaggeration in the +estimate that 30,000 copies were sold before Burke's death seven years +afterwards. George III. was extravagantly delighted; Stanislaus of Poland +sent Burke words of thanks and high glorification and a gold medal. +Catherine of Russia, the friend of Voltaire and the benefactress of +Diderot, sent her congratulations to the man who denounced French +philosophers as miscreants and wretches. "One wonders," Romilly said, by +and by, "that Burke is not ashamed at such success." Mackintosh replied to +him temperately in the _Vindiciae Gallicae_, and Thomas Paine replied to +him less temperately but far more trenchantly and more shrewdly in the +_Rights of Man_. Arthur Young, with whom he had corresponded years before +on the mysteries of deep ploughing and fattening hogs, added a cogent +polemical chapter to that ever admirable work, in which he showed that he +knew as much more than Burke about the old system of France as he knew more +than Burke about soils and roots. Philip Francis, to whom he had shown the +proof-sheets, had tried to dissuade Burke from publishing his performance. +The passage about Marie Antoinette, which has since become a stock piece in +books of recitation, seemed to Francis a mere piece of foppery; for was she +not a Messalina and a jade? "I know nothing of your story of Messalina," +answered Burke; "am I obliged to prove judicially the virtues of all those +I shall see suffering every kind of wrong and contumely and risk of life, +before I endeavour to interest others in their sufferings?... Are not high +rank, great splendour of descent, great personal elegance and outward +accomplishments ingredients of moment in forming the interest we take in +the misfortunes of men?... I tell you again that the recollection of the +manner in which I saw the queen of France in 1774, and the contrast between +that brilliancy, splendour and beauty, with the prostrate homage of a +nation to her, and the abominable scene of 1780 which I was describing, +_did_ draw tears from me and wetted my paper. These tears came again into +my eyes almost as often as I looked at the description,--they may again. +You do not believe this fact, nor that these are my real feelings; but that +the whole is affected, or as you express it, downright foppery. My friend, +I tell you it is truth; and that it is true and will be truth when you and +I are no more; and will exist as long as men with their natural feelings +shall exist" (_Corr._ iii. 139). + +Burke's conservatism was, as such a passage as this may illustrate, the +result partly of strong imaginative associations clustering round the more +imposing symbols of social continuity, partly of a sort of corresponding +conviction in his reason that there are certain permanent elements of human +nature out of which the European order had risen and which that order +satisfied, and of whose immense merits, as of its mighty strength, the +revolutionary party in France were most fatally ignorant. When Romilly saw +Diderot in 1783, the great encyclopaedic chief assured him that submission +to kings and belief in God would be at an end all over the world in a very +few years. When Condorcet described the Tenth Epoch in the long development +of human progress, he was sure not only that fulness of light and +perfection of happiness would come to the sons of men, but that they were +coming with all speed. Only those who know the incredible rashness of the +revolutionary doctrine in the mouths of its most powerful professors at +that time; only those who know their absorption in ends and their +inconsiderateness about means, can feel how profoundly right Burke was in +all this part of his contention. Napoleon, who had begun life as a disciple +of Rousseau, confirmed the wisdom of the philosophy of Burke when he came +to make the Concordat. That measure was in one sense the outcome of a mere +sinister expediency, but that such a measure was expedient at all sufficed +to prove that Burke's view of the present possibilities of social change +was right, and the view of the Rousseauites and too sanguine +Perfectibilitarians wrong. As we have seen, Burke's very first niece, the +satire on Bolingbroke, sprang from his conviction that merely rationalistic +or destructive criticism, applied to the vast complexities of man [v.04 +p.0832] in the social union, is either mischievous or futile, and +mischievous exactly in proportion as it is not futile. + +To discuss Burke's writings on the Revolution would be to write first a +volume upon the abstract theory of society, and then a second volume on the +history of France. But we may make one or two further remarks. One of the +most common charges against Burke was that he allowed his imagination and +pity to be touched only by the sorrows of kings and queens, and forgot the +thousands of oppressed and famine-stricken toilers of the land. "No tears +are shed for nations," cried Francis, whose sympathy for the Revolution was +as passionate as Burke's execration of it. "When the provinces are scourged +to the bone by a mercenary and merciless military power, and every drop of +its blood and substance extorted from it by the edicts of a royal council, +the case seems very tolerable to those who are not involved in it. When +thousands after thousands are dragooned out of their country for the sake +of their religion, or sent to row in the galleys for selling salt against +law,--when the liberty of every individual is at the mercy of every +prostitute, pimp or parasite that has access to power or any of its basest +substitutes,--my mind, I own, is not at once prepared to be satisfied with +gentle palliatives for such disorders" (_Francis to Burke_, November 3, +1790). This is a very terse way of putting a crucial objection to Burke's +whole view of French affairs in 1789. His answer was tolerably simple. The +Revolution, though it had made an end of the Bastille, did not bring the +only real practical liberty, that is to say, the liberty which comes with +settled courts of justice, administering settled laws, undisturbed by +popular fury, independent of everything but law, and with a clear law for +their direction. The people, he contended, were no worse off under the old +monarchy than they will be in the long run under assemblies that are bound +by the necessity of feeding one part of the community at the grievous +charge of other parts, as necessitous as those who are so fed; that are +obliged to flatter those who have their lives at their disposal by +tolerating acts of doubtful influence on commerce and agriculture, and for +the sake of precarious relief to sow the seeds of lasting want; that will +be driven to be the instruments of the violence of others from a sense of +their own weakness, and, by want of authority to assess equal and +proportioned charges upon all, will be compelled to lay a strong hand upon +the possessions of a part. As against the moderate section of the +Constituent Assembly this was just. + +One secret of Burke's views of the Revolution was the contempt which he had +conceived for the popular leaders in the earlier stages of the movement. In +spite of much excellence of intention, much heroism, much energy, it is +hardly to be denied that the leaders whom that movement brought to the +surface were almost without exception men of the poorest political +capacity. Danton, no doubt, was abler than most of the others, yet the +timidity or temerity with which he allowed himself to be vanquished by +Robespierre showed that even he was not a man of commanding quality. The +spectacle of men so rash, and so incapable of controlling the forces which +they seemed to have presumptuously summoned, excited in Burke both +indignation and contempt. And the leaders of the Constituent who came first +on the stage, and hoped to make a revolution with rose-water, and hardly +realized any more than Burke did how rotten was the structure which they +had undertaken to build up, almost deserved his contempt, even if, as is +certainly true, they did not deserve his indignation. It was only by +revolutionary methods, which are in their essence and for a time as +arbitrary as despotic methods, that the knot could be cut. Burke's vital +error was his inability to see that a root and branch revolution was, under +the conditions, inevitable. His cardinal position, from which he deduced so +many important conclusions, namely, that, the parts and organs of the old +constitution of France were sound, and only needed moderate invigoration, +is absolutely mistaken and untenable. There was not a single chamber in the +old fabric that was not crumbling and tottering. The court was frivolous, +vacillating, stone deaf and stone blind; the gentry were amiable, but +distinctly bent to the very last on holding to their privileges, and they +were wholly devoid both of the political experience that only comes of +practical responsibility for public affairs, and of the political sagacity +that only comes of political experience. The parliaments or tribunals were +nests of faction and of the deepest social incompetence. The very sword of +the state broke short in the king's hand. If the king or queen could either +have had the political genius of Frederick the Great, or could have had the +good fortune to find a minister with that genius, and the good sense and +good faith to trust and stand by him against mobs of aristocrats and mobs +of democrats; if the army had been sound and the states-general had been +convoked at Bourges or Tours instead of at Paris, then the type of French +monarchy and French society might have been modernized without convulsion. +But none of these conditions existed. + +When he dealt with the affairs of India Burke passed over the circumstances +of our acquisition of power in that continent. "There is a sacred veil to +be drawn over the beginnings of all government," he said. "The first step +to empire is revolution, by which power is conferred; the next is good +laws, good order, good institutions, to give that power stability." Exactly +on this broad principle of political force, revolution was the first step +to the assumption by the people of France of their own government. Granted +that the Revolution was inevitable and indispensable, how was the nation to +make the best of it? And how were surrounding nations to make the best of +it? This was the true point of view. But Burke never placed himself at such +a point. He never conceded the postulate, because, though he knew France +better than anybody in England except Arthur Young, he did not know her +condition well enough. "Alas!" he said, "they little know how many a weary +step is to be taken before they can form themselves into a mass which has a +true political personality." + +Burke's view of French affairs, however consistent with all his former +political conceptions, put an end to more than one of his old political +friendships. He had never been popular in the House of Commons, and the +vehemence, sometimes amounting to fury, which he had shown in the debates +on the India Bill, on the regency, on the impeachment of Hastings, had made +him unpopular even among men on his own side. In May 1789--that memorable +month of May in which the states-general marched in impressive array to +hear a sermon at the church of Notre Dame at Versailles--a vote of censure +had actually been passed on him in the House of Commons for a too severe +expression used against Hastings. Fox, who led the party, and Sheridan, who +led Fox, were the intimates of the prince of Wales; and Burke would have +been as much out of place in that circle of gamblers and profligates as +Milton would have been out of place in the court of the Restoration. The +prince, as somebody said, was like his father in having closets within +cabinets and cupboards within closets. When the debates on the regency were +at their height we have Burke's word that he was not admitted to the +private counsels of the party. Though Fox and he were on friendly terms in +society, yet Burke admits that for a considerable period before 1790 there +had been between them "distance, coolness and want of confidence, if not +total alienation on his part." The younger Whigs had begun to press for +shorter parliaments, for the ballot, for redistribution of political power. +Burke had never looked with any favour on these projects. His experience of +the sentiment of the populace in the two greatest concerns of his +life,--American affairs and Indian affairs,--had not been likely to +prepossess him in favour of the popular voice as the voice of superior +political wisdom. He did not absolutely object to some remedy in the state +of representation (_Corr._ ii. 387), still he vigorously resisted such +proposals as the duke of Richmond's in 1780 for manhood suffrage. The +general ground was this:--"The machine itself is well enough to answer any +good purpose, provided the materials were sound. But what signifies the +arrangement of rottenness?" + +Bad as the parliaments of George III. were, they contained their full share +of eminent and capable men; and, what is more, their very defects were the +exact counterparts of what we now look back upon as the prevailing +stupidity in the country. [v.04 p.0833] What Burke valued was good +government. His _Report on the Causes of the Duration of Mr Hastings's +Trial_ shows how wide and sound were his views of law reform. His _Thoughts +on Scarcity_ attest his enlightenment on the central necessities of trade +and manufacture, and even furnished arguments to Cobden fifty years +afterwards. Pitt's parliaments were competent to discuss, and willing to +pass, all measures for which the average political intelligence of the +country was ripe. Burke did not believe that altered machinery was at that +time needed to improve the quality of legislation. If wiser legislation +followed the great reform of 1832, Burke would have said this was because +the political intelligence of the country had improved. + +Though averse at all times to taking up parliamentary reform, he thought +all such projects downright crimes in the agitation of 1791-1792. This was +the view taken by Burke, but it was not the view of Fox, nor of Sheridan, +nor of Francis, nor of many others of his party, and difference of opinion +here was naturally followed by difference of opinion upon affairs in +France. Fox, Grey, Windham, Sheridan, Francis, Lord Fitzwilliam, and most +of the other Whig leaders, welcomed the Revolution in France. And so did +Pitt, too, for some time. "How much the greatest event it is that ever +happened in the world," cried Fox, with the exaggeration of a man ready to +dance the carmagnole, "and how much the best!" The dissension between a man +who felt so passionately as Burke, and a man who spoke so impulsively as +Charles Fox, lay in the very nature of things. Between Sheridan and Burke +there was an open breach in the House of Commons upon the Revolution so +early as February 1790, and Sheridan's influence with Fox was strong. This +divergence of opinion destroyed all the elation that Burke might well have +felt at his compliments from kings, his gold medals, his twelve editions. +But he was too fiercely in earnest in his horror of Jacobinism to allow +mere party associations to guide him. In May 1791 the thundercloud burst, +and a public rupture between Burke and Fox took place in the House of +Commons. + +The scene is famous in English parliamentary annals. The minister had +introduced a measure for the division of the province of Canada and for the +establishment of a local legislature in each division. Fox in the course of +debate went out of his way to laud the Revolution, and to sneer at some of +the most effective passages in the _Reflections_. Burke was not present, +but he announced his determination to reply. On the day when the Quebec +Bill was to come on again, Fox called upon Burke, and the pair walked +together from Burke's house in Duke Street down to Westminster. The Quebec +Bill was recommitted, and Burke at once rose and soon began to talk his +usual language against the Revolution, the rights of man, and Jacobinism +whether English or French. There was a call to order. Fox, who was as sharp +and intolerant in the House as he was amiable out of it, interposed with +some words of contemptuous irony. Pitt, Grey, Lord Sheffield, all plunged +into confused and angry debate as to whether the French Revolution was a +good thing, and whether the French Revolution, good or bad, had anything to +do with the Quebec Bill. At length Fox, in seconding a motion for confining +the debate to its proper subject, burst into the fatal question beyond the +subject, taxing Burke with inconsistency, and taunting him with having +forgotten that ever-admirable saying of his own about the insurgent +colonists, that he did not know how to draw an indictment against a whole +nation. Burke replied in tones of firm self-repression; complained of the +attack that had been made upon him; reviewed Fox's charges of +inconsistency; enumerated the points on which they had disagreed, and +remarked that such disagreements had never broken their friendship. But +whatever the risk of enmity, and however bitter the loss of friendship, he +would never cease from the warning to flee from the French constitution. +"But there is no loss of friends," said Fox in an eager undertone. "Yes," +said Burke, "there _is_ a loss of friends. I know the penalty of toy +conduct. I have done my duty at the price of my friend--our friendship is +at an end." Fox rose, but was so overcome that for some moments he could +not speak. At length, his eyes streaming with tears, and in a broken voice, +he deplored the breach of a twenty years' friendship on a political +question. Burke was inexorable. To him the political question was so vivid, +so real, so intense, as to make all personal sentiment no more than dust in +the balance. Burke confronted Jacobinism with the relentlessness of a +Jacobin. The rupture was never healed, and Fox and he had no relations with +one another henceforth beyond such formal interviews as took place in the +manager's box in Westminster Hall in connexion with the impeachment. + +A few months afterwards Burke published the _Appeal from the New to the Old +Whigs_, a grave, calm and most cogent vindication of the perfect +consistency of his criticisms upon the English Revolution of 1688 and upon +the French Revolution of 1789, with the doctrines of the great Whigs who +conducted and afterwards defended in Anne's reign the transfer of the crown +from James to William and Mary. The _Appeal_ was justly accepted as a +satisfactory performance for the purpose with which it was written. Events, +however, were doing more than words could do, to confirm the public opinion +of Burke's sagacity and foresight. He had always divined by the instinct of +hatred that the French moderates must gradually be swept away by the +Jacobins, and now it was all coming true. The humiliation of the king and +queen after their capture at Varennes; the compulsory acceptance of the +constitution; the plain incompetence of the new Legislative Assembly; the +growing violence of the Parisian mob, and the ascendency of the Jacobins at +the Common Hall; the fierce day of the 20th of June (1792), when the mob +flooded the Tuileries, and the bloodier day of the loth of August, when the +Swiss guard was massacred and the royal family flung into prison; the +murders in the prisons in September; the trial and execution of the king in +January (1793); the proscription of the Girondins in June, the execution of +the queen in October--if we realize the impression likely to be made upon +the sober and homely English imagination by such a heightening of horror by +horror, we may easily understand how people came to listen to Burke's voice +as the voice of inspiration, and to look on his burning anger as the holy +fervour of a prophet of the Lord. + +Fox still held to his old opinions as stoutly as he could, and condemned +and opposed the war which England had declared against the French republic. +Burke, who was profoundly incapable of the meanness of letting personal +estrangement blind his eyes to what was best for the commonwealth, kept +hoping against hope that each new trait of excess in France would at length +bring the great Whig leader to a better mind. He used to declaim by the +hour in the conclaves at Burlington House upon the necessity of securing +Fox; upon the strength which his genius would lend to the administration in +its task of grappling with the sanguinary giant; upon the impossibility, at +least, of doing either with him or without him. Fox's most important +political friends who had long wavered, at length, to Burke's great +satisfaction, went over to the side of the government. In July 1794 the +duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, Windham and Grenville took office under +Pitt. Fox was left with a minority which was satirically said not to have +been more than enough to fill a hackney coach. "That is a calumny," said +one of the party, "we should have filled two." The war was prosecuted with +the aid of both the great parliamentary parties of the country, and with +the approval of the great bulk of the nation. Perhaps the one man in +England who in his heart approved of it less than any other was William +Pitt. The difference between Pitt and Burke was nearly as great as that +between Burke and Fox. Burke would be content with nothing short of a +crusade against France, and war to the death with her rulers. "I cannot +persuade myself," he said, "that this war bears any the least resemblance +to any that has ever existed in the world. I cannot persuade myself that +any examples or any reasonings drawn from other wars and other politics are +at all applicable to it" (_Corr._ iv. 219). Pitt, on the other hand, as +Lord Russell truly says, treated Robespierre and Carnot as he would have +treated any other French rulers, whose ambition was to be resisted, and +whose interference in the affairs of other nations was to be checked. And +he entered upon the matter [v.04 p.0834] in the spirit of a man of +business, by sending ships to seize some islands belonging to France in the +West Indies, so as to make certain of repayment of the expenses of the war. + +In the summer of 1794 Burke was struck to the ground by a blow to his +deepest affection in life, and he never recovered from it. His whole soul +was wrapped up in his only son, of whose abilities he had the most +extravagant estimate and hope. All the evidence goes to show that Richard +Burke was one of the most presumptuous and empty-headed of human beings. +"He is the most impudent and opiniative fellow I ever knew," said Wolfe +Tone. Gilbert Elliot, a very different man, gives the same account. +"Burke," he says, describing a dinner party at Lord Fitzwilliam's in 1793, +"has now got such a train after him as would sink anybody but himself: his +son, who is quite _nauseated_ by all mankind; his brother, who is liked +better than his son, but is rather oppressive with animal spirits and +brogue; and his cousin, William Burke, who is just returned unexpectedly +from India, as much ruined as when he went years ago, and who is a fresh +charge on any prospects of power Burke may ever have. Mrs Burke has in her +train Miss French [Burke's niece], the most perfect _She Paddy_ that ever +was caught. Notwithstanding these disadvantages Burke is in himself a sort +of power in the state. It is not too much to say that he is a sort of power +in Europe, though totally without any of those means or the smallest share +in them which give or maintain power in other men." Burke accepted the +position of a power in Europe seriously. Though no man was ever more free +from anything like the egoism of the intellectual coxcomb, yet he abounded +in that active self-confidence and self-assertion which is natural in men +who are conscious of great powers, and strenuous in promoting great causes. +In the summer of 1791 he despatched his son to Coblenz to give advice to +the royalist exiles, then under the direction of Calonne, and to report to +him at Beaconsfield their disposition and prospects. Richard Burke was +received with many compliments, but of course nothing came of his mission, +and the only impression that remains with the reader of his prolix story is +his tale of the two royal brothers, who afterwards became Louis XVIII. and +Charles X., meeting after some parting, and embracing one another with many +tears on board a boat in the middle of the Rhine, while some of the +courtiers raised a cry of "Long live the king"--the king who had a few +weeks before been carried back in triumph to his capital with Mayor Petion +in his coach. When we think of the pass to which things had come in Paris +by this time, and of the unappeasable ferment that boiled round the court, +there is a certain touch of the ludicrous in the notion of poor Richard +Burke writing to Louis XVI. a letter of wise advice how to comport himself. + +At the end of the same year, with the approval of his father he started for +Ireland as the adviser of the Catholic Association. He made a wretched +emissary, and there was no limit to his arrogance, noisiness and +indiscretion. The Irish agitators were glad to give him two thousand +guineas and to send him home. The mission is associated with a more +important thing, his father's _Letters to Sir Hercules Langrishe_, +advocating the admission of the Irish Catholics to the franchise. This +short piece abounds richly in maxims of moral and political prudence. And +Burke exhibited considerable courage in writing it; for many of its maxims +seem to involve a contradiction, first, to the principles on which he +withstood the movement in France, and second, to his attitude upon the +subject of parliamentary reform. The contradiction is in fact only +superficial. Burke was not the man to fall unawares into a trap of this +kind. His defence of Catholic relief--and it had been the conviction of a +lifetime--was very properly founded on propositions which were true of +Ireland, and were true neither of France nor of the quality of +parliamentary representation in England. Yet Burke threw such breadth and +generality over all he wrote that even these propositions, relative as they +were, form a short manual of statesmanship. + +At the close of the session of 1794 the impeachment of Hastings had come to +an end, and Burke bade farewell to parliament. Richard Burke was elected in +his father's place at Malton. The king was bent on making the champion of +the old order of Europe a peer. His title was to be Lord Beaconsfield, and +it was designed to annex to the title an income for three lives. The patent +was being made ready, when all was arrested by the sudden death of the son +who was to Burke more than life. The old man's grief was agonizing and +inconsolable. "The storm has gone over me," he wrote in words which are +well known, but which can hardly be repeated too often for any who have an +ear for the cadences of noble and pathetic speech,--"The storm has gone +over me, and I lie like one of those old oaks which the late hurricane has +scattered about me. I am stripped of all my honours; I am torn up by the +roots and lie prostrate on the earth.... I am alone. I have none to meet my +enemies in the gate.... I live in an inverted order. They who ought to have +succeeded me have gone before me. They who should have been to me as +posterity are in the place of ancestors." + +A pension of L2500 was all that Burke could now be persuaded to accept. The +duke of Bedford and Lord Lauderdale made some remarks in parliament upon +this paltry reward to a man who, in conducting a great trial on the public +behalf, had worked harder for nearly ten years than any minister in any +cabinet of the reign. But it was not yet safe to kick up heels in face of +the dying lion. The vileness of such criticism was punished, as it deserved +to be, in the _Letter to a Noble Lord_ (1796), in which Burke showed the +usual art of all his compositions in shaking aside the insignificances of a +subject. He turned mere personal defence and retaliation into an occasion +for a lofty enforcement of constitutional principles, and this, too, with a +relevancy and pertinence of consummate skilfulness. There was to be one +more great effort before the end. + +In the spring of 1796 Pitt's constant anxiety for peace had become more +earnest than ever. He had found out the instability of the coalition and +the power of France. Like the thrifty steward he was, he saw with growing +concern the waste of the national resources and the strain upon commerce, +with a public debt swollen to what then seemed the desperate sum of +L400,000,000. Burke at the notion of negotiation flamed out in the _Letters +on a Regicide Peace_, in some respects the most splendid of all his +compositions. They glow with passion, and yet with all their rapidity is +such steadfastness, the fervour of imagination is so skilfully tempered by +close and plausible reasoning, and the whole is wrought with such strength +and fire, that we hardly know where else to look either in Burke's own +writings or elsewhere for such an exhibition of the rhetorical resources of +our language. We cannot wonder that the whole nation was stirred to the +very depths, or that they strengthened the aversion of the king, of Windham +and other important personages in the government against the plans of Pitt. +The prudence of their drift must be settled by external considerations. +Those who think that the French were likely to show a moderation and +practical reasonableness in success, such as they had never shown in the +hour of imminent ruin, will find Burke's judgment full of error and +mischief. Those, on the contrary, who think that the nation which was on +the very eve of surrendering itself to the Napoleonic absolutism was not in +a hopeful humour for peace and the European order, will believe that +Burke's protests were as perspicacious as they were powerful, and that +anything which chilled the energy of the war was as fatal as he declared it +to be. + +When the third and most impressive of these astonishing productions came +into the hands of the public, the writer was no more. Burke died on the 8th +of July 1797. Fox, who with all his faults was never wanting in a fine and +generous sensibility, proposed that there should be a public funeral, and +that the body should lie among the illustrious dead in Westminster Abbey. +Burke, however, had left strict injunctions that his burial should be +private; and he was laid in the little church at Beaconsfield. It was the +year of Campo Formio. So a black whirl and torment of rapine, violence and +fraud was encircling the Western world, as a life went out which, +notwithstanding some eccentricities [v.04 p.0835] and some aberrations, had +made great tides in human destiny very luminous. + +(J. MO.) + +AUTHORITIES.--Of the _Collected Works_, there are two main editions--the +quarto and the octavo. (1) Quarto, in eight volumes, begun in 1792, under +the editorship of Dr F. Lawrence; vols. i.-iii. were published in 1792; +vols. iv.-viii., edited by Dr Walter King, sometime bishop of Rochester, +were completed in 1827. (2) Octavo in sixteen volumes. This was begun at +Burke's death, also by Drs Lawrence and King; vols. i.-viii. were published +in 1803 and reissued in 1808, when Dr Lawrence died; vols. ix.-xii. were +published in 1813 and the remaining four vols. in 1827. A new edition of +vols. i.-viii. was published in 1823 and the contents of vols. i.-xii. in 2 +vols. octavo in 1834. An edition in nine volumes was published in Boston, +Massachusetts, in 1839. This contains the whole of the English edition in +sixteen volumes, with a reprint of the _Account of the European Settlements +in America_ which is not in the English edition. + +Among the numerous editions published later may be mentioned that in +_Bohn's British Classics_, published in 1853. This contains the fifth +edition of Sir James Prior's life; also an edition in twelve volumes, +octavo, published by J.C. Nimmo, 1898. There is an edition of the _Select +Works_ of Burke with introduction and notes by E.J. Payne in the Clarendon +Press series, new edition, 3 vols., 1897. _The Correspondence of Edmund +Burke_, edited by Earl Fitzwilliam and Sir R. Bourke, with appendix, +detached papers and notes for speeches, was published in 4 vols., 1844. +_The Speeches of Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons and Westminster +Hall_, were published in 4 vols., 1816. Other editions of the speeches are +those _On Irish Affairs_, collected and arranged by Matthew Arnold, with a +preface (1881), _On American Taxation, On Conciliation with America_, +together with the _Letter to the Sheriff of Bristol_, edited with +introduction and notes by F.G. Selby (1895). + +The standard life of Burke is that by Sir James Prior, _Memoir of the Life +and Character of Edmund Burke with Specimens of his Poetry and Letters_ +(1824). The lives by C. MacCormick (1798) by R. Bisset (1798, 1800) are of +little value. Other lives are those by the Rev. George Croly (2 vols., +1847), and by T. MacKnight (3 vols., 1898). Of critical estimates of +Burke's life the _Edmund Burke_ of John Morley, "English Men of Letters" +series (1879), is an elaboration of the above article; see also his _Burke, +a Historical Study_ (1867); "Three Essays on Burke," by Sir James Fitzjames +Stephen in _Horae Sabbaticae_, series iii. (1892); and _Peptographia +Dublinensis, Memorial Discourses preached in the Chapel of Trinity College, +Dublin_, 1895-1902; _Edmund Burke_, by G. Chadwick, bishop of Derry (1902). + +BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD (1814-1892), British genealogist, was born in +London, on the 5th of January 1814, and was educated in London and in +France. His father, John Burke (1787-1848), was also a genealogist, and in +1826 issued a _Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and +Baronetage of the United Kingdom_. This work, generally known as _Burke's +Peerage_, has been issued annually since 1847. While practising as a +barrister Bernard Burke assisted his father in his genealogical work, and +in 1848 took control of his publications. In 1853 he was appointed Ulster +king-at-arms; in 1854 he was knighted; and in 1855 he became keeper of the +state papers in Ireland. After having devoted his life to genealogical +studies he died in Dublin on the 12th of December 1892. In addition to +editing _Burke's Peerage_ from 1847 to his death, Burke brought out several +editions of a companion volume, _Burke's Landed Gentry_, which was first +published between 1833 and 1838. In 1866 and 1883 he published editions of +his father's _Dictionary of the Peerages of England, Scotland and Ireland, +extinct, dormant and in abeyance_ (earlier editions, 1831, 1840, 1846); in +1855 and 1876 editions of his _Royal Families of England, Scotland and +Wales_ (1st edition, 1847-1851); and in 1878 and 1883 enlarged editions of +his _Encyclopaedia of Heraldry, or General Armoury of England, Scotland and +Ireland_. Burke's own works include _The Roll of Battle Abbey_ (1848); _The +Romance of the Aristocracy_ (1855); _Vicissitudes of Families_ (1883 and +several earlier editions); and _The Rise of Great Families_ (1882). He was +succeeded as editor of _Burke's Peerage_ and _Landed Gentry_ by his fourth +son, Ashworth Peter Burke. + +BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA (1820-1861), Australian explorer, was born at St +Cleram, Co. Galway, Ireland, in 1820. Descended from a branch of the family +of Clanricarde, he was educated in Belgium, and at twenty years of age +entered the Austrian army, in which he attained the rank of captain. In +1848 he left the Austrian service, and became a member of the Royal Irish +Constabulary. Five years later he emigrated to Tasmania, and shortly +afterwards crossed to Melbourne, where he became an inspector of police. +When the Crimean War broke out he went to England in the hope of securing a +commission in the army, but peace had meanwhile been signed, and he +returned to Victoria and resumed his police duties. At the end of 1857 the +Philosophical Institute of Victoria took up the question of the exploration +of the interior of the Australian continent, and appointed a committee to +inquire into and report upon the subject. In September 1858, when it became +known that John McDouall Stuart had succeeded in penetrating as far as the +centre of Australia, the sum of L1000 was anonymously offered for the +promotion of an expedition to cross the continent from south to north, on +condition that a further sum of L2000 should be subscribed within a +twelvemonth. The amount having been raised within the time specified, the +Victorian parliament supplemented it by a vote of L6000, and an expedition +was organized under the leadership of Burke, with W.J. Wills as surveyor +and astronomical observer. The story of this expedition, which left +Melbourne on the 21st of August 1860, furnishes perhaps the most painful +episode in Australian annals. Ten Europeans and three Sepoys accompanied +the expedition, which was soon torn by internal dissensions. Near Menindie +on the Darling, Landells, Burke's second in command, became insubordinate +and resigned, his example being followed by the doctor--a German. On the +11th of November Burke, with Wills and five assistants, fifteen horses and +sixteen camels, reached Cooper's Creek in Queensland, where a depot was +formed near good grass and abundance of water. Here Burke proposed waiting +the arrival of his third officer, Wright, whom he had sent back from +Torowoto to Menindie to fetch some camels and supplies. Wright, however, +delayed his departure until the 26th of January 1861. Meantime, weary of +waiting, Burke, with Wills, King and Gray as companions, determined on the +16th of December to push on across the continent, leaving an assistant +named Brahe to take care of the depot until Wright's arrival. On the 4th of +February 1861 Burke and his party, worn down by famine, reached the estuary +of the Flinders river, not far from the present site of Normantown on the +Gulf of Carpentaria. On the 26th of February began their return journey. +The party suffered greatly from famine and exposure, and but for the rainy +season, thirst would have speedily ended their miseries. In vain they +looked for the relief which Wright was to bring them. On the 16th of April +Gray died, and the emaciated survivors halted a day to bury his body. That +day's delay, as it turned out, cost Burke and Wills their lives; they +arrived at Cooper's Creek to find the depot deserted. But a few hours +before Brahe, unrelieved by Wright, and thinking that Burke had died or +changed his plans, had taken his departure for the Darling. With such +assistance as they could get from the natives, Burke, and his two +companions struggled on, until death overtook Burke and Wills at the end of +June. King sought the natives, who cared for him until his relief by a +search party in September. No one can deny the heroism of the men whose +lives were sacrificed in this ill-starred expedition. But it is admitted +that the leaders were not bushmen and had had no experience in exploration. +Disunion and disobedience to orders, from the highest to the lowest, +brought about the worst results, and all that now remains to tell the story +of the failure of this vast undertaking is a monument to the memory of the +foolhardy heroes, from the chisel of Charles Summers, erected on a +prominent site in Melbourne. + +BURKE, WILLIAM (1792-1829), Irish criminal, was born in Ireland in 1792. +After trying his hand at a variety of trades there, he went to Scotland +about 1817 as a navvy, and in 1827 was living in a lodging-house in +Edinburgh kept by William Hare, another Irish labourer. Towards the end of +that year one of Hare's lodgers, an old army pensioner, died. This was the +period of the body-snatchers or Resurrectionists, and Hare and Burke, aware +that money could always be obtained for a corpse, sold the body to Dr +Robert Knox, a leading Edinburgh anatomist, for L7, 10s. The price obtained +and the simplicity of the transaction suggested to Hare an easy method of +making a [v.04 p.0836] profitable livelihood, and Burke at once fell in +with the plan. The two men inveigled obscure travellers to Hare's or some +other lodging-house, made them drunk and then suffocated them, taking care +to leave no marks of violence. The bodies were sold to Dr Knox for prices +averaging from L8 to L14. At least fifteen victims had been disposed of in +this way when the suspicions of the police were aroused, and Burke and Hare +were arrested. The latter turned king's evidence, and Burke was found +guilty and hanged at Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1829. Hare found it +impossible, in view of the strong popular feeling, to remain in Scotland. +He is believed to have died in England under an assumed name. From Burke's +method of killing his victims has come the verb "to burke," meaning to +suffocate, strangle or suppress secretly, or to kill with the object of +selling the body for the purposes of dissection. + +See George Macgregor, _History of Burke and Hare and of the Resurrectionist +Times_ (Glasgow, 1884). + +BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES (1694-1748), Swiss publicist, was born at Geneva +on the 24th of June 1694. At the age of twenty-five he was designated +honorary professor of ethics and the law of nature at the university of +Geneva. Before taking up the appointment he travelled through France and +England, and made the acquaintance of the most eminent writers of the +period. On his return he began his lectures, and soon gained a wide +reputation, from the simplicity of his style and the precision of his +views. He continued to lecture for fifteen years, when he was compelled on +account of ill-health to resign. His fellow-citizens at once elected him a +member of the council of state, and he gained as high a reputation for his +practical sagacity as he had for his theoretical knowledge. He died at +Geneva on the 3rd of April 1748. His works were _Principes du droit +naturel_ (1747), and _Principes du droit politique_ (1751). These have +passed through many editions, and were very extensively used as text-books. +Burlamaqui's style is simple and clear, and his arrangement of the material +good. His fundamental principle may be described as rational +utilitarianism, and in many ways it resembles that of Cumberland. + +BURLESQUE (Ital. _burlesco_, from _burla_, a joke, fun, playful trick), a +form of the comic in art, consisting broadly in an imitation of a work of +art with the object of exciting laughter, by distortion or exaggeration, by +turning, for example, the highly rhetorical into bombast, the pathetic into +the mock-sentimental, and especially by a ludicrous contrast between the +subject and the style, making gods speak like common men and common men +like gods. While parody (_q.v._), also based on imitation, relies for its +effect more on the close following of the style of its counterpart, +burlesque depends on broader and coarser effects. Burlesque may be applied +to any form of art, and unconsciously, no doubt, may be found even in +architecture. In the graphic arts it takes the form better known as +"caricature" (_q.v._). Its particular sphere is, however, in literature, +and especially in drama. The _Batrachomachia_, or Battle of the Frogs and +Mice, is the earliest example in classical literature, being a travesty of +the Homeric epic. There are many true burlesque parts in the comedies of +Aristophanes, _e.g._ the appearance of Socrates in the _Clouds_. The +Italian word first appears in the _Opere Burlesche_ of Francesco Berni +(1497-1535). In France during part of the reign of Louis XIV., the +burlesque attained to great popularity; burlesque Aeneids, Iliads and +Odysseys were composed, and even the most sacred subjects were not left +untravestied. Of the numerous writers of these, P. Scarron is most +prominent, and his _Virgile Travesti_ (1648-1653) was followed by numerous +imitators. In English literature Chaucer's _Rime of Sir Thopas_ is a +burlesque of the long-winded medieval romances. Among the best-known true +burlesques in English dramatic literature may be mentioned the 2nd duke of +Buckingham's _The Rehearsal_, a burlesque of the heroic drama; Gay's +_Beggar's Opera_, of the Italian opera; and Sheridan's _The Critic_. In the +later 19th century the name "burlesque" was given to a form of musical +dramatic composition in which the true element of burlesque found little or +no place. These musical burlesques, with which the Gaiety theatre, London, +and the names of Edward Terry, Fred Leslie and Nellie Farren are +particularly connected, developed from the earlier extravaganzas of J.R. +Planche, written frequently round fairy tales. The Gaiety type of burlesque +has since given place to the "musical comedy," and its only survival is to +be found in the modern pantomime. + +BURLINGAME, ANSON (1820-1870), American legislator and diplomat, was born +in New Berlin, Chenango county, New York, on the 14th of November 1820. In +1823 his parents took him to Ohio, and about ten years afterwards to +Michigan. In 1838-1841 he studied in one of the "branches" of the +university of Michigan, and in 1846 graduated at the Harvard law school. He +practised law in Boston, and won a wide reputation by his speeches for the +Free Soil party in 1848. He was a member of the Massachusetts +constitutional convention in 1853, of the state senate in 1853-1854, and of +the national House of Representatives from 1855 to 1861, being elected for +the first term as a "Know Nothing" and afterwards as a member of the new +Republican party, which he helped to organize in Massachusetts. He was an +effective debater in the House, and for his impassioned denunciation (June +21, 1856) of Preston S. Brooks (1819-1857), for his assault upon Senator +Charles Sumner, was challenged by Brooks. Burlingame accepted the challenge +and specified rifles as the weapons to be used; his second chose Navy +Island, above the Niagara Falls, and in Canada, as the place for the +meeting. Brooks, however, refused these conditions, saying that he could +not reach the place designated "without running the gauntlet of mobs and +assassins, prisons and penitentiaries, bailiffs and constables." To +Burlingame's appointment as minister to Austria (March 22, 1861) the +Austrian authorities objected because in Congress he had advocated the +recognition of Sardinia as a first-class power and had championed Hungarian +independence. President Lincoln thereupon appointed him (June 14, 1861) +minister to China. This office he held until November 1867, when he +resigned and was immediately appointed (November 26) envoy extraordinary +and minister plenipotentiary to head a Chinese diplomatic mission to the +United States and the principal European nations. The embassy, which +included two Chinese ministers, an English and a French secretary, six +students from the Tung-wan Kwang at Peking, and a considerable retinue, +arrived in the United States in March 1868, and concluded at Washington +(28th of July 1868) a series of articles, supplementary to the Reed Treaty +of 1858, and later known as "The Burlingame Treaty." Ratifications of the +treaty were not exchanged at Peking until November 23, 1869. The +"Burlingame Treaty" recognizes China's right of eminent domain over all her +territory, gives China the right to appoint at ports in the United States +consuls, "who shall enjoy the same privileges and immunities as those +enjoyed by the consuls of Great Britain and Russia"; provides that +"citizens of the United States in China of every religious persuasion and +Chinese subjects in the United States shall enjoy entire liberty of +conscience and shall be exempt from all disability or persecution on +account of their religious faith or worship in either country"; and grants +certain privileges to citizens of either country residing in the other, the +privilege of naturalization, however, being specifically withheld. After +leaving the United States, the embassy visited several continental +capitals, but made no definite treaties. Burlingame's speeches did much to +awaken interest in, and a more intelligent appreciation of, China's +attitude toward the outside world. He died suddenly at St Petersburg, on +the 23rd of February 1870. + +His son Edward Livermore Burlingame (b. 1848) was educated at Harvard and +at Heidelberg, was a member of the editorial staff of the New York +_Tribune_ in 1871-1872 and of the _American Cyclopaedia_ in 1872-1876, and +in 1886 became the editor of _Scribner's Magazine_. + +BURLINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Des Moines county, Iowa, U.S.A., +on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. part of the state. Pop. (1890) +22,565; (1900) 23,201; (1905, state census) 25,318 (4492 foreign-born); +(1910) 24,324. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy (which has +extensive [v.04 p.0837] construction and repair shops here), the Chicago, +Rock Island & Pacific, and the Toledo, Peoria & Western (Pennsylvania +system) railways; and has an extensive river commerce. The river is spanned +here by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway bridge. Many of the +residences are on bluffs commanding beautiful views of river scenery; and +good building material has been obtained from the Burlington limestone +quarries. Crapo Park, of 100 acres, along the river, is one of the +attractions of the city. Among the principal buildings are the county court +house, the free public library, the Tama building, the German-American +savings bank building and the post office. Burlington has three +well-equipped hospitals. Among the city's manufactures are lumber, +furniture, baskets, pearl buttons, cars, carriages and wagons, Corliss +engines, waterworks pumps, metallic burial cases, desks, boxes, crackers, +flour, pickles and beer. The factory product in 1905 was valued at +$5,779,337, or 29.9% more than in 1900. The first white man to visit the +site of Burlington seems to have been Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, who came +in 1805 and recommended the erection of a fort. The American Fur Company +established a post here in 1829 or earlier, but settlement really began in +1833, after the Black Hawk War, and the place had a population of 1200 in +1838. It was laid out as a town and named Flint Hills (a translation of the +Indian name, _Shokokon_) in 1834; but the name was soon changed to +Burlington, after the city of that name in Vermont. Burlington was +incorporated as a town in 1837, and was chartered as a city in 1838 by the +territory of Wisconsin, the city charter being amended by the territory of +Iowa in 1839 and 1841. The territorial legislature of Wisconsin met here +from 1836 to 1838 and that of Iowa from 1838 to 1840. In 1837 a newspaper, +the _Wisconsin Territorial Gazette_, now the Burlington _Evening Gazette_, +and in 1839 another, the Burlington _Hawk Eye_, were founded; the latter +became widely known in the years immediately following 1872 from the +humorous sketches contributed to it by Robert Jones Burdette (b. 1844), an +associate editor, known as the "Burlington Hawk Eye Man," who in 1903 +entered the Baptist ministry and became pastor of the Temple Baptist church +in Los Angeles, California, and among whose publications are _Hawkeyetems_ +(1877), _Hawkeyes_ (1879), and _Smiles Yoked with Sighs_ (1900). + +BURLINGTON, a city of Burlington county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the E. bank +of the Delaware river, 18 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 7264; (1900) +7392, of whom 636 were foreign-born and 590 were of negro descent; (1905) +8038; (1910) 8336. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway, and by +passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Delaware river, connecting +with river and Atlantic coast ports. Burlington is a pleasant residential +city with a number of interesting old mansions long antedating the War of +Independence, some of them the summer homes of old Philadelphia families. +The Burlington Society library, established in 1757 and still conducted +under its original charter granted by George II., is one of the oldest +public libraries in America. At Burlington are St Mary's Hall (1837; +Protestant Episcopal), founded by Bishop G.W. Doane, one of the first +schools for girls to be established in the country, Van Rensselaer Seminary +and the New Jersey State Masonic home. In the old St Mary's church +(Protestant Episcopal), which was built in 1703 and has been called St +Anne's as well as St Mary's, Daniel Coxe (1674-1739), first provincial +grand master of the lodge of Masons in America, was buried; a commemorative +bronze tablet was erected in 1907. Burlington College, founded by Bishop +Doane in 1864, was closed as a college in 1877, but continued as a church +school until 1900; the buildings subsequently passed into the hands of an +iron manufacturer. Burlington's principal industries are the manufacture of +shoes and cast-iron water and gas pipes. Burlington was settled in 1677 by +a colony of English Quakers. The settlement was first known as New Beverly, +but was soon renamed after Bridlington (Burlington), the Yorkshire home of +many of the settlers. In 1682 the assembly of West Jersey gave to +Burlington "Matinicunk Island," above the town, "for the maintaining of a +school for the education of youth"; revenues from a part of the island are +still used for the support of the public schools, and the trust fund is one +of the oldest for educational purposes in the United States. Burlington was +incorporated as a town in 1693 (re-incorporated, 1733), and became the seat +of government of West Jersey. On the union of East and West Jersey in 1702, +it became one of the two seats of government of the new royal province, the +meetings of the legislature generally alternating between Burlington and +Perth Amboy, under both the colonial and the state government, until 1790. +In 1777 the _New Jersey Gazette_, the first newspaper in New Jersey, was +established here; it was published (here and later in Trenton) until 1786, +and was an influential paper, especially during the War of Independence. +Burlington was chartered as a city in 1784. + +See Henry Armitt Brown, _The Settlement of Burlington_ (Burlington, 1878); +George M. Hills, _History of the Church in Burlington_ (Trenton, 1885); and +Mrs A.M. Gummere, _Friends in Burlington_ (Philadelphia, 1884). + +BURLINGTON, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of Chittenden county, +Vermont, U.S.A., on the E. shore of Lake Champlain, in the N.W. part of the +state, 90 m. S.E. of Montreal, and 300 m. N. of New York. It is the largest +city in the state. Pop. (1880) 11,365; (1890) 14,590; (1900) 18,640, of +whom 3726 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 20,468. It is served by the +Central Vermont and the Rutland railways, and by lines of passenger and +freight steamboats on Lake Champlain. The city is attractively situated on +an arm of Lake Champlain, being built on a strip of land extending about 6 +m. south from the mouth of the Winooski river along the lake shore and +gradually rising from the water's edge to a height of 275 ft.; its +situation and its cool and equable summer climate have given it a wide +reputation as a summer resort, and it is a centre for yachting, canoeing +and other aquatic sports. During the winter months it has ice-boat +regattas. Burlington is the seat of the university of Vermont (1791; +non-sectarian and co-educational), whose official title in 1865 became "The +University of Vermont and State Agricultural College." The university is +finely situated on a hill (280 ft. above the lake) commanding a charming +view of the city, lake, the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains. It has +departments of arts, sciences and medicine, and a library of 74,800 volumes +and 32,936 pamphlets housed in the Billings Library, designed by H.H. +Richardson. The university received the Federal grants under the Morrill +acts of 1862 and 1890, and in connexion with it the Vermont agricultural +experiment station is maintained. At Burlington are also the Mt St Mary's +academy (1889, Roman Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Mercy; and two +business colleges. Among the principal buildings are the city hall, the +Chittenden county court house, the Federal and the Y.M.C.A. buildings, the +Masonic temple, the Roman Catholic cathedral and the Edmunds high school. +Burlington's charitable institutions include the Mary Fletcher hospital, +the Adams mission home, the Lousia Howard mission, the Providence orphan +asylum, and homes for aged women, friendless women and destitute children. +The Fletcher free public library (47,000 volumes in 1908) is housed in a +Carnegie building. In the city are two sanitariums. The city has two parks +(one, Ethan Allen Park, is on a bluff in the north-west part of the city, +and commands a fine view) and four cemeteries; in Green Mount Cemetery, +which overlooks the Winooski valley, is a monument over the grave of Ethan +Allen, who lived in Burlington from 1778 until his death. Fort Ethan Allen, +a United States military post, is about 3 m. east of the city, with which +it is connected by an electric line. Burlington is the most important +manufacturing centre in the state; among its manufactures are sashes, doors +and blinds, boxes, furniture and wooden-ware, cotton and woollen goods, +patent medicines, refrigerators, house furnishings, paper and machinery. In +1905 the city's factory products were valued at $6,355,754, three-tenths of +which was the value of lumber and planing mill products, including sashes, +doors and blinds. The Winooski river, which forms the boundary between +Burlington and the township of Colchester and which enters Lake Champlain +N.W. of the city, [v.04 p.0838] furnishes valuable water-power, but most of +the manufactories are operated by steam. Quantities of marble were formerly +taken from quarries in the vicinity. The city is a wholesale distributing +centre for all northern Vermont and New Hampshire, and is one of the +principal lumber markets in the east, most of the lumber being imported +from Canada. It is the port of entry for the Vermont customs district, +whose exports and imports were valued respectively in 1907 at $8,333,024 +and $5,721,034. A charter for a town to be founded here was granted by the +province of New Hampshire in 1763, but no settlement was made until 1774. +Burlington was chartered as a city in 1865. + +BURMA, a province of British India, including the former kingdom of +independent Burma, as well as British Burma, acquired by the British Indian +government in the two wars of 1826 and 1852. It is divided into Upper and +Lower Burma, the former being the territory annexed on 1st January 1886. +The province lies to the east of the Bay of Bengal, and covers a range of +country extending from the Pakchan river in 9 deg. 55' north latitude to the +Naga and Chingpaw, or Kachin hills, lying roughly between the 27th and 28th +degrees of north latitude; and from the Bay of Bengal on the west to the +Mekong river, the boundary of the dependent Shan States on the east, that +is to say, roughly, between the 92nd and 100th degrees of east longitude. +The extreme length from north to south is almost 1200 m., and the broadest +part, which is in about latitude 21 deg. north, is 575 m. from east to west. On +the N. it is bounded by the dependent state of Manipur, by the Mishmi +hills, and by portions of Chinese territory; on the E. by the Chinese Shan +States, portions of the province of Yunnan, the French province of +Indo-China, and the Siamese Shan, or Lao States and Siam; on the S. by the +Siamese Malay States and the Bay of Bengal; and on the W. by the Bay of +Bengal and Chittagong. The coast-line from Taknaf, the mouth of the Naaf, +in the Akyab district on the north, to the estuary of the Pakchan at +Maliwun on the south, is about 1200 m. The total area of the province is +estimated at 238,738 sq.m., of which Burma proper occupies 168,573 sq.m., +the Chin hills 10,250 sq.m., and the Shan States, which comprise the whole +of the eastern portion of the province, some 59,915 sq.m. + +_Natural Divisions._--The province falls into three natural divisions: +Arakan with the Chin hills, the Irrawaddy basin, and the old province of +Tenasserim, together with the portion of the Shan and Karen-ni states in +the basin of the Salween, and part of Kengtung in the western basin of the +Mekong. Of these Arakan is a strip of country lying on the seaward slopes +of the range of hills known as the Arakan Yomas. It stretches from Cape +Negrais on the south to the Naaf estuary, which divides it from the +Chittagong division of Eastern Bengal and Assam on the north, and includes +the districts of Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, Akyab and northern Arakan, an area of +some 18,540 sq.m. The northern part of this tract is barren hilly country, +but in the west and south are rich alluvial plains containing some of the +most fertile lands of the province. Northwards lie the Chin and some part +of the Kachin hills. To the east of the Arakan division, and separated from +it by the Arakan Yornas, lies the main body of Burma in the basin of the +Irrawaddy. This tract falls into four subdivisions. First, there is the +highland tract including the hilly country at the sources of the Chindwin +and the upper waters of the Irrawaddy, the Upper Chindwin, Katha, Bhamo, +Myitkyina and Ruby Mines districts, with the Kachin hills and a great part +of the Northern Shan states. In the Shan States there are a few open +plateaus, fertile and well populated, and Maymyo in the Mandalay district, +the hill-station to which in the hot weather the government of Burma +migrates, stands in the Pyin-u-lwin plateau, some 3500 ft. above the sea. +But the greater part of this country is a mass of rugged hills cut deep +with narrow gorges, within which even the biggest rivers are confined. The +second tract is that known as the dry zone of Burma, and includes the whole +of the lowlands lying between the Arakan Yomas and the western fringe of +the Southern Shan States. It stretches along both sides of the Irrawaddy +from the north of Mandalay to Thayetmyo, and embraces the Lower Chindwin, +Shwebo, Sagaing, Mandalay, Kyaukse, Meiktila, Yamethin, Myingyan, Magwe, +Pakokku and Minbu districts. This tract consists mostly of undulating +lowlands, but it is broken towards the south by the Pegu Yomas, a +considerable range of hills which divides the two remaining tracts of the +Irrawaddy basin. On the west, between the Pegu and the Arakan Yomas, +stretches the Irrawaddy delta, a vast expanse of level plain 12,000 sq.m. +in area falling in a gradual unbroken slope from its apex not far south of +Prome down to the sea. This delta, which includes the districts of Bassein, +Myaungmya, Thongwa, Henzada, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Rangoon +town, consists almost entirely of a rich alluvial deposit, and the whole +area, which between Cape Negrais and Elephant Point is 137 m. wide, is +fertile in the highest degree. To the east lies a tract of country which, +though geographically a part of the Irrawaddy basin, is cut off from it by +the Yomas, and forms a separate system draining into the Sittang river. The +northern portion of this tract, which on the east touches the basin of the +Salween river, is hilly; the remainder towards the confluence of the +Salween, Gyaing and Attaran rivers consists of broad fertile plains. The +whole is comprised in the districts of Toungoo and Thaton, part of the +Karen-ni hills, with the Salween hill tract and the northern parts of +Amherst, which form the northern portion of the Tenasserim administrative +division. The third natural division of Burma is the old province of +Tenasserim, which, constituted in 1826 with Moulmein as its capital, formed +the nucleus from which the British supremacy throughout Burma has grown. It +is a narrow strip of country lying between the Bay of Bengal and the high +range of hills which form the eastern boundary of the province towards +Siam. It comprises the districts of Mergui and Tavoy and a part of Amherst, +and includes also the Mergui Archipelago. The surface of this part of the +country is mountainous and much intersected with streams. Northward from +this lies the major portion of the Southern Shan States and Karen-ni and a +narrowing strip along the Salween of the Northern Shan States. + +_Mountains._--Burma proper is encircled on three sides by a wall of +mountain ranges. The Arakan Yomas starting from Cape Negrais extend +northwards more or less parallel with the coast till they join the Chin and +Naga hills. They then form part of a system of ranges which curve north of +the sources of the Chindwin river, and with the Kumon range and the hills +of the Jade and Amber mines, make up a highland tract separated from the +great Northern Shan plateau by the gorges of the Irrawaddy river. On the +east the Kachin, Shan and Karen hills, extending from the valley of the +Irrawaddy into China far beyond the Salween gorge, form a continuous +barrier and boundary, and tail off into a narrow range which forms the +eastern watershed of the Salween and separates Tenasserim from Siam. The +highest peak of the Arakan Yomas, Liklang, rises nearly 10,000 ft. above +the sea, and in the eastern Kachin hills, which run northwards from the +state of Moeng Mit to join the high range dividing the basins of the +Irrawaddy and the Salween, are two peaks, Sabu and Worang, which rise to a +height of 11,200 ft. above the sea. The Kumon range running down from the +Hkamti country east of Assam to near Mogaung ends in a peak known as +Shwedaunggyi, which reaches some 5750 ft. There are several peaks in the +Ruby Mines district which rise beyond 7000 ft. and Loi Ling in the Northern +Shan States reaches 9000 ft. Compared with these ranges the Pegu Yomas +assume the proportions of mere hills. Popa, a detached peak in the Myingyan +district, belongs to this system and rises to a height of nearly 5000 ft., +but it is interesting mainly as an extinct volcano, a landmark and an +object of superstitious folklore, throughout the whole of Central Burma. +Mud volcanoes occur at Minbu, but they are not in any sense mountains, +resembling rather the hot springs which are found in many parts of Burma. +They are merely craters raised above the level of the surrounding country +by the gradual accretion of the soft oily mud, which overflows at frequent +intervals whenever a discharge of gas occurs. Spurs of the Chin hills run +down the whole length of the Lower Chindwin district, almost to Sagaing, +and one hill, Powindaung, is particularly noted on account of its +innumerable cave temples, which are said to hold no fewer than 446,444 +images of Buddha. Huge caves, of which the most noted are the Farm Caves, +occur in the hills near Moulmein, and they too are full of relics of their +ancient use as temples, though now they are chiefly visited in connexion +with the bats, whose flight viewed from a distance, as they issue from the +caves, resembles a cloud of smoke. + +_Rivers._--Of the rivers of Burma the Irrawaddy is the most important. It +rises possibly beyond the confines of Burma in the unexplored regions, +where India, Tibet and China meet, and seems to be formed by the junction +of a number of considerable streams of no great length. Two rivers, the +Mali and the N'mai, meeting about latitude 25 deg. 45' some 150 m. north of +Bhamo, contribute chiefly to its volume, and during the dry weather it is +navigable for steamers up to their confluence. Up to Bhamo, a distance of +900 m. from the sea, it is navigable throughout the year, and its chief +tributary in Burma, the Chindwin, is also navigable for steamers for 300 m. +from its junction with the Irrawaddy at Pakokku. The Chindwin, called in +its upper reaches the Tanai, rises in the hills south-west of Thama, and +flows due north till it enters the south-east corner of the Hukawng valley, +where it turns north-west and continues in that direction cutting the +valley into two almost equal parts until it reaches its north-west range, +when it turns almost due south and takes the name of the Chindwin. It is a +swift clear river, fed in its upper reaches by numerous mountain streams. +The Mogaung river, rising in the watershed which divides the Irrawaddy and +the Chindwin drainages, flows south and south-east for 180 m. before it +joins the Irrawaddy, and is navigable for steamers as far as Kamaing for +about four months in the year. South of Thayetmyo, where arms of the Arakan +Yomas approach the river and almost meet that spur of the Pegu Yomas which +formed till 1886 the [v.04 p.0839] northern boundary of British Burma, the +valley of the Irrawaddy opens out again, and at Yegin Mingyi near Myanaung +the influence of the tide is first felt, and the delta may be said to +begin. The so-called rivers of the delta, the Ngawun, Pyamalaw, Panmawaddy, +Pyinzalu and Pantanaw, are simply the larger mouths of the Irrawaddy, and +the whole country towards the sea is a close network of creeks where there +are few or no roads and boats take the place of carts for every purpose. +There is, however, one true river of some size, the Hlaing, which rises +near Prome, flows southwards and meets the Pegu river and the Pazundaung +creek near Rangoon, and thus forms the estuary which is known as the +Rangoon river and constitutes the harbour of Rangoon. East of the Rangoon +river and still within the deltaic area, though cut off from the main delta +by the southern end of the Pegu Yomas, lies the mouth of the Sittang. This +river, rising in the Sham-Karen hills, flows first due north and then +southward through the Kyaukse, Yamethin and Toungoo districts, its line +being followed by the Mandalay-Rangoon railway as far south as Nyaunglebin +in the Pegu district. At Toungoo it is narrow, but below Shwegyin it +widens, and at Sittang it is half a mile broad. It flows into the Gulf of +Martaban, and near its mouth its course is constantly changing owing to +erosion and corresponding accretions. The second river in the province in +point of size is the Salween, a huge river, believed from the volume of its +waters to rise in the Tibetan mountains to the north of Lhasa. It is in all +probability actually longer than the Irrawaddy, but it is not to be +compared to that river in importance. It is, in fact, walled in on either +side, with banks varying in British territory from 3000 to 6000 ft. high +and at present unnavigable owing to serious rapids in Lower Burma and at +one or two places in the Shan States, but quite open to traffic for +considerable reaches in its middle course. The Gyaing and the Attaran +rivers meet the Salween at its mouth, and the three rivers form the harbour +of Moulmein, the second seaport of Burma. + +_Lakes._--The largest lake in the province is Indawgyi in the Myitkyina +district. It has an area of nearly 100 sq. m. and is surrounded on three +sides by ranges of hills, but is open to the north where it has an outlet +in the Indaw river. In the highlands of the Shan hills there are the Inle +lakes near Yawnghwe, and in the Katha district also there is another Indaw +which covers some 60 sq. m. Other lakes are the Paunglin lake in Minbu +district, the Inma lake in Prome, the Tu and Duya in Henzada, the Shahkegyi +and the Inyegyi in Bassein, the sacred lake at Ye in Tenasserim, and the +Nagamauk, Panzemyaung and Walonbyan in Arakan. The Meiktila lake covers an +area of some 5 sq. m., but it is to some extent at least an artificial +reservoir. In the heart of the delta numerous large lakes or marshes +abounding in fish are formed by the overflow of the Irrawaddy river during +the rainy season, but these either assume very diminutive proportions or +disappear altogether in the dry season. + +_Climate._--The climate of the delta is cooler and more temperate than in +Upper Burma, and this is shown in the fairer complexion and stouter +physique of the people of the lower province as compared with the +inhabitants of the drier and hotter upper districts as far as Bhamo, where +there is a great infusion of other types of the Tibeto-Burman family. North +of the apex of the delta and the boundary between the deltaic and inland +tracts, the rainfall gradually lessens as far as Minbu, where what was +formerly called the rainless zone commences and extends as far as Katha. +The rainfall in the coast districts varies from about 200 in. in the Arakan +and Tenasserim divisions to an average of 90 in Rangoon and the adjoining +portion of the Irrawaddy delta. In the extreme north of Upper Burma the +rainfall is rather less than in the country adjoining Rangoon, and in the +dry zone the annual average falls as low as 20 and 30 in. + +The temperature varies almost as much as the rainfall. It is highest in the +central zone, the mean of the maximum readings in such districts as Magwe, +Myingyan, Kyaukse, Mandalay and Shwebo in the month of May being close on +100 deg. F., while in the littoral and sub-montane districts it is nearly ten +degrees less. The mean of the minimum readings in December in the central +zone districts is a few degrees under 60 deg. F. and in the littoral districts +a few degrees over that figure. In the hilly district of Mogok (Ruby Mines) +the December mean minimum is 36.8 deg. and the mean maximum 79 deg.. The climate of +the Chin and Kachin hills and also of the Shan States is temperate. In the +shade and off the ground the thermometer rarely rises above 80 deg. F. or falls +below 25 deg. F. In the hot season and in the sun as much as 150 deg. F. is +registered, and on the grass in the cold weather ten degrees of frost are +not uncommon. Snow is seldom seen either in the Chin or Shan hills, but +there are snow-clad ranges in the extreme north of the Kachin country. In +the narrow valleys of the Shan hills, and especially in the Salween valley, +the shade maximum reaches 100 deg. F. regularly for several weeks in April. The +rainfall in the hills varies very considerably, but seems to range from +about 60 in. in the broader valleys to about 300 in. on the higher +forest-clad ranges. + +_Geology._--Geologically, British Burma consists of two divisions, an +eastern and a western. The dividing line runs from the mouth of the Sittang +river along the railway to Mandalay, and thence continues northward, with +the same general direction but curving slightly towards the east. West of +this line the rocks are chiefly Tertiary and Quaternary; east of it they +are mostly Palaeozoic or gneissic. In the western mountain ranges the beds +are thrown into a series of folds which form a gentle curve running from +south to north with its convexity facing westward. There is an axial zone +of Cretaceous and Lower Eocene, and this is flanked on each side by the +Upper Eocene and the Miocene, while the valley of the Irrawaddy is occupied +chiefly by the Pliocene. Along the southern part of the Arakan coast the +sea spreads over the western Miocene zone. The Cretaceous beds have not yet +been separated from the overlying Eocene, and the identification of the +system rests on the discovery of a single Cenomanian ammonite. The Eocene +beds are marine and contain nummulites. The Miocene beds are also marine +and are characterized by an abundant molluscan fauna. The Pliocene, on the +other hand, is of freshwater origin, and contains silicified wood and +numerous remains of Mammalia. Flint chips, which appear to have been +fashioned by hand, are said to have been found in the Miocene beds, but to +prove the existence of man at so early a period would require stronger +evidence than has yet been brought forward. + +The older rocks of eastern Burma are very imperfectly known. Gneiss and +granite occur; Ordovician fossils have been found in the Upper Shan States, +and Carboniferous fossils in Tenasserim and near Moulmein. Volcanic rocks +are not common in any part of Burma, but about 50 m. north-north-east of +Yenangyaung the extinct volcano of Popa rises to a height of 3000 ft. above +the surrounding Pliocene plain. Intrusions of a serpentine-like rock break +through the Miocene strata north of Bhamo, and similar intrusions occur in +the western ranges. Whether the mud "volcanoes" of the Irrawaddy valley +have any connexion with volcanic activity may be doubted. The petroleum of +Burma occurs in the Miocene beds, one of the best-known fields being that +of Yenangyaung. Coal is found in the Tertiary deposits in the valley of the +Irrawaddy and in Tenasserim. Tin is abundant in Tenasserim, and lead and +silver have been worked extensively in the Shan States. The famous ruby +mines of Upper Burma are in metamorphic rock, while the jadeite of the +Bhamo neighbourhood is associated with the Tertiary intrusions of +serpentine-like rock already noticed.[1] + +_Population._--The total population of Burma in 1901 was 10,490,624 as +against 7,722,053 in 1891; but a considerable portion of this large +increase was due to the inclusion of the Shan States and the Chin hills in +the census area. Even in Burma proper, however, there was an increase +during the decade of 1,530,822, or 19.8%. The density of population per +square mile is 44 as compared with 167 for the whole of India and 552 for +the Bengal Delta. England and Wales have a population more than twelve +times as dense as that of Burma, so there is still room for expansion. The +chief races of Burma are Burmese (6,508,682), Arakanese (405,143), Karens +(717,859), Shans (787,087), Chins (179,292), Kachins (64,405) and Talaings +(321,898); but these totals do not include the Shan States and Chin hills. +The Burmese in person have the Mongoloid characteristics common to the +Indo-Chinese races, the Tibetans and tribes of the Eastern Himalaya. They +may be generally described as of a stout, active, well-proportioned form; +of a brown but never of an intensely dark complexion, with black, coarse, +lank and abundant hair, and a little more beard than is possessed by the +Siamese. Owing to their gay and lively disposition the Burmese have been +called "the Irish of the East," and like the Irish they are somewhat +inclined to laziness. Since the advent of the British power, the +immigration of Hindus with a lower standard of comfort and of Chinamen with +a keener business instinct has threatened the economic independence of the +Burmese in their own country. As compared with the Hindu, the Burmese wear +silk instead of cotton, and eat rice instead of the cheaper grains; they +are of an altogether freer and less servile, but also of a less practical +character. The Burmese women have a keener business instinct than the men, +and serve in some degree to redress the balance. The Burmese children are +adored by their parents, and are said to be the happiest and merriest +children in the world. + +_Language and Literature._--The Burmese are supposed by modern philologists +to have come, as joint members of a vast Indo-Chinese immigration swarm, +from western China to the head waters of the Irrawaddy and then separated, +some to people Tibet and Assam, the others to press southwards into the +[v.04 p.0840] plains of Burma. The indigenous tongues of Burma are divided +into the following groups:-- + + A. Indo-Chinese (1) Tibet-Burman (a) The Burmese group. + family sub-family (b) The Kachin group. + (c) The Kuki-Chin group. + + (2) Siamese-Chinese (d) The Tai group. + sub-family (e) The Karen group. + + (3) Mon-Annam (f) The Upper Middle + sub-family Mekong or Wa Palaung + group. + (g) The North Cambodian + group. + B. Malay family (h) The Selung language. + +Burmese, which was spoken by 7,006,495 people in the province in 1901, is a +monosyllabic language, with, according to some authorities, three different +tones; so that any given syllable may have three entirely different +meanings only distinguishable by the intonation when spoken, or by accents +or diacritical marks when written. There are, however, very many weighty +authorities who deny the existence of tones in the language. The Burmese +alphabet is borrowed from the Aryan Sanskrit through the Pali of Upper +India. The language is written from left to right in what appears to be an +unbroken line. Thus Burma possesses two kinds of literature, Pali and +Burmese. The Pali is by far the more ancient, including as it does the +Buddhist scriptures that originally found their way to Burma from Ceylon +and southern India. The Burmese literature is for the most part metrical, +and consists of religious romances, chronological histories and songs. The +_Maha Yazawin_ or "Royal Chronicle," forms the great historical work of +Burma. This is an authorized history, in which everything unflattering to +the Burmese monarchs was rigidly suppressed. After the Second Burmese War +no record was ever made in the _Yazawin_ that Pegu had been torn away from +Burma by the British. The folk songs are the truest and most interesting +national literature. The Burmese are fond of stage-plays in which great +licence of language is permitted, and great liberty to "gag" is left to the +wit or intelligence of the actors. + +_Government._--The province as a division of the Indian empire is +administered by a lieutenant-governor, first appointed 1st May 1897, with a +legislative council of nine members, five of whom are officials. There are, +besides, a chief secretary, revenue secretary, secretary and two +under-secretaries, a public works department secretary with two assistants. +The revenue administration of the province is superintended by a financial +commissioner, assisted by two secretaries, and a director of land records +and agriculture, with a land records departmental staff. There is a chief +court for the province with a chief justice and three justices, established +in May 1900. Other purely judicial officers are the judicial commissioner +for Upper Burma, and the civil judges of Mandalay and Moulmein. There are +four commissioners of revenue and circuit, and nineteen deputy +commissioners in Lower Burma, and four commissioners and seventeen deputy +commissioners in Upper Burma. There are two superintendents of the Shan +States, one for the northern and one for the southern Shan States, and an +assistant superintendent in the latter; a superintendent of the Arakan hill +tracts and of the Chin hills, and a Chinese political adviser taken from +the Chinese consular service. The police are under the control of an +inspector-general, with deputy inspector-general for civil and military +police, and for supply and clothing. The education department is under a +director of public instruction, and there are three circles--eastern, +western and Upper Burma, each under an inspector of schools. + +The Burma forests are divided into three circles each under a conservator, +with twenty-one deputy conservators. There are also a deputy +postmaster-general, chief superintendent and four superintendents of +telegraphs, a chief collector of customs, three collectors and four port +officers, and an inspector-general of jails. At the principal towns benches +of honorary magistrates, exercising powers of various degrees, have been +constituted. There are forty-one municipal towns, fourteen of which are in +Upper Burma. The commissioners of division are _ex officio_ sessions judges +in their several divisions, and also have civil powers, and powers as +revenue officers. They are responsible to the lieutenant-governor, each in +his own division, for the working of every department of the public +service, except the military department, and the branches of the +administration directly under the control of the supreme government. The +deputy commissioners perform the functions of district magistrates, +district judges, collectors and registrars, besides the miscellaneous +duties which fall to the principal district officer as representative of +government. Subordinate to the deputy commissioners are assistant +commissioners, extra-assistant commissioners and myooks, who are invested +with various magisterial, civil and revenue powers, and hold charge of the +townships, as the units of regular civil and revenue jurisdiction are +called, and the sub-divisions of districts, into which most of these +townships are grouped. Among the salaried staff of officials, the townships +officers are the ultimate representatives of government who come into most +direct contact with the people. Finally, there are the village headmen, +assisted in Upper Burma by elders, variously designated according to old +custom. Similarly in the towns, there are headmen of wards and elders of +blocks. In Upper Burma these headmen have always been revenue collectors. +The system under which in towns headmen of wards and elders of blocks are +appointed is of comparatively recent origin, and is modelled on the village +system. + +The Shan States were declared to be a part of British India by notification +in 1886. The Shan States Act of 1888 vests the civil, [Sidenote: The Shan +States.] criminal and revenue administration in the chief of the state, +subject to the restrictions specified in the _sanad_ or patent granted to +him. The law to be administered in each state is the customary law of the +state, so far as it is in accordance with the justice, equity and good +conscience, and not opposed to the spirit of the law in the rest of British +India. The superintendents exercise general control over the administration +of criminal justice, and have power to call for cases, and to exercise wide +revisionary powers. Criminal jurisdiction in cases in which either the +complainant or the defendant is a European, or American, or a government +servant, or a British subject not a native of a Shan State, is withdrawn +from the chiefs and vested in the superintendents and assistant +superintendents. Neither the superintendents nor the assistant +superintendents have power to try civil suits, whether the parties are +Shans or not. In the Myelat division of the southern Shan States, however, +the criminal law is practically the same as the in force in Upper Burma, +and the ngwegunhmus, or petty chiefs, have been appointed magistrates of +the second class. The chiefs of the Shan States are of three classes:--(1) +sawbwas; (2) myosas; (3) ngwegunhmus. The last are found only in the +_Myelat_, or border country between the southern Shan States and Burma. +There are fifteen sawbwas, sixteen myosas and thirteen ngwegunhmus in the +Shan States proper. Two sawbwas are under the supervision of the +commissioner of the Mandalay division, and two under the commissioner of +the Sagaing division. The states vary enormously in size, from the 12,000 +sq. m. of the Trans-Salween State of Keng Tung, to the 3.95 sq. m. of Nam +Hkom in the Myelat. The latter contained only 41 houses with 210 +inhabitants in 1897 and has since been merged in the adjoining state. There +are five states, all sawbwaships, under the supervision of the +superintendent of the northern Shan States, besides an indeterminate number +of Wa States and communities of other races beyond the Salween river. The +superintendent of the southern Shan States supervises thirty-nine, of which +ten are sawbwaships. The headquarters of the northern Shan States are at +Lashio, of the southern Shan States at Taung-gyi. + +The states included in eastern and western Karen-ni are not part of British +India, and are not subject to any of the laws in force in the Shan States, +but they are under the supervision of the superintendent of the southern +Shan States. + +[Illustration] + +The northern portion of the Karen hills is at present dealt with on the +principle of political as distinguished from administrative control. The +tribes are not interfered with as long as they keep the peace. What is +specifically known as the Kachin hills, the country taken under +administration in the Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, is divided into forty +tracts. Beyond these tracts there are many Kachins in Katha, Moeng-Mit, and +the northern Shan States, but though they are often the preponderating, +they are not the exclusive population. The country within the forty tracts +may be considered the Kachin hills proper, and it lies between 23 deg. 30' and +26 deg. 30' N. lat. and 96 deg. and 98 deg. E. long. Within this area the petty chiefs +have appointment orders, the people are disarmed, and the rate of tribute +per household is fixed in each case. Government is regulated by the [v.04 +p.0841] Kachin hills regulation. Since 1894 the country has been +practically undisturbed, and large numbers of Kachins are enlisted, and +ready to enlist in the military police, and seem likely to form as good +troops as the Gurkhas of Nepal. + +The Chin hills were not declared an integral part of Burma until 1895, but +they now form a scheduled district. The chiefs, however, are allowed to +administer their own affairs, as far as may be, in accordance with their +own customs, subject to the supervision of the superintendent of the Chin +hills. + +_Religion._--Buddhists make up more than 88.6%; Mussulmans 3.28; +spirit-worshippers 3.85; Hindus 2.76, and Christians 1.42 of the total +population of the province. The large nominal proportion of Buddhists is +deceptive. The Burmese are really as devoted to demonolatry as the +hill-tribes who are labelled plain spirit-worshippers. The actual figures +of the various religions, according to the census of 1901, are as +follows:-- + + Buddhists 9,184,121 + Spirit-worshippers 399,390 + Hindus 285,484 + Mussulmans 339,446 + Christians 147,525 + Sikhs 6,596 + Jews 685 + Parsees 245 + Others 28 + +The chief religious principle of the Burmese is to acquire merit for their +next incarnation by good works done in this life. The bestowal of alms, +offerings of rice to priests, the founding of a monastery, erection of +pagodas, with which the country is crowded, the building of a bridge or +rest-house for the convenience of travellers are all works of religious +merit, prompted, not by love of one's fellow-creatures, but simply and +solely for one's own future advantage. + +An analysis shows that not quite two in every thousand Burmese profess +Christianity, and there are about the same number of Mahommedans among +them. It is admitted by the missionaries themselves that Christianity has +progressed very slowly among the Burmese in comparison with the rapid +progress made amongst the Karens. It is amongst the Sgaw Karens that the +greatest progress in Christianity has been made, and the number of +spirit-worshippers among them is very much smaller. The number of Burmese +Christians is considerably increased by the inclusion among them of the +Christian descendants of the Portuguese settlers of Syriam deported to the +old Burmese Tabayin, a village now included in the Ye-u subdivision of +Shwebo. These Christians returned themselves as Burmese. The forms of +Christianity which make most converts in Burma are the Baptist and Roman +Catholic faiths. Of recent years many conversions to Christianity have been +made by the American Baptist missionaries amongst the Lahu or Muhsoe hill +tribesmen. + +_Education._--Compared with other Indian provinces, and even with some of +the countries of Europe, Burma takes a very high place in the returns of +those able to both read and write. Taking the sexes apart, though women +fall far behind men in the matter of education, still women are better +educated in Burma than in the rest of India. The average number of each sex +in Burma per thousand is:--literates, male 378; female, 45; illiterates, +male, 622; female, 955. The number of literates per thousand in Bengal +is:--male, 104; female, 5. The proportion was greatly reduced in the 1901 +census by the inclusion of the Shan States and the Chin hills, which mostly +consist of illiterates. + +The fact that in Upper Burma the proportion of literates is nearly as high +as, and the proportion of those under instruction even higher than, that of +the corresponding classes in Lower Burma, is a clear proof that in primary +education, at least, the credit for the superiority of the Burman over the +native of India is due to indigenous schools. In almost every village in +the province there is a monastery, where the most regular occupation of one +or more of the resident _pongyis_, or Buddhist monks, is the instruction +free of charge of the children of the village. The standard of instruction, +however, is very low, consisting only of reading and writing, though this +is gradually being improved in very many monasteries. The absence of all +prejudice in favour of the seclusion of women also is one of the main +reasons why in this province the proportion who can read and write is +higher than in any other part of India, Cochin alone excepted. It was not +till 1890 that the education department took action in Upper Burma. It was +then ascertained that there were 684 public schools with 14,133 pupils, and +1664 private schools with 8685 pupils. It is worthy of remark that of these +schools 29 were Mahommedan, and that there were 176 schools for girls in +which upwards of 2000 pupils were taught. There are three circles--Eastern, +Central and Upper Burma. For the special supervision and encouragement of +indigenous primary education in monastic and in lay schools, each circle of +inspection is divided into sub-circles corresponding with one or more of +the civil districts, and each sub-circle is placed under a deputy-inspector +or a sub-inspector of schools. There are nine standards of instruction, and +the classes in schools correspond with these standards. In Upper Burma all +educational grants are paid from imperial funds; there is no cess as in +Lower Burma. Grants-in-aid are given according to results. There is only +one college, at Rangoon, which is affiliated to the Calcutta University. +There are missionary schools amongst the Chins, Kachins and Shans, and a +school for the sons of Shan chiefs at Taung-gyi in the southern Shan +States. A _Patamabyan_ examination for marks in the Pali language was first +instituted in 1896 and is held annually. + +_Finance._--The gross revenue of Lower Burma from all sources in 1871-1872 +was Rs.1,36,34,520, of which Rs.1,21,70,530 was from imperial taxation, +Rs.3,73,200 from provincial services, and Rs.10,90,790 from local funds. +The land revenue of the province was Rs.34,45,230. In Burma the cultivators +themselves continue to hold the land from government, and the extent of +their holdings averages about five acres. The land tax is supplemented by a +poll tax on the male population from 18 to 60 years of age, with the +exception of immigrants during the first five years of their residence, +religious teachers, schoolmasters, government servants and those unable to +obtain their own livelihood. In 1890-1891 the revenue of Lower Burma has +risen to Rs.2,08,38,872 from imperial taxation, Rs.1,55,51,897 for +provincial services, and Rs.12,14,596 from incorporated local funds. The +expenditure on the administration of Lower Burma in 1870-1871 was +Rs.49,70,020. In 1890-1891 it was Rs.1,58,48,041. In Upper Burma the chief +source of revenue is the _thathameda_, a tithe or income tax which was +instituted by King Mindon, and was adopted by the British very much as they +found it. For the purpose of the assessment every district and town is +classified according to its general wealth and prosperity. As a rule the +basis of calculation was 100 rupees from every ten houses, with a 10% +deduction for those exempted by custom. When the total amount payable by +the village was thus determined, the village itself settled the amount to +be paid by each individual householder. This was done by _thamadis_, +assessors, usually appointed by the villagers themselves. Other important +sources of revenue are the rents from state lands, forests, and +miscellaneous items such as fishery, revenue and irrigation taxes. In +1886-1887, the year after the annexation, the amount collected in Upper +Burma from all sources was twenty-two lakhs of rupees. In the following +year it had risen to fifty lakhs. Much of Upper Burma, however, remained +disturbed until 1890. The figures for 1890-1891, therefore, show the first +really regular collection. The amount then collected was Rs.87,47,020. + +The total revenue of Burma in the year ending March 31, 1900 was +Rs.7,04,36,240 and in 1905, Rs.9,65,62,298. The total expenditure in the +same years respectively was Rs.4,30,81,000 and Rs.5,66,60,047. The +principal items of revenue in the budget are the land revenue, railways, +customs, forests and excise. + +_Defence._--Burma is garrisoned by a division of the Indian army, +consisting of two brigades, under a lieutenant-general. Of the native +regiments seven battalions are Burma regiments specially raised for +permanent service in Burma by transformation from military police. These +regiments, consisting of Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans, are distributed +throughout the Shan States and the northern part of Burma. In addition to +these there are about 13,500 civil police and 15,000 military police. The +military police are in reality a regular military force with only two +European officers in command of each battalion; and they are recruited +entirely from among the warlike races of northern India. A small battalion +of Karens enlisted as sappers and miners proved a failure and had to be +disbanded. Experiments have also been made with the Kachin hillmen and with +the Shans; but the Burmese character is so averse to discipline and control +in petty matters that it is impossible to get really suitable men to enlist +even in the civil police. The volunteer forces consist of the Rangoon Port +Defence Volunteers, comprising artillery, naval, and engineer corps, the +Moulmein artillery, the Moulmein, Rangoon, Railway and Upper Burma rifles. + +_Minerals and Mining._--In its three chief mineral products, earth-oil, +coal and gold, Burma offers a fair field for enterprise and nothing more. +Without yielding fortunes for speculators, like South Africa or Australia, +it returns a fair percentage upon genuine hard work. Coal is found in the +Thayetmyo, Upper Chindwin and Shwebo districts, and in the Shan States; it +also occurs in Mergui, but the deposits which have been so far discovered +have been either of inferior quality or too far from their market to be +worked to advantage. The tin mines in Lower Burma are worked by natives, +but a company at one time worked mines in the Maliwun township of Mergui by +European methods. The chief mines and minerals are in Upper Burma. The jade +mines of Upper Burma are now practically the only source of supply of that +mineral, which is in great demand over all China. The mines are situated +beyond Kamaing, north of Mogaung in the Myitkyina district. The miners are +all Kachins, and the right to collect the jade duty of 33-1/3 is farmed out +by government to a lessee, who has hitherto always been a Chinaman. The +amount obtained has varied considerably. In 1887-1888 the rent was +Rs.50,000. This dwindled to Rs.36,000 in 1892-1893, but the system was then +adopted of letting for a term of three years and a higher rent was +obtained. The value varies enormously according to colour, which should be +a particular shade of dark green. Semi-transparency, brilliancy and +hardness are, however, also essentials. The old river mines produced the +best quality. The quarry mines on the top of the hill near Tawmaw produce +enormous quantities, but the quality is not so good. + +The most important ruby-bearing area is the Mogok stone tract, in the hills +about 60 m. east of the Irrawaddy and 90 m. north-north-west of Mandalay. +The right to mine for rubies by European methods and to levy royalties from +persons working by native methods was leased to the Burma Ruby Mines +Company, Limited, in 1889, and the lease was renewed in 1896 for 14 years +at a rent of Rs.3,15,000 a year plus a share of the profits. The rent was +[v.04 p.0842] reduced permanently in 1898 to Rs.2,00,000 a year, but the +share of the profits taken by government was increased from 20 to 30%. +There are other ruby mines at Nanyaseik in the Myitkyina district and at +Sagyin in the Mandalay district, where the mining is by native methods +under licence-fees of Rs.5 and Rs.10 a month. They are, however, only +moderately successful. Gold is found in most of the rivers in Upper Burma, +but the gold-washing industry is for the most part spasmodic in the +intervals of agriculture. There is a gold mine at Kyaukpazat in the +Mawnaing circle of the Kathra district, where the quartz is crushed by +machinery and treated by chemical processes. Work was begun in 1895, and +the yield of gold in that year was 274 oz., which increased to 893 oz. in +1896-1897. This, however, proved to be merely a pocket, and the mine is now +shut down. Dredging for gold, however, seems likely to prove very +profitable and gold dust is found in practically every river in the hills. + +The principal seats of the petroleum industry are Yenangyaung in the Magwe, +and Yenangyat in the Pakokku districts. The wells have been worked for a +little over a century by the natives of the country. The Burma Oil Company +since 1889 has worked by drilled wells on the American or cable system, and +the amount produced is yearly becoming more and more important. + +Amber is extracted by Kachins in the Hukawng valley beyond the +administrative border, but the quality of the fossil resin is not very +good. The amount exported varies considerably. Tourmaline or rubellite is +found on the borders of the Ruby Mines district and in the Shan State of +Moeng Loeng. Steatite is extracted from the Arakan hill quarries. Salt is +manufactured at various places in Upper Burma, notably in the lower +Chindwin, Sagaing, Shwebo, Myingyan and Yamethin districts, as well as at +Mawhkio in the Shan State of Thibaw. Iron is found in many parts of the +hills, and is worked by inhabitants of the country. A good deal is +extracted and manufactured into native implements at Pang Long in the Legya +(Laihka) Shan State. Lead is extracted by a Chinese lessee from the mines +at Bawzaing (Maw-son) in the Myelat, southern Shan States. The ore is rich +in silver as well as in lead. + +_Agriculture._--The cultivation of the land is by far the most important +industry in Burma. Only 9.4% of the people were classed as urban in the +census of 1901, and a considerable proportion of this number were natives +of India and not Burmese. Nearly two-thirds of the total population are +directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture and kindred occupations. +Throughout most of the villages in the rural tracts men, women and children +all take part in the agricultural operations, although in riverine villages +whole families often support themselves from the sale of petty commodities +and eatables. The food of the people consists as a rule of boiled rice with +salted fresh or dried fish, salt, sessamum-oil, chillies, onions, turmeric, +boiled vegetables, and occasionally meat of some sort from elephant flesh +down to smaller animals, fowls and almost everything except snakes, by way +of condiment. + +The staple crop of the province in both Upper and Lower Burma is rice. In +Lower Burma it is overwhelmingly the largest crop; in Upper Burma it is +grown wherever practicable. Throughout the whole of the moister parts of +the province the agricultural season is the wet period of the south-west +monsoon, lasting from the middle of May until November. In some parts of +Lower Burma and in the dry districts of Upper Burma a hot season crop is +also grown with the assistance of irrigation during the spring months. Oxen +are used for ploughing the higher lands with light soil, and the heavier +and stronger buffaloes for ploughing wet tracts and marshy lands. As rice +has to be transplanted as well as sown and irrigated, it needs a +considerable amount of labour expended on it; and the Burman has the +reputation of being a somewhat indolent cultivator. The Karens and Shans +who settle in the plains expend much more care in ploughing and weeding +their crops. Other crops which are grown in the province, especially in +Upper Burma, comprise maize, tilseed, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, wheat, +millet, other food grains including pulse, condiments and spices, tea, +barley, sago, linseed and other oil-seeds, various fibres, indigo and other +dye crops, besides orchards and garden produce. At the time of the British +annexation of Burma there were some old irrigation systems in the Kyaukse +and Minbu districts, which had been allowed to fall into disrepair, and +these have now been renewed and extended. In addition to this the Mandalay +Canal, 40 m. in length, with fourteen distributaries was opened in 1902; +the Shwebo canal, 27 m. long, was opened in 1906, and a beginning had been +made of two branches 29 and 20 m. in length, and of the Mon canal, begun in +1904, 53 m. in length. In all upwards of 300,000 acres are subject to +irrigation under these schemes. On the whole the people of Burma are +prosperous and contented. Taxes and land revenue are light; markets for the +disposal of produce are constant and prices good; while fresh land is still +available in most districts. Compared with the congested districts in the +other provinces of India, with the exception of Assam, the lot of the +Burman is decidedly enviable. + +_Forests._---The forests of Burma are the finest in British India and one +of the chief assets of the wealth of the country; it is from Burma that the +world draws its main supply of teak for shipbuilding, and indeed it was the +demand for teak that largely led to the annexation of Burma. At the close +of the First Burmese War in 1826 Tenasserim was annexed because it was +supposed to contain large supplies of this valuable timber; and it was +trouble with a British forest company that directly led to the Third +Burmese War of 1885. Since the introduction of iron ships teak has +supplanted oak, because it contains an essential oil which preserves iron +and steel, instead of corroding them like the tannic acid contained in oak. +The forests of Burma, therefore, are now strictly preserved by the +government, and there is a regular forest department for the conservation +and cutting of timber, the planting of young trees for future generations, +the prevention of forest fires, and for generally supervising their +treatment by the natives. In the reserves the trees of commercial value can +only be cut under a licence returning a revenue to the state, while +unreserved trees can be cut by the natives for home consumption. There are +naturally very many trees in these forests besides the teak. In Lower Burma +alone the enumeration of the trees made by Sulpiz Kurz in his _Forest Flora +of British Burma_ (1877) includes some 1500 species, and the unknown +species of Upper Burma and the Shan States would probably increase this +total very considerably. In addition to teak, which provides the bulk of +the revenue, the most valuable woods are _sha_ or cutch, india rubber, +_pyingado_, or ironwood for railway sleepers, and _padauk_. Outside these +reserves enormous tracts of forest and jungle still remain for clearance +and cultivation, reservation being mostly confined to forest land +unsuitable for crops. In 1870-1871 the state reserved forests covered only +133 sq.m., in all the Rangoon division. The total receipts from the forests +then amounted to Rs.7,72,400. In 1889-1890 the total area of reserved +forests in Lower Burma was 5574 sq.m., and the gross revenue was +Rs.31,34,720, and the expenditure was Rs.13,31,930. The work of the forest +department did not begin in Upper Burma till 1891. At the end of 1892 the +reserved forests in Upper Burma amounted to 1059 sq.m. On 30th June 1896 +the reserved area amounted to 5438 sq.m. At the close of 1899 the area of +the reserved forests in the whole province amounted to 15,669 sq.m., and in +1903-1904 to 20,038 sq.m. with a revenue of Rs.85,19,404 and expenditure +amounting to Rs.35,00,311. In 1905-1906 there were 20,545 sq.m. of reserved +forest, and it is probable that when the work of reservation is complete +there will be 25,000 sq.m. of preserves or 12% of the total area. + +_Fisheries._--Fisheries and fish-curing exist both along the sea-coast of +Burma and in inland tracts, and afforded employment to 126,651 persons in +1907. The chief seat of the industry is in the Thongwa and Bassein +districts, where the income from the leased fisheries on individual streams +sometimes amounts to between L6000 and L7000 a year. Net fisheries, worked +by licence-holders in the principal rivers and along the sea-shore, are not +nearly so profitable as the closed fisheries--called _In_--which are from +time to time sold by auction for fixed periods of years. Salted fish forms, +along with boiled rice, one of the chief articles of food among the +Burmese; and as the price of salted fish is gradually rising along with the +prosperity and purchasing power of the population, this industry is on a +very sound basis. There are in addition some pearling grounds in the Mergui +Archipelago, which have a very recent history; they were practically +unknown before 1890; in the early 'nineties they were worked by Australian +adventurers, most of whom have since departed; and now they are leased in +blocks to a syndicate of Chinamen, who grant sub-leases to individual +adventurers at the rate of L25 a pump for the pearling year. The chief +harvest is of mother of pearl, which suffices to pay the working expenses; +and there is over and above the chance of finding a pearl of price. Some +pearls worth L1000 and upwards have recently been discovered. + +_Manufactures and Art._--The staple industry of Burma is agriculture, but +many cultivators are also artisans in the by-season. In addition to +rice-growing and the felling and extraction of timber, and the fisheries, +the chief occupations are rice-husking, silk-weaving and dyeing. The +introduction of cheap cottons and silk fabrics has dealt a blow to +hand-weaving, while aniline dyes are driving out the native vegetable +product; but both industries still linger in the rural tracts. The best +silk-weavers are to be found at Amarapura. There large numbers of people +follow this occupation as their sole means of livelihood, whereas silk and +cotton weaving throughout the province generally is carried on by girls and +women while unoccupied by other domestic duties. The Burmese are fond of +bright colours, and pink and yellow harmonize well with their dark olive +complexion, but even here the influence of western civilization is being +felt, and in the towns the tendency now is towards maroon, brown, olive and +dark green for the women's skirts. The total number of persons engaged in +the production of textile fabrics in Burma according to the census of 1901 +was 419,007. The chief dye-product of Burma is cutch, a brown dye obtained +from the wood [v.04 p.0843] of the _sha_ tree. Cutch-boiling forms the +chief means of livelihood of a large number of the poorer classes in the +Prome and Thayetmyo districts of Lower Burma, and a subsidiary means of +subsistence elsewhere. Cheroot making and smoking is universal among both +sexes. The chief arts of Burma are wood-carving and silver work. The floral +wood-carving is remarkable for its freedom and spontaneity. The carving is +done in teak wood when it is meant for fixtures, but teak has a coarse +grain, and otherwise _yamane_ clogwood, said to be a species of gmelina, is +preferred. The tools employed are chisel, gouge and mallet. The design is +traced on the wood with charcoal, gouged out in the rough, and finished +with sharp fine tools, using the mallet for every stroke. The great bulk of +the silver work is in the form of bowls of different sizes, in shape +something like the lower half of a barrel, only more convex, of betel +boxes, cups and small boxes for lime. Both in the wood-carving and silver +work the Burmese character displays itself, giving boldness, breadth and +freedom of design, but a general want of careful finish. Unfortunately the +national art is losing its distinctive type through contact with western +civilization. + +_Commerce._--The chief articles of export from Burma are rice and timber. +In 1805 the quantity of rice exported in the foreign and coastal trade +amounted to 1,419,173 tons valued at Rs.9,77,66,132, and in 1905 the +figures were 2,187,764 tons, value Rs.15,67,28,288. England takes by far +the greatest share of Burma's rice, though large quantities are also +consumed in Germany, while France, Italy, Belgium and Holland also consume +a considerable amount. The regular course of trade is apt to be deflected +by famines in India or Japan. In 1900 over one million tons of rice were +shipped to India during the famine there. The rice-mills, almost all +situated at the various seaports, secure the harvest from the cultivator +through middlemen. The value of teak exported in 1895 was Rs.1,34,64,303, +and in 1905, Rs.1,31,03,401. Subordinate products for exports include cutch +dye, caoutchouc or india-rubber, cotton, petroleum and jade. By far the +largest of the imports are cotton, silk and woollen piece-goods, while +subordinate imports include hardware, gunny bags, sugar, tobacco and +liquors. + +The following table shows the progressive value of the trade of Burma since +1871-1872:-- + + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | Year. | Imports. | Exports. | Total. | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | Rs. | Rs. | Rs. | + | 1871-1872 | 3,15,79,860 | 3,78,02,170 | 6,93,82,030 | + | 1881-1882 | 6,38,49,840 | 8,05,71 410 | 14,44,21,250 | + | 1801-1892 | 10,50,06,247 | 12,67,21,878 | 23,17,28,125 | + | 1961-1902 | 12,78,46,636 | 18,74,47,200 | 31,52,93,836 | + | 1904-1905 | 17,06,20,796 | 23.94.69.114 | 41,00,89,910 | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + +_Internal Communications._--In 1871-1872 there were 814 m. of road in Lower +Burma, but the chief means of internal communication was by water. Steamers +plied on the Irrawaddy as far as Thayetmyo. The vessels of the Irrawaddy +Flotilla Company now ply to Bassein and to all points on the Irrawaddy as +far north as Bhamo, and in the dry weather to Myitkyina, and also on the +Chindwin as far north as Kindat, and to Homalin during the rains. The +Arakan Flotilla Company has also helped to open up the Arakan division. The +length of roads has not greatly increased in Lower Burma, but there has +been a great deal of road construction in Upper Burma. At the end of the +year 1904-1905 there were in the whole province 7486 m. of road, 1516 m. of +which were metalled and 3170 unmetalled, with 2799 m. of other tracks. But +the chief advance in communications has been in railway construction. The +first railway from Rangoon to Prome, 161 m., was opened in 1877, and that +from Rangoon to Toungoo, 166 m., was opened in 1884. Since the annexation +of Upper Burma this has been extended to Mandalay, and the Mu Valley +railway has been constructed from Sagaing to Myitkyina, a distance of 752 +m. from Rangoon. The Mandalay-Lashio railway has been completed, and trains +run from Mandalay to Lashio, a distance of 178 m. The Sagaing-Monywa-Alon +branch and the Meiktila-Myingyan branch were opened to traffic during 1900. +In 1902 a railway from Henzada to Bassein was formed and a connecting link +with the Prome line from Henzada to Letpadan was opened in 1903. Railways +were also constructed from Pegu to Martaban, 121 m. in length, and from +Henzada to Kyang-in, 66 m. in length; and construction was contemplated of +a railway from Thazi towards Taung-gyi, the headquarters of the southern +Shan States. The total length of lines open in 1904-1905 was 1340 m., but +railway communication in Burma is still very incomplete. Five of the eight +commissionerships and Lashio, the capital of the northern Shan States, have +communication with each other by railway, but Taung-gyi and the southern +Shan States can still only be reached by a hill-road through difficult +country for cart traffic, and the headquarters of three commissionerships, +Moulmein, Akyab and Minbu, have no railway communication with Rangoon. +Arakan is in the worst position of all, for it is connected with Burma by +neither railway nor river, nor even by a metalled road, and the only way to +reach Akyab from Rangoon is once a week by sea. + +_Law._--The British government has administered the law in Burma on +principles identical with those which have been adopted elsewhere in the +British dominions in India. That portion of the law which is usually +described as Anglo-Indian law (see INDIAN LAW) is generally applicable to +Burma, though there are certain districts inhabited by tribes in a backward +state of civilization which are excepted from its operation. Acts of the +British parliament relating to India generally would be applicable to +Burma, whether passed before or after its annexation, these acts being +considered applicable to all the dominions of the crown in India. As +regards the acts of the governor-general in council passed for India +generally--they, too, were from the first applicable to Lower Burma; and +they have all been declared applicable to Upper Burma also by the Burma +Laws Act of 1898. That portion of the English law which has been introduced +into India without legislation, and all the rules of law resting upon the +authority of the courts, are made applicable to Burma by the same act. But +consistently with the practice which has always prevailed in India, there +is a large field of law in Burma which the British government has not +attempted to disturb. It is expressly directed by the act of 1898 above +referred to, that in regard to succession, inheritance, marriage, caste or +any religious usage or institution, the law to be administered in Burma is +(_a_) the Buddhist law in cases where the parties are Buddhists, (_b_) the +Mahommedan law in cases where the parties are Mahommedans, (_c_) the Hindu +law in cases where the parties are Hindus, except so far as the same may +have been modified by the legislature. The reservation thus made in favour +of the native laws is precisely analogous to the similar reservation made +in India (see INDIAN LAW, where the Hindu law and the Mahommedan Law are +described). The Buddhist law is contained in certain sacred books called +_Dhammathats_. The laws themselves are derived from one of the collections +which Hindus attribute to Manu, but in some respects they now widely differ +from the ancient Hindu law so far as it is known to us. There is no +certainty as to the date or method of their introduction. The whole of the +law administered now in Burma rests ultimately upon statutory authority; +and all the Indian acts relating to Burma, whether of the governor-general +or the lieutenant-governor of Burma in council, will be found in the Burma +Code (Calcutta, 1899), and in the supplements to that volume which are +published from time to time at Rangoon. There is no complete translation of +the _Dhammathats_, but a good many of them have been translated. An account +of these translations will be found in _The Principles of Buddhist Law_ by +Chan Toon (Rangoon, 1894), which is the first attempt to present those +principles in something approaching to a systematic form. + +_History._--It is probable that Burma is the _Chryse Regio_ of Ptolemy, a +name parallel in meaning to _Sonaparanta_, the classic Pali title assigned +to the country round the capital in Burmese documents. The royal history +traces the lineage of the kings to the ancient Buddhist monarchs of India. +This no doubt is fabulous, but it is hard to say how early communication +with Gangetic India began. From the 11th to the 13th century the old Burman +empire was at the height of its power, and to this period belong the +splendid remains of architecture at Pagan. The city and the dynasty were +destroyed by a Chinese (or rather Mongol) invasion (1284 A.D.) in the reign +of Kublai Khan. After that the empire fell to a low ebb, and Central Burma +was often subject to Shan dynasties. In the early part of the 16th century +the Burmese princes of Toungoo, in the north-east of Pegu, began to rise to +power, and established a dynasty which at one time held possession of Pegu, +Ava and Arakan. They made their capital at Pegu, and to this dynasty belong +the gorgeous [v.04 p.0844] descriptions of some of the travellers of the +16th century. Their wars exhausted the country, and before the end of the +century it was in the greatest decay. A new dynasty arose in Ava, which +subdued Pegu, and maintained their supremacy throughout the 17th and during +the first forty years of the 18th century. The Peguans or Talaings then +revolted, and having taken the capital Ava, and made the king prisoner, +reduced the whole country to submission. Alompra, left by the conqueror in +charge of the village of Motshobo, planned the deliverance of his country. +He attacked the Peguans at first with small detachments; but when his +forces increased, he suddenly advanced, and took possession of the capital +in the autumn of 1753. + +In 1754 the Peguans sent an armament of war-boats against Ava, but they +were totally defeated by Alompra; while in the districts of Prome, Donubyu, +&c., the Burmans revolted, and expelled all the Pegu garrisons in their +towns. In 1754 Prome was besieged by the king of Pegu, who was again +defeated by Alompra, and the war was transferred from the upper provinces +to the mouths of the navigable rivers, and the numerous creeks and canals +which intersect the lower country. In 1755 the yuva raja, the king of +Pegu's brother, was equally unsuccessful, after which the Peguans were +driven from Bassein and the adjacent country, and were forced to withdraw +to the fortress of Syriam, distant 12 m. from Rangoon. Here they enjoyed a +brief repose, Alompra being called away to quell an insurrection of his own +subjects, and to repel an invasion of the Siamese; but returning +victorious, he laid siege to the fortress of Syriam and took it by +surprise. In these wars the French sided with the Peguans, the English with +the Burmans. Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry, had sent two ships to +the aid of the former; but the master of the first was decoyed up the river +by Alompra, where he was massacred along with his whole crew. The other +escaped to Pondicherry. Alompra was now master of all the navigable rivers; +and the Peguans, shut out from foreign aid, were finally subdued. In 1757 +the conqueror laid siege to the city of Pegu, which capitulated, on +condition that their own king should govern the country, but that he should +do homage for his kingdom, and should also surrender his daughter to the +victorious monarch. Alompra never contemplated the fulfilment of the +condition; and having obtained possession of the town, abandoned it to the +fury of his soldiers. In the following year the Peguans vainly endeavoured +to throw off the yoke. Alompra afterwards reduced the town and district of +Tavoy, and finally undertook the conquest of the Siamese. His army advanced +to Mergui and Tenasserim, both of which towns were taken; and he was +besieging the capital of Siam when he was taken ill. He immediately ordered +his army to retreat, in hopes of reaching his capital alive; but he expired +on the way, in 1760, in the fiftieth year of his age, after he had reigned +eight years. In the previous year he had massacred the English of the +establishment of Negrais, whom he suspected of assisting the Peguans. He +was succeeded by his eldest son Noungdaugyi, whose reign was disturbed by +the rebellion of his brother Sin-byu-shin, and afterwards by one of his +father's generals. He died in little more than three years, leaving one son +in his infancy; and on his decease the throne was seized by his brother +Sin-byu-shin. The new king was intent, like his predecessors, on the +conquest of the adjacent states, and accordingly made war in 1765 on the +Manipur kingdom, and also on the Siamese, with partial success. In the +following year he defeated the Siamese, and, after a long blockade, +obtained possession of their capital. But while the Burmans were extending +their conquests in this quarter, they were invaded by a Chinese army of +50,000 men from the province of Yunnan. This army was hemmed in by the +skill of the Burmans; and, being reduced by the want of provisions, it was +afterwards attacked and totally destroyed, with the exception of 2500 men, +who were sent in fetters to work in the Burmese capital at their several +trades. In the meantime the Siamese revolted, and while the Burman army was +marching against them, the Peguan soldiers who had been incorporated in it +rose against their companions, and commencing an indiscriminate massacre, +pursued the Burman army to the gates of Rangoon, which they besieged, but +were unable to capture. In 1774 Sin-byu-shin was engaged in reducing the +marauding tribes. He took the district and fort of Martaban from the +revolted Peguans; and in the following year he sailed down the Irrawaddy +with an army of 50,000 men, and, arriving at Rangoon, put to death the aged +monarch of Pegu, along with many of his nobles, who had shared with him in +the offence of rebellion. He died in 1776, after a reign of twelve years, +during which he had extended the Burmese dominions on every side. He was +succeeded by his son, a youth of eighteen, called Singumin (Chenguza of +Symes), who proved himself a bloodthirsty despot, and was put to death by +his uncle, Bodawpaya or Mentaragyi, in 1781, who ascended the vacant +throne. In 1783 the new king effected the conquest of Arakan. In the same +year he removed his residence from Ava, which, with brief interruptions, +had been the capital for four centuries, to the new city of Amarapura, "the +City of the Immortals." + +The Siamese who had revolted in 1771 were never afterwards subdued by the +Burmans; but the latter retained their dominion over the sea-coast as far +as Mergui. In the year 1785 they attacked the island of Junkseylon with a +fleet of boats and an army, but were ultimately driven back with loss; and +a second attempt by the Burman monarch, who in 1786 invaded Siam with an +army of 30,000 men, was attended with no better success. In 1793 peace was +concluded between these two powers, the Siamese yielding to the Burmans the +entire possession of the coast of Tenasserim on the Indian Ocean, and the +two important seaports of Mergui and Tavoy. + +In 1795 the Burmese were involved in a dispute with the British in India, +in consequence of their troops, to the amount of 5000 men, entering the +district of Chittagong in pursuit of three robbers who had fled from +justice across the frontier. Explanations being made and terms of +accommodation offered by General Erskine, the commanding officer, the +Burmese commander retired from the British territories, when the fugitives +were restored, and all differences for the time amicably arranged. + +But it was evident that the gradual extension of the British and Burmese +territories would in time bring the two powers into close contact along a +more extended line of frontier, and in all probability lead to a war +between them. It happened, accordingly, that the Burmese, carrying their +arms into Assam and Manipur, penetrated to the British border near Sylhet, +on the north-east frontier of Bengal, beyond which were the possessions of +the chiefs of Cachar, under the protection of the British government. The +Burmese leaders, arrested in their career of conquest, were impatient to +measure their strength with their new neighbours. It appears from the +evidence of Europeans who resided in Ava, that they were entirely +unacquainted with the discipline and resources of the Europeans. They +imagined that, like other nations, they would fall before their superior +tactics and valour; and their cupidity was inflamed by the prospect of +marching to Calcutta and plundering the country. At length their chiefs +ventured on the open violation of the British territories. They attacked a +party of sepoys within the frontier, and seized and carried off British +subjects, while at all points their troops, moving in large bodies, assumed +the most menacing positions. In the south encroachments were made upon the +British frontier of Chittagong. The island of Shahpura, at the mouth of the +Naaf river, had been occupied by a small guard of British troops. These +were attacked on the 23rd of September 1823 by the Burmese, and driven from +their post with the loss of several lives; and to the repeated demands of +the British for redress no answer was returned. Other outrages ensued; and +at length, on March 5th, 1824, war was declared by the British government. +The military operations, which will be found described under BURMESE WARS, +ended in the treaty of Yandaboo on the 24th of February 1826, which +conceded the British terms and enabled their army to be withdrawn. + +For some years the relations of peace continued undisturbed. Probably the +feeling of amity on the part of the Burmese government was not very strong; +but so long as the prince by whom the treaty was concluded continued in +power, no attempt was [v.04 p.0845] made to depart from its main +stipulations. That monarch, Ba-ggi-daw, however, was obliged in 1837 to +yield the throne to a usurper who appeared in the person of his brother, +Tharrawaddi (Tharawadi). The latter, at an early period, manifested not +only that hatred of British connexion which was almost universal at the +Burmese court, but also the extremest contempt. For several years it had +become apparent that the period was approaching when war between the +British and the Burmese governments would again become inevitable. The +British resident, Major Burney, who had been appointed in 1830, finding his +presence at Ava agreeable neither to the king nor to himself, removed in +1837 to Rangoon, and shortly afterwards retired from the country. +Ultimately it became necessary to forego even the pretence of maintaining +relations of friendship, and the British functionary at that time, Captain +Macleod, was withdrawn in 1840 altogether from a country where his +continuance would have been but a mockery. The state of sullen dislike +which followed was after a while succeeded by more active evidences of +hostility. Acts of violence were committed on British ships and British +seamen. Remonstrance was consequently made by the British government, and +its envoys were supported by a small naval force. The officers on whom +devolved the duty of representing the wrongs of their fellow-countrymen and +demanding redress, proceeded to Rangoon, the governor of which place had +been a chief actor in the outrages complained of; but so far were they from +meeting with any signs of regret, that they were treated with indignity and +contempt, and compelled to retire without accomplishing anything beyond +blockading the ports. A series of negotiations followed; nothing was +demanded of the Burmese beyond a very moderate compensation for the +injuries inflicted on the masters of two British vessels, an apology for +the insults offered by the governor of Rangoon to the representatives of +the British government, and the re-establishment of at least the appearance +of friendly relations by the reception of a British agent by the Burmese +government. But the obduracy of King Pagan, who had succeeded his father in +1846, led to the refusal alike of atonement for past wrongs, of any +expression of regret for the display of gratuitous insolence, and of any +indication of a desire to maintain friendship for the future. Another +Burmese war was the result, the first shot being fired in January 1852. As +in the former, though success was varying, the British finally triumphed, +and the chief towns in the lower part of the Burmese kingdom fell to them +in succession. The city of Pegu, the capital of that portion which, after +having been captured, had again passed into the hands of the enemy, was +recaptured and retained, and the whole province of Pegu was, by +proclamation of the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie, declared to be +annexed to the British dominions on the 20th of December 1852. No treaty +was obtained or insisted upon,--the British government being content with +the tacit acquiescence of the king of Burma without such documents; but its +resolution was declared, that any active demonstration of hostility by him +would be followed by retribution. + +About the same time a revolution broke out which resulted in King Pagan's +dethronement. His tyrannical and barbarous conduct had made him obnoxious +at home as well as abroad, and indeed many of his actions recall the worst +passages of the history of the later Roman emperors. The Mindon prince, who +had become apprehensive for his own safety, made him prisoner in February +1853, and was himself crowned king of Burma towards the end of the year. +The new monarch, known as King Mindon, showed himself sufficiently arrogant +in his dealings with the European powers, but was wise enough to keep free +from any approach towards hostility. The loss of Pegu was long a matter of +bitter regret, and he absolutely refused to acknowledge it by a formal +treaty. In the beginning of 1855 he sent a mission of compliment to Lord +Dalhousie, the governor-general; and in the summer of the same year Major +(afterwards Sir Arthur) Phayre, _de facto_ governor of the new province of +Pegu, was appointed envoy to the Burmese court. He was accompanied by +Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) Yule as secretary, and Mr Oldham as +geologist, and his mission added largely to our knowledge of the state of +the country; but in its main object of obtaining a treaty it was +unsuccessful. It was not till 1862 that the king at length yielded, and his +relations with Britain were placed on a definite diplomatic basis. + +In that year the province of British Burma, the present Lower Burma, was +formed, with Sir Arthur Phayre as chief commissioner. In 1867 a treaty was +concluded at Mandalay providing for the free intercourse of trade and the +establishment of regular diplomatic relations. King Mindon died in 1878, +and was succeeded by his son King Thibaw. Early in 1879 he excited much +horror by executing a number of the members of the Burmese royal family, +and relations became much strained. The British resident was withdrawn in +October 1879. The government of the country rapidly became bad. Control +over many of the outlying districts was lost, and the elements of disorder +on the British frontier were a standing menace to the peace of the country. +The Burmese court, in contravention of the express terms of the treaty of +1869, created monopolies to the detriment of the trade of both England and +Burma; and while the Indian government was unrepresented at Mandalay, +representatives of Italy and France were welcomed, and two separate +embassies were sent to Europe for the purpose of contracting new and, if +possible, close alliances with sundry European powers. Matters were brought +to a crisis towards the close of 1885, when the Burmese government imposed +a fine of L230,000 on the Bombay-Burma Trading Corporation, and refused to +comply with a suggestion of the Indian government that the cause of +complaint should be investigated by an impartial arbitrator. An ultimatum +was therefore despatched on the 22nd of October 1885. On the 9th of +November a reply was received in Rangoon amounting to an unconditional +refusal. The king on the 7th of November issued a proclamation calling upon +his subjects to drive the British into the sea. On the 14th of November +1885 the British field force crossed the frontier, and advanced to Mandalay +without incurring any serious resistance (see BURMESE WARS). It reached Ava +on the 26th of November, and an envoy from the king signified his +submission. On the 28th of November the British occupied Mandalay, and next +day King Thibaw was sent down the river to Rangoon, whence he was +afterwards transferred to Ratnagiri on the Bombay coast. Upper Burma was +formally annexed on the 1st of January 1886, and the work of restoring the +country to order and introducing settled government commenced. This was a +more serious task than the overthrow of the Burmese government, and +occupied four years. This was in part due to the character of the country, +which was characterized as one vast military obstacle, and in part to the +disorganization which had been steadily growing during the six years of +King Thibaw's reign. By the close of 1889 all the larger bands of marauders +were broken up, and since 1890 the country has enjoyed greater freedom from +violent crime than the province formerly known as British Burma. By the +Upper Burma Village Regulations and the Lower Burma Village Act, the +villagers themselves were made responsible for maintaining order in every +village, and the system has worked with the greatest success. During the +decade 1891-1901 the population increased by 19-8% and cultivation by 53%. +With good harvests and good markets the standard of living in Burma has +much improved. Large areas of cultivable waste have been brought under +cultivation, and the general result has been a contented people. The +boundary with Siam was demarcated in 1893, and that with China was +completed in 1900. + +AUTHORITIES.--_Official_: Col. Horace Spearman, _British Burma Gazetteer_ +(2 vols., Rangoon, 1879); Sir J. George Scott, _Upper Burma Gazetteer_ (5 +vols., Rangoon, 1900-1901). _Non-official_: Right Rev. Bishop Bigandet, +_Life or Legend of Gautama_ (3rd ed., London, 1881); G.W. Bird, _Wanderings +in Burma_ (London, 1897); E.D. Cuming, _In the Shadow of the Pagoda_ +(London, 1893), _With the Jungle Folk_ (Condon, 1897); Max and Bertha +Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900); H. Fielding, _The Soul of a People +(Buddhism in Burma)_ (London, 1898), _Thibaw's Queen_ (London, 1899), _A +People at School_ (1906); Capt. C.J. Forbes, F.S., _Burma_ (London, 1878), +_Comparative Grammar of the Languages of Farther India_ (London, 1881), +_Legendary History of Burma and Arakan_ (Rangoon, 1882); J. Gordon, _Burma +and its Inhabitants_ (London, 1876); Mrs E. Hart, [v.04 p.0846] +_Picturesque Burma_ (London, 1897); Gen. R. Macmahon, _Far Cathay and +Farther India_ (London, 1892); Rev. F. Mason, D.D., _Burma_ (Rangoon, +1860); E.H. Parker, _Burma_ (Rangoon, 1892); Sir Arthur Phayre, _History of +Burma_ (London, 1883); G.C. Rigby, _History of the Operations in Northern +Arakan and the Yawdwin Chin Hills_ (Rangoon, 1897), Sir J. George Scott, +_Burma, As it is, As it was, and As it will be_ (London, 1886); Shway Yoe, +_The Burman, His Life and Notions_ (2nd ed., London, 1896); D.M. Smeaton, +_The Karens of Burma_ (London, 1887); Sir Henry Yule, _A Mission to Ava_ +(London, 1858); J. Nisbet, _Burma under British Rule and Before_ (London, +1901); V.D. Scott O'Connor, _The Silken East_ (London, 1904); Talbot Kelly, +_Burma_ (London, 1905); an exhaustive account of the administration is +contained in Dr Alleyne Ireland's _The Province of Burma_, Report prepared +on behalf of the university of Chicago (Boston, U.S.A., 2 vols., 1907). + +(J. G. SC.) + +[1] See also, for geology, W. Theobald, "On the Geology of Pegu," _Mem. +Geol. Surv. India_, vol. x. pt. ii. (1874); F. Noetling, "The Development +and Subdivision of the Tertiary System in Burma," _Rec. Geol. Sun. India_, +vol. xxviii. (1895), pp. 59-86, pl. ii.; F. Noetling, "The Occurrence of +Petroleum in Burma, and its Technical Exploitation," _Mem. Geol. Surv. +India_, vol. xxvii. pt. ii. (1898). + +BURMANN, PIETER (1668-1741), Dutch classical scholar, known as "the Elder," +to distinguish him from his nephew, was born at Utrecht. At the age of +thirteen he entered the university where he studied under Graevius and +Gronovius. He devoted himself particularly to the study of the classical +languages, and became unusually proficient in Latin composition. As he was +intended for the legal profession, he spent some years in attendance on the +law classes. For about a year he studied at Leiden, paying special +attention to philosophy and Greek. On his return to Utrecht he took the +degree of doctor of laws (March 1688), and after travelling through +Switzerland and part of Germany, settled down to the practice of law, +without, however, abandoning his classical studies. In December 1691 he was +appointed receiver of the tithes which were originally paid to the bishop +of Utrecht, and five years later was nominated to the professorship of +eloquence and history. To this chair was soon added that of Greek and +politics. In 1714 he paid a short visit to Paris and ransacked the +libraries. In the following year he was appointed successor to the +celebrated Perizonius, who had held the chair of history, Greek language +and eloquence at Leiden. He was subsequently appointed professor of history +for the United Provinces and chief librarian. His numerous editorial and +critical works spread his fame as a scholar throughout Europe, and engaged +him in many of the stormy disputes which were then so common among men of +letters. Burmann was rather a compiler than a critic; his commentaries show +immense learning and accuracy, but are wanting in taste and judgment. He +died on the 31st of March 1741. + +Burmann edited the following classical authors:--Phaedrus (1698); Horace +(1699); Valerius Flaccus (1702); Petronius Arbiter (1709); Velleius +Paterculus (1719); Quintilian (1720); Justin (1722); Ovid (1727); _Poetae +Latini minores_ (1731); Suetonius (1736); Lucan (1740). He also published +an edition of Buchanan's works, continued Graevius's great work, _Thesaurus +Antiquitatum et Historiarum Italiae_, and wrote a treatise _De Vectigalibus +populi Romani_ (1694) and a short manual of Roman antiquities, +_Antiquitatum Romanarum Brevis Descriptio_ (1711). His _Sylloge epistolarum +a viris illustribus scriptarum_ (1725) is of importance for the history of +learned men. The list of his works occupies five pages in Saxe's +_Onomasticon_. His poems and orations were published after his death. There +is an account of his life in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for April (1742) by +Dr Samuel Johnson. + +BURMANN, PIETER (1714-1778), called by himself "the Younger" (Secundus), +Dutch philologist, nephew of the above, was born at Amsterdam on the 13th +of October 1714. He was brought up by his uncle in Leiden, and afterwards +studied law and philology under C.A. Duker and Arnold von Drakenborch at +Utrecht. In 1735 he was appointed professor of eloquence and history at +Franeker, with which the chair of poetry was combined in 1741. In the +following year he left Franeker for Amsterdam to become professor of +history and philology at the Athenaeum. He was subsequently professor of +poetry (1744), general librarian (1752), and inspector of the gymnasium +(1753). In 1777 he retired, and died on the 24th of June 1778 at Sandhorst, +near Amsterdam. He resembled his more famous uncle in the manner and +direction of his studies, and in his violent disposition, which involved +him in quarrels with contemporaries, notably Saxe and Klotz. He was a man +of extensive learning, and had a great talent for Latin poetry. His most +valuable works are: _Anthologia Veterum Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum_ +(1759-1773); _Aristophanis Comoediae Novem_ (1760); _Rhetorica ad +Herennium_ (1761). He completed the editions of Virgil (1746) and Claudian +(1760), which had been left unfinished by his uncle, and commenced an +edition of Propertius, one of his best works, which was only half printed +at the time of his death. It was completed by L. van Santen and published +in 1780. + +BURMESE WARS. Three wars were fought between Burma and the British during +the 19th century (see BURMA: _History_), which resulted in the gradual +extinction of Burmese independence. + +_First Burmese War, 1823-26._--On the 23rd of September 1823 an armed party +of Burmese attacked a British guard on Shapura, an island close to the +Chittagong side, killing and wounding six of the guard. Two Burmese armies, +one from Manipur and another from Assam, also entered Cachar, which was +under British protection, in January 1824. War with Burma was formally +declared on the 5th of March 1824. On the 17th of May a Burmese force +invaded Chittagong and drove a mixed sepoy and police detachment from its +position at Ramu, but did not follow up its success. The British rulers in +India, however, had resolved to carry the war into the enemy's country; an +armament, under Commodore Charles Grant and Sir Archibald Campbell, entered +the Rangoon river, and anchored off the town on the 10th of May 1824. After +a feeble resistance the place, then little more than a large stockaded +village, was surrendered, and the troops were landed. The place was +entirely deserted by its inhabitants, the provisions were carried off or +destroyed, and the invading force took possession of a complete solitude. +On the 28th of May Sir A. Campbell ordered an attack on some of the nearest +posts, which were all carried after a steadily weakening defence. Another +attack was made on the 10th of June on the stockades at the village of +Kemmendine. Some of these were battered by artillery from the war vessels +in the river, and the shot and shells had such effect on the Burmese that +they evacuated them, after a very unequal resistance. It soon, however, +became apparent that the expedition had been undertaken with very imperfect +knowledge of the country, and without adequate provision. The devastation +of the country, which was part of the defensive system of the Burmese, was +carried out with unrelenting rigour, and the invaders were soon reduced to +great difficulties. The health of the men declined, and their ranks were +fearfully thinned. The monarch of Ava sent large reinforcements to his +dispirited and beaten army; and early in June an attack was commenced on +the British line, but proved unsuccessful. On the 8th the British +assaulted. The enemy were beaten at all points; and their strongest +stockaded works, battered to pieces by a powerful artillery, were in +general abandoned. With the exception of an attack by the prince of +Tharrawaddy in the end of August, the enemy allowed the British to remain +unmolested during the months of July and August. This interval was employed +by Sir A. Campbell in subduing the Burmese provinces of Tavoy and Mergui, +and the whole coast of Tenasserim. This was an important conquest, as the +country was salubrious and afforded convalescent stations to the sick, who +were now so numerous in the British army that there were scarcely 3000 +soldiers fit for duty. An expedition was about this time sent against the +old Portuguese fort and factory of Syriam, at the mouth of the Pegu river, +which was taken; and in October the province of Martaban was reduced under +the authority of the British. + +The rainy season terminated about the end of October; and the court of Ava, +alarmed by the discomfiture of its armies, recalled the veteran legions +which were employed in Arakan, under their renowned leader Maha Bandula. +Bandula hastened by forced marches to the defence of his country; and by +the end of November an army of 60,000 men had surrounded the British +position at Rangoon and Kemmendine, for the defence of which Sir Archibald +Campbell had only 5000 efficient troops. The enemy in great force made +repeated attacks on Kemmendine without success, and on the 7th of December +Bandula was defeated in a counter attack made by Sir A. Campbell. The +fugitives retired to a strong position on the river, which they again +entrenched; and here they were attacked by the British on the 15th, and +driven in complete confusion from the field. + +Sir Archibald Campbell now resolved to advance on Prome, [v.04 p.0847] +about 100 m. higher up the Irrawaddy river. He moved with his force on the +13th of February 1825 in two divisions, one proceeding by land, and the +other, under General Willoughby Cotton, destined for the reduction of +Danubyu, being embarked on the flotilla. Taking the command of the land +force, he continued his advance till the 11th of March, when intelligence +reached him of the failure of the attack upon Danubyu. He instantly +commenced a retrograde march; on the 27th he effected a junction with +General Cotton's force, and on the 2nd of April entered the entrenchments +at Danubyu without resistance, Bandula having been killed by the explosion +of a bomb. The English general entered Prome on the 25th, and remained +there during the rainy season. On the 17th of September an armistice was +concluded for one month. In the course of the summer General Joseph +Morrison had conquered the province of Arakan; in the north the Burmese +were expelled from Assam; and the British had made some progress in Cachar, +though their advance was finally impeded by the thick forests and jungle. + +The armistice having expired on the 3rd of November, the army of Ava, +amounting to 60,000 men, advanced in three divisions against the British +position at Prome, which was defended by 3000 Europeans and 2000 native +troops. But the British still triumphed, and after several actions, in +which the Burmese were the assailants and were partially successful, Sir A. +Campbell, on the 1st of December, attacked the different divisions of their +army, and successively drove them from all their positions, and dispersed +them in every direction. The Burmese retired on Malun, along the course of +the Irrawaddy, where they occupied, with 10,000 or 12,000 men, a series of +strongly fortified heights and a formidable stockade. On the 26th they sent +a flag of truce to the British camp; and negotiations having commenced, +peace was proposed to them on the following conditions:--(1) The cession of +Arakan, together with the provinces of Mergui, Tavoy and Ye; (2) the +renunciation by the Burmese sovereign of all claims upon Assam and the +contiguous petty states; (3) the Company to be paid a crore of rupees as an +indemnification for the expenses of the war; (4) residents from each court +to be allowed, with an escort of fifty men; while it was also stipulated +that British ships should no longer be obliged to unship their rudders and +land their guns as formerly in the Burmese ports. This treaty was agreed to +and signed, but the ratification of the king was still wanting; and it was +soon apparent that the Burmese had no intention to sign it, but were +preparing to renew the contest. On the 19th of January, accordingly, Sir A. +Campbell attacked and carried the enemy's position at Malun. Another offer +of peace was here made by the Burmese, but it was found to be insincere; +and the fugitive army made at the ancient city of Pagan a final stand in +defence of the capital. They were attacked and overthrown on the 9th of +February 1826; and the invading force being now within four days' march of +Ava, Dr Price, an American missionary, who with other Europeans had been +thrown into prison when the war commenced, was sent to the British camp +with the treaty (known as the treaty of Yandaboo) ratified, the prisoners +of war released, and an instalment of 25 lakhs of rupees. The war was thus +brought to a successful termination, and the British army evacuated the +country. + +_Second Burmese War, 1852._--On the 15th of March 1852 Lord Dalhousie sent +an ultimatum to King Pagan, announcing that hostile operations would be +commenced if all his demands were not agreed to by the ist of April. +Meanwhile a force consisting of 8100 troops had been despatched to Rangoon +under the command of General H.T. Godwin, C.B., while Commodore Lambert +commanded the naval contingent. No reply being given to this letter, the +first blow of the Second Burmese War was struck by the British on the 5th +of April 1852, when Martaban was taken. Rangoon town was occupied on the +12th, and the Shwe Dagon pagoda on the 14th, after heavy fighting, when the +Burmese army retired northwards. Bassein was seized on the 19th of May, and +Pegu was taken on the 3rd of June, after some sharp fighting round the +Shwe-maw-daw pagoda. During the rainy season the approval of the East India +Company's court of directors and of the British government was obtained to +the annexation of the lower portion of the Irrawaddy Valley, including +Prome. Lord Dalhousie visited Rangoon in July and August, and discussed the +whole situation with the civil, military and naval authorities. In +consequence General Godwin occupied Prome on the 9th of October after but +slight resistance. Early in December Lord Dalhousie informed King Pagan +that the province of Pegu would henceforth form part of the British +dominions, and that if his troops resisted the measure his whole kingdom +would be destroyed. The proclamation of annexation was issued on the 20th +of January 1853, and thus the Second Burmese War was brought to an end +without any treaty being signed. + +_Third Burmese War, 1885-86._--The imposition of an impossible fine on the +Bombay-Burma Trading Company, coupled with the threat of confiscation of +all their rights and property in case of non-payment, led to the British +ultimatum of the 22nd of October 1885; and by the 9th of November a +practical refusal of the terms having been received at Rangoon, the +occupation of Mandalay and the dethronement of King Thibaw were determined +upon. At this time, beyond the fact that the country was one of dense +jungle, and therefore most unfavourable for military operations, little was +known of the interior of Upper Burma; but British steamers had for years +been running on the great river highway of the Irrawaddy, from Rangoon to +Mandalay, and it was obvious that the quickest and most satisfactory method +of carrying out the British campaign was an advance by water direct on the +capital. Fortunately a large number of light-draught river steamers and +barges (or "flats"), belonging to the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company, were +available at Rangoon, and the local knowledge of the company's officers of +the difficult river navigation was at the disposal of the government. +Major-General, afterwards Sir, H.N.D. Prendergast, V.C., K.C.B., R.E., was +placed in command of the expedition. As was only to be expected in an +enterprise of this description, the navy as well as the army was called in +requisition; and as usual the services rendered by the seamen and guns were +most important. The total effective of the force was 9034 fighting men, +2810 native followers and 67 guns, and for river service, 24 machine guns. +The river fleet which conveyed the troops and stores was composed of a +total of no less than 55 steamers, barges, launches, &c. + +Thayetmyo was the British post on the river nearest to the frontier, and +here, by 14th November, five days after Thibaw's answer had been received, +practically the whole expedition was assembled. On the same day General +Prendergast received instructions to commence operations. The Burmese king +and his country were taken completely by surprise by the unexampled +rapidity of the advance. There had been no time for them to collect and +organize the stubborn resistance of which the river and its defences were +capable. They had not even been able to block the river by sinking +steamers, &c., across it, for, on the very day of the receipt of orders to +advance, the armed steamers, the "Irrawaddy" and "Kathleen," engaged the +nearest Burmese batteries, and brought out from under their guns the king's +steamer and some barges which were lying in readiness for this very +purpose. On the 16th the batteries themselves on both banks were taken by a +land attack, the enemy being evidently unprepared and making no resistance. +On the 17th of November, however, at Minhla, on the right bank of the +river, the Burmans in considerable force held successively a barricade, a +pagoda and the redoubt of Minhla. The attack was pressed home by a brigade +of native infantry on shore, covered by a bombardment from the river, and +the enemy were defeated with a loss of 170 killed and 276 prisoners, +besides many more drowned in the attempt to escape by the river. The +advance was continued next day and the following days, the naval brigade +and heavy artillery leading and silencing in succession the enemy's river +defences at Nyaungu, Pakokku and Myingyan. On the 26th of November, when +the flotilla was approaching the ancient capital of Ava, envoys from King +Thibaw met General Prendergast with offers of surrender; and on the 27th, +when the ships [v.04 p.0848] were lying off that city and ready to commence +hostilities, the order of the king to his troops to lay down their arms was +received. There were three strong forts here, full at that moment with +thousands of armed Burmans, and though a large number of these filed past +and laid down their arms by the king's command, still many more were +allowed to disperse with their weapons; and these, in the time that +followed, broke up into dacoit or guerrilla bands, which became the scourge +of the country and prolonged the war for years. Meanwhile, however, the +surrender of the king of Burma was complete; and on the 28th of November, +in less than a fortnight from the declaration of war, Mandalay had fallen, +and the king himself was a prisoner, while every strong fort and town on +the river, and all the king's ordnance (1861 pieces), and thousands of +rifles, muskets and arms had been taken. Much valuable and curious "loot" +and property was found in the palace and city of Mandalay, which, when +sold, realized about 9 lakhs of rupees (L60,000). + +From Mandalay, General Prendergast seized Bhamo on the 28th of December. +This was a very important move, as it forestalled the Chinese, who were +preparing to claim the place. But unfortunately, although the king was +dethroned and deported, and the capital and the whole of the river in the +hands of the British, the bands of armed soldiery, unaccustomed to +conditions other than those of anarchy, rapine and murder, took advantage +of the impenetrable cover of their jungles to continue a desultory armed +resistance. Reinforcements had to be poured into the country, and it was in +this phase of the campaign, lasting several years, that the most difficult +and most arduous work fell to the lot of the troops. It was in this jungle +warfare that the losses from battle, sickness and privation steadily +mounted up; and the troops, both British and native, proved once again +their fortitude and courage. + +Various expeditions followed one another in rapid succession, penetrating +to the remotest corners of the land, and bringing peace and protection to +the inhabitants, who, it must be mentioned, suffered at least as much from +the dacoits as did the troops. The final, and now completely successful, +pacification of the country, under the direction of Sir Frederick +(afterwards Earl) Roberts, was only brought about by an extensive system of +small protective posts scattered all over the country, and small lightly +equipped columns moving out to disperse the enemy whenever a gathering came +to a head, or a pretended prince or king appeared. + +No account of the Third Burmese War would be complete without a reference +to the first, and perhaps for this reason most notable, land advance into +the enemy's country. This was carried out in November 1885 from Toungoo, +the British frontier post in the east of the country, by a small column of +all arms under Colonel W.P. Dicken, 3rd Madras Light Infantry, the first +objective being Ningyan. The operations were completely successful, in +spite of a good deal of scattered resistance, and the force afterwards +moved forward to Yamethin and Hlaingdet. As inland operations developed, +the want of mounted troops was badly felt, and several regiments of cavalry +were brought over from India, while mounted infantry was raised locally. It +was found that without these most useful arms it was generally impossible +to follow up and punish the active enemy. + +BURN, RICHARD (1700-1785), English legal writer, was born at Winton, +Westmorland, in 1709. Educated at Queen's College, Oxford, he entered the +Church, and in 1736 became vicar of Orton in Westmorland. He was a justice +of the peace for the counties of Westmorland and Cumberland, and devoted +himself to the study of law. He was appointed chancellor of the diocese of +Carlisle in 1765, an office which he held till his death at Orton on the +12th of November 1785. Burn's _Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer_, +first published in 1755, was for many years the standard authority on the +law relating to justices of the peace. It has passed through innumerable +editions. His _Ecclesiastical Law_ (1760), a work of much research, was the +foundation upon which were built many modern commentaries on ecclesiastical +law. The best edition is that by R. Phillimore (4 vols., 1842). Burn also +wrote _Digest of the Militia Laws_ (1760), and _A New Law Dictionary_ (2 +vols., 1792). + +BURNABY, FREDERICK GUSTAVUS (1842-1885), English traveller and soldier, was +born on the 3rd of March 1842, at Bedford, the son of a clergyman. Educated +at Harrow and in Germany, he entered the Royal Horse Guards in 1859. +Finding no chance for active service, his spirit of adventure sought +outlets in balloon-ascents and in travels through Spain and Russia. In the +summer of 1874 he accompanied the Carlist forces as correspondent of _The +Times_, but before the end of the war he was transferred to Africa to +report on Gordon's expedition to the Sudan. This took Burnaby as far as +Khartum. Returning to England in March 1875, he matured his plans for a +journey on horseback to Khiva through Russian Asia, which had just been +closed to travellers. His accomplishment of this task, in the winter of +1875-1876, described in his book _A Ride to Khiva_, brought him immediate +fame. His next leave of absence was spent in another adventurous journey on +horseback, through Asia Minor, from Scutari to Erzerum, with the object of +observing the Russian frontier, an account of which he afterwards +published. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, Burnaby (who soon afterwards +became lieut.-colonel) acted as travelling agent to the Stafford House (Red +Cross) Committee, but had to return to England before the campaign was +over. At this point began his active interest in politics, and in 1880 he +unsuccessfully contested a seat at Birmingham in the Tory-Democrat +interest. In 1882 he crossed the Channel in a balloon. Having been +disappointed in his hope of seeing active service in the Egyptian campaign +of 1882, he participated in the Suakin campaign of 1884 without official +leave, and was wounded at El Teb when acting as an intelligence officer +under General Valentine Baker. This did not deter him from a similar course +when a fresh expedition started up the Nile. He was given a post by Lord +Wolseley, and met his death in the hand-to-hand fighting of the battle of +Abu Klea (17th January 1885). + +BURNAND, SIR FRANCIS COWLEY (1836- ), English humorist, was born in London +on the 29th of November 1836. His father was a London stockbroker, of +French-Swiss origin; his mother Emma Cowley, a direct descendant of Hannah +Cowley (1743-1809), the English poet and dramatist. He was educated at Eton +and Cambridge, and originally studied first for the Anglican, then for the +Roman Catholic Church; but eventually took to the law and was called to the +bar. From his earliest days, however, the stage had attracted him--he +founded the Amateur Dramatic Club at Cambridge,--and finally he abandoned +the church and the law, first for the stage and subsequently for dramatic +authorship. His first great dramatic success was made with the burlesque +_Black-Eyed Susan_, and he wrote a large number of other burlesques, +comedies and farces. One of his early burlesques came under the favourable +notice of Mark Lemon, then editor of _Punch_, and Burnand, who was already +writing for the comic paper _Fun_, became in 1862 a regular contributor to +_Punch_. In 1880 he was appointed editor of _Punch_, and only retired from +that position in 1906. In 1902 he was knighted. His literary reputation as +a humorist depends, apart from his long association with _Punch_, on his +well-known book _Happy Thoughts_, originally published in _Punch_ in +1863-1864 and frequently reprinted. + +See _Recollections and Reminiscences_, by Sir F.C. Burnand (London, 1904). + +BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD BURNE, Bart. (1833-1898), English painter and +designer, was born on the 28th of August 1833 at Birmingham. His father was +a Welsh descent, and the idealism of his nature and art has been attributed +to this Celtic strain. An only son, he was educated at King Edward's +school, Birmingham, and destined for the Church. He retained through life +an interest in classical studies, but it was the mythology of the classics +which fascinated him. He went into residence as a scholar at Exeter +College, Oxford, in January 1853. On the same day William Morris entered +the same college, having also the intention of taking orders. The two were +thrown together, and grew close friends. Their similar tastes and +enthusiasms were [v.04 p.0849] mutually stimulated. Burne-Jones resumed his +early love of drawing and designing. With Morris he read _Modern Painters_ +and the _Morte d'Arthur_. He studied the Italian pictures in the University +galleries, and Duerer's engravings; but his keenest enthusiasm was kindled +by the sight of two works by a living man, Rossetti. One of these was a +woodcut in Allingham's poems, "The Maids of Elfinmere"; the other was the +water-colour "Dante drawing an Angel," then belonging to Mr Coombe, of the +Clarendon Press, and now in the University collection. Having found his +true vocation, Burne-Jones, like his friend Morris, determined to +relinquish his thoughts of the Church and to become an artist. Rossetti, +although not yet seen by him, was his chosen master; and early in 1856 he +had the happiness, in London, of meeting him. At Easter he left college +without taking a degree. This was his own decision, not due (as often +stated) to Rossetti's persuasion; but on settling in London, where Morris +soon joined him at 17 Red Lion Square, he began to work under Rossetti's +friendly instruction and encouraging guidance. + +As Burne-Jones once said, he "found himself at five-and-twenty what he +ought to have been at fifteen." He had had no regular training as a +draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. But his extraordinary +faculty of invention as a designer was already ripening; his mind, rich in +knowledge of classical story and medieval romance, teemed with pictorial +subjects; and he set himself to complete his equipment by resolute labour, +witnessed by innumerable drawings. The works of this first period are all +more or less tinged by the influence of Rossetti; but they are already +differentiated from the elder master's style by their more facile though +less intensely felt elaboration of imaginative detail. Many are pen-and-ink +drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which the "Waxen Image" is one +of the earliest and best examples; it is dated 1856. Although subject, +medium and manner derive from Rossetti's inspiration, it is not the hand of +a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti +himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him. +Burne-Jones's first sketch in oils dates from this same year, 1856; and +during 1857 he made for Bradfield College the first of what was to be an +immense series of cartoons for stained glass. In 1858 he decorated a +cabinet with the "Prioress's Tale" from Chaucer, his first direct +illustration of the work of a poet whom he especially loved and who +inspired him with endless subjects. Thus early, therefore, we see the +artist busy in all the various fields in which he was to labour. + +In the autumn of 1857 Burne-Jones joined in Rossetti's ill-fated scheme to +decorate theh walls of the Oxford Union. None of the painters had mastered +the technique of fresco, and their pictures had begun to peel from the +walls before they were completed. In 1859 Burne-Jones made his first +journey to Italy. He saw Florence, Pisa, Siena, Venice and other places, +and appears to have found the gentle and romantic Sienese more attractive +than any other school. Rossetti's influence still persisted; and its +impress is visible, more strongly perhaps than ever before, in the two +water-colours "Sidonia von Bork" and "Clara von Bork," painted in 1860. +These little masterpieces have a directness of execution rare with the +artist. In powerful characterization, combined with a decorative motive, +they rival Rossetti at his best. In June of this year Burne-Jones was +married to Miss Georgiana Macdonald, two of whose sisters were the wives of +Sir E. Poynter and Mr J.L. Kipling, and they settled in Bloomsbury. Five +years later he moved to Kensington Square, and shortly afterwards to the +Grange, Fulham, an old house with a garden, where he resided till his +death. In 1862 the artist and his wife accompanied Ruskin to Italy, +visiting Milan and Venice. + +In 1864 he was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in +Water-Colours, and exhibited, among other works, "The Merciful Knight," the +first picture which fully revealed his ripened personality as an artist. +The next six years saw a series of fine water-colours at the same gallery; +but in 1870, owing to a misunderstanding, Burne-Jones resigned his +membership of the society. He was re-elected in 1886. During the next seven +years, 1870-1877, only two works of the painter's were exhibited. These +were two water-colours, shown at the Dudley Gallery in 1873, one of them +being the beautiful "Love among the Ruins," destroyed twenty years later by +a cleaner who supposed it to be an oil painting, but afterwards reproduced +in oils by the painter. This silent period was, however, one of unremitting +production. Hitherto Burne-Jones had worked almost entirely in +water-colours. He now began a number of large pictures in oils, working at +them in turn, and having always several on hand. The "Briar Rose" series, +"Laus Veneris," the "Golden Stairs," the "Pygmalion" series, and "The +Mirror of Venus" are among the works planned and completed, or carried far +towards completion, during these years. At last, in May 1877, the day of +recognition came, with the opening of the first exhibition of the Grosvenor +Gallery, when the "Days of Creation," the "Beguiling of Merlin," and the +"Mirror of Venus" were all shown. Burne-Jones followed up the signal +success of these pictures with "Laus Veneris," the "Chant d'Amour," "Pan +and Psyche," and other works, exhibited in 1878. Most of these pictures are +painted in gay and brilliant colours. A change is noticeable next year, +1879, in the "Annunciation" and in the four pictures called "Pygmalion and +the Image"; the former of these, one of the simplest and most perfect of +the artist's works, is subdued and sober; in the latter a scheme of soft +and delicate tints was attempted, not with entire success. A similar +temperance of colours marks the "Golden Stairs," first exhibited in 1880. +In 1884, following the almost sombre "Wheel of Fortune" of the preceding +year, appeared "King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid," in which Burne-Jones +once more indulged his love of gorgeous colour, refined by the period of +self-restraint. This masterpiece is now in the National collection. He next +turned to two important sets of pictures, "The Briar Rose" and "The Story +of Perseus," though these were not completed for some years to come. In +1886, having been elected A.R.A. the previous year, he exhibited (for the +only time) at the Royal Academy "The Depths of the Sea," a mermaid carrying +down with her a youth whom she has unconsciously drowned in the impetuosity +of her love. This picture adds to the habitual haunting charm a tragic +irony of conception and a felicity of execution which give it a place apart +among Burne-Jones's works. He resigned his Associateship in 1893. One of +the "Perseus" series was exhibited in 1887, two more in 1888, with "The +Brazen Tower," inspired by the same legend. In 1890 the four pictures of +"The Briar Rose" were exhibited by themselves, and won the widest +admiration. The huge tempera picture, "The Star of Bethlehem," painted for +the corporation of Birmingham, was exhibited in 1891. A long illness for +some time checked the painter's activity, which, when resumed, was much +occupied with decorative schemes. An exhibition of his work was held at the +New Gallery in the winter of 1892-1893. To this period belong several of +his comparatively few portraits. In 1894 Burne-Jones was made a baronet. +Ill-health again interrupted the progress of his works, chief among which +was the vast "Arthur in Avalon." In 1898 he had an attack of influenza, and +had apparently recovered, when he was again taken suddenly ill, and died on +the 17th of June. In the following winter a second exhibition of his works +was held at the New Gallery, and an exhibition of his drawings (including +some of the charmingly humorous sketches made for children) at the +Burlington Fine Arts Club. + +His son and successor in the baronetcy, Sir Philip Burne-Jones (b. 1861), +also became well known as an artist. The only daughter, Margaret, married +Mr J.W. Mackail. + +Burne-Jones's influence has been exercised far less in painting than in the +wide field of decorative design. Here it has been enormous. His first +designs for stained glass, 1857-1861, were made for Messrs Powell, but +after 1861 he worked exclusively for Morris & Co. Windows executed from his +cartoons are to be found all over England; others exist in churches abroad. +For the American Church in Rome he designed a number of mosaics. Reliefs in +metal, tiles, gesso-work, decorations for [v.04 p.0850] pianos and organs, +and cartoons for tapestry represent his manifold activity. In all works, +however, which were only designed and not carried out by him, a decided +loss of delicacy is to be noted. The colouring of the tapestries (of which +the "Adoration of the Magi" at Exeter College is the best-known) is more +brilliant than successful. The range and fertility of Burne-Jones as a +decorative inventor can be perhaps most conveniently studied in the +sketch-book, 1885-1895, which he bequeathed to the British Museum. The +artist's influence on book-illustration must also be recorded. In early +years he made a few drawings on wood for Dalziel's Bible and for _Good +Words_; but his later work for the Kelmscott Press, founded by Morris in +1891, is that by which he is best remembered. Besides several illustrations +to other Kelmscott books, he made eighty-seven designs for the _Chaucer_ of +1897. + +Burne-Jones's aim in art is best given in some of his own words, written to +a friend: "I mean by a picture a beautiful, romantic dream of something +that never was, never will be--in a light better than any light that ever +shone--in a land no one can define or remember, only desire--and the forms +divinely beautiful--and then I wake up, with the waking of Brynhild." No +artist was ever more true to his aim. Ideals resolutely pursued are apt to +provoke the resentment of the world, and Burne-Jones encountered, endured +and conquered an extraordinary amount of, angry criticism. In so far as +this was directed against the lack of realism in his pictures, it was +beside the point. The earth, the sky, the rocks, the trees, the men and +women of Burne-Jones are not those of this world; but they are themselves a +world, consistent with itself, and having therefore its own reality. +Charged with the beauty and with the strangeness of dreams, it has nothing +of a dream's incoherence. Yet it is a dreamer always whose nature +penetrates these works, a nature out of sympathy with struggle and +strenuous action. Burne-Jones's men and women are dreamers too. It was this +which, more than anything else, estranged him from the age into which he +was born. But he had an inbred "revolt from fact" which would have +estranged him from the actualities of any age. That criticism seems to be +more justified which has found in him a lack of such victorious energy and +mastery over his materials as would have enabled him to carry out his +conceptions in their original intensity. Representing the same kind of +tendency as distinguished his French contemporary, Puvis de Chavannes, he +was far less in the main current of art, and his position suffers +accordingly. Often compared with Botticelli, he had nothing of the fire and +vehemence of the Florentine. Yet, if aloof from strenuous action, +Burne-Jones was singularly strenuous in production. His industry was +inexhaustible, and needed to be, if it was to keep pace with the constant +pressure of his ideas. Invention, a very rare excellence, was his +pre-eminent gift. Whatever faults his paintings may have, they have always +the fundamental virtue of design; they are always pictures. His fame might +rest on his purely decorative work. But his designs were informed with a +mind of romantic temper, apt in the discovery of beautiful subjects, and +impassioned with a delight in pure and variegated colour. These splendid +gifts were directed in a critical and fortunate moment by the genius of +Rossetti. Hence a career which shows little waste or misdirection of power, +and, granted the aim proposed, a rare level of real success. + +AUTHORITIES.--In 1904 was published _Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones_, by +his widow, two volumes of extreme interest and charm. _The Work of +Burne-Jones_, a collection of ninety-one photogravures, appeared in 1900. + +See also _Catalogue to Burlington Club Exhibition of Drawings by +Burne-Jones_, with Introduction by Cosmo Monkhouse (1899); _Sir E. +Burne-Jones: a Record and a Review_, by Malcolm Belt (1898); _Sir E. +Burne-Jones, his Life and Work_, by Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady) (1894); _The +Life of William Morris_, by J.W. Mackail (1899). + +(L. B.) + +BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE (1840-1882), English Sanskrit scholar, was born at St +Briavels, Gloucestershire, in 1840. His father was an official of the East +India Company, and in 1860 he himself went out to Madras as a member of the +Indian civil service. Here he utilized every available opportunity to +acquire or copy Sanskrit manuscripts. In 1870 he presented his collection +of 350 MSS. to the India library. In 1874 he published a _Handbook of South +Indian Palaeography_, characterized by Max Mueller as "indispensable to +every student of Indian literature," and in 1880 issued for the Madras +government his greatest work, the _Classified Index to the Sanskrit MSS. in +the Palace at Tanjore_. He was also the author of a large number of +translations from, and commentaries on, various other Sanskrit manuscripts, +being particularly successful in grouping and elucidating the essential +principles of Hindu law. In addition to his exhaustive acquaintance with +Sanskrit, and the southern India vernaculars, he had some knowledge of +Tibetan, Arabic, Kawi, Javanese and Coptic. Burnell originated with Sir +Henry Yule the well-known dictionary of Anglo-Indian words and phrases, +_Hobson-Jobson_. His constitution, never strong, broke down prematurely +through the combined influence of overwork and the Madras climate, and he +died at West Stratton, Hampshire, on the 12th of October 1882. A further +collection of Sanskrit manuscripts was purchased from his heirs by the +India library after his death. + +BURNELL, ROBERT (d. 1292), English bishop and chancellor, was born at Acton +Burnell in Shropshire, and began his public life probably as a clerk in the +royal chancery. He was soon in the service of Edward, the eldest son of +King Henry III., and was constantly in attendance on the prince, whose +complete confidence he appears to have enjoyed. Having received some +ecclesiastical preferments, he acted as one of the regents of the kingdom +from the death of Henry III. in November 1272 until August 1274, when the +new king, Edward I., returned from Palestine and made him his chancellor. +In 1275 Burnell was elected bishop of Bath and Wells, and three years later +Edward repeated the attempt which he had made in 1270 to secure the +archbishopric of Canterbury for his favourite. The bishop's second failure +to obtain this dignity was due, doubtless, to his irregular and unclerical +manner of life, a fact which also accounts, in part at least, for the +hostility which existed between his victorious rival, Archbishop Peckham, +and himself. As the chief adviser of Edward I. during the earlier part of +his reign, and moreover as a trained and able lawyer, the bishop took a +prominent part in the legislative acts of the "English Justinian," whose +activity in this direction coincides practically with Burnell's tenure of +the office of chancellor. The bishop also influenced the king's policy with +regard to France, Scotland and Wales; was frequently employed on business +of the highest moment; and was the royal mouthpiece on several important +occasions. In 1283 a council, or, as it is sometimes called, a parliament, +met in his house at Acton Burnell, and he was responsible for the +settlement of the court of chancery in London. In spite of his numerous +engagements, Burnell found time to aggrandize his bishopric, to provide +liberally for his nephews and other kinsmen, and to pursue his cherished +but futile aim of founding a great family. Licentious and avaricious, he +amassed great wealth; and when he died on the 25th of October 1292 he left +numerous estates in Shropshire, Worcestershire, Somerset, Kent, Surrey and +elsewhere. He was, however, genial and kind-hearted, a great lawyer and a +faithful minister. + +See R.W. Eyton, _Antiquities of Shropshire_ (London, 1854-1860); and E. +Foss, _The Judges of England_, vol. iii. (London, 1848-1864). + +BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER (1805-1841), British traveller and explorer, was born +at Montrose, Scotland, in 1805. While serving in India, in the army of the +East India Company, which he had joined in his seventeenth year, he made +himself acquainted with Hindustani and Persian, and thus obtained an +appointment as interpreter at Surat in 1822. Transferred to Cutch in 1826 +as assistant to the political agent, he turned his attention more +particularly to the history and geography of north-western India and the +adjacent countries, at that time very imperfectly known. His proposal in +1829 to undertake a journey of exploration through the valley of the Indus +was not carried out owing to political apprehensions; but in 1831 he was +sent to Lahore with a present of horses from King William IV. to Maharaja +Ranjit Singh and took advantage of the opportunity for extensive +investigations. In the following years his travels were extended through +Afghanistan across the Hindu Kush to [v.04 p.0851] Bokhara and Persia. The +narrative which he published on his visit to England in 1834 added +immensely to contemporary knowledge of the countries traversed, and was one +of the most popular books of the time. The first edition brought the author +the sum of L800, and his services were recognized not only by the Royal +Geographical Society of London, but also by that of Paris. Soon after his +return to India in 1835 he was appointed to the court of Sind to secure a +treaty for the navigation of the Indus; and in 1836 he undertook a +political mission to Dost Mahommed at Kabul. He advised Lord Auckland to +support Dost Mahommed on the throne of Kabul, but the viceroy preferred to +follow the opinion of Sir William Macnaghten and reinstated Shah Shuja, +thus leading up to the disasters of the first Afghan War. On the +restoration of Shah Shuja in 1839, he became regular political agent at +Kabul, and remained there till his assassination in 1841 (on the 2nd of +November), during the heat of an insurrection. The calmness with which he +continued at his post, long after the imminence of his danger was apparent, +gives an heroic colouring to the close of an honourable and devoted life. +It came to light in 1861 that some of Burnes' despatches from Kabul in 1839 +had been altered, so as to convey opinions opposite to his, but Lord +Palmerston refused after such a lapse of time to grant the inquiry demanded +in the House of Commons. A narrative of his later labours was published in +1842 under the title of _Cabool_. + +See Sir J.W. Kaye, _Lives of Indian Officers_ (1889). + +BURNET, GILBERT (1643-1715), English bishop and historian, was born in +Edinburgh on the 18th of September 1643, of an ancient and distinguished +Scottish house. He was the youngest son of Robert Burnet (1592-1661), who +at the Restoration became a lord of session with the title of Lord Crimond. +Robert Burnet had refused to sign the Scottish Covenant, although the +document was drawn up by his brother-in-law, Archibald Johnstone, Lord +Warristoun. He therefore found it necessary to retire from his profession, +and twice went into exile. He disapproved of the rising of the Scots, but +was none the less a severe critic of the government of Charles I. and of +the action of the Scottish bishops. This moderate attitude he impressed on +his son Gilbert, whose early education he directed. The boy entered +Marischal College at the age of nine, and five years later graduated M.A. +He then spent a year in the study of feudal and civil law before he +resolved to devote himself to theology. He became a probationer for the +Scottish ministry in 1661 just before episcopal government was +re-established in Scotland. His decision to accept episcopal orders led to +difficulties with his family, especially with his mother, who held rigid +Presbyterian views. From this time dates his friendship with Robert +Leighton (1611-1684), who greatly influenced his religious opinions. +Leighton had, during a stay in the Spanish Netherlands, assimilated +something of the ascetic and pietistic spirit of Jansenism, and was devoted +to the interests of peace in the church. Burnet wisely refused to accept a +benefice in the disturbed state of church affairs, but he wrote an +audacious letter to Archbishop Sharp asking him to take measures to restore +peace. Sharp sent for Burnet, and dismissed his advice without apparent +resentment. He had already made valuable acquaintances in Edinburgh, and he +now visited London, Oxford and Cambridge, and, after a short visit to +Edinburgh in 1663, when he sought to secure a reprieve for his uncle +Warristoun, he proceeded to travel in France and Holland. At Cambridge he +was strongly influenced by the philosophical views of Ralph Cudworth and +Henry More, who proposed an unusual degree of toleration within the +boundaries of the church and the limitations imposed by its liturgy and +episcopal government; and his intercourse in Holland with foreign divines +of different Protestant sects further encouraged his tendency to +latitudinarianism. + +When he returned to England in 1664 he established intimate relations with +Sir Robert Moray and with John Maitland, earl and afterwards first duke of +Lauderdale, both of whom at that time advocated a tolerant policy towards +the Scottish covenanters. Burnet became a member of the Royal Society, of +which Moray was the first president. On his father's death he had been +offered a living by a relative, Sir Alexander Burnet, and in 1663 the +living of Saltoun, East Lothian, had been kept open for him by one of his +father's friends. He was not formally inducted at Saltoun until June 1665, +although he had served there since October 1664. For the next five years he +devoted himself to his parish, where he won the respect of all parties. In +1666 he alienated the Scottish bishops by a bold memorial (printed in vol. +ii. of the _Miscellanies_ of the Scottish Historical Society), in which he +pointed out that they were departing from the custom of the primitive +church by their excessive pretensions, and yet his attitude was far too +moderate to please the Presbyterians. In 1669 he resigned his parish to +become professor of divinity in the university of Glasgow, and in the same +year he published an exposition of his ecclesiastical views in his _Modest +and Free Conference between a Conformist and a Nonconformist_ (by "a lover +of peace"). He was Leighton's right hand in the efforts at a compromise +between the episcopal and the presbyterian principle. Meanwhile he had +begun to differ from Lauderdale, whose policy after the failure of the +scheme of "Accommodation" moved in the direction of absolutism and +repression, and during Lauderdale's visit to Scotland in 1672 the +divergence rapidly developed into opposition. He warily refused the offer +of a Scottish bishopric, and published in 1673 his four "conferences," +entitled _Vindication of the Authority, Constitution and Laws of the Church +and State of Scotland_, in which he insisted on the duty of passive +obedience. It was partly through the influence of Anne (d. 1716), duchess +of Hamilton in her own right, that he had been appointed at Glasgow, and he +made common cause with the Hamiltons against Lauderdale. The duchess had +made over to him the papers of her father and uncle, from which he compiled +the _Memoirs of the Lives and Actions of James and William, dukes of +Hamilton and Castleherald. In which an Account is given of the Rise and +Progress of the Civil Wars of Scotland ... together with many letters ... +written by King Charles I._ (London, 1677; Univ. Press, Oxford, 1852), a +book which was published as the second volume of a _History of the Church +of Scotland_, Spottiswoode's _History_ forming the first. This work +established his reputation as an historian. Meanwhile he had clandestinely +married in 1671 a cousin of Lauderdale, Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of +John Kennedy, 6th earl of Cassilis, a lady who had already taken an active +part in affairs in Scotland, and was eighteen years older than Burnet. The +marriage was kept secret for three years, and Burnet renounced all claim to +his wife's fortune. + +Lauderdale's ascendancy in Scotland and the failure of the attempts at +compromise in Scottish church affairs eventually led Burnet to settle in +England. He was favourably received by Charles II. in 1673, when he went up +to London to arrange for the publication of the Hamilton _Memoirs_, and he +was treated with confidence by the duke of York. On his return to Scotland +Lauderdale refused to receive him, and denounced him to Charles II. as one +of the chief centres of Scottish discontent. Burnet found it wiser to +retire to England on the plea of fulfilling his duties as royal chaplain. +Once in London he resigned his professorship (September 1674) at Glasgow; +but, although James remained his friend, Charles struck him off the roll of +court chaplains in 1674, and it was in opposition to court influence that +he was made chaplain to the Rolls Chapel by the master, Sir Harbottle +Grimston, and appointed lecturer at St Clement's. He was summoned in April +1675 before a committee of the House of Commons to give evidence against +Lauderdale, and disclosed, without reluctance according to his enemies, +confidences which had passed between him and the minister. He himself +confesses in his autobiography that "it was a great error in me to appear +in this matter," and his conduct cost him the patronage of the duke of +York. In ecclesiastical matters he threw in his lot with Thomas Tillotson +and John Tenison, and at the time of the Revolution had written some +eighteen polemics against encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. At +the suggestion of Sir William Jones, the attorney-general, he began his +_History of the Reformation in England_, based on original documents. [v.04 +p.0852] In the necessary research he received some pecuniary help from +Robert Boyle, but he was hindered in the preparation of the first part +(1679) through being refused access to the Cotton library, possibly by the +influence of Lauderdale. For this volume he received the thanks of +parliament, and the second and third volumes appeared in 1681 and 1715. In +this work he undertook to refute the statements of Nicholas Sanders, whose +_De Origine et progressu schismatis Anglicani libri tres_ (Cologne, 1585) +was still, in the French translation of Maucroix, the commonly accepted +account of the English reformation. Burnet's contradictions of Sanders must +not, however, be accepted without independent investigation. At the time of +the Popish Plot in 1678 he displayed some moderation, refusing to believe +the charges made against the duke of York, though he chose this time to +publish some anti-Roman pamphlets. He tried, at some risk to himself, to +save the life of one of the victims, William Staly, and visited William +Howard, Viscount Stafford, in the Tower. To the Exclusion Bill he opposed a +suggestion of compromise, and it is said that Charles offered him the +bishopric of Chichester, "if he would come entirely into his interests." +Burnet's reconciliation with the court was short-lived. In January 1680 he +addressed to the king a long letter on the subject of his sins; he was +known to have received the dangerous confidence of Wilmot, earl of +Rochester, in his last illness; and he was even suspected, unjustly, in +1683, of having composed the paper drawn up on the eve of death by William +Russell, Lord Russell, whom he attended to the scaffold. On the 5th of +November 1684 he preached, at the express wish of his patron Grimston, and +against his own desire, the usual anti-Catholic sermon. He was consequently +deprived of his appointments by order of the court, and on the accession of +James II. retired to Paris. He had already begun the writing of his +memoirs, which were to develop into the _History of His Own Time_. + +Burnet now travelled in Italy, Germany and Switzerland, finally settling in +Holland at the Hague, where he won from the princess of Orange a confidence +which proved enduring. He rendered a signal service to William by inducing +the princess to offer to leave the whole political power in her husband's +hands in the event of their succession to the English crown. A prosecution +against him for high treason was now set on foot both in England and in +Scotland, and he took the precaution of naturalizing himself as a Dutch +subject. Lady Margaret Burnet was dying when he left England, and n Holland +he married a Dutch heiress of Scottish descent, Mary Scott. He returned to +England with William and Mary, and drew up the English text of their +declaration. His earlier views on the doctrine of non-resistance had been +sensibly modified by what he saw in France after the revocation of the +edict of Nantes and by the course of affairs at home, and in 1688 he +published an _Inquiry into the Measures of Submission to the Supreme +Authority_ in defence of the revolution. He was consecrated to the see of +Salisbury on the 31st of March 1689 by a commission of bishops to whom +Archbishop Sancroft had delegated his authority, declining personally to +perform the office. In his pastoral letter to his clergy urging them to +take the oath of allegiance, Burnet grounded the claim of William and Mary +on the right of conquest, a view which gave such offence that the pamphlet +was burnt by the common hangman three years later. As bishop he proved an +excellent administrator, and gave the closest attention to his pastoral +duties. He discouraged plurality of livings, and consequent non-residence, +established a school of divinity as Salisbury, and spent much time himself +in preparing candidates for confirmation, and in the examination of those +who wished to enter the priesthood. Four discourses delivered to the clergy +of his diocese were printed in 1694. During Queen Mary's lifetime +ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands, but after her death +William III. appointed an ecclesiastical commission on which Burnet was a +prominent member, for the disposal of vacant benefices. In 1696 and 1697 he +presented memorials to the king suggesting that the first-fruits and tenths +raised by the clergy should be devoted to the augmentation of the poorer +livings, and though his suggestions were not immediately accepted, they +were carried into effect under Queen Anne by the provision known as Queen +Anne's Bounty. His second wife died of smallpox in 1698, and in 1700 Burnet +married again, his third wife being Elizabeth (1661-1709), widow of Robert +Berkeley and daughter of Sir Richard Blake, a rich and charitable woman, +known by her _Method of Devotion_, posthumously published in 1710. In 1699 +he was appointed tutor to the royal duke of Gloucester, son of the Princess +Anne, an appointment which he accepted somewhat against his will. His +influence at court had declined after the death of Queen Mary; William +resented his often officious advice, placed little confidence in his +discretion, and soon after his accession is even said to have described him +as _ein rechter Tartuffe_. Burnet made a weighty speech against the bill +(1702-1703) directed against the practice of occasional conformity, and was +a consistent exponent of Broad Church principles. He devoted five years' +labour to his _Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles_ (1699; ed. J.R. +Page, 1837), which was severely criticized by the High Church clergy. But +his hopes for a comprehensive scheme which might include nonconformists in +the English Church were necessarily destroyed on the accession of Queen +Anne. He died on the 17th of March 1715, and was buried in the parish of St +James's, Clerkenwell. + +Burnet directed in his will that his most important work, the _History of +His Own Time_, should appear six years after his death. It was published (2 +vols., 1724-1734) by his sons, Gilbert and Thomas, and then not without +omissions. It was attacked in 1724 by John Cockburn in _A Specimen of some +free and impartial Remarks_. Burnet's book naturally aroused much +opposition, and there were persistent rumours that the MS. had been unduly +tampered with. He has been freely charged with gross misrepresentation, an +accusation to which he laid himself open, for instance, in the account of +the birth of James, the Old Pretender. His later intimacy with the +Marlboroughs made him very lenient where the duke was concerned. The +greatest value of his work naturally lies in his account of transactions of +which he had personal knowledge, notably in his relation of the church +history of Scotland, of the Popish Plot, of the proceedings at the Hague +previous to the expedition of William and Mary, and of the personal +relations between the joint sovereigns. + +Of his children by his second wife, William (d. 1729) became a colonial +governor in America; Gilbert (d. 1726) became prebendary of Salisbury in +1715, and chaplain to George I. in 1718; and Sir Thomas (1694-1753), his +literary executor and biographer, became in 1741 judge in the court of +common pleas. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief authorities for Bishop Burnet's life are the +autobiography "Rough Draft of my own Life" (ed. H.C. Foxcroft, Oxford, +1902, in the _Supplement to Burnet's History_), the Life by Sir Thomas +Burnet in the _History of His Own Time_ (Oxford, 1823, vol. vi.), and the +_History_ itself. A rather severe but detailed and useful criticism is +given in L. v. Ranke's _History of England_ (Eng. ed., Oxford, 1875), vol. +vi. pp. 45-101. Burnet's letters to his friend, George Savile, marquess of +Halifax, were published by the Royal Historical Society (_Camden +Miscellany_, vol. xi.). The _History of His Own Time_ (2 vols. fol., +1724-1734) ran through many editions before it was reprinted at the +Clarendon Press (6 vols., 1823, and supplementary volume, 1833) with the +suppressed passages of the first volume and notes by the earls of Dartmouth +and Hardwicke, with the remarks of Swift. This edition, under the direction +of M.J. Routh, was enlarged in a second Oxford edition of 1833. A new +edition, based on this, but making use of the Bodleian MS., which differs +very considerably from the printed version, was edited by Osmund Airy +(Oxford, 1897, &c.). In 1902 (Clarendon Press, Oxford) Miss H.C. Foxcroft +edited _A Supplement to Burnet's History of His Own Time_, to which is +prefixed an account of the relation between the different versions of the +History--the Bodleian MS., the fragmentary Harleian MS. in the British +Museum and Sir Thomas Burnet's edition; the book contains the remaining +fragments of Burnet's original memoirs, his autobiography, his letters to +Admiral Herbert and his private meditations. The chief differences between +Burnet's original draft as represented by the Bodleian MS. and the printed +history consist in a more lenient view generally of individuals, a +modification of the censure levelled at the Anglican clergy, changes +obviously dictated by a general variation in his point of view, and a more +cautious account of personal matters such as his early relations with +Lauderdale. He also cut out much minor detail, and information relating to +himself and to members of his family. His [v.04 p.0853] _History of the +Reformation of the Church of England_ was edited (Clarendon Press, Oxford, +7 vols., 1865) by N. Pocock. + +Besides the works mentioned above may be noticed: _Some Passages of the +Life and Death of John, Earl of Rochester_ (Lond., 1680; facsimile reprint, +with introduction by Lord Ronald Gower, 1875); _The Life and Death of Sir +Matthew Hale, Kt., sometime Lord Chief-Justice of his Majesties Court of +Kings Bench_ (Lond., 1682), which is included in C. Wordsworth's +_Ecclesiastical Biography_ (vol. vi., 1818); _The History of the Rights of +Princes in disposing of Ecclesiastical Benefices and Church Lands_ (Lond., +1682, 8vo); _The Life of William Bedell, D.D., Bishop of Kilmore in +Ireland_ (1685), containing the correspondence between Bedell and James +Waddesdon of the Holy Inquisition on the subject of the Roman obedience; +_Reflections on Mr Varillas's "History of the Revolutions that have +happened in Europe in matters of Religion," and more particularly on his +Ninth Book, that relates to England_ (Amst., 1686), appended to the account +of his travels entitled _Some Letters_, which was originally published at +Rotterdam (1686); _A Discourse of the Pastoral Care_ (1692, 14th ed., +1821); _An Essay on the Memory of the late Queen_ (1695); _A Collection of +various Tracts and Discourses written in the Years 1677 to 1704_ (3 vols., +1704); and _A Collection of Speeches, Prefaces, Letters, with a Description +of Geneva and Holland_ (1713). Of his shorter religious and polemical works +a catalogue is given in vol. vi. of the Clarendon Press edition of his +_History_, and in Lowndes's _Bibliographer's Manual_. The following +translations deserve to be mentioned:--_Utopia, written in Latin by Sir +Thomas More, Chancellor of England: translated into English_ (1685); _A +Relation of the Death of the Primitive Persecutors, written originally in +Latin, by L.C.F. Lactantius: Englished by Gilbert Burnet, D.D., to which he +hath made a large preface concerning Persecution_ (Amst., 1687). + +See also _A Life of Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury_ (1907), by T.E.S. +Clarke and H.C. Foxcroft, with an introduction by C.H. Firth, which +contains a chronological list of Burnet's published works. Of Burnet's +personal character there are well-known descriptions in chapter vii. of +Macaulay's _History of England_, and in W.E.H. Lecky's _History of England +in the Eighteenth Century_, vol. i. pp. 80 seq. + +BURNET, THOMAS (1635-1715), English divine, was born at Croft in Yorkshire +about the year 1635. He was educated at Northallerton, and at Clare Hall, +Cambridge. In 1657 he was made fellow of Christ's, and in 1667 senior +proctor of the university. By the interest of James, duke of Ormonde, he +was chosen master of the Charterhouse in 1685, and took the degree of D.D. +As master he made a noble stand against the illegal attempts to admit +Andrew Popham as a pensioner of the house, strenuously opposing an order of +the 26th of December 1686, addressed by James II. to the governors +dispensing with the statutes for the occasion. + +Burnet published his famous _Telluris Theoria Sacra_, or _Sacred Theory of +the Earth_,[1] at London in 1681. This work, containing a fanciful theory +of the earth's structure,[2] attracted much attention, and he was +afterwards encouraged to issue an English translation, which was printed in +folio, 1684-1689. Addison commended the author in a Latin ode, but his +theory was attacked by John Keill, William Whiston and Erasmus Warren, to +all of whom he returned answers. His reputation obtained for him an +introduction at court by Archbishop Tillotson, whom he succeeded as clerk +of the closet to King William. But he suddenly marred his prospects by the +publication, in 1692, of a work entitled _Archaeologiae Philosophicae: sive +Doctrina antiqua de Rerum Originibus_, in which he treated the Mosaic +account of the fall of man as an allegory. This excited a great clamour +against him; and the king was obliged to remove him from his office at +court. Of this book an English translation was published in 1729. Burnet +published several other minor works before his death, which took place at +the Charterhouse on the 27th September 1715. Two posthumous works appeared +several years after his death--_De Fide et Officiis Christianorum_ (1723), +and _De Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium Tractatus_ (1723); in which he +maintained the doctrine of a middle state, the millennium, and the limited +duration of future punishment. A _Life of Dr Burnet_, by Heathcote, +appeared in 1759. + +[1] "Which," says Samuel Johnson, "the critick ought to read for its +elegance, the philosopher for its arguments, and the saint for its piety" +(_Lives of English Poets_, vol. i. p. 303). + +[2] Burnet held that at the deluge the earth was crushed like an egg, the +internal waters rushing out, and the fragments of shell becoming the +mountains. + +BURNET, known botanically as _Poterium_, a member of the rose family. The +plants are perennial herbs with pinnate leaves and small flowers arranged +in dense long-stalked heads. Great burnet (_Poterium officinale_) is found +in damp meadows; salad burnet (_P. Sanguisorba_) is a smaller plant with +much smaller flower-heads growing in dry pastures. + +BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON (1849- ), Anglo-American novelist, whose +maiden name was Hodgson, was born in Manchester, England, on the 24th of +November 1849; she went to America with her parents, who settled in +Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1865. Miss Hodgson soon began to write stories for +magazines. In 1873 she married Dr L.M. Burnett of Washington, whom she +afterwards (1898) divorced. Her reputation as a novelist was made by her +remarkable tale of Lancashire life, _That Lass o' Lowrie's_ (1877), and a +number of other volumes followed, of which the best were _Through one +Administration_ (1883) and _A Lady of Quality_ (1896). In 1886 she attained +a new popularity by her charming story of _Little Lord Fauntleroy_, and +this led to other stories of child-life. _Little Lord Fauntleroy_ was +dramatized (see COPYRIGHT for the legal questions involved) and had a great +success on the stage; and other dramas by her were also produced. In 1900 +she married a second time, her husband being Mr Stephen Townesend, a +surgeon, who (as Will Dennis) had taken to the stage and had collaborated +with her in some of her plays. + +BURNEY, CHARLES (1726-1814), English musical historian, was born at +Shrewsbury on the 12th of April 1726. He received his earlier education at +the free school of that city, and was afterwards sent to the public school +at Chester. His first music master was Edmund Baker, organist of Chester +cathedral, and a pupil of Dr John Blow. Returning to Shrewsbury when about +fifteen years old, he continued his musical studies for three years under +his half-brother, James Burney, organist of St Mary's church, and was then +sent to London as a pupil of the celebrated Dr Arne, with whom he remained +three years. Burney wrote some music for Thomson's _Alfred_, which was +produced at Drury Lane theatre on the 30th of March 1745. In 1749 he was +appointed organist of St Dionis-Backchurch, Fenchurch Street, with a salary +of L30 a year; and he was also engaged to take the harpsichord in the "New +Concerts" then recently established at the King's Arms, Cornhill. In that +year he married Miss Esther Sleepe, who died in 1761; in 1769 he married +Mrs Stephen Allen of Lynn. Being threatened with a pulmonary affection he +went in 1751 to Lynn in Norfolk, where he was elected organist, with an +annual salary of L100, and there he resided for the next nine years. During +that time he began to entertain the idea of writing a general history of +music. His _Ode for St Cecilia's Day_ was performed at Ranelagh Gardens in +1759; and in 1760 he returned to London in good health and with a young +family; the eldest child, a girl of eight years of age, surprised the +public by her attainments as a harpsichord player. The concertos for the +harpsichord which Burney published soon after his return to London were +regarded with much admiration. In 1766 he produced, at Drury Lane, a free +English version and adaptation of J.J. Rousseau's operetta _Le Devin du +village_, under the title of _The Cunning Man_. The university of Oxford +conferred upon him, on the 23rd of June 1769, the degrees of Bachelor and +Doctor of Music, on which occasion he presided at the performance of his +exercise for these degrees. This consisted of an anthem, with an overture, +solos, recitatives and choruses, accompanied by instruments, besides a +vocal anthem in eight parts, which was not performed. In 1769 he published +_An Essay towards a History of Comets_. + +Amidst his various professional avocations, Burney never lost sight of his +favorite object--his _History of Music_--and therefore resolved to travel +abroad for the purpose of collecting materials that could not be found in +Great Britain. Accordingly, he left London in June 1770, furnished with +numerous letters of introduction, and proceeded to Paris, and thence to +Geneva, Turin, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome and Naples. +The results of his observations he published in _The Present State of Music +in France and Italy_ (1771). Dr Johnson [v.04 p.0854] thought so well of +this work that, alluding to his own _Journey to the Western Islands of +Scotland_, he said, "I had that clever dog Burney's Musical Tour in my +eye." In July 1772 Burney again visited the continent, to collect further +materials, and, after his return to London, published his tour under the +title of _The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and United +Provinces_ (1773). In 1773 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society. In +1776 appeared the first volume (in 4to) of his long-projected _History of +Music_. In 1782 Burney published his second volume; and in 1789 the third +and fourth. Though severely criticized by Forkel in Germany and by the +Spanish ex-Jesuit, Requeno, who, in his Italian work _Saggj sul +Ristabilimento dell' Arte Armonica de' Greci e Romani Cantori_ (Parma, +1798), attacks Burney's account of the ancient Greek music, and calls him +_lo scompigliato Burney_, the _History of Music_ was generally recognized +as possessing great merit. The least satisfactory volume is the fourth, the +treatment of Handel and Bach being quite inadequate. Burney's first tour +was translated into German by Ebeling, and printed at Hamburg in 1772; and +his second tour, translated into German by Bode, was published at Hamburg +in 1773. A Dutch translation of his second tour, with notes by J.W. Lustig, +organist at Groningen, was published there in 1786. The Dissertation on the +Music of the Ancients, in the first volume of Burney's _History_, was +translated into German by J.J. Eschenburg, and printed at Leipzig, 1781. +Burney derived much aid from the first two volumes of Padre Martini's very +learned _Storia della Musica_ (Bologna, 1757-1770). One cannot but admire +his persevering industry, and his sacrifices of time, money and personal +comfort, in collecting and preparing materials for his _History_, and few +will be disposed to condemn severely errors and oversights in a work of +such extent and difficulty. + +In 1774 he had written _A Plan for a Music School_. In 1779 he wrote for +the Royal Society an account of the infant Crotch, whose remarkable musical +talent excited so much attention at that time. In 1784 he published, with +an Italian title-page, the music annually performed in the pope's chapel at +Rome during Passion Week. In 1785 he published, for the benefit of the +Musical Fund, an account of the first commemoration of Handel in +Westminster Abbey in the preceding year, with an excellent life of Handel. +In 1796 he published _Memoirs and Letters of Metastasio_. Towards the close +of his life Burney was paid L1000 for contributing to Rees's _Cyclopaedia_ +all the musical articles not belonging to the department of natural +philosophy and mathematics. In 1783, through the treasury influence of his +friend Edmund Burke, he was appointed organist to the chapel of Chelsea +Hospital, and he moved his residence from St Martin's Street, Leicester +Square, to live in the hospital for the remainder of his life. He was made +a member of the Institute of France, and nominated a correspondent in the +class of the fine arts, in the year 1810. From 1806 until his death he +enjoyed a pension of L300 granted by Fox. He died at Chelsea College on the +12th of April 1814, and was interred in the burying-ground of the college. +A tablet was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. + +Burney's portrait was painted by Reynolds, and his bust was cut by +Nollekens in 1805. He had a wide circle of acquaintance among the +distinguished artists and literary men of his day. At one time he thought +of writing a life of his friend Dr Samuel Johnson, but he retired before +the crowd of biographers who rushed into that field. His character in +private as well as in public life appears to have been very amiable and +exemplary. Dr Burney's eldest son, James, was a distinguished officer in +the royal navy, who died a rear-admiral in 1821; his second son was the +Rev. Charles Burney, D.D. (1757-1817), a well-known classical scholar, +whose splendid collection of rare books, and MSS. was ultimately bought by +the nation for the British Museum; and his second daughter was Frances +(Madame D'Arblay, _q.v._). + +The _Diary and Letters_ of Madame D'Arblay contain many minute and +interesting particulars of her father's public and private life, and of his +friends and contemporaries. A life of Burney by Madame D'Arblay appeared in +1832. + +Besides the operatic music above mentioned, Burney's known compositions +consist of:--(1) _Six Sonatas for the harpsichord_; (2) _Two Sonatas for +the harp or piano, with accompaniments for violin and violoncello_; (3) +_Sonatas for two violins and a bass: two sets_; (4) _Six Lessons for the +harpsichord_; (5) _Six Duets for two German flutes_; (6) _Three Concertos +for the harpsichord_; (7) _Six concert pieces with an introduction and +fugue for the organ_; (8) _Six Concertos for the violin, &c., in eight +parts_; (9) _Two Sonatas for pianoforte, violin and violoncello_; (10) _A +Cantata, &c._; (11) _Anthems, &c._; (12) _XII. Canzonetti a due voci in +Canone, poesia dell' Abate Metastasio_. + +BURNHAM BEECHES, a wooded tract of 375 acres in Buckinghamshire, England, +acquired in 1879 by the Corporation of the city of London, and preserved +for public use. This tract, the remnant of an ancient forest, the more +beautiful because of the undulating character of the land, lies west of the +road between Slough and Beaconsfield, and 2 m. north of Burnham Beeches +station on the Great Western railway. The poet Thomas Gray, who stayed +frequently at Stoke Poges in the vicinity, is enthusiastic concerning the +beauty of the Beeches ina letter to Horace Walpole in 1737. Near the +township of Burnham are slight Early English remains of an abbey founded in +1265. Burnham is an urban district with a population (1901) of 3245. + +BURNHAM-ON-CROUCH, an urban district in the southeastern parliamentary +division of Essex, England, 43 m. E. by N. from London on a branch of the +Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2919. The church of St Mary is +principally late Perpendicular, a good example; it has Decorated portions +and a Norman font. There are extensive oyster beds in the Crouch estuary. +Burnham lies 6 m. from the North Sea; below it the Crouch is joined on the +south side by the Roch, which branches into numerous creeks, and, together +with the main estuary, forms Foulness, Wallasea, Potton and other low, flat +islands, embanked and protected from incursions of the sea. Burnham is in +some repute as a watering-place, and is a favourite yachting station. There +is considerable trade in corn and coal, and boat-building is carried on. + +BURNING TO DEATH. As a legal punishment for various crimes burning alive +was formerly very wide-spread. It was common among the Romans, being given +in the XII. Tables as the special penalty for arson. Under the Gothic codes +adulterers were so punished, and throughout the middle ages it was the +civil penalty for certain heinous crimes, _e.g._ poisoning, heresy, +witchcraft, arson, bestiality and sodomy, and so continued in some cases, +nominally at least, till the beginning of the 19th century. In England, +under the common law, women condemned for high treason or petty treason +(murder of husband, murder of master or mistress, certain offences against +the coin, &c.) were burned, this being considered more "decent" than +hanging and exposure on a gibbet. In practice the convict was strangled +before being burnt. The last woman burnt in England suffered in 1789, the +punishment being abolished in 1790. + +Burning was not included among the penalties for heresy under the Roman +imperial codes; but the burning of heretics by orthodox mobs had long been +sanctioned by custom before the edicts of the emperor Frederick II. (1222, +1223) made it the civil-law punishment for heresy. His example was followed +in France by Louis IX. in the Establishments of 1270. In England, where the +civil law was never recognized, the common law took no cognizance of +ecclesiastical offences, and the church courts had no power to condemn to +death. There were, indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries isolated +instances of the burning of heretics. William of Newburgh describes the +burning of certain foreign sectaries in 1169, and early in the 13th century +a deacon was burnt by order of the council of Oxford (Foxe ii. 374; cf. +Bracton, _de Corona_, ii. 300), but by what legal sanction is not obvious. +The right of the crown to issue writs _de haeretico comburendo_, claimed +for it by later jurists, was based on that issued by Henry IV. in 1400 for +the burning of William Sawtre; but Sir James Stephen (_Hist. Crim. Law_) +points out that this was issued "with the assent of the lords temporal," +which seems to prove that the crown had no right under the common law to +issue such writs. The burning of heretics was actually made legal in +England by the statute _de haeretico comburendo_ (1400), passed ten days +after the issue of the above writ. This was repealed in 1533, but the Six +Articles Act of 1539 revived burning as a penalty [v.04 p.0855] for denying +transubstantiation. Under Queen Mary the acts of Henry IV. and Henry V. +were revived; they were finally abolished in 1558 on the accession of +Elizabeth. Edward VI., Elizabeth and James I., however, burned heretics +(illegally as it would appear) under their supposed right of issuing writs +for this purpose. The last heretics burnt in England were two Arians, +Bartholomew Legate at Smithfield, and Edward Wightman at Lichfield, both in +1610. As for witches, countless numbers were burned in most European +countries, though not in England, where they were hanged. In Scotland in +Charles II.'s day the law still was that witches were to be "worried at the +stake and then burnt"; and a witch was burnt at Dornoch so late as 1708. + +BURNLEY, a market town and municipal, county and parliamentary borough of +Lancashire, England, at the junction of the rivers Brun and Calder, 213 m. +N.N.W. of London and 29 m. N. of Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire +railway and the Leeds & Liverpool Canal. Pop. (1891) 87,016; (1901) 97,043. +The church of St Peter dates from the 14th century, but is largely +modernized; among a series of memorials of the Towneley family is one to +Charles Towneley (d. 1805), who collected the series of antique marbles, +terra-cottas, bronzes, coins and gems which are named after him and +preserved in the British Museum. In 1902 Towneley Hall and Park were +acquired by the corporation, the mansion being adapted to use as a museum +and art gallery, and in 1903 a summer exhibition was held here. There are a +large number of modern churches and chapels, a handsome town-hall, market +hall, museum and art gallery, school of science, municipal technical +school, various benevolent institutions, and pleasant public parks and +recreation grounds. The principal industries are cotton-weaving, +worsted-making, iron-founding, coal-mining, quarrying, brick-burning and +the making of sanitary wares. It has been suggested that Burnley may +coincide with Brunanburh, the battlefield on which the Saxons conquered the +Dano-Celtic force in 937. During the cotton famine consequent upon the +American war of 1861-65 it suffered severely, and the operatives were +employed on relief works embracing an extensive system of improvements. The +parliamentary borough (1867), which returns one member, falls within the +Clitheroe division of the county. The county borough was created in 1888. +The town was incorporated in 1861. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 +aldermen and 36 councillors. By act of parliament in 1890 Burnley was +created a suffragan bishopric of the diocese of Manchester. Area of the +municipal borough, 4005 acres. + +BURNOUF, EUGENE (1801-1852), French orientalist, was born in Paris on the +8th of April 1801. His father, Prof. Jean Louis Burnouf (1775-1844), was a +classical scholar of high reputation, and the author, among other works, of +an excellent translation of Tacitus (6 vols., 1827-1833). Eugene Burnouf +published in 1826 an _Essai sur le Pali ..._, written in collaboration with +Christian Lassen; and in the following year _Observations grammaticales sur +quelques passages de l'essai sur le Pali_. The next great work he undertook +was the deciphering of the Zend manuscripts brought to France by Anquetil +du Perron. By his labours a knowledge of the Zend language was first +brought into the scientific world of Europe. He caused the _Vendidad Sade_, +part of one of the books bearing the name of Zoroaster, to be lithographed +with the utmost care from the Zend MS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and +published it in folio parts, 1829-1843. From 1833 to 1835 he published his +_Commentaire sur le Yacna, l'un des livres liturgiques des Parses_; he also +published the Sanskrit text and French translation of the _Bhagavata Purana +ou histoire poetique de Krichna_ in three folio volumes (1840-1847). His +last works were _Introduction a l'histoire du Bouddhisme indien_ (1844), +and a translation of _Le lotus de la bonne loi_ (1852). Burnouf died on the +28th of May 1852. He had been for twenty years a member of the Academie des +Inscriptions and professor of Sanskrit in the College de France. + +See a notice of Burnouf's works by Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, prefixed to +the second edition (1876) of the _Introd. a l'histoire du Bouddhisme +indien_; also Naudet, "Notice historique sur M.M. Burnouf, pere et fils," +in _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, xx. A list of his valuable +contributions to the _Journal asiatique_, and of his MS. writings, is given +in the appendix to the _Choix de lettres d'Eugene Burnouf_ (1891). + +BURNOUS (from the Arab. _burnus_), a long cloak of coarse woollen stuff +with a hood, usually white in colour, worn by the Arabs and Berbers +throughout North Africa. + +BURNS, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1705-1890), English shipowner, was born in +Glasgow on the 10th of December 1795, the son of the Rev. John Burns. In +partnership with a brother, James, he began as a Glasgow general merchant +about 1818, and in 1824 in conjunction with a Liverpool partner, Hugh +Matthie, started a line of small sailing ships which ran between Glasgow +and Liverpool. As business increased the vessels were also sailed to +Belfast, and steamers afterwards replaced the sailing ships. In 1830 a +partnership was entered into with the McIvers of Liverpool, in which George +Burns devoted himself specially to the management of the ships. In 1838 +with Samuel Cunard, Robert Napier and other capitalists, the partners +(McIver and Burns) started the "Cunard" Atlantic line of steamships. They +secured the British government's contract for the carrying of the mails to +North America. The sailings were begun with four steamers of about 1000 +tons each, which made the passage in 15 days at some 81/2 knots per hour. +George Burns retired from the Glasgow management of the line in 1860. He +was made a baronet in 1889, but died on the 2nd of June 1890 at Castle +Wemyss, where he had spent the latter years of his life. + +John Burns (1829-1901), his eldest son, who succeeded him in the baronetcy, +and became head of the Cunard Company, was created a peer, under the title +of Baron Inverclyde, in 1897; he was the first to suggest to the government +the use of merchant vessels for war purposes. George Arbuthnot Burns +(1861-1905) succeeded his father in the peerage, as 2nd baron Inverclyde, +and became chairman of the Cunard Company in 1902. He conducted the +negotiations which resulted in the refusal of the Cunard Company to enter +the shipping combination, the International Mercantile Marine Company, +formed by Messrs J.P. Morgan & Co., and took a leading part in the +application of turbine engines to ocean liners. + +BURNS, JOHN (1858- ), English politician, was born at Vauxhall, London, in +October 1858, the second son of Alexander Burns, an engineer, of Ayrshire +extraction. He attended a national school in Battersea until he was ten +years old, when he was sent to work in Price's candle factory. He worked +for a short time as a page-boy, then in some engine works, and at fourteen +was apprenticed for seven years to a Millbank engineer. He continued his +education at the night-schools, and read extensively, especially the works +of Robert Owen, J.S. Mill, Paine and Cobbett. He ascribed his conversion to +the principles of socialism to his sense of the insufficiency of the +arguments advanced against it by J.S. Mill, but he had learnt socialistic +doctrine from a French fellow-workman, Victor Delahaye, who had witnessed +the Commune. After working at his trade in various parts of England, and on +board ship, he went for a year to the West African coast at the mouth of +the Niger as a foreman engineer. His earnings from this undertaking were +expended on a six months' tour in France, Germany and Austria for the study +of political and economic conditions. He had early begun the practice of +outdoor speaking, and his exceptional physical strength and strong voice +were invaluable qualifications for a popular agitator. In 1878 he was +arrested and locked up for the night for addressing an open-air +demonstration on Clapham Common. Two years later he married Charlotte Gale, +the daughter of a Battersea shipwright. He was again arrested in 1886 for +his share in the West End riots when the windows of the Carlton and other +London clubs were broken, but cleared himself at the Old Bailey of the +charge of inciting the mob to violence. In November of the next year, +however, he was again arrested for resisting the police in their attempt to +break up the meeting in Trafalgar Square, and was condemned to six weeks' +imprisonment. A speech delivered by him at the Industrial Remuneration +Conference of 1884 had attracted considerable attention, and in that year +he became a member of the Social Democratic Federation, which put him +forward [v.04 p.0856] unsuccessfully in the next year as parliamentary +candidate for West Nottingham. His connexion with the Social Democratic +Federation was short-lived; but he was an active member of the executive of +the Amalgamated Engineers' trade union, and was connected with the trades +union congresses until 1895, when, through his influence, a resolution +excluding all except wage labourers was passed. He was still working at his +trade in Hoe's printing machine works when he became a Progressive member +of the first London County Council, being supported by an allowance of L2 a +week subscribed by his constituents, the Battersea working men. He +introduced in 1892 a motion that all contracts for the County Council +should be paid at trade union rates and carried out under trade union +conditions, and devoted his efforts in general to a war against monopolies, +except those of the state or the municipality. In the same year (1889) in +which he became a member of the County Council, he acted with Mr Ben +Tillett as the chief leader and organizer of the London dock strike. He +entered the House of Commons as member for Battersea in 1892, and was +re-elected in 1895, 1900 and 1906. In parliament he became well known as an +independent Radical, and he was included in the Liberal cabinet by Sir +Henry Campbell-Bannerman in December 1905 as president of the Local +Government Board. During the next two years, though much out of favour with +his former socialist allies, he earned golden opinions for his +administrative policy, and for his refusal to adopt the visionary proposals +put forward by the more extreme members of the Labour party for dealing +with the "unemployed" question; and in 1908 he retained his office in Mr +Asquith's cabinet. + +BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796), Scottish poet, was born on the 25th of January +1759 in a cottage about 2 m. from Ayr. He was the eldest son of a small +farmer, William Burness, of Kincardineshire stock, who wrought hard, +practised integrity, wished to bring up his children in the fear of God, +but had to fight all his days against the winds and tides of adversity. +"The poet," said Thomas Carlyle, "was fortunate in his father--a man of +thoughtful intense character, as the best of our peasants are, valuing +knowledge, possessing some and open-minded for more, of keen insight and +devout heart, friendly and fearless: a fully unfolded man seldom found in +any rank in society, and worth descending far in society to seek. ... Had +he been ever so little richer, the whole might have issued otherwise. But +poverty sunk the whole family even below the reach of our cheap school +system, and Burns remained a hard-worked plough-boy." + +Through a series of migrations from one unfortunate farm to another; from +Alloway (where he was taught to read) to Mt. Oliphant, and then (1777) to +Lochlea in Tarbolton (where he learnt the rudiments of geometry), the poet +remained in the same condition of straitened circumstances. At the age of +thirteen he thrashed the corn with his own hands, at fifteen he was the +principal labourer. The family kept no servant, and for several years +butchers' meat was a thing unknown in the house. "This kind of life," he +writes, "the cheerless gloom of a hermit and the unceasing toil of a +galley-slave, brought me to my sixteenth year." His naturally robust frame +was overtasked, and his nervous constitution received a fatal strain. His +shoulders were bowed, he became liable to headaches, palpitations and fits +of depressing melancholy. From these hard tasks and his fiery temperament, +craving in vain for sympathy in a frigid air, grew the strong temptations +on which Burns was largely wrecked,--the thirst for stimulants and the +revolt against restraint which soon made headway and passed all bars. In +the earlier portions of his career a buoyant humour bore him up; and amid +thick-coming shapes of ill he bated no jot of heart or hope. He was cheered +by vague stirrings of ambition, which he pathetically compares to the +"blind groping of Homer's Cyclops round the walls of his cave." Sent to +school at Kirkoswald, he became, for his scant leisure, a great +reader--eating at meal-times with a spoon in one hand and a book in the +other,--and carrying a few small volumes in his pocket to study in spare +moments in the fields. "The collection of songs" he tells us, "was my _vade +mecum_. I pored over them driving my cart or walking to labour, song by +song, verse by verse, carefully noting the true, tender, sublime or +fustian." He lingered over the ballads in his cold room by night; by day, +whilst whistling at the plough, he invented new forms and was inspired by +fresh ideas, "gathering round him the memories and the traditions of his +country till they became a mantle and a crown." It was among the furrows of +his father's fields that he was inspired with the perpetually quoted wish-- + + "That I for poor auld Scotland's sake + Some useful plan or book could make, + Or sing a sang at least." + +An equally striking illustration of the same feeling is to be found in his +summer Sunday's ramble to the Leglen wood,--the fabled haunt of +Wallace,--which the poet confesses to have visited "with as much devout +enthusiasm as ever pilgrim did the shrine of Loretto." In another reference +to the same period he refers to the intense susceptibility to the homeliest +aspects of Nature which throughout characterized his genius. "Scarcely any +object gave me more--I do not know if I should call it pleasure--but +something which exalts and enraptures me--than to walk in the sheltered +side of a wood or high plantation in a cloudy winter day and hear the +stormy wind howling among the trees and raving over the plain. I listened +to the birds, and frequently turned out of my path lest I should disturb +their little songs or frighten them to another station." Auroral visions +were gilding his horizon as he walked in glory, if not in joy, "behind his +plough upon the mountain sides."; but the swarm of his many-coloured +fancies was again made grey by the _atra cura_ of unsuccessful toils. + +Burns had written his first verses of note, "Behind yon hills where +Stinchar (afterwards Lugar) flows," when in 1781 he went to Irvine to learn +the trade of a flax-dresser. "It was," he says, "an unlucky affair. As we +were giving a welcome carousal to the New Year, the shop took fire and +burned to ashes; and I was left, like a true poet, without a sixpence." His +own heart, too, had unfortunately taken fire. He was poring over +mathematics till, in his own phraseology,--still affected in its prose by +the classical pedantries caught from Pope by Ramsay,--"the sun entered +Virgo, when a charming _fillette_, who lived next door, overset my +trigonometry, and set me off at a tangent from the scene of my studies." We +need not detail the story, nor the incessant repetitions of it, which +marked and sometimes marred his career. The poet was jilted, went through +the usual despairs, and resorted to the not unusual sources of consolation. +He had found that he was "no enemy to social life," and his mates had +discovered that he was the best of boon companions in the lyric feasts, +where his eloquence shed a lustre over wild ways of life, and where he was +beginning to be distinguished as a champion of the New Lights and a +satirist of the Calvinism whose waters he found like those of Marah. + +In Robert's 25th year his father died, full of sorrows and apprehensions +for the gifted son who wrote for his tomb in Alloway kirkyard, the fine +epitaph ending with the characteristic line-- + + "For even his failings leaned to virtue's side." + +For some time longer the poet, with his brother Gilbert, lingered at +Lochlea, reading agricultural books, miscalculating crops, attending +markets, and in a mood of reformation resolving, "in spite of the world, +the flesh and the devil, to be a wise man." Affairs, however, went no +better with the family; and in 1784 they migrated to Mossgiel, where he +lived and wrought, during four years, for a return scarce equal to the wage +of the commonest labourer in our day. Meanwhile he had become intimate with +his future wife, Jean Armour; but the father, a master mason, +discountenanced the match, and the girl being disposed to "sigh as a +lover," as a daughter to obey, Burns, in 1786, gave up his suit, resolved +to seek refuge in exile, and having accepted a situation as book-keeper to +a slave estate in Jamaica, had taken his passage in a ship for the West +Indies. His old associations seemed to be breaking up, men and fortune +scowled, and "hungry ruin had him in the wind," when he wrote the lines +ending-- + +[v.04 p.0857] + + "Adieu, my native banks of Ayr," + +and addressed to the most famous of the loves, in which he was as prolific +as Catullus or Tibullus, the proposal-- + + "Will ye go to the Indies, my Mary." + +He was withheld from his project and, happily or unhappily, the current of +his life was turned by the success of his first volume, which was published +at Kilmarnock in June 1786. It contained some of his most justly celebrated +poems, the results of his scanty leisure at Lochlea and Mossgiel; among +others "The Twa Dogs,"--a graphic idealization of Aesop,--"The Author's +Prayer," the "Address to the Deil," "The Vision" and "The Dream," +"Halloween," "The Cottar's Saturday Night," the lines "To a Mouse" and "To +a Daisy," "Scotch Drink," "Man was made to Mourn," the "Epistle to Davie," +and some of his most popular songs. This epitome of a genius so marvellous +and so varied took his audience by storm. "The country murmured of him from +sea to sea." "With his poems," says Robert Heron, "old and young, grave and +gay, learned and ignorant, were alike transported. I was at that time +resident in Galloway, and I can well remember how even plough-boys and +maid-servants would have gladly bestowed the wages they earned the most +hardly, and which they wanted to purchase necessary clothing, if they might +but procure the works of Burns." This first edition only brought the author +L20 direct return, but it introduced him to the _literati_ of Edinburgh, +whither he was invited, and where he was welcomed, feasted, admired and +patronized. He appeared as a portent among the scholars of the northern +capital and its university, and manifested, according to Mr Lockhart, "in +the whole strain of his bearing, his belief that in the society of the most +eminent men of his nation he was where he was entitled to be, hardly +deigning to flatter them by exhibiting a symptom of being flattered." + +Sir Walter Scott bears a similar testimony to the dignified simplicity and +almost exaggerated independence of the poet, during this _annus mirabilis_ +of his success. "As for Burns, _Virgilium vidi tantum_, I was a lad of +fifteen when he came to Edinburgh, but had sense enough to be interested in +his poetry, and would have given the world to know him. I saw him one day +with several gentlemen of literary reputation, among whom I remember the +celebrated Dugald Stewart. Of course we youngsters sat silent, looked, and +listened.... I remember ... his shedding tears over a print representing a +soldier lying dead in the snow, his dog sitting in misery on one side, on +the other his widow with a child in her arms. His person was robust, his +manners rustic, not clownish. ... His countenance was more massive than it +looks in any of the portraits. There was a strong expression of shrewdness +in his lineaments; the eye alone indicated the poetic character and +temperament. It was large and of a dark cast, and literally glowed when he +spoke with feeling or interest. I never saw such another eye in a human +head. His conversation expressed perfect self-confidence, without the least +intrusive forwardness. I thought his acquaintance with English poetry was +rather limited; and having twenty times the abilities of Allan Ramsay and +of Fergusson he talked of them with too much humility as his models. He was +much caressed in Edinburgh, but the efforts made for his relief were +extremely trifling." _Laudatur et alget._ Burns went from those meetings, +where he had been posing professors (no hard task), and turning the heads +of duchesses, to share a bed in the garret of a writer's apprentice,--they +paid together 3s. a week for the room. It was in the house of Mr Carfrae, +Baxter's Close, Lawnmarket, "first scale stair on the left hand in going +down, first door in the stair." During Burns's life it was reserved for +William Pitt to recognize his place as a great poet; the more cautious +critics of the North were satisfied to endorse him as a rustic prodigy, and +brought upon themselves a share of his satire. Some of the friendships +contracted during this period--as for Lord Glencairn and Mrs Dunlop--are +among the most pleasing and permanent in literature; for genuine kindness +was never wasted on one who, whatever his faults, has never been accused of +ingratitude. But in the bard's city life there was an unnatural element. He +stooped to beg for neither smiles nor favour, but the gnarled country oak +is cut up into cabinets in artificial prose and verse. In the letters to Mr +Graham, the prologue to Mr Wood, and the epistles to Clarinda, he is +dancing minuets with hob-nailed shoes. When, in 1787, the second edition of +the _Poems_ came out, the proceeds of their sale realized for the author +L400. On the strength of this sum he gave himself two long rambles, full of +poetic material--one through the border towns into England as far as +Newcastle, returning by Dumfries to Mauchline, and another a grand tour +through the East Highlands, as far as Inverness, returning by Edinburgh, +and so home to Ayrshire. + +In 1788 Burns took a new farm at Ellisland on the Nith, settled there, +married, lost his little money, and wrote, among other pieces, "Auld Lang +Syne" and "Tam o' Shanter." In 1789 he obtained, through the good office of +Mr Graham of Fintry, an appointment as excise-officer of the district, +worth L50 per annum. In 1791 he removed to a similar post at Dumfries worth +L70. In the course of the following year he was asked to contribute to +George Thomson's _Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs with +Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte and Violin: the poetry by +Robert Burns_. To this work he contributed about one hundred songs, the +best of which are now ringing in the ear of every Scotsman from New Zealand +to San Francisco. For these, original and adapted, he received a shawl for +his wife, a picture by David Allan representing the "Cottar's Saturday +Night," and L5! The poet wrote an indignant letter and never afterwards +composed for money. Unfortunately the "Rock of Independence" to which he +had proudly retired was but a castle of air, over which the meteors of +French political enthusiasm cast a lurid gleam. In the last years of his +life, exiled from polite society on account of his revolutionary opinions, +he became sourer in temper and plunged more deeply into the dissipations of +the lower ranks, among whom he found his only companionship and sole, +though shallow, sympathy. + +Burns began to feel himself prematurely old. Walking with a friend who +proposed to him to join a county ball, he shook his head, saying "that's +all over now," and adding a verse of Lady Grizel Baillie's ballad-- + + "O were we young as we ance hae been, + We sud hae been galloping down on yon green, + And linking it ower the lily-white lea, + But were na my heart light I wad dee." + +His hand shook; his pulse and appetite failed; his spirits sunk into a +uniform gloom. In April 1796 he wrote--"I fear it will be some time before +I tune my lyre again. By Babel's streams I have sat and wept. I have only +known existence by the pressure of sickness and counted time by the +repercussions of pain. I close my eyes in misery and open them without +hope. I look on the vernal day and say with poor Fergusson-- + + "Say wherefore has an all-indulgent heaven + Life to the comfortless and wretched given." + +On the 4th of July he was seen to be dying. On the 12th he wrote to his +cousin for the loan of L10 to save him from passing his last days in jail. +On the 21st he was no more. On the 25th, when his last son came into the +world, he was buried with local honours, the volunteers of the company to +which he belonged firing three volleys over his grave. + +It has been said that "Lowland Scotland as a distinct nationality came in +with two warriors and went out with two bards. It came in with William +Wallace and Robert Bruce and went out with Robert Burns and Walter Scott. +The first two made the history, the last two told the story and sung the +song." But what in the minstrel's lay was mainly a requiem was in the +people's poet also a prophecy. The position of Burns in the progress of +British literature may be shortly defined; he was a link between two eras, +like Chaucer, the last of the old and the first of the new--the inheritor +of the traditions and the music of the past, in some respects the herald of +the future. + +The volumes of our lyrist owe part of their popularity to the fact of their +being an epitome of melodies, moods and memories that had belonged for +centuries to the national life, the best [v.04 p.0858] inspirations of +which have passed into them. But in gathering from his ancestors Burns has +exalted their work by asserting a new dignity for their simplest themes. He +is the heir of Barbour, distilling the spirit of the old poet's epic into a +battle chant, and of Dunbar, reproducing the various humours of a +half-sceptical, half-religious philosophy of life. He is the pupil of +Ramsay, but he leaves his master, to make a social protest and to lead a +literary revolt. _The Gentle Shepherd_, still largely a court pastoral, in +which "a man's a man" if born a gentleman, may be contrasted with "The +Jolly Beggars"--the one is like a minuet of the ladies of Versailles on the +sward of the Swiss village near the Trianon, the other like the march of +the maenads with Theroigne de Mericourt. Ramsay adds to the rough tunes and +words of the ballads the refinement of the wits who in the "Easy" and +"Johnstone" clubs talked over their cups of Prior and Pope, Addison and +Gay. Burns inspires them with a fervour that thrills the most wooden of his +race. We may clench the contrast by a representative example. This is from +Ramsay's version of perhaps the best-known of Scottish songs,-- + + "Methinks around us on each bough + A thousand Cupids play; + Whilst through the groves I walk with you, + Each object makes me gay. + Since your return--the sun and moon + With brighter beams do shine, + Streams murmur soft notes while they run + As they did lang syne." + +Compare the verses in Burns-- + + "We twa hae run about the braes + And pu'd the gowans fine; + But we've wandered mony a weary foot + Sin auld lang syne. + We twa hae paidl'd in the burn, + Frae morning sun till dine: + But seas between us braid hae roar'd + Sin auld lang syne." + +Burns as a poet of the inanimate world doubtless derived hints from Thomson +of _The Seasons_, but in his power of tuning its manifestation to the moods +of the mind he is more properly ranked as a forerunner of Wordsworth. He +never follows the fashions of his century, except in his failures--in his +efforts at set panegyric or fine letter-writing. His highest work knows +nothing of "Damon" or "Musidora." He leaves the atmosphere of drawing-rooms +for the ingle or the ale-house or the mountain breeze. + +The affectations of his style are insignificant and rare. His prevailing +characteristic is an absolute sincerity. A love for the lower forms of +social life was his besetting sin; Nature was his healing power. Burns +compares himself to an Aeolian harp, strung to every wind of heaven. His +genius flows over all living and lifeless things with a sympathy that finds +nothing mean or insignificant. An uprooted daisy becomes in his pages an +enduring emblem of the fate of artless maid and simple bard. He disturbs a +mouse's nest and finds in the "tim'rous beastie" a fellow-mortal doomed +like himself to "thole the winter's sleety dribble," and draws his +oft-repeated moral. He walks abroad and, in a verse that glints with the +light of its own rising sun before the fierce sarcasm of "The Holy Fair," +describes the melodies of a "simmer Sunday morn." He loiters by Afton Water +and "murmurs by the running brook a music sweeter than its own." He stands +by a roofless tower, where "the howlet mourns in her dewy bower," and "sets +the wild echoes flying," and adds to a perfect picture of the scene his +famous vision of "Libertie." In a single stanza he concentrates the +sentiment of many Night Thoughts-- + + "The pale moon is setting beyond the white wave, + And Time is setting wi' me, O." + +For other examples of the same graphic power we may refer to the course of +his stream-- + + "Whiles ow'r a linn the burnie plays + As through the glen it wimpled," &c., + +or to "The Birks of Aberfeldy" or the "spate" in the dialogue of "The Brigs +of Ayr." The poet is as much at home in the presence of this flood as by +his "trottin' burn's meander." Familiar with all the seasons he represents +the phases of a northern winter with a frequency characteristic of his +clime and of his fortunes; her tempests became anthems in his verse, and +the sounding woods "raise his thoughts to Him that walketh on the wings of +the wind"; full of pity for the shelterless poor, the "ourie cattle," the +"silly sheep," and the "helpless birds," he yet reflects that the bitter +blast is not "so unkind as man's ingratitude." This constant tendency to +ascend above the fair or wild features of outward things, or to penetrate +beneath them, to make them symbols, to endow them with a voice to speak for +humanity, distinguishes Burns as a descriptive poet from the rest of his +countrymen. As a painter he is rivalled by Dunbar and James I., more rarely +by Thomson and Ramsay. The "lilt" of Tannahill's finest verse is even more +charming. But these writers rest in their art; their main care is for their +own genius. The same is true in a minor degree of some of his great English +successors. Keats has a palette of richer colours, but he seldom +condescends to "human nature's daily food." Shelley floats in a thin air to +stars and mountain tops, and vanishes from our gaze like his skylark. +Byron, in the midst of his revolutionary fervour, never forgets that he +himself belongs to the "caste of Vere de Vere." Wordsworth's placid +affection and magnanimity stretch beyond mankind, and, as in +"Hart-leap-well" and the "Cuckoo," extend to bird and beast; he moralizes +grandly on the vicissitudes of common life, but he does not enter into, +because by right of superior virtue he places himself above them. "From the +Lyrical Ballads," it has been said, "it does not appear that men eat or +drink, marry or are given in marriage." We revere the monitor who, +consciously good and great, gives us the dry light of truth, but we love +the bard, _nostrae deliciae_, who is all fire--fire from heaven and +Ayrshire earth mingling in the outburst of passion and of power, which is +his poetry and the inheritance of his race. He had certainly neither +culture nor philosophy enough to have written the "Ode on the Recollections +of Childhood," but to appreciate that ode requires an education. The +sympathies of Burns, as broad as Wordsworth's, are more intense; in turning +his pages we feel ourselves more decidedly in the presence of one who joys +with those who rejoice and mourns with those who mourn. He is never +shallow, ever plain, and the expression of his feeling is so terse that it +is always memorable. Of the people he speaks more directly for the people +than any of our more considerable poets. Chaucer has a perfect hold of the +homeliest phases of life, but he wants the lyric element, and the charm of +his language has largely faded from untutored ears. Shakespeare, indeed, +has at once a loftier vision and a wider grasp; for he sings of "Thebes and +Pelops line," of Agincourt and Philippi, as of Falstaff, and Snug the +joiner, and the "meanest flower that blows." But not even Shakespeare has +put more thought into poetry which the most prosaic must appreciate than +Burns has done. The latter moves in a narrower sphere and wants the +strictly dramatic faculty, but its place is partly supplied by the +vividness of his narrative. His realization of incident and character is +manifested in the sketches in which the manners and prevailing fancies of +his countrymen are immortalized in connexion with local scenery. Among +those almost every variety of disposition finds its favourite. The quiet +households of the kingdom have received a sort of apotheosis in the +"Cottar's Saturday Night." It has been objected that the subject does not +afford scope for the more daring forms of the author's genius; but had he +written no other poem, this heartful rendering of a good week's close in a +God-fearing home, sincerely devout, and yet relieved from all suspicion of +sermonizing by its humorous touches, would have secured a permanent place +in literature. It transcends Thomson and Beattie at their best, and will +smell sweet like the actions of the just for generations to come. + +Lovers of rustic festivity may hold that the poet's greatest performance is +his narrative of "Halloween," which for easy vigour, fulness of rollicking +life, blended truth and fancy, is unsurpassed in its kind. Campbell, +Wilson, Hazlitt, Montgomery, Burns himself, and the majority of his +critics, have [v.04 p.0859] recorded their preference for "Tam o' Shanter," +where the weird superstitious element that has played so great a part in +the imaginative work of this part of our island is brought more prominently +forward. Few passages of description are finer than that of the roaring +Doon and Alloway Kirk glimmering through the groaning trees; but the unique +excellence of the piece consists in its variety, and a perfectly original +combination of the terrible and the ludicrous. Like Goethe's _Walpurgis +Nacht_, brought into closer contact with real life, it stretches from the +drunken humours of Christopher Sly to a world of fantasies almost as +brilliant as those of the _Midsummer Night's Dream_, half solemnized by the +severer atmosphere of a sterner clime. The contrast between the lines +"Kings may be blest," &c., and those which follow, beginning "But pleasures +are like poppies spread," is typical of the perpetual antithesis of the +author's thought and life, in which, at the back of every revelry, he sees +the shadow of a warning hand, and reads on the wall the writing, _Omnia +mutantur_. With equal or greater confidence other judges have pronounced +Burns's masterpiece to be "The Jolly Beggars." Certainly no other single +production so illustrates his power of exalting what is insignificant, +glorifying what is mean, and elevating the lowest details by the force of +his genius. "The form of the piece," says Carlyle, "is a mere cantata, the +theme the half-drunken snatches of a joyous band of vagabonds, while the +grey leaves are floating on the gusts of the wind in the autumn of the +year. But the whole is compacted, refined and poured forth in one flood of +liquid harmony. It is light, airy and soft of movement, yet sharp and +precise in its details; every face is a portrait, and the whole a group in +clear photography. The blanket of the night is drawn aside; in full ruddy +gleaming light these rough tatterdemalions are seen at their boisterous +revel wringing from Fate another hour of wassail and good cheer." Over the +whole is flung a half-humorous, half-savage satire--aimed, like a two-edged +sword, at the laws and the law-breakers, in the acme of which the graceless +crew are raised above the level of ordinary gipsies, footpads and rogues, +and are made to sit "on the hills like gods together, careless of mankind," +and to launch their Titan thunders of rebellion against the world. + + "A fig for those by law protected; + Liberty's a glorious feast; + Courts for cowards were erected, + Churches built to please the priest." + +A similar mixture of drollery and defiance appears in the justly celebrated +"Address to the Deil," which, mainly whimsical, is relieved by touches oan +in the conception of such a being straying in lonely places and loitering +among trees, or in the familiarity with which the poet lectures so awful a +personage,"--we may add, than in the inimitable outbreak at the close-- + + "O would you tak a thought an' men'." + +Carlyle, in reference to this passage, cannot resist the suggestion of a +parallel from Sterne. "He is the father of curses and lies, said Dr Slop, +and is cursed and damned already. I am sorry for it, quoth my Uncle Toby." + +Burns fared ill at the hands of those who were not sorry for it, and who +repeated with glib complacency every terrible belief of the system in which +they had been trained. The most scathing of his _Satires_, under which head +fall many of his minor and frequent passages in his major pieces, are +directed against the false pride of birth, and what he conceived to be the +false pretences of religion. The apologue of "Death and Dr Hornbook," "The +Ordination," the song "No churchman am I for to rail and to write," the +"Address to the Unco Guid," "Holy Willie," and above all "The Holy Fair," +with its savage caricature of an ignorant ranter of the time called Moodie, +and others of like stamp, not unnaturally provoked offence. As regards the +poet's attitude towards some phases of Calvinism prevalent during his life, +it has to be remarked that from the days of Dunbar there has been a degree +of antagonism between Scottish verse and the more rigid forms of Scottish +theology. + +It must be admitted that in protesting against hypocrisy he has +occasionally been led beyond the limits prescribed by good taste. He is at +times abusive of those who differ from him. This, with other offences +against decorum, which here and there disfigure his pages, can only be +condoned by an appeal to the general tone of his writing, which is +reverential. Burns had a firm faith in a Supreme Being, not as a vague +mysterious Power; but as the Arbiter of human life. Amid the vicissitudes +of his career he responds to the cottar's summons, "Let us worship God." + + "An atheist's laugh's a poor exchange + For Deity offended" + +is the moral of all his verse, which treats seriously of religious matters. +His prayers in rhyme give him a high place among secular Psalmists. + +Like Chaucer, Burns was a great moralist, though a rough one. In the +moments of his most intense revolt against conventional prejudice and +sanctimonious affectation, he is faithful to the great laws which underlie +change, loyal in his veneration for the cardinal virtues--Truth, Justice +and Charity,--and consistent in the warnings, to which his experience gives +an unhappy force, against transgressions of Temperance. In the "Epistle to +a Young Friend," the shrewdest advice is blended with exhortations +appealing to the highest motive, that which transcends the calculation of +consequences, and bids us walk in the straight path from the feeling of +personal honour, and "for the glorious privilege of being independent." +Burns, like Dante, "loved well because he hated, hated wickedness that +hinders loving," and this feeling, as in the lines--"Dweller in yon dungeon +dark," sometimes breaks bounds; but his calmer moods are better represented +by the well-known passages in the "Epistle to Davie," in which he preaches +acquiescence in our lot, and a cheerful acceptance of our duties in the +sphere where we are placed. This _philosophie douce_, never better sung by +Horace, is the prevailing refrain of our author's _Songs_. On these there +are few words to add to the acclaim of a century. They have passed into the +air we breathe; they are so real that they seem things rather than words, +or, nearer still, living beings. They have taken all hearts, because they +are the breath of his own; not polished cadences, but utterances as direct +as laughter or tears. Since Sappho loved and sang, there has been no such +national lyrist as Burns. Fine ballads, mostly anonymous, existed in +Scotland previous to his time; and shortly before a few authors had +produced a few songs equal to some of his best. Such are Alexander Ross's +"Wooed and Married," Lowe's "Mary's Dream," "Auld Robin Gray," "The Land o' +the Leal" and the two versions of "The Flowers o' the Forest." From these +and many of the older pieces in Ramsay's collection, Burns admits to have +derived copious suggestions and impulses. He fed on the past literature of +his country as Chaucer on the old fields of English thought, and-- + + "Still the elements o' sang, + In formless jumble, right and wrang, + Went floating in his brain." + +But he gave more than he received; he brought forth an hundredfold; he +summed up the stray material of the past, and added so much of his own that +one of the most conspicuous features of his lyrical genius is its variety +in new paths. Between the first of war songs, composed in a storm on a +moor, and the pathos of "Mary in Heaven," he has made every chord in our +northern life to vibrate. The distance from "Duncan Gray" to "Auld Lang +Syne" is nearly as great as that from Falstaff to Ariel. There is the +vehemence of battle, the wail of woe, the march of veterans "red-wat-shod," +the smiles of meeting, the tears of parting friends, the gurgle of brown +burns, the roar of the wind through pines, the rustle of barley rigs, the +thunder on the hill--all Scotland is in his verse. Let who will make her +laws, Burns has made the songs, which her emigrants recall "by the long +wash of Australasian seas," in which maidens are wooed, by which mothers +lull their infants, which return "through open casements unto dying +ears"--they are the links, the watchwords, the masonic symbols of the Scots +race. + +(J. N.) [v.04 p.0860] + +The greater part of Burns's verse was posthumously published, and, as he +himself took no care to collect the scattered pieces of occasional verse, +different editors have from time to time printed, as his, verses that must +be regarded as spurious. _Poems chiefly in the Scottish Dialect_, by Robert +Burns (Kilmarnock, 1786), was followed by an enlarged edition printed in +Edinburgh in the next year. Other editions of this book were printed--in +London (1787), an enlarged edition at Edinburgh (2 vols., 1793) and a +reprint of this in 1794. Of a 1790 edition mentioned by Robert Chambers no +traces can be found. Poems by Burns appeared originally in _The Caledonian +Mercury, The Edinburgh Evening Courant, The Edinburgh Herald, The Edinburgh +Advertiser_; the London papers, _Stuart's Star and Evening Advertiser_ +(subsequently known as _The Morning Star_), _The Morning Chronicle_; and in +the _Edinburgh Magazine_ and _The Scots Magazine_. Many poems, most of +which had first appeared elsewhere, were printed in a series of penny +chap-books, _Poetry Original and Select_ (Brash and Reid, Glasgow), and +some appeared separately as broadsides. A series of tracts issued by +Stewart and Meikle (Glasgow, 1796-1799) includes some Burns's numbers, _The +Jolly Beggars, Holy Willie's Prayer_ and other poems making their first +appearance in this way. The seven numbers of this publication were reissued +in January 1800 as _The Poetical Miscellany_. This was followed by Thomas +Stewart's _Poems ascribed to Robert Burns_ (Glasgow, 1801). Burns's songs +appeared chiefly in James Johnson's _Scots Musical Museum_ (6 vols., +1787-1803), which he appears after the first volume to have virtually +edited, though the two last volumes were published only after his death; +and in George Thomson's _Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs_ (6 +vols., 1793-1841). Only five of the songs done for Thomson appeared during +the poet's lifetime, and Thomson's text cannot be regarded with confidence. +The Hastie MSS. in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 22,307) include 162 +songs, many of them in Burns's handwriting; and the Dalhousie MS., at +Brechin Castle, contains Burns's correspondence with Thomson. For a full +account of the songs see James C. Dick, _The Songs of Robert Burns now +first printed with the Melodies for which they were written_ (2 vols., +1903). + +The items in Mr W. Craibe Angus's _Printed Works of Robert Burns_ (1899) +number nine hundred and thirty. Only the more important collected editions +can be here noticed. Dr Currie was the anonymous editor of the _Works of +Robert Burns; with an Account of his Life, and a Criticism on his Writings +..._ (Liverpool, 1800). This was undertaken for the benefit of Burns's +family at the desire of his friends, Alexander Cunningham and John Syme. A +second and amended edition appeared in 1801, and was followed by others, +but Currie's text is neither accurate nor complete. Additional matter +appeared in _Reliques of Robert Burns_ ... by R.H. Cromek (London, 1808). +In _The Works of Robert Burns, With his Life by Allan Cunningham_ (8 vols., +London, 1834) there are many additions and much biographical material. _The +Works of Robert Burns_, edited by James Hogg and William Motherwell (5 +vols., 1834-1836, Glasgow and Edinburgh), contains a life of the poet by +Hogg, and some useful notes by Motherwell attempting to trace the sources +of Burns's songs. _The Correspondence between Burns and Clarinda_ was +edited by W.C. M^cLehose (Edinburgh, 1843). An improved text of the poems +was provided in the second "Aldine Edition" of the _Poetical Works_ (3 +vols., 1839), for which Sir H. Nicolas, the editor, made use of many +original MSS. In the _Life and Works of Robert Burns_, edited by Robert +Chambers (Edinburgh, 4 vols., 1851-1852; library edition, 1856-1857; new +edition, revised by William Wallace, 1896), the poet's works are given in +chronological order, interwoven with letters and biography. The text was +bowdlerized by Chambers, but the book contained much new and valuable +information. Other well-known editions are those of George Gilfillan (2 +vols., 1864); of Alexander Smith (Golden Treasury Series, London, 2 vols., +1865); of P. Hately Waddell (Glasgow, 1867); one published by Messrs +Blackie & Son, with Dr Currie's memoir and an essay by Prof. Wilson +(1843-1844); of W. Scott Douglas (the Kilmarnock edition, 1876, and the +"library" edition, 1877-1879), and of Andrew Lang, assisted by W.A. Craigie +(London, 1896). The complete correspondence between Burns and Mrs Dunlop +was printed in 1898. + +A critical edition of the _Poetry of Robert Burns_, which may be regarded +as definitive, and is provided with full notes and variant readings, was +prepared by W.E. Henley and T.F. Henderson (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1896-1897; +reprinted, 1901), and is generally known as the "Centenary Burns." In vol. +iii. the extent of Burns's indebtedness to Scottish folk-song and his +methods of adaptation are minutely discussed; vol. iv. contains an essay on +"Robert Burns. Life, Genius, Achievement," by W.E. Henley. + +The chief original authority for Burns's life is his own letters. The +principal "lives" are to be found in the editions just mentioned. His +biography has also been written by J. Gibson Lockhart (_Life of Burns_, +Edinburgh, 1828); for the "English Men of Letters" series in 1879 by Prof. +J. Campbell Shairp; and by Sir Leslie Stephen in the _Dictionary of +National Biography_ (vol. viii., 1886). Among the more important essays on +Burns are those by Thomas Carlyle (_Edinburgh Review_, December 1828); by +John Nichol, the writer of the above article (W. Scott Douglas's edition of +Burns); by R.L. Stevenson (_Familiar Studies of Men and Books_); by Auguste +Angellier (_Robert Burns. La vie et les oeuvres_, 2 vols., Paris, 1893); by +Lord Rosebery (_Robert Burns: Two Addresses in Edinburgh_, 1896); by J. +Logie Robertson (in _In Scottish Fields_, Edin., 1890, and _Furth in +Field_, Edin., 1894); and T.F. Henderson (_Robert Burns_, 1904). There is a +selected bibliography in chronological order in W.A. Craigie's _Primer of +Burns_ (1896). + +BURNS AND SCALDS. A burn is the effect of dry heat applied to some part of +the human body, a scald being the result of moist heat. Clinically there is +no distinction between the two, and their classification and treatment are +identical. In Dupuytren's classification, now most generally accepted, +burns are divided into six classes according to the severest part of the +lesion. Burns of the first degree are characterized by severe pain, redness +of the skin, a certain amount of swelling that soon passes, and later +exfoliation of the skin. Burns of the second degree show vesicles (small +blisters) scattered over the inflamed area, and containing a clear, +yellowish fluid. Beneath the vesicle the highly sensitive papillae of the +skin are exposed. Burns of this degree leave no scar, but often produce a +permanent discoloration. In burns of the third degree, there is a partial +destruction of the true skin, leaving sloughs of a yellowish or black +colour. The pain is at first intense, but passes off on about the second +day to return again at the end of a week, when the sloughs separate, +exposing the sensitive nerve filaments of the underlying skin. This results +in a slightly depressed cicatrix, which happily, however, shows but slight +tendency to contraction. Burns of the fourth degree, which follow the +prolonged application of any form of intense heat, involve the total +destruction of the true skin. The pain is much less severe than in the +preceding class, since the nerve endings have been totally destroyed. The +results, however, are far more serious, and the healing process takes place +only very slowly on account of the destruction of the skin glands. As a +result, deep puckered scars are formed, which show great tendency to +contract, and where these are situated on face, neck or joints the +resulting deformity and loss of function may be extremely serious. In burns +of the fifth degree the underlying muscles are more or less destroyed, and +in those of the sixth the bones are also charred. Examples of the last two +classes are mainly provided by epileptics who fall into a fire during a +fit. + +The clinical history of a severe burn can be divided into three periods. +The first period lasts from 36 to 48 hours, during which time the patient +lies in a condition of profound shock, and consequently feels little or no +pain. If death results from shock, coma first supervenes, which deepens +steadily until the end comes. The second period begins when the effects of +shock pass, and continues until the slough separates, this usually taking +from seven to fourteen days. Considerable fever is present, and the +tendency to every kind of complication is very great. Bronchitis, +pneumonia, pleurisy, meningitis, intestinal catarrh, and even ulceration of +the duodenum, have all been recorded. Hence both nursing and medical +attendance must be very close during this time. It is probable that these +complications are all the result of septic infection and absorption, and +since the modern antiseptic treatment of burns they have become much less +common. The third period is prolonged until recovery takes place. Death may +result from septic absorption, or from the wound becoming infected with +some organism, as tetanus, erysipelas, &c. The prognosis depends chiefly on +the extent of skin involved, death almost invariably resulting when +one-third of the total area of the body is affected, however superficially. +Of secondary but still grave importance is the position of the burn, that +over a serous cavity making the future more doubtful than one on a limb. +Also it must be remembered that children very easily succumb to shock. + +In treating a patient the condition of shock must be attended to first, +since from it arises the primary danger. The sufferer must be wrapped +immediately in hot blankets, and brandy given by the mouth or in an enema, +while ether can be injected hypodermically. If the pulse is very bad a +saline infusion must be administered. The clothes can then be removed and +the burnt surfaces thoroughly cleansed with a very mild antiseptic, a weak +solution of lysol acting very well. If there are blisters these must be +opened and the contained effusion allowed to [v.04 p.0861] escape. Some +surgeons leave them at this stage, but others prefer to remove the raised +epithelium. When thoroughly cleansed, the wound is irrigated with +sterilized saline solution and a dressing subsequently applied. For the +more superficial lesions by far the best results are obtained from the +application of gauze soaked in picric acid solution and lightly wrung out, +being covered with a large antiseptic wool pad and kept in position by a +bandage. Picric acid 11/2 drams, absolute alcohol 3 oz., and distilled water +40 oz., make a good lotion. All being well, this need only be changed about +twice a week. The various kinds of oil once so greatly advocated in +treating burns are now largely abandoned since they have no antiseptic +properties. The deeper burns can only be attended to by a surgeon, whose +aim will be first to bring septic absorption to a minimum, and later to +hasten the healing process. Skin grafting has great value after extensive +burns, not because it hastens healing, which it probably does not do, but +because it has a marked influence in lessening cicatricial contraction. +When a limb is hopelessly charred, amputation is the only course. + +BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT (1824-1881), American soldier, was born at +Liberty, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1824, of Scottish pedigree, his +American ancestors settling first in South Carolina, and next in the +north-west wilderness, where his parents lived in a rude log cabin. He was +appointed to the United States military academy through casual favour, and +graduated in 1847, when war with Mexico was nearly over. In 1853 he +resigned his commission, and from 1853 to 1858 was engaged in the +manufacture of firearms at Bristol, R.I. In 1856 he invented a +breech-loading rifle. He was employed by the Illinois Central railroad +until the Civil War broke out. Then he took command of a Rhode Island +regiment of three months militia, on the summons of Governor Sprague, took +part in the relief of the national capital, and commanded a brigade in the +first battle of Bull Run. On the 6th of August 1861 he was commissioned +brigadier-general of volunteers, and placed in charge of the expeditionary +force which sailed in January 1862 under sealed orders for the North +Carolina coast. The victories of Roanoke Island, Newbern and Fort Macon +(February--April) were the chief incidents of a campaign which was +favourably contrasted by the people with the work of the main army on the +Atlantic coast. He was promoted major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, and +early in July, with his North Carolina troops (IX. army corps), he was +transferred to the Virginian theatre of war. Part of his forces fought in +the last battles of Pope's campaign in Virginia, and Burnside himself was +engaged in the battles of South Mountain and Antietam. At the latter he was +in command of McClellan's left wing, but the want of vigour in his attack +was unfavourably criticized. His patriotic spirit, modesty and amiable +manners, made him highly popular, and upon McClellan's final removal (Nov. +7) from the Army of the Potomac, President Lincoln chose him as successor. +The choice was unfortunate. Much as he was liked, no one had ever looked +upon him as the equal of McClellan, and it was only with the greatest +reluctance that he himself accepted the responsibility, which he had on two +previous occasions declined. He sustained a crushing defeat at the battle +of Fredericksburg (13 Dec. 1862), and (Jan. 27) gave way to Gen. Hooker, +after a tenure of less than three months. Transferred to Cincinnati in +March 1863, he caused the arrest and court-martial of Clement L. +Vallandigham, lately an opposition member of Congress, for an alleged +disloyal speech, and later in the year his measures for the suppression of +press criticism aroused much opposition; he helped to crush Morgan's Ohio +raid in July; then, moving to relieve the loyalists in East Tennessee, in +September entered Knoxville, to which the Confederate general James +Longstreet unsuccessfully laid siege. In 1864 Burnside led his old IX. +corps under Grant in the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. After bearing +his part well in the many bloody battles of that time, he was overtaken +once more by disaster. The failure of the "Burnside mine" at Petersburg +brought about his resignation. A year later he left the service, and in +1866 he became governor of Rhode Island, serving for three terms +(1866-1869). From 1875 till his death he was a Republican member of the +United States Congress. He was present with the German headquarters at the +siege of Paris in 1870-71. He died at Bristol, Rhode Island, on the 13th of +September 1881. + +See B.P. Poore, _Life and Public Services of Ambrose E. Burnside_ +(Providence, 1882); A. Woodbury, _Major-General Burnside and the Ninth Army +Corps_ (Providence, 1867). + +BURNTISLAND, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Fife, Scotland, on the +shore of the Firth of Forth, 53/4 m. S.W. of Kirkcaldy by the North British +railway. Pop. (1891) 4993; (1901) 4846. It is protected from the north wind +by the Binn (632 ft.), and in consequence of its excellent situation, its +links and sandy beach, it enjoys considerable repute as a summer resort. +The chief industries are distilling, fisheries, shipbuilding and shipping, +especially the export of coal and iron. Until the opening of the Forth +bridge, its commodious harbour was the northern station of the ferry across +the firth from Granton, 5 m. south. The parish church, dating from 1594, is +a plain structure, with a squat tower rising in two tiers from the centre +of the roof. The public buildings include two hospitals, a town-hall, music +hall, library and reading room and science institute. On the rocks forming +the western end of the harbour stands Rossend Castle, where the amorous +French poet Chastelard repeated the insult to Queen Mary which led to his +execution. In 1667 it was ineffectually bombarded by the Dutch. The burgh +was originally called Parva Kinghorn and later Wester Kinghorn. The origin +and meaning of the present name of the town have always been a matter of +conjecture. There seems reason to believe that it refers to the time when +the site, or a portion of it, formed an island, as sea-sand is the subsoil +even of the oldest quarters. Another derivation is from Gaelic words +meaning "the island beyond the bend." With Dysart, Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy, +it unites in returning one member to parliament. + +BURR, AARON (1756-1836), American political leader, was born at Newark, New +Jersey, on the 6th of February 1756. His father, the Rev. Aaron Burr +(1715-1757), was the second president (1748-1757) of the College of New +Jersey, now Princeton University; his mother was the daughter of Jonathan +Edwards, the well-known Calvinist theologian. The son graduated from the +College of New Jersey in 1772, and two years later began the study of law +in the celebrated law school conducted by his brother-in-law, Tappan Reeve, +at Litchfield, Connecticut. Soon after the outbreak of the War of +Independence, in 1775, he joined Washington's army in Cambridge, Mass. He +accompanied Arnold's expedition into Canada in 1775, and on arriving before +Quebec he disguised himself as a Catholic priest and made a dangerous +journey of 120 m. through the British lines to notify Montgomery, at +Montreal, of Arnold's arrival. He served for a time on the staffs of +Washington and Putnam in 1776-77, and by his vigilance in the retreat from +Long Island he saved an entire brigade from capture. On becoming +lieutenant-colonel in July 1777, he assumed the command of a regiment, and +during the winter at Valley Forge guarded the "Gulf," a pass commanding the +approach to the camp, and necessarily the first point that would be +attacked. In the engagement at Monmouth, on the 28th of June 1778, he +commanded one of the brigades in Lord Stirling's division. In January 1779 +Burr was assigned to the command of the "lines" of Westchester county, a +region between the British post at Kingsbridge and that of the Americans +about 15 m. to the north. In this district there was much turbulence and +plundering by the lawless elements of both Whigs and Tories and by bands of +ill-disciplined soldiers from both armies. Burr established a thorough +patrol system, rigorously enforced martial law, and quickly restored order. + +He resigned from the army in March 1779, on account of ill-health, renewed +the study of law, was admitted to the bar at Albany in 1782, and began to +practise in New York city after its evacuation by the British in the +following year. In 1782 he married Theodosia Prevost (d. 1794), the widow +of a British army officer who had died in the West Indies during the War of +Independence. They had one child, a daughter, Theodosia, born in 1783, who +became widely known for her beauty and accomplishments, married Joseph +Alston of South Carolina [v.04 p.0862] in 1801, and was lost at sea in +1813. Burr was a member of the state assembly (1784-1785), attorney-general +of the state (1789-1791), United States senator (1791-1797), and again a +member of the assembly (1798-1799 and 1800-1801). As national parties +became clearly defined, he associated himself with the +Democratic-Republicans. Although he was not the founder of Tammany Hall, he +began the construction of the political machine upon which the power of +that organization is based. In the election of 1800 he was placed on the +Democratic-Republican presidential ticket with Thomas Jefferson, and each +received the same number of electoral votes. It was well understood that +the party intended that Jefferson should be president and Burr +vice-president, but owing to a defect (later remedied) in the Constitution +the responsibility for the final choice was thrown upon the House of +Representatives. The attempts of a powerful faction among the Federalists +to secure the election of Burr failed, partly because of the opposition of +Alexander Hamilton and partly, it would seem, because Burr himself would +make no efforts to obtain votes in his own favour. On Jefferson's election, +Burr of course became vice-president. His fair and judicial manner as +president of the Senate, recognized even by his bitterest enemies, helped +to foster traditions in regard to that position quite different from those +which have become associated with the speakership of the House of +Representatives. + +Hamilton had opposed Burr's aspirations for the vice-presidency in 1792, +and had exerted influence through Washington to prevent his appointment as +brigadier-general in 1798, at the time of the threatened war between the +United States and France. It was also in a measure his efforts which led to +Burr's lack of success in the New York gubernatorial campaign of 1804; +moreover the two had long been rivals at the bar. Smarting under defeat and +angered by Hamilton's criticisms, Burr sent the challenge which resulted in +the famous duel at Weehawken, N.J., on the 11th of July 1804, and the death +of Hamilton (_q.v._) on the following day. After the expiration of his term +as vice-president (March 4, 1805), broken in fortune and virtually an exile +from New York, where, as in New Jersey, he had been indicted for murder +after the duel with Hamilton, Burr visited the South-west and became +involved in the so-called conspiracy which has so puzzled the students of +that period. The traditional view that he planned a separation of the West +from the Union is now discredited. Apart from the question of political +morality he could not, as a shrewd politician, have failed to see that the +people of that section were too loyal to sanction such a scheme. The +objects of his treasonable correspondence with Merry and Yrujo, the British +and Spanish ministers at Washington, were, it would seem, to secure money +and to conceal his real designs, which were probably to overthrow Spanish +power in the Southwest, and perhaps to found an imperial dynasty in Mexico. +He was arrested in 1807 on the charge of treason, was brought to trial +before the United States circuit court at Richmond, Virginia, Chief-Justice +Marshall presiding, and he was acquitted, in spite of the fact that the +political influence of the national administration was thrown against him. +Immediately afterward he was tried on a charge of misdemeanour, and on a +technicality was again acquitted. He lived abroad from 1808 to 1812, +passing most of his time in England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden and France; +trying to secure aid in the prosecution of his filibustering schemes but +meeting with numerous rebuffs, being ordered out of England and Napoleon +refusing to receive him. In 1812 he returned to New York and spent the +remainder of his life in the practice of law. Burr was unscrupulous, +insincere and notoriously immoral, but he was pleasing in his manners, +generous to a fault, and was intensely devoted to his wife and daughter. In +1833 he married Eliza B. Jumel (1769-1865), a rich New York widow; the two +soon separated, however, owing to Burr's having lost much of her fortune in +speculation. He died at Port Richmond, Staten Island, New York, on the 14th +of September 1836. + +The standard biography is James Parton's _The Life and Times of Aaron Burr_ +(first edition, 1857; enlarged edition, 2 vols., Boston and New York, +1898). W.F. McCaleb's _The Aaron Burr Conspiracy_ (New York, 1903) is a +scholarly defence of the West and incidentally of Burr against the charge +of treason, and is the best account of the subject; see also I. Jenkinson, +_Aaron Burr_ (Richmond, Ind., 1902). For the traditional view of Burr's +conspiracy, see Henry Adams's _History of the United States_, vol. iii. +(New York, 1890). + +BURRIANA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Castellon de la +Plana; on the estuary of the river Seco, which flows into the Mediterranean +Sea. Pop. (1900) 12,962. The harbour of Burriana on the open sea is +annually visited by about three hundred small coasting-vessels. Its exports +consist chiefly of oranges grown in the surrounding fertile plain, which is +irrigated with water from the river Mijares, on the north, and also +produces large quantities of grain, oil, wine and melons. Burriana is +connected by a light railway with the neighbouring towns of Onda (6595), +Almazora (7070), Villarreal (16,068) and Castellon de la Plana (29,904). +Its nearest station on the Barcelona-Valencia coast railway is Villarreal. + +BURRITT, ELIHU (1810-1879), American philanthropist, known as "the learned +blacksmith," was born in New Britain, Conn., on the 8th of December 1810. +His father (a farmer and shoemaker), and his grandfather, both of the same +name, had served in the Revolutionary army. An elder brother, Elijah, who +afterwards published _The Geography of the Heavens_ and other text-books, +went out into the world while Elihu was still a boy, and after editing a +paper in Georgia came back to New Britain and started a school. Elihu, +however, had to pick up what knowledge he could get from books at home, +where his father's long illness, ending in death, made his services +necessary. At sixteen he was apprenticed to a blacksmith, and he made this +his trade both there and at Worcester, Mass., where he removed in 1837. He +had a passion for reading; from the village library he borrowed book after +book, which he studied at his forge or in his spare hours; and he managed +to find time for attending his brother's school for a while, and even for +pursuing his search for culture among the advantages to be found at New +Haven. He mastered Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and German, and +by the age of thirty could read nearly fifty languages. His extraordinary +aptitude gradually made him famous. He took to lecturing, and then to an +ardent crusade on behalf of universal peace and human brotherhood, which +made him travel persistently to various parts of the United States and +Europe. In 1848 he organized the Brussels congress of Friends of Peace, +which was followed by annual congresses in Paris, Frankfort, London, +Manchester and Edinburgh. He wrote and published voluminously, leaflets, +pamphlets and volumes, and started the _Christian Citizen_ at Worcester to +advocate his humanitarian views. Cheap trans-oceanic postage was an ideal +for which he agitated wherever he went. His vigorous philanthropy keeps the +name of Elihu Burritt green in the history of the peace movement, apart +from the fame of his learning. His countrymen, at universities such as Yale +and elsewhere, delighted to do him honour; and he was U.S. consul at +Birmingham from 1865 to 1870. He returned to America and died at New +Britain on the 9th of March 1879. + +See _Life_, by Charles Northend, in the memorial volume (1879); and an +article by Ellen Strong Bartlett in the _New England Magazine_ (June, +1897). + +BURROUGHS, GEORGE (c. 1650-1692), American congregational pastor, graduated +at Harvard in 1670, and became the minister of Salem Village (now Danvers) +in 1680, a charge which he held till 1683. He lived at Falmouth (now +Portland, Maine) until the Indians destroyed it in 1690, when he removed to +Wells. In May 1692 during the witchcraft delusion, on the accusation of +some personal enemies in his former congregation who had sued him for debt, +Burroughs was arrested and charged, among other offences, with +"extraordinary Lifting and such feats of strength as could not be done +without Diabolicall Assistance." Though the jury found no witch-marks on +his body he was convicted and executed on Gallows Hill, Salem, on the 19th +of August, the only minister who suffered this extreme fate. + +[v.04 p.0863] BURROUGHS, JOHN (1837- ), American poet and writer on natural +history, was born in Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 3rd of +April 1837. In his earlier years he engaged in various pursuits, teaching, +journalism, farming and fruit-raising, and for nine years was a clerk in +the treasury department at Washington. After publishing in 1867 a volume of +_Notes on Walt Whitman as poet and person_ (a subject to which he returned +in 1896 with his _Whitman: a Study_), he began in 1871, with _Wake-Robin_, +a series of books on birds, flowers and rural scenes which has made him the +successor of Thoreau as a popular essayist en the plants and animals +environing human life. His later writings showed a more philosophic mood +and a greater disposition towards literary or meditative allusion than +their predecessors, but the general theme and method remained the same. His +chief books, in addition to _Wake-Robin_, are _Birds and Poets_ (1877), +_Locusts and Wild Honey_ (1879), _Signs and Seasons_ (1886), and _Ways of +Nature_ (1905); these are in prose, but he wrote much also in verse, a +volume of poems, _Bird and Bough_, being published in 1906. _Winter +Sunshine_ (1875) and _Fresh Fields_ (1884) are sketches of travel in +England and France. + +A biographical sketch of Burroughs is prefixed to his _Year in the Fields_ +(new ed., 1901). A complete uniform edition of his works was issued in +1895, &c. (Riverside edition, Cambridge, Mass.). + +BURSAR (Med. Lat. _bursarius_), literally a keeper of the _bursa_ or purse. +The word is now chiefly used of the official, usually one of the fellows, +who administers the finances of a college at a university, or of the +treasurer of a school or other institution. The term is also applied to the +holder of "a bursary," an exhibition at Scottish schools or universities, +and also in England a scholarship or exhibition enabling a pupil of an +elementary school to continue his education at a secondary school. The term +"burse" (Lat. _bursa_, Gr. [Greek: borsa], bag of skin) is particularly +used of the embroidered purse which is one of the insignia of office of the +lord high chancellor of England, and of the pouch which in the Roman Church +contains the "corporal" in the service of the Mass. The "bursa" is a square +case opening at one side only and covered and lined with silk or linen; one +side should be of the colour of the vestments of the day. + +BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association of students at the German universities. It +was formed as a result of the German national sentiment awakened by the War +of Liberation, its object being to foster patriotism and Christian conduct, +as opposed to the particularism and low moral standard of the old +_Landsmannschaften_. It originated at Jena, under the patronage of the +grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, and rapidly spread, the _Allgemeine deutsche +Burschenschaft_ being established in 1818. The loud political idealism of +the _Burschen_ excited the fears of the reactionary powers, which +culminated after the murder of Kotzebue (_q.v._) by Karl Sand in 1819, a +crime inspired by a secret society among the _Burschen_ known as the Blacks +(_Schwarzen_). The repressive policy embodied in the Carlsbad Decrees +(_q.v._) was therefore directed mainly against the _Burschenschaft_, which +none the less survived to take part in the revolutions of 1830. After the +_emeute_ at Frankfort in 1833, the association was again suppressed, but it +lived on until, in 1848, all laws against it were abrogated. The +_Burschenschaften_ are now purely social and non-political societies. The +_Reformburschenschaften_, formed since 1883 on the principle of excluding +duelling, are united in the _Allgemeiner deutscher Burschenbund_. + +BURSIAN, CONRAD (1830-1883), German philologist and archaeologist, was born +at Mutzschen in Saxony, on the 14th of November 1830. On the removal of his +parents to Leipzig, he received his early education at the Thomas school, +and entered the university in 1847. Here he studied under Moritz Haupt and +Otto Jahn until 1851, spent six months in Berlin (chiefly to attend Boeckh's +lectures), and completed his university studies at Leipzig (1852). The next +three years were devoted to travelling in Belgium, France, Italy and +Greece. In 1856 he became a _Privat-docent_, and in 1858 extraordinary +professor at Leipzig; in 1861 professor of philology and archaeology at +Tuebingen; in 1864 professor of classical antiquities at Zurich; in 1869 at +Jena, where he was also director of the archaeological museum; in 1874 at +Munich, where he remained until his death on the 21st of September 1883. +His most important works are: _Geographie von Griechenland_ (1862-1872); +_Beitraege zur Geschichte der klassischen Studien im Mittelalter_ (1873); +_Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); editions of +Julius Firmicus Maternus' _De Errore Profanarum Religionum_ (1856) and of +Seneca's _Suasoriae_ (1857). The article on Greek Art in Ersch and Gruber's +Encyclopaedia is by him. Probably the work in connexion with which he is +best known is the _Jahresbericht ueber die Fortschritte der klassischen +Altertumswissenschaft_ (1873, &c.), of which he was the founder and editor; +from 1879 a _Biographisches Jahrbuch fuer Altertumskunde_ was published by +way of supplement, an obituary notice of Bursian, with a complete list of +his writings, being in the volume for 1884. + +BURSLEM, a market town of Staffordshire, England, in the Potteries +district, 150 m. N.W. from London, on the North Staffordshire railway and +the Grand Trunk Canal. Pop. (1891) 31,999; (1901) 38,766. In the 17th +century the town was already famous for its manufacture of pottery. Here +Josiah Wedgwood was born in 1730, his family having practised the +manufacture in this locality for several generations, while he himself +began work independently at the Ivy House pottery in 1759. He is +commemorated by the Wedgwood Institute, founded in 1863. It comprises a +school of art, free library, museum, picture-gallery and the free school +founded in 1794. The exterior is richly and peculiarly ornamented, to show +the progress of fictile art. The neighbouring towns of Stoke, Hanley and +Longton are connected with Burslem by tramways. Burslem is mentioned in +Domesday. Previously to 1885 it formed part of the parliamentary borough of +Stoke, but it is now included in that of Hanley. It was included in the +municipal borough of Stoke-on-Trent under an act of 1908. + +BURTON, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1900), British painter and art +connoisseur, the third son of Samuel Burton of Mungret, Co. Limerick, was +born in Ireland in 1816. He was educated in Dublin, where his artistic +studies were carried on with marked success under the direction of Mr +Brocas, an able teacher, who foretold for the lad a distinguished career. +That this estimate was not exaggerated was proved by Burton's immediate +success in his profession. He was elected an associate of the Royal +Hibernian Academy at the age of twenty-one and an academician two years +later; and in 1842 he began to exhibit at the Royal Academy. A visit to +Germany and Bavaria in 1851 was the first of a long series of wanderings in +various parts of Europe, which gave him a profound and intimate knowledge +of the works of the Old Masters, and prepared him admirably for the duties +that he undertook in 1874 when he was appointed director of the British +National Gallery in succession to Sir W. Boxall, R.A. During the twenty +years that he held this post he was responsible for many important +purchases, among them Leonardo da Vinci's "Virgin of the Rocks," Raphael's +"Ansidei Madonna," Holbein's "Ambassadors," Van Dyck's equestrian portrait +of Charles I., and the "Admiral Pulido Pareja," by Velasquez; and he added +largely to the noted series of Early Italian pictures in the gallery. The +number of acquisitions made to the collection during his period of office +amounts to not fewer than 500. His own painting, most of which was in +water-colour, had more attraction for experts than for the general public. +He was elected an associate of the Royal Society of Painters in +Water-Colours in 1855, and a full member in the following year. He resigned +in 1870, and was re-elected as an honorary member in 1886. A knighthood was +conferred on him in 1884, and the degree of LL.D. of Dublin in 1889. In his +youth he had strong sympathy with the "Young Ireland Party," and was a +close associate with some of its members. He died in Kensington on the 16th +of March 1900. + +BURTON, JOHN HILL (1809-1881), Scottish historical writer, the son of an +officer in the army, was born at Aberdeen on the 22nd of August 1809. After +studying at the university of his native city, he removed to Edinburgh, +where he qualified for [v.04 p.0864] the Scottish bar and practised as an +advocate; but his progress was slow, and he eked out his narrow means by +miscellaneous literary work. His _Manual of the Law of Scotland_ (1839) +brought him into notice; he joined Sir John Bowring in editing the works of +Jeremy Bentham, and for a short time was editor of the _Scotsman_, which he +committed to the cause of free trade. In 1846 he achieved high reputation +by his _Life of David Hume_, based upon extensive and unused MS. material. +In 1847 he wrote his biographies of Simon, Lord Lovat, and of Duncan +Forbes, and in 1849 prepared for Chambers's Series manuals of political and +social economy and of emigration. In the same year he lost his wife, whom +he had married in 1844, and never again mixed freely with society, though +in 1855 he married again. He devoted himself mainly to literature, +contributing largely to the _Scotsman_ and _Blackwood_, writing _Narratives +from Criminal Trials in Scotland_ (1852), _Treatise on the Law of +Bankruptcy in Scotland_ (1853), and publishing in the latter year the first +volume of his _History of Scotland_, which was completed in 1870. A new and +improved edition of the work appeared in 1873. Some of the more important +of his contributions to _Blackwood_ were embodied in two delightful +volumes, _The Book Hunter_ (1862) and _The Scot Abroad_ (1864). He had in +1854 been appointed secretary to the prison board, an office which gave him +entire pecuniary independence, and the duties of which he discharged most +assiduously, notwithstanding his literary pursuits and the pressure of +another important task assigned to him after the completion of his history, +the editorship of the _National Scottish Registers_. Two volumes were +published under his supervision. His last work, _The History of the Reign +of Queen Anne_ (1880), is very inferior to his _History of Scotland_. He +died on the 10th of August 1881. Burton was pre-eminently a jurist and +economist, and may be said to have been guided by accident into the path +which led him to celebrity. It was his great good fortune to find abundant +unused material for his _Life of Hume_, and to be the first to introduce +the principles of historical research into the history of Scotland. All +previous attempts had been far below the modern standard in these +particulars, and Burton's history will always be memorable as marking an +epoch. His chief defects as a historian are want of imagination and an +undignified familiarity of style, which, however, at least preserves his +history from the dulness by which lack of imagination is usually +accompanied. His dryness is associated with a fund of dry humour +exceedingly effective in its proper place, as in _The Book Hunter_. As a +man he was loyal, affectionate, philanthropic and entirely estimable. + +A memoir of Hill Burton by his wife was prefaced to an edition of _The Book +Hunter_, which like his other works was published at Edinburgh (1882). + +(R. G.) + +BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS (1821-1890), British consul, explorer and +Orientalist, was born at Barham House, Hertfordshire, on the 19th of March +1821. He came of the Westmorland Burtons of Shap, but his grandfather, the +Rev. Edward Burton, settled in Ireland as rector of Tuam, and his father, +Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton, of the 36th Regiment, was an +Irishman by birth and character. His mother was descended from the +MacGregors, and he was proud of a remote drop of Bourbon blood piously +believed to be derived from a morganatic union of the Grand Monarque. There +were even those, including some of the Romany themselves, who saw gipsy +written in his peculiar eyes as in his character, wild and resentful, +essentially vagabond, intolerant of convention and restraint. His irregular +education strengthened the inherited bias. A childhood spent in France and +Italy, under scarcely any control, fostered the love of untrammelled +wandering and a marvellous fluency in continental vernaculars. Such an +education so little prepared him for academic proprieties, that when he +entered Trinity College, Oxford, in October 1840, a criticism of his +military moustache by a fellow-undergraduate was resented by a challenge to +a duel, and Burton in various ways distinguished himself by such eccentric +behaviour that rustication inevitably ensued. Nor was he much more in his +element as a subaltern in the 18th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry, +which he joined at Baroda in October 1842. Discipline of any sort he +abhorred, and the one recommendation of the East India Company's service in +his eyes was that it offered opportunities for studying Oriental life and +languages. He had begun Arabic without a master at Oxford, and worked in +London at Hindustani under Forbes before he went out; in India he laboured +indefatigably at the vernaculars, and his reward was an astonishingly rapid +proficiency in Gujarati, Marathi, Hindustani, as well as Persian and +Arabic. His appointment as an assistant in the Sind survey enabled him to +mix with the people, and he frequently passed as a native in the bazaars +and deceived his own _munshi_, to say nothing of his colonel and messmates. +His wanderings in Sind were the apprenticeship for the pilgrimage to Mecca, +and his seven years in India laid the foundations of his unparalleled +familiarity with Eastern life and customs, especially among the lower +classes. Besides government reports and contributions to the Asiatic +Society, his Indian period produced four books, published after his return +home: _Scinde, or the Unhappy Valley_ (1851), _Sindh and the Races that +Inhabit the Valley of the Indus_ (1851), _Goa and the Blue Mountains_ +(1851), and _Falconry in the Valley of the Indus_ (1852). None of these +achieved popularity, but the account of Sind is remarkably vivid and +faithful. + +The pilgrimage to Mecca in 1853 made Burton famous. He had planned it +whilst mixing disguised among the Muslims of Sind, and had laboriously +prepared for the ordeal by study and practice. No doubt the primary motive +was the love of adventure, which was his strongest passion; but along with +the wanderer's restlessness marched the zest of exploration, and whilst +wandering was in any case a necessity of his existence, he preferred to +roam in untrodden ways where mere adventure might be dignified by +geographical service. There was a "huge white blot" on the maps of central +Arabia where no European had ever been, and Burton's scheme, approved by +the Royal Geographical Society, was to extend his pilgrimage to this "empty +abode," and remove a discreditable blank from the map. War among the tribes +curtailed the design, and his journey went no farther than Medina and +Mecca. The exploit of accompanying the Muslim hajj to the holy cities was +not unique, nor so dangerous as has been imagined. Several Europeans have +accomplished it before and since Burton's visit without serious mishap. +Passing himself off as an Indian Pathan covered any peculiarities or +defects of speech. The pilgrimage, however, demands an intimate proficiency +in a complicated ritual, and a familiarity with the minutiae of Eastern +manners and etiquette; and in the case of a stumble, presence of mind and +cool courage may be called into request. There are legends that Burton had +to defend his life by taking others'; but he carried no arms, and +confessed, rather shamefastly, that he had never killed anybody at any +time. The actual journey was less remarkable than the book in which it was +recorded, _The Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah_ (1855). Its vivid +descriptions, pungent style, and intensely personal "note" distinguish it +from books of its class; its insight into Semitic modes of thought and its +picture of Arab manners give it the value of an historical document; its +grim humour, keen observation and reckless insobriety of opinion, expressed +in peculiar, uncouth but vigorous language make it a curiosity of +literature. + +Burton's next journey was more hazardous than the pilgrimage, but created +no parallel sensation. In 1854 the Indian government accepted his proposal +to explore the interior of the Somali country, which formed a subject of +official anxiety in its relation to the Red Sea trade. He was assisted by +Capt. J.H. Speke and two other young officers, but accomplished the most +difficult part of the enterprise alone. This was the journey to Harrar, the +Somali capital, which no white man had entered. Burton vanished into the +desert, and was not heard of for four months. When he reappeared he had not +only been to Harrar, but had talked with the king, stayed ten days there in +deadly peril, and ridden back across the desert, almost without food and +water, running the gauntlet of the Somali spears all the way. Undeterred by +this experience he set out again, but was checked [v.04 p.0865] by a +skirmish with the tribes, in which one of his young officers was killed, +Captain Speke was wounded in eleven places, and Burton himself had a +javelin thrust through his jaws. His _First Footsteps in East Africa_ +(1856), describing these adventures, is one of his most exciting and most +characteristic books, full of learning, observation and humour. + +After serving on the staff of Beatson's Bashi-bazouks at the Dardanelles, +but never getting to the front in the Crimea, Burton returned to Africa in +1856. The foreign office, moved by the Royal Geographical Society, +commissioned him to search for the sources of the Nile, and, again +accompanied by Speke, he explored the lake regions of equatorial Africa. +They discovered Lake Tanganyika in February 1858, and Speke, pushing on +during Burton's illness and acting on indications supplied by him, lighted +upon Victoria Nyanza. The separate discovery led to a bitter dispute, but +Burton's expedition, with its discovery of the two lakes, was the incentive +to the later explorations of Speke and Grant, Baker, Livingstone and +Stanley; and his report in volume xxxiii. of the _Proceedings of the Royal +Geographical Society_, and his _Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa_ (1860), +are the true parents of the multitudinous literature of "darkest Africa." +Burton was the first Englishman to enter Mecca, the first to explore +Somaliland, the first to discover the great lakes of Central Africa. His +East African pioneering coincides with areas which have since become +peculiarly interesting to the British Empire; and three years later he was +exploring on the opposite side of Africa, at Dahomey, Benin and the Gold +Coast, regions which have also entered among the imperial "questions" of +the day. Before middle age Burton had compressed into his life, as Lord +Derby said, "more of study, more of hardship, and more of successful +enterprise and adventure, than would have sufficed to fill up the existence +of half a dozen ordinary men." _The City of the Saints_ (1861) was the +fruit of a flying visit to the United States in 1860. + +Since 1849 his connexion with the Indian army had been practically severed; +in 1861 he definitely entered the service of the foreign office as consul +at Fernando Po, whence he was shifted successively to Santos in Brazil +(1865), Damascus (1869), and Trieste (1871), holding the last post till his +death on the 20th of October 1890. Each of these posts produced its +corresponding books: Fernando Po led to the publishing of _Wanderings in +West Africa_ (1863), _Abeokuta and the Cameroons_ (1863), _A Mission to +Gelele, king of Dahome_ (1864), and _Wit and Wisdom from West Africa_ +(1865). The _Highlands of the Brazil_ (1869) was the result of four years' +residence and travelling; and _Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay_ +(1870) relate to a journey across South America to Peru. Damascus suggested +_Unexplored Syria_ (1872), and might have led to much better work, since no +consulate in either hemisphere was more congenial to Burton's taste and +linguistic studies; but he mismanaged his opportunities, got into trouble +with the foreign office, and was removed to Trieste, where his Oriental +prepossessions and prejudices could do no harm, but where, unfortunately, +his Oriental learning was thrown away. He did not, however, abandon his +Eastern studies or his Eastern travels. Various fresh journeys or +revisitings of familiar scenes are recorded in his later books, such as +_Zanzibar_ (1872), _Ultima Thule_ (1875), _Etruscan Bologna_ (1876), _Sind +Revisited_ (1877), _The Land of Midian_ (1879) and _To the Gold Coast for +Gold_ (1883). None of these had more than a passing interest. Burton had +not the charm of style or imagination which gives immortality to a book of +travel. He wrote too fast, and took too little pains about the form. His +blunt, disconnected sentences and ill-constructed chapters were full of +information and learning, and contained not a few thrusts for the benefit +of government or other people, but they were not "readable." There was +something ponderous about his very humour, and his criticism was personal +and savage. By far the most celebrated of all his books is the translation +of the "Arabian Nights" (_The Thousand Nights and a Night_, 16 vols., +privately printed, 1885-1888), which occupied the greater part of his +leisure at Trieste. As a monument of his Arabic learning and his +encyclopaedic knowledge of Eastern life this translation was his greatest +achievement. It is open to criticism in many ways; it is not so exact in +scholarship, nor so faithful to its avowed text, as might be expected from +his reputation; but it reveals a profound acquaintance with the vocabulary +and customs of the Muslims, with their classical idiom as well as their +vulgarest "Billingsgate," with their philosophy and modes of thought as +well as their most secret and most disgusting habits. Burton's +"anthropological notes," embracing a wide field of pornography, apart from +questions of taste, abound in valuable observations based upon long study +of the manners and the writings of the Arabs. The translation itself is +often marked by extraordinary resource and felicity in the exact +reproduction of the sense of the original; Burton's vocabulary was +marvellously extensive, and he had a genius for hitting upon the right +word; but his fancy for archaic words and phrases, his habit of coining +words, and the harsh and rugged style he affected, detract from the +literary quality of the work without in any degree enhancing its fidelity. +With grave defects, but sometimes brilliant merits, the translation holds a +mirror to its author. He was, as has been well said, an Elizabethan born +out of time; in the days of Drake his very faults might have counted to his +credit. Of his other works, _Vikram and the Vampire, Hindu Tales_ (1870), +and a history of his favourite arm, _The Book of the Sword_, vol. i. +(1884), unfinished, may be mentioned. His translation of _The Lusiads of +Camoens_ (1880) was followed (1881) by a sketch of the poet's life. Burton +had a fellow-feeling for the poet adventurer, and his translation is an +extraordinarily happy reproduction of its original. A manuscript +translation of the "Scented Garden," from the Arabic, was burnt by his +widow, acting in what she believed to be the interests of her husband's +reputation. Burton married Isabel Arundell in 1861, and owed much to her +courage, sympathy and passionate devotion. Her romantic and exaggerated +biography of her husband, with all its faults, is one of the most pathetic +monuments which the unselfish love of a woman has ever raised to the memory +of her hero. Another monument is the Arab tent of stone and marble which +she built for his tomb at Mortlake. + +Besides Lady Burton's _Life of Sir Richard F. Burton_ (2 vols., 1893, 2nd +edition, condensed, edited, with a preface, by W.H. Wilkins, 1898), there +are _A Sketch of the Career of R.F. Burton_, by A.B. Richards, Andrew +Wilson, and St Clair Baddeley (1886); _The True Life of Captain Sir Richard +F. Burton_, by his niece, G.M. Stisted (1896); and a brief sketch by the +present writer prefixed to Bohn's edition of the _Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah +and Meccah_ (1898), from which some sentences have here been by permission +reproduced. In 1906 appeared the _Life of Sir Richard Burton_, by Thomas +Wright of Olney, in two volumes, an industrious and rather critical work, +interesting in particular for the doubts it casts on Burton's originality +as an Arabic translator, and emphasizing his indebtedness to Payne's +translation (1881) of the _Arabian Nights_. + +(S. L.-P.) + +BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640), English writer, author of _The Anatomy of +Melancholy_, son of a country gentleman, Ralph Burton, was born at Lindley +in Leicestershire on the 8th of February 1576-7. He was educated at the +free school of Sutton Coldfield and at Nuneaton grammar school; became in +1593 a commoner of Brasenose College, and in 1599 was elected student at +Christ Church, where he continued to reside for the rest of his life. The +dean and chapter of Christ Church appointed him, in November 1616, vicar of +St Thomas in the west suburbs, and about 1630 his patron, Lord Berkeley, +presented him to the rectory of Segrave in Leicestershire. He held the two +livings "with much ado to his dying day" (says Antony a Wood, the Oxford +historian, somewhat mysteriously); and he was buried in the north aisle of +Christ Church cathedral, where his elder brother William Burton, author of +a _History of Leicestershire_, raised to his memory a monument, with his +bust in colour. The epitaph that he had written for himself was carved +beneath the bust: _Paucis notus, paucioribus ignotus, hic jacet Democritus +Junior, cui vitam dedit et mortem Melancholia_. Some years before his death +he had predicted, by the calculation of his nativity, that the approach of +his climacteric year (sixty-three) would prove fatal; and the prediction +came true, for he died on the 25th of January 1639-40 (some gossips +surmising that he had "sent up his soul to heaven through a noose about his +neck" to avoid the chagrin of seeing his calculations falsified). His [v.04 +p.0866] portrait in Brasenose College shows the face of a scholar, shrewd, +contemplative, humorous. + +A Latin comedy, _Philosophaster_, originally written by Robert Burton in +1606 and acted at Christ Church in 1617, was long supposed to be lost; but +in 1862 it was printed for the Roxburghe Club from a manuscript belonging +to the Rev. W.E. Buckley, who edited it with elaborate care and appended a +collection of the academical exercises that Burton had contributed to +various Oxford miscellanies ("Natalia," "Parentalia," &c.). +_Philosophaster_ is a vivacious exposure of charlatanism. Desiderius, duke +of Osuna, invites learned men from all parts of Europe to repair to the +university which he has re-established; and a crowd of shifty adventurers +avail themselves of the invitation. There are points of resemblance to +_Philosophaster_ in Ben Jonson's _Alchemist_ and Tomkis's _Albumazar_, but +in the prologue Burton is careful to state that his was the earlier play. +(Another manuscript of _Philosophaster_, a presentation copy to William +Burton from the author, has since been found in the library of Lord +Mostyn.) + +In 1621 was issued at Oxford the first edition, a quarto, of _The Anatomy +of Melancholy ... by Democritus Junior_. Later editions, in folio, were +published in 1624, 1628, 1632, 1638, 1651, 1652, 1660, 1676. Burton was for +ever engaged in revising his treatise. In the third edition (where first +appeared the engraved emblematical title-page by C. Le Blond) he declared +that he would make no further alterations. But the fourth edition again +bore marks of revision; the fifth differed from the fourth; and the sixth +edition was posthumously printed from a copy containing his latest +corrections. + +Not the least interesting part of the _Anatomy_ is the long preface, +"Democritus to the Reader," in which Burton sets out his reasons for +writing the treatise and for assuming the name of Democritus Junior. He had +been elected a student of "the most flourishing college of Europe" and he +designed to show his gratitude by writing something that should be worthy +of that noble society. He had read much; he was neither rich nor poor; +living in studious seclusion, he had been a critically observant spectator +of the world's affairs. The philosopher Democritus, who was by nature very +melancholy, "averse from company in his latter days and much given to +solitariness," spent his closing years in the suburbs of Abdera. There +Hippocrates once found him studying in his garden, the subject of his study +being the causes and cure of "this _atra bilis_ or melancholy." Burton +would not compare himself with so famous a philosopher, but he aimed at +carrying out the design which Democritus had planned and Hippocrates had +commended. It is stated that he actually set himself to reproduce the old +philosopher's reputed eccentricities of conduct. When he was attacked by a +fit of melancholy he would go to the bridge foot at Oxford and shake his +sides with laughter to hear the bargemen swearing at one another, just as +Democritus used to walk down to the haven at Abdera and pick matter for +mirth out of the humours of waterside life. + +Burton anticipates the objections of captious critics. He allows that he +has "collected this cento out of divers authors" and has borrowed from +innumerable books, but he claims that "the composition and method is ours +only, and shows a scholar." It had been his original intention to write in +Latin, but no publisher would take the risk of issuing in Latin so +voluminous a treatise. He humorously apologizes for faults of style on the +ground that he had to work single-handed (unlike Origen who was allowed by +Ambrosius six or seven amanuenses) and digest his notes as best he might. +If any object to his choice of subject, urging that he would be better +employed in writing on divinity, his defence is that far too many +commentaries, expositions, sermons, &c., are already in existence. Besides, +divinity and medicine are closely allied; and, melancholy being both a +spiritual and bodily infirmity, the divine and the physician must unite to +cure it. + +The preface is followed by a tabular synopsis of the First Partition with +its several Sections, Members and Subsections. After various preliminary +digressions Burton sets himself to define what Melancholy is and what are +its species and kinds. Then he discusses the Causes, supernatural and +natural, of the disorder, and afterwards proceeds to set down the Symptoms +(which cannot be briefly summarized, "for the Tower of Babel never yielded +such confusion of tongues as the Chaos of Melancholy doth of Symptoms"). +The Second Partition is devoted to the Cure of Melancholy. As it is of +great importance that we should live in good air, a chapter deals with "Air +Rectified. With a Digression of the Air." Burton never travelled, but the +study of cosmography had been his constant delight; and over sea and land, +north, east, west, south--in this enchanting chapter--he sends his vagrant +fancy flying. In the disquisition on "Exercise rectified of body and mind" +he dwells gleefully on the pleasures of country life, and on the content +that scholars find in the pursuit of their favourite studies. +Love-Melancholy is the subject of the first Three Sections of the Third +Partition, and many are the merry tales with which these pages are +seasoned. The Fourth (and concluding) Section treats, in graver mood, of +Religious Melancholy; and to the "Cure of Despair" he devotes his deepest +meditations. + +_The Anatomy_, widely read in the 17th century, for a time lapsed into +obscurity, though even "the wits of Queen Anne's reign and the beginning of +George I. were not a little beholden to Robert Burton" (Archbishop +Herring). Dr Johnson deeply admired the work; and Sterne laid it heavily +under contribution. But the noble and impassioned devotion of Charles Lamb +has been the most powerful help towards keeping alive the memory of the +"fantastic great old man." Burton's odd turns and quirks of expression, his +whimsical and affectate fancies, his kindly sarcasm, his far-fetched +conceits, his deep-lying pathos, descended by inheritance of genius to +Lamb. The enthusiasm of Burton's admirers will not be chilled by the +disparagement of unsympathetic critics (Macaulay and Hallam among them) who +have consulted his pages in vain; but through good and evil report he will +remain, their well-loved companion to the end. + +The best of the modern editions of Burton was published in 1896, 3 vols. +8vo (Bell and Sons), under the editorship of A.R. Shilleto, who identified +a large number of the classical quotations and many passages from +post-classical authors. Prof. Bensley, of the university of Adelaide, has +since contributed to the ninth and tenth series of _Notes and Queries_ many +valuable notes on the _Anatomy_. Dr Aldis Wright has long been engaged on +the preparation of a definitive edition. + +(A. H. B.) + +BURTON, WILLIAM EVANS (1804-1860), English actor and playwright, born in +London in September 1804, was the son of William George Burton (1774-1825), +a printer and author of _Research into the religions of the Eastern nations +as illustrative of the scriptures_ (1805). He was educated for the Church, +but, having entered his father's business, his success as an amateur actor +led him to go upon the stage. After several years in the provinces, he made +his first London appearance in 1831. In 1834 he went to America, where he +appeared in Philadelphia as Dr Ollapod in _The Poor Gentleman_. He took a +prominent place, both as actor and manager, in New York, Philadelphia and +Baltimore, the theatre which he leased in New York being renamed Burton's +theatre. He had much popular success as Captain Cuttle in John Brougham's +dramatization of _Dombey and Son_, and in other low comedy parts in plays +from Dickens's novels. Burton was the author of a large number of plays, +one of which, _Ellen Wareham_ (1833), was produced simultaneously at five +London theatres. In Philadelphia he established the _Gentleman's Magazine_, +of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some time the editor. He was himself the +editor of the _Cambridge Quarterly_ and the _Souvenir_, and the author of +several books, including a _Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour_ (1857). He +collected a library of over 100,000 volumes, especially rich in +Shakespeariana, which was dispersed after his death at New York City on the +9th of February 1860. + +BURTON-UPON-TRENT, a market town and municipal and county borough in the +Burton parliamentary division of Staffordshire and the Southern +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England; lying mainly upon the left +bank of the Trent, in Staffordshire. Pop. (1891) 46,047; (1901) 50,386. It +is 127 m [v.04 p.0867] north-west from London by the London & North-Western +and the Midland railways, and is also served by the Great Northern and +North Staffordshire railways. The Trent is navigable from a point near the +town downward. The neighbouring country is pleasant enough, particularly +along the river, but the town itself is purely industrial, and contains no +pre-eminent buildings. The church of St Mary and St Modwen is classic in +style, of the 18th century, but embodies some remains of an ancient Gothic +building. Of a Benedictine abbey dedicated to the same saints there remain +a gatehouse and lodge, and a fine doorway. The former abbot's house at +Seyney Park is a half-timbered building of the 15th century. The free +grammar school was founded in 1525. A fine bridge over the Trent, and the +municipal buildings, were provided by Lord Burton. There are pleasant +recreation grounds on the Derbyshire side of the river. + +Burton is the seat of an enormous brewing trade, representing nearly +one-tenth of the total amount of this trade in the United Kingdom. It is +divided between some twenty firms. The premises of Bass's brewery extend +over 500 acres, while Allsopp's stand next; upwards of 5000 hands are +employed in all, and many miles of railways owned by the firms cross the +streets in all directions on the level, and connect with the lines of the +railway companies. The superiority which is claimed for Burton ales is +attributed to the use of well-water impregnated with sulphate of lime +derived from the gypseous deposits of the district. Burton is governed by a +mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 4202 acres. + +Burton-upon-Trent (Burhton) is first mentioned towards the close of the 9th +century, when St Modwen, an Irish virgin, is said to have established a +convent on the Isle of Andressey opposite Burton. In 1002 Wulfric, earl of +Mercia, founded here a Benedictine abbey, and by charter of 1004 granted to +it the town with other large endowments. Burton was evidently a mesne +borough under the abbot, who held the court of the manor and received the +profits of the borough according to the charter of Henry I. granting sac +and soc and other privileges and right in the town. Later charters were +given by Henry II., by John in 1204 (who also granted an annual fair of +three days' duration, 29th of October, at the feast of St Modwen, and a +weekly market on Thursday), by Henry III. in 1227, by Henry VII. in 1488 +(Henry VII. granted a fair at the feast of St Luke, 18th of October), and +by Henry VIII. in 1509. At the dissolution Henry VIII. founded on the site +of the abbey a collegiate church dissolved before 1545, when its lands, +with all the privileges formerly vested in the abbot, were conferred on Sir +William Paget, ancestor of the marquess of Anglesey, now holder of the +manor. In 1878 it was incorporated under a mayor, 8 aldermen, 24 +councillors. Burton was the scene of several engagements in the Civil War, +when its large trade in clothing and alabaster was practically ruined. +Although the abbey ale was mentioned as early as 1295, the brewing industry +is comparatively of recent development, having begun about 1708. Forty +years later it had a market at St Petersburg and the Baltic ports, and in +1796 there were nine brewing firms in the town. + +See William Molyneux, _History of Burton-on-Trent_ (1869); _Victoria County +History, Staffordshire_. + +BURU (_Buro_, Dutch _Boeroe_ or _Boeloe_), an island of the Dutch East +Indies, one of the Molucca Islands belonging to the residency of Amboyna, +between 3 deg. 4' and 3 deg. 50' S. and 125 deg. 58' and 127 deg. 15' E. Its extreme +measurements are 87 m. by 50 m., and its area is 3400 sq. m. Its surface is +for the most part mountainous, though the seaboard district is frequently +alluvial and marshy from the deposits of the numerous rivers. Of these the +largest, the Kajeli, discharging eastward, is in part navigable. The +greatest elevations occur in the west, where the mountain Tomahu reaches +8530 ft. In the middle of the western part of the island lies the large +lake of Wakolo, at an altitude of 2200 ft., with a circumference of 37 m. +and a depth of about 100 ft. It has been considered a crater lake; but this +is not the case. It is situated at the junction of the sandstone and slate, +where the water, having worn away the former, has accumulated on the +latter. The lake has no affluents and only one outlet, the Wai Nibe to the +north. The chief geological formations of Buru are crystalline slate near +the north coast, and more to the south Mesozoic sandstone and chalk, +deposits of rare occurrence in the archipelago. By far the larger part of +the country is covered with natural forest and prairie land, but such +portions as have been brought into cultivation are highly fertile. Coffee, +rice and a variety of fruits, such as the lemon, orange, banana, pine-apple +and coco-nut are readily grown, as well as sago, red-pepper, tobacco and +cotton. The only important exports, however, are cajeput oil, a sudorific +distilled from the leaves of the _Melaleuca Cajuputi_ or white-wood tree; +and timber. The native flora is rich, and teak, ebony and canari trees are +especially abundant; the fauna, which is similarly varied, includes the +babirusa, which occurs in this island only of the Moluccas. The population +is about 15,000. The villages on the sea-coast are inhabited by a Malayan +population, and the northern and western portions of the island are +occupied by a light-coloured Malay folk akin to the natives of the eastern +Celebes. In the interior is found a peculiar race which is held by some to +be Papuan. They are described, however, as singularly un-Papuan in +physique, being only 5 ft. 2 in. in average height, of a yellow-brown +colour, of feeble build, and without the characteristic frizzly hair and +prominent nose of the true Papuan. They are completely pagan, live in +scattered hamlets, and have come very little in contact with any +civilization. Among the maritime population a small number of Chinese, +Arabs and other races are also found. The island is divided by the Dutch +into two districts. The chief settlement is Kajeli on the east coast. A +number of Mahommedan natives here are descended from tribes compelled in +1657 to gather together from the different parts of the island, while all +the clove-trees were exterminated in an attempt by the Dutch to centralize +the clove trade. Before the arrival of the Dutch the islanders were under +the dominion of the sultan of Ternate; and it was their rebellion against +him that gave the Europeans the opportunity of effecting their subjugation. + +BURUJIRD, a province of Persia, bounded W. by Luristan, N. by Nehavend and +Malayir, E. by Irak and S. by Isfahan. It is divided into the following +administrative divisions:--(1) town of Burujird with villages in immediate +neighbourhood; (2) Silakhor (upper and lower); (3) Japalak (with Sarlek and +Burbarud); (4) nomad Bakhtiari. It has a population of about 250,000 or +300,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about L16,000. It is very fertile and +produces much wheat, barley, rice and opium. With improved means of +transport, which would allow the growers to export, the produce of cereals +could easily be trebled. The province is sometimes joined with that of +Luristan. + +The town Burujird, the capital of the province, is situated in the fertile +Silakhor plain on the river Tahij, a tributary of the Dizful river (Ab i +Diz), 70 m. by road from Hamadan and 212 m. from Isfahan, in 33 deg. 55' N. and +48 deg. 55' E., and at an elevation of 5315 ft. Pop. about 25,000. It +manufactures various cotton stuffs (coarse prints, carpet covers) and felts +(principally hats and caps for Lurs and Bakhtiaris). It has post and +telegraph offices. + +BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- ), British historian, was born on the 16th of +October 1861, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was +elected to a fellowship in 1885. A fine Greek scholar, he edited Pindar's +_Nemean_ and _Isthmian Odes_; but he devoted himself chiefly to the study +of history, and was chosen professor of modern history at Dublin in 1893, +becoming regius professor of Greek in 1898. He resigned both positions in +1902, when he was elected regius professor of modern history in the +university of Cambridge. His historical work was mainly concerned with the +later Roman empire, and his edition of Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, with a +masterly introduction and valuable notes (1896-1900), is the standard text +of this history. He also wrote a _History of Greece to the Death of +Alexander the Great_ (1900); _History of the Later Roman Empire, 395-800_ +(1889), _History of the Roman Empire 27 B.C.-180 A.D._ (1893); _Life of St +Patrick and his Place in History_ (1905), &c. He was elected a fellow of +King's College, Cambridge, and received honorary degrees from the +universities of Oxford, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Durham. + +BURY, a market-town and municipal, county and parliamentary borough of +Lancashire, England, on the river Irwell, [v.04 p.0868] 195 m. N.W. by W. +from London, and 10 1/2 N. by W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire & +Yorkshire railway and the Manchester & Bolton canal. Pop. (1891) 57,212; +(1901) 58,029. The church of St Mary is of early foundation, but was +rebuilt in 1876. Besides numerous other places of worship, there are a +handsome town hall, athenaeum and museum, art gallery and public library, +various assembly rooms, and several recreation grounds. Kay's free grammar +school was founded in 1726; there are also municipal technical schools. The +cotton manufacture is the principal industry; there are also calico +printing, dyeing and bleaching works, machinery and iron works, woollen +manufactures, and coal mines and quarries in the vicinity. Sir Robert Peel +was born at Chamber Hall in the neighbourhood, and his father did much for +the prosperity of the town by the establishment of extensive print-works. A +monument to the statesman stands in the market-place. The parliamentary +borough returns one member (since 1832). The county borough was created in +1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. +Area, 5836 acres. + +Bury, of which the name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon _burhg_, _birig_ or +_byrig_ (town, castle or fortified place), was the site of a Saxon station, +and an old English castle stood in Castle Croft close to the town. It was a +member of the Honour of Clitheroe and a fee of the royal manor of +Tottington, which soon after the Conquest was held by the Lacys. The local +family of Bury held lands here during the 13th century, and at least for a +short time the manor itself, but before 1347 it passed by marriage to the +Pilkingtons of Pilkington, with whom it remained till 1485, when on the +attainder of Sir Thomas Pilkington it was granted to the first earl of +Derby, whose descendants have since held it. Under a grant made by Edward +IV. to Sir Thomas Pilkington, fairs are still held on March 5, May 3, and +September 18, and a market was formerly held under the same grant on +Thursday, which has, however, been long replaced by a customary market on +Saturday. The woollen trade was established here through the agency of +Flemish immigrants in Edward III.'s reign, and in Elizabeth's time this +industry was of such importance that an aulneger was appointed to measure +and stamp the woollen cloth. But although the woollen manufacture is still +carried on, the cotton trade has been gradually superseding it since the +early part of the 18th century. The family of the Kays, the inventors, +belonged to this place, and Robert Peel's print-works were established here +in 1770. The cognate trades of bleaching, dyeing and machine-making have +been long carried on. A court-leet and view of frank pledge used to be held +half-yearly at Easter and Michaelmas, and a court-baron in May. Until 1846 +three constables were chosen annually at the court-leet to govern the +place, but in that year the inhabitants obtained authority from parliament +to appoint twenty-seven commissioners to undertake the local government. A +charter of incorporation was granted in 1876. The well-known Bury +Cooperative Society was established in 1856. There was a church here at the +time of the Domesday Survey, and the earliest mention of a rector is found +in the year 1331-1332. One-half of the town is glebe belonging to the +rectory. + +BURY ST EDMUNDS, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of +Suffolk, England, on the Lark, an affluent of the Great Ouse; 87 m. N.E. by +N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 16,255. It is +pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a fertile and richly +cultivated district. The tower or church-gate, one of the finest specimens +of early Norman architecture in England, and the western gate, a beautiful +structure of rich Decorated work, together with ruined walls of +considerable extent, are all that remains of the great abbey. St Mary's +church, with a beautifully carved roof, was erected in the earlier part of +the 15th century, and contains the tomb of Mary Tudor, queen of Louis XII. +of France. St James's church is also a fine Perpendicular building, with a +modern chancel, and without a tower. All these splendid structures, +fronting one of the main streets in succession, form, even without the +abbey church, a remarkable memorial of the wealth of the foundation. Behind +them lie picturesque gardens which contain the ruins, the plan of which is +difficult to trace, though the outlines of some portions, as the +chapter-house, have been made clear by excavation. There is a handsome +Roman Catholic church of St Edmund. The so-called Moyses Hall (perhaps a +Jew's House, of which there is a parallel example at Lincoln) retains +transitional Norman work. The free grammar school, founded by Edward VI., +has two scholarships at Cambridge, and six exhibitions to each university, +and occupies modern buildings. The Church Schools Company has a school. +There are large agricultural implement works, and the agricultural trade is +important, cattle and corn markets being held. In the vicinity is Ickworth, +the seat of the marquess of Bristol, a great mansion of the end of the 18th +century. The parliamentary borough, which returns one member, is +coextensive with the municipal borough. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2947 acres. + +Bury St Edmunds (Beodricesworth, St Edmund's Bury), supposed by some to +have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans, was one of the royal towns of +the Saxons. Sigebert, king of the East Angles, founded a monastery here +about 633, which in 903 became the burial place of King Edmund, who was +slain by the Danes about 870, and owed most of its early celebrity to the +reputed miracles performed at the shrine of the martyr king. By 925 the +fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town was +changed to St Edmund's Bury. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the older +monastery and ejected the secular priests, built a Benedictine abbey on its +site. In 942 or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and convent +jurisdiction over the whole town, free from all secular services, and +Canute in 1020 freed it from episcopal control. Edward the Confessor made +the abbot lord of the franchise. By various grants from the abbots, the +town gradually attained the rank of a borough. Henry III. in 1235 granted +to the abbot two annual fairs, one in December (which still survives), the +other the great St Matthew's fair, which was abolished by the Fairs Act of +1871. Another fair was granted by Henry IV. in 1405. Elizabeth in 1562 +confirmed the charters which former kings had granted to the abbots, and +James I. in 1606 granted a charter of incorporation with an annual fair in +Easter week and a market. Further charters were granted by him in 1608 and +1614, and by Charles II. in 1668 and 1684. The reversion of the fairs and +two markets on Wednesday and Saturday were granted by James I. in fee farm +to the corporation. Parliaments were held here in 1272, 1296 and 1446, but +the borough was not represented until 1608, when James I. conferred the +privilege of sending two members. The Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the +representation to one. There was formerly a large woollen trade. + +See Richard Yates, _Hist. and Antiqs. of the Abbey of St Edmund's Bury_ +(2nd ed., 1843); H.R. Barker, _History of Bury St Edmunds_. + +BUSBECQ, OGIER GHISLAIN DE [AUGERIUS GISLENIUS] (1522-1592), Flemish writer +and traveller, was born at Comines, and educated at the university of +Louvain and elsewhere. Having served the emperor Charles V. and his son, +Philip II. of Spain, he entered the service of the emperor Ferdinand I., +who sent him as ambassador to the sultan Suleiman I. the Magnificent. He +returned to Vienna in 1562 to become tutor to the sons of Maximilian II., +afterwards emperor, subsequently taking the position of master of the +household of Elizabeth, widow of Charles IX., king of France, and daughter +of Maximilian. Busbecq was an excellent scholar, a graceful writer and a +clever diplomatist. He collected valuable manuscripts, rare coins and +curious inscriptions, and introduced various plants into Germany. He died +at the castle of Maillot near Rouen on the 28th of October 1592. Busbecq +wrote _Itinera Constantinopolitanum et Amasianum_ (Antwerp, 1581), a work +showing considerable insight into Turkish politics. This was published in +Paris in 1589 as _A.G. Busbequii legationis Turcicae epistolae iv._, and +has been translated into several languages. He was a frequent visitor to +France, and wrote _Epistolae ad Rudolphum II. Imperatorem e Gallia +scriptae_ (Louvain, 1630), an interesting account of affairs at the French +court. His works were published [v.04 p.0869] at Leiden in 1633 and at +Basel in 1740. An English translation of the _Itinera_ was published in +1744. + +See C.T. Forster and F.H.B. Daniel, _Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de +Busbecq_ (London, 1881); Viertel, _Busbecks Erlebnisse in der Turkei_ +(Gottingen, 1902). + +BUSBY, RICHARD (1606-1695), English clergyman, and head master of +Westminster school, was born at Lutton in Lincolnshire in 1606. He was +educated at the school which he afterwards superintended for so long a +period, and first signalized himself by gaining a king's scholarship. From +Westminster Busby proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in +1628. In his thirty-third year he had already become renowned for the +obstinate zeal with which he supported the falling dynasty of the Stuarts, +and was rewarded for his services with the prebend and rectory of Cudworth, +with the chapel of Knowle annexed, in Somersetshire. Next year he became +head master of Westminster, where his reputation as a teacher soon became +great. He himself once boasted that sixteen of the bishops who then +occupied the bench had been birched with his "little rod". No school in +England has on the whole produced so many eminent men as Westminster did +under the regime of Busby. Among the more illustrious of his pupils may be +mentioned South, Dryden, Locke, Prior and Bishop Atterbury. He wrote and +edited many works for the use of his scholars. His original treatises (the +best of which are his Greek and Latin grammars), as well as those which he +edited, have, however, long since fallen into disuse. Busby died in 1695, +in his ninetieth year, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his +effigy is still to be seen. + +BUSBY, the English name for a military head-dress of fur. Possibly the +original sense of a "busby wig" came from association with Dr Busby of +Westminster; but it is also derived from "buzz", in the phrase "buzz wig". +In its first Hungarian form the military busby was a cylindrical fur cap, +having a "bag" of coloured cloth hanging from the top; the end of this bag +was attached to the right shoulder as a defence against sword-cuts. In +Great Britain "busbies" are of two kinds: (_a_) the hussar busby, +cylindrical in shape, with a bag; this is worn by hussars and the Royal +Horse Artillery; (_b_) the rifle busby, a folding cap of astrachan, in +shape somewhat resembling a "Glengarry" but taller. Both have straight +plumes in the front of the headdress. The word "busby" is also used +colloquially to denote the tall bear-and-raccoon-skin "caps" worn by +foot-guards and fusiliers, and the full dress feather bonnet of Highland +infantry. Cylindrical busbies were formerly worn by the artillery engineers +and rifles, but these are now obsolete in the regular army, though still +worn by some territorial and colonial troops of these arms. + +BUSCH, JULIUS HERMANN MORITZ (1821-1899), German publicist, was born at +Dresden on the 13th of February 1821. He entered the university of Leipzig +in 1841 as a student of theology, but graduated as doctor philosophiae, and +from 1847 devoted himself entirely to journalism and literature. In 1851 he +went to America, but soon returned disillusioned to Germany, and published +an account of his travels. During the next years he travelled extensively +in the East and wrote books on Egypt, Greece and Palestine. From 1856 he +was employed at Leipzig on the _Grenzboten_, one of the most influential +German periodicals, which, under the editorship of Gustav Freytag, had +become the organ of the Nationalist party. In 1864 he became closely +connected with the Augustenburg party in Schleswig-Holstein, but after 1866 +he transferred his services to the Prussian government, and was employed in +a semi-official capacity in the newly conquered province of Hanover. From +1870 onwards he was one of Bismarck's press agents, and was at the +chancellor's side in this capacity during the whole of the campaign of +1870-71. In 1878 he published the first of his works on Bismarck--a book +entitled _Bismarck und seine Leute, waehrend des Krieges mit Frankreich_, in +which, under the form of extracts from his diary, he gave an account of the +chancellor's life during the war. The vividness of the descriptions and the +cleverness with which the conversations were reported ensured a success, +and the work was translated into several languages. This was followed in +1885 by another book, _Unser Reichskanzler_, chiefly dealing with the work +in the foreign office in Berlin. Immediately after Bismarck's death Busch +published the chancellor's famous petition to the emperor William II. dated +the 18th of March 1890, requesting to be relieved of office. This was +followed by a pamphlet _Bismarck und sein Werk_; and in 1898 in London and +in English, by the famous memoirs entitled _Bismarck: some Secret Pages of +his History_ (German by Grunow, under title _Tagebuchblaetter_), in which +were reprinted the whole of the earlier works, but which contains in +addition a considerable amount of new matter, passages from the earlier +works which had been omitted because of the attacks they contained on +people in high position, records of later conversations, and some important +letters and documents which had been entrusted to him by Bismarck. Many +passages were of such a nature that it could not be safely published in +Germany; but in 1899 a far better and more complete German edition was +published at Leipzig in three volumes and consisting of three sections. +Busch died at Leipzig on the 16th of November 1899. + +See Ernst Goetz, in _Biog. Jahrbuch_ (1900). + +BUSCH, WILHELM (1832-1908), German caricaturist, was born at Wiedensahl in +Hanover. After studying at the academies of Duesseldorf, Antwerp and Munich, +he joined in 1859 the staff of _Fliegende Blaetter_, the leading German +comic paper, and was, together with Oberlaender, the founder of modern +German caricature. His humorous drawings and caricatures are remarkable for +the extreme simplicity and expressiveness of his pen-and-ink line, which +record with a few rapid scrawls the most complicated contortions of the +body and the most transitory movement. His humorous illustrated poems, such +as _Max und Moritz, Der heilige Antonius von Padua, Die Fromme Helene, Hans +Huckebein_ and _Die Erlebnisse Knopps des Junggesellen_, play, in the +German nursery, the same part that Edward Lear's nonsense verses do in +England. The types created by him have become household words in his +country. He invented the series of comic sketches illustrating a story in +scenes without words, which have inspired Caran d'Ache and other leading +caricaturists. + +BUeSCHING, ANTON FRIEDRICH (1724-1793), German theologian and geographer, +was born at Stadthagen in Schaumburg-Lippe, on the 27th of September 1724. +In 1748 he was appointed tutor in the family of the count de Lynars, who +was then going as ambassador to St Petersburg. On this journey he resolved +to devote his life to the improvement of geographical science. Leaving the +count's family, he went to reside at Copenhagen, and devoted himself +entirely to this new pursuit. In 1752 he published his _Description of the +Counties of Schleswig and Holstein_. In 1754 he removed to Goettingen, where +in 1757 he was appointed professor of philosophy; but in 1761 he accepted +an invitation to the German congregation at St Petersburg. There he +organized a school which, under him, soon became one of the most +flourishing in the north of Europe, but a disagreement with Marshal Muenich +led him, in spite of the empress's offers of high advancement, to return to +central Europe in 1765. He first went to live at Altona; but next year he +was called to superintend the famous "Greyfriars Gymnasium" (_Gymnasium zum +Grauen Kloster_), which had been formed at Berlin by Frederick the Great. +He died of dropsy on the 28th of May 1793, having by writing and example +given a new impulse to education throughout Prussia. While at Goettingen he +married the poetess, Christiana Dilthey. + +Buesching's works (on geography, history, education and religion) amount to +more than a hundred. The first class comprehends those upon which his fame +chiefly rests; for although he did not possess the genius of D'Anville, he +may be regarded as the creator of modern Statistical Geography. His _magnum +opus_ is the _Erdebeschreibung_, in seven parts, of which the first four, +comprehending Europe, were published in 1754-1761, and have been translated +into several languages (_e.g._ into English with a preface by Murdoch, in +six volumes, London, 1762). In 1768 the fifth part was published, being the +first volume upon Asia, containing Asiatic Turkey and Arabia. It displays +an immense extent of research, and is generally considered as his [v.04 +p.0870] masterpiece. Buesching was also the editor of a valuable collection +entitled _Magazin fuer d. neue Historie und Geographie_ (23 vols. 4to, +1767-1793); also of _Wochentl. Nachrichten von neuen Landkarten_ (Berlin, +1773-1787). His works on education enjoyed great repute. In biography he +wrote a number of articles for the above-mentioned _Magazin_, and a +valuable collection of _Beitraege zur Lebensgeschichte merkwuerdiger +Personen_ (6 vols., 1783-1789), including an elaborate life of Frederick +the Great. + +BUSENBAUM (or BUSEMBAUM), HERMANN (1600-1668), Jesuit theologian, was born +at Nottelen in Westphalia. He attained fame as a master of casuistry, and +out of his lectures to students at Cologne grew his celebrated book +_Medulla theologiae moralis, facili ac perspicua methodo resolvens casus +conscientiae_ (1645). The manual obtained a wide popularity and passed +through over two hundred editions before 1776. Pierre Lacroix added +considerably to its bulk, and editions in two folio volumes appeared in +both Germany (1710-1714) and France (1729). In these sections on murder and +especially on regicide were much amplified, and in connexion with Damien's +attempt on the life of Louis XV. the book was severely handled by the +parlement of Paris. At Toulouse in 1757, though the offending sections were +repudiated by the heads of the Jesuit colleges, the _Medulla_ was publicly +burned, and the episode undoubtedly led the way to the duc de Choiseul's +attack on the society. Busenbaum also wrote a book on the ascetic life, +_Lilium inter spinas_. He became rector of the Jesuit college at Hildesheim +and then at Muenster, where he died on the 31st of January 1668, being at +the time father-confessor to Bishop Bernard of Galen. + +BUSH. (1) (A word common to many European languages, meaning "a wood", cf. +the Ger. _Busch_, Fr. _bois_, Ital. _bosco_ and the med. Lat. _boscus_), a +shrub or group of shrubs, especially of those plants whose branches grow +low and thick. Collectively "the bush" is used in British colonies, +particularly in Australasia and South Africa, for the tract of country +covered with brushwood not yet cleared for cultivation. From the custom of +hanging a bush as a sign outside a tavern comes the proverb "Good wine +needs no bush." (2) (From a Teutonic word meaning "a box", cf. the Ger. +_Rad-buechse_, a wheel box, and the termination of "blunderbuss" and +"arquebus"; the derivation from the Fr. _bouche_, a mouth, is not correct), +a lining frequently inserted in the bearings of machinery. When a shaft and +the bearing in which it rotates are made of the same metal, the two +surfaces are in certain cases apt to "seize" and abrade each other. To +prevent this, bushes of some dissimilar metal are employed; thus a shaft of +mild steel or wrought iron may be made to run in hard cast steel, cast +iron, bronze or Babbitt metal. The last, having a low melting point, may be +cast about the shaft for which it is to form a bearing. + +[Illustration: Female Bushbuck.] + +BUSHBUCK (_Boschbok_,) the South African name of a medium-sized red +antelope (_q.v._), marked with white lines and spots, belonging to a local +race of a widely spread species, _Tragelaphus scriptus_. The males alone +have rather small, spirally twisted horns. There are several allied +species, sometimes known as harnessed antelopes, which are of a larger +size. Some of these such as the situtunga (_T. spekei_) have the hoofs +elongated for walking on swampy ground, and hence have been separated as +_Limnotragus_. + +BUSHEL (from the O. Fr. _boissiel_, cf. med. L. _bustellus, busellus_, a +little box), a dry measure of capacity, containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It +has been in use for measuring corn, potatoes, &c., from a very early date; +the value varying locally and with the article measured. The "imperial +bushel", legally established in Great Britain in 1826, contains 2218.192 +cub.in., or 80 lb of distilled water, determined at 62 deg. F., with the +barometer at 30 in. Previously, the standard bushel used was known as the +"Winchester bushel", so named from the standard being kept in the town hall +at Winchester; it contained 2150.42 cub. in. This standard is the basis of +the bushel used in the United States and Canada; but other "bushels" for +use in connexion with certain commodities have been legalized in different +states. + +BUSHIDO (Japanese for "military-knight-ways"), the unwritten code of laws +governing the lives of the nobles of Japan, equivalent to the European +chivalry. Its maxims have been orally handed down, together with a vast +accumulation of traditional etiquette, the result of centuries of +feudalism. Its inception is associated with the uprise of feudal +institutions under Yoritomo, the first of the Shoguns, late in the 12th +century, but bushido in an undeveloped form existed before then. The +samurai or nobles of Japan entertained the highest respect for truth. "A +_bushi_ has no second word" was one of their mottoes. And their sense of +honour was so high as to dictate suicide where it was offended. + +See Inazo Nitobe, _Bushido: The Soul of Japan_ (1905); also JAPAN: _Army_. + +BUSHIRE, or BANDER BUSHIRE, a town of Persia, on the northern shore of the +Persian Gulf, in 28 deg. 59' N., 50 deg. 49' E. The name is pronounced Boosheer, +and not Bew-shire, or Bus-hire; modern Persians write it Bushehr and, yet +more incorrectly, Abushehr, and translate it as "father of the city," but +it is most probably a contraction of Bokht-ardashir, the name given to the +place by the first Sassanian monarch in the 3rd century. In a similar way +Riv-ardashir, a few miles south of Bushire, has become Rishire (Reesheer). +In the first half of the 18th century, when Bushire was an unimportant +fishing village, it was selected by Nadir Shah as the southern port of +Persia and dockyard of the navy which he aspired to create in the Persian +Gulf, and the British commercial factory of the East India Company, +established at Gombrun, the modern Bander Abbasi, was transferred to it in +1759. At the beginning of the 19th century it had a population of 6000 to +8000, and it is now the most important port in the Persian Gulf, with a +population of about 25,000. It used to be under the government of Fars, but +is (since about 1892) the seat of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports, +who is responsible to the central government, and has under his +jurisdiction the principal ports of the Gulf and their dependencies. The +town, which is of a triangular form, occupies the northern extremity of a +peninsula 11 m. long and 4 broad, and is encircled by the sea on all sides +except the south. It is fortified on the land side by a wall with 12 round +towers. The houses being mostly built of a white conglomerate stone of +shells and coral which forms the peninsula, gives the city when viewed from +a distance a clean and handsome appearance, but on closer inspection the +streets are found to be very narrow, irregular, ill-paved and filthy. +Almost the only decent buildings are the governor's palace, the British +residency and the houses of some well-to-do merchants. The sea immediately +east of the town has a considerable depth, but its navigation is impeded by +sand-banks and a bar north and west of the town, which can be passed only +by vessels drawing not more than 9 ft. of water, except at spring tides, +when there is a rise of from 8 to 10 ft. Vessels drawing more than 9 ft. +must anchor in the roads miles away to the west. The climate is very hot in +the summer months and unhealthy. The water is very bad, and that fit for +drinking requires to be brought from wells distant 11/2 to 3 m. from the city +wall. + +Bushire carries on a considerable trade, particularly with India, Java and +Arabia. Its principal imports are cotton and woollen goods, yarn, metals, +sugar, coffee, tea, spices, cashmere shawls, &c., and its principal exports +opium, wool, carpets, horses, grain, dyes and gums, tobacco, rosewater, &c. +The importance of Bushire has much increased since about 1862. It is now +not only the headquarters of the English naval squadron in the Persian +Gulf, and the land terminus of the Indo-European telegraph, but it also +forms the chief station in the Gulf of the British Indian Steam Navigation +Company, which runs its vessels weekly between Bombay and Basra. Consulates +of Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia and Turkey and several European +mercantile houses are established at Bushire, and [v.04 p.0871] +notwithstanding the drawbacks of bad roads to the interior, insufficient +and precarious means of transport, and want of security, the annual value +of the Bushire trade since 1890 averaged about L1,500,000 (one-third being +for exports, two-thirds for imports), and over two-thirds of this was +British. Of the 278,000 tons of shipping which entered the port in 1905, +244,000 were British. + +During the war with Persia (1856-57) Bushire surrendered to a British force +and remained in British occupation for some months. At Rishire, some miles +south of Bushire and near the summer quarters of the British resident and +the British telegraph buildings, there are extensive ruins among which +bricks with cuneiform inscriptions have been found, showing that the place +was a very old Elamite settlement. + +(A. H.-S.) + +BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, a people of South Africa, so named by the British +and Dutch colonists of the Cape. They often call themselves _Saan_ [Sing. +_Sa_], but this appears to be the Hottentot name. If they have a national +name it is _Khuai_, probably "small man," the title of one group. This +_Khuai_ has, however, been translated as the Bushman word for _tablier +egyptien_ (see below), adopted as the racial name because that malformation +is one of their physical characteristics. The Kaffirs call them Abatwa, the +Bechuana Masarwa (Maseroa). There is little reason to doubt that they +constitute the aboriginal element of the population of South Africa, and +indications of their former presence have been found as far north at least +as the Nyasa and Tanganyika basins. "It would seem," writes Sir H.H. +Johnston (_British Central Africa_, p. 52), "as if the earliest known race +of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa was akin to the +Bushman-Hottentot type of negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the +centre, similar to those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for +weighting their digging-sticks (the _graaf stock_ of the Boers), have been +found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika." The dirty yellow colour of the +Bushmen, their slightly slanting eyes and prominent cheek-bones had induced +early anthropologists to dwell on their resemblance to the Mongolian races. +This similarity has been now recognized as quite superficial. More recently +a connexion has been traced between the Bushmen and the Pygmy peoples +inhabiting the forests of Central Africa. Though the matter cannot be +regarded as definitely settled, the latest researches rather tend to +discredit this view. In fact it would appear that the two peoples have +little in common save diminutive proportions and a nomadic and predatory +form of existence. Owing to the discovery of steatopygous figurines in +Egyptian graves, a theory has been advanced that the Egyptians of the early +dynasties were of the same primitive pygmy negroid stock as the Bushmen. +But this is highly speculative. The physical characteristics of Egyptian +skulls have nothing of the Bushman in them. Of the primitive pygmy negroid +stock the Hottentots (_q.v._), once considered the parent family, are now +regarded as an offshoot of mixed Bantu-Bushman blood from the main Bushman +race. + +It seems probable that the Bushmen must be regarded as having extended +considerably to the north of the area occupied by them within the memory of +white men. Evidence has been produced of the presence of a belated +Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group as far north as the district between +Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza. They were probably driven south by the +Bantu tribes, who eventually outflanked them and confined them to the less +fertile tracts of country. Before the arrival of Europeans in South Africa +the Bushman race appears to have been, what it so essentially is to-day, a +nomadic race living in widely scattered groups. The area in which the +Bushmen are now found sporadically may be defined as extending from the +inner ranges of the mountains of Cape Colony, through the central Kalahari +desert to near Lake Ngami, and thence north-westward to the districts about +the Ovambo river north of Damaraland. In short, they have been driven by +European and Kaffir encroachments into the most barren regions of South +Africa. A few remain in the more inaccessible parts of the Drakensberg +range about the sources of the Vaal. Only in one or two districts are they +found in large numbers, chiefly in Great Bushman Land towards the Orange +river. A regularly planned and wholesale destruction of the Bushmen on the +borders of Cape Colony in the earlier years of European occupation reduced +their numbers to a great extent; but this cruel hunting of the Bushmen has +ceased. In retaliation the Bushmen were long the scourge of the farms on +the outer borders of the colony, making raids on the cattle and driving +them off in large numbers. On the western side of the deserts they are +generally at enmity with the Koranna Hottentots, but on the eastern border +of the Kalahari they have to some extent fraternized with the earliest +Bechuana migrants. Their language, which exists in several dialects, has in +common with Hottentot, but to a greater degree, the peculiar sounds known +as "clicks." The Hottentot language is more agglutinative, the Bushman more +monosyllabic; the former recognizes a gender in names, the latter does not; +the Hottentots form the plural by a suffix, the Bushmen by repetition of +the name; the former count up to twenty, the latter can only number two, +all above that being "many." F.C.Selous records that Koranna Hottentots +were able to converse fluently with the Bushmen of Bechuanaland. + +The most striking feature of the Bushman's physique is shortness of +stature. Gustav Fritsch in 1863-1866 found the average height of six grown +men to be 4 ft. 9 in. Earlier, but less trustworthy, measurements make them +still shorter. Among 150 measured by Sir John Barrow during the first +British occupation of Cape Colony the tallest man was 4 ft. 9 in., the +tallest woman 4 ft. 4 in. The Bushmen living in Bechuanaland measured by +Selous in the last quarter of the 19th century were, however, found to be +of nearly average height. Few persons were below 5 ft.; 5 ft. 4 in. was +common, and individuals of even 6 ft. were not unknown. No great difference +in height appears to exist between men and women. Fritsch's average from +five Bushman women was one-sixth of an inch more than for the men. The +Bushmen, as already stated, are of a dirty yellow colour, and of generally +unattractive countenance. The skull is long and low, the cheek-bones large +and prominent. The eyes are deeply set and crafty in expression. The nose +is small and depressed, the mouth wide with moderately everted lips, and +the jaws project. The teeth are not like badly cut ivory, as in Bantu, but +regular and of a mother-of-pearl appearance. In general build the Bushman +is slim and lean almost to emaciation. Even the children show little of the +round outlines of youth. The amount of fat under the skin in both sexes is +remarkably small; hence the skin is as dry as leather and falls into strong +folds around the stomach and at the joints. The fetor of the skin, so +characteristic of the negro, is not found in the Bushman. The hair is weak +in growth, in age it becomes grey, but baldness is rare. Bushmen have +little body-hair and that of a weak stubbly nature, and none of the fine +down usual on most skins. On the face there is usually only a scanty +moustache. A hollowed back and protruding stomach are frequent +characteristics of their figure, but many of them are well proportioned, +all being active and capable of enduring great privations and fatigue. +Considerable steatopygy often exists among the women, who share with the +Hottentot women the extraordinary prolongation of the nymphae which is +often called "the Hottentot apron" or _tablier_. Northward the Bushmen +appear to improve both in general condition and in stature, probably owing +to a tinge of Bantu blood. The Bushman's clothing is scanty: a triangular +piece of skin, passed between the legs and fastened round the waist with a +string, is often all that is worn. Many men, however, and nearly all the +women, wear the _kaross_, a kind of pelisse of skins sewn together, which +is used at night as a wrap. The bodies of both sexes are smeared with a +native ointment, _buchu_, which, aided by accretions of dust and dirt, soon +forms a coating like a rind. Men and women often wear sandals of hide or +plaited bast. They are fond of ornament, and decorate the arms, neck and +legs with beads, iron or copper rings, teeth, hoofs, horns and shells, +while they stick feathers or hares' tails in the hair. The women sometimes +stain their faces with red pigment. They carry tobacco in goats' horns or +in the shell of a land tortoise, while boxes of ointment [v.04 p.0872] or +amulets are hung round neck or waist. A jackal's tail mounted on a stick +serves the double purpose of fan and handkerchief. For dwellings in the +plains they have low huts formed of reed mats, or occupy a hole in the +earth; in the mountain districts they make a shelter among the rocks by +hanging mats on the windward side. Of household utensils they have none, +except ostrich eggs, in which they carry water, and occasionally rough +pots. For cooking his food the Bushman needs nothing but fire, which he +obtains by rubbing hard and soft wood together. + +Bushmen do not possess cattle, and have no domestic animals except a few +half-wild dogs, nor have they the smallest rudiments of agriculture. Living +by hunting, they are thoroughly acquainted with the habits and movements of +every kind of wild animal, following the antelope herds in their +migrations. Their weapon is a bow made of a stout bough bent into a sharp +curve. It is strung with twisted sinew. The arrow, which is neatly made of +a reed, the thickness of a finger, is bound with thread to prevent +splitting, and notched at the end for the string. At the point is a head of +bone, or stone with a quill barb; iron arrow-blades obtained from the Bantu +are also found. The arrow is usually 2 to 3 ft. long. The distance at which +the Bushman can be sure of hitting is not great, about twenty paces. The +arrows are always coated with a gummy poisonous compound which kills even +the largest animal in a few hours. The preparation is something of a +mystery, but its main ingredients appear to be the milky juice of the +_Amaryllis toxicaria_, which is abundant in South Africa, or of the +_Euphorbia arborescens_, generally mixed with the venom of snakes or of a +large black spider of the genus _Mygale_; or the entrails of a very deadly +caterpillar, called N'gwa or 'Kaa, are used alone. One authority states +that the Bushmen of the western Kalahari use the juice of a chrysalis which +they scrape out of the ground. From their use of these poisons the Bushmen +are held in great dread by the neighbouring races. They carry, too, a club +some 20 in. long with a knob as big as a man's fist. Assegais and knives +are rare. No Bushman tribe south of Lake Ngami is said to carry spears. A +rude implement, called by the Boers _graaf stock_ or digging stick, +consisting of a sharpened spike of hard wood over which a stone, ground to +a circular form and perforated, is passed and secured by a wedge, forms +part of the Bushman equipment. This is used by the women for uprooting the +succulent tuberous roots of the several species of creeping plants of the +desert, and in digging pitfalls. These perforated stones have a special +interest in indicating the former extension of the Bushmen, since they are +found, as has been said, far beyond the area now occupied by them. The +Bushmen are famous as hunters, and actually run down many kinds of game. +Living a life of periodical starvation, they spend days at a time in search +of food, upon which when found they feed so gluttonously that it is said +five of them will eat a whole zebra in a few hours. They eat practically +anything. The meat is but half cooked, and game is often not completely +drawn. The Bushman eats raw such insects as lice and ants, the eggs of the +latter being regarded as a great delicacy. In hard times they eat lizards, +snakes, frogs, worms and caterpillars. Honey they relish, and for +vegetables devour bulbs and roots. Like the Hottentot, the Bushman is a +great smoker. + +The disposition of the Bushman has been much maligned; the cruelty which +has been attributed to him is the natural result of equal brutalities +practiced upon him by the other natives and the early European settlers. He +is a passionate lover of freedom, and, like many other primitive people, +lives only for the moment. Unlike the Hottentot he has never willingly +become a slave, and will fight to the last for his personal liberty. He has +been described as the "anarchist of South Africa." Still, when he becomes a +servant, he is usually trustworthy. His courage is remarkable, and Fritsch +was told by residents who were well qualified to speak that supported by a +dozen Bushmen they would not be afraid of a hundred Kaffirs. The terror +inspired by the Bushmen has indeed had an effect in the deforestation of +parts of Cape Colony, for the colonists, to guard against stealthy attacks, +cut down all the bush far round their holdings. Mission-work among the +Bushmen has been singularly unsuccessful. But in spite of his savage +nature, the Bushman is intelligent. He is quick-witted, and has the gift of +imitating extraordinarily well the cries of bird and beast. He is musical, +too, and makes a rough instrument out of a gourd and one or more strings. +He is fond of dancing; besides the ordinary dances are the special dances +at certain stages of the moon, &c. One of the most interesting facts about +the Bushman is his possession of a remarkable delight in graphic +illustration; the rocks of the mountains of Cape Colony and of the +Drakensberg and the walls of caves anciently inhabited by them have many +examples of Bushman drawings of men, women, children and animals +characteristically sketched. Their designs are partly painted on rock, with +four colours, white, black, red and yellow ochre, partly engraved in soft +sandstone, partly chiselled in hard stone. Rings, crosses and other signs +drawn in blue pigment on some of the rocks, and believed to be one or two +centuries old, have given rise to the erroneous speculation that these may +be remains of a hieroglyphic writing. A discovery of drawings of men and +women with antelope heads was made in the recesses of the Drakensberg in +1873 (J.M. Orpen in _Cape Monthly Magazine_, July 1874). A few years later +Selous discovered similar rock-paintings in Mashonaland and Manicaland. + +Little is known of the family life of the Bushmen. Marriage is a matter +merely of offer and acceptance ratified by a feast. Among some tribes the +youth must prove himself an expert hunter. Nothing is known of the laws of +inheritance. The avoidance of parents-in-law, so marked among Kaffirs, is +found among Bushmen. Murder, adultery, rape and robbery are offences +against their code of morals. As among other African tribes the social +position of the women is low. They are beasts of burden, carrying the +children and the family property on the journeys, and doing all the work at +the halting-place. It is their duty also to keep the encampment supplied +with water, no matter how far it has to be carried. The Bushman mother is +devoted to her children, who, though suckled for a long time, yet are fed +within the first few days after birth upon chewed roots and meat, and +taught to chew tobacco at a very early age. The child's head is often +protected from the sun by a plaited shade of ostrich feathers. There is +practically no tribal organization. Individual families at times join +together and appoint a chief, but the arrangement is never more than +temporary. The Bushmen have no concrete idea of a God, but believe in evil +spirits and supernatural interference with man's life. All Bushmen carry +amulets, and there are indications of totemism in their refusal to eat +certain foods. Thus one group will not eat goat's flesh, though the animal +is the commonest in their district. Others reverence antelopes or even the +caterpillar N'gwa. The Bushman cuts off the joints of the fingers as a sign +of mourning and sometimes, it seems, as an act of repentance. Traces of a +belief in continued existence after death are seen in the cairns of stone +thrown on the graves of chiefs. Evil spirits are supposed to hide beneath +these sepulchral mounds, and the Bushman thinks that if he does not throw +his stone on the mounds the spirits will twist his neck. The whole family +deserts the place where any one has died, after raising a pile of stones. +The corpse's head is anointed, then it is smoke-dried and laid in the grave +at full length, stones or earth being piled on it. There is a Bushman +belief that the sun will rise later if the dead are not buried with their +faces to the east. Weapons and other Bushman treasures are buried with the +dead, and the hut materials are burnt in the grave. + +The Bushmen have many animal myths, and a rich store of beast legends. The +most prominent of the animal mythological figures is that of the mantis, +around which a great cycle of myths has been formed. He and his wife have +many names. Their adopted daughter is the porcupine. In the family history +an ichneumon, an elephant, a monkey and an eland all figure. The Bushmen +have also solar and lunar myths, and observe and name the stars. Canopus +alone has five names. Some of the constellations have figurative names. +Thus they call Orion's Belt "three she-tortoises hanging on a stick," and +Castor and [v.04 p.0873] Pollux "the cow-elands." The planets, too, have +their names and myths, and some idea of the astonishing wealth of this +Bushman folklore and oral literature may be formed from the fact that the +materials collected by Bleek and preserved in Sir George Grey's library at +Cape Town form eighty-four stout MS. volumes of 3600 pages. They comprise +myths, fables, legends and even poetry, with tales about the sun and moon, +the stars, the crocodile and other animals; legends of peoples who dwelt in +the land before the Bushmen arrived from the north; songs, charms, and even +prayers, or at least incantations; histories, adventures of men and +animals; tribal customs, traditions, superstitions and genealogies. A most +curious feature in Bushman folklore is the occurrence of the speeches of +various animals, into which the relater of the legend introduces particular +"clicks," supposed to be characteristic of the animals in whose mouths they +are placed. + +See G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_ (London, 1905); Mark +Hutchinson, "Bushman Drawings," in _Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, 1882, p. 464; +Sir H.H. Johnston, _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, 1883, p. 463; Dr H. Welcker, +_Archiv f. Anthrop._ xvi.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their Language," +_Jour. R. Asial. Soc._ xviii. part i.; Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen +Suedafrikas_ (Breslau, 1872); W.H.I. Bleek, _Bushman Folklore_ (1875); +J.L.P. Erasmus, _The Wild Bushman_, MS. note (1899); F.C. Selous, _African +Nature Notes and Reminiscences_ (1908), chap. xx.; S. Passarge, _Die +Buschmanner der Kalahari_ (Berlin, 1907). + +BUSHNELL, HORACE (1802-1876), American theologian, was born in the village +of Bantam, township of Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 14th of April 1802. +He graduated at Yale in 1827, was associate editor of the New York _Journal +of Commerce_ in 1828-1829, and in 1829 became a tutor at Yale. Here he at +first took up the study of law, but in 1831 he entered the theological +department of Yale College, and in 1833 was ordained pastor of the North +Congregational church in Hartford, Conn., where he remained until 1859, +when on account of long-continued ill-health he resigned his pastorate. +Thereafter he had no settled charge, but, until his death at Hartford on +the 17th of February 1876, he occasionally preached and was diligently +employed as an author. While in California in 1856, for the restoration of +his health, he took an active interest in the organization, at Oakland, of +the college of California (chartered in 1855 and merged in the university +of California in 1869), the presidency of which he declined. As a preacher, +Dr Bushnell was a man of remarkable power. Not a dramatic orator, he was in +high degree original, thoughtful and impressive in the pulpit. His +theological position may be said to have been one of qualified revolt +against the Calvinistic orthodoxy of his day. He criticized prevailing +conceptions of the Trinity, the atonement, conversion, and the relations of +the natural and the supernatural. Above all, he broke with the prevalent +view which regarded theology as essentially intellectual in its appeal and +demonstrable by processes of exact logical deduction. To his thinking its +proper basis is to be found in the feelings and intuitions of man's +spiritual nature. He had a vast influence upon theology in America, an +influence not so much, possibly, in the direction of the modification of +specific doctrines as in "the impulse and tendency and general spirit which +he imparted to theological thought." Dr Munger's estimate may be accepted, +with reservations, as the true one: "He was a theologian as Copernicus was +an astronomer; he changed the point of view, and thus not only changed +everything, but pointed the way toward unity in theological thought. He was +not exact, but he put God and man and the world into a relation that +thought can accept while it goes on to state it more fully with ever +growing knowledge. Other thinkers were moving in the same direction; he led +the movement in New England, and wrought out a great deliverance. It was a +work of superb courage. Hardly a theologian in his denomination stood by +him, and nearly all pronounced against him." Four of his books were of +particular importance: _Christian Nurture_ (1847), in which he virtually +opposed revivalism and "effectively turned the current of Christian thought +toward the young"; _Nature and the Supernatural_ (1858), in which he +discussed miracles and endeavoured to "lift the natural into the +supernatural" by emphasizing the super-naturalness of man; _The Vicarious +Sacrifice_ (1866), in which he contended for what has come to be known as +the "moral view" of the atonement in distinction from the "governmental" +and the "penal" or "satisfaction" theories; and _God in Christ_ (1849) +(with an introductory "Dissertation on Language as related to Thought"), in +which he expressed, it was charged, heretical views as to the Trinity, +holding, among other things, that the Godhead is "instrumentally +three--three simply as related to our finite apprehension, and the +communication of God's incommunicable nature." Attempts, indeed, were made +to bring him to trial, but they were unsuccessful, and in 1852 his church +unanimously withdrew from the local "consociation," thus removing any +possibility of further action against him. To his critics Bushnell formally +replied by writing _Christ in Theology_ (1851), in which he employs the +important argument that spiritual facts can be expressed only in +approximate and poetical language, and concludes that an adequate dogmatic +theology cannot exist. That he did not deny the divinity of Christ he +proved in _The Character of Jesus, forbidding his possible Classification +with Men_ (1861). He also published _Sermons for the New Life_ (1858); +_Christ and his Salvation_ (1864); _Work and Play_ (1864); _Moral Uses of +Dark Things_ (1868); _Women's Suffrage, the Reform against Nature_ (1869); +_Sermons on Living Subjects_ (1872); and _Forgiveness and Law_ (1874). Dr +Bushnell was greatly interested in the civic interests of Hartford, and was +the chief agent in procuring the establishment of the public park named in +his honour by that city. + +An edition of his works, in eleven volumes, appeared in 1876-1881; and a +further volume, gathered from his unpublished papers, as _The Spirit in +Man: Sermons and Selections_, in 1903. New editions of his _Nature and the +Supernatural, Sermons for the New Life_, and _Work and Play_, were +published the same year. A full bibliography, by Henry Barrett Learned, is +appended to his _Spirit in Man_. Consult Mrs M.B. Cheneys _Life and Letters +of Horace Bushnell_ (New York, 1880; new edition, 1903), and Dr Theodore T. +Mungers _Horace Bushnell, Preacher and Theologian_ (Boston, 1899); also a +series of papers in the _Minutes of the General Association of Connecticut_ +(_Bushnell Centenary_) (Hartford, 1902). + +(W. WR.) + +BUSIRI [Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad ibn Sa'id ul-Busiri] (1211-1294), Arabian +poet, lived in Egypt, where he wrote under the patronage of Ibn Hinna, the +vizier. His poems seem to have been wholly on religious subjects. The most +famous of these is the so-called "Poem of the Mantle." It is entirely in +praise of Mahomet, who cured the poet of paralysis by appearing to him in a +dream and wrapping him in a mantle. The poem has little literary value, +being an imitation of Ka'b ibn Zuhair's poem in praise of Mahomet, but its +history has been unique (cf. I. Goldziher in _Revue de l'histoire des +religions_, vol. xxxi. pp. 304 ff.). Even in the poet's lifetime it was +regarded as sacred. Up to the present time its verses are used as amulets; +it is employed in the lamentations for the dead; it has been frequently +edited and made the basis for other poems, and new poems have been made by +interpolating four or six lines after each line of the original. It has +been published with English translation by Faizullabhai (Bombay, 1893), +with French translation by R. Basset (Paris, 1894), with German translation +by C.A. Ralfs (Vienna, 1860), and in other languages elsewhere. + +For long list of commentaries, &c., cf. C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der Arab. +Litteratur_ (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 264-267. + +(G. W. T.) + +BUSIRIS, in a Greek legend preserved in a fragment of Pherecydes, an +Egyptian king, son of Poseidon and Lyssianassa. After Egypt has been +afflicted for nine years with famine, Phrasius, a seer of Cyprus, arrived +in Egypt and announced that the cessation of the famine would not take +place until a foreigner was yearly sacrificed to Zeus or Jupiter. Busiris +commenced by sacrificing the prophet, and continued the custom by offering +a foreigner on the altar of the god. It is here that Busiris enters into +the circle of the myths and _parerga_ of Heracles, who had arrived in Egypt +from Libya, and was seized and bound ready to be killed and offered at the +altar of Zeus in Memphis. Heracles burst the bonds which bound him, and, +seizing his club, slew Busiris with his son Amphidamas and his herald +Chalbes. [v.04 p.0874] This exploit is often represented on vase paintings +from the 6th century B.C. and onwards, the Egyptian monarch and his +companions being represented as negroes, and the legend is referred to by +Herodotus and later writers. Although some of the Greek writers made +Busiris an Egyptian king and a successor of Menes, about the sixtieth of +the series, and the builder of Thebes, those better informed by the +Egyptians rejected him altogether. Various esoterical explanations were +given of the myth, and the name not found as a king was recognized as that +of the tomb of Osiris. Busiris is here probably an earlier and less +accurate Graecism than Osiris for the name of the Egyptian god Usiri, like +Bubastis, Buto, for the goddesses Ubasti and Uto. Busiris, Bubastis, Buto, +more strictly represent Pusiri, Pubasti, Puto, cities sacred to these +divinities. All three were situated in the Delta, and would be amongst the +first known to the Greeks. All shrines of Osiris were called _P-usiri_, but +the principal city of the name was in the centre of the Delta, capital of +the 9th (Busirite) nome of Lower Egypt; another one near Memphis (now +Abusir) may have helped the formation of the legend in that quarter. The +name Busiris in this legend may have been caught up merely at random by the +early Greeks, or they may have vaguely connected their legend with the +Egyptian myth of the slaying of Osiris (as king of Egypt) by his mighty +brother Seth, who was in certain aspects a patron of foreigners. Phrasius, +Chalbes and Epaphus (for the grandfather of Busiris) are all explicable as +Graecized Egyptian names, but other names in the legend are purely Greek. +The sacrifice of foreign prisoners before a god, a regular scene on temple +walls, is perhaps only symbolical, at any rate for the later days of +Egyptian history, but foreign intruders must often have suffered rude +treatment at the hands of the Egyptians, in spite of the generally mild +character of the latter. + +See H. v. Gartringen, in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, for the +evidence from the side of classical archaeology. + +(F. LL. G.) + +BUSK, GEORGE (1807-1886), British surgeon, zoologist and palaeontologist, +son of Robert Busk, merchant of St Petersburg, was born in that city on the +12th of August 1807. He studied surgery in London, at both St Thomas's and +St Bartholomew's hospitals, and was an excellent operator. He was appointed +assistant-surgeon to the Greenwich hospital in 1832, and served as naval +surgeon first in the _Grampus_, and afterwards for many years in the +_Dreadnought_; during this period he made important observations on cholera +and on scurvy. In 1855 he retired from service and settled in London, where +he devoted himself mainly to the study of zoology and palaeontology. As +early as 1842 he had assisted in editing the _Microscopical Journal_; and +later he edited the _Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_ +(1853-1868) and the _Natural History Review_ (1861-1865). From 1856 to 1859 +he was Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology in the +Royal College of Surgeons, and he became president of the college in 1871. +He was elected F.R.S. in 1850, and was an active member of the Linnean, +Geological and other societies, and president of the Anthropological +Institute (1873-1874); he received the Royal Society's Royal medal and the +Geological Society's Wollaston and Lyell medals. Early in life he became +the leading authority on the Polyzoa; and later the vertebrate remains from +caverns and river-deposits occupied his attention. He was a patient and +cautious investigator, full of knowledge, and unaffectedly simple in +character. He died in London on the 10th of August 1886. + +BUSKEN-HUET, CONRAD (1826-1886), Dutch literary critic, was born at the +Hague on the 28th of December 1826. He was trained for the Church, and, +after studying at Geneva and Lausanne, was appointed pastor of the Walloon +chapel in Haarlem in 1851. In 1863 conscientious scruples obliged him to +resign his charge, and Busken-Huet, after attempting journalism, went out +to Java in 1868 as the editor of a newspaper. Before this time, however, he +had begun his career as a polemical man of letters, although it was not +until 1872 that he was made famous by the first series of his _Literary +Fantasies_, a title under which he gradually gathered in successive volumes +all that was most durable in his work as a critic. His one novel, +_Lidewijde_, was written under strong French influences. Returning from the +East Indies, Busken-Huet settled for the remainder of his life in Paris, +where he died in April 1886. For the last quarter of a century he had been +the acknowledged dictator in all questions of Dutch literary taste. +Perfectly honest, desirous to be sympathetic, widely read, and devoid of +all sectarian obstinacy, Busken-Huet introduced into Holland the light and +air of Europe. He made it his business to break down the narrow prejudices +and the still narrower self-satisfaction of his countrymen, without +endangering his influence by a mere effusion of paradox. He was a brilliant +writer, who would have been admired in any language, but whose appearance +in a literature so stiff and dead as that of Holland in the 'fifties was +dazzling enough to produce a sort of awe and stupefaction. The posthumous +correspondence of Busken-Huet has been published, and adds to our +impression of the vitality and versatility of his mind. + +(E. G.) + +BUSKIN (a word of uncertain origin, existing in many European languages, as +Fr. _brousequin_, Ital. _borzacchino_, Dutch _brozeken_, and Span, +_borcegui_), a half-boot or high shoe strapped under the ankle, and +protecting the shins; especially the thick-soled boot or _cothurnus_ in the +ancient Athenian tragedy, used to increase the stature of the actors, as +opposed to the _soccus_, "sock," the light shoe of comedy. The term is thus +often used figuratively of a tragic style. + +BUSLAEV, FEDOR IVANOVICH (1818-1898), Russian author and philologist, was +born on the 13th of April 1818 at Kerensk, where his father was secretary +of the district tribunal. He was educated at Penza and Moscow University. +At the end of his academical course, 1838, he accompanied the family of +Count S.G. Strogonov on a tour through Italy, Germany and France, occupying +himself principally with the study of classical antiquities. On his return +he was appointed assistant professor of Russian literature at the +university of Moscow. A study of Jacob Grimm's great dictionary had already +directed the attention of the young professor to the historical development +of the Russian language, and the fruit of his studies was the book _On the +Teaching of the National Language_ (Moscow, 1844 and 1867), which even now +has its value. In 1848 he produced his work _On the Influence of +Christianity on the Slavonic Language_, which, though subsequently +superseded by Franz von Miklosich's _Christliche Terminologie_, is still +one of the most striking dissertations on the development of the Slavonic +languages. In this work Buslaev proves that long before the age of Cyril +and Methodius the Slavonic languages had been subject to Christian +influences. In 1855 he published _Palaeographical and Philological +Materials for the History of the Slavonic Alphabets_, and in 1858 _Essay +towards an Historical Grammar of the Russian Tongue_, which, despite some +trivial defects, is still a standard work, abounding with rich material for +students, carefully collected from an immense quantity of ancient records +and monuments. In close connexion with this work in his _Historical +Chrestomathy of the Church-Slavonic and Old Russian Tongues_ (Moscow, +1861). Buslaev also interested himself in Russian popular poetry and old +Russian art, and the result of his labours is enshrined in _Historical +Sketches of Russian Popular Literature and Art_ (St Petersburg, 1861), a +very valuable collection of articles and monographs, in which the author +shows himself a worthy and faithful disciple of Grimm. His _Popular Poetry_ +(St Petersburg, 1887) is a valuable supplement to the _Sketches_. In 1881 +he was appointed professor of Russian literature at Moscow, and three years +later published his _Annotated Apocalypse_ with an atlas of 400 plates, +illustrative of ancient Russian art. + +See S.D. Sheremetev, _Memoir of F.I. Buslaev_ (Moscow, 1899). + +(R. N. B.) + +BUSS, FRANCES MARY (1827-1894), English schoolmistress, was born in London +in 1827, the daughter of the painter-etcher R.W. Buss, one of the original +illustrators of _Pickwick_. She was educated at a school in Camden Town, +and continued there as a teacher, but soon joined her mother in keeping a +school in Kentish Town. In 1848 she was one of the original attendants at +lectures at the new Queen's College for Ladies. In 1830 her [v.04 p.0875] +school was moved to Camden Street, and under its new name of the North +London Collegiate School for Ladies it rapidly increased in numbers and +reputation. In 1864 Miss Buss gave evidence before the Schools Inquiry +Commission, and in its report her school was singled out for exceptional +commendation. Indeed, under her influence, what was then pioneer work of +the highest importance had been done to put the education of girls on a +proper intellectual footing. Shortly afterwards the Brewers' Company and +the Clothworkers' Company provided funds by which the existing North London +Collegiate School was rehoused and a Camden School for Girls founded, and +both were endowed under a new scheme, Miss Buss continuing to be principal +of the former. She and Miss Beale of Cheltenham became famous as the chief +leaders in this branch of the reformed educational movement; she played an +active part in promoting the success of the Girls' Public Day School +Company, encouraging the connexion of the girls' schools with the +university standard by examinations, working for the establishment of +women's colleges, and improving the training of teachers; and her energetic +personality was a potent force among her pupils and colleagues. She died in +London on the 24th of December 1894. + +BUSSA, a town in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, on the west +bank of the Niger, in 10 deg. 9' N., 4 deg. 40' E. It is situated just above the +rapids which mark the limit of navigability of the Niger by steamer from +the sea. Here in 1806 Mungo Park, in his second expedition to trace the +course of the Niger, was attacked by the inhabitants, and drowned while +endeavouring to escape. During 1894-1898 its possession was disputed by +Great Britain and France, the last-named country acknowledging by the +convention of June 1898 the British claim, which carried with it the +control of the lower Niger. It is now the capital of northern Borgu (see +NIGERIA, and BORGU). + +BUSSACO (or BUSACO), SERRA DE, a mountain range on the frontiers of the +Aveiro, Coimbra, and Vizeu districts of Portugal, formerly included in the +province of Beira. The highest point in the range is the Ponta de Bussaco +(1795 ft.), which commands a magnificent view over the Serra da Estrella, +the Mondego valley and the Atlantic Ocean. Luso (pop. 1661), a village +celebrated for its hot mineral springs, is the nearest railway station, on +the Guarda-Figueira da Foz line, which skirts the northern slopes of the +Serra. Towards the close of the 19th century the Serra de Bussaco became +one of the regular halting-places for foreign, and especially for British, +tourists, on the overland route between Lisbon and Oporto. Its hotel, built +in the Manoellian style--a blend of Moorish and Gothic--encloses the +buildings of a secularized Carmelite monastery, founded in 1268. The +convent woods, now a royal domain, have long been famous for their cypress, +plane, evergreen oak, cork and other forest trees, many of which have stood +for centuries and attained an immense size. A bull of Pope Gregory XV. +(1623), anathematizing trespassers and forbidding women to approach, is +inscribed on a tablet at the main entrance; another bull, of Urban +VIII.(1643), threatens with excommunication any person harming the trees. +In 1873 a monument was erected, on the southern slopes of the Serra, to +commemorate the battle of Bussaco, in which the French, under Marshal +Massena, were defeated by the British and Portuguese, under Lord +Wellington, on the 27th of September 1810. + +BUSSY, ROGER DE RABUTIN, COMTE DE (1618-1693), commonly known as +BUSSY-RABUTIN, French memoir-writer, was born on the 13th of April 1618 at +Epiry, near Autun. He represented a family of distinction in Burgundy (see +SEVIGNE, MADAME DE), and his father, Leonor de Rabutin, was +lieutenant-general of the province of Nivernais. Roger was the third son, +but by the death of his elder brothers became the representative of the +family. He entered the army when he was only sixteen and fought through +several campaigns, succeeding his father in the office of _mestre de camp_. +He tells us himself that his two ambitions were to become "honnete homme" +and to distinguish himself in arms, but the luck was against him. In 1641 +he was sent to the Bastille by Richelieu for some months as a punishment +for neglect of his duties in his pursuit of gallantry. In 1643 he married a +cousin, Gabrielle de Toulongeon, and for a short time he left the army. But +in 1645 he succeeded to his father's position in the Nivernais, and served +under Conde in Catalonia. His wife died in 1646, and he became more +notorious than ever by an attempt to abduct Madame de Miramion, a rich +widow. This affair was with some difficulty settled by a considerable +payment on Bussy's part, and he afterwards married Louise de Rouville. When +Conde joined the party of the Fronde, Bussy joined him, but a fancied +slight on the part of the prince finally decided him for the royal side. He +fought with some distinction both in the civil war and on foreign service, +and buying the commission of _mestre de camp_ in 1655, he went to serve +under Turenne in Flanders. He served there for several campaigns and +distinguished himself at the battle of the Dunes and elsewhere; but he did +not get on well with his general, and his quarrelsome disposition, his +overweening vanity and his habit of composing libellous _chansons_ made him +eventually the enemy of most persons of position both in the army and at +court. In the year 1659 he fell into disgrace for having taken part in an +orgy at Roissy near Paris during Holy Week, which caused great scandal. +Bussy was ordered to retire to his estates, and beguiled his enforced +leisure by composing, for the amusement of his mistress, Madame de +Montglas, his famous _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_. This book, a series +of sketches of the intrigues of the chief ladies of the court, witty +enough, but still more ill-natured, circulated freely in manuscript, and +had numerous spurious sequels. It was said that Bussy had not spared the +reputation of Madame, and the king, angry at the report, was not appeased +when Bussy sent him a copy of the book to disprove the scandal. He was sent +to the Bastille on the 17th of April 1665, where he remained for more than +a year, and he was only liberated on condition of retiring to his estates, +where he lived in exile for seventeen years. Bussy felt the disgrace +keenly, but still bitterer was the enforced close of his military career. +In 1682 he was allowed to revisit the court, but the coldness of his +reception there made his provincial exile seem preferable, and he returned +to Burgundy, where he died on the 9th of April 1693. + +The _Histoire amoureuse_ is in its most striking passages adapted from +Petronius, and, except in a few portraits, its attractions are chiefly +those of the scandalous chronicle. But his _Memoires_, published after his +death, are extremely lively and characteristic, and have all the charm of a +historical romance of the adventurous type. His voluminous correspondence +yields in variety and interest to few collections of the kind, except that +of Madame de Sevigne, who indeed is represented in it to a great extent, +and whose letters first appeared in it. The literary and historical +student, therefore, owes Bussy some thanks. + +The best edition of the _Histoire amoureuse des Gaules_ is that of Paul +Boiteau in the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne (3 vols., Paris, 1856-1859). The +_Memoires_ (2 vols., 1857) and _Correspondance_ (6 vols., 1858-1859) were +edited by Ludovic Lalanne. Bussy wrote other things, of which the most +important, his _Genealogy of the Rabutin Family_, remained in MS. till +1867, while his _Considerations sur la guerre_ was first published in +Dresden in 1746. He also wrote, for the use of his children, a series of +biographies, in which his own life serves a moral purpose. + +BUSTARD (corrupted from the Lat. _Avis tarda_, though the application of +the epithet[1] is not easily understood), the largest British land-fowl, +and the _Otis tarda_ of Linnaeus, which formerly frequented the champaign +parts of Great Britain from East Lothian to Dorsetshire, but of which the +native race is now extirpated. Its existence in the northern locality just +named rests upon Sir Robert Sibbald's authority (_circa_ 1684), and though +Hector Boethius (1526) unmistakably described it as an inhabitant of the +Merse, no later writer than the former has adduced any evidence in favour +of its Scottish domicile. The last examples of the native race were +probably two killed in 1838 near Swaffham, in Norfolk, a district in which +for some years previously a few hen-birds of the species, the remnant of a +plentiful stock, had maintained their existence, though no cock-bird had +latterly been known to bear them company. In Suffolk, where the +neighbourhood of Icklingham formed its chief haunt, an [v.04 p.0876] end +came to the race in 1832; on the wolds of Yorkshire about 1826, or perhaps +a little later; and on those of Lincolnshire about the same time. Of +Wiltshire, George Montagu, author of an _Ornithological Dictionary_, +writing in 1813, says that none had been seen in their favourite haunts on +Salisbury Plain for the last two or three years. In Dorsetshire there is no +evidence of an indigenous example having occurred since that date, nor in +Hampshire nor Sussex since the opening of the 19th century. From other +English counties, as Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire and Berkshire, it +disappeared without note being taken of the event, and the direct cause or +causes of its extermination can only be inferred from what, on testimony +cited by Henry Stevenson (_Birds of Norfolk_, ii. pp. 1-42), is known to +have led to the same result in Norfolk and Suffolk. In the latter the +extension of plantations rendered the country unfitted for a bird whose shy +nature could not brook the growth of covert that might shelter a foe, and +in the former the introduction of improved agricultural implements, notably +the corn-drill and the horse-hoe, led to the discovery and generally the +destruction of every nest, for the bird's chosen breeding-place was in wide +fields--"brecks," as they are locally called--of winter-corn. Since the +extirpation of the native race the bustard is known to Great Britain only +by occasional wanderers, straying most likely from the open country of +Champagne or Saxony, and occurring in one part or another of the United +Kingdom some two or three times every three or four years, and chiefly in +midwinter. + +An adult male will measure nearly 4 ft. from the tip of the bill to the end +of the tail, and its wings have an expanse of 8 ft. or more,--its weight +varying (possibly through age) from 22 to 32 lb. This last was that of one +which was recorded by the younger Naumann, the best biographer of the bird +(_Voegel Deutschlands_, vii. p. 12), who, however, stated in 1834 that he +was assured of the former existence of examples which had attained the +weight of 35 or 38 lb. The female is considerably smaller. Compared with +most other birds frequenting open places, the bustard has +disproportionately short legs, yet the bulk of its body renders it a +conspicuous and stately object, and when on the wing, to which it readily +takes, its flight is powerful and sustained. The bill is of moderate +length, but, owing to the exceedingly flat head of the bird, appears longer +than it really is. The neck, especially of the male in the breeding-season, +is thick, and the tail, in the same sex at that time of year, is generally +carried in an upright position, being, however, in the paroxysms of +courtship turned forwards, while the head and neck are simultaneously +reverted along the back, the wings are lowered, and their shorter feathers +erected. In this posture, which has been admirably portrayed by Joseph Wolf +(_Zool. Sketches_, pl. 45), the bird presents a very strange appearance, +for the tail, head and neck are almost buried amid the upstanding feathers +before named, and the breast is protruded to a remarkable extent. The +bustard is of a pale grey on the neck and white beneath, but the back is +beautifully barred with russet and black, while in the male a band of deep +tawny-brown--in some examples approaching a claret-colour--descends from +either shoulder and forms a broad gorget on the breast. The secondaries and +greater wing-coverts are white, contrasting vividly, as the bird flies, +with the black primaries. Both sexes have the ear-coverts somewhat +elongated--whence doubtless is derived the name _Otis_ (Gr. [Greek: +otis])--and the male is adorned with a tuft of long, white, bristly plumes, +springing from each side of the base of the mandible. The food of the +bustard consists of almost any of the plants natural to the open country it +loves, but in winter it will readily forage on those which are grown by +man, and especially coleseed and similar green crops. To this vegetable +diet much animal matter is added when occasion offers, and from an +earthworm to a field-mouse little that lives and moves seems to come amiss +to its appetite. + +Though not many birds have had more written about them than the bustard, +much is unsettled with regard to its economy. A moot point, which will most +likely always remain undecided, is whether the British race was migratory +or not, though that such is the habit of the species in most parts of the +European continent is beyond dispute. Equally uncertain as yet is the +question whether it is polygamous or not--the evidence being perhaps in +favour of its having that nature. But one of the most singular properties +of the bird is the presence in some of the fully-grown males of a pouch or +gular sac, opening under the tongue. This extraordinary feature, first +discovered by James Douglas, a Scottish physician, and made known by +Eleazar Albin in 1740, though its existence was hinted by Sir Thomas Browne +sixty years before, if not by the emperor Frederick II, has been found +wanting in examples that, from the exhibition of all the outward marks of +virility, were believed to be thoroughly mature; and as to its function and +mode of development judgment had best be suspended, with the understanding +that the old supposition of its serving as a receptacle whence the bird +might supply itself or its companions with water in dry places must be +deemed to be wholly untenable. The structure of this pouch--the existence +of which in some examples has been well established--is, however, variable; +and though there is reason to believe that in one form or another it is +more or less common to several exotic species of the family _Otididae_, it +would seem to be as inconstant in its occurrence as in its capacity. As +might be expected, this remarkable feature has attracted a good deal of +attention (_Journ. fuer Ornith._, 1861, p. 153; _Ibis_, 1862, p. 107; 1865, +p. 143; _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1865, p. 747; 1868, p. 741; 1869, p. 140; 1874, +p. 471), and the later researches of A.H. Garrod show that in an example of +the Australian bustard (_Otis australis_) examined by him there was, +instead of a pouch or sac, simply a highly dilated oesophagus--the +distension of which, at the bird's will, produced much the same appearance +and effect as that of the undoubted sac found at times in the _O. tarda_. + +The distribution of the bustards is confined to the Old World--the bird so +called in the fur-countries of North America, and thus giving its name to a +lake, river and cape, being the Canada goose (_Bernicla canadensis_). In +the Palaearctic region we have the _O. tarda_ already mentioned, extending +from Spain to Mesopotamia at least, and from Scania to Morocco, as well as +a smaller species, _O. tetrax_, which often occurs as a straggler in, but +was never an inhabitant of, the British Islands. Two species, known +indifferently by the name of houbara (derived from the Arabic), frequent +the more southern portions of the region, and one of them, _O. macqueeni_, +though having the more eastern range and reaching India, has several times +occurred in north-western Europe, and once even in England. In the east of +Siberia the place of _O. tarda_ is taken by the nearly-allied, but +apparently distinct, _O. dybovskii_, which would seem to occur also in +northern China. Africa is the chief stronghold of the family, nearly a +score of well-marked species being peculiar to that continent, all of which +have been by later systematists separated from the genus _Otis_. India, +too, has three peculiar species, the smaller of which are there known as +floricans, and, like some of their African and one of their European +cousins, are remarkable for the ornamental plumage they assume at the +breeding-season. Neither in Madagascar nor in the Malay Archipelago is +there any form of this family, but Australia possesses one large species +already named. From Xenophon's days (_Anab._ i. 5) to our own the flesh of +bustards has been esteemed as of the highest flavour. The bustard has long +been protected by the game-laws in Great Britain, but, as will have been +seen, to little purpose. A few attempts have been made to reinstate it as a +denizen of this country, but none on any scale that would ensure success. +Many of the older authors considered the bustards allied to the ostrich, a +most mistaken view, their affinity pointing apparently towards the cranes +in one direction and the plovers in another. + +(A. N.) + +[1] It may be open to doubt whether _tarda_ is here an adjective. Several +of the medieval naturalists used it as a substantive. + +BUSTO ARSIZIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, 21 m. +N.W. by rail from the town of Milan. Pop. (1901) 19,673. It contains a fine +domed church, S. Maria di Piazza, built in 1517 after the designs of +Bramante: the picture over the high altar is one of Gaudenzio Ferrari's +best works. The church of S. Giovanni Battista is a good baroque edifice of +1617; by it stands a fine 13th-century campanile. Busto Arsizio is an +active manufacturing town, the cotton factories being [v.04 p.0877] +especially important. It is a railway junction for Novara and Seregno. + +BUTADES, of Sicyon, wrongly called DIBUTADES, the first Greek modeller in +clay. The story is that his daughter, smitten with love for a youth at +Corinth where they lived, drew upon the wall the outline of his shadow, and +that upon this outline her father modelled a face of the youth in clay, and +baked the model along with the clay tiles which it was his trade to make. +This model was preserved in Corinth till Mummius sacked that town. This +incident led Butades to ornament the ends of roof-tiles with human faces, a +practice which is attested by numerous existing examples. He is also said +to have invented a mixture of clay and ruddle, or to have introduced the +use of a special kind of red clay (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxv. 12[43]). The +period at which he flourished is unknown, but has been put at about 600 +B.C. + +BUTCHER, one who slaughters animals, and dresses and prepares the carcass +for purposes of food. The word also is applied to one who combines this +trade with that of selling the meat, and to one who only sells the meat. +The O.Fr. _bochier_ or _bouchier_, modern _boucher_, from which "butcher" +is derived, meant originally a killer of goats and a seller of goats' +flesh, from the O.Fr. _boc_, a he-goat; cf. Ital. _beccaio_, from _becco_, +a goat. + +BUTE, JOHN STUART, 3RD EARL OF (1713-1792), English prime minister, son of +James, 2nd earl, and of Lady Jane Campbell, daughter of the 1st duke of +Argyll, was born on the 25th of May 1713; he was educated at Eton and +succeeded to the earldom (in the peerage of Scotland; created for his +grandfather Sir James Stuart in 1703) on his father's death in 1723. He was +elected a representative peer for Scotland in 1737 but not in the following +parliaments, and appears not to have spoken in debate. In 1738 he was made +a knight of the Thistle, and for several years lived in retirement in Bute, +engaged in agricultural and botanical pursuits. From the quiet obscurity +for which his talents and character entirely fitted him Bute was forced by +a mere accident. He had resided in England since the rebellion of 1745, and +in 1747, a downpour of rain having prevented the departure of Frederick, +prince of Wales, from the Egham races, Bute was summoned to his tent to +make up a whist party; he immediately gained the favour of the prince and +princess, became the leading personage at their court, and in 1750 was +appointed by Frederick a lord of his bedchamber. After the latter's death +in 1751 his influence in the household increased. To his close intimacy +with the princess a guilty character was commonly assigned by contemporary +opinion, and their relations formed the subject of numerous popular +lampoons, but the scandal was never founded on anything but conjecture and +the malice of faction. With the young prince, the future king, Bute's +intimacy was equally marked; he became his constant companion and +confidant, and used his influence to inspire him with animosity against the +Whigs and with the high notions of the sovereign's powers and duties found +in Bolingbroke's _Patriot King_ and Blackstone's _Commentaries_. In 1775 he +took part in the negotiations between Leicester House and Pitt, directed +against the duke of Newcastle, and in 1757 in the conferences between the +two ministers which led to their taking office together. In 1756, by the +special desire of the young prince, he was appointed groom of the stole at +Leicester House, in spite of the king's pronounced aversion to him. + +On the accession of George III. in 1760, Bute became at once a person of +power and importance. He was appointed a privy councillor, groom of the +stole and first gentleman of the bedchamber, and though merely an +irresponsible confidant, without a seat in parliament or in the cabinet, he +was in reality prime minister, and the only person trusted with the king's +wishes and confidence. George III. and Bute immediately proceeded to +accomplish their long-projected plans, the conclusion of the peace with +France, the break-up of the Whig monopoly of power, and the supremacy of +the monarchy over parliament and parties. Their policy was carried out with +consummate skill and caution. Great care was shown not to alienate the Whig +leaders in a body, which would have raised up under Pitt's leadership a +formidable party of resistance, but advantage was taken of disagreements +between the ministers concerning the war, of personal jealousies, and of +the strong reluctance of the old statesmen who had served the crown for +generations to identify themselves with active opposition to the king's +wishes. They were all discarded singly, and isolated, after violent +disagreements, from the rest of the ministers. On the 25th of March 1761 +Bute succeeded Lord Holderness as secretary of state for the northern +department, and Pitt resigned in October on the refusal of the government +to declare war against Spain. + +On the 3rd of November Bute appeared in his new capacity as prime minister +in the House of Lords, where he had not been seen for twenty years. Though +he had succeeded in disarming all organized opposition in parliament, the +hostility displayed against him in the nation, arising from his Scottish +nationality, his character as favourite, his peace policy and the +resignation of the popular hero Pitt, was overwhelming. He was the object +of numerous attacks and lampoons. He dared not show himself in the streets +without the protection of prize-fighters, while the jack-boot (a pun upon +his name) and the petticoat, by which the princess was represented, were +continually being burnt by the mob or hanged upon the gallows. On the 9th +of November, while proceeding to the Guildhall, he narrowly escaped falling +into the hands of the populace, who smashed his coach, and he was treated +with studied coldness at the banquet. In January 1762 Bute was compelled to +declare war against Spain, though now without the advantages which the +earlier decision urged by Pitt could have secured, and he supported the +war, but with no zeal and no definite aim beyond the obtaining of a peace +at any price and as soon as possible. In May he succeeded the duke of +Newcastle as first lord of the treasury, and he was created K.G. after +resigning the order of the Thistle. In his blind eagerness for peace he +conducted on his own responsibility secret negotiations for peace with +France through Viri, the Sardinian minister, and the preliminary treaty was +signed on the 3rd of November at Fontainebleau. The king of Prussia had +some reason to complain of the sudden desertion of his ally, but there is +no evidence whatever to substantiate his accusation that Bute had +endeavoured to divert the tsar later from his alliance with Prussia, or +that he had treacherously in his negotiations with Vienna held out to that +court hopes of territorial compensation in Silesia as the price of the +abandonment of France; while the charge brought against Bute in 1765 of +having taken bribes to conclude the peace, subsequently after investigation +pronounced frivolous by parliament, may safely be ignored. A parliamentary +majority was now secured for the minister's policy by bribery and threats, +and with the aid of Henry Fox, who deserted his party to become leader of +the Commons. The definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 10th of +February 1763, and a wholesale proscription of the Whigs was begun, the +most insignificant adherents of the fallen party, including widows, menial +servants and schoolboys, incurring the minister's mean vengeance. Later, +Bute roused further hostility by his cider tax, an ill-advised measure +producing only L75,000 a year, imposing special burdens upon the farmers +and landed interest in the cider counties, and extremely unpopular because +extending the detested system of taxation by excise, regarded as an +infringement of the popular liberties. At length, unable to contend any +longer against the general and inveterate animosity displayed against him, +fearing for the consequences to the monarchy, alarmed at the virulent +attacks of the _North Briton_, and suffering from ill-health, Bute resigned +office on the 8th of April. "Fifty pounds a year," he declared, "and bread +and water were luxury compared with what I suffer." He had, however, before +retiring achieved the objects for which he had been entrusted with power. + +He still for a short time retained influence with the king, and intended to +employ George Grenville (whom he recommended as his successor) as his +agent; but the latter insisted on possessing the king's whole confidence, +and on the failure of Bute in August 1763 to procure his dismissal and to +substitute a ministry led by Pitt and the duke of Bedford, Grenville +demanded and obtained Bute's withdrawal from the court. He resigned +accordingly the office of privy purse, and took leave of George III. [v.04 +p.0878] on the 28th of September. He still corresponded with the king, and +returned again to London next year, but in May 1765, after the duke of +Cumberland's failure to form an administration, Grenville exacted the +promise from the king, which appears to have been kept faithfully, that +Bute should have no share and should give no advice whatever in public +business, and obtained the dismissal of Bute's brother from his post of +lord privy seal in Scotland. Bute continued to visit the princess of Wales, +but on the king's arrival always retired by a back staircase. + +The remainder of Bute's life has little public interest. He spoke against +the government on the American question in February 1766, and in March +against the repeal of the Stamp Act. In 1768 and 1774 he was again elected +a representative peer for Scotland, but took no further part in politics, +and in 1778 refused to have anything to do with the abortive attempt to +effect an alliance between himself and Chatham. He travelled in Italy, +complained of the malice of his opponents and of the ingratitude of the +king, and determined "to retire from the world before it retires from me." +He died on the 10th of March 1792 and was buried at Rothesay in Bute. + +Though one of the worst of ministers, Bute was by no means the worst of men +or the despicable and detestable person represented by the popular +imagination. His abilities were inconsiderable, his character weak, and he +was qualified neither for the ordinary administration, of public business +nor for the higher sphere of statesmanship, and was entirely destitute of +that experience which sometimes fills the place of natural aptitude. His +short administration was one of the most disgraceful and incompetent in +English history, originating in an accident, supported only by the will of +the sovereign, by gross corruption and intimidation, the precursor of the +disintegration of political life and of a whole series of national +disasters. Yet Bute had good principles and intentions, was inspired by +feelings of sincere affection and loyalty for his sovereign, and his +character remains untarnished by the grosser accusations raised by faction. +In the circle of his family and intimate friends, away from the great world +in which he made so poor a figure, he was greatly esteemed. Samuel Johnson, +Lord Mansfield, Lady Hervey, Bishop Warburton join in his praise. For the +former, a strong opponent of his administration, he procured a pension of +L300 a year. He was exceptionally well read, with a refined taste for books +and art, and purchased the famous _Thomason Tracts_ now in the British +Museum. He was learned in the science of botany, and formed a magnificent +collection and a botanic garden at Luton Hoo, where Robert Adam built for +him a splendid residence. He engraved privately about 1785 at enormous +expense _Botanical Tables containing the Different Familys of British +Plants_, while _The Tabular Distribution of British Plants_ (1787) is also +attributed to him. Bute filled the offices of ranger of Richmond Forest, +governor of the Charterhouse, chancellor of Marischal College, Aberdeen +(1761), trustee of the British Museum (1765), president of the Society of +Antiquaries of Scotland (1780) and commissioner of Chelsea hospital. + +By his marriage with Mary, daughter of Edward Wortley Montagu of Wortley, +Yorkshire, who in 1761 was created Baroness Mount Stuart of Wortley, and +through whom he became possessed of the enormous Wortley property, he had, +besides six daughters, five sons, the eldest of whom, John, Lord Cardiff +(1744-1814), succeeded him as 4th earl and was created a marquess in 1796. +John, Lord Mount Stuart (1767-1794), the son and heir of the 1st marquess, +died before his father, and consequently in 1814 the Bute titles and +estates came to his son John (1793-1848) as 2nd marquess. The latter was +succeeded by his only son John Patrick (1847-1900), whose son John (b. +1881) inherited the title in 1900. + +BUTE, the most important, though not the largest, of the islands +constituting the county of the same name, in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, +about 18 m. S.W. of Greenock and 40 m., by water, from Glasgow. It is +bounded on the N. and W. by the lovely Kyles of Bute, the narrow winding +strait which separates it from Argyllshire, on the E. by the Firth of +Clyde, and on the S. and S.W. by the Sound of Bute, about 6 m. wide, which +divides it from Arran. Its area is about 49 sq. m., or 31,161 acres. It +lies in a N.W. to S.E. direction, and its greatest length from Buttock +Point on the Kyles to Garroch Head on the Firth of Clyde is 151/2 m. Owing to +indentations its width varies from 1-1/3 m. to 41/2 m. There are piers at +Kilchattan, Craigmore, Port Bannatyne and Rothesay, but Rothesay is +practically the harbour for the whole island. Here there is regular +communication by railway steamers from Craigendoran, Prince's Pier +(Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay, and by frequent vessels from the +Broomielaw Bridge in Glasgow and other points on the Clyde. Pop. (1891) +11,735; (1901) 12,162. + +The principal hills are in the north, where the chief are Kames Hill (911 +ft.) and Kilbride Hill (836 ft.). The streams are mostly burns, and there +are six lochs. Loch Fad, about 1 m. S. of Rothesay, 21/2 m. long by 1/3 m. +wide, was the source of the power used in the Rothesay cotton-spinning +mill, which was the first establishment of the kind erected in Scotland. In +1827 on its western shore Edmund Kean built a cottage afterwards occupied +by Sheridan Knowles. It now belongs to the marquess of Bute. From Loch +Ascog, fully 1 m. long, Rothesay derives its water supply. The other lakes +are Loch Quien, Loch Greenan, Dhu Loch and Loch Bull. Glen More in the +north and Glen Callum in the south are the only glens of any size. The +climate is mild and healthful, fuchsias and other plants flowering even in +winter, and neither snow nor frost being of long continuance, and less rain +falling than in many parts of the western coast. Some two-thirds of the +area, mostly in the centre and south, are arable, yielding excellent crops +of potatoes for the Glasgow market, oats and turnips; the rest consists of +hill pastures and plantations. The fisheries are of considerable value. +There is no lack of sandstone, slate and whinstone. Some coal exists, but +it is of inferior quality and doubtful quantity. At Kilchattan a superior +clay for bricks and tiles is found, and grey granite susceptible of high +polish. + +The island is divided geologically into two areas by a fault running from +Rothesay Bay in a south-south-west direction by Loch Fad to Scalpsie Bay, +which, throughout its course, coincides with a well-marked depression. The +tract lying to the north-west of this dislocation is composed of the +metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands. The Dunoon phyllites form a +narrow belt about a mile and a half broad crossing the island between Kames +Bay and Etterick Bay, while the area to the north is occupied by grits and +schists which may be the western prolongations of the Beinn Bheula group. +Near Rothesay and along the hill slopes west of Loch Fad there are parallel +strips of grits and phyllites. That part of the island lying to the east of +this dislocation consists chiefly of Upper Old Red Sandstone strata, +dipping generally in a westerly or south-westerly direction. At the extreme +south end, between Kilchattan and Garroch Head, these conglomerates and +sandstones are overlaid by a thick cornstone or dolomitic limestone marking +the upper limit of the formation, which is surmounted by the cement-stones +and contemporaneous lavas of Lower Carboniferous age. The bedded volcanic +rocks which form a series of ridges trending north-west comprise +porphyritic basalts, andesite, and, near Port Luchdach, brownish trachyte. +Near the base of the volcanic series intrusive igneous rocks of +Carboniferous age appear in the form of sills and bosses, as, for instance, +the oval mass of olivine-basalt on Suidhe Hill. Remnants of raised beaches +are conspicuous in Bute. One of the well-known localities for arctic shelly +clays occurs at Kilchattan brick-works, where the dark red clay rests on +tough boulder-clay and may be regarded as of late glacial age. + +As to the origin of the name of Bute, there is some doubt. It has been held +to come from _both_ (Irish for "a cell"), in allusion to the cell which St +Brendan erected in the island in the 6th century; others contend that it is +derived from the British words _ey budh_ (Gaelic, _ey bhiod_), "the island +of corn" (_i.e._ food), in reference to its fertility, notable in contrast +with the barrenness of the Western Isles and Highlands. Bute was probably +first colonized by the vanguard of Scots who came over from Ireland, and at +intervals the Norsemen also secured a footing for longer or shorter +periods. In those days the Butemen were also called Brandanes, after the +Saint. Attesting the antiquity of the island, "Druidical" monuments, +barrows, cairns and cists are numerous, as well as the remains of ancient +chapels. In virtue of a charter granted by James IV. in 1506, the numerous +small proprietors took the title of "baron," which became hereditary in +their families. Now the title is practically extinct, the lands conferring +it having with very few exceptions passed [v.04 p.0879] by purchase into +the possession of the marquess of Bute, the proprietor of nearly the whole +island. His seat, Mount Stuart, about 41/2 m. from Rothesay by the shore +road, is finely situated on the eastern coast. Port Bannatyne (pop. 1165), +2 m. north by west of Rothesay, is a flourishing watering-place, named +after Lord Bannatyne (1743-1833), a judge of the court of session, one of +the founders of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1784. Near to it +is Kames Castle, where John Sterling, famous for Carlyle's biography, was +born in 1806. Kilchattan, in the south-east of the island, is a favourite +summer resort. Another object of interest is St Blane's Chapel, +picturesquely situated about 1/2 m. from Dunagoil Bay. Off the western shore +of Bute, 3/4 m. from St Ninian's Point, lies the island of Inchmarnock, 2 m. +in length and about 3/4 m. in width. + +See J. Wilson, _Account of Rothesay and Bute_ (Rothesay, 1848); and J.K. +Hewison, _History of Bute_ (1894-1895). + +BUTE, or BUTESHIRE, an insular county in the S.W. of Scotland, consisting +of the islands of Bute, from which the county takes its name, Inchmarnock, +Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae, Arran, Holy Island and Pladda, all lying in +the Firth of Clyde, between Ayrshire on the E. and Argyllshire on the W. +and N. The area of the county is 140,307 acres, or rather more than 219 sq. +m. Pop. (1891) 18,404; (1901) 18,787 (or 86 to the sq. m.). In 1901 the +number of persons who spoke Gaelic alone was 20, of those speaking Gaelic +and English 2764. Before the Reform Bill of 1832, Buteshire, alternately +with Caithness-shire, sent one member to parliament--Rothesay at the same +time sharing a representative with Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Irvine. +Rothesay was then merged in the county, which since then has had a member +to itself. Buteshire and Renfrewshire form one sheriffdom, with a +sheriff-substitute resident in Rothesay who also sits periodically at +Brodick and Millport. The circuit courts are held at Inveraray. The county +is under school-board jurisdiction, and there is a secondary school at +Rothesay. The county council subsidizes technical education in agriculture +at Glasgow and Kilmarnock. The staple crops are oats and potatoes, and +cattle, sheep and horses are reared. Seed-growing is an extensive industry, +and the fisheries are considerable. The Rothesay fishery district includes +all the creeks in Buteshire and a few in Argyll and Dumbarton shires, the +Cumbraes being grouped with the Greenock district. The herring fishery +begins in June, and white fishing is followed at one or other point all the +year round. During the season many of the fishermen are employed on the +Clyde yachts, Rothesay being a prominent yachting centre. The exports +comprise agricultural produce and fish, trade being actively carried on +between the county ports of Rothesay, Millport, Brodick and Lamlash and the +mainland ports of Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Ardrossan and Wemyss Bay, +with all of which there is regular steamer communication throughout the +year. + +BUTHROTUM. (1) An ancient seaport of Illyria, corresponding with the modern +Butrinto (_q.v._). (2) A town in Attica, mentioned by Pliny the Elder +(_Nat. Hist._ iv. 37). + +BUTLER, the name of a family famous in the history of Ireland. The great +house of the Butlers, alone among the families of the conquerors, rivalled +the Geraldines, their neighbours, kinsfolk and mortal foes. Theobald +Walter, their ancestor, was not among the first of the invaders. He was the +grandson of one Hervey Walter who, in the time of Henry I., held Witheton +or Weeton in Amounderness, a small fee of the honour of Lancaster, the +manor of Newton in Suffolk, and certain lands in Norfolk. In the great +inquest of Lancaster lands that followed a writ of 1212, this Hervey, named +as the father of Hervey Walter, is said to have given lands in his fee of +Weeton to Orm, son of Magnus, with his daughter Alice in marriage. Hervey +Walter, son of this Hervey, advanced his family by matching with Maude, +daughter of Theobald de Valognes, lord of Parham, whose sister Bertha was +wife of Ranulf de Glanville, the great justiciar, "the eye of the king." +When Ranulf had founded the Austin Canons priory of Butley, Hervey Walter, +his wife's brother-in-law, gave to the house lands in Wingfield for the +soul's health of himself and his wife Maude, of Ranulf de Glanville and +Bertha his wife, the charter, still preserved in the Harleian collection, +being witnessed by Hervey's younger sons, Hubert Walter, Roger and Hamon. +Another son, Bartholomew, witnessed a charter of his brother Hubert, +1190-1193. That these nephews of the justiciar profited early by their +kinship is seen in Hubert Walter's foundation charter of the abbey of West +Dereham, wherein he speaks of "dominus Ranulphus de Glanvilla et domina +Bertha uxor eius, qui nos nutrierunt." Hubert, indeed, becoming one of his +uncle's clerks, was so much in his confidence that Gervase of Canterbury +speaks of the two as ruling the kingdom together. King Richard, whom he +accompanied to the Holy Land, made him bishop of Salisbury and (1193) +archbishop of Canterbury. "Wary of counsel, subtle of wit," he was the +champion of Canterbury and of England, and the news of his death drew the +cry from King John that "now, for the first time, am I king in truth." + +Between these two great statesmen Theobald Walter, the eldest brother of +the archbishop, rose and flourished. Theobald is found in the _Liber Niger_ +(c. 1166) as holding Amounderness by the service of one knight. In 1185 he +went over sea to Waterford with John the king's son, the freight of the +harness sent after him being charged in the Pipe Roll. Clad in that harness +he led the men of Cork when Dermot MacCarthy, prince of Desmond, was put to +the sword, John rewarding his services with lands in Limerick and with the +important fief of Arklow in the vale of Avoca, where he made his Irish seat +and founded an abbey. Returning to England he accompanied his uncle Randulf +to France, both witnessing a charter delivered by the king at Chinon when +near to death. Soon afterwards, Theobald Walter was given by John that +hereditary office of butler to the lord of Ireland, which makes a surname +for his descendants, styling himself _pincerna_ when he attests John's +charter to Dublin on the 15th of May 1192. J. Horace Round has pointed out +that he also took a fresh seal, the inscription of which calls him Theobald +Walter, Butler of Ireland, and henceforward he is sometimes surnamed Butler +(_le Botiller_). When John went abroad in 1192, Theobald was given the +charge of Lancaster castle, but in 1194 he was forced to surrender to his +brother Hubert, who summoned it in King Richard's name. Making his peace +through Hubert's influence, he was sheriff of Lancashire for King Richard, +who regranted to him all Amounderness. His fortunes turned with the king's +death. The new sovereign, treating his surrender of the castle as +treachery, took the shrievalty from him, disseised him of Amounderness and +sold his cantreds of Limerick land to William de Braose. But the great +archbishop soon found means to bring his brother back to favour, and on the +2nd of January 1201-2 Amounderness, by writ of the king, is to be restored +to Theobald Walter, _dilecto et fideli nostra_, Within a year or two +Theobald left England to end his days upon his Arklow fief, busying himself +with religious foundations at Wotheney in Limerick, at Arklow and at +Nenagh. At Wotheney he is said to have been buried shortly before the 12th +of February 1205-6, when an entry in the Close Roll is concerned with his +widow. This widow, Maude, daughter of Robert le Vavasor of Denton, was +given up to her father, who, buying the right of marrying her at a price of +1200 marks and two palfreys, gave her to Fulk fitz-Warine. Theobald, the +son and heir of Theobald and Maude, a child of six years old, was likewise +taken into the keeping of his grandfather Robert, but letters from the +king, dated the 2nd of March 1205-6, told Robert, "as he loved his body," +to surrender the heir at once to Gilbert fitz-Reinfrid, the baron of +Kendal. + +Adding to its possessions by marriages the house advanced itself among the +nobility of Ireland. On the 1st of September 1315, its chief, Edmund Walter +_alias_ Edmund the Butler, for services against the Scottish raiders and +Ulster rebels, had a charter of the castle and manors of Carrick, +Macgriffyn and Roscrea to hold to him and his heirs _sub nomine et honore +comitis de Karryk_. This charter, however, while apparently creating an +earldom, failed, as Mr Round has explained, to make his issue earls of +Carrick. But James, the son and heir of Edmund, having married in 1327 +Eleanor de Bohun, daughter of Humfrey, [v.04 p.0880] earl of Hereford and +Essex, high constable of England, by a daughter of Edward I., was created +an Irish earl on the 2nd of November 1328, with the title of Ormonde. + +From the early years of the 14th century the Ormonde earls, generation by +generation, were called to the chief government of Ireland as lords-keeper, +lords-lieutenant, deputies or lords-justices, and unlike their hereditary +enemies the Geraldines they kept a tradition of loyalty to the English +crown and to English custom. Their history is full of warring with the +native Irish, and as the sun stood still upon Gibeon, even so, we are told, +it rested over the red bog of Athy while James the White Earl was staying +the wild O'Mores. More than one of the earls of Ormonde had the name of a +scholar, while of the 6th earl, master of every European tongue and +ambassador to many courts, Edward IV. is said to have declared that were +good breeding and liberal qualities lost to the world they might be found +again in John, earl of Ormonde. The earls were often absent from Ireland on +errands of war or peace. James, the 5th earl, had the English earldom of +Wiltshire given him in 1449 for his Lancastrian zeal. He fought at St +Albans in 1455, casting his harness into a ditch as he fled the field, and +he led a wing at Wakefield. His stall plate as a knight of the Garter is +still in St George's chapel. Defeated with the earl of Pembroke at +Mortimer's Cross and taken prisoner after Towton, his fate is uncertain, +but rumour said that he was beheaded at Newcastle, and a letter addressed +to John Paston about May 1461 sends tidings that "the Erle of Wylchir is +hed is sette on London Brigge." + +To his time belongs a document illustrating a curious tradition of the +Butlers. His petition to parliament when he was conveying Buckinghamshire +lands to the hospital of St Thomas of Acres in London, recites that he does +so "in worship of that glorious martyr St Thomas, sometime archbishop of +Canterbury, of whose blood the said earl of Wiltshire, his father and many +of his ancestors are lineally descended." But the pedigrees in which +genealogists have sought to make this descent definite will not bear +investigation. The Wiltshire earldom died with him and the Irish earldom +was for a time forfeited, his two brothers, John and Thomas, sharing his +attainder. John was restored in blood by Edward IV.; and Thomas, the 7th +earl, summoned to the English parliament in 1495 as Lord Rochford, a title +taken from a Bohun manor in Essex, saw the statute of attainder annulled by +Henry VII.'s first parliament. He died without male issue in 1515. Of his +two daughters and co-heirs Anne was married to Sir James St. Leger, and +Margaret to Sir William Boleyn of Blickling, by whom she was mother of Sir +James and Sir Thomas Boleyn. The latter, the father of Anne Boleyn, was +created earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde in 1529. + +In Ireland the heir male of the Ormonde earls, Sir Piers Butler--"red +Piers"--assumed the earldom of Ormonde in 1515 and seized upon the Irish +estates. Being a good ally against the rebel Irish, the government +temporized with his claim. He was an Irishman born, allied to the wild +Irish chieftains by his mother, a daughter of the MacMorrogh Kavanagh; the +earldom had been long in the male line; all Irish sentiment was against the +feudal custom which would take it out of the family, and the two co-heirs +were widows of English knights. In 1522, styled "Sir Piers Butler +pretending himself to be earl of Ormonde," he was made chief governor of +Ireland as lord deputy, and on the 23rd of February 1527/8, following an +agreement with the co-heirs of the 7th earl, whereby the earldom of Ormonde +was declared to be at the king's disposal, he was created earl of Ossory. +But the Irish estates, declared forfeit to the crown in 1536 under the Act +of Absentees, were granted to him as "earl of Ossory and Ormonde." Although +the Boleyn earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire was still alive, there can be no +doubt that Piers Butler had a patent of the Ormonde earldom about the 22nd +of February 1537/8, from which date his successors must reckon their +peerage. His son and heir, James the Lame, who had been created Viscount +Thurles on the 2nd of January 1535/6, obtained an act of parliament in +1543/4 which, confirming the grant to his father of the earldom, gave him +the old "pre-eminence" of the ancient earldom of 1328. + +Earl James was poisoned at a supper in Ely House in 1546, and Thomas the +Black Earl, his son and heir, was brought up at the English court, +professing the reformed religion. His sympathies were with the Irish, +although he stood staunchly for law and order, and for the great part of +his life he was wrestling with rebellion. His lands having been harried by +hit hereditary enemies the Desmond Geraldines, Elizabeth gave him his +revenge by appointing him in 1580 military governor of Munster, with a +commission to "banish and vanquish these cankered Desmonds," then in open +rebellion. In three months, by his own account, he had put to the sword 46 +captains, 800 notorious traitors and 4000 others, and, after four years' +fighting, Gerald, earl of Desmond, a price on his head, was taken and +killed. Dying in 1614 without lawful issue, Thomas was succeeded by his +nephew Walter of Kilcash, who had fought beside him against the Burkes and +O'Mores. But Sir Robert Preston, afterwards created earl of Desmond, +claimed a great part of the Ormonde lands in right of his wife, the Black +Earl's daughter and heir. In spite of the loyal services of Earl Walter, +King James supported the claimant, and the earl, refusing to submit to a +royal award, was thrown into gaol, where he lay for eight years in great +poverty, his rents being cut off. Although liberated in 1625 he was not +acknowledged heir to his uncle's estates until 1630. His son, Viscount +Thurles, being drowned on a passage to England, a grandson succeeded him. + +This grandson, James Butler, is perhaps the most famous of the long line of +Ormondes. By his marriage with his cousin Elizabeth Preston, the Ormonde +titles were once more united with all the Ormonde estates. A loyal soldier +and statesman, he commanded for the king in Ireland, where he was between +the two fires of Catholic rebels and Protestant parliamentarians. In +Ireland he stayed long enough to proclaim Charles II. in 1649, but defeated +at Rathmines, his garrisons broken by Cromwell, he quitted the country at +the end of 1650. At the Restoration he was appointed lord-lieutenant, his +estates having been restored to him with the addition of the county +palatine of Tipperary, taken by James I. from his grandfather. In 1632 he +had been created a marquess. The English earldom of Brecknock was added in +1660 and an Irish dukedom of Ormonde in the following year. In 1682 he had +a patent for an English dukedom with the same title. Buckingham's intrigues +deprived him for seven years of his lord-lieutenancy, and a desperate +attempt was made upon his life in 1670, when a company of ruffians dragged +him from his coach in St James's Street and sought to hurry him to the +gallows at Tyburn. His son's threat that, if harm befell his father he +would pistol Buckingham, even if he were behind the king's chair, may have +saved him from assassination. At the accession of James II. he was once +more taken from active employment, and "Barzillai, crowned with honour and +with years" died at his Dorsetshire house in 1688. He had seen his +great-great-uncle the Black Earl, who was born in 1532, and a +great-grandson was playing beside him a few hours before his death. His +brave son Ossory, "the eldest hope with every grace adorned," died eight +years before him, and he was succeeded by a grandson James, the second duke +of Ormonde, who, a recognized leader of the London Jacobites, was attainted +in 1715, his honours and estates being forfeited. The duke lived thirty +years in exile, chiefly at Avignon, and died in the rebellion year of 1745 +without surviving issue. His younger brother Charles, whom King William had +created Lord Butler of Weston in the English peerage and earl of Arran in +the Irish, was allowed to purchase the Ormonde estates. On the earl's death +without issue in 1758 the estates were enjoyed by a sister, passing in +1760, by settlement of the earl of Arran, to John Butler of Kilcash, +descendant of a younger brother of the first duke. John dying six years +later was succeeded by Walter Butler, a first cousin, whose son John, +heir-male of the line of Ormonde, became earl of Ormonde and Ossory and +Viscount Thurles in 1791, the Irish parliament reversing the attainder of +1715. Walter, son and heir of the restored earl, was given an English +peerage as Lord Butler of Llanthony (1801) and an Irish marquessate of +Ormonde (1816), titles that died with him. This Lord Ormonde in 1810 [v.04 +p.0881] sold to the crown for the great sum of L216,000 his ancestral right +to the prisage of wines in Ireland. For his brother and heir, created Lord +Ormonde of Llahthony at the coronation of George IV., the Irish marquessate +was revived in 1825 and descended in the direct line. + +The earls of Carrick (Ireland 1748), Viscounts Ikerrin (Ireland 1629), +claim descent from a brother of the first Ormonde earl, while the viscounts +Mountgarret (Ireland 1550) spring from a younger son of Piers, the Red Earl +of Ossory. The barony of Caher (Ireland 1543), created for Sir Thomas +Butler of Chaier or Caher-down-Eske, a descendant in an illegitimate branch +of the Butlers, fell into abeyance among heirs general on the death of the +2nd baron in 1560. It was again created, after the surrender of their +rights by the heirs general, in 1583 for Sir Theobald Butler (d. 1596), and +became extinct in 1858 on the death of Richard Butler, 13th baron and 2nd +viscount Caher, and second earl of Glengall. Buttler von Clonebough, +_genannt_ Haimhausen, count of the Holy Roman Empire, descends from the 3rd +earl of Ormonde, the imperial title having been revived in 1681 in memory +of the services of a kinsman, Walter, Count Butler (d. 1634), the dragoon +officer who carried out the murder of Wallenstein. + +See Lancashire Inquests, 1205-1307; Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, +xlviii.; Chronicles of Matthew Paris, Roger of Hoveden, Giraldus +Cambrensis, &c.; _Dictionary of National Biography_; G.E.C.'s _Complete +Peerage_; Carte's Ormonde papers; Paston Letters; Rolls of parliament; fine +rolls, liberate rolls, pipe rolls, &c. + +(O. BA.) + +BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773), English Roman Catholic priest and hagiologist, +was born in Northampton on the 24th of October 1710. He was educated at the +English college, Douai, where on his ordination to the priesthood he held +successively the chairs of philosophy and divinity. He laboured for some +time as a missionary priest in Staffordshire, held several positions as +tutor to young Roman Catholic noblemen, and was finally appointed president +of the English seminary at St Omer, where he remained till his death on the +15th of May 1773. Butler's great work, _The Lives of the Saints_, the +result of thirty years' study (4 vols., London, 1756-1759), has passed +through many editions and translations (best edition, including valuable +notes, Dublin, 12 vols. 1779-1780). It is a popular and compendious +reproduction of the _Acta Sanctorum_, exhibiting great industry and +research, and is in all respects the best work of its kind in English +literature. + +See _An Account of the Life of A.B. by C.B._, _i.e._ by his nephew Charles +Butler (London, 1799); and Joseph Gillow's _Bibliographical Dictionary of +English Catholics_, vol. i. + +BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893), American lawyer, soldier and +politician, was born in Deerfield, New Hampshire, on the 5th of November +1818. He graduated at Waterville (now Colby) College in 1838, was admitted +to the Massachusetts bar in 1840, began practice at Lowell, Massachusetts, +and early attained distinction as a lawyer, particularly in criminal cases. +Entering politics as a Democrat, he first attracted general attention by +his violent campaign in Lowell in advocacy of the passage of a law +establishing a ten-hour day for labourers; he was a member of the +Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1853, and of the state senate in +1859, and was a delegate to the Democratic national conventions from 1848 +to 1860. In that of 1860 at Charleston he advocated the nomination of +Jefferson Davis and opposed Stephen A. Douglas, and in the ensuing campaign +he supported Breckinridge. + +After the Baltimore riot at the opening of the Civil War, Butler, as a +brigadier-general in the state militia, was sent by Governor John A. +Andrew, with a force of Massachusetts troops, to reopen communication +between the Union states and the Federal capital. By his energetic and +careful work Butler achieved his purpose without fighting, and he was soon +afterwards made major-general, U.S.V. Whilst in command at Fortress Monroe, +he declined to return to their owners fugitive slaves who had come within +his lines, on the ground that, as labourers for fortifications, &c., they +were contraband of war, thus originating the phrase "contraband" as applied +to the negroes. In the conduct of tactical operations Butler was almost +uniformly unsuccessful, and his first action at Big Bethel, Va., was a +humiliating defeat for the National arms. Later in 1861 he commanded an +expeditionary force, which, in conjunction with the navy, took Forts +Hatteras and Clark, N.C. In 1862 he commanded the force which occupied New +Orleans. In the administration of that city he showed great firmness and +severity. New Orleans was unusually healthy and orderly during the Butler +regime. Many of his acts, however, gave great offence, particularly the +seizure of $800,000 which had been deposited in the office of the Dutch +consul, and an order, issued after some provocation, on May 15th, that if +any woman should "insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the +United States, she shall be regarded and shall be held liable to be treated +as a woman of the town plying her avocation." This order provoked protests +both in the North and the South, and also abroad, particularly in England +and France, and it was doubtless the cause of his removal in December 1862. +On the 1st of June he had executed one W.B. Mumford, who had torn down a +United States flag placed by Farragut on the United States mint; and for +this execution he was denounced (Dec. 1862) by President Davis as "a felon +deserving capital punishment," who if captured should be reserved for +execution. In the campaign of 1864 he was placed at the head of the Army of +the James, which he commanded creditably in several battles. But his +mismanagement of the expedition against Fort Fisher, N.C., led to his +recall by General Grant in December. + +He was a Republican representative in Congress from 1867 to 1879, except in +1875-1877. In Congress he was conspicuous as a Radical Republican in +Reconstruction legislation, and was one of the managers selected by the +House to conduct the impeachment, before the Senate, of President Johnson, +opening the case and taking the most prominent part in it on his side; he +exercised a marked influence over President Grant and was regarded as his +spokesman in the House, and he was one of the foremost advocates of the +payment in "greenbacks" of the government bonds. In 1871 he was a defeated +candidate for governor of Massachusetts, and also in 1879 when he ran on +the Democratic and Greenback tickets, but in 1882 he was elected by the +Democrats who got no other state offices. In 1883 he was defeated on +renomination. As presidential nominee of the Greenback and Anti-Monopolist +parties, he polled 175,370 votes in 1884, when he had bitterly opposed the +nomination by the Democratic party of Grover Cleveland, to defeat whom he +tried to "throw" his own votes in Massachusetts and New York to the +Republican candidate. His professional income as a lawyer was estimated at +$100,000 per annum shortly before his death at Washington, D.C., on the +11th of January 1893. He was an able but erratic administrator and soldier, +and a brilliant lawyer. As a politician he excited bitter opposition, and +was charged, apparently with justice, with corruption and venality in +conniving at and sharing the profits of illicit trade with the Confederates +carried on by his brother at New Orleans and by his brother-in-law in the +department of Virginia and North Carolina, while General Butler was in +command. + +See James Parton, _Butler in New Orleans_ (New York, 1863), which, however, +deals inadequately with the charges brought against Butler; and _The +Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major-General B.F. Butler: +Butler's Book_ (New York, 1893), to be used with caution as regards facts. + +BUTLER, CHARLES (1750-1832), British lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was +born in London on the 14th of August 1750. He was educated at Douai, and in +1775 entered at Lincoln's Inn. He had considerable practice as a +conveyancer, and after the passing of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 +was called to the bar. In 1832 he took silk, and was made a bencher of +Lincoln's Inn. He died on the 2nd of June in the same year. His literary +activity was enormous, and the number of his published works comprises +about fifty volumes. The most important of them are the _Reminiscences_ +(1821-1827); _Horae Biblicae_ (1797), which has passed through several +editions; _Horae Juridicae Subsecivae_ (1804); _Book of the Roman Catholic +Church_ (1825), which was directed against Southey and excited [v.04 +p.0882] some controversy; lives of Erasmus, Grotius, Bossuet, Fenelon. He +also edited and completed the _Lives of the Saints_ of his uncle, Alban +Butler, Fearne's _Essay on Contingent Remainders_ and Hargrave's edition of +_Coke upon Littleton's Laws of England_ (1775). + +A complete list of Butler's works is contained in Joseph Gillow's +_Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics_, vol. i. pp. 357-364. + +BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853), English schoolmaster and divine, was born in +London and educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he +afterwards became fellow, in the capacity first of mathematical lecturer, +and afterwards of classical tutor. He was elected a public examiner of the +university in 1804, and in the following year was one of the select +preachers. As head master of Harrow (1805-1829) his all-round knowledge, +his tact and his skill as an athlete rendered his administration successful +and popular. On his retirement he settled down at Gayton, Northamptonshire, +a living which had been presented to him by his college in 1814. In 1836 he +became chancellor of the diocese of Peterborough, and in 1842 was appointed +dean of Peterborough. His few publications include some notes of Harrow, +entitled _Harrow, a Selection of Lists of the School between 1770 and 1828_ +(Peterborough, 1849). + +His eldest son, GEORGE BUTLER (1819-1890), was principal of Liverpool +College (1866-1882) and canon of Winchester. In 1852 he married Josephine +Elizabeth, daughter of John Grey of Dilston. She died on the 30th of +December 1906 (see her _Autobiography_, 1909). Mrs Josephine Butler, as she +was commonly called afterwards, was a woman of intense moral and spiritual +force, who devoted herself to rescue work, and specially to resisting the +"state regulation of vice" whether by the C.D. Acts in India or by any +system analogous to that of the continent in England. + +His youngest son, the Rev. Dr HENRY MONTAGU BUTLER, became one of the +best-known scholars of his day. Born in 1833, and educated at Harrow and +Trinity, Cambridge, he was senior classic in 1855 and was elected a fellow +of his college. In 1859 he became head master of Harrow, as his father had +been, and only resigned on being made dean of Gloucester in 1885. In 1886 +he was elected master of Trinity, Cambridge. His publications include +various volumes of sermons, but his reputation rests on his wide +scholarship, his remarkable gifts as a public speaker, and his great +practical influence both as a headmaster and at Cambridge. He married first +(1861), Georgina Elliot, and secondly (1888) Agneta Frances Ramsay (who in +1887 was senior classic at Cambridge), and had five sons and two daughters. + +BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752), English divine and philosopher, bishop of +Durham, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, on the 18th of May 1692. His +father, a linen-draper of that town, was a Presbyterian, and it was his +wish that young Butler should be educated for the ministry in that church. +The boy was placed under the care of the Rev. Philip Barton, master of the +grammar school at Wantage, and remained there for some years. He was then +sent to Samuel Jones's dissenting academy at Gloucester, and afterwards at +Tewkesbury, where his most intimate friend was Thomas Seeker, who became +archbishop of Canterbury. + +While at this academy Butler became dissatisfied with the principles of +Presbyterianism, and after much deliberation resolved to join the Church of +England. About the same time he began to study with care Samuel Clarke's +celebrated _Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God_, which had +been published as the Boyle Lectures a few years previously. With great +modesty and secrecy Butler, then in his twenty-second year, wrote to the +author propounding certain difficulties with regard to the proofs of the +unity and omnipresence of the Divine Being. Clarke answered his unknown +opponent with a gravity and care that showed his high opinion of the +metaphysical acuteness displayed in the objections, and published the +correspondence in later editions of the _Demonstration_. Butler +acknowledged that Clarke's reply satisfied him on one of the points, and he +subsequently gave his adhesion to the other. In one of his letters we +already find the germ of his famous dictum that "probability is the guide +of life." + +In March 1715 he entered at Oriel College, Oxford, but for some time found +it uncongenial and thought of migrating to Cambridge. But he made a close +friend in one of the resident fellows, Edward Talbot, son of William +Talbot, then bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Salisbury and Durham. In +1718 he took his degree, was ordained deacon and priest, and on the +recommendation of Talbot and Clarke was nominated preacher at the chapel of +the Rolls, where he continued till 1726. It was here that he preached his +famous _Fifteen Sermons_ (1726), including the well-known discourses on +human nature. In 1721 he had been given a prebend at Salisbury by Bishop +Talbot, who on his translation to Durham gave Butler the living of +Houghton-le-Skerne in that county, and in 1725 presented him to the wealthy +rectory of Stanhope. In 1726 he resigned his preachership at the Rolls. + +For ten years Butler remained in perfect seclusion at Stanhope. He was only +remembered in the neighbourhood as a man much loved and respected, who used +to ride a black pony very fast, and whose known benevolence was much +practised upon by beggars. Archbishop Blackburne, when asked by Queen +Caroline whether he was still alive, answered, "He is not dead, madam, but +buried." In 1733 he was made chaplain to Lord Chancellor Talbot, elder +brother of his dead friend Edward, and in 1736 prebendary of Rochester. In +the same year he was appointed clerk of the closet to the queen, and had to +take part in the metaphysical conversation parties which she loved to +gather round her. He met Berkeley frequently, but in his writings does not +refer to him. In 1736 also appeared his great work, _The Analogy of +Religion_. + +In 1737 Queen Caroline died; on her deathbed she recommended Butler to the +favour of her husband. George seemed to think his obligation sufficiently +discharged by appointing Butler in 1738 to the bishopric of Bristol, the +poorest see in the kingdom. The severe but dignified letter to Walpole, in +which Butler accepted the preferment, showed that the slight was felt and +resented. Two years later, however, the bishop was presented to the rich +deanery of St Paul's, and in 1746 was made clerk of the closet to the king. +In 1747 the primacy was offered to Butler, who, it is said, declined it, on +the ground that "it was too late for him to try to support a falling +church." The story has not the best authority, and though the desponding +tone of some of Butler's writings may give it colour, it is not in harmony +with the rest of his life, for in 1750 he accepted the see of Durham, +vacant by the death of Edward Chandler. His charge to the clergy of the +diocese, the only charge of his known to us, is a weighty and valuable +address on the importance of external forms in religion. This, together +with the fact that over the altar of his private chapel at Bristol he had a +cross of white marble, gave rise to an absurd rumour that the bishop had +too great a leaning towards Romanism. At Durham he was very charitable, and +expended large sums in building and decorating his church and residence. +His private expenses were exceedingly small. Shortly after his translation +his constitution began to break up, and he died on the 16th of June 1752, +at Bath, whither he had removed for his health. He was buried in the +cathedral of Bristol, and over his grave a monument was erected in 1834, +with an epitaph by Southey. According to his express orders, all his MSS. +were burned after his death. Bishop Butler was never married. His personal +appearance has been sketched in a few lines by Hutchinson:--"He was of a +most reverend aspect; his face thin and pale; but there was a divine +placidness which inspired veneration, and expressed the most benevolent +mind. His white hair hung gracefully on his shoulders, and his whole figure +was patriarchal." + +Butler was an earnest and deep-thinking Christian, melancholy by +temperament, and grieved by what seemed to him the hopelessly irreligious +condition of his age. In his view not only the religious life of the +nation, but (what he regarded as synonymous) the church itself, was in an +almost hopeless state of decay, as we see from his first and only charge to +the diocese of Durham and [v.04 p.0883] from many passages in the +_Analogy_. And though there was a complete remedy just coming into notice, +in the Evangelical revival, it was not of a kind that commended itself to +Butler, whose type of mind was opposed to everything that savoured of +enthusiasm. He even asked John Wesley, in 1739, to desist from preaching in +his diocese of Bristol, and in a memorable interview with the great +preacher remarked that any claim to the extraordinary gifts of the Holy +Spirit was "a horrid thing, a very horrid thing, sir." Yet Butler was +keenly interested in those very miners of Kingswood among whom Wesley +preached, and left L500 towards building a church for them. It is a great +mistake to suppose that because he took no great part in politics he had no +interest in the practical questions of his time, or that he was so immersed +in metaphysics as to live in the clouds. His intellect was profound and +comprehensive, thoroughly qualified to grapple with the deepest problems of +metaphysics, but by natural preference occupying itself mainly with the +practical and moral. Man's conduct in life, not his theory of the universe, +was what interested him. The _Analogy_ was written to counteract the +practical mischief which he considered wrought by deists and other +freethinkers, and the _Sermons_ lay a good deal of stress on everyday +Christian duties. His style has frequently been blamed for its obscurity +and difficulty, but this is due to two causes: his habit of compressing his +arguments into narrow compass, and of always writing with the opposite side +of the case in view, so that it has been said of the _Analogy_ that it +raises more doubts than it solves. One is also often tempted away from the +main course of the argument by the care and precision with which Butler +formulates small points of detail. + +His great work, _The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the +Course and Constitution of Nature_, cannot be adequately appreciated unless +taken in connexion with the circumstances of the period at which it +appeared. It was intended as a defence against the great tide of deistical +speculation (see DEISM), which in the apprehension of many good men seemed +likely to sweep away the restraints of religion and make way for a general +reign of licence. Butler did not enter the lists in the ordinary way. Most +of the literature evoked by the controversy on either side was devoted to +rebutting the attack of some individual opponent. Thus it was Bentley +versus Collins, Sherlock versus Woolston, Law versus Tindal. The _Analogy_, +on the contrary, did not directly refer to the deists at all, and yet it +worked more havoc with their position than all the other books put +together, and remains practically the one surviving landmark of the whole +dispute. Its central motive is to prove that all the objections raised +against revealed or supernatural religion apply with equal force to the +whole constitution of nature, and that the general analogy between the +principles of divine government, as set forth by the biblical revelation, +and those observable in the course of nature, leads us to the warrantable +conclusion that there is one Author of both. Without altogether eschewing +Samuel Clarke's _a priori_ system, Butler relies mainly on the inductive +method, not professing to give an absolute demonstration so much as a +probable proof. And everything is brought into closest relation with "that +which is the foundation of all our hopes and of all our fears; all our +hopes and fears which are of any consideration; I mean a Future Life." + +Butler is a typical instance of the English philosophical mind. He will +admit no speculative theory of things. To him the universe is no +realization of intelligence, which is to be deciphered by human thought; it +is a constitution or system, made up of individual facts, through which we +thread our way slowly and inductively. Complete knowledge is impossible; +nay, what we call knowledge of any part of the system is inherently +imperfect. "We cannot have a thorough knowledge of any part without knowing +the whole." So far as experience goes, "to us probability is the very guide +of life." Reason is certainly to be accepted; it is pur natural light, and +the only faculty whereby we can judge of things. But it gives no completed +system of knowledge and in matters of fact affords only probable +conclusions. In this emphatic declaration, that knowledge of the course of +nature is merely probable, Butler is at one with Hume, who was a most +diligent student of the bishop's works. What can come nearer Hume's +celebrated maxim--"Anything may be the cause of anything else," than +Butler's conclusion, "so that any one thing whatever may, for aught we know +to the contrary, be a necessary condition to any other"? + +It is this strong grasp or the imperfect character of our knowledge of +nature and of the grounds for its limitation that makes Butler so +formidable an opponent to his deistical contemporaries. He will permit no +anticipations of nature, no _a priori_ construction of experience. "The +constitution of nature is as it is," and no system of abstract principles +can be allowed to take its place. He is willing with Hume to take the +course of experience as the basis of his reasoning, seeing that it is +common ground for himself and his antagonists. In one essential respect, +however, he goes beyond Hume. The course of nature is for him an unmeaning +expression unless it be referred to some author; and he therefore makes +extensive use of the teleological method. This position is assumed +throughout the treatise, and as against the deists with justice, for their +whole argument rested upon the presupposition of the existence of God, the +perfect Ruler of the world. + +The premises, then, with which Butler starts are the existence of God, the +known course of nature, and the necessary limitation of our knowledge. What +does he wish to prove? It is not his intention _to prove God's perfect +moral government over the world or the truth of religion_. His work is in +no sense a philosophy of religion. His purpose is entirely defensive; he +wishes to answer objections that have been brought against religion, and to +examine certain difficulties that have been alleged as insuperable. And +this is to be effected in the first place by showing that from the +obscurities and inexplicabilities we meet with in nature we may reasonably +expect to find similar difficulties in the scheme of religion. If +difficulties be found in the course and constitution of nature, whose +author is admitted to be God, surely the existence of similar difficulties +in the plan of religion can be no valid objection against its truth and +divine origin. That this is at least in great part Butler's object is plain +from the slightest inspection of his work. It has seemed to many to be an +unsatisfactory mode of arguing and but a poor defence of religion; and so +much the author is willing to allow. But in the general course of his +argument a somewhat wider issue appears. He seeks to show not only that the +difficulties in the systems of natural and revealed religion have +counterparts in nature, but also that the facts of nature, far from being +adverse to the principles of religion, are a distinct ground for inferring +their probable truth. He endeavours to show that the balance of probability +is entirely in favour of the scheme of religion, that this probability is +the natural conclusion from an inspection of nature, and that, as religion +is a matter of practice, we are bound to adopt the course of action which +is even probably the right one. If, we may imagine him saying, the precepts +of religion are entirely analogous in their partial obscurity and apparent +difficulty to the ordinary course of nature disclosed to us by experience, +then it is credible that these precepts are true; not only can no +objections be drawn against them from experience, but the balance of +probability is in their favour. This mode of reasoning from what is known +of nature to the probable truth of what is contained in religion is the +celebrated method of analogy. + +Although Butler's work is peculiarly one of those which ought not to be +exhibited in outline, for its strength lies in the organic completeness +with which the details are wrought into the whole argument, yet a summary +of his results will throw more light on the method than any description +can. + +Keeping clearly in view his premises--the existence of God and the limited +nature of knowledge--Butler begins by inquiring into the fundamental +pre-requisite of all natural religion--the immortality of the soul. +Evidently the stress of the whole question is here. Were man not immortal, +religion would be of little value. Now, Butler does not attempt to prove +the truth of the doctrine; that proof comes from another quarter. The only +questions he asks are--Does experience forbid us to admit immortality as a +possibility? Does experience furnish any probable reason for inferring that +immortality is a fact? To the first of these a negative, to the second an +affirmative answer is returned. All the analogies of our life here lead us +to conclude that we shall continue to live after death; and neither from +experience nor from the reason of the thing can any argument against the +possibility of this be drawn. Immortality, then, is not unreasonable; it is +probable. If, he continues, we are to live after death, it is of importance +for us to consider on what our future state may depend; for we may be +either happy or miserable. Now, whatever speculation may say as to God's +purpose being necessarily universal benevolence, experience plainly shows +us that our present happiness and misery depend upon our conduct, and are +not distributed indiscriminately. Therefore no argument can be brought from +experience against the possibility of our future happiness and misery +likewise depending upon conduct. The whole analogy of nature is in favour +of such a dispensation; it is therefore reasonable or probable. Further, we +are not only under a government in which actions considered simply as such +are rewarded and punished, but it is known from experience that virtue and +vice are followed by their natural consequents--happiness and misery. And +though the distribution of these rewards is not perfect, all hindrances are +plainly temporary or accidental. It may therefore be concluded that the +balance of probability is in favour of God's government in general being a +moral scheme, where virtue and vice are respectively rewarded and punished. +It need not be objected to the justice of [v.04 p.0884] this arrangement +that men are sorely tempted, and may very easily be brought to neglect that +on which their future welfare depends, for the very same holds good in +nature. Experience shows man to be in a state of trial so far as regards +the present; it cannot, therefore, be unreasonable to suppose that we are +in a similar state as regards the future. Finally, it can surely never be +advanced as an argument against the truth of religion that there are many +things in it which we do not comprehend, when experience exhibits to us +such a copious stock of incomprehensibilities in the ordinary course and +constitution of nature. + +It cannot have escaped observation, that in the foregoing course of +argument the conclusion is invariably from experience of the present order +of things to the reasonableness or probability of some other system--of a +future state. The inference in all cases passes beyond the field of +experience; that it does so may be and has been advanced as a conclusive +objection against it. See for example a passage in Hume, _Works_ (ed. +1854), iv. 161-162, cf. p. 160, which says, in short, that no argument from +experience can ever carry us beyond experience itself. However well +grounded this reasoning may be, it altogether misses the point at which +Butler aimed, and is indeed a misconception of the nature of analogical +argument. Butler never attempts to _prove_ that a future life regulated +according to the requirements of ethical law is a reality; he only desires +to show that the conception of such a life is not irreconcilable with what +we know of the course of nature, and that consequently it is _not +unreasonable_ to suppose that there is such a life. Hume readily grants +this much, though he hints at a formidable difficulty which the plan of the +_Analogy_ prevented Butler from facing, the proof of the existence of God. +Butler seems willing to rest satisfied with his opponents' admission that +the being of God is proved by reason, but it would be hard to discover how, +upon his own conception of the nature and limits of reason, such a proof +could ever be given. It has been said that it is no flaw in Butler's +argument that he has left atheism as a possible mode of viewing the +universe, because his work was not directed against the atheists. It is, +however, in some degree a defect; for his defence of religion against the +deists rests on a view of reason which would for ever preclude a +demonstrative proof of God's existence. + +If, however, his premises be granted, and the narrow issue kept in view, +the argument may be admitted as perfectly satisfactory. From what we know +of the present order of things, it is not unreasonable to suppose that +there will be a future state of rewards and punishments, distributed +according to ethical law. When the argument from analogy seems to go beyond +this, a peculiar difficulty starts up. Let it be granted that our happiness +and misery in this life depend upon our conduct--are, in fact, the rewards +and punishments attached by God to certain modes of action, the natural +conclusion from analogy would seem to be that our future happiness or the +reverse will probably depend upon our actions in the future state. Butler, +on the other hand, seeks to show that analogy leads us to believe that our +future state will depend upon our present conduct. His argument, that the +punishment of an imprudent act often follows after a long interval may be +admitted, but does not advance a single step towards the conclusion that +imprudent acts will be punished hereafter. So, too, with the attempt to +show that from the analogy of the present life we may not unreasonably +infer that virtue and vice will receive their respective rewards and +punishments hereafter; it may be admitted that virtuous and vicious acts +are naturally looked upon as objects of reward or punishment, and treated +accordingly, but we may refuse to allow the argument to go further, and to +infer a perfect distribution of justice dependent upon our conduct here. +Butler could strengthen his argument only by bringing forward prominently +the absolute requirements of the ethical consciousness, in which case he +would have approximated to Kant's position with regard to this very +problem. That he did not do so is, perhaps, due to his strong desire to use +only such premises as his adversaries the deists were willing to allow. + +As against the deists, however, he may be allowed to have made out his +point, that the substantial doctrines of natural religion are not opposed +to reason and experience, and may be looked upon as credible. The positive +proof of them is to be found in revealed religion, which has disclosed to +us not only these truths, but also a further scheme not discoverable by the +natural light. Here, again, Butler joins issue with his opponents. Revealed +religion had been declared to be nothing but a republication of the truths +of natural religion (Matthew Tindal, _Christianity as Old as the +Creation_), and all revelation had been objected to as impossible. To show +that such objections are invalid, and that a revelation is at least not +impossible, Butler makes use mainly of his doctrine of human ignorance. +Revelation had been rejected because it lay altogether beyond the sphere of +reason and could not therefore be grasped by human intelligence. But the +same is true of nature; there are in the ordinary course of things +inexplicabilities; indeed we may be said with truth to know nothing, for +there is no medium between perfect and completed comprehension of the whole +system of things, which we manifestly have not, and mere faith grounded on +probability. Is it unreasonable to suppose that in a revealed system there +should be the same superiority to our intelligence? If we cannot explain or +foretell by reason what the exact course of events in nature will be, is it +to be expected that we can do so with regard to the wider scheme of God's +revealed providence? Is it not probable that there will be many things not +explicable by us? From our experience of the course of nature it would +appear that no argument can be brought against the possibility of a +revelation. Further, though it is the province of reason to test this +revealed system, and though it be granted that, should it contain anything +immoral, it must be rejected, yet a careful examination of the particulars +will show that there is no incomprehensibility or difficulty in them which +has not a counterpart in nature. The whole scheme of revealed principles +is, therefore, not unreasonable, and the analogy of nature and natural +religion would lead us to infer its truth. If, finally, it be asked, how a +system professing to be revealed can substantiate its claim, the answer is, +by means of the historical evidences, such as miracles and fulfilment of +prophecy. + +It would be unfair to Butler's argument to demand from it answers to +problems which had not in his time arisen, and to which, even if they had +then existed, the plan of his work would not have extended. Yet it is at +least important to ask how far, and in what sense, the _Analogy_ can be +regarded as a positive and valuable contribution to theology. What that +work has done is to prove to the consistent deist that no objections can be +drawn from reason or experience against natural or revealed religion, and, +consequently, that the things objected to are not incredible and may be +proved by external evidence. But the deism of the 17th century is a phase +of thought that has no living reality now, and the whole aspect of the +religious problem has been completely changed. To a generation that has +been moulded by the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, by the historical +criticism of modern theology, and by all that has been done in the field of +comparative religion, the argument of the _Analogy_ cannot but appear to +lie quite outside the field of controversy. To Butler the Christian +religion, and by that he meant the orthodox Church of England system, was a +moral scheme revealed by a special act of the divine providence, the truth +of which was to be judged by the ordinary canons of evidence. The whole +stood or fell on historical grounds. A speculative construction of religion +was abhorrent to him, a thing of which he seems to have thought the human +mind naturally incapable. The religious consciousness does not receive from +him the slightest consideration. The _Analogy_, in fact, has and can have +but little influence on the present state of theology; it was not a book +for all time, but was limited to the problems of the period at which it +appeared. + +Throughout the whole of the _Analogy_ it is manifest that the interest +which lay closest to Butler's heart was the ethical. His whole cast of +thinking was practical. The moral nature of man, his conduct in life, is +that on account of which alone an inquiry into religion is of importance. +The systematic account of this moral nature is to be found in the famous +_Sermons preached at the Chapel of the Rolls_, especially in the first +three. In these sermons Butler has made substantial contributions to +ethical science, and it may be said with confidence, that in their own +department nothing superior in value appeared during the long interval +between Aristotle and Kant. To both of these great thinkers he has certain +analogies. He resembles the first in his method of investigating the end +which human nature is intended to realize; he reminds of the other by the +consistency with which he upholds the absolute supremacy of moral law. + +In his ethics, as in his theology, Butler had constantly in view a certain +class of adversaries, consisting partly of the philosophic few, partly of +the fashionably educated many, who all participated in one common mode of +thinking. The keynote of this tendency had been struck by Hobbes, in whose +philosophy man was regarded as a mere selfish sensitive machine, moved +solely by pleasures and pains. Cudworth and Clarke had tried to place +ethics on a nobler footing, but their speculations were too abstract for +Butler and not sufficiently "applicable to the several particular relations +and circumstances of life." + +His inquiry is based on teleological principles. "Every work, both of +nature and art, is a system; and as every particular thing both natural and +artificial is for some use or purpose out of or beyond itself, one may add +to what has been already brought into the idea of a system its +conduciveness to this one or more ends." Ultimately this view of nature, as +the sphere of the realization of final causes, rests on a theological +basis; but Butler does not introduce prominently into his ethics the +specifically theological groundwork, and may be thought willing to ground +his principle on experience. The ethical question then is, as with +Aristotle, what is the [Greek: telos] of man? The answer to this question +is to be obtained by an analysis of the facts of human nature, whence, +Butler thinks, "it will as fully appear that this our nature, _i.e._ +constitution, is adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a watch it appears +that its nature, _i.e._ constitution or system, is adapted to measure +time." Such analysis had been already attempted by Hobbes, and the result +he came to was that man naturally is adapted only for a life of +selfishness,--his end is the procuring of pleasure and the avoidance of +pain. A closer examination, however, shows that this at least is false. The +truth of the counter propositions, that man is [Greek: phusei politikos], +that the full development of his being is impossible apart from society, +becomes manifest on examination of the facts. For while self-love plays a +most important part in the human economy, there is no less evidently a +natural principle of benevolence. Moreover, among the particular [v.04 +p.0885] passions, appetites and desires there are some whose tendency is as +clearly towards the general good as that of others is towards the +satisfaction of the self. Finally, that principle in man which reflects +upon actions and the springs of actions, unmistakably sets the stamp of its +approbation upon conduct that tends towards the general good. It is clear, +therefore, that from this point of view the sum of practical morals might +be given in Butler's own words--"that mankind is a community, that we all +stand in a relation to each other, that there is a public end and interest +of society, which each particular is obliged to promote." But deeper +questions remain. + +The threefold division into passions and affections, self-love and +benevolence, and conscience, is Butler's celebrated analysis of human +nature as found in his first sermon. But by regarding benevolence less as a +definite desire for the general good as such than as kind affection for +particular individuals, he practically eliminates it as a regulative +principle and reduces the authorities in the polity of the soul to +two--conscience and self-love. + +But the idea of human nature is not completely expressed by saying that it +consists of reason and the several passions. "Whoever thinks it worth while +to consider this matter thoroughly should begin by stating to himself +exactly the idea of a system, economy or constitution of any particular +nature; and he will, I suppose, find that it is one or a whole, made up of +several parts, but yet that the several parts, even considered as a whole, +do not complete the idea, unless in the notion of a whole you include the +relations and respects which these parts have to each other." This fruitful +conception of man's ethical nature as an organic unity Butler owes directly +to Shaftesbury and indirectly to Aristotle; it is the strength and +clearness with which he has grasped it that gives peculiar value to his +system. + +The special relation among the parts of our nature to which Butler alludes +is the subordination of the particular passions to the universal principle +of reflection or conscience. This relation is the peculiarity, the _cross_, +of man; and when it is said that virtue consists in following nature, we +mean that it consists in pursuing the course of conduct dictated by this +superior faculty. Man's function is not fulfilled by obeying the passions, +or even cool self-love, but by obeying conscience. That conscience has a +natural supremacy, that it is superior in kind, is evident from the part it +plays in the moral constitution. We judge a man to have acted wrongly, +_i.e._ unnaturally, when he allows the gratification of a passion to injure +his happiness, _i.e._ when he acts in accordance with passion and against +self-love. It would be impossible to pass this judgment if self-love were +not regarded as superior in kind to the passions, and this superiority +results from the fact that it is the peculiar province of self-love to take +a view of the several passions and decide as to their relative importance. +But there is in man a faculty which takes into consideration all the +springs of action, including self-love, and passes judgment upon them, +approving some and condemning others. From its very nature this faculty is +supreme in authority, if not in power; it reflects upon all the other +active powers, and pronounces absolutely upon their moral quality. +Superintendency and authority are constituent parts of its very idea. We +are under obligation to obey the law revealed in the judgments of this +faculty, for it is the law of our nature. And to this a religious sanction +may be added, for "consciousness of a rule or guide of action, in creatures +capable of considering it as given them by their Maker, not only raises +immediately a sense of duty, but also a sense of security in following it, +and a sense of danger in deviating from it." Virtue then consists in +following the true law of our nature, that is, conscience. Butler, however, +is by no means very explicit in his analysis of the functions to be +ascribed to conscience. He calls it the Principle of Reflection, the Reflex +Principle of Approbation, and assigns to it as its province the motives or +propensions to action. It takes a view of these, approves or disapproves, +impels to or restrains from action. But at times he uses language that +almost compels one to attribute to him the popular view of conscience as +passing its judgments with unerring certainty on individual acts. Indeed +his theory is weakest exactly at the point where the real difficulty +begins. We get from him no satisfactory answer to the inquiry, What course +of action is approved by conscience? Every one, he seems to think, knows +what virtue is, and a philosophy of ethics is complete if it can be shown +that such a course of action harmonizes with human nature. When pressed +still further, he points to justice, veracity and the common good as +comprehensive ethical ends. His whole view of the moral government led him +to look upon human nature and virtue as connected by a sort of +pre-established harmony. His ethical principle has in it no possibility of +development into a system of actual duties; it has no content. Even on the +formal side it is a little difficult to see what part conscience plays. It +seems merely to set the stamp of its approbation on certain courses of +action to which we are led by the various passions and affections; it has +in itself no originating power. How or why it approves of some and not of +others is left unexplained. Butler's moral theory, like those of his +English contemporaries and successors, is defective from not perceiving +that the notion of duty can have real significance only when connected with +the will or practical reason, and that only in reason which wills itself +have we a principle capable of development into an ethical system. It has +received very small consideration at the hands of German historians of +ethics. + +AUTHORITIES.--See T. Bartlett, _Memoirs of Butler_ (1839). The standard +edition of Butler's works is that in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1844). Editions of +the _Analogy_ are very numerous; that by Bishop William Fitzgerald (1849) +contains a valuable Life and Notes. W. Whewell published an edition of the +_Three Sermons_, with Introduction. Modern editions of the _Works_ are +those by W.E. Gladstone (2 vols. with a 3rd vol. of _Studies Subsidiary_, +1896), and J.H. Bernard, (2 vols. in the English Theological Library, +1900). For the history of the religious works contemporary with the +_Analogy_, see Lechler, _Gesch. d. Engl. Deismus_; M. Pattison, in _Essays +and Reviews_; W. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_, vols., ii. and iii.; +L. Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_; J.H. Overton and F. +Relton, _The English Church from the Accession of George I. to the End of +the 18th Century_. + +(R. AD.; A. J. G.) + +BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862- ), American educator, was born at Elizabeth, +New Jersey, on the 2nd of April 1862. He graduated at Columbia College in +1882, was a graduate fellow in philosophy there from 1882 to 1884, when he +took the degree of Ph.D., and then studied for a year in Paris and Berlin. +He was an assistant in philosophy at Columbia in 1885-1886, tutor in +1886-1889, adjunct professor of philosophy, ethics and psychology in +1889-1890, becoming full professor in 1890, and dean of the faculty of +philosophy in 1890-1902. From 1887 until 1891 he was the first president of +the New York college for the training of teachers (later the Teachers' +College of Columbia University), which he had personally planned and +organized. In 1891 he founded and afterwards edited the _Educational +Review_, an influential educational magazine. He soon came to be looked +upon as one of the foremost authorities on educational matters in America, +and in 1894 was elected president of the National Educational Association. +He was also a member of the New Jersey state board of education from 1887 +to 1895, and was president of the Paterson (N.J.) board of education in +1892-1893. In 1901 he succeeded Seth Low as president of Columbia +University. Besides editing several series of books, including "The Great +Educators" and "The Teachers' Professional Library," he published _The +Meaning of Education_ (1898), a collection of essays; and two series of +addresses, _True and False Democracy_ (1907), and _The American as he is_ +(1908). + +BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612-1680), English poet, author of +_Hudibras_, son of Samuel Butler, a small farmer, was baptized at +Strensham, Worcestershire, on the 8th of February 1612. He was educated at +the King's school, Worcester, under Henry Bright, the record of whose zeal +as a teacher is preserved by Fuller (_Worthies_, Worcestershire). After +leaving school he served a Mr Jeffereys of Earl's Croome, Worcestershire, +in the capacity of justice's clerk, and is supposed to have thus gained his +knowledge of law and law terms. He also employed himself at Earl's Croome +in general study, and particularly in painting, which he is said to have +thought of adopting as a profession. It is probable, however, that art has +not lost by his change of mind, for, according to one of his editors, in +1774 his pictures "served to stop windows and save the tax; indeed they +were not fit for much else." He was then recommended to Elizabeth, countess +of Kent. At her home at Wrest, Bedfordshire, he had access to a good +library, and there too he met Selden, who sometimes employed him as his +secretary. But his third sojourn, with Sir Samuel Luke at Cople Hoo, +Bedfordshire, was not only apparently the longest, but also much the most +important in its effects on his career and works. We are nowhere informed +in what capacity Butler served Sir Samuel Luke, or how he came to reside in +the house of a noted Puritan and Parliament man. In the family of this +"valiant Mamaluke," who, whether he was or was not the original of +Hudibras, was certainly a rigid Presbyterian, "a colonel in the army of the +Parliament, scoutmaster-general for Bedfordshire and governor of Newport +Pagnell," Butler must have had the most abundant opportunities of studying +from the life those who were to be the victims of his satire; he is +supposed to have taken some hints for his caricature from Sir Henry +Rosewell of Ford Abbey, Devonshire. But we know nothing positive of him +until the Restoration, when he was appointed secretary to Richard Vaughan, +2nd earl of Carbery, lord president of the principality of Wales, who made +him steward of Ludlow Castle, an office which he held from January 1661 +[v.04 p.0886] to January 1662. About this time he married a rich lady, +variously described as a Miss Herbert and as a widow named Morgan. His +wife's fortune was afterwards, however, lost. + +Early in 1663 _Hudibras: The First Part: written in the Time of the Late +Wars_, was published, but this, the first genuine edition, had been +preceded in 1662 by an unauthorized one. On the 26th of December Pepys +bought it, and though neither then nor afterwards could he see the wit of +"so silly an abuse of the Presbyter knight going to the wars," he +repeatedly testifies to its extraordinary popularity. A spurious second +part appeared within the year. This determined the poet to bring out the +second part (licensed on the 7th of November 1663, printed 1664), which if +possible exceeded the first in popularity. From this time till 1678, the +date of the publication of the third part, we hear nothing certain of +Butler. On the publication of _Hudibras_ he was sent for by Lord Chancellor +Hyde (Clarendon), says Aubrey, and received many promises, none of which +was fulfilled. He is said to have received a gift of L300 from Charles II., +and to have been secretary to George Villiers, 2nd duke of Buckingham, when +the latter was chancellor of the university of Cambridge. Most of his +biographers, in their eagerness to prove the ill-treatment which Butler is +supposed to have received, disbelieve both these stories, perhaps without +sufficient reason. Butler's satire on Buckingham in his _Characters_ +(_Remains_, 1759) shows such an intimate knowledge that it is probable the +second story is true. Two years after the publication of the third part of +_Hudibras_ he died, on the 25th of September 1680, and was buried by his +friend Longueville, a bencher of the Middle Temple, in the churchyard of St +Paul's, Covent Garden. He was, we are told, "of a leonine-coloured hair, +sanguine, choleric, middle-sized, strong." A portrait by Lely at Oxford and +others elsewhere represent him as somewhat hard-featured. + +Of the neglect of Butler by the court something must be said. It must be +remembered that the complaints on the subject supposed to have been uttered +by the poet all occur in the spurious posthumous works, that men of letters +have been at all times but too prone to complain of lack of patronage, that +Butler's actual service was rendered when the day was already won, and that +the pathetic stories of the poet starving and dying in want are +contradicted by the best authority--Charles Longueville, son of the poet's +friend--who asserted that Butler, though often disappointed, was never +reduced to anything like want or beggary and did not die in any person's +debt. But the most significant notes on the subject are Aubrey's,[1] that +"he might have had preferments at first, but would not accept any but very +good, so at last he had none at all, and died in want"; and the memorandum +of the same author, that "satirical wits disoblige whom they converse with, +&c., consequently make to themselves many enemies and few friends, and this +was his manner and case." + +Three monuments have been erected to the poet's memory--the first in +Westminster Abbey in 1721, by John Barber, mayor of London, who is +spitefully referred to by Pope for daring to connect his name with +Butler's. In 1786 a tablet was placed in St Paul's, Covent Garden, by +residents of the parish. This was destroyed in 1845. Later, another was set +up at Strensham by John Taylor of that place. Perhaps the happiest epitaph +on him is one by John Dennis, which calls Butler "a whole species of poets +in one." + +_Hudibras_ itself, though probably quoted as often as ever, has dropped +into the class of books which are more quoted than read. In reading it, it +is of the utmost importance to comprehend clearly and to bear constantly in +mind the purpose of the author in writing it. This purpose is evidently not +artistic but polemic, to show in the most unmistakable characters the +vileness and folly of the anti-royalist party. Anything like a regular +plot--the absence of which has often been deplored or excused--would have +been for this end not merely a superfluity but a mistake, as likely to +divert the attention and perhaps even enlist some sympathy for the heroes. +Anything like regular character-drawing would have been equally unnecessary +and dangerous--for to represent anything but monsters, some alleviating +strokes must have been introduced. The problem, therefore, was to produce +characters just sufficiently unlike lay-figures to excite and maintain a +moderate interest, and to set them in motion by dint of a few incidents not +absolutely unconnected,--meanwhile to subject the principles and manners of +which these characters were the incarnation to ceaseless satire and +raillery. The triumphant solution of the problem is undeniable, when it has +once been enunciated and understood. Upon a canvas thus prepared and +outlined, Butler has embroidered a collection of flowers of wit, which only +the utmost fertility or imagination could devise, and the utmost patience +of industry elaborate. In the union of these two qualities he is certainly +without a parallel, and their combination has produced a work which is +unique. The poem is of considerable length, extending to more than ten +thousand verses, yet Hazlitt hardly exaggerates when he says that "half the +lines are got by heart"; indeed a diligent student of later English +literature has read great part of _Hudibras_ though he may never have +opened its pages. The tableaux or situations, though few and simple in +construction, are ludicrous enough. The knight and squire setting forth on +their journey; the routing of the bear-baiters; the disastrous renewal of +the contest; Hudibras and Ralph in the stocks; the lady's release and +conditional acceptance of the unlucky knight; the latter's deliberations on +the means of eluding his vow; the Skimmington; the visit to Sidrophel, the +astrologer; the attempt to cajole the lady, with its woeful consequences; +the consultation with the lawyer, and the immortal pair of letters to which +this gives rise, complete the argument of the whole poem. But the story is +as nothing; throughout we have little really kept before us but the sordid +vices of the sectaries, their hypocrisy, their churlish ungraciousness, +their greed of money and authority, their fast and loose morality, their +inordinate pride. The extraordinary felicity of the means taken to place +all these things in the most ridiculous light has never been questioned. +The doggerel metre, never heavy or coarse, but framed as to be the very +voice of mocking laughter, the astounding similes and disparates, the +rhymes which seem to chuckle and to sneer of themselves, the wonderful +learning with which the abuse of learning is rebuked, the subtlety with +which subtle casuistry is set at nought can never be missed. Keys like +those of L'Estrange are therefore of little use. It signifies nothing +whether Hudibras was Sir Samuel Luke of Bedfordshire or Sir Henry Rosewell +of Devonshire, still less whether Ralph's name in the flesh was Robinson or +Pendle, least of all that Orsin was perhaps Mr Gosling, or Trulla possibly +Miss Spencer. Butler was probably as little indebted to mere copying for +his characters as for his ideas and style. These latter are in the highest +degree original. The first notion of the book, and only the first notion, +Butler undoubtedly received from _Don Quixote_. His obligations to the +_Satyre Menippee_ have been noticed by Voltaire, and though English writers +have sometimes ignored or questioned them, are not to be doubted. The art, +perhaps the most terrible of all the weapons of satire, of making +characters without any great violation of probability represent themselves +in the most atrocious and despicable light, was never perhaps possessed in +perfection except by Pithou and his colleagues and by Butler. Against these +great merits some defects must certainly be set. As a whole, the poem is no +doubt tedious, if only on account of the very blaze of wit, which at length +almost wearies us by its ceaseless demands on our attention. It should, +however, be remembered that it was originally issued in parts, and +therefore, it may be supposed, intended to be read in parts, for there can +be little doubt that the second part was written before the first was +published. A more real defect, but one which Butler shares with all his +contemporaries, is the tendency to delineate humours instead of characters, +and to draw from the outside rather than from within. + +Attempts have been made to trace the manner and versification of _Hudibras_ +to earlier writers, especially in Cleveland's satires and in the _Musarum +Deliciae_ of Sir John Mennis (Pepys's Minnes) and Dr James Smith +(1605-1667). But if it had few [v.04 p.0887] ancestors it had an abundant +offspring. A list of twenty-seven direct imitations of _Hudibras_ in the +course of a century may be found in the Aldine edition (1893). Complete +translations of considerable excellence have been made into French (London, +1757 and 1819) by John Townley (1697-1782), a member of the Irish Brigade; +and into German by D.W. Soltau (Riga, 1787); specimens of both may be found +in R. Bell's edition. Voltaire tried his hand at a compressed version, but +not with happy results. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Butler's works published during his life include, besides +_Hudibras_: _To the Memory of the most renowned Du Vall: A Pindaric Ode_ +(1671); and a prose pamphlet against the Puritans, _Two Letters, one from +J. Audland...to W. Prynne, the other Prynne's Answer_ (1672). In 1715-1717 +three volumes, entitled _Posthumous Works in Prose and Verse...with a key +to Hudibras by Sir Roger l'Estrange..._ were published with great success. +Most of the contents, however, are generally rejected as spurious. The +poet's papers, now in the British Museum (Addit. MSS. 32,625-6), remained +in the hands of his friend William Longueville, and after his death were +left untouched until 1759, when Robert Thyer, keeper of the public library +at Manchester, edited two volumes of verse and prose under the title of +_Genuine Remains in Verse and Prose of Mr Samuel Butler_. This collection +contained _The Elephant in the Moon_, a satire on the Royal Society; a +series of sketches in prose, _Characters_; and some satirical poems and +prose pamphlets. Another edition, _Poetical Remains_, was issued by Thyer +in 1827. In 1726 Hogarth executed some illustrations to _Hudibras_, which +are among his earliest but not, perhaps, happiest productions. In 1744 Dr +Zachary Grey published an edition of _Hudibras_, with copious and learned +annotations; and an additional volume of _Critical and Historical and +Explanatory Notes_ in 1752. Grey's has formed the basis of all subsequent +editions. + +Other pieces published separately and ascribed to Butler are: _A Letter +from Mercurius Civicus to Mercurius Rusticus, or London's Confession but +not repentance..._ (1643), represented in vol. iv. of Somers's tracts; +_Mola Asinarum, on the unreasonable and insupportable burthen now pressed +... upon this groaning nation ..._ (1659), included in his posthumous +works, which is supposed to have been written by John Prynne, though Wood +ascribes it to Butler; _The Acts and monuments of our late parliament ..._ +(1659, printed 1710), of which a continuation appeared in 1659; a +"character" of Charles I. (1671); _A New Ballad of King Edward and Jane +Shore ..._ (1671); _A Congratulatory poem ... to Sir Joseph Sheldon ..._ +(1675); _The Geneva Ballad, or the occasional conformist display'd_ (1674); +_The Secret history of the Calves head club, compleat ..._ (4th edition, +1707); _The Morning's Salutation, or a friendly conference between a +puritan preacher and a family of his flock ..._ (reprinted, Dublin, 1714). +Two tracts of his appear in Somers's _Tracts_, vol. vii.; he contributed to +_Ovid's Epistles translated by several hands_ (1680); and works by him are +included in _Miscellaneous works, written by ... George Duke of Buckingham +... also State Poems ... (by various hands)_ (1704); and in _The Grove ..._ +(1721), a poetic miscellany, is a "Satyr against Marriage," not found in +his works. + +The life of Butler was written by an anonymous author, said by William +Oldys to be Sir James Astrey, and prefixed to the edition of 1704. The +writer professes to supplement and correct the notice given by Anthony a +Wood in _Athenae Oxonienses_. Dr Threadneedle Russel Nash, a Worcestershire +antiquarian, supplied some additional facts in an edition of 1793. See the +Aldine edition of the _Poetical Works of Samuel Butler_ (1893), edited by +Reginald Brimley Johnson, with complete bibliographical information. There +is a good reprint of _Hudibras_ (edited by Mr A.R. Waller, 1905) in the +_Cambridge Classics_. + +[1] _Letters written by Eminent Persons...and Lives of Eminent Men_, by +John Aubrey, Esq. (2 vols., 1813). + +BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839), English classical scholar and schoolmaster, and +bishop of Lichfield, was born at Kenilworth on the 30th of January 1774. He +was educated at Rugby, and in 1792 went to St John's College, Cambridge. +Butler's classical career was a brilliant one. He obtained three of Sir +William Browne's medals, for the Latin (1792) and Greek (1793, 1794) odes, +the medal for the Greek ode in 1792 being won by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. +In 1793 Butler was elected to the Craven scholarship, amongst the +competitors being John Keate, afterwards headmaster of Eton, and Coleridge. +In 1796 he was fourth senior op time and senior chancellor's classical +medallist. In 1797 and 1798 he obtained the members' prize for Latin essay. +He took the degree of B.A. in 1796, M.A. 1799, and D.D. 1811. In 1797 he +was elected a fellow of St John's, and in 1798 became headmaster of +Shrewsbury school. In 1802 he was presented to the living of Kenilworth, in +1807 to a prebendal stall in Lichfield cathedral, and in 1822 to the +archdeaconry of Derby; all these appointments he held with his +headmastership, but in 1836 he was promoted to the bishopric of Lichfield +(and Coventry, which was separated from his diocese in the same year). He +died on the 4th of December 1839. It is in connexion with Shrewsbury school +that Butler will be chiefly remembered. During his headmastership its +reputation greatly increased, and in the standard of its scholarship it +stood as high as any other public school in England. His edition of +Aeschylus, with the text and notes of Stanley, appeared 1809-1816, and was +somewhat severely criticized in the _Edinburgh Review_, but Butler was +prevented by his elevation to the episcopate from, revising it. He also +wrote a _Sketch of Modern and Ancient Geography_ (1813, frequently +reprinted) for use in schools, and brought out atlases of ancient and +modern geography. His large library included a fine collection of Aldine +editions and Greek and Latin MSS.; the Aldines were sold by auction, the +MSS. purchased by the British Museum. + +Butler's life has been written by his grandson, Samuel Butler, author of +_Erewhon_ (_Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Butler_, 1896); see also Baker's +_History of St John's College, Cambridge_ (ed. J.E.B. Mayor, 1869); Sandys, +_Hist. Class. Schol._ (ed. 1908), vol. iii. p. 398. + +BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902), English author, son of the Rev. Thomas Butler, +and grandson of the foregoing, was born at Langar, near Bingham, +Nottinghamshire, on the 4th of December 1835. He was educated at Shrewsbury +school, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He took a high place in the +classical tripos of 1858, and was intended for the Church. His opinions, +however, prevented his carrying out this intention, and he sailed to New +Zealand in the autumn of 1859. He owned a sheep run in the Upper Rangitata +district of the province of Canterbury, and in less than five years was +able to return home with a moderate competence, most of which was +afterwards lost in unlucky investments. The Rangitata district supplied the +setting for his romance of _Erewhon, or Over the Range_ (1872), satirizing +the Darwinian theory and conventional religion. _Erewhon_ had a sequel +thirty years later (1901) in _Erewhon Revisited_, in which the narrator of +the earlier romance, who had escaped from Erewhon in a balloon, finds +himself, on revisiting the country after a considerable interval, the +object of a topsy-turvy cult, to which he gave the name of "Sunchildism." +In 1873 he had published a book of similar tendency, _The Fair Haven_, +which purported to be a "work in defence of the miraculous element in our +Lord's ministry upon earth" by a fictitious J.P. Owen, of whom he wrote a +memoir. Butler was a man of great versatility, who pursued his +investigations in classical scholarship, in Shakespearian criticism, +biology and art with equal independence and originality. On his return from +New Zealand he had established himself at Clifford's Inn, and studied +painting, exhibiting regularly in the Academy between 1868 and 1876. But +with the publication of _Life and Habit_ (1877) he began to recognize +literature as his life work. The book was followed by three others, +attacking Darwinism--_Evolution Old and New, or the Theories of Buffon, Dr +Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck as compared with that of Mr C. Darwin_ (1879); +_Unconscious Memory_ (1880), a comparison between the theory of Dr E. +Hering and the _Philosophy of the Unconscious_ of Dr E. von Hartmann; and +_Luck or Cunning_ (1886). He had a thorough knowledge of northern Italy and +its art. In _Ex Voto_ (1888) he introduced many English readers to the art +of Tabachetti and Gaudenzio Ferrari at Varallo. He learnt nearly the whole +of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ by heart, and translated both poems (1898 +and 1900) into colloquial English prose. In his _Authoress of the Odyssey_ +(1897) he propounded two theories: that the poem was the work of a woman, +who drew her own portrait in Nausicaa; and that it was written at Trapani, +in Sicily, a proposition which he supported by elaborate investigations on +the spot. In another book on the _Shakespeare Sonnets_ (1899) he aimed at +destroying the explanations of the orthodox commentators. + +Butler was also a musician, or, as he called himself, a Handelian, and in +imitation of the style of Handel he wrote in collaboration with H. Festing +Jones a secular oratorio, _Narcissus_ (1888), and had completed his share +of another, _Ulysses_, at the time of his death on the 18th of June 1902. +His other works include: _Life and Letters_ (1896) of Dr Samuel Butler, his +[v.04 p.0888] grandfather, headmaster of Shrewsbury school and afterwards +bishop of Lichfield; _Alps and Sanctuaries_ (1881); and two posthumous +works edited by R.A. Streatfeild, _The Way of All Flesh_ (1903), a novel; +and _Essays on Life, Art and Science_ (1904). + +See _Samuel Butler, Records and Memorials_ (1903), by R.A. Streatfeild, a +collection printed for private circulation, the most important article +included being one by H. Festing Jones originally published in _The Eagle_ +(Cambridge, December 1902). + +BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848), Irish historian of philosophy, was born +at Annerville, near Clonmel in Ireland, probably in 1814. His father was a +Protestant, his mother a Roman Catholic, and he was brought up as a +Catholic. As a boy he was imaginative and poetical, and some of his early +verses were remarkable. While yet at Clonmel school he became a Protestant. +Later he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a brilliant career. +He specially devoted himself to literature and metaphysics, and was noted +for the beauty of his style. In 1834 he gained the ethical moderatorship, +newly instituted by Provost Lloyd, and continued in residence at college. +In 1837 he decided to enter the Church, and in the same year he was elected +to the professorship of moral philosophy, specially founded for him through +Lloyd's exertions. About the same time he was presented to the prebend of +Clondahorky, Donegal, and resided there when not called by his professorial +duties to Dublin. In 1842 he was promoted to the rectory of Raymochy. He +died on the 5th of July 1848. His _Sermons_ (2 vols., 1849) were remarkably +brilliant and forceful. The _Lectures on the History of Ancient +Philosophy_, edited by W. Hepworth Thompson (2 vols., 1856; 2nd ed., 1 vol. +1875), take a high place among the few British works on the history of +philosophy. The introductory lectures, and those on the early Greek +thinkers, though they evidence wide reading, do not show the complete +mastery that is found in Schwegler or Zeller; but the lectures on Plato are +of considerable value. Among his other writings were papers in the _Dublin +University Magazine_ (1834-1837); and "Letters on Development" (in the +_Irish Ecclesiastical Journal_, 1845), a reply to Newman's famous _Essay on +the Development of Christian Doctrine_. + +See _Memoir of W.A. Butler_, prefixed by Rev. J. Woodward to first series +of _Sermons_. + +BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838- ), British soldier, entered the army as +an ensign in 1858, becoming captain in 1872 and major in 1874. He took part +with distinction in the Red River expedition (1870-71) and the Ashanti +operations of 1873-74 under Wolseley, and received the C.B. in 1874. He +served with the same general in the Zulu War (brevet lieut.-colonel), the +campaign of Tel-el-Kebir, after which he was made an aide-de-camp to the +queen, and the Sudan 1884-85, being employed as colonel on the staff 1885, +and brigadier-general 1885-1886. In the latter year he was made a K.C.B. He +was colonel on the staff in Egypt 1890-1892, and brigadier-general there +until 1892, when he was promoted major-general and stationed at Aldershot, +after which he commanded the southeastern district. In 1898 he succeeded +General Goodenough as commander-in-chief in South Africa, with the local +rank of lieutenant-general. For a short period (Dec. 1898-Feb. 1899), +during the absence of Sir Alfred Milner in England, he acted as high +commissioner, and as such and subsequently in his military capacity he +expressed views on the subject of the probabilities of war which were not +approved by the home government; he was consequently ordered home to +command the western district, and held this post until 1905. He also held +the Aldershot command for a brief period in 1900-1901. Sir William Butler +was promoted lieutenant-general in 1900. He had long been known as a +descriptive writer, since his publication of _The Great Lone Land_ (1872) +and other works, and he was the biographer (1899) of Sir George Colley. He +married in 1877 Miss Elizabeth Thompson, an accomplished painter of +battle-scenes, notably "The Roll Call" (1874), "Quatre Bras" (1875), +"Rorke's Drift" (1881), "The Camel Corps" (1891), and "The Dawn of +Waterloo" (1895). + +BUTLER, a borough and the county-seat of Butler county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on Conoquenessing Creek, about 30 m. N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) +8734; (1900) 10,853, of whom 928 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,728. +It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, +Rochester & Pittsburg, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and is +connected with Pittsburg by two electric lines. It is built on a small hill +about 1010 ft. above sea-level, and commands extensive views of the +surrounding valley. The Butler County hospital (1899) is located here. A +fair is held in Butler annually. Oil, natural gas, clay, coal and iron +abound in the vicinity, and the borough has various manufactures, including +lumber, railway cars (especially of steel), paint, silk, bricks, +plate-glass, bottles and oil-well tools. The value of the city's factory +products increased from $1,403,026 in 1900 to $6,832,007 in 1905, or +386.9%, this being much the greatest rate of increase shown by any city in +the state having in 1900 a population of 8000 or more. Butler was selected +as the site for the county-seat of the newly-formed county in 1802, was +laid out in 1803, and was incorporated in the same year. The county and the +borough were named in honour of General Richard Butler, a soldier in the +War of Independence and leader of the right wing of General St Clair's +army, which was sent against the Indians in 1791 and on the 4th of November +was defeated, Butler being killed in the engagement. + +BUTLER (through the O. Fr. _bouteillier_, from the Late Lat. _buticularius, +buticula_, a bottle), a domestic servant who superintends the wine-cellar +and acts as the chief male servant of a household; among his other duties +are the conduct of the service of the table and the custody of the plate. +The butler of a royal household was an official of high rank, whose duties, +though primarily connected with the supply of wine for the royal table, +varied in the different courts in which the office appears. In England, as +superintendent of the importation of wine, a duty was payable to him (see +BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE); the butlership of Ireland, _Pincerna Hiberniae_, +was given by John, king of England, to Theobald Walter, who added the name +of Butler to his own; it then became the surname of his descendants, the +earls, dukes and marquesses of Ormonde (see BUTLER, family, above). + +BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE. In England there was an ancient right of the crown +to purveyance or pre-emption, _i.e._ the right of buying up provisions and +other necessities for the royal household, at a valuation, even without the +consent of the owner. Out of this right originated probably that of taking +customs, in return for the protection and maintenance of the ports and +harbours. One such customs due was that of "prisage," the right of taking +one tun of wine from every ship importing from ten to twenty tuns, and two +tuns from every ship importing more than twenty tuns. This right of prisage +was commuted, by a charter of Edward I. (1302), into a duty of two +shillings on every tun imported by merchant strangers, and termed +"butlerage," because paid to the king's butler. Butlerage ceased to be +levied in 1809, by the Customs Consolidation Act of that year. + +BUTO, the Greek name of the Egyptian goddess Uto (hierogl. _W'zy.t_), +confused with the name of her city Buto (see BUSIRIS). She was a +cobra-goddess of the marshes, worshipped especially in the city of Buto in +the north-west of the Delta, and at another Buto (Hdt. ii. 75) in the +north-east of the Delta, now Tell Nebesheh. The former city is placed by +Petrie at Tell Ferain, a large and important site, but as yet yielding no +inscriptions. This western Buto was the capital of the kingdom of Northern +Egypt in prehistoric times before the two kingdoms were united; hence the +goddess Buto was goddess of Lower Egypt and the North. To correspond to the +vulture goddess (Nekhbi) of the south she sometimes is given the form of a +vulture; she is also figured in human form. As a serpent she is commonly +twined round a papyrus stem, which latter spells her name; and generally +she wears the crown of Lower Egypt. The Greeks identified her with Leto; +this may be accounted for partly by the resemblance of name, partly by the +myth of her having brought up Horus in a floating island, resembling the +story of Leto and Apollo on Delos. Perhaps the two myths influenced each +other. Herodotus describes the temple and other sacred [v.04 p.0889] places +of (the western) Buto, and refers to its festival, and to its oracle, which +must have been important though nothing definite is known about it. It is +strange that a city whose leading in the most ancient times was fully +recognized throughout Egyptian history does not appear in the early lists +of nome-capitals. Like Thebes, however (which lay in the 4th nome of Upper +Egypt, its early capital being Hermonthis), it eventually became, at a very +late date, the capital of a nome, in this case called Phtheneto, "the land +of (the goddess) Buto." The second Buto (hierogl. _'Im.t_) was capital from +early times of the 19th nome of Lower Egypt. + +See Herodotus ii. 155; _Zeitschr. f. aegyptische Sprache_ (1871), I; K. +Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, _s.v._ "Buto"; D.G. Hogarth, +_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxiv. I; W.M.F. Petrie, _Ehnasya_, p. 36; +_Nebesheh and Defenneh_. + +(F. LL. G.) + +BUTRINTO, a seaport and fortified town of southern Albania, Turkey, in the +vilayet of Iannina; directly opposite the island of Corfu (Corcyra), and on +a small stream which issues from Lake Vatzindro or Vivari, into the Bay of +Butrinto, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. Pop.(1900) about 2000. The town, +which is situated about 2 m. inland, has a small harbour, and was formerly +the seat of an Orthodox bishop. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the +ancient _Buthrotum_, from which the modern town derives its name. The ruins +consist of a Roman wall, about a mile in circumference, and some remains of +both later and Hellenic work. The legendary founder of the city was +Helenus, son of Priam, and Virgil (_Aen._ iii. 291 sq.) tells how Helenus +here established a new Trojan kingdom. Hence the names _New Troy_ and _New +Pergamum_, applied to Buthrotum, and those of _Xanthus_ and _Simois_, given +to two small streams in the neighbourhood. In the 1st century B.C. +Buthrotum became a Roman colony, and derived some importance from its +position near Corcyra, and on the main highway between Dyrrachium and +Ambracia. Under the Empire, however, it was overshadowed by the development +of Dyrrachium and Apollonia. The modern city belonged to the Venetians from +the 14th century until 1797. It was then seized by the French, who in 1799 +had to yield to the Russians and Turks. + +BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879), Irish lawyer and Nationalist leader, was born at +Glenfin, Donegal, in 1813, his father being the Episcopalian rector of +Stranorlar. Having won high honours at Trinity, Dublin, he was appointed +professor of political economy in 1836. In 1838 he was called to the bar, +and not only soon obtained a good practice, but became known as a +politician on the Protestant Conservative side, and an opponent of +O'Connell. In 1844 he was made a Q.C. He figured in nearly all the +important Irish law cases for many years, and was engaged in the defence of +Smith O'Brien in 1848, and of the Fenians between 1865 and 1869. In 1852 he +was returned to parliament by Youghal as a Liberal-Conservative, and +retained this seat till 1865; but his views gradually became more liberal, +and he drifted away from his earlier opinions. His career in parliament was +marred by his irregular habits, which resulted in pecuniary embarrassment, +and between 1865 and 1870 he returned again to his work at the law courts. +The result, however, of the disestablishment of the Irish Church was to +drive Butt and other Irish Protestants into union with the Nationalists, +who had always repudiated the English connexion; and on 19th May 1870, at a +large meeting in Dublin, Butt inaugurated the Home Rule movement in a +speech demanding an Irish parliament for local affairs. On this platform he +was elected in 1871 for Limerick, and found himself at the head of an Irish +Home Rule party of fifty-seven members. But it was an ill-assorted union, +and Butt soon found that he had little or no control over his more +aggressive followers. He had no liking for violent methods or for +"obstruction" in parliament; and his leadership gradually became a nullity. +His false position undoubtedly assisted in breaking down his health, and he +died in Dublin on the 5th of May 1879. + +BUTT. (1) (From the Fr. _botte_, _boute_; Med. Lat. _butta_, a wine +vessel), a cask for ale or wine, with a capacity of about two hogsheads. +(2) (A word common in Teutonic languages, meaning short, or a stump), the +thick end of anything, as of a fishing-rod, a gun, a whip, also the stump +of a tree. (3) (From the Fr. _but_, a goal or mark, and _butte_, a target, +a rising piece of ground, &c.), a mark for shooting, as in archery, or, in +its modern use, a mound or bank in front of which are placed the targets in +artillery or musketry practice. This is sometimes called a "stop-butt," its +purpose being to secure the ground behind the targets from stray shots. The +word is used figuratively of a person or object at which derision or abuse +are levelled. + +BUTTE, the largest city of Montana, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Silver +Bow county. It is situated in the valley of Deer Lodge river, near its +head, at an altitude of about 5700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3363; (1890) 10,723; +(1900) 30,470, of whom 10,210 were foreign-born, including 2474 Irish, 1518 +English-Canadians, and 1505 English; (1910 census) 39,165. It is served by +the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget +Sound, the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, and the Oregon Short Line railways. +Popularly the name "Butte" is applied to an area which embraces the city, +Centerville, Walkerville, East Butte, South Butte and Williamsburg. These +together form one large and more or less compact city. Butte lies in the +centre of the greatest copper-mining district in the world; the surrounding +hills are honey-combed with mines, and some mines are in the very heart of +the city itself. The best known of the copper mines is the Anaconda. The +annual output of copper from the Butte district almost equals that from all +the rest of the country together; the annual value of copper, gold and +silver aggregates more than $60,000,000. Although mining and its allied +industries of quartz crushing and smelting dominate all other industries in +the place, there are also foundries and machine shops, iron-works, tile +factories, breweries and extensive planing mills. Electricity, used in the +mines particularly, is brought to Butte from Canon Ferry, 75 m. to the N.; +from the plant, also on the Missouri river, of the Helena Power +Transmission Company, which has a great steel dam 85 ft. high and 630 ft. +long across the river, and a 6000-h.p. substation in Butte; and from the +plant of the Madison River Power Company, on Madison river 71/2 m. S.E. of +Norris, whence power is also transmitted to Bozeman and Belgrade, Gallatin +county, to Ruby, Madison county, and to the Greene-Campbell mine near +Whitehall, Jefferson county. In 1910 Butte had only one large smelter, and +the smoke nuisance was thus abated. The city is the seat of the Montana +School of Mines (1900), and has a state industrial school, a high school +and a public library (rebuilt in 1906 after a fire) with more than 32,000 +volumes. The city hall, Federal building and Silver Bow county court house +are among the principal buildings. Butte was first settled as a placer +mining camp in 1864. It was platted in 1866; its population in 1870 was +only 241, and for many years its growth was slow. Prosperity came, however, +with the introduction of quartz mining in 1875, and in 1879 a city charter +was granted. In the decade from 1890 to 1900 Butte's increase in population +was 184.2%. + +BUTTE (O. Fr. _butte_, a hillock or rising ground), a word used in the +western states of North America for a flat-topped hill surrounded by a +steep escarpment from which a slope descends to the plain. It is sometimes +used for "an elevation higher than a hill but not high enough for a +mountain." The butte capped by a horizontal platform of hard rock is +characteristic of the arid plateau region of the west of North America. + +[Illustration: Plant of _Ranunculus bulbosus_, showing determinate +inflorescence.] + +BUTTER (Lat. _butyrum_, [Greek: bouturon], apparently connected with +[Greek: bous], cow, and [Greek: turos], cheese, but, according to the _New +English Dictionary_, perhaps of Scythian origin), the fatty portion of the +milk of mammalian animals. The milk of all mammals contains such fatty +constituents, and butter from the milk of goats, sheep and other animals +has been and may be used; but that yielded by cow's milk is the most +savoury, and it alone really constitutes the butter of commerce. The milk +of the various breeds of cattle varies widely in the proportion of fatty +matter it contains; its richness in this respect being greatly influenced +by season, nature of food, state of the animals' health and other +considerations. Usually the cream is skimmed off the surface of the milk +for making butter, but by some the churning is performed on the milk itself +without waiting for the [v.04 p.0890] separation of the cream. The +operation of churning causes the rupture of the oil sacs, and by the +coalescence of the fat so liberated butter is formed. Details regarding +churning and the preparation of butter generally will be found under DAIRY +AND DAIRY FARMING. + +BUTTERCUP, a name applied to several species of the genus _Ranunculus_ +(_q.v._), characterized by their deeply-cut leaves and yellow, broadly +cup-shaped flowers. _Ranunculus acris_ and _R. bulbosus_ are erect, hairy +meadow plants, the latter having the stem swollen at the base, and +distinguished also by the furrowed flower-stalks and the often smaller +flowers with reflexed, not spreading, sepals. _R. repens_, common on waste +ground, produces long runners by means of which it rapidly covers the +ground. The plants are native in the north temperate to arctic zones of the +Old World, and have been introduced in America. + +BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL (1831-1901), American soldier, was born in Utica, New +York. He graduated at Union College in 1849, and when the Civil War broke +out he became colonel of the 12th New York militia regiment. On the 14th of +May 1861 he was transferred to the regular army as a lieutenant-colonel, +and in September he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He served in +Virginia in 1861 and in the Peninsular campaign of 1862, and was wounded at +Games' Mill. He took part in the campaign of second Bull Run (August 1862), +and in November became major-general U.S.V. and in July 1863 colonel U.S.A. +At Fredericksburg he commanded the V. corps, in which he had served since +its formation. After General Hooker succeeded Burnside, Butterfield was +appointed chief of staff, Army of the Potomac, and in this capacity he +served in the Chancellorsville and Gettysburg campaigns. Not being on good +terms with General Meade he left the staff, and was soon afterwards sent as +chief of staff to Hooker, with the XI. and XII. corps (later combined as +the XX.) to Tennessee, and took part in the battle of Chattanooga (1863), +and the Atlanta campaign of the following year, when he commanded a +division of the XX. corps. His services were recognized by the brevets of +brigadier-general and major-general in the regular army. He resigned in +1870, and for the rest of his life was engaged in civil and commercial +pursuits. In 1862 he wrote a manual of _Camp and Outpost Duty_ (New York, +1862). General Butterfield died at Cold Spring, N.Y., on the 17th of July +1901. + +A _Biographical Memorial_, by his widow, was published in 1904. + +BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM (1814-1900), English architect, was born in London, +and educated for his profession at Worcester, where he laid the foundations +of his knowledge of Gothic architecture. He settled in London and became +prominent in connexion with the Cambridge Camden Society, and its work in +the improvement of church furniture and art. His first important building +was St Augustine's, Canterbury (1845), and his reputation was made by All +Saints', Margaret Street, London (1859), followed by St Alban's, Holborn +(1863), the new part of Merton College, Oxford (1864), Keble College, +Oxford (1875), and many houses and ecclesiastical buildings. He also did +much work as a restorer, which has been adversely criticized. He was a keen +churchman and intimately associated with the English church revival. He had +somewhat original views as to colour in architecture, which led to rather +garish results, his view being that any combination of the natural colours +of the materials was permissible. His private life was retiring, and he +died unmarried on the 23rd of February 1900. + +BUTTERFLY AND MOTH (the former from "butter" and "fly," an old term of +uncertain origin, possibly from the nature of the excrement, or the yellow +colour of some particular species; the latter akin to O. Eng. _mod_, an +earth-worm), the common English names applied respectively to the two +groups of insects forming the scientific order Lepidoptera (_q.v._). + +BUTTER-NUT, the product of _Caryocar nuciferum_, a native of tropical South +America. The large nuts, known also as saowari or suwarow nuts, are the +hard stone of the fruit and contain an oily nutritious seed. The genus +_Caryocar_ contains ten species, in tropical South America, some of which +form large trees affording a very durable wood, useful for shipbuilding. + +[Illustration: A, leaf of Butterwort (_Pinguicula vulgaris_) with left +margin inflected over a row of small flies. (After Darwin.) B, glands from +surface of leaf by which the sticky liquid is secreted and by means of +which the products of digestion are absorbed.] + +BUTTERWORT, the popular name of a small insectivorous plant, _Pinguicula +vulgaris_, which grows in wet, boggy land. It is a herb with a rosette of +fleshy, oblong leaves, 1 to 3 in. long, appressed to the ground, of a pale +colour and with a sticky surface. Small insects settle on the leaves and +are caught in the viscid excretion. This, like the excretion of the sundew +and other insectivorous plants, contains a digestive ferment (or enzyme) +which renders the nitrogenous substances of the body of the insect soluble, +and capable of absorption by the leaf. In this way the plant obtains +nitrogenous food by means of its leaves. The leaves bear two sets of +glands, the larger borne on usually unicellular pedicels, the smaller +almost sessile (fig. B). When a fly is captured, the viscid excretion +becomes strongly acid and the naturally incurved margins of the leaf curve +still further inwards, rendering contact between the insect and the +leaf-surface more complete. The plant is widely distributed hi the north +temperate zone, extending into the arctic zone. + +BUTTERY (from O. Fr. _boterie_, Late Lat. _botaria_, a place where liquor +is stored, from _butta_, a cask), a place for storing wine; later, with a +confusion with "butter," a pantry or storeroom for food; especially, at +colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, the place where food other than meat, +especially bread and butter, ale and wines, &c., are kept. + +BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL (1764-1829), German philologist, was born at +Frankfort-On-Main in 1764. He was educated in his native town and at the +university of Goettingen. In 1789 he obtained an appointment in the library +at Berlin, and for some years he edited _Speners Journal_. In 1796 he +became professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, a post which he +held for twelve years. In 1806 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences, +and in 1811 was made secretary of the Historico-Philological Section. He +died in 1829. Buttmann's writings gave a great impetus to the scientific +study of the Greek language. His _Griechische Grammatik_ (1792) went +through many editions, and was translated into English. His _Lexilogus_, a +valuable study on some words of difficulty occurring principally in the +poems of Homer and Hesiod, was published in 1818-1825, and was translated +into English. Buttmann's other works were _Ausfuehrliche griechische +Sprachlehre_ (2 vols., 1819-1827); _Mythologus_, a collection of essays +(1828-1829); and editions of some classical authors, the most important +being _Demosthenes in Midiam_ (1823) and the continuation of Spalding's +_Quintilian_. + +[v.04 p.0891] BUTTON (Fr. _bouton_, O. Fr. _boton_, apparently from the +same root as _bouter_, to push), a small piece of metal or other material +which, pushed through a loop or button-hole, serves as a catch between +different parts of a garment, &c. The word is also used of other objects +which have a projecting knob-like character, _e.g._ button-mushrooms, the +button of an electric bell-push, or the guard at the tip of a fencing foil; +or which resemble a button in size and shape, as the button of metal +obtained in assaying operations. At first buttons were apparently used for +purposes of ornamentation; in _Piers Plowman_ (1377) mention is made of a +knife with "botones ouergylte," and in Lord Berner's translation of +_Froissart's Chronicles_ (1525) of a book covered with crimson velvet with +"ten botons of syluer and gylte." While this use has continued, especially +in connexion with women's dress, they began to be employed as fastenings at +least as early as the 15th century. As a term of comparison for something +trivial or worthless, the word is found in the 14th century. Buttons of +distinctive colour or pattern, or bearing a portrait or motto, are often +worn, especially in the United States, as a decoration, or sign of +membership of a society or of adherence to a political party; among the +most honoured of such buttons are those worn by members of the military +order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, organized in 1865 by +officers who had fought in the Civil War. Chinese officials wear a button +or knob on their hats as a mark of rank, the grade being denoted by its +colour and material (see MANDARIN). + +Many varieties of buttons are used on clothing, but they may be divided +into two main classes according to the arrangement by which they are +attached to the garment; in one class they are provided with a shank which +may consist of a metal loop or of a tuft of cloth or similar material, +while in the other they are pierced with holes through which are passed +threads. To these two classes roughly correspond two broad differences in +the method of manufacture, according as the buttons are composite and made +up of two or more pieces, or are simply shaped disks of a single material; +some composite buttons, however, are provided with holes, and simple metal +buttons sometimes have metal shanks soldered or riveted on them. From an +early period buttons of the former kind were made by needlework with the +aid of a mould or former, but about 1807 B. Sanders, a Dane who had been +ruined by the bombardment of Copenhagen, introduced an improved method of +manufacturing them at Birmingham. His buttons were formed of two disks of +metal locked together by having their edges turned back on each other and +enclosing a filling of cloth or pasteboard; and by methods of this kind, +carried out by elaborate automatic machinery, buttons are readily produced, +presenting faces of silk, mohair, brocade or other material required to +harmonize with the fabric on which they are used. Sanders's buttons at +first had metal shanks, but about 1825 his son invented flexible shanks of +canvas or other substance through which the needle could pass freely in any +direction. The mechanical manufacture of covered buttons was started in the +United States in 1827 by Samuel Williston, of Easthampton, Mass., who in +1834 joined forces with Joel and Josiah Hayden, of Haydenville. + +The number of materials that have been used for making buttons is very +large--metals such as brass and iron for the cheaper kinds, and for more +expensive ones, gold and silver, sometimes ornamented with jewels, filigree +work, &c.; ivory, horn, bone and mother-of-pearl or other nacreous products +of shell-fish; vegetable ivory and wood; glass, porcelain, paper, celluloid +and artificial compositions; and even the casein of milk, and blood. Brass +buttons were made at Birmingham in 1689, and in the following century the +metal button industry underwent considerable development in that city. +Matthew Boulton the elder, about 1745, introduced great improvements in the +processes of manufacture, and when his son started the Soho works in 1767 +one of the departments was devoted to the production of steel buttons with +facets, some of which sold for 140 guineas a gross. Gilt buttons also came +into fashion about the same period. In this "Augustan age" of the +Birmingham button industry, when there was a large export trade, the +profits of manufacturers who worked on only a modest scale amounted to +L3000 and L4000 a year, and workmen earned from L2 to L4 a week. At one +time the buttons had each to be fashioned separately by skilled artisans, +but gradually the cost of production was lessened by the adoption of +mechanical processes, and instead of being turned out singly and engraved +or otherwise ornamented by hand, they came to be stamped out in dies which +at once shape them and impress them with the desired pattern. Ivory buttons +are among the oldest of all. Horn buttons were made at Birmingham at least +by 1777; towards the middle of the igth century Emile Bassot invented a +widely-used process for producing them from the hoofs of cattle, which were +softened by boiling. Pearl buttons are made from pearl oyster shells +obtained from various parts of the world, and after being cut out by +tubular drills are shaped and polished by machinery. Buttons of vegetable +ivory can be readily dyed. Glass buttons are especially made in Bohemia, as +also are those of porcelain, which were invented about 1840 by an +Englishman, R. Prosser of Birmingham. In the United States few buttons were +made until the beginning of the 19th century, when the manufacture of metal +buttons was started at Waterbury, Conn., which is now the centre of that +industry. In 1812 Aaron Benedict began to make ivory and horn buttons at +the same place. Buttons of vegetable ivory, now one of the most important +branches of the American button industry, were first made at Leeds, Mass., +in 1859 by an Englishman, A.W. Critchlow, and in 1875 commercial success +was attained in the production of composition buttons at Springfield, Mass. +Pearl buttons were made on a small scale in 1855, but their manufacture +received an enormous impetus in the last decade of the 19th century, when +J.F. Boepple began, at Muscatine, Iowa, to utilize the unio or "niggerhead" +shells found along the Mississippi. By 1905 the annual output of these +"fresh-water pearl" buttons had reached 11,405,723 gross, worth $3,359,167, +or 36.6% of the total value of the buttons produced in the United States. +In the same year the mother-of-pearl buttons ("ocean pearl buttons") +numbered 1,737,830 gross, worth $1,511,107, and the two kinds together +constituted 44% of the number, and 53.9% of the value, of the button +manufactures of the United States. (See _U.S.A. Census Reports, 1900, +Manufactures_, part iii. pp. 315-327.) + +BUTTRESS (from the O. Fr. _bouteret_, that which bears a thrust, from +_bouter_, to push, cf. Eng. "butt" and "abutment"), masonry projecting from +a wall, provided to give additional strength to the same, and also to +resist the thrust of the roof or wall, especially when concentrated at any +one point. In Roman architecture the plans of the building, where the +vaults were of considerable span and the thrust therefore very great, were +so arranged as to provide cross-walls, dividing the aisles, as in the case +of the Basilica of Maxentius, and, in the Thermae of Rome, the subdivisions +of the less important halls, so that there were no visible buttresses. In +the baths of Diocletian, however, these cross-walls rose to the height of +the great vaulted hall, the tepidarium, and their upper portions were +decorated with niches and pilasters. In a palace at Shuka in Syria, +attributed to the end of the 2nd century A.D., where, in consequence of the +absence of timber, it was necessary to cover over the building with slabs +of stones, these latter were carried on arches thrown across the great +hall, and this necessitated two precautions, viz. the provision of an +abutment inside the building, and of buttresses outside, the earliest +example in which the feature was frankly accepted. In Byzantine work there +were no external buttresses, the plans being arranged to include them in +cross-walls or interior abutments. The buttresses of the early Romanesque +churches were only pilaster strips employed to break up the wall surface +and decorate the exterior. At a slightly later period a greater depth was +given to the lower portion of the buttresses, which was then capped with a +deep sloping weathering. The introduction of ribbed vaulting, extended to +the nave in the 12th century, and the concentration of thrusts on definite +points of the structure, rendered the buttress an absolute necessity, and +from the first this would seem to have been recognized, and the +architectural treatment already given to the Romanesque buttress received +[v.04 p.0892] a remarkable development. The buttresses of the early English +period have considerable projection with two or three sets-off sloped at an +acute angle dividing the stages and crowned by triangular heads; and +slender columns ("buttress shafts") are used at the angle. In later work +pinnacles and niches are usually employed to decorate the summits of the +buttresses, and in the still later Perpendicular work the vertical faces +are all richly decorated with panelling. + +BUTYL ALCOHOLS, C_4H_9OH. Four isomeric alcohols of this formula are known; +two of these are primary, one secondary, and one tertiary (see ALCOHOLS). +Normal butyl alcohol, CH_3.(CH_2)_2.CH_2OH, is a colourless liquid, boiling +at 116.8 deg., and formed by reducing normal butyl aldehyde with sodium, or by +a peculiar fermentation of glycerin, brought about by a schizomycete. +Isobutyl alcohol, (CH_3)_2CH.CH_2OH, the butyl alcohol of fermentation, is +a primary alcohol derived from isobutane. It may be prepared by the general +methods, and occurs in fusel oil, especially in potato spirit. It is a +liquid, smelling like fusel oil and boiling at 108.4 deg. C. Methyl ethyl +carbinol, CH_3.C_2H_5.CHOH, is the secondary alcohol derived from n-butane. +It is a strongly smelling liquid, boiling at 99 deg.. Trimethyl carbinol or +tertiary butyl alcohol, (CH_3)_3.COH, is the simplest tertiary alcohol, and +was obtained by A. Butlerow in 1864 by acting with zinc methyl on acetyl +chloride (see ALCOHOLS). It forms rhombic prisms or plates which melt at +25 deg. and boil at 83 deg., and has a spiritous smell, resembling that of camphor. + +BUTYRIC ACID, C_4H_8O_2. Two acids are known corresponding to this formula, +_normal butyric acid_, CH_3.CH_2.CH_2.COOH, and _isobutyric acid_, +(CH_3)_2.CH.COOH. Normal butyric acid or fermentation butyric acid is found +in butter, as an hexyl ester in the oil of _Heracleum giganteum_ and as an +octyl ester in parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_); it has also been noticed in +the fluids of the flesh and in perspiration. It may be prepared by the +hydrolysis of ethyl acetoacetate, or by passing carbon monoxide over a +mixture of sodium acetate and sodium ethylate at 205 deg. C. (A. Geuther, +_Ann._, 1880, 202, p.306), C_2H_5ONa + CH_3COONa + CO = H.CO_2Na + +CH_3.CH_2.CH_2.COONa. It is ordinarily prepared by the fermentation of +sugar or starch, brought about by the addition of putrefying cheese, +calcium carbonate being added to neutralize the acids formed in the +process. A. Fitz (_Ber._, 1878, 11 p. 52) found that the butyric +fermentation of starch is aided by the direct addition of _Bacillus +subtilis_. The acid is an oily liquid of unpleasant smell, and solidifies +at -19 deg. C.; it boils at 162.3 deg. C., and has a specific gravity of 0.9746 (0 deg. +C.). It is easily soluble in water and alcohol, and is thrown out of its +aqueous solution by the addition of calcium chloride. Potassium bichromate +and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide and acetic acid, while +alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to carbon dioxide. The calcium +salt, Ca(C_4H_7O_2)_2.H_2O, is less soluble in hot water than in cold. + +_Isobutyric acid_ is found in the free state in carobs (_Ceratonia +siliqua_) and in the root of _Arnica dulcis_, and as an ethyl ester in +croton oil. It may be artificially prepared by the hydrolysis of +isopropylcyanide with alkalies, by the oxidation of isopropyl alcohol with +potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid (I. Pierre and E. Puchot, _Ann. de +chim. et de phys._, 1873, [4] 28, p. 366), or by the action of sodium +amalgam on methacrylic acid, CH_2.C(CH_3).COOH. It is a liquid of somewhat +unpleasant smell, boiling at 155.5 deg. C. Its specific gravity is 0.9697 (0 deg.). +Heated with chromic acid solution to 140 deg. C., it gives carbon dioxide and +acetone. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to +[alpha]-oxyisobutyric acid, (CH_3)_2.C(OH).COOH, whilst concentrated nitric +acid converts it into dinitroisopropane. Its salts are more soluble in +water than those of the normal acid. + +BUXAR, or BAXAR, a town of India, in the district of Shahabad, Bengal, on +the south bank of the Ganges, and on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) +13,945. There is a dismantled fort of small size which was important from +its commanding the Ganges. A celebrated victory was gained here on the 23rd +of October 1764 by the British forces under Major (afterwards Sir Hector) +Munro, over the united armies of Shuja-ud-Dowlah and Kasim Ali Khan. The +action raged from 9 o'clock till noon, when the enemy gave way. Pursuit +was, however, frustrated by Shuja-ud-Dowlah sacrificing a part of his army +to the safety of the remainder. A bridge of boats had been constructed over +a stream about 2 m. distant from the field of battle, and this the enemy +destroyed before their rear had passed over. Through this act 2000 troops +were drowned, or otherwise lost; but destructive as was this proceeding, it +was, said Major Munro, "the best piece of generalship Shuja-ud-Dowlah +showed that day, because if I had crossed the rivulet with the army, I +should either have taken or drowned his whole army in the Karamnasa, and +come up with his treasure and jewels, and Kasim Ali Khan's jewels, which I +was informed amounted to between two and three millions." + +BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707-1772), English arithmetician, was born on the 20th +of March 1707 at Elmton, near Chesterfield, in Derbyshire. Although his +father was schoolmaster of the parish, and his grandfather had been the +vicar, his education had been so neglected that he could not write; and his +knowledge, except of numbers, was extremely limited. How he came first to +know the relative proportions of numbers, and their progressive +denominations, he did not remember; but on such matters his attention was +so constantly riveted, that he frequently took no cognizance of external +objects, and when he did, it was only with reference to their numbers. He +measured the whole lordship of Elmton, consisting of some thousand acres, +simply by striding over it, and gave the area not only in acres, roods and +perches, but even in square inches. After this, he reduced them into square +hairs'-breadths, reckoning forty-eight to each side of the inch. His memory +was so great, that in resolving a question he could leave off and resume +the operation again at the same point after the lapse of a week, or even of +several months. His perpetual application to figures prevented the smallest +acquisition of any other knowledge. His wonderful faculty was tested in +1754 by the Royal Society of London, who acknowledged their satisfaction by +presenting him with a handsome gratuity. During his visit to the metropolis +he was taken to see the tragedy of _Richard III._ performed at Drury Lane +theatre, but his whole mind was given to the counting of the words uttered +by David Garrick. Similarly, he set himself to count the steps of the +dancers; and he declared that the innumerable sounds produced by the +musical instruments had perplexed him beyond measure. He died in 1772. + +A memoir appeared in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June 1754, to which, +probably through the medium of a Mr Holliday, of Haughton Hall, +Nottinghamshire, Buxton had contributed several letters. In this memoir, +his age is given as forty-nine, which points to his birth in 1705; the date +adopted above is on the authority of Lysons' _Magna Britannia_ +(Derbyshire). + +BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL (1786-1845), English philanthropist, was born in +Essex on the 1st of April 1786, and was educated at Trinity College, +Dublin, where, in spite of his early education having been neglected, hard +work made him one of the first men of his time, with a high reputation as a +speaker. In 1807 he married Hannah Gurney, sister of the celebrated +Elizabeth Fry. As his means were not sufficient to support his family, he +entered in 1808 the brewery of Truman, Hanbury & Company, of which his +uncles, the Hanburys, were partners. He devoted himself to business with +characteristic energy, became a partner in 1811, and soon had the whole +concern in his hands. In 1816 he brought himself into notice by his speech +on behalf of the Spitalfields weavers, and in 1818 he published his able +_Inquiry into Prison Discipline_. The same year he was elected M.P. for +Weymouth, a borough for which he continued to sit till 1837. In the House +of Commons he had a high reputation as an able and straightforward speaker, +devoted to philanthropic schemes. Of these plans the most important was +that for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies. Buxton devoted +his life to this object, and through defeat and opposition, despite the +attacks of enemies and the remonstrances of faint-hearted friends, he +remained true to it. Not till 1833 was he successful, and even then only +partially, for he was compelled to admit into the bill some clauses against +which his better judgment had decided. In 1837 he ceased to [v.04 p.0893] +sit in the House of Commons. He travelled on the continent in 1839 to +recruit his health, which had given way, and took the opportunity of +inspecting foreign prisons. He was made a baronet in 1840, and then devoted +himself to a plan for ameliorating the condition of the African natives. +The failure of the Niger expedition of 1841 was a blow from which he never +recovered. He died on the 19th of February 1845. + +See _Memoir and Correspondence of Sir T.F. Buxton_ (1848), by his third +son, Charles Buxton (1823-1871), a well-known philanthropist and member of +parliament. + +BUXTON, a market town and fashionable health-resort in the High Peak +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the London & +North-Western and Midland railways, 36 m. N.W. by N. of Derby. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 10,181. It occupies a high position, lying between +1000 and 1150 ft. above sea-level, in an open hollow, surrounded at a +distance by hills of considerable elevation, except on the south-east side, +where the Wye, which rises about half a mile away, makes its exit. The old +town (High Buxton) stands a little above the new, and consists of one wide +street, and a considerable market-place with an old cross. The new town is +the richer portion. The Crescent is a fine range of buildings in the Doric +style, erected by the duke of Devonshire in 1779-1788. It contains hotels, +a ballroom, a bank, a library and other establishments, and the surrounding +open grounds are laid out in terraces and gardens. The Old Hall hotel at +the west end of the Crescent stands on the site of the mansion built in +1572 by the earl of Shrewsbury in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, which was +the residence of Mary queen of Scots when she visited the town. The mineral +waters of Buxton, which have neither taste nor smell, are among the most +noted in England, and are particularly efficacious in cases of rheumatism +and gout. There are numerous public and private baths, the most important +of which are those in the establishment at the eastern end of the Crescent. +The springs supply hot and cold water at a very short distance from each +other, flowing at the rate of 60 gallons a minute. The former possesses a +uniform temperature of 82 deg. Fahr., and the principal substances in solution +are bicarbonate of calcium, bicarbonate of magnesium, chloride of sodium, +chloride of magnesium and silica acid. There is also a chalybeate spring +known as St Anne's well, situated at the S.W. corner of the Crescent, the +water of which when mixed with that of the other springs proves purgative. +The Devonshire hospital, formerly known as the Bath Charity, is a +benevolent institution, supported by voluntary subscriptions. Every year +some thousands of poor patients are treated free of cost; and the hospital +was enlarged for their accommodation, a dome being added which is of +greater circumference than any other in Europe. In 1894 the duke of +Devonshire erected a handsome pump-room at St Anne's well. The Buxton +season extends from June to October, and during that period the town is +visited by thousands, but it is also popular as a winter resort. The Buxton +Gardens are beautifully laid out, with ornamental waters, a fine +opera-house, pavilion and concert hall, theatre and reading rooms. Electric +lighting has been introduced, and there is an excellent golf course. The +Cavendish Terrace forms a fine promenade, and the neighbourhood of the town +is rich in objects of interest. Of these the chief are Poole's Hole, a vast +stalactite cave, about half a mile distant; Diamond Hill, which owes its +name to the quartz crystals which are not uncommon in its rocks; and Chee +Tor, a remarkable cliff, on the banks of the Wye, 300 ft. high. Ornaments +are manufactured by the inhabitants from alabaster and spar; and excellent +lime is burned at the quarries near Poole's Hole. Buxton is an important +centre for horse-breeding, and a large horse-fair is held annually. +Although the annual rainfall, owing to the situation of the town towards +the western flank of the Pennine Hills, is about 49 in., the air is +particularly dry owing to the high situation and the rapidity with which +waters drain off through the limestone. The climate is bracing and healthy. + +The waters were known and used by the Romans, but to a limited extent, and +no remains of their baths survive. Roman roads connected the place with +Derby, Brough in Edale and Manchester. Buxton (Bawdestanes, Bue-stanes), +formed into a civil parish from Bakewell in 1895, has thus claims to be +considered one of the oldest English spas. It was probably the "Bectune" +mentioned in Domesday. After the departure of the Romans the baths seem to +have been long neglected, but were again frequented in the 16th century, +when the chapel of St Anne was hung round with the crutches of those who +were supposed to owe their cure to her healing powers; these interesting +relics were destroyed at the Reformation. The baths were visited at least +four times by Mary queen of Scots, when a prisoner in charge of George, +earl of Shrewsbury, other famous Elizabethan visitors being Lord Burleigh, +the earl of Essex, and Robert, earl of Leicester. At the close of the 18th +century the duke of Devonshire, lord of the manor (whose ancestor Sir Ralph +de Gernons was lord of Bakewell in 1251), spent large sums of money on +improvements in the town. In 1781 he began to build the famous Crescent, +and since that time Buxton has steadily increased in favour as an inland +watering-place. In 1813 a weekly market on Saturday and four annual fairs +were granted. These were bought by the local authorities from the duke of +Devonshire in 1864. + +See Gough's edition of Camden's _Britannia_; Stephen Glover, _History of +the County of Derby_ (Derby, 1829); W. Bemrose, _Guide to Buxton_ (London, +1869). + +BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1564-1629), German Hebrew and Rabbinic +scholar, was born at Kamen in Westphalia on the 25th of December 1564. The +original form of the name was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived +the family crest, which bore the figure of a goat (Ger. _Bock_, he-goat). +After the death of his father, who was minister of Kamen, Buxtorf studied +at Marburg and the newly-founded university of Herborn, at the latter of +which C. Olevian (1536-1587) and J.P. Piscator (1546-1625) had been +appointed professors of theology. At a later date Piscator received the +assistance of Buxtorf in the preparation of his Latin translation of the +Old Testament, published at Herborn in 1602-1603. From Herborn Buxtorf went +to Heidelberg, and thence to Basel, attracted by the reputation of J.J. +Grynaeus and J.G. Hospinian (1515-1575). After a short residence at Basel +he studied successively under H.B. Bullinger (1504-1575) at Zuerich and Th. +Beza at Geneva. On his return to Basel, Grynaeus, desirous that the +services of so promising a scholar should be secured to the university, +procured him a situation as tutor in the family of Leo Curio, son of +Coelius Secundus Curio, well-known for his sufferings on account of the +Reformed faith. At the instance of Grynaeus, Buxtorf undertook the duties +of the Hebrew chair in the university, and discharged them for two years +with such ability that at the end of that time he was unanimously appointed +to the vacant office. From this date (1591) to his death in 1629 he +remained in Basel, and devoted himself with remarkable zeal to the study of +Hebrew and rabbinic literature. He received into his house many learned +Jews, that he might discuss his difficulties with them, and he was +frequently consulted by Jews themselves on matters relating to their +ceremonial law. He seems to have well deserved the title which was +conferred upon him of "Master of the Rabbins." His partiality for Jewish +society brought him, indeed, on one occasion into trouble with the +authorities of the city, the laws against the Jews being very strict. +Nevertheless, on the whole, his relations with the city of Basel were +friendly. He remained firmly attached to the university which first +recognized his merits, and declined two invitations from Leiden and Saumur +successively. His correspondence with the most distinguished scholars of +the day was very extensive; the library of the university of Basel contains +a rich collection of letters, which are valuable for a literary history of +the time. + +WORKS.--_Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum_ (1602; 7th ed., 1658); _Synagoga +Judaica_ (1603 in German; afterwards translated into Latin in an enlarged +form), a valuable repertory of information regarding the opinions and +ceremonies of the Jews; _Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum cum brevi Lexico +Rabbinico Philosophico_ (1607; reprinted at Glasgow, 1824); his great +Rabbinical Bible, _Biblic Hebraica cum Paraphr. Chald. et Commentariis +Rabbinorum_ (2 vols., 1618; 4 vols., 1618-1619), containing, in addition to +the Hebrew [v.04 p.0894] text, the Aramaic Paraphrases of Targums, +punctuated after the analogy of the Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel (a +proceeding which has been condemned by Richard Simon and others), and the +Commentaries of the more celebrated Rabbis, with various other treatises; +_Tiberias, sive Commentarius Masoreticus_ (1620; quarto edition, improved +and enlarged by J. Buxtorf the younger, 1665), so named from the great +school of Jewish criticism which had its seat in the town of Tiberias. It +was in this work that Buxtorf controverted the views of Elias Levita +regarding the late origin of the Hebrew vowel points, a subject which gave +rise to the controversy between Louis Cappel and his son Johannes Buxtorf +(_q.v._). Buxtorf did not live to complete the two works on which his +reputation chiefly rests, viz. his great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, +et Rabbinicum_, and the _Concordantiae Bibliorum Hebraicorum_, both of +which were edited by his son. They are monuments of untiring labour and +industry. The lexicon was republished at Leipzig in 1869 with some +additions by Bernard Fischer, and the concordance was assumed by Julius +Fuerst as the basis of his great Hebrew concordance, which appeared in 1840. + +For additional information regarding his writings see _Athenae Rauricae_, +pp. 444-448; articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_, and +Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._; J.P. Niceron's _Memoires_, vol. xxxi. pp. +206-215; J.M. Schroeckh's _Kirchengeschichte_, vol. v. (Post-Reformation +period), pp. 72 seq. (Leipzig, 1806); G.W. Meyer's _Geschichte der +Schrift-Erklaerung_, vol. iii. (Goettingen, 1804); and E. Kautsch, _Johannes +Buxtorf der Aeltere_ (1879). + +BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHANNES (1599-1664), son of the preceding, was born +at Basel on the 13th of August 1599, and when still a boy attained +considerable proficiency in the classical languages. Entering the +university at the age of twelve, he was only sixteen when he obtained his +master's degree. He now gave himself up to theological and especially to +Semitic studies, concentrating later on rabbinical Hebrew, and reading +while yet a young man both the Mishna and the Jerusalem and Babylonian +Gemaras. These studies he further developed by visits to Heidelberg, Dort +(where he made the acquaintance of many of the delegates to the synod of +1619) and Geneva, and in all these places acquired a great reputation. In +1622 he published at Basel a _Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum_, as a +companion work to his father's great Rabbinical Bible. He declined the +chair of logic at Lausanne, and in 1624 was appointed general deacon of the +church at Basel. On the death of his father in 1629, he was unanimously +designated his successor in the Hebrew professorship. From this date until +his death in 1664 he remained at Basel, declining two offers which were +made to him from Groningen and Leiden, to accept the Hebrew chair in these +two celebrated schools. In 1647 the governing body of the university +founded, specially for him, a third theological professorship, that of +"Commonplaces and Controversies," which Buxtorf held for seven years along +with the Hebrew chair. When, however, the professorship of the Old +Testament became vacant in 1654 by the death of Theodor Zwinger, Buxtorf +resigned the chair of theology and accepted that of the Old Testament +instead. He was four times married, his three first wives dying shortly +after marriage and the fourth predeceasing her husband by seven years. His +children died young, with the exception of two boys, the younger of whom, +Jakob (1645-1704), became his father's colleague, and then his successor, +in the chair of Hebrew. The same distinction fell to the lot of his nephew +Johann (1663-1732). + +A considerable portion of Buxtorf's public life was spent in controversy +regarding disputed points in biblical criticism, in reference to which he +had to defend his father's views. The attitude of the Reformed churches at +that time, as opposed to the Church of Rome, led them to maintain many +opinions in regard to biblical questions which were not only erroneous, but +altogether unnecessary for the stability of their position. Having +renounced the dogma of an infallible church, it was deemed necessary to +maintain as a counterpoise, not only that of an infallible Bible, but, as +the necessary foundation of this, of a Bible which had been handed down +from the earliest ages without the slightest textual alteration. Even the +vowel points and accents were held to have been given by divine +inspiration. The Massoretic text of the Old Testament, therefore, as +compared either with that of the recently discovered Samaritan Pentateuch, +or the Septuagint or of the Vulgate, alone contained the true words of the +sacred writers. Although many of the Reformers, as well as learned Jews, +had long seen that these assertions could not be made good, there had been +as yet no formal controversy upon the subject. Louis Cappel (_q.v._) was +the first effectually to dispel the illusions which had long prevailed by a +work on the modern origin of the vowel points and accents. The elder +Buxtorf had counselled him not to publish his work, pointing out the injury +which it would do the Protestant cause, but Cappel sent his MS. to Thomas +Erpenius of Leiden, the most learned orientalist of his day, by whom it was +published in 1624, under the title _Arcanum Punctationis revelatum_, but +without the author's name. The elder Buxtorf, though he lived five years +after the publication of the work, made no public reply to it, and it was +not until 1648 that Buxtorf junior published his _Tractatus de punctorum +origine, antiquitate, et authoritate, oppositus Arcano punctationis +revelato Ludovici Cappelli_. He tried to prove by copious citations from +the rabbinical writers, and by arguments of various kinds, that the points, +if not so ancient as the time of Moses, were at least as old as that of +Ezra, and thus possessed the authority of divine inspiration. Unfortunately +he allowed himself to employ contemptuous epithets towards Cappel, such as +"innovator" and "visionary." Cappel speedily prepared a second edition of +his work, in which, besides replying to the arguments of his opponent, and +fortifying his position with new ones, he retorted his contumelious +epithets with interest. Owing to various causes, however, this second +edition did not see the light until 1685, when it was published at +Amsterdam in the edition of his collected works. Besides this controversy, +Buxtorf engaged in three others with the same antagonist, on the subject of +the integrity of the Massoretic text of the Old Testament, on the antiquity +of the present Hebrew characters, and on the Lord's Supper. In the two +former Buxtorf supported the untenable position that the text of the Old +Testament had been transmitted to us without any errors or alteration, and +that the present square or so-called Chaldee characters were coeval with +the original composition of the various books. These views were +triumphantly refuted by his great opponent in his _Critica Sacra_, and in +his _Diatriba veris et antiquis Ebraicorum literis_. + +Besides the works already mentioned in the course of this article, Buxtorf +edited the great _Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et Rabbinicum_, on which +his father had spent the labour of twenty years, and to the completion of +which he himself gave ten years of additional study; and the great Hebrew +_Concordance_, which his father had little more than begun. In addition to +these, he published new editions of many of his father's works, as well as +others of his own, complete lists of which may be seen in the _Athenae +Rauricae_ and other works enumerated at the close of the preceding article. + +BUYING IN, on the English stock exchange, a transaction by which, if a +member has sold securities which he fails to deliver on settling day, or +any of the succeeding ten days following the settlement, the buyer may give +instructions to a stock exchange official to "buy in" the stock required. +The official announces the quantity of stock, and the purpose for which he +requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be prepared to deliver it +immediately. The original seller has to pay the difference between the two +prices, if the latter is higher than the original contract price. A similar +practice, termed "selling out," prevails when a purchaser fails to take up +his securities. + +BUYS BALLOT'S LAW, in meteorology, the name given to a law which may be +expressed as follows:--"Stand with your back to the wind; the low-pressure +area will be on your left-hand." This rule, the truth of which was first +recognized by the American meteorologists J.H. Coffin and W. Ferrel, is a +direct consequence of Ferrel's Law (_q.v._). It is approximately true in +the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and is reversed in the +Southern Hemisphere, but the angle between barometric gradient and wind is +not a right angle in low latitudes. The law takes its name from C.H.D. Buys +Ballott, a Dutch meteorologist, who published it in the _Comptes rendus_, +November 1857. + +BUZEU, the capital of the department of Buzeu, Rumania, situated near the +right bank of the river Buzeu, between the Carpathian Mountains and the +fertile lowlands of south Moldavia and east Walachia. Pop. (1900) 21,561. +Buzeu is important as a market for petroleum, timber and grain. It is the +meeting [v.04 p.0895] place of railroads from Ramnicu Sarat, Braila and +Ploesci. Amber is found by the riverside, and there are cloth-mills in the +city. Buzeu is the seat of a bishop, whose cathedral was erected in 1640 by +Prince Matthias Bassarab of Walachia, on the site of an older church. In +the neighbourhood there are many monasteries. Buzeu was formerly called +Napuca or Buzograd. + +BUZOT, FRANCOIS NICOLAS LEONARD (1760-1794), French revolutionist, was born +at Evreux on the 1st of March 1760. He studied law, and at the outbreak of +the Revolution was an advocate in his native town. In 1789 he was elected +deputy to the states-general, and there became known for his advanced +opinions. He demanded the nationalization of the possessions of the clergy, +and the right of all citizens to carry arms. After the dissolution of the +Constituent Assembly, Buzot returned to Evreux, where he was named +president of the criminal tribunal. In 1792 he was elected deputy to the +Convention, and took his place among the Girondists. He demanded the +formation of a national guard from the departments to defend the Convention +against the populace of Paris. His proposal was carried, but never put into +force; and the Parisians were extremely bitter against him and the +Girondists. In the trial of Louis XVI., Buzot voted for death, but with +appeal to the people and postponement of sentence. He had a decree of death +passed against the _emigres_ who did not return to France, and against +anyone who should demand the re-establishment of the monarchy. Proscribed +with the Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793, he succeeded in escaping, and +took refuge in Normandy, where he contributed to organize a federalist +insurrection against the Convention, which was speedily suppressed. Buzot +was outlawed, and fled to the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and committed +suicide in the woods of St Emilion on the 18th of June 1794. He was an +intelligent and honest man, although he seems to have profited by the sale +of the possessions of the clergy, but he had a stubborn, unyielding +temperament, was incapable of making concessions, and was dominated by +Madame Roland, who imparted to him her hatred of Danton and the +Montagnards. + +See _Memoires de Petion, Barbaroux, Buzot_, published by C.A. Daubon +(Paris, 1866). For the history of the federalist movement in Normandy, see +L. Boivin Champeaux, _Notices pour servir a, l'histoire de la Revolution +dans le departement de l'Eure_ (Evreux and Paris, 1884). + +BUZZARD, a word derived from the Lat. _Buteo_, through the Fr. _Busard_, +and used in a general sense for a large group of diurnal birds-of-prey, +which contains, among many others, the species usually known as the common +buzzard (_Buteo vulgaris_, Leach), though the English epithet is nowadays +hardly applicable. The name buzzard, however, belongs quite as rightfully +to the birds called in books "harriers," which form a distinct subfamily of +_Falconidae_ under the title _Circinae_, and by it one species, the +moor-buzzard (_Circus aeruginosus_), is still known in such places as it +inhabits. "Puttock" is also another name used in some parts of England, but +perhaps is rather a synonym of the kite (_Milvus ictinus_). Though +ornithological writers are almost unanimous in distinguishing the buzzards +as a group from the eagles, the grounds usually assigned for their +separation are but slight, and the diagnostic character that can be best +trusted is probably that in the former the bill is decurved from the base, +while in the latter it is for about a third of its length straight. The +head, too, in buzzards is short and round, while in the eagles it is +elongated. In a general way buzzards are smaller than eagles, though there +are several exceptions to this statement, and have their plumage more +mottled. Furthermore, most if not all of the buzzards, about which anything +of the kind is with certainty known, assume their adult dress at the first +moult, while the eagles take a longer time to reach maturity. The buzzards +are fine-looking birds, but are slow and heavy of flight, so that in the +old days of falconry they were regarded with infinite scorn, and hence in +common English to call a man "a buzzard" is to denounce him as stupid. +Their food consists of small mammals, young birds, reptiles, amphibians and +insects--particularly beetles--and thus they never could have been very +injurious to the game-preserver, if indeed they were not really his +friends, though they have fallen under his ban; but at the present day they +are so scarce that in England their effect, whatever it may be, is +inappreciable. Buzzards are found over the whole world with the exception +of the Australian region, and have been split into many genera by +systematists. In the British Islands are two species, one resident (the _B. +vulgaris_ already mentioned), and now almost confined to a few wooded +districts; the other the rough-legged buzzard (_Archibuteo lagopus_), an +irregular winter-visitant, sometimes arriving in large bands from the north +of Europe, and readily distinguishable from the former by being feathered +down to the toes. The honey-buzzard (_Pernis apivorus_), a summer-visitor +from the south, and breeding, or attempting to breed, yearly in the New +Forest, does not come into the subfamily _Buteoninae_, but is probably the +type of a distinct group, _Perninae_, of which there are other examples in +Africa and Asia. In America the name "buzzard" is popularly given to the +turkey-buzzard or turkey-vulture (_Cathartes Aura_). + +(A. N.) + +BYELAYA TSERKOV (_i.e._ White Church), a town of Russia, in the government +of Kiev, 32 m. S.S.W. of Vasilkov, on the main road from Kiev to the +Crimea, in 49 deg. 47' N. lat. and 30 deg. 7' E. long. Pop. (1860) 12,075; (1897) +20,705. First mentioned in 1155, Byelaya Tserkov was destroyed during the +Mongol invasion of the 13th century. In 1550 a castle was built here by the +prince of Kiev, and various privileges were bestowed upon the inhabitants. +From 1651 the town was subject alternately to Poland and to independent +hetmans (Cossack chiefs). In 1793 it was united to Russia. There is a trade +in beer, cattle and grain, sold at eleven annual fairs, three of which last +for ten days each. + +BYELEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tula, and 67 m. S.W. from +the city of that name on the left bank of the Oka, in 53 deg. 48' N. lat., and +36 deg. 9' E. long. Pop. (1860) 8063; (1897) 9567. It is first mentioned in +1147. It belonged to Lithuania in the end of the 14th century; and in 1468 +it was raised to the rank of a principality, dependent on that country. In +the end of the 15th century this principality began to attach itself to the +grand-duchy of Moscow; and by Ivan III. it was ultimately united to Russia. +It suffered greatly from the Tatars in 1507, 1512, 1530, 1536 and 1544. In +1826 the empress Elizabeth died here on her way from Taganrog to St +Petersburg. A public library was founded in 1858 in memory of the poet +Zhukovsky, who was born (1782) in a neighbouring village. The industries +comprise tallow-boiling, oil-manufacture, tanning, sugar-refining and +distilling. There is a trade in grain, hemp oil, cattle and tallow. A fair +is held from the 28th of August to the loth of September every year. + +BYELGOROD (_i.e._ White Town), a town of Russia, in the government of +Kursk, 100 m. S.S.E. by rail from the city of that name, in 50 deg. 46' N. lat. +and 36 deg. 37' E. long., clustering on a chalk hill on the right bank of the +Donets. Pop. (1860) 11,722; (1897) 21,850. In the 17th century it suffered +repeatedly from Tatar incursions, against which there was built (from 1633 +to 1740) an earthen wall, with twelve forts, extending upwards of 200 m. +from the Vorskla to the Don, and called the Byelgorod line. In 1666 an +archiepiscopal see was established in the town. There are two cathedral +churches, both built in the 16th century, as well as a theological +seminary. Candles, leather, soap, lime and bricks are manufactured, and a +trade is carried on in grain, cattle, wool, honey, wax and tallow. There +are three annual fairs, on the 10th Friday after Easter, the 29th of June +and the 15th of August respectively. + +BYELOSTOK (Polish, _Bialystok_), a town of West Russia, in the government +of and 53 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Grodno, on the main railway line +from Moscow to Warsaw, at its junction with the Kiev-Grayevo (Prussian +frontier) line. Founded in 1320, it became part of Prussia after the third +partition of Poland, but was annexed to Russia in 1807, after the peace of +Tilsit. Its development dates from 1845, when woollen-mills were built. +Since that time it has grown very rapidly, its population being 13,787 in +1857; 56,629 in 1889; and 65,781 in 1901, three-fourths Jews. Its woollen, +silk and felt hat factories give occupation to several thousand workers. + +[v.04 p.0896] BYEZHETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, and +70 m. N.N.E. of the city of that name, on the right bank of the Mologa, in +57 deg. 46' N. lat. and 36 deg. 43' E. long. Pop. (1860) 5423; (1897) 9090. It is +mentioned in the chronicles of 1137. On the fall of Novgorod, to which it +had belonged, it was incorporated (1479) with the grand-duchy of Moscow. +The town is famous for its scythes and shearing hooks, but makes also axes, +nails and other hardware, and trades in grain, linen, hemp and flax. + +BY-LAW, or BYE-LAW (_by-_ being used in the sense of subordinate or +secondary, cf. by-path), a regulation made by councils, boards, +corporations and companies, usually under statutory power, for the +preservation of order and good government within some place or +jurisdiction. When made under authority of a statute, by-laws must +generally, before they come into operation, be submitted to some confirming +authority for sanction and approval; when approved, they are as binding as +enacted laws. By-laws must be reasonable in themselves; they must not be +retrospective nor contrary to the general law of the land. By various +statutes powers are given to borough, county and district councils, to make +by-laws for various purposes; corporate bodies, also, are empowered by +their charters to make by-laws which are binding on their members. Such +by-laws must be in harmony with the objects of the society and must not +infringe or limit the powers and duties of its officers. + +BYLES, MATHER (1706-1788), American clergyman, was born in Boston, +Massachusetts, on the 26th of March 1706, descended, on his mother's side, +from John Cotton and Richard Mather. He graduated at Harvard in 1725, and +in 1733 became pastor of the Hollis Street church (Congregational), Boston. +He held a high rank among the clergy of the province and was noted for his +scholarly sermons and his ready wit. At the outbreak of the War of +Independence he was outspoken in his advocacy of the royal cause, and after +the British evacuation of Boston his connexion with his church was +dissolved. He remained in Boston, however, and subsequently (1777) was +arrested, tried and sentenced to deportation. This sentence was later +changed to imprisonment in his own house. He was soon released, but never +resumed his pastorate. He died in Boston on the 5th of July 1788. Besides +many sermons he published _A Poem on the Death of George I._ (1727) and +_Miscellaneous Poems_ (1744). + +His son, MATHER BYLES (1735-1814), graduated at Harvard in 1751, and was a +Congregational clergyman at New London, Connecticut, until 1768, when he +entered the Established Church, and became rector of Christ church, Boston. +Sympathizing with the royal cause, he settled, after the War of +Independence, in St Johns, New Brunswick, where he was rector of a church +until his death. + +BYNG, JOHN (1704-1757), British admiral, was the fourth son of George Byng, +Lord Torrington, and entered the navy in 1718. The powerful influence of +his father accounts for his rapid rise in the service. He received his +first appointment as lieutenant in 1723, and became captain in 1727. His +career presents nothing of note till after his promotion as rear-admiral in +1745, and as vice-admiral in 1747. He served on the most comfortable +stations, and avoided the more arduous work of the navy. On the approach of +the Seven Years' War the island of Minorca was threatened by an attack from +Toulon and was actually invaded in 1756. Byng, who was then serving in the +Channel with the rank of admiral, which he attained in 1755, was ordered to +the Mediterranean to relieve the garrison of Fort St Philip, which was +still holding out. The squadron was not very well manned, and Byng was in +particular much aggrieved because his marines were landed to make room for +the soldiers who were to reinforce the garrison, and he feared that if he +met a French squadron after he had lost them he would be dangerously +undermanned. His correspondence shows clearly that he left prepared for +failure, that he did not believe that the garrison could hold out against +the French force landed, and that he was already resolved to come back from +Minorca if he found that the task presented any great difficulty. He wrote +home to that effect to the ministry from Gibraltar. The governor of the +fortress refused to spare any of his soldiers to increase the relief for +Minorca, and Byng sailed on the 8th of May. On the 19th he was off Minorca, +and endeavoured to open communications with the fort. Before he could land +any of the soldiers, the French squadron appeared. A battle was fought on +the following day. Byng, who had gained the weather gauge, bore down on the +French fleet of M. de la Galissoniere at an angle, so that his leading +ships came into action unsupported by the rest of his line. The French cut +the leading ships up, and then slipped away. When the flag captain pointed +out to Byng that by standing out of his line he could bring the centre of +the enemy to closer action, he declined on the ground that Thomas Mathews +had been condemned for so doing. The French, who were equal in number to +the English, got away undamaged. After remaining near Minorca for four days +without making any further attempt to communicate with the fort or sighting +the French, Byng sailed away to Gibraltar leaving Fort St Philip to its +fate. The failure caused a savage outburst of wrath in the country. Byng +was brought home, tried by court-martial, condemned to death, and shot on +the 14th of March 1757 at Portsmouth. The severity of the penalty, aided by +a not unjust suspicion that the ministry sought to cover themselves by +throwing all the blame on the admiral, led in after time to a reaction in +favour of Byng. It became a commonplace to say that he was put to death for +an error of judgment. The court had indeed acquitted him of personal +cowardice or of disaffection, and only condemned him for not having done +his utmost. But it must be remembered that in consequence of many scandals +which had taken place in the previous war the Articles of War had been +deliberately revised so as to leave no punishment save death for the +officer of any rank who did not do his utmost against the enemy either in +battle or pursuit. That Byng had not done all he could is undeniable, and +he therefore fell under the law. Neither must it be forgotten that in the +previous war in 1745 an unhappy young lieutenant, Baker Phillips by name, +whose captain had brought his ship into action unprepared, and who, when +his superior was killed, surrendered the ship when she could no longer be +defended, was shot by sentence of a court-martial. This savage punishment +was approved by the higher officers of the navy, who showed great lenity to +men of their own rank. The contrast had angered the country, and the +Articles of War had been amended precisely in order that there might be one +law for all. + +The facts of Byng's life are fairly set out in Charnock's _Biogr. Nav._ +vol. iv. pp. 145 to 179. The number of contemporary pamphlets about his +case is very great, but they are of no historical value, except as +illustrating the state of public opinion. + +(D. H.) + +BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN (1673-1743), Dutch jurist, was born at +Middleburg in Zeeland. In the prosecution of his legal studies, and while +holding the offices first of member and afterwards of president of the +supreme court, he found the common law of his country so defective as to be +nearly useless for practical purposes. This abuse he resolved to reform, +and took as the basis of a new system the principles of the ancient Roman +law. His works are very voluminous. The most important of them are _De foro +legatorum_ (1702); _Observationes Juris Romani_ (1710), of which a +continuation in four books appeared in 1733; the treatise _De Dominio +Maris_ (1721); and the _Quaestiones Juris Publici_ (1737). Complete +editions of his works were published after his death; one in folio at +Geneva in 1761, and another in two volumes folio at Leiden in 1766. + +BYRD, WILLIAM (1543-1623), English musical composer, was probably a member +of one of the numerous Lincolnshire families of the name who were to be +found at Lincoln, Spalding, Pinchbeck, Moulton and Epworth in the 16th +century. According to Wood, he was "bred up to musick under Thomas Tallis." +He was appointed organist of Lincoln cathedral about 1563, and on the 14th +of September 1568 was married at St Margaret in the Close to Ellen or +Julian Birley. On the 22nd of February 1569 he was sworn in as a member of +the Chapel Royal, but he does not seem to have left Lincoln immediately. In +the Chapel Royal he shared with Tallis the honorary post of organist, and +on the 22nd [v.04 p.0897] of January 1575 the two composers obtained a +licence for twenty-one years from Elizabeth to print music and music-paper, +a monopoly which does not seem to have been at all remunerative. In 1575 +Byrd and Tallis published a collection of Latin motets for five and six +voices, printed by Thomas Vautrollier. In 1578 Byrd and his family were +living at Harlington, Middlesex. As early as 1581 his name occurs among +lists of recusants, and though he retained his post in the Chapel Royal he +was throughout his life a Catholic. About 1579 he set a three-part song in +Thomas Legge's Latin play _Ricardus Tertius_. In 1588 he published +_Psalmes, Sonets and Songs of Sadnes and Pietie, _and in the same year +contributed two madrigals to Nicolas Yonge's _Musica Transalpina_. In 1589 +appeared _Songs of Sundrie Natures_, a second edition of which was issued +in 1610. In the same year he published _Liber Primus Sacrarum Cantionum_, a +second series of which was brought out in 1591. In 1590 two madrigals by +Byrd were included in Thomas Watson's _First Sett of Italian Madrigalls +Englished_; one of these seems to have been sung before Queen Elizabeth on +her visit to Lord Hertford at Elvetham in 1591. In April 1592 Byrd was +still living at Harlington, but about 1593 he became possessed of the +remainder of a lease of Stondon Place, Essex, a farm of some 200 acres, +belonging to William Shelley, who was shortly afterwards convicted of high +treason. The property was sequestrated, and on the 15th of July 1595 Byrd +obtained a crown lease of it for the lives of his eldest son Christopher +and his daughters Elizabeth and Rachel. On the death of Shelley his son +bought back his estates (in 1604), whereupon his widow attempted to oust +Byrd from Stondon Place, on the ground that it formed part of her jointure. +Byrd was upheld in his possession of the property by James I. (_Calendar of +State Papers, Dom. Series_, James I. add. series, vol. xxxvi.), but Mrs +Shelley persevered in her suit, apparently until her death in 1609. In the +following year the matter was settled for a time by Byrd's buying Stondon +Place in the names of John and Thomas Petre, part of the property being +charged with a payment to Byrd of L20 for his life, with remainder to his +second son Thomas. Throughout this long suit Byrd, though in possession of +property which had been confiscated from a recusant and actually taking +part as a member of the Chapel Royal at the coronation of James I., had +been excommunicated since 1598, while from 1605 until 1612, and possibly +later, he was regularly presented before the archidiaconal court of Essex +as a Catholic. In 1603 Easte published a work (no copies of which are known +to exist) entitled _Medulla Musicke. Sucked out of the sappe of two_ [_of_] +_the most famous Musitians that ever were in this land, namely Master +Wylliam Byrd ... and Master Alphonso Ferabosco ... either of whom having +made 40tie severall waies (without contention), showing most rare and +intricate skill in 2 partes in one upon the playne song Miserere_. In 1607 +appeared two books of _Gradualia_, a second edition of which was issued in +1610. In the following year he published _Psalmes, Songs and Sonnets; some +solemne, others joyfull, framed to the life of the Words_. Probably in the +same year was issued _Parthenia_, a collection of virginal music, in which +Byrd was associated with Bull and Orlando Gibbons. The last work to which +he contributed was Sir Thomas Leighton's _Teares or Lamentations of a +Sorrowfull Soule_ (1614). His death took place on the 4th of July 1623. It +is recorded in the _Cheque Book_ of the Chapel Royal as that of a "father +of musicke." His will, dated the 15th of November 1622, shows that he +remained a Catholic until the end of his life, and he expresses a desire +that he may die at Stondon and be buried near his wife. From the same +document it seems that his latter years had been embittered by a dispute +with his eldest son, but that the matter was settled by an agreement with +his daughter-in-law Catherine, to whom he left his property at Stondon, +charged with the payment of L20 to his second son Thomas and L10 to his +daughter Rachel, with remainder to his grandson Thomas and his second son +of the same name. In 1635 the estate again came before the court of +chancery, on the ground that the annuities had not been paid. The property +seems about 1637 to have been let to one John Leigh, and in 1651 was held +by a member of the Petre family. The committee for compounding with +delinquents at that date allowed Thomas Byrd the annuity of L20 bequeathed +by his father. Byrd's arms, as entered in the Visitation of Essex of 1634 +_ex sigillo_ were three stags' heads cabossed, a canton ermine. His +children were (1) Christopher, who married Catherine, daughter of Thomas +Moore of Bamborough, and had a son, Thomas, living at Stondon in 1634; (2) +Thomas; (3) Elizabeth, who married successively John Jackson and--Burdett; +(4) Rachel, married (1)--Hook, by whom she had two children, William and +Catherine, married to Michael Walton; in 1634 Rachel Hook had married (2) +Edward Biggs; (5) Mary, married (1) Henry Hawksworth, by whom she had four +sons, William, Henry, George and John; (2) Thomas Falconbridge. Anne Byrd, +who is mentioned in the proceedings _Shelley_ v. _Byrd_ (_Exchequer +Decrees_, 7 James I., series ii. vol. vii. fol. 294 and 328), was probably +a fourth daughter who died young. + +Besides the works already mentioned Byrd was the composer of three masses, +for three, four and five voices respectively, which seem to have been +published with some privacy about 1588. There exists a second edition (also +undated) of the four-part mass; all three have recently appeared in modern +editions, and increase Byrd's claim to rank as the greatest English +composer of his age. In addition to his published works, a large amount +still remains in MS., comprising nearly every kind of composition. The +Fitzwilliam _Virginal Book_ contains a long series of interesting pieces +for the virginal, and more still remains unpublished in Lady Neville's +_Virginal Book_ and other contemporary collections. His industry was +enormous, and though his work is unequal and the licences he allowed can +hardly be defended on strict grounds, his Latin church music and his +instrumental compositions entitle him to high rank among his +contemporaries. As a madrigalist he was inferior to Morley, Wilbye and +Gibbons, though even in this branch of his art he often displays great +charm and individuality. + +(W. B. S.*) + +BYROM, JOHN (1692-1763), English poet, writer of hymns and inventor of a +system of shorthand, was born at Kersal Cell, near Manchester, on the 29th +of February 1692, the younger son of a prosperous merchant. He was educated +at Merchant Taylors school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he +became a fellow in 1714. His first poem, "Colin to Phoebe," a pastoral, +appeared in the _Spectator_, No. 603. The heroine is said to have been Dr +Bentley's daughter, Joanna, the mother of Richard Cumberland, the +dramatist. After leaving the university Byrom went abroad, ostensibly to +study medicine, but he never practised and possibly his errand was really +political, for he was an adherent of the Pretender. He was elected a member +of the Royal Society in 1724. On his return to London he married his cousin +in 1721, and to support himself taught a new method of shorthand of his own +invention, till he succeeded (1740) to his father's estate on the death of +his elder brother. His diary gives interesting portraits and letters of the +many great men of his time whom he knew intimately. He died on the 26th of +September 1763. A collection of his poems was published in 1773, and he is +included in Alexander Chalmers's _English Poets_. His system of shorthand +was not published until after his death, when it was printed as _The +Universal English Shorthand; or the way of writing English in the most +easy, concise, regular and beautiful manner, applicable to any other +language, but particularly adjusted to our own_ (Manchester, 1767). + +The _Private Journal and Literary Remains of John Byrom, related by Richard +Parkinson, D.D._, was published by the Chetham Society (1854-1857). + +BYRON, GEORGE GORDON BYRON, 6TH BARON (1788-1824), English poet, was born +in London at 16 Holles Street, Cavendish Square, on the 22nd of January +1788. The Byrons were of Norman stock, but the founder of the family was +Sir John Byron, who entered into possession of the priory and lands of +Newstead in the county of Nottingham in 1540. From him it descended (but +with a bar-sinister) to a great-grandson, John (1st Baron) Byron (_q.v._), +a Cavalier general, who was raised to the peerage in 1643. The first Lord +Byron died childless, and was succeeded by his brother Richard, the +great-grandfather of William, the 5th lord, who outlived son and grandson, +and was [v.04 p.0898] succeeded by his great-nephew, the poet. Admiral the +Hon. John Byron (_q.v._) was the poet's grandfather. His eldest son, +Captain John Byron, the poet's father, was a libertine by choice and in an +eminent degree. He caused to be divorced, and married (1779) as his first +wife, the marchioness of Carmarthen (born Amelia D'Arcy), Baroness Conyers +in her own right. One child of the marriage survived, the Hon. Augusta +Byron (1783-1851), the poet's half-sister, who, in 1807, married her first +cousin, Colonel George Leigh. His second marriage to Catherine Gordon (b. +1765) of Gight in Aberdeenshire took place at Bath on the 13th of May 1785. +He is said to have squandered the fortunes of both wives. It is certain +that Gight was sold to pay his debts (1786), and that the sole provision +for his wife was a settlement of L3000. It was an unhappy marriage. There +was an attempt at living together in France, and, when this failed, Mrs +Byron returned to Scotland. On her way thither she gave birth to a son, +christened George Gordon after his maternal grandfather, who was descended +from Sir William Gordon of Gight, grandson of James I. of Scotland. After a +while her husband rejoined her, but went back to France and died at +Valenciennes on the 2nd of August 1791. His wife was not a bad woman, but +she was not a good mother. Vain and capricious, passionate and +self-indulgent, she mismanaged her son from his infancy, now provoking him +by her foolish fondness, and now exciting his contempt by her paroxysms of +impotent rage. She neither looked nor spoke like a gentlewoman; but in the +conduct of her affairs she was praiseworthy. She hated and avoided debt, +and when relief came (a civil list pension of L300 a year) she spent most +of it upon her son. Fairly well educated, she was not without a taste for +books, and her letters are sensible and to the point. But the violence of +her temper was abnormal. Her father committed suicide, and it is possible +that she inherited a tendency to mental derangement. If Byron owed anything +to his parents it was a plea for pardon. + +The poet's first years were spent in lodgings at Aberdeen. From 1794 to +1798 he attended the grammar school, "threading all classes" till he +reached the fourth. It was a good beginning, a solid foundation, enabling +him from the first to keep a hand over his talents and to turn them to a +set purpose. He was lame from his birth. His right leg and foot, possibly +both feet, were contracted by infantile paralysis, and, to strengthen his +muscles, his mother sent him in the summers of 1796, 1797 to a farm house +on Deeside. He walked with difficulty, but he wandered at will, soothed and +inspired by the grandeur of the scenery. To his Scottish upbringing he owed +his love of mountains, his love and knowledge of the Bible, and too much +Calvinism for faith or unfaith in Christianity. The death of his +great-uncle (May 19, 1798) placed him in possession of the title and +estates. Early in the autumn Mrs Byron travelled south with her son and his +nurse, and for a time made her home at Newstead Abbey. Byron was old enough +to know what had befallen him. "It was a change from a shabby Scotch flat +to a palace," a half-ruined palace, indeed, but his very own. It was a +proud moment, but in a few weeks he was once more in lodgings. The shrunken +leg did not improve, and acting on bad advice his mother entrusted him to +the care of a quack named Lavender, truss-maker to the general hospital at +Nottingham. His nurse who was in charge of him maltreated him, and the +quack tortured him to no purpose. At his own request he read Virgil and +Cicero with a tutor. + +In August 1799 he was sent to a preparatory school at Dulwich. The master, +Dr Glennie, perceived that the boy liked reading for its own sake and gave +him the free run of his library. He read a set of the _British Poets_ from +beginning to end more than once. This, too, was an initiation and a +preparation. He remained at Dulwich till April 1801, when, on his mother's +intervention, he was sent to Harrow. His school days, 1801-1805, were +fruitful in two respects. He learned enough Latin and Greek to make him a +classic, if not a classical scholar, and he made friends with his equals +and superiors. He learned something of his own worth and of the worth of +others. "My school-friendships," he says, "were with me passions." Two of +his closest friends died young, and from Lord Clare, whom he loved best of +all, he was separated by chance and circumstance. He was an odd mixture, +now lying dreaming on his favourite tombstone in the churchyard, now the +ring-leader in whatever mischief was afoot. He was a "record" swimmer, and, +in spite of his lameness, enough of a cricketer to play for his school at +Lord's, and yet he found time to read and master standard works of history +and biography, and to acquire more general knowledge than boys and masters +put together. + +In the midsummer of 1803, when he was in his sixteenth year, he fell in +love, once for all, with his distant relative, Mary Anne Chaworth, a "minor +heiress" of the hall and park of Annesley which marches with Newstead. Two +years his senior, she was already engaged to a neighbouring squire. There +were meetings half-way between Newstead and Annesley, of which she thought +little and he only too much. What was sport to the girl was death to the +boy, and when at length he realized the "hopelessness of his attachment," +he was "thrown out," as he said, "alone, on a wide, wide sea." She is the +subject of at least five of his early poems, including the pathetic +stanzas, "Hills of Annesley," and there are allusions to his love story in +_Childe Harold_ (c. i _s.v._), and in "The Dream" (1816). + +Byron went into residence at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1805. +Cambridge did him no good. "The place is the devil," he said, and according +to his own showing he did homage to the _genius loci_. But whatever he did +or failed to do, he made friends who were worthy of his choice. Among them +were the scholar-dandy Scrope Berdmore Davies, Francis Hodgson, who died +provost of Eton, and, best friend of all, John Cam Hobhouse (afterwards +Lord Broughton). And there was another friend, a chorister named Edleston, +a "humble youth" for whom he formed a romantic attachment. He died whilst +Byron was still abroad (May 1811), but not unwept nor unsung, if, as there +is little doubt, the mysterious Thyrza poems of 1811, 1812 refer to his +death. During the vacation of 1806, and in 1807 which was one "long +vacation," he took to his pen, and wrote, printed and published most of his +"Juvenile Poems." His first venture was a thin quarto of sixty-six pages, +printed by S. and J. Ridge of Newark. The "advertisement" is dated the 23rd +of December 1806, but before that date he had begun to prepare a second +collection for the press. One poem ("To Mary") contained at least one +stanza which was frankly indecent, and yielding to advice he gave orders +that the entire issue should be thrown into the fire. Early in January 1807 +an expurgated collection entitled _Poems on Various Occasions_ was ready +for private distribution. Encouraged by two critics, Henry Mackenzie and +Lord Woodhouselee, he determined to recast this second issue and publish it +under his own name. _Hours of Idleness_, "by George Gordon Lord Byron, a +minor," was published in June 1807. The fourth and last issue of +_Juvenilia_, entitled _Poems, Original and Translated_, was published in +March 1808. + +_Hours of Idleness_ enjoyed a brief triumph. The _Critical_ and other +reviews were "very indulgent," but the _Edinburgh Review_ for January 1808 +contained an article, not, as Byron believed, by Jeffrey, but by Brougham, +which put, or tried to put, the author and "his poesy" to open shame. The +sole result was that it supplied fresh material and a new title for some +rhyming couplets on "British Bards" which he had begun to write. A satire +on Jeffrey, the editor, and Lord Holland, the patron of the _Edinburgh +Review_, was slipped into the middle of "British Bards," and the poem +rechristened _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ (published the 1st of +March 1809). + +In April 1808, whilst he was still "a minor," Byron entered upon his +inheritance. Hitherto the less ruinous portions of the abbey had been +occupied by a tenant, Lord Grey de Ruthven. The banqueting hall, the grand +drawing-room, and other parts of the monastic building were uninhabitable, +but by incurring fresh debts, two sets of apartments were refurnished for +Byron and for his mother. Dismantled and ruinous, it was still a splendid +inheritance. In line with the front of the abbey is the west front of the +priory church, with its hollow arch, once a "mighty window," its vacant +niches, its delicate Gothic mouldings. The abbey buildings enclose a grassy +quadrangle [v.04 p.0899] overlooked by two-storeyed cloisters. On the +eastern side are the state apartments occupied by kings and queens not as +guests, but by feudal right. In the park, which is part of Sherwood Forest, +there is a chain of lakes--the largest, the north-west, Byron's "lucid +lake." A waterfall or "cascade" issues from the lake, in full view of the +room where Byron slept. The possession of this lordly and historic domain +was an inspiration in itself. It was an ideal home for one who was to be +hailed as the spirit or genius of romance. + +On the 13th of March 1809, he took his seat in the House of Lords. He had +determined, as soon as he was of age, to travel in the East, but before he +sought "another zone" he invited Hobhouse and three others to a +house-warming. One of the party, C.S. Matthews, describes a day at +Newstead. Host and guests lay in bed till one. "The afternoon was passed in +various diversions, fencing, single-stick ... riding, cricket, sailing on +the lake." They dined at eight, and after the cloth was removed handed +round "a human skull filled with Burgundy." After dinner they "buffooned +about the house" in a set of monkish dresses. They went to bed some time +between one and three in the morning. Moore thinks that the picture of +these festivities is "pregnant in character," and argues that there were +limits to the misbehaviour of the "wassailers." The story, as told in +_Childe Harold_ (c. I. s. v.-ix.), need not be taken too seriously. Byron +was angry because Lord De La Warr did not wish him goodbye, and visited his +displeasure on friends and "lemans" alike. May and June were devoted to the +preparation of an enlarged edition of his satire. At length, accompanied by +Hobhouse and a small staff of retainers, he set out on his travels. He +sailed from Falmouth on the 2nd of July and reached Lisbon on the 7th of +July 1809. The first two cantos of _Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_ contain a +record of the principal events of his first year of absence. + +The first canto describes Lisbon, Cintra, the ride through Portugal and +Spain to Seville and thence to Cadiz. He is moved by the grandeur of the +scenery, but laments the helplessness of the people and their impending +fate. Talavera was fought and won whilst he was in Spain, but he is +convinced that the "Scourge of the World" will prevail, and that Britain, +"the fond ally," will display her blundering heroism in vain. Being against +the government, he is against the war. History has falsified his politics, +but his descriptions of places and scenes, of "Morena's dusky height," of +Cadiz and the bull-fight, retain their freshness and their warmth. + +Byron sailed from Gibraltar on the 16th of August, and spent a month at +Malta making love to Mrs Spencer Smith (the "Fair Florence" of c. II. s. +xxix.-xxxiii.). He anchored off Prevesa on the 28th of September. The +second canto records a journey on horseback through Albania, then almost a +_terra incognita_, as far as Tepeleni, where he was entertained by Ali +Pacha (October 20th), a yachting tour along the shores of the Ambracian +Gulf (November 8-23), a journey by land from Larnaki to Athens (December +15-25), and excursions in Attica, Sunium and Marathon (January 13-25, +1810). + +Of the tour in Asia Minor, a visit to Ephesus (March 15, 1810), an +excursion in the Troad (April 13), and the famous swim across the +Hellespont (May 3), the record is to be sought elsewhere. The stanzas on +Constantinople (lxxvii.-lxxxii.), where Byron and Hobhouse stayed for two +months, though written at the time and on the spot, were not included in +the poem till 1814. They are, probably, part of a projected third canto. On +the 14th of July Hobhouse set sail for England and Byron returned to +Athens. + +Of Byron's second year of residence in the East little is known beyond the +bare facts that he was travelling in the Morea during August and September, +that early in October he was at Patras, having just recovered from a severe +attack of malarial fever, and that by the 14th of November he had returned +to Athens and taken up his quarters at the Franciscan convent. Of his +movements during the next five months there is no record, but of his +studies and pursuits there is substantial evidence. He learnt Romaic, he +compiled the notes to the second canto of _Childe Harold_. He wrote (March +12) _Hints from Horace_ (published 1831), an imitation or loose translation +of the _Epistola ad Pisones_ (Art of Poetry), and (March 17) _The Curse of +Minerva_ (published 1815), a skit on Lord Elgin's deportation of the +metopes and frieze of the Parthenon. + +He left Athens in April, passed some weeks at Malta, and landed at +Portsmouth (c. July 20). Arrived in London his first step was to consult +his literary adviser, R.C. Dallas, with regard to the publication of _Hints +from Horace_. Of _Childe Harold_ he said nothing, but after some hesitation +produced the MS. from a "small trunk," and, presenting him with the +copyright, commissioned Dallas to offer it to a publisher. Rejected by +Miller of Albemarle Street, who published for Lord Elgin, it was finally +accepted by Murray of Fleet Street, who undertook to share the profits of +an edition with Dallas. + +Meanwhile Mrs Byron died suddenly from a stroke of apoplexy. Byron set off +at once for Newstead, but did not find his mother alive. He had but little +affection for her while she lived, but her death touched him to the quick. +"I had but one friend," he exclaimed, "and she is gone." Another loss +awaited him. Whilst his mother lay dead in his house, he heard that his +friend Matthews had been drowned in the Cam. Edleston and Wingfield had +died in May, but the news had reached him on landing. There were troubles +on every side. On the 11th of October he wrote the "Epistle to a Friend" +("Oh, banish care," &c.) and the lines "To Thyrza," which, with other +elegies, were appended to the second edition of _Childe Harold_ (April 17, +1812). It was this cry of desolation, this open profession of melancholy, +which at first excited the interest of contemporaries, and has since been +decried as morbid and unreal. No one who has read his letters can doubt the +sincerity of his grief, but it is no less true that he measured and +appraised its literary significance. He could and did turn it to account. + +Towards the close of the year he made friends with Moore. Some lines in +_English Bards_, &c. (ii. 466-467), taunting Moore with fighting a duel +with Jeffrey with "leadless pistol" had led to a challenge, and it was not +till Byron returned to England that explanations ensued, and that the +challenge was withdrawn. As a poet Byron outgrew Moore, giving back more +than he had received, but the friendship which sprang up between them still +serves Byron in good stead. Moore's _Life of Byron_ (1830) is no doubt a +picture of the man at his best, but it is a genuine likeness. At the end of +October Byron moved to London and took up his quarters at 8 St James's +Street. On the 27th of February 1812 he made his first speech in the House +of Lords on a bill which made the wilful destruction of certain newly +invented stocking-frames a capital offence, speaking in defence of the +riotous "hands" who feared that their numbers would be diminished by +improved machinery. It was a brilliant speech and won the praise of Burdett +and Lord Holland. He made two other speeches during the same session, but +thenceforth pride or laziness kept him silent. _Childe Harold_ (4to) was +published on Tuesday, the loth of March 1812. "The effect," says Moore, +"was ... electric, his fame ... seemed to spring, like the palace of a +fairy king, in a night." A fifth edition (8vo) was issued on the 5th of +December 1812. Just turned twenty-four he "found himself famous," a great +poet, a rising statesman. Society, which in spite of his rank had neglected +him, was now at his feet. But he could not keep what he had won. It was not +only "villainous company," as he put it, which was to prove his "spoil," +but the opportunity for intrigue. The excitement and absorption of one +reigning passion after another destroyed his peace of mind and put him out +of conceit with himself. His first affair of any moment was with Lady +Caroline Lamb the wife of William Lamb, better known as Lord Melbourne, a +delicate, golden-haired sprite, who threw herself in his way, and +afterwards, when she was shaken off, involved him in her own disgrace. To +her succeeded Lady Oxford, who was double his own age, and Lady Frances +Wedderburn Webster, the "Ginevra" of his sonnets, the "Medora" of _The +Corsair_. + +His "way of life" was inconsistent with an official career, but there was +no slackening of his poetical energies. In February 1813 he published _The +Waltz_ (anonymously), he wrote and [v.04 p.0900] published _The Giaour_ +(published June 5, 1813) and _The Bride of Abydos_ (published November 29, +1813), and he wrote _The Corsair_ (published February 1, 1814). The +_Turkish Tales_ were even more popular than _Childe Harold_. Murray sold +10,000 copies of _The Corsair_ on the day of publication. Byron was at +pains to make his accessories correct. He prided himself on the accuracy of +his "costume." He was under no delusion as to the ethical or artistic value +of these experiments on "public patience." + +In the summer of 1813 a new and potent influence came into his life. Mrs +Leigh, whose home was at Newmarket, came up to London on a visit. After a +long interval the brother and sister met, and whether there is or is not +any foundation for the dark story obscurely hinted at in Byron's lifetime, +and afterwards made public property by Mrs Beecher Stowe (_Macmillan's +Magazine_, 1869, pp. 377-396), there is no question as to the depth and +sincerity of his love for his "one relative,"--that her well-being was more +to him than his own. Byron passed the "seasons" of 1813, 1814 in London. +His manner of life we know from his journals. Socially he was on the crest +of the wave. He was a welcome guest at the great Whig houses, at Lady +Melbourne's, at Lady Jersey's, at Holland House. Sheridan and Moore, Rogers +and Campbell, were his intimates and companions. He was a member of the +Alfred, of Watier's, of the Cocoa Tree, and half a dozen clubs besides. +After the publication of _The Corsair_ he had promised an interval of +silence, but the abdication of Napoleon evoked "An Ode," &c., in his +dishonour (April 16); _Lara, a Tale_, an informal sequel to _The Corsair_, +was published anonymously on August 6, 1814. + +Newstead had been put up for sale, but pending the completion of the +contract was still in his possession. During his last visit but one, whilst +his sister was his guest, he became engaged to Miss Anna Isabella Milbanke +(b. May 17, 1792; d. May 16, 1860), the only daughter of Sir Ralph +Milbanke, Bart., and the Hon. Judith (born Noel), daughter of Lord +Wentworth. She was an heiress, and in succession to a peerage in her own +right (becoming Baroness Wentworth in 1856). She was a pretty girl of "a +perfect figure," highly educated, a mathematician, and, by courtesy, a +poetess. She had rejected Byron's first offer, but, believing that her +cruelty had broken his heart and that he was an altered man, she was now +determined on marriage. High-principled, but self-willed and opinionated, +she believed that she held her future in her own hands. On her side there +was ambition touched with fancy--on his, a wish to be married and some hope +perhaps of finding an escape from himself. The marriage took place at +Seaham in Durham on the 2nd of January 1815. Bride and bridegroom spent +three months in paying visits, and at the end of March settled at 13 +Piccadilly Terrace, London. + +Byron was a member of the committee of management of Drury Lane theatre, +and devoted much of his time to his professional duties. He wrote but +little poetry. _Hebrew Melodies_ (published April 1815), begun at Seaham in +October 1814, were finished and given to the musical composer, Isaac +Nathan, for publication. _The Siege of Corinth_ and _Parisina_ (published +February 7, 1816) were got ready for the press. On the loth of December +Lady Byron gave birth to a daughter christened Augusta Ada. To judge from +his letters, for the first weeks or months of his marriage things went +smoothly. His wife's impression was that Byron "had avowedly begun his +revenge from the first." It is certain that before the child was born his +conduct was so harsh, so violent, and so eccentric, that she believed, or +tried to persuade herself, that he was mad. + +On the 15th of January 1816 Lady Byron left London for her father's house, +claimed his protection, and after some hesitation and consultation with her +legal advisers demanded a separation from her husband. It is a matter of +common knowledge that in 1869 Mrs Beecher Stowe affirmed that Lady Byron +expressly told her that Byron was guilty of incest with his half-sister, +Mrs Leigh; also that in 1905 the second Lord Lovelace (Lord Byron's +grandson) printed a work entitled _Astarte_ which was designed to uphold +and to prove the truth of this charge. It is a fact that neither Lady Byron +nor her advisers supported their demand by this or any other charge of +misconduct, but it is also a fact that Lord Byron yielded to the demand +reluctantly, under pressure and for large pecuniary considerations. It is a +fact that Lady Byron's letters to Mrs Leigh before and after the separation +are inconsistent with a knowledge or suspicion of guilt on the part of her +sister-in-law, but it is also a fact (see _Astarte_, pp. 142-145) that she +signed a document (dated March 14, 1816) to the effect that any renewal of +intercourse did not involve and must not be construed as a withdrawal of +the charge. It cannot be doubted that Lady Byron's conviction that her +husband's relations with his half-sister before his marriage had been of an +immoral character was a factor in her demand for a separation, but whether +there were other and what issues, and whether Lady Byron's conviction was +founded on fact, are questions which have not been finally answered. Lady +Byron's charge, as reported by Mrs Beecher Stowe and upheld by the 2nd earl +of Lovelace, is "non-proven." Mr Robert Edgcome, in _Byron: the Last Phase_ +(1909), insists that Mary Chaworth was the real object of Byron's passion, +and that Mrs Leigh was only shielding her. + +The separation of Lord and Lady Byron was the talk of the town. Two poems +entitled "Fare Thee Well" and "A Sketch," which Byron had written and +printed for private circulation, were published by _The Champion_ on +Sunday, April 14. The other London papers one by one followed suit. The +poems, more especially "A Sketch," were provocative of criticism. There was +a balance of opinion, but politics turned the scale. Byron had recently +published some pro-Gallican stanzas, "On the 'Star of the Legion of +Honour,'" in the _Examiner_ (April 7), and it was felt by many that private +dishonour was the outcome of public disloyalty. The Whigs defended Byron as +best they could, but his own world, with one or two exceptions, ostracized +him. The "excommunicating voice of society," as Moore put it, was loud and +insistent. The articles of separation were signed on or about the 18th of +April, and on Sunday, the 25th of April, Byron sailed from Dover for +Ostend. The "Lines on Churchill's Grave" were written whilst he was waiting +for a favourable wind. His route lay through the Low Countries, and by the +Rhine to Switzerland. On his way he halted at Brussels and visited the +field of Waterloo. He reached Geneva on the 25th of May, where he met by +appointment at Dejean's Hotel d'Angleterre, Shelley, Mary Godwin and Clare +(or "Claire") Clairmont. The meeting was probably at the instance of +Claire, who had recently become, and aspired to remain, Byron's mistress. +On the 10th of June Byron moved to the Villa Diodati on the southern shore +of the lake. Shelley and his party had already settled at an adjoining +villa, the Campagne Montalegre. The friends were constantly together. On +the 23rd of June Byron and Shelley started for a yachting tour round the +lake. They visited the castle of Chillon on the 26th of June, and, being +detained by weather at the Hotel de l'Ancre, Ouchy, Byron finished (June +27-29) the third canto of _Childe Harold_ (published November 18), and +began the _Prisoner of Chillon_ (published December 5, 1816). These and +other poems of July-September 1816, _e.g._ "The Dream" and the first two +acts of _Manfred_ (published June 16, 1817), betray the influence of +Shelley, and through him of Wordsworth, both in thought and style. Byron +knew that Wordsworth had power, but was against his theories, and resented +his criticism of Pope and Dryden. Shelley was a believer and a disciple, +and converted Byron to the Wordsworthian creed. Moreover he was an +inspiration in himself. Intimacy with Shelley left Byron a greater poet +than he was before. Byron passed the summer at the Villa Diodati, where he +also wrote the _Monody on the Death of Sheridan_, published September 9, +1816. The second half of September was spent and devoted to "an excursion +in the mountains." His journal (September 18-29), which was written for and +sent to Mrs Leigh, is a great prose poem, the source of the word pictures +of Alpine scenery in _Manfred_. His old friend Hobhouse was with him and he +enjoyed himself, but at the close he confesses that he could not lose his +"own wretched identity" in the "majesty and the power and the glory" of +nature. Remorse was scotched, not [v.04 p.0901] killed. On the 6th of +October Byron and Hobhouse started via Milan and Verona for Venice, which +was reached early in November. For the next three years Byron lived in or +near Venice--at first, 1816-1817, in apartments in the Frezzeria, and after +January 1818 in the central block of the Mocenigo palace. Venice appealed +both to his higher and his lower nature. He set himself to study her +history, to understand her constitution, to learn her language. The sights +and scenes with which Shakespeare and Otway, Schiller's _Ghostseer_, and +Madame de Stael's _Corinne_ had made him familiar, were before his eyes, +not dreams but realities. He would "repeople" her with her own past, and +"stamp her image" on the creations of his pen. But he had no one to live +for but himself, and that self he gave over to a reprobate mind. He planned +and pursued a life of deliberate profligacy. Of two of his amours we learn +enough or too much from his letters to Murray and to Moore--the first with +his landlord's wife, Marianna Segati, the second with Margarita Cogni (the +"Fornarina"), a Venetian of the lower class, who amused him with her +savagery and her wit. But, if Shelley may be trusted, there was a limit to +his candour. There is abundant humour, but there is an economy of detail in +his pornographic chronicle. He could not touch pitch without being defiled. +But to do him justice he was never idle. He kept his brains at work, and +for this reason, perhaps, he seems for a time to have recovered his spirits +and sinned with a good courage. His song of carnival, "So we'll go no more +a-roving," is a hymn of triumph. About the middle of April he set out for +Rome. His first halt was at Ferrara, which inspired the "Lament of Tasso" +(published July 17, 1817). He passed through Florence, where he saw "_the_ +Venus" (of Medici) in the Uffizi Gallery, by reedy Thrasymene and Term's +"matchless cataract" to "Rome the Wonderful." At Rome, with Hobhouse as +companion and guide, he stayed three weeks. He returned to Venice on the +28th of May, but shortly removed to a villa at Mira on the Brenta, some 7 +m. inland. A month later (June 26) when memory had selected and reduced to +order the first impressions of his tour, he began to work them up into a +fourth canto of _Childe Harold_. A first draft of 126 stanzas was finished +by the 29th of July; the 60 additional stanzas which made up the canto as +it stands were written up to material suggested by or supplied by Hobhouse, +"who put his researches" at Byron's disposal and wrote the learned and +elaborate notes which are appended to the poem. Among the books which +Murray sent out to Venice was a copy of Hookham Frere's _Whistlecraft_. +Byron took the hint and produced _Beppo, a Venetian Story_ (published +anonymously on the 28th of February 1818). He attributes his choice of the +mock heroic _ottava-rima_ to Frere's example, but he was certainly familiar +with Casti's _Novelle_, and, according to Stendhal, with the poetry of +Buratti. The success of _Beppo_ and a growing sense that "the excellent +manner of _Whistlecraft_" was the manner for him, led him to study Frere's +masters and models, Berni and Pulci. An accident had led to a great +discovery. + +The fourth canto of _Childe Harold_ was published on the 28th of April +1818. Nearly three months went by before Murray wrote to him, and he began +to think that his new poem was a failure. Meanwhile he completed an "Ode on +Venice," in which he laments her apathy and decay, and contrasts the +tyranny of the Old World with the new birth of freedom in America. In +September he began _Don Juan_. His own account of the inception of his last +and greatest work is characteristic but misleading. He says (September 9) +that his new poem is to be in the style of _Beppo_, and is "meant to be a +little quietly facetious about everything." A year later (August 12, 1819), +he says that he neither has nor had a _plan_--but that "he had or has +_materials_." By materials he means books, such as Dalzell's _Shipwrecks +and Disasters by Sea_, or de Castelnau's _Histoire de la nouvelle Russie_, +&c., which might be regarded as poetry in the rough. The dedication to +Robert Southey (not published till 1833) is a prologue to the play. The +"Lakers" had given samples of their poetry, their politics and their +morals, and now it was his turn to speak and to speak out. He too would +write "An Excursion." He doubted that _Don Juan_ might be "too free for +these modest days." It _was_ too free for the public, for his publisher, +even for his mistress; and the "building up of the drama," as Shelley puts +it, was a slow and gradual process. Cantos I., II. were published (4to) on +the 15th of July 1819; Cantos III., IV., V., finished in November 1820, +were not published till the 8th of August 1821. Cantos VI.-XVI., written +between June 1822 and March 1823, were published at intervals between the +15th of July 1823 and the 26th of March 1824. Canto XVII. was begun in May +1823, but was never finished. A fragment of fourteen stanzas, found in his +room at Missolonghi, was first published in 1903. + +He did not put all his materials into _Don Juan_. "Mazeppa, a tale of the +Russian Ukraine," based on a passage in Voltaire's _Charles XII._, was +finished by the 30th of September 1818 and published with "An Ode" (on +Venice) on the 28th of June 1819. In the spring of 1819 Byron met in +Venice, and formed a connexion with, an Italian lady of rank, Teresa (born +Gamba), wife of the Cavaliere Guiccioli. She was young and beautiful, +well-read and accomplished. Married at sixteen to a man nearly four times +her age, she fell in love with Byron at first sight, soon became and for +nearly four years remained his mistress. A good and true wife to him in all +but name, she won from Byron ample devotion and a prolonged constancy. Her +volume of _Recollections_ (_Lord Byron juge par les temoins de sa vie_, +1869), taken for what it is worth, is testimony in Byron's favour. The +countess left Venice for Ravenna at the end of April; within a month she +sent for Byron, and on the 10th of June he arrived at Ravenna and took +rooms in the Strada di Porto Sisi. The house (now No. 295) is close to +Dante's tomb, and to gratify the countess and pass the time he wrote the +"Prophecy of Dante" (published April 21, 1821). According to the preface +the poem was a metrical experiment, an exercise in _terza rima_; but it had +a deeper significance. It was "intended for the Italians." Its purport was +revolutionary. In the fourth canto of _Childe Harold_, already translated +into Italian, he had attacked the powers, and "Albion most of all" for her +betrayal of Venice, and knowing that his word had weight he appeals to the +country of his adoption to strike a blow for freedom--to "unite." It is +difficult to realize the force or extent of Byron's influence on +continental opinion. His own countrymen admired his poetry, but abhorred +and laughed at his politics. Abroad he was the prophet and champion of +liberty. His hatred of tyranny--his defence of the oppressed--was a word +spoken in season when there were few to speak but many to listen. It +brought consolation and encouragement, and it was not spoken in vain. It +must, however, be borne in mind that Byron was more of a king-hater than a +people-lover. He was against the oppressors, but he disliked and despised +the oppressed. He was aristocrat by conviction as well as birth, and if he +espoused a popular cause it was _de haut en bas_. His connexion with the +Gambas brought him into touch with the revolutionary movement, and +thenceforth he was under the espionage of the Austrian embassy at Rome. He +was suspected and "shadowed," but he was left alone. + +Early in September Byron returned to La Mira, bringing the countess with +him. A month later he was surprised by a visit from Moore, who was on his +way to Rome. Byron installed Moore in the Mocenigo palace and visited him +daily. Before the final parting (October 11) Byron placed in Moore's hands +the MS. of his _Life and Adventures_ brought down to the close of 1816. +Moore, as Byron suggested, pledged the MS. to Murray for 2000 guineas, to +be Moore's property if redeemed in Byron's lifetime, but if not, to be +forfeit to Murray at Byron's death. On the 17th of May 1824, with Murray's +assent and goodwill, the MS. was burned in the drawing-room of 50 Albemarle +Street. Neither Murray nor Moore lost their money. The Longmans lent Moore +a sufficient sum to repay Murray, and were themselves repaid out of the +receipts of Moore's _Life of Byron_. Byron told Moore that the memoranda +were not "confessions," that they were "the truth but not the whole truth." +This, no doubt, was the truth, and the whole truth. Whatever they may or +may [v.04 p.0902] not have contained, they did not explain the cause or +causes of the separation from his wife.[1] + +At the close of 1819 Byron finally left Venice and settled at Ravenna in +his own apartments in the Palazzo Guiccioli. His relations with the +countess were put on a regular footing, and he was received in society as +her _cavaliere servente_. At Ravenna his literary activity was greater than +ever. His translation of the first canto of Pulci's _Morgante Maggiore_ +(published in the _Liberal_, No. IV., July 30, 1832), a laborious and +scholarly achievement, was the work of the first two months of the year. +From April to July he was at work on the composition of _Marino Faliero, +Doge of Venice_, a tragedy in five acts (published April 21, 1821). The +plot turns on an episode in Venetian history known as _La Congiura_, the +alliance between the doge and the populace to overthrow the state. Byron +spared no pains in preparing his materials. In so far as he is +unhistorical, he errs in company with Sanudo and early Venetian chronicles. +Moved by the example of Alfieri he strove to reform the British drama by "a +severer approach to the rules." He would read his countrymen a "moral +lesson" on the dramatic propriety of observing the three unities. It was an +heroic attempt to reassert classical ideals in a romantic age, but it was +"a week too late"; Byron's "regular dramas" are admirably conceived and +finely worded, but they are cold and lifeless. + +Eighteen additional sheets of the _Memoirs_ and a fifth canto of _Don Juan_ +were the pastime of the autumn, and in January 1821 Byron began to work on +his second "historical drama," _Sardanapalus_. But politics intervened, and +little progress was made. He had been elected _capo_ of the "_Americani_," +a branch of the Carbonari, and his time was taken up with buying and +storing arms and ammunition, and consultations with leading conspirators. +"The poetry of politics" and poetry on paper did not go together. Meanwhile +he would try his hand on prose. A controversy had arisen between Bowles and +Campbell with regard to the merits of Pope. Byron rushed into the fray. To +avenge and exalt Pope, to decry the "Lakers," and to lay down his own +canons of art, Byron addressed two letters to **** ****** (_i.e._ John +Murray), entitled "Strictures on the Life and Writings of Pope." The first +was published in 1821, the second in 1835. + +The revolution in Italy came to nothing, and by the 28th of May, Byron had +finished his work on _Sardanapalus_. The _Two Foscari_, a third historical +drama, was begun on the 12th of June and finished on the 9th of July. On +the same day he began _Cain, a Mystery_. _Cain_ was an attempt to dramatize +the Old Testament; Lucifer's apology for himself and his arraignment of the +Creator startled and shocked the orthodox. Theologically the offence lay in +its detachment. _Cain_ was not irreverent or blasphemous, but it treated +accepted dogmas as open questions. _Cain_ was published in the same volume +with the _Two Foscari_ and _Sardanapalus_, December 19, 1821. The "Blues," +a skit upon literary coteries and their patronesses, was written in August. +It was first published in _The Liberal_, No. III., April 26, 1823, When +_Cain_ was finished Byron turned from grave to gay, from serious to +humorous theology. Southey had thought fit to eulogize George III. in +hexameter verse. He called his funeral ode a "Vision of Judgment." In the +preface there was an obvious reference to Byron. The "Satanic School" of +poetry was attributed to "men of diseased hearts and depraved +imaginations." Byron's revenge was complete. In his "Vision of Judgment" +(published in _The Liberal_, No. I., October 15, 1822) the tables are +turned. The laureate is brought before the hosts of heaven and rejected by +devils and angels alike. In October Byron wrote _Heaven and Earth, a +Mystery_ (_The Liberal_, No. II., January 1, 1823), a lyrical drama based +on the legend of the "Watchers," or fallen angels of the Book of Enoch. The +countess and her family had been expelled from Ravenna in July, but Byron +still lingered on in his apartments in the Palazzo Guiccioli. At length +(October 28) he set out for Pisa. On the road he met his old friend, Lord +Clare, and spent a few minutes in his company. Rogers, whom he met at +Bologna, was his fellow-traveller as far as Florence. At Pisa he rejoined +the countess, who had taken on his behalf the Villa Lanfranchi on the Arno. +At Ravenna Byron had lived amongst Italians. At Pisa he was surrounded by a +knot of his own countrymen, friends and acquaintances of the Shelleys. +Among them were E.J. Trelawny, Thomas Medwin, author of the well-known +_Conversations of Lord Byron_ (1824), and Edward Elliker Williams. His +first work at Pisa was to dramatize Miss Lee's _Kruitzner, or the German's +Tale_. He had written a first act in 1815, but as the MS. was mislaid he +made a fresh adaptation of the story which he rechristened _Werner, or the +Inheritance_. It was finished on the 20th of January and published on the +23rd of November 1822. _Werner_ is in parts _Kruitzner_ cut up into loose +blank verse, but it contains lines and passages of great and original +merit. Alone of Byron's plays it took hold of the stage. Macready's +"Werner" was a famous impersonation. + +In the spring of 1822 a heavy and unlooked-for sorrow befell Byron. +Allegra, his natural daughter by Claire Clairmont, died at the convent of +Bagna Cavallo on the 20th of April 1822. She was in her sixth year, an +interesting and attractive child, and he had hoped that her companionship +would have atoned for his enforced separation from Ada. She is buried in a +nameless grave at the entrance of Harrow church. Soon after the death of +Allegra, Byron wrote the last of his eight plays, _The Deformed +Transformed_ (published by John Hunt, February 20, 1824). The "sources" are +Goethe's _Faust_, _The Three Brothers_, a novel by Joshua Pickersgill, and +various chronicles of the sack of Rome in 1527. The theme or _motif_ is the +interaction of personality and individuality. Remonstrances on the part of +publisher and critic induced him to turn journalist. The control of a +newspaper or periodical would enable him to publish what and as he pleased. +With this object in view he entered into a kind of literary partnership +with Leigh Hunt, and undertook to transport him, his wife and six children +to Pisa, and to lodge them in the Villa Lanfranchi. The outcome of this +arrangement was _The Liberal--Verse and Prose from the South_. Four numbers +were issued between October 1822 and June 1823. _The Liberal_ did not +succeed financially, and the joint menage was a lamentable failure. +_Correspondence of Byron and some of his Contemporaries_ (1828) was Hunt's +revenge for the slights and indignities which he suffered in Byron's +service. Yachting was one of the chief amusements of the English colony at +Pisa. A schooner, the "Bolivar," was built for Byron, and a smaller boat, +the "Don Juan" re-named "Ariel," for Shelley. Hunt arrived at Pisa on the +1st of July. On the 8th of July Shelley, who had remained in Pisa on Hunt's +account, started for a sail with his friend Williams and a lad named +Vivian. The "Ariel" was wrecked in the Gulf of Spezia and Shelley and his +companions were drowned. On the 16th of August Byron and Hunt witnessed the +"burning of Shelley" on the seashore near Via Reggio. Byron told Moore that +"all of Shelley was consumed but the _heart_." Whilst the fire was burning +Byron swam out to the "Bolivar" and back to the shore. The hot sun and the +violent exercise brought on one of those many fevers which weakened his +constitution and shortened his life. + +The Austrian government would not allow the Gambas or the countess +Guiccioli to remain in Pisa. As a half measure Byron took a villa for them +at Montenero near Leghorn, but as the authorities were still dissatisfied +they removed to Genoa. Byron and Leigh Hunt left Pisa on the last day of +September. On reaching Genoa Byron took up his quarters with the Gambas at +the Casa Saluzzo, "a fine old palazzo with an extensive view over the bay," +and Hunt and his party at the Casa Negroto with Mrs Shelley. Life at Genoa +was uneventful. Of Hunt and Mrs Shelley he saw as little as possible, and +though his still unpublished poems were at the service of _The Liberal_, he +did little or nothing to further its success. Each number was badly +received. Byron had some reason to fear that his popularity [v.04 p.0903] +was on the wane, and though he had broken with Murray and was offering _Don +Juan_ (cantos vi.-xii.) to John Hunt, the publisher of _The Liberal_, he +meditated a "run down to Naples" and a recommencement of _Childe Harold_. +There was a limit to his defiance of the "world's rebuke." Home politics +and the congress of Verona (November-December 1822) suggested a satire +entitled "The Age of Bronze" (published April 1, 1823). It is, as he said, +"stilted," and cries out for notes, but it embodies some of his finest and +most vigorous work as a satirist. By the middle of February (1823) he had +completed _The Island; or Christian and his Comrades_ (published June 26, +1823). The sources are Bligh's _Narrative of the Mutiny of the Bounty_, and +Mariner's _Account of the Tonga Islands_. Satire and tale are a reversion +to his earlier method. The execution of _The Island_ is hurried and +unequal, but there is a deep and tender note in the love-story and the +recital of the "feasts and loves and wars" of the islanders. The poetic +faculty has been "softened into feeling" by the experience of life. + +When _The Island_ was finished, Byron went on with _Don Juan_. Early in +March the news reached him that he had been elected a member of the Greek +Committee, a small body of influential Liberals who had taken up the cause +of the liberation of Greece. Byron at once offered money and advice, and +after some hesitation on the score of health, determined "to go to Greece." +His first step was to sell the "Bolivar" to Lord Blessington, and to +purchase the "Hercules," a collier-built tub of 120 tons. On the 23rd of +July the "Hercules" sailed from Leghorn and anchored off Cephalonia on the +3rd of August. The party on board consisted of Byron, Pietro Gamba, +Trelawny, Hamilton Browne and six or seven servants. The next four months +were spent at Cephalonia, at first on board the "Hercules," in the harbour +of Argostoli and afterwards at Metaxata. The object of this delay was to +ascertain the real state of affairs in Greece. The revolutionary Greeks +were split up into parties, not to say factions, and there were several +leaders. It was a question to which leader he would attach himself. At +length a message reached him which inspired him with confidence. He +received a summons from Prince Alexander Mavrocordato, a man of birth and +education, urging him to come at once to Missolonghi, and enclosing a +request from the legislative body "to co-operate with Mavrocordato in the +organization of western Greece." Byron felt that he could act with a "clear +conscience" in putting himself at the disposal of a man whom he regarded as +the authorized leader and champion of the Greeks. He sailed from Argostoli +on the 29th of December 1823, and after an adventurous voyage landed at +Missolonghi on the 5th of January 1824. He met with a royal reception. +Byron may have sought, but he did not find, "a soldier's grave." During his +three months' residence at Missolonghi he accomplished little and he +endured much. He advanced large sums of money for the payment of the +troops, for repair and construction of fortifications, for the provision of +medical appliances. He brought opposing parties into line, and served as a +link between Odysseus, the democratic leader of the insurgents, and the +"prince" Mavrocordato. He was eager to take the field, but he never got the +chance. A revolt in the Morea, and the repeated disaffection of his Suliote +guard prevented him from undertaking the capture of Epacto, an exploit +which he had reserved for his own leadership. He was beset with +difficulties, but at length events began to move. On the 18th of March he +received an invitation from Odysseus and other chiefs to attend a +conference at Salona, and by the same messenger an offer from the +government to appoint him "governor-general of the enfranchised parts of +Greece." He promised to attend the conference but did not pledge himself to +the immediate acceptance of office. But to Salona he never came. "Roads and +rivers were impassable," and the conference was inevitably postponed. + +His health had given way, but he does not seem to have realized that his +life was in danger. On the 15th of February he was struck down by an +epileptic fit, which left him speechless though not motionless. He +recovered sufficiently to conduct his business as usual, and to drill the +troops. But he suffered from dizziness in the head and spasms in the chest, +and a few days later he was seized with a second though slighter +convulsion. These attacks may have hastened but they did not cause his +death. For the first week of April the weather confined him to the house, +but on the 9th a letter from his sister raised his spirits and tempted him +to ride out with Gamba. It came on to rain, and though he was drenched to +the skin he insisted on dismounting and returning in an open boat to the +quay in front of his house. Two hours later he was seized with ague and +violent rheumatic pains. On the 11th he rode out once more through the +olive groves, attended by his escort of Suliote guards, but for the last +time. Whether he had got his deathblow, or whether copious blood-letting +made recovery impossible, he gradually grew worse, and on the ninth day of +his illness fell into a comatose sleep. It was reported that in his +delirium he had called out, half in English, half in Italian, +"Forward--forward--courage! follow my example--don't be afraid!" and that +he tried to send a last message to his sister and to his wife. He died at +six o'clock in the evening of the 19th of April 1824, aged thirty-six years +and three months. The Greeks were heartbroken. Mavrocordato gave orders +that thirty-seven minute-guns should be fired at daylight and decreed a +general mourning of twenty-one days. His body was embalmed and lay in +state. On the 25th of May his remains, all but the heart, which is buried +at Missolonghi, were sent back to England, and were finally laid beneath +the chancel of the village church of Hucknall-Torkard on the 16th of July +1824. The authorities would not sanction burial in Westminster Abbey, and +there is neither bust nor statue of Lord Byron in Poets' Corner. + +The title passed to his first cousin as 7th baron, from whom the subsequent +barons were descended. The poet's daughter Ada (d. 1852) predeceased her +mother, but the barony of Wentworth went to her heirs. She was the first +wife of Baron King, who in 1838 was created 1st earl of Lovelace, and had +two sons (of whom the younger, b. 1839, d. 1906, was 2nd earl of Lovelace) +and a daughter, Lady Anne, who married Wilfrid S. Blunt (_q.v._). On the +death of the 2nd earl the barony of Wentworth went to his daughter and only +child, and the earldom of Lovelace to his half-brother by the 1st earl's +second wife. + +Great men are seldom misjudged. The world passes sentence on them, and +there is no appeal. Byron's contemporaries judged him by the tone and +temper of his works, by his own confessions or self-revelations in prose +and verse, by the facts of his life as reported in the newspapers, by the +talk of the town. His letters, his journals, the testimony of a dozen +memorialists are at the disposal of the modern biographer. Moore thinks +that Byron's character was obliterated by his versatility, his mobility, +that he was carried away by his imagination, and became the thing he wished +to be, or conceived himself as becoming. But his nature was not +chameleon-like. Self-will was the very pulse of the machine. Pride ruled +his years. All through his life, as child and youth and man, his one aim +and endeavour was the subjection of other people's wishes to, his own. He +would subject even fate if he could. He has two main objects in view, +_glory_, in the French rather than the English use of the word, and +passion. It is hard to say which was the strongest or the dearest, but, on +the whole, within his "little life" passion prevailed. Other inclinations +he could master. Poetry was often but not always an exaltation and a +relief. He could fulfil his tasks in "hours of gloom." If he had not been a +great poet he would have gained credit as a painstaking and laborious man +of letters. His habitual temperance was the outcome of a stern resolve. He +had no scruples, but he kept his body in subjection as a means to an end. +In his youth Byron was a cautious spendthrift. Even when he was "cursedly +dipped" he knew what he was about; and afterwards, when his income was +sufficient for his requirements, he kept a hold on his purse. He loved +display, and as he admitted, spent money on women, but he checked his +accounts and made both ends meet. On the other hand, the "gift of +continency" he did not possess, or trouble himself to acquire. He was, to +use his own phrase, "passionate of body," and his desires were stronger +than his will. There are points of Byron's character with regard to which +opinion is divided. Candid he certainly was to the verge of brutality, but +was he sincere? Was [v.04 p.0904] he as melancholy as his poetry implies? +Did he pose as pessimist or misanthropist, or did he speak out of the +bitterness of his soul? It stands to reason that Byron knew that his sorrow +and his despair would excite public interest, and that he was not ashamed +to exhibit "the pageant of a bleeding heart." But it does not follow that +he was a hypocrite. His quarrel with mankind, his anger against fate, were +perfectly genuine. His outcry is, in fact, the anguish of a baffled will. +Byron was too self-conscious, too much interested in himself, to take any +pleasures in imaginary woes, or to credit himself with imaginary vices. + +Whether he told the whole truth is another matter. He was naturally a +truthful man and his friends lived in dread of unguarded disclosures, but +his communications were not so free as they seemed. There was a string to +the end of the kite. Byron was kindly and generous by nature. He took +pleasure in helping necessitous authors, men and women, not at all _en +grand seigneur_, or without counting the cost, but because he knew what +poverty meant, and a fellow-feeling made him kind. Even in Venice he set +aside a fixed sum for charitable purposes. It was to his credit that +neither libertinism nor disgrace nor remorse withered at its root this herb +of grace. Cynical speeches with regard to friends and friendship, often +quoted to his disadvantage, need not be taken too literally. Byron talked +for effect, and in accordance with the whim of the moment. His acts do not +correspond with his words. Byron rejected and repudiated bath Protestant +and Catholic orthodoxy, but like the Athenians he was "exceedingly +religious." He could not, he did not wish to, detach himself from a belief +in an Invisible Power. "A fearful looking for of judgment" haunted him to +the last. + +There is an increasing tendency on the part of modern critics to cast a +doubt on Byron's sanity. It is true that he inherited bad blood on both +sides of his family, that he was of a neurotic temperament, that at one +time he maddened himself with drink, but there is no evidence that his +brain was actually diseased. Speaking figuratively, he may have been "half +mad," but, if so, it was a derangement of the will, not of the mind. He was +responsible for his actions, and they rise up in judgment against him. He +put indulgence before duty. He made a byword of his marriage and brought +lifelong sorrow on his wife. If, as Goethe said, he was "the greatest +talent" of the 19th century, he associated that talent with scandal and +reproach. But he was born with certain noble qualities which did not fail +him at his worst. He was courageous, he was kind, and he loved truth rather +than lies. He was a worker and a fighter. He hated tyranny, and was +prepared to sacrifice money and ease and life in the cause of popular +freedom. If the issue of his call to arms was greater and other than he +designed or foresaw, it was a generous instinct which impelled him to begin +the struggle. + +With regard to the criticism of his works, Byron's personality has always +confused the issue. Politics, religion, morality, have confused, and still +confuse, the issue. The question for the modern critic is, of what +permanent value is Byron's poetry? What did he achieve for art, for the +intellect, for the spirit, and in what degree does he still give pleasure +to readers of average intelligence? It cannot be denied that he stands out +from other poets of his century as a great creative artist, that his canvas +is crowded with new and original images, additions to already existing +types of poetic workmanship. It has been said that Byron could only +represent himself under various disguises, that Childe Harold and The +Corsair, Lara and Manfred and Don Juan, are variants of a single +personality, the egotist who is at war with his fellows, the generous but +nefarious sentimentalist who sins and suffers and yet is to be pitied for +his suffering. None the less, with whatever limitations as artist or +moralist, he invented characters and types of characters real enough and +distinct enough to leave their mark on society as well as on literature. +These masks or replicas of his own personality were formative of thought, +and were powerful agents in the evolution of sentiment and opinion. In +language which was intelligible and persuasive, under shapes and forms +which were suggestive and inspiring, Byron delivered a message of +liberation. There was a double motive at work in his energies as a poet. He +wrote, as he said, because "his mind was full" of his own loves, his own +griefs, but also to register a protest against some external tyranny of law +or faith or custom. His own countrymen owe Byron another debt. His poems +were a liberal education in the manners and customs of "the gorgeous East," +in the scenery, the art, the history and politics of Italy and Greece. He +widened the horizon of his contemporaries, bringing within their ken +wonders and beauties hitherto unknown or unfamiliar, and in so doing he +heightened and cultivated, he "touched with emotion," the unlettered and +unimaginative many, that "reading public" which despised or eluded the +refinements and subtleties of less popular writers. + +To the student of literature the first half of the 19th century is the age +of Byron. He has failed to retain his influence over English readers. The +knowledge, the culture of which he was the immediate channel, were speedily +available through other sources. The politics of the Revolution neither +interested nor affected the Liberalism or Radicalism of the middle classes. +It was not only the loftier and wholesomer poetry of Wordsworth and of +Tennyson which averted enthusiasm from Byron, not only moral earnestness +and religious revival but the optimism and the materialism of commercial +prosperity. As time went on, a severer and more intelligent criticism was +brought to bear on his handiwork as a poet. It was pointed out that his +constructions were loose and ambiguous, that his grammar was faulty, that +his rhythm was inharmonious, and it was argued that these defects and +blemishes were outward and visible signs of a lack of fineness in the man's +spiritual texture; that below the sentiment and behind the rhetoric the +thoughts and ideas were mean and commonplace. There was a suspicion of +artifice, a questioning of the passion as genuine. Poetry came to be +regarded more and more as a source of spiritual comfort, if not a religious +exercise, yet, in some sort, a substitute for religion. There was little or +nothing in Byron's poetry which fulfilled this want. He had no message for +seekers after truth. Matthew Arnold, in his preface to _The Poetry of +Byron_, prophesied that "when the year 1900 is turned, and our nation comes +to recount the poetic glories in the century which has then just ended, her +first names with her will be those of Byron and Wordsworth." + +That prophecy still waits fulfilment, but without doubt there has been a +reconsideration of Byron's place in literature, and he stands higher than +he did, say, in 1875. His quarrel with orthodoxy neither alarms nor +provokes the modern reader. Cynical or flippant turns of speech, which +distressed and outraged his contemporaries, are taken as they were meant, +for witty or humorous by-play. He is regarded as the herald and champion +_revolt_. He is praised for his "sincerity and strength," for his +single-mindedness, his directness, his audacity. A dispassionate criticism +recognizes the force and splendour of his rhetoric. The "purple patches" +have stood the wear and tear of time. Byron may have mismanaged the +Spenserian stanza, may have written up to or anticipated the guide-book, +but the spectacle of the bull-fight at Cadiz is "for ever warm," the "sound +of revelry" on the eve of Waterloo still echoes in our ears, and Marathon +and Venice, Greece and Italy, still rise up before us, "as from the stroke +of an enchanter's wand." It was, however, in another vein that Byron +achieved his final triumph. In _Don Juan_ he set himself to depict life as +a whole. The style is often misnamed the mock-heroic. It might be more +accurately described as humorous-realistic. His "plan was to have no plan" +in the sense of synopsis or argument, but in the person of his hero to +"unpack his heart," to avenge himself on his enemies, personal or +political, to suggest an apology for himself and to disclose a criticism +and philosophy of life. As a satirist in the widest sense of the word, as +an analyser of human nature, he comes, at whatever distance, after and yet +next to Shakespeare. It is a test of the greatness of _Don Juan_ that its +reputation has slowly increased and that, in spite of its supposed immoral +tendency, in spite of occasional grossness and voluptuousness, it has come +to be recognized as Byron's masterpiece. _Don Juan_ will be read for its +own sake, for its beauty, its humour, its faithfulness. It is a "hymn to +the earth," but it is a human sequence to "its own music chaunted." + +[v.04 p.0905] In his own lifetime Byron stood higher on the continent of +Europe than in England or even in America. His works as they came out were +translated into French, into German, into Italian, into Russian, and the +stream of translation has never ceased to flow. The _Bride of Abydos_ has +been translated into ten, _Cain_ into nine languages. Of _Manfred_ there is +one Bohemian translation, two Danish, two Dutch, two French, nine German, +three Hungarian, three Italian, two Polish, one Romaic, one Rumanian, four +Russian and three Spanish translations. The dictum or verdict of Goethe +that "the English may think of Byron as they please, but this is certain +that they show no poet who is to be compared with him" was and is the +keynote of continental European criticism. A survey of European literature +is a testimony to the universality of his influence. Victor Hugo, +Lamartine, Delavigne, Alfred de Musset, in France; Boerne, Mueller and Heine +in Germany; the Italian poets Leopardi and Giusti; Pushkin and Lermontov +among the Russians; Michiewicz and Slowacki among the Poles--more or less, +as eulogists or imitators or disciples--were of the following of Byron. +This fact is beyond dispute, that after the first outburst of popularity he +has touched and swayed other nations rather than his own. The part he +played or seemed to play in revolutionary politics endeared him to those +who were struggling to be free. He stood for freedom of thought and of +life. He made himself the mouthpiece of an impassioned and welcome protest +against the hypocrisy and arrogance of his order and his race. He lived on +the continent and was known to many men in many cities. It has been argued +that foreigners are insensible to his defects as a writer, and that this +may account for an astonishing and perplexing preference. The cause is +rather to be sought in the quality of his art. It was as the creator of new +types, "forms more real than living man," that Byron appealed to the +artistic sense and to the imagination of Latin, Teuton or Slav. That "he +taught us little" of the things of the spirit, that he knew no cure for the +sickness of the soul, were considerations which lay outside the province of +literary criticism. "It is a mark," says Goethe (_Aus meinem Leben: +Dichtung und Wahrheit_, 1876, iii. 125), "of true poetry, that as a secular +gospel it knows how to free us from the earthly burdens which press upon +us, by inward serenity, by outward charm." Now of this "secular gospel" the +redemption from "real woes" by the exhibition of imaginary glory, and +imaginary delights, Byron was both prophet and evangelist. + +Byron was 5 ft. 8 in. in height, and strongly built; only with difficulty +and varying success did he prevent himself from growing fat. At +five-and-thirty he was extremely thin. He was "very slightly lame," but he +was painfully conscious of his deformity and walked as little and as seldom +as he could. He had a small head covered and fringed with dark brown or +auburn curls. His forehead was high and narrow, of a marble whiteness. His +eyes were of a light grey colour, clear and luminous. His nose was straight +and well-shaped, but "from being a little too thick, it looked better in +profile than in front face." Moore says that it was in "the mouth and chin +that the great beauty as well as expression of his fine countenance lay." +The upper lip was of a Grecian shortness and the corners descending. His +complexion was pale and colourless. Scott speaks of "his beautiful pale +face--like a spirit's good or evil." Charles Matthews said that "he was the +only man to whom he could apply the word beautiful." Coleridge said that +"if you had seen him you could scarce disbelieve him... his eyes the open +portals of the sun--things of light and for light." He was likened to "the +god of the Vatican," the Apollo Belvidere. + +The best-known portraits are: (1) Byron at the age of seven by Kay of +Edinburgh; (2) a drawing of Lord Byron at Cambridge by Gilchrist (1808); +(3) a portrait in oils by George Sanders (1809); (4) a miniature by Sanders +(1812); (5) a portrait in oils by Richard Westall, R.A. (1813); (6) a +portrait in oils (Byron in Albanian dress) by Thomas Phillips, R.A. (1813); +(7) a portrait in oils by Phillips (1813); (8-9) a sketch for a miniature, +and a miniature by James Holmes (1815); (10) a sketch by George Henry +Harlow (1818); (11) a portrait in oils by Vincenzio Camuccini (in the +Vatican) c. 1822; (12) a portrait in oils by W.H. West (1822); (13) a +sketch by Count D'Orsay (1823). Busts were taken by Bertel Thorwaldsen +(1817) and by Lorenzo Bartolini (1822). The statue (1829) in the library of +Trinity College, Cambridge, is by Thorwaldsen after the bust taken in 1817. + +AUTHORITIES.--The best editions of Lord Byron's poetical works are: (1) +_The Works of Lord Byron with his Letters and Journals and his Life_, by +Thomas Moore (17 vols., London, John Murray, 1832, 1833); (2) _The Works of +Lord Byron_ (1 vol., 1837, reissued, 1838-1892); (3) _The Poetical Works of +Lord Byron_ (6 vols., 1855); (4) _The Works of Lord Byron_, new, revised +and enlarged edition, _Letters and Journals_, edited by G.E. Prothero, 6 +vols., _Poetry_, edited by E.H. Coleridge (7 vols., 1898-1903); (5) _The +Poetical Works of Lord Byron_, with memoir by E.H. Coleridge (1 vol., +1905). + +The principal biographies, critical notices, memoirs, &c., are:--_Journey +through Albania... with Lord Byron_, by J.C. Hobhouse (1812; reprinted in 2 +vols., 1813 and 1855); _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of ... Lord Byron_ +[by Dr John Watkins] (1822); _Letters on the Character and Poetical Genius +of Lord Byron_, by Sir E. Brydges, Bart. (1824); _Correspondence of Lord +Byron with a Friend_ (3 vols., Paris, 1824); _Recollections of the Life of +Lord Byron_, by R.C. Dallas (1824); _Journal of the Conversations of Lord +Byron_, by Capt. T. Medwin (1824); _Last Days of Lord Byron_, by W. Parry +(1824); _Narrative of a Second Visit to Greece_, by E. Blaquiere (1825); _A +Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece_, by Count Gamba (1825); +_The Life, Writings, Opinions and Times of Lord Byron_ (3 vols., 1825); +_The Spirit of the Age_, by W. Hazlitt (1825); _Memoir of the Life and +Writings of Lord Byron_, by George Clinton (1826); _Correspondence of Byron +and some of his Contemporaries_, by J.H. Leigh Hunt (2 vols., 1828); +_Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices of his Life_, by Thomas +Moore (2 vols., 1830); _The Life of Lord Byron_, by J. Galt (1830); +_Conversations on Religion with Lord Byron_, by J. Kennedy (1830); +_Conversations of Lord Byron with the Countess of Blessington_ (1834); +_Critical and Historical Essays_, by T.B. Macaulay, i. 311-352 (1843); +_Lord Byron juge par les temoins de sa vie_ (1869), _My Recollections of +Lord Byron_, by the Countess _Guiccioli_ (1869); _Lady Byron Vindicated, A +History of the Byron Controversy_, by H. Beecher Stowe (1870); _Lord Byron, +a Biography_, by Karl Elze (1872); _Kunst und Alterthum_, Goethe's +_Saemmtliche Werke_ (1874), vol. xiii. p. 641; _Memoir of the Rev. F. +Hodgson_ (2 vols., 1878); _The Real Lord Byron_, by J.C. Jeaffreson (2 +vols., 1883); _A Selection_, &c., by A.C. Swinburne (1885); _Records of +Shelley, Byron and the Author_, by E.J. Trelawny (1887); _Memoirs of John +Murray_, by S. Smiles (2 vols., 1891); _Poetry of Byron_, chosen and +arranged by Matthew Arnold (preface) (1892); _The Siege of Corinth_, edited +by E. Koelbing (1893) _Prisoner of Chillon and other Poems_, edited by E. +Koelbing (1869); _The Works of Lord Byron_, edited by W. Henley, vol. i. +(1897); A. Brandl's "Goethes Verhaeltniss zu Byron," _Goethe Jahrbuch, +zwanzigster Band_ (1899); _Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature_, +by G. Brandis (6 vols., 1901-1905), translated from _Hauptstroemungen der +Literatur des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_, 4 Bde. (Berlin 1872-1876); +_Chambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature_, vol. iii. (1903) art. +"Byron," by T. Watts Dunton; _Studies in Poetry and Criticism_, by J. +Churton Collins (1905); _Lord Byron, sein Leben_, &c., by Richard +Ackermann; _Byron_, 3 vols. in the _Biblioteka velikikh pisatelei pod +redaktsei_, edited by S.A. Vengesova (St Petersburg, 1906): a variorum +translation; _Byron et le romantisme francais_, by Edmond Esteve (1907). + +(E. H. C.) + +[1] An anonymous work entitled _The Life, Writings, &c. of ... Lord Byron_ +(3 vols., 1825) purports to give "Recollections of the Lately Destroyed +Manuscript." To judge by internal evidence (see "The Wedding Day," &c. ii. +278-284) there is some measure of truth in this assertion, but the work as +a whole is untrustworthy. + +BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884), English playwright, son of Henry Byron, at +one time British consul at Port-au-Prince, was born in Manchester in +January 1834. He entered the Middle Temple as a student in 1858, with the +intention of devoting his time to play-writing. He soon ceased to make any +pretence of legal study, and joined a provincial company as an actor. In +this line he never made any real success; and, though he continued to act +for years, chiefly in his own plays, he had neither originality nor charm. +Meanwhile he wrote assiduously, and few men have produced so many pieces of +so diverse a nature. He was the first editor of the weekly comic paper, +_Fun_, and started the short-lived _Comic Trials_. His first successes were +in burlesque; but in 1865 he joined Miss Marie Wilton (afterwards Lady +Bancroft) in the management of the Prince of Wales's theatre, near +Tottenham Court Road. Here several of his pieces, comedies and +extravaganzas were produced with success; but, upon his severing the +partnership two years later, and starting management on his own account in +the provinces, he was financially unfortunate. The commercial success of +his life was secured with _Our Boys_, which was played at the Vaudeville +from January 1875 till April 1879--a then unprecedented "run." _The Upper +Crust_, another of his successes, gave a congenial opportunity to Mr J.L. +Toole for one of his [v.04 p.0906] inimitably broad character-sketches. +During the last few years of his life Byron was in frail health; he died in +Clapham on the 11th of April 1884. H.J. Byron was the author of some of the +most popular stage pieces of his day. Yet his extravaganzas have no wit but +that of violence; his rhyming couplets are without polish, and decorated +only by forced and often pointless puns. His sentiment had T.W. Robertson's +insipidity without its freshness, and restored an element of vulgarity +which his predecessor had laboured to eradicate from theatrical tradition. +He could draw a "Cockney" character with some fidelity, but his _dramatis +personae_ were usually mere puppets for the utterance of his jests. Byron +was also the author of a novel, _Paid in Full_ (1865), which appeared +originally in _Temple Bar_. In his social relations he had many friends, +among whom he was justly popular for geniality and imperturbable good +temper. + +BYRON, JOHN BYRON, 1ST BARON (c. 1600-1652), English cavalier, was the +eldest son of Sir John Byron (d. 1625), a member of an old Lancashire +family which had settled at Newstead, near Nottingham. During the third +decade of the 17th century Byron was member of parliament for the town and +afterwards for the county of Nottingham; and having been knighted and +gained some military experience he was an enthusiastic partisan of Charles +I. during his struggle with the parliament. In December 1641 the king made +him lieutenant of the Tower of London, but in consequence of the persistent +demand of the House of Commons he was removed from this position at his own +request early in 1642. At the opening of the Civil War Byron joined Charles +at York. He was present at the skirmish at Powick Bridge; he commanded his +own regiment of horse at Edgehill and at Roundway Down, where he was +largely responsible for the royalist victory; and at the first battle of +Newbury Falkland placed himself under his orders. In October 1643 he was +created Baron Byron of Rochdale, and was soon serving the king in Cheshire, +where the soldiers sent over from Ireland augmented his forces. His defeat +at Nantwich, however, in January 1644, compelled him to retire into +Chester, and he was made governor of this city by Prince Rupert. At Marston +Moor, as previously at Edgehill, Byron's rashness gave a great advantage to +the enemy; then after fighting in Lancashire and North Wales he returned to +Chester, which he held for about twenty weeks in spite of the king's defeat +at Naseby and the general hopelessness of the royal cause. Having obtained +favourable terms he surrendered the city in February 1646. Byron took some +slight part in the second Civil War, and was one of the seven persons +excepted by parliament from all pardon in 1648. But he had already left +England, and he lived abroad in attendance on the royal family until his +death in Paris in August 1652. Although twice married Byron left no +children, and his title descended to his brother Richard (1605-1679), who +had been governor of Newark. Byron's five other brothers served Charles I. +during the Civil War, and one authority says that the seven Byrons were all +present at Edgehill. + +BYRON, HON. JOHN (1723-1786), British vice-admiral, second son of the 4th +Lord Byron, and grandfather of the poet, was born on the 8th of November +1723. While still very young, he accompanied Anson in his voyage of +discovery round the world. During many successive years he saw a great deal +of hard service, and so constantly had he to contend, on his various +expeditions, with adverse gales and dangerous storms, that he was nicknamed +by the sailors, "Foul-weather Jack." It is to this that Lord Byron alludes +in his _Epistle to Augusta_:-- + + "A strange doom is thy father's son's, and past + Recalling as it lies beyond redress, + Reversed for him our grandsire's fate of yore, + He had no rest at sea, nor I on shore." + +Among his other expeditions was that to Louisburg in 1760, where he was +sent in command of a squadron to destroy the fortifications. And in 1764 in +the "Dolphin" he went for a prolonged cruise in the South Seas. In 1768 he +published a _Narrative_ of some of his early adventures with Anson, which +was to some extent utilized by his grandson in _Don Juan_. In 1769 he was +appointed governor of Newfoundland. In 1775 he attained his flag rank, and +in 1778 became a vice-admiral. In the same year he was despatched with a +fleet to watch the movements of the Count d'Estaing, and in July 1779 +fought an indecisive engagement with him off Grenada. He soon after +returned to England, retiring into private life, and died on the 10th of +April 1786. + +BYSTROeM, JOHAN NIKLAS (1783-1848), Swedish sculptor, was born on the 18th +of December 1783 at Philipstad. At the age of twenty he went to Stockholm +and studied for three years under Sergel. In 1809 he gained the academy +prize, and in the following year visited Rome. He sent home a beautiful +work, "The Reclining Bacchante," in half life size, which raised him at +once to the first rank among Swedish sculptors. On his return to Stockholm +in 1816 he presented the crown prince with a colossal statue of himself, +and was entrusted with several important works. Although he was appointed +professor of sculpture at the academy, he soon returned to Italy, and with +the exception of the years from 1838 to 1844 continued to reside there. He +died at Rome in 1848. Among Bystroem's numerous productions the best are his +representations of the female form, such as "Hebe," "Pandora," "Juno +suckling Hercules," and the "Girl entering the Bath." His colossal statues +of the Swedish kings are also much admired. + +BYTOWNITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the plagioclase (_q.v._) +series of the felspars. The name was originally given (1835) by T. Thomson, +to a greenish-white felspathic mineral found in a boulder near Bytown (now +the city of Ottawa) in Ontario, but this material was later shown on +microscopical examination to be a mixture. The name was afterwards applied +by G. Tschermak to those plagioclase felspars which lie between labradorite +and anorthite; and this has been generally adopted by petrologists. In +chemical composition and in optical and other physical characters it is +thus much nearer to the anorthite end of the series than to albite. Like +labradorite and anorthite, it is a common constituent of basic igneous +rocks, such as gabbro and basalt. Isolated crystals of bytownite bounded by +well-defined faces are unknown. + +(L. J. S.) + +BYWATER, INGRAM (1840- ), English classical scholar, was born in London on +the 27th of June 1840. He was educated at University and King's College +schools, and at Queen's College, Oxford. He obtained a first class in +Moderations (1860) and in the final classical schools (1862), and became +fellow of Exeter (1863), reader in Greek (1883), regius professor of Greek +(1893-1908), and student of Christ Church. He received honorary degrees +from various universities, and was elected corresponding member of the +Prussian Academy of Sciences. He is chiefly known for his editions of Greek +philosophical works: _Heracliti Ephesii Reliquiae_ (1877); _Prisciani Lydi +quae extant_ (edited for the Berlin Academy in the _Supplementum +Aristolelicum_, 1886); Aristotle, _Ethica Nicomachea_ (1890), _De Arte +Poetica_ (1898); _Contributions to the Textual Criticism of the Nicomachean +Ethics_ (1892). + +BYZANTINE ART + +PLATE I. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE HOLY WISDOM (S. SOPHIA), CONSTANTINOPLE. +Sixth century, the dome was rebuilt in the tenth century. The metal +balustrades, pulpits, and the large discs are Turkish.] + +CAPITALS OF COLUMNS. + +[Illustration: S. VITALI, RAVENNA. +Sixth century.] + +[Illustration: S. MARK, VENICE. +Eleventh century.] + +[Illustration: S. APOLLINARI, RAVENNA. +Sixth century.] + +PLATE II. + +[Illustration: SMALL MEDIEVAL CATHEDRAL, ATHENS. _Photo: Emery Walker._] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF ST. LUKE'S, NEAR DELPHI. + +Showing a typical scheme of internal decoration. The lower parts of the +walls are covered with marble, and the upper surfaces and vaults with +mosaics and paintings. Eleventh century. _From a Drawing by Sidney +Barnsley._] + +BYZANTINE ART.[1] By "Byzantine art" is meant the art of Constantinople +(sometimes called _Byzantium_ in the middle ages as in antiquity), and of +the Byzantine empire; it represents the form of art which followed the +classical, after the transitional interval of the early Christian period. +It reached maturity under Justinian (527-565), declined and revived with +the fortunes of the empire, and attained a second culmination from the 10th +to the 12th centuries. Continuing in existence throughout the later middle +ages, it is hardly yet extinct in the lands of the Greek Church. It had +enormous influence over the art of Europe and the East during the early +middle ages, not only through the distribution of minor works from +Constantinople but by the reputation of its architecture and painting. +Several buildings in Italy are truly Byzantine. It is difficult to set a +time for the origin of the style. When Constantine founded new Rome the art +was still classical, although it had even then gathered up many of the +elements which were to transform its aspect. Just two hundred years later +some of the most characteristic works of this style of art were being +produced, such [v.04 p.0907] as the churches of St Sergius, the Holy Wisdom +(St Sophia), and the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, and San Vitale at +Ravenna. We may best set an arbitrary point for the demarcation of the new +style midway between these two dates, with the practical separation of the +eastern and western empires. + +The style may be said to have arisen from the orientalization of Roman art, +and itself largely contributed to the formation of the Saracenic or +Mahommedan styles. As Choisy well says, "The history of art in the Roman +epoch presents two currents, one with its source in Rome, the other in +Hellenic Asia. When Rome fell the Orient returned to itself and to the +freedom of exploring new ways. There was now a new form of society, the +Christian civilization, and, in art, an original type of architecture, the +Byzantine." It has hardly been sufficiently emphasized how closely the art +was identified with the outward expression of the Christian church; in +fact, the Christian element in late classical art is the chief root of the +new style, and it was the moral and intellectual criticism that was brought +to bear on the old material, which really marked off Byzantine art from +being merely a late form of classic. + +Hardly any distinction can be set up in the material contents of the art; +it was at least for a period only simplified and sweetened, and it is this +freshening which prepared the way for future development. It must be +confessed, however, that certain influences darkened the style even before +it had reached maturity; chief among these was a gloomy hierarchical +splendour, and a ritual rigidity, which to-day we yet refer to, quite +properly, as Byzantinism. Choisy sees a distinction in the constructive +types of Roman and Byzantine architecture, in that the former covered +spaces by concreted vaults built on centres, which approximated to a sort +of "monolithic" formation, whereas in the Byzantine style the vaults were +built of brick and drawn forward in space without the help of preparatory +support. Building in this way, it became of the greatest importance that +the vaults should be so arranged as to bring about an equilibrium of +thrusts. The distinction holds as between Rome in the 4th century and +Constantinople in the 6th, but we are not sufficiently sure that the +concreted construction did not depend on merely local circumstances, and it +is possible, in other centres of the empire where strong cement was not so +readily obtainable, and wood was scarce, that the Byzantine _constructive_ +method was already known in classical times. Choisy, following Dieulafoy, +would derive the Byzantine system of construction from Persia, but this +proposition seems to depend on a mistaken chronology of the monuments as +shown by Perrot and Chipiez in their _History of Art in Persia_. It seems +probable that the erection of brick vaulting was indigenous in Egypt as a +building method. Strzygowski, in his recent elaborate examination of the +art-types found at the palace of Mashita (Mschatta), a remarkable ruin +discovered by Canon Tristram in Moab, of which the most important parts +have now been brought to the new Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin, shows +that there are Persian ideas intermixed with Byzantine in its decoration, +and there are also brick arches of high elliptical form in the structure. +He seems disposed to date this work rather in the 5th than in the 6th +century, and to see in it an intermediate step between the Byzantine work +of the west and a Mesopotamian style, which he postulates as probably +having its centre at Seleucia-Ctesiphon. From the examples brought forward +by the learned author himself, it is safer as yet to look on the work as in +the main Byzantine, with many Egyptian and Syrian elements, and an +admixture, as has been said, of Persian ideas in the ornamentation. Egypt +was certainly an important centre in the development of the Byzantine +style. + +The course of the transition to Byzantine, the first mature Christian +style, cannot be satisfactorily traced while, guided by Roman +archaeologists, we continue to regard Rome as a source of Christian art +apart from the rest of the world. Christianity itself was not of Rome, it +was an eastern leaven in Roman society. Christian art even in that capital +was, we may say, an eastern leaven in Roman art. If we set the year 450 for +the beginning of Byzantine art, counting all that went before as early +Christian, we get one thousand years to the Moslem conquest of +Constantinople (1453). This millennium is broken into three well-marked +periods by the great iconoclastic schism (726-842) and the taking of +Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204. The first we may call the +classical epoch of Byzantine art; it includes the mature period under +Justinian (the central year of which we may put as 550), from which it +declined until the settlement of the quarrel about images, 400 years in +all, to, say, 850. The second period, to which we may assign the limits +850-1200, is, in the main, one of orientalizing influences, especially in +architecture, although in MSS. and paintings there was, at one time, a +distinct and successful classical revival. The interregnum had caused +almost complete isolation from the West, and inspiration was only to be +found either by casting back on its own course, or by borrowing from the +East. This period is best represented by the splendid works undertaken by +Basil the Macedonian (867-886) and his immediate successors, in the +imperial palace, Constantinople. The third period is marked by the return +of western influence, of which the chief agency was probably the +establishment of Cistercian monasteries. This western influence, although +it may be traced here and there, was not sufficient, however, to change the +essentially oriental character of the art, which from first to last may be +described as Oriental-Christian. + +_Architecture._--The architecture of our period is treated in some detail +in the article ARCHITECTURE; here we can only glance at some broad aspects +of its development. As early as the building of Constantine's churches in +Palestine there were two chief types of plan in use--the basilican, or +axial, type, represented by the basilica at the Holy Sepulchre, and the +circular, or central, type, represented by the great octagonal church once +at Antioch. Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always +vaulted, for a central dome would seem to furnish their very _raison +d'etre_. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, +in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at the noble +church of St George, Salonica (5th century?), or by a vaulted aisle, as at +Sta Costanza, Rome (4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the +central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions +helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at the mausoleum of Galla +Placidia, Ravenna (5th century). The most famous church of this type was +that of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople. Vaults appear to have been early +applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at St Irene, +Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two +domes. + +At St Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the +central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal +additions made to the octagon. Finally, at St Sophia (6th century) a +combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning +ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft. square is increased to 200 ft. +in length by adding two hemicycles to it to the east and the west; these +are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two +others, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. This +unbroken area, about 260 ft. long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft. +wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the conchs +of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the +hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central +square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is +supported by vaulted aisles in two storeys which bring the exterior form to +a general square. At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were +applied to a cruciform plan, that in the midst being the highest. After the +6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale +with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to +approximate to one type. The central area covered by the dome was included +in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, +west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof +system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave [v.04 +p.0908] and transepts. Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes +octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead +of four, and the "nave" and "transepts" were narrower in proportion. If we +draw a square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are +greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these +points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. +Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and +opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the +front. Still in front put a square court. The court is the _atrium_ and +usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on pillars. The +entrance porch is the _narthex_. The central area covered by the dome is +the _solea_, the place for the choir of singers. Here also stood the +_ambo_. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which +divided off the _bema_, where the altar was situated, from the body of the +church; this screen, bearing images, is the _iconastasis_. The altar was +protected by a canopy or _ciborium_ resting on pillars. Rows of rising +seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the +middle eastern point formed the _synthronon_. The two smaller compartments +and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the _diaconicon_ and +_prothesis_. The continuous influence from the East is strangely shown in +the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built about the +12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to +make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic +writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior +brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, +key-patterns, &c.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian +buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. +The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling +of the Roman variety. The window and door frames were of marble. The +interior surfaces were adorned all over by mosaics or paintings in the +higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, +which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, +although in one surface, the colouring formed a series of large panels. The +choicer marbles were opened out so that the two surfaces produced by the +division formed a symmetrical pattern resembling somewhat the marking of +skins of beasts. + +_Mosaics and Paintings._--The method of depicting designs by bringing +together morsels of variously colored materials is of high antiquity. We +are apt to think of a line of distinction between classical and Christian +mosaics in that the former were generally of marble and the latter mostly +of colored and gilt glass. But glass mosaics were already in use in the +Augustan age, and the use of gilt tesserae goes back to the 1st or 2nd +century. The first application of glass to this purpose seems to have been +made in Egypt, the great glass-working centre of antiquity, and the gilding +of tesserae may with probability be traced to the same source, whence, it +is generally agreed, most of the gilt glass vessels, of which so many have +been found in the catacombs, were derived. The earliest existing mosaics of +a typically Christian character are some to be found at Santa Costanza, +Rome (4th century). Other mosaics on the vaults of the same church are of +marble and follow a classical tradition. It is probable that we have here +the meeting-point of two art-currents, the indigenous and the eastern. In +Rome, the great apse-mosaic of S. Pudenziana dates from about A.D. 400. The +mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, is incrusted within by mosaic work of +the 5th century, and most probably the dome mosaics of the church of St +George, Salonica, are also of this period. Of the 6th century are many of +the magnificent examples still remaining at Ravenna, portions of the +original incrustation of St Sophia, Constantinople, those of the basilica +at Parenzo, on the Gulf of Istria, and of St Catherines, Sinai. An +interesting mosaic which is probably of this period, and has only recently +been described, is at the small church of Keti in Cyprus. This, which may +be the only Byzantine mosaic in the British dominions, fills the conch of a +tiny apse, but is none the less of great dignity. In the centre is a figure +of the Virgin with the Holy Child in her arms standing between two angels +who hold disks marked with the sign [CHI]. They are named Michael and +Gabriel. Another mosaic of this period brought from Ravenna to Germany two +generations ago has been recently almost rediscovered, and set up in the +new Museum of Decorative Art in Berlin. In this, a somewhat similar +composition fills the conch of the apse, but here it is the Risen Christ +who stands between the two archangels. Above, in a broad strip, a frieze of +angels blowing trumpets stand on the celestial sea on either hand of the +Enthroned Majesty. + +Such mosaics flowed out widely over the Christian world trom its art +centres, as far east as Sana, the capital of Yemen, as far north as Kiev in +Russia, and Aachen in Germany, and as far west as Paris, and continued in +time for a thousand years without break in the tradition save by the +iconoclastic dispute. The finest late example is the well-known +"mosaic-church" (the Convent of the Saviour) at Constantinople, a work of +the 14th century. + +The single figures were from the first, and for the most part, treated with +an axial symmetry. Almost all are full front; only occasionally will one, +like the announcing angel, be drawn with a three-quarter face. The features +are thus kept together on the general map of the face. In the same way the +details of a tree will be collected on a simple including form which makes +a sort of mat for them. Groups, similarly, are closely gathered up into +masses of balanced form, and such masses are arranged with strict regard +for general symmetry. "The art," as Bayet says, "in losing something of +life and liberty became so much the better fitted for the decoration of +great edifices." The technical means were just as much simplified, and only +a few frank colours were made sufficient, by skilful juxtaposition, to do +all that was required of them. The fine pure blue, or bright gold, +backgrounds on which the figures were spaced, as well as the broken surface +incidental to the process, created an atmosphere which harmonized all +together. At St Sophia there were literally acres of such mosaics, and they +seem to have been applied with similar profusion in the imperial palace. + +Mosaic was only a more magnificent kind of painting, and painted design +followed exactly the same laws; the difference is in the splendour of +effect and in the solidity and depth of colour. Paintings, from the first, +must have been of more grey and pearly hues. A large side chapel at the +mosaic church at Constantinople is painted, and it is difficult to say +which is really the more beautiful, the deep splendour of the one, or the +tender yet gay colour of the other. The greatest thing in Byzantine art was +this picturing of the interiors of entire buildings with a series of +mosaics or paintings, filling the wall space, vaults and domes with a +connected story. The typical character of the personages and scenes, the +elimination of non-essentials, and the continuity of the tradition, brought +about an intensity of expression such as may nowhere else be found. It is +part of the limited greatness of this side of Byzantine art that there was +no room in it for the gaiety and humour of the later medieval schools; all +was solemn, epical, cosmic. When such stories are displayed on the golden +ground of arches and domes, and related in a connected cycle, the result +produces, as it was intended to produce, a sense of the universal and +eternal. Beside this great power of co-ordination possessed by Byzantine +artists, they created imaginative types of the highest perfection. They +clothed Christian ideas with forms so worthy, which have become so +diffused, and so intimately one with the history, that we are apt to take +them for granted, and not to see in them the superb results of Greek +intuition and power of expression. Such a type is the Pantocrator,--the +Creator-Redeemer, the Judge inflexible and yet compassionate,--who is +depicted at the zenith of all greater domes; such the Virgin with the Holy +Child, enthroned or standing in the conchs of apses, all tenderness and +dignity, or with arms extended, all solicitude; of her image the _Painter's +Guide_ directs that it is to be painted with the "complexion the colour of +wheat, hair and eyes brown, grand eyebrows, and beautiful eyes, clad in +beautiful clothing, humble, beautiful and faultless"; such are the angels +with their mighty [v.04 p.0909] wings, splendid impersonations of +beneficent power; such are the prophets, doctors, martyrs, saints,--all +have been fixed into final types. + +We are apt to speak of the rigidity and fixity of Byzantine work, but the +method is germane in the strictest sense to the result desired, and we +should ask ourselves how far it is possible to represent such a serious and +moving drama except by dealing with more or less unchangeable types. It +could be no otherwise. This art was not a matter of taste, it was a growth +of thought, cast into an historical mould. Again, the artists had an +extraordinary power of concentrating and abstracting the great things of a +story into a few elements or symbols. For example, the seven days of +creation are each figured by some simple detail, such as a tree, or a +flight of birds, or symbolically, as seven spirits; the flood by an ark on +the waters. What the capabilities of such a method are, where invention is +not allowed to wander into variety, but may only add intensity, may, for +instance, be seen in representations of the Agony in the Garden. This +subject is usually divided into three sections, each consecutive one +showing, with the same general scene, greater darkness, an advance up the +hill, and the figure of Christ more bowed. Another composition, the "Sleep +(death) of the Virgin," is all sweetness and peace, but no less powerful. A +remarkable invention is the _etomasia_, a splendid empty throne prepared +for the Second Advent. The stories of the Old Testament are put into +relation with the Gospel by way of type and anti-type. There are +allegories: the anchorite life contrasted with the mad life of the world, +the celestial ladder, &c., and fine impersonations, such as night and dawn, +mercy and truth, cities and rivers, are frequently found, especially in MS. +pictures. + +A few general schemes may be briefly summarized. St Sophia has the +Pantocrator in the middle of the dome, and four cherubim of colossal size +at the four corners; on the walls below were angels, prophets, saints and +doctors. On the circle of the apse was enthroned the Virgin. To the right +and left, high above the altar, were two archangels holding banners +inscribed "Holy, Holy, Holy." These last are also found at Nicaea, and at +the monastery of St Luke. The church of the Holy Apostles had the Ascension +in the central dome, and below, the Life of Christ. St Sophia, Salonica, +also has the Ascension, a composition which is repeated on the central dome +of St Mark's, Venice. In the eastern dome of the Venetian church is Christ +surrounded by prophets, and, in the western dome, the Descent of the Holy +Spirit upon the Apostles. A Pentecost similar to the last occupies the dome +over the Bema of St Luke's monastery in Phocis; in the central dome of this +church is the Pantocrator, while in a zone below stand, the Virgin to the +east, St John Baptist to the west, and the four archangels, Michael, +Gabriel, Raphael and Uriel, to the north and south. A better example of +grandeur of treatment can hardly be cited than the paintings of the now +destroyed dome of the little church of Megale Panagia at Athens, a dome +which was only about 12 ft. across. At the centre was Christ enthroned, +next came a series of nine semicircles containing the orders of the angels, +seraphim, cherubim, thrones, dominations, virtues, powers, principalities, +archangels and angels. Below these came a wide blue belt set with stars and +the signs of the zodiac; to the east the sun, to the west the moon. Still +below these were the winds, hail and snow; and still lower mountains and +trees and the life on the earth, with all of which were interwoven passages +from the last three Psalms, forming a Benedicite. After St Mark's, Venice, +the completest existing scheme of mosaics is that of the church of St Luke; +those of Daphne, Athens, are the most beautiful. A complete series of +paintings exists in one of the monastic churches on Mount Athos. The +Pantocrator is at the centre of the dome, then comes a zone with the +Virgin, St John Baptist and the orders of the angels. Then the prophets +between the windows of the dome and the four evangelists in the +pendentives. On the rest of the vaults is the life of Christ, ending at the +Bema with the Ascension; in the apse is the Virgin above, the Divine +Liturgy lower, and the four doctors of the church below. All the walls are +painted as well as the vaults. The mosaics overflowed from the interiors on +to the external walls of buildings even in Roman days, and the same +practice was continued on churches. The remains of an external mosaic of +the 6th century exist on the west facade of the basilica at Parenzo. Christ +is there seated amongst the seven candlesticks, and adored by saints. At +the basilica at Bethlehem the gable end was appropriately covered with a +mosaic of the Nativity, also a work of the age of Justinian. In Rome, St +Peter's and other churches had mosaics on the facades; a tradition +represented, in a small way, at San Miniato, Florence. At Constantinople, +according to Clavigo, the Spanish ambassador who visited that city about +1400, the church of St Mary of the Fountain had its exterior richly worked +in gold, azure and other colours; and it seems almost necessary to believe +that the bare front of the narthex of St Sophia was intended to be +decorated in a similar manner. In Damascus the courtyard of the Great +Mosque seems to have been adorned with mosaics; photographs taken before +the fire in 1893 show patches on the central gable in some of the spandrels +of the side colonnade and on the walls of the isolated octagonal treasury. +The mosaics here were of Byzantine workmanship, and their effect, used in +such abundance, must have been of great splendour. In Jerusalem the mosque +of Omar also had portions of the exterior covered with mosaics. We may +imagine that such external decorations of the churches, where a few solemn +figures told almost as shadows on the golden background brightly reflecting +the sun, must have been even more glorious than the imagery of their +interiors. + +Painted books were hardly different in their style from the paintings on +the walls. Of the MSS. the Cottonian Genesis, now only a collection of +charred fragments, was an early example. The great _Natural History_ of +Dioscorides of Vienna (c. 500) and the Joshua Roll of the Vatican, which +have both been lately published in perfect facsimile, are magnificent +works. In the former the plants are drawn with an accuracy of observation +which was to disappear for a thousand years. The latter shows a series of +drawings delicately tinted in pinks and blues. Many of the compositions +contain classical survivals, like personified rivers. + +In some of the miniatures of the later school of the art the classical +revival of the 10th century was especially marked. Still later others show +a very definite Persian influence in their ornamentation, where intricate +arabesques almost of the style of eastern rugs are found. + +_The Plastic Art._--If painting under the new conditions entered on a fresh +course of power and conquest, if it set itself successfully to provide an +imagery for new and intense thought, sculpture, on the other hand, seems to +have withered away as it became removed from the classic stock. Already in +the pre-Constantinian epoch of classical art sculpture had become strangely +dry and powerless, and as time went on the traditions of modelling appear +to have been forgotten. Two points of recent criticism may be mentioned +here. It has been shown that the porphyry images of warriors at the +southwest angle of St Mark's, Venice, are of Egyptian origin and are of +late classical tradition. The celebrated bronze St Peter at Rome is now +assigned to the 13th century. Not only did statue-making become nearly a +lost art, but architectural carvings ceased to be seen as _modelled form_, +and a new system of relief came into use. Ornament, instead of being +gathered up into forcible projections relieved against retiring planes, and +instead of having its surfaces modulated all over with delicate gradations +of shade, was spread over a given space in an even fretwork. Such a highly +developed member as the capital, for instance, was thought of first as a +simple, solid form, usually more or less the shape of a bowl, and the +carving was spread out over the general surface, the background being sunk +into sharply defined spaces of shadow, all about the same size. Often the +background was so deeply excavated that it ceased to be a plane supporting +the relieved parts, but passed wholly into darkness. Strzygowski has given +to this process the name of the "deep-dark" ground. A further step was to +relieve the upper fretwork of carving from the ground altogether in certain +places by cutting away the sustaining portions. + +[v.04 p.0910] The simplicity, the definition and crisp sharpness of some of +the results are entirely delightful. The bluntness and weariness of many of +the later modelled Roman forms disappear in the new energy of workmanship +which was engaged in exploring a fresh field of beauty. These brightly +illuminated lattices of carved ornament seem to hold within them masses of +cold shadow. Beautiful as was this method of architectural adornment, it +must be allowed that it was, in essence, much more elementary than the +school of modelled form. All such carvings were usually brightly coloured +and gilt, and it seems probable that the whole was considered rather as a +colour arrangement than as sculpture proper. + +Plaster work, again, an art on which wonderful skill was lavished in Rome, +became under the Byzantines extremely rude. Many good examples of this work +exist at San Vitale and Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna, also at +Parenzo, and at St Sophia, Constantinople. Later examples of plaster work +of Byzantine tradition are to be found at Cividale, and at Sant' Ambrogio, +Milan, where the tympana of the well-known baldachin are of this material, +and contain modelled figures. + +Coins and medallions of even the best period of Byzantine art prove what a +deep abyss separates them from the power over modelled relief shown in +classical examples. The sculptural art is best displayed by ivory carvings, +although this is more to be attributed to their pictorial quality than to a +feeling for modelling. + +_Metal Work, Ivories and Textiles._--One of the greatest of Byzantine arts +is the goldsmith's. This absorbed so much from Persian and Oriental schools +as to become semi-barbaric. Under Justinian the transformation from +Classical art was almost complete. Some few examples, like a silver dish +from Cyprus in the British Museum, show refined restraint; on the other +hand, the mosaic portraits of the emperor and Theodora show crowns and +jewels of full Oriental style, and the description of the splendid fittings +of St Sophia read like an eastern tale. Goldsmith's work was executed on +such a scale for the great church as to form parts of the architecture of +the interior. The altar was wholly of gold, and its ciborium and the +iconastasis were of silver. In the later palace-church, built by Basil the +Macedonian, the previous metals were used to such an extent that it is +clear, from the description, that the interior was intended to be, as far +as possible, like a great jewelled shrine. Gold and silver, we are told, +were spread over all the church, not only in the mosaics, but in plating +and other applications. The enclosure of the bema, with its columns and +entablatures, was of silver gilt, and set with gems and pearls. + +The most splendid existing example of goldsmith's work on a large scale is +the _Paid d'Oro_ of St Mark's, Venice; an assemblage of many panels on +which saints and angels are enamelled. The monastic church of St Catherine, +Sinai, is entered through a pair of enamelled doors, and several doors +inlaid with silver still exist. In these doors the ground was of +gilt-bronze; but there is also record of silver doors in the imperial +palace at Constantinople. The inlaid doors of St Paul Outside the Walls at +Rome were executed in Constantinople by Stauricios, in 1070, and have Greek +inscriptions. There are others at Salerno (c. 1080), but the best known are +those at St Mark's, Venice. In all these the imagery was delineated in +silver on the gilt-bronze ground. The earliest works of this sort are still +to be found in Constantinople. The panels of a door at St Sophia bear the +monograms of Theophilus and Michael (840). Two other doors in the narthex +of the same church, having simpler ornamentation of inlaid silver, are +probably as early as the time of Justinian. + +The process of enamelling dates from late classical times and Venturi +supposes that it was invented in Alexandria. The cloisonne process, +characteristic of Byzantine enamels, is thought by Kondakov to be derived +from Persia, and to its study he has devoted a splendid volume. One of the +finest examples of this cloisonne is the reliquary at Limburg on which the +enthroned Christ appears between St Mary and St John in the midst of the +twelve apostles. An inscription tells that it was executed for the emperors +Constantine and Romanus (948-959). + +A reliquary lately added to the J. Pierpont Morgan collection at South +Kensington is of the greatest beauty in regard to the colour and clearness +of the enamel. The cover, which is only about 41/2 by 3 ins., has in the +centre a crucifixion with St Mary and St John to the right and left, while +around are busts of the apostles. Christ is vested in a tunic. The ground +colour is the green of emerald, the rest mostly blue and white. The +cloisons are of gold. Two other Byzantine enamels are in the permanent +collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum: one is a cross with the +crucifixion on a background of the same emerald enamel; the other is a +small head of St Paul of remarkably fine workmanship. + +Ivory-working was another characteristic Byzantine art, although, like so +many others it had its origin in antiquity. One of the earliest ivories of +the Byzantine type is the diptych at Monza, showing a princess and a boy, +supposed to be Galla Placidia and Valentinian III. This already shows the +broad, flattened treatment which seems to mark the ivory work of the East. +The majestic archangel of the British Museum, one of the largest panels +known, is probably of the 5th century, and almost certainly, as Strzygowski +has shown, of Syrian origin. Design and execution are equally fine. The +drawing of the body, and the modelling of the drapery, are accomplished and +classical. Only the full front pose, the balanced disposition of the large +wings, and the intense outlook of the face, give it the Byzantine type. + +Ivory, like gold-work and enamel, was pressed into the adornment of +architectural works. The ambo erected by Justinian at St Sophia was in part +covered by ivory panels set into the marble. The best existing specimen of +this kind of work is the celebrated ivory throne at Ravenna. This +masterpiece, which resembles a large, high-backed chair, is entirely +covered with sculptured ivory, delicate carvings of scriptural subjects and +ornament. It is of the 6th century and bears the monogram of Bishop +Maximian. It is probably of Egyptian or Syrian origin. + +So many fragments of ivories have been discovered in recent explorations in +Egypt that it is most likely that Alexandria, a fit centre for receiving +the material, was also its centre of distribution. The weaving of patterned +silks was known in Europe in the classical age, and they reached great +development in the Byzantine era. A fragment, long ago figured by Semper, +showing a classical design of a nereid on a sea-horse, is so like the +designs found on many ivories discovered in Egypt that we may probably +assign it to Alexandria. Such fabrics going back to the 3rd century have +been found in Egypt which must have been one of the chief centres for the +production of silk as for linen textiles. The Victoria and Albert Museum is +particularly rich in early silks. One fine example, having rose-coloured +stripes and repeated figures of Samson and the lion, must be of the great +period of the 6th century. The description of St Sophia written at that +time tells of the altar curtains that they bore woven images of Christ, St +Peter and St Paul standing under tabernacles upon a crimson ground, their +garments being enriched with gold embroidery. Later the patterns became +more barbaric and of great scale, lions trampled across the stuff, and in +large circles were displayed eagles, griffins and the like in a fine +heraldic style. From the origin of the raw material in China and India and +the ease of transport, such figured stuffs gathered up and distributed +patterns over both Europe and Asia. The Persian influence is marked. There +is, for example, a pattern of a curious dragon having front feet and a +peacock's tail. It appears on a silver Persian dish in the Hermitage +Museum, it is found on the mixed Byzantine and Persian carvings of the +palace of Mashita, and it occurs on several silks of which there are two +varieties at the Victoria and Albert Museum, both of which are classed as +Byzantine; it is difficult to say of many of these patterns whether they +are Sassanian originals or Byzantine adaptations from them. + +AUTHORITIES.--A very complete bibliography is given by H. Leclercq, _Manuel +d'archeologie chretienne_ (Paris, 1907). The current authorities for all +that concerns Byzantine history or art [v.04 p.0911] are:--_Byzantinische +Zeitschrift ..._ (Leipzig, 1892 seq.); _Oriens Christianus_ (Rome, 1900 +seq.). See also Dom R.P. Cabrol, _Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne_, +&c. (Paris, 1902 seq.). The best general introduction is:--C. Bayet, _L'Art +byzantin_ (Paris, 1883, new edition, 1904). See J. Strzygowski, _Orient +oder Rom_ (Leipzig, 1901) and other works; Kondakov, _Les Emaux byz._ +(1892), and other works; C. Diehl, _Justinien et la civilis. byz._ (Paris, +1901), and other works; G. Millet, _Le Monastere de Daphne_, &c. (Paris, +1899), and other works; L.G. Schlumberger, _L'Epopee byz._ &c. (1896 seq.); +A. Michel, _Histoire de l'art_, vol. i. (Paris, 1905); H. Brockhaus, _Die +Kunst in den Athos-Klostern_ (Leipzig, 1891); E. Molinier, _Histoire +generale des arts_, &c. i., _Ivoires_ (Paris, 1896); O. Dalton, _Catalogue +of Early Christian Antiquities...of the British Museum_ (1901); A. van +Millingen, _Byzantine Constantinople_ (1899); Salzenberg, _Altchristliche +Baudenkmaler_ &c. (Berlin, 1854); A. Choisy, _L'Art de batir chez les +Byzantins_ (Paris, 1875); Couchand, _Eglises byzantines en Grece_; Ongania, +_Basilica di S. Marco_; Texier and Pullan, _L'Architecture b. 73_ (1864); +Lethaby and Swainson, _Sancta Sophia, Constantinople_ (1894); Schultz and +Barnsley, _The Monastery of St Luke_, &c. (1890); L. de Beylie, +_L'Habitation byz._ (Paris, 1903). For Syria: M. de Voguee, +_L'Architecture...dans la Syrie centrale_ (Paris, 1866-1877); H.C. Butler, +_Architecture and other Arts_, &c. (New York, 1904). For Egypt: W.E. Crum, +_Coptic Monuments_ (Cairo, 1902); A. Gayet, _L'Art Copte_ (Paris, 1902); +A.J. Butler, _Ancient Coptic Churches_. For North Africa: S. Csell, _Les +Monuments antiques de l'Algerie_ (Paris, 1901). For Italy: A. Venturi, +_Storia dell' arte Italiana_ (Milan, 1901); G. Rivoira, _Le Origini della +architettura Lombarda_ (Rome, 1901); C. Errard and A. Gayet, _L'Art +byzantin_, &c. (Paris,1903). + +(W. R. L.) + +[1] For Byzantine literature see GREEK LITERATURE: _Byzantine_. + +BYZANTIUM, an ancient Greek city on the shores of the Bosporus, occupying +the most easterly of the seven hills on which modern Constantinople stands. +It was said to have been founded by Megarians and Argives under Byzas about +657 B.C., but the original settlement having been destroyed in the reign of +Darius Hystaspes by the satrap Otanes, it was recolonized by the Spartan +Pausanias, who wrested it from the Medes after the battle of Plataea (479 +B.C.)--a circumstance which led several ancient chroniclers to ascribe its +foundation to him. Its situation, said to have been fixed by the Delphic +oracle, was remarkable for beauty and security. It had complete control +over the Euxine grain-trade; the absence of tides and the depth of its +harbour rendered its quays accessible to vessels of large burden; while the +tunny and other fisheries were so lucrative that the curved inlet near +which it stood became known as the Golden Horn. The greatest hindrance to +its prosperity was the miscellaneous character of the population, partly +Lacedaemonian and partly Athenian, who flocked to it under Pausanias. It +was thus a subject of dispute between these states, and was alternately in +the possession of each, till it fell into the hands of the Macedonians. +From the same cause arose the violent intestine contests which ended in the +establishment of a rude and turbulent democracy. About seven years after +its second colonization, the Athenian Cimon wrested it from the +Lacedaemonians; but in 440 B.C. it returned to its former allegiance. +Alcibiades, after a severe blockade (408 B.C.), gained possession of the +city through the treachery of the Athenian party; in 405 B.C. it was +retaken by Lysander and placed under a Spartan harmost. It was under the +Lacedaemonian power when the Ten Thousand, exasperated by the conduct of +the governor, made themselves masters of the city, and would have pillaged +it had they not been dissuaded by the eloquence of Xenophon. In 390 B.C. +Thrasybulus, with the assistance of Heracleides and Archebius, expelled the +Lacedaemonian oligarchy, and restored democracy and the Athenian influence. + +After having withstood an attempt under Epaminondas to restore it to the +Lacedaemonians, Byzantium joined with Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Mausolus, +King of Caria, in throwing off the yoke of Athens, but soon after sought +Athenian assistance when Philip of Macedon, having overrun Thrace, advanced +against it. The Athenians under Chares suffered a severe defeat from +Amyntas, the Macedonian admiral, but in the following year gained a +decisive victory under Phocion and compelled Philip to raise the siege. The +deliverance of the besieged from a surprise, by means of a flash of light +which revealed the advancing masses of the Macedonian army, has rendered +this siege memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous interference, the +Byzantines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, and stamped a crescent +on their coins, a device which is retained by the Turks to this day. They +also granted the Athenians extraordinary privileges, and erected a monument +in honour of the event in a public part of the city. + +During the reign of Alexander Byzantium was compelled to acknowledge the +Macedonian supremacy; after the decay of the Macedonian power it regained +its independence, but suffered from the repeated incursions of the +Scythians. The losses which they sustained by land roused the Byzantines to +indemnify themselves on the vessels which still crowded the harbour, and +the merchantmen which cleared the straits; but this had the effect of +provoking a war with the neighbouring naval powers. The exchequer being +drained by the payment of 10,000 pieces of gold to buy off the Gauls who +had invaded their territories about 279 B.C., and by the imposition of an +annual tribute which was ultimately raised to 80 talents, they were +compelled to exact a toll on all the ships which passed the Bosporus--a +measure which the Rhodians resented and avenged by a war, wherein the +Byzantines were defeated. After the retreat of the Gauls Byzantium rendered +considerable services to Rome in the contests with Philip II., Antiochus +and Mithradates. + +During the first years of its alliance with Rome it held the rank of a free +confederate city; but, having sought arbitration on some of its domestic +disputes, it was subjected to the imperial jurisdiction, and gradually +stripped of its privileges, until reduced to the status of an ordinary +Roman colony. In recollection of its former services, the emperor Claudius +remitted the heavy tribute which had been imposed on it; but the last +remnant of its independence was taken away by Vespasian, who, in answer to +a remonstrance from Apollonius of Tyana, taunted the inhabitants with +having "forgotten to be free." During the civil wars it espoused the party +of Pescennius Niger; and though skilfully defended by the engineer +Periscus, it was besieged and taken (A.D. 196) by Severus, who destroyed +the city, demolished the famous wall, which was built of massive stones so +closely riveted together as to appear one block, put the principal +inhabitants to the sword and subjected the remainder to the Perinthians. +This overthrow of Byzantium was a great loss to the empire, since it might +have served as a protection against the Goths, who afterwards sailed past +it into the Mediterranean. Severus afterwards relented, and, rebuilding a +large portion of the town, gave it the name of Augusta Antonina. He +ornamented the city with baths, and surrounded the hippodrome with +porticos; but it was not till the time of Caracalla that it was restored to +its former political privileges. It had scarcely begun to recover its +former position when, through the capricious resentment of Gallienus, the +inhabitants were once more put to the sword and the town was pillaged. From +this disaster the inhabitants recovered so far as to be able to give an +effectual check to an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius II., +and the fortifications were greatly strengthened during the civil wars +which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Licinius, after his defeat +before Adrianople, retired to Byzantium, where he was besieged by +Constantine, and compelled to surrender (A.D. 323-324). To check the +inroads of the barbarians on the north of the Black Sea, Diocletian had +resolved to transfer his capital to Nicomedia; but Constantine, struck with +the advantages which the situation of Byzantium presented, resolved to +build a new city there on the site of the old and transfer the seat of +government to it. The new capital was inaugurated with special ceremonies, +A.D. 330. (See CONSTANTINOPLE.) + +The ancient historians invariably note the profligacy of the inhabitants of +Byzantium. They are described as an idle, depraved people, spending their +time for the most part in loitering about the harbour, or carousing over +the fine wine of Maronea. In war they trembled at the sound of a trumpet, +in peace they quaked before the shouting of their own demagogues; and +during the assault of Philip II. they could only be prevailed on to man the +walls by the savour of extempore cook-shops distributed along the ramparts. +The modern Greeks attribute the introduction of Christianity into Byzantium +to St Andrew; it certainly had some hold there in the time of Severus. + +[v.04 p.0912] C The third letter in the Latin alphabet and its descendants +corresponds in position and in origin to the Greek Gamma ([Gamma], +[gamma]), which in its turn is borrowed from the third symbol of the +Phoenician alphabet (Heb. _Gimel_). The earliest Semitic records give its +form as [Illustration] or more frequently [Illustration] or [Illustration] +The form [Illustration] is found in the earliest inscriptions of Crete, +Attica, Naxos and some other of the Ionic islands. In Argolis and Euboea +especially a form with legs of unequal length is found [Illustration] From +this it is easy to pass to the most widely spread Greek form, the ordinary +[Illustration] In Corinth, however, and its colony Corcyra, in Ozolian +Locris and Elis, a form [Illustration] inclined at a different angle is +found. From this form the transition is simple to the rounded +[Illustration] which is generally found in the same localities as the +pointed form, but is more widely spread, occurring in Arcadia and on +Chalcidian vases of the 6th century B.C., in Rhodes and Megara with their +colonies in Sicily. In all these cases the sound represented was a hard G +(as in _gig_). The rounded form was probably that taken over by the Romans +and with the value of G. This is shown by the permanent abbreviation of the +proper names Gaius and Gnaeus by C. and Cn. respectively. On the early +inscription discovered in the Roman Forum in 1899 the letter occurs but +once, in the form [Illustration] written from right to left. The broad +lower end of the symbol is rather an accidental pit in the stone than an +attempt at a diacritic mark--the word is _regei_, in all probability the +early dative form of _rex_, "king." It is hard to decide why Latin adopted +the _g_-symbol with the value of _k_, a letter which it possessed +originally but dropped, except in such stereotyped abbreviations as K. for +the proper name _Kaeso_ and _Kal._ for _Calendae_. There are at least two +possibilities: (1) that in Latium _g_ and _k_ were pronounced almost +identically, as, _e.g._, in the German of Wuerttemberg or in the Celtic +dialects, the difference consisting only in the greater energy with which +the _k_-sound is produced; (2) that the confusion is graphic, K being +sometimes written [Illustration] which was then regarded as two separate +symbols. A further peculiarity of the use of C in Latin is in the +abbreviation for the district _Subura_ in Roma and its adjective +_Suburanus_, which appears as SVC. Here C no doubt represents G, but there +is no interchange between _g_ and _b_ in Latin. In other dialects of Italy +_b_ is found representing an original voiced guttural (_gw_), which, +however, is regularly replaced by _v_ in Latin. As the district was full of +traders, _Subura_ may very well be an imported word, but the form with C +must either go back to a period before the disappearance of _g_ before _v_ +or must come from some other Italic dialect. The symbol G was a new coinage +in the 3rd century B.C. The pronunciation of C throughout the period of +classical Latin was that of an unvoiced guttural stop (_k_). In other +dialects, however, it had been palatalized to a sibilant before _i_-sounds +some time before the Christian era; _e.g._ in the Umbrian _facia_ = Latin +_facial_. In Latin there is no evidence for the interchange of _c_ with a +sibilant earlier than the 6th century A.D. in south Italy and the 7th +century A.D. in Gaul (Lindsay, _Latin Language_, p. 88). This change has, +however, taken place in all Romance languages except Sardinian. In +Anglo-Saxon _c_ was adopted to represent the hard stop. After the Norman +conquest many English words were re-spelt under Norman influence. Thus +Norman-French spelt its palatalized _c_-sound (_=tsh_) with _ch_ as in +_cher_ and the English palatalized _cild_, &c. became _child_, &c. In +Provencal from the 10th century, and in the northern dialects of France +from the 13th century, this palatalized _c_ (in different districts _ts_ +and _tsh_) became a simple _s_. English also adopted the value of _s_ for +_c_ in the 13th century before _e_, _i_ and _y_. In some foreign words like +_cicala_ the _ch-_ (_tsh_) value is given to c. In the transliteration of +foreign languages also it receives different values, having that of _tsh_ +in the transliteration of Sanskrit and of _ts_ in various Slavonic +dialects. + +As a numeral C denotes 100. This use is borrowed from Latin, in which the +symbol was originally [Illustration] This, like the numeral symbols later +identified with L and M, was thus utilized since it was not required as a +letter, there being no sound in Latin corresponding to the Greek [theta]. +Popular etymology identified the symbol with the initial letter of +_centum_, "hundred." + +(P. GI.) + +CAB (shortened about 1825 from the Fr. _cabriolet_, derived from +_cabriole_, implying a bounding motion), a form of horsed vehicle for +passengers either with two ("hansom") or four wheels ("four-wheeler" or +"growler"), introduced into London as the _cabriolet de place_, from Paris +in 1820 (see CARRIAGE). Other vehicles plying for hire and driven by +mechanical means are included in the definition of the word "cab" in the +London Cab and Stage Carriage Act 1007. The term "cab" is also applied to +the driver's or stoker's shelter on a locomotive-engine. + +Cabs, or hackney carriages, as they are called in English acts of +parliament, are regulated in the United Kingdom by a variety of statutes. +In London the principal acts are the Hackney Carriage Acts of 1831-1853, +the Metropolitan Public Carriages Act 1869, the London Cab Act 1896 and the +London Cab and Stage Carriage Act 1907. In other large British towns cabs +are usually regulated by private acts which incorporate the Town Police +Clauses Act 1847, an act which contains provisions more or less similar to +the London acts. The act of 1869 defined a hackney carriage as any carriage +for the conveyance of passengers which plies for hire within the +metropolitan police district and is not a stage coach, _i.e._ a conveyance +in which the passengers are charged separate and distinct fares for their +seats. Every cab must be licensed by a licence renewable every year by the +home secretary, the licence being issued by the commissioner of police. +Every cab before being licensed must be inspected at the police station of +the district by the inspector of public carriages, and certified by him to +be in a fit condition for public use. The licence costs L2. The number of +persons which the cab is licensed to carry must be painted at the back on +the outside. It must carry a lighted lamp during the period between one +hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. The cab must be under the +charge of a driver having a licence from the home secretary. A driver +before obtaining a licence, which costs five shillings per annum, must pass +an examination as to his ability to drive and as to his knowledge of the +topography of London. + +General regulations with regard to fares and hiring may be made from time +to time by the home secretary under the London Cab and Stage Carriage Act +1907. The hiring is by distance or by time as the hirer may decide at the +beginning of the hiring; if not otherwise expressed the fare is paid +according to distance. If a driver is hired by distance he is not compelled +to drive more than six miles, and if hired by time he is not compelled to +drive for more than one hour. When a cab is hired in London by distance, +and discharged within a circle the radius of which is four miles (the +centre being taken at Charing Cross), the fare is one shilling for any +distance not exceeding two miles, and sixpence for every additional mile or +part of a mile. Outside the circle the fare for each mile, or part of a +mile, is one shilling. When a cab is hired by time, the fare (inside or +outside the circle) is two shillings and sixpence for the first hour, and +eightpence for every quarter of an hour afterwards. Extra payment has to be +made for luggage (twopence per piece outside), for extra passengers +(sixpence each for more than two), and for waiting (eightpence each +completed quarter of an hour). If a horse cab is fitted with a taximeter +(_vide infra_) the fare for a journey wholly _within_ or partly without and +partly within the four-mile radius, and not exceeding one mile or a period +of ten minutes, is sixpence. For each half mile or six minutes an +additional threepence is paid. If the journey is wholly _without_ the +four-mile radius the fare for the first mile is one shilling, and for each +additional quarter of a mile or period of three minutes, threepence is +paid. If the cab is one propelled by mechanical means the fare for a +journey not [v.04 p.0913] exceeding one mile or a period of ten minutes is +eightpence, and for every additional quarter mile or period of 21/2 minutes +twopence is paid. A driver required to wait may demand a reasonable sum as +a deposit and also payment of the sum which he has already earned. The +London Cab Act 1896 (by which for the first time legal sanction was given +to the word "cab") made an important change in the law in the interest of +cab drivers. It renders liable to a penalty on summary conviction any +person who (_a_) hires a cab knowing or having reason to believe that he +cannot pay the lawful fare, or with intent to avoid payment; (_b_) +fraudulently endeavours to avoid payment; (_c_) refuses to pay or refuses +to give his address, or gives a false address with intent to deceive. The +offences mentioned (generally known as "bilking") may be punished by +imprisonment without the option of a fine, and the whole or any part of the +fine imposed may be applied in compensation to the driver. + +Strictly speaking, it is an offence for a cab to ply for hire when not +waiting on an authorized "standing," but cabs passing in the street for +this purpose are not deemed to be "plying for hire." These stands for cabs +are appointed by the commissioner of police or the home secretary. +"Privileged cabs" is the designation given to those cabs which by virtue of +a contract between a railway company and a number of cab-owners are alone +admitted to ply for hire within a company's station, until they are all +engaged, on condition (1) of paying a certain weekly or annual sum, and (2) +of guaranteeing to have cabs in attendance at all hours. This system was +abolished by the act of 1907, but the home secretary was empowered to +suspend or modify the abolition if it should interfere with the proper +accommodation of the public. + +At one time there was much discussion in England as to the desirability of +legalizing on cabs the use of a mechanical fare-recorder such as, under the +name of taximeter or taxameter, is in general use on the continent of +Europe. It is now universal on hackney carriages propelled by mechanical +means, and it has also extended largely to those drawn by animal power. A +taximeter consists of a securely closed and sealed metal box containing a +mechanism actuated by a flexible shaft connected with the wheel of the +vehicle, in the same manner as the speedometer on a motor car. It has, +within plain view of the passenger, a number of apertures in which appear +figures showing the amount payable at any time. A small lever, with a metal +flag, bearing the words "for hire" stands upright upon it when the cab is +disengaged. As soon as a passenger enters the cab the lever is depressed by +the driver and the recording mechanism starts. At the end of the journey +the figures upon the dials show exactly the sum payable for hire; this sum +is based on a combination of time and distance. + +CABAL (through the Fr. _cabale_ from the _Cabbala_ or _Kabbalah_, the +theosophical interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures), a private +organization or party engaged in secret intrigues, and applied also to the +intrigues themselves. The word came into common usage in English during the +reign of Charles II. to describe the committee of the privy council known +as the "Committee for Foreign Affairs," which developed into the cabinet. +The invidious meaning attached to the term was stereotyped by the +coincidence that the initial letters of the names of the five ministers, +Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley and Lauderdale, who signed the +treaty of alliance with France in 1673, spelled cabal. + +CABALLERO, FERNAN (1796-1877), the pseudonym adopted from the name of a +village in the province of Ciudad Real by the Spanish novelist Cecilia +Francisca Josefa Boehl de Faber y Larrea. Born at Morges in Switzerland on +the 24th of December 1796, she was the daughter of Johan Nikolas Boehl von +Faber, a Hamburg merchant, who lived long in Spain, married a native of +Cadiz, and is creditably known to students of Spanish literature as the +editor of the _Floresta de rimas antiguas castellanas_ (1821-1825), and the +_Teatro espanol anterior a Lope de Vega_ (1832). Educated principally at +Hamburg, she visited Spain in 1815, and, unfortunately for herself, in 1816 +married Antonio Planells y Bardaxi, an infantry captain of bad character. +In the following year Planells was killed in action, and in 1822 the young +widow married Francisco Ruiz del Arco, marques de Arco Hermoso, an officer +in one of the Spanish household regiments. Upon the death of Arco Hermoso +in 1835, the marquesa found herself in straitened circumstances, and in +less than two years she married Antonio Arron de Ayala, a man considerably +her junior. Arron was appointed consul in Australia, engaged in business +enterprises and made money; but unfortunate speculations drove him to +commit suicide in 1859. Ten years earlier the name of Fernan Caballero +became famous in Spain as the author of _La Gaviola_. The writer had +already published in German an anonymous romance, _Sola_ (1840), and +curiously enough the original draft of _La Gaviota_ was written in French. +This novel, translated into Spanish by Jose Joaquin de Mora, appeared as +the _feuilleton_ of _El Heraldo_ (1849), and was received with marked +favour. Ochoa, a prominent critic of the day, ratified the popular +judgment, and hopefully proclaimed the writer to be a rival of Scott. No +other Spanish book of the 19th century has obtained such instant and +universal recognition. It was translated into most European languages, and, +though it scarcely seems to deserve the intense enthusiasm which it +excited, it is the best of its author's works, with the possible exception +of _La Familia de Alvareda_ (which was written, first of all, in German). +Less successful attempts are _Lady Virginia_ and _Clemencia_; but the short +stories entitled _Cuadros de Costumbres_ are interesting in matter and +form, and _Una en otra_ and _Elia o la Espana treinta anos ha_ are +excellent specimens of picturesque narration. It would be difficult to +maintain that Fernan Caballero was a great literary artist, but it is +certain that she was a born teller of stories and that she has a graceful +style very suitable to her purpose. She came into Spain at a most happy +moment, before the new order had perceptibly disturbed the old, and she +brought to bear not alone a fine natural gift of observation, but a +freshness of vision, undulled by long familiarity. She combined the +advantages of being both a foreigner and a native. In later publications +she insisted too emphatically upon the moral lesson, and lost much of her +primitive simplicity and charm; but we may believe her statement that, +though she occasionally idealized circumstances, she was conscientious in +choosing for her themes subjects which had occurred in her own experience. +Hence she may be regarded as a pioneer in the realistic field, and this +historical fact adds to her positive importance. For many years she was the +most popular of Spanish writers, and the sensation caused by her death at +Seville on the 7th of April 1877 proved that her naive truthfulness still +attracted readers who were interested in records of national customs and +manners. + +Her _Obras completas_ are included in the _Coleccion de escritores +castellanos_: a useful biography by Fernando de Gabriel Ruiz de Apodaca +precedes the _Ultimas producciones de Fernan Caballero_ (Seville, 1878). + +(J. F.-K.) + +CABANEL, ALEXANDRE (1823-1889), French painter, was born at Montpellier, +and studied in Paris, gaining the Prix de Rome in 1845. His pictures soon +attracted attention, and by his "Birth of Venus" (1863), now in the +Luxembourg, he became famous, being elected that year to the Institute. He +became the most popular portrait painter of the day, and his pupils +included a number of famous artists. + +CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE (1757-1808), French physiologist, was born at +Cosnac (Correze) on the 5th of June 1757, and was the son of Jean Baptiste +Cabanis (1723-1786), a lawyer and agronomist. Sent at the age of ten to the +college of Brives, he showed great aptitude for study, but his independence +of spirit was so excessive that he was almost constantly in a state of +rebellion against his teachers, and was finally dismissed from the school. +He was then taken to Paris by his father and left to carry on his studies +at his own discretion for two years. From 1773 to 1775 he travelled in +Poland and Germany, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself mainly to +poetry. About this time he ventured to send in to the Academy a translation +of the passage from Homer proposed for their prize, and, though his attempt +passed without notice, he received so much encouragement from his friends +that he contemplated translating the whole of the _Iliad_. But at the [v.04 +p.0914] desire of his father he relinquished these pleasant literary +employments, and resolving to engage in some settled profession selected +that of medicine. In 1789 his _Observations sur les hopitaux_ procured him +an appointment as administrator of hospitals in Paris, and in 1795 he +became professor of hygiene at the medical school of Paris, a post which he +exchanged for the chair of legal medicine and the history of medicine in +1799. From inclination and from weak health he never engaged much in +practice as a physician, his interests lying in the deeper problems of +medical and physiological science. During the last two years of Mirabeau's +life he was intimately connected with that extraordinary man, and wrote the +four papers on public education which were found among the papers of +Mirabeau at his death, and were edited by the real author soon afterwards +in 1791. During the illness which terminated his life Mirabeau confided +himself entirely to the professional skill of Cabanis. Of the progress of +the malady, and the circumstances attending the death of Mirabeau, Cabanis +drew up a detailed narrative, intended as a justification of his treatment +of the case. Cabanis espoused with enthusiasm the cause of the Revolution. +He was a member of the Council of Five Hundred and then of the Conservative +senate, and the dissolution of the Directory was the result of a motion +which he made to that effect. But his political career was not of long +continuance. A foe to tyranny in every shape, he was decidedly hostile to +the policy of Bonaparte, and constantly rejected every solicitation to +accept a place under his government. He died at Meulan on the 5th of May +1808. + +A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five volumes +were published. His principal work, _Rapports du physique et du moral de +l'homme_, consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the +Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. Psychology is with +Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the fundamental +fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the +intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself +is a property of the nervous system. The soul is not an entity, but a +faculty; thought is the function of the brain. Just as the stomach and +intestines receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, +digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought. Alongside of this +harsh materialism Cabanis held another principle. He belonged in biology to +the vitalistic school of G.E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work, _Lettre +sur les causes premieres_ (1824), the consequences of this opinion became +clear. Life is something added to the organism; over and above the +universally diffused sensibility there is some living and productive power +to which we give the name of Nature. But it is impossible to avoid +ascribing to this power both intelligence and will. In us this living power +constitutes the ego, which is truly immaterial and immortal. These results +Cabanis did not think out of harmony with his earlier theory. + +CABARRUS, FRANCOIS (1752-1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier, +was born at Bayonne, where his father was a merchant. Being sent into Spain +on business he fell in love with a Spanish lady, and marrying her, settled +in Madrid. Here his private business was the manufacture of soap; but he +soon began to interest himself in the public questions which were +ventilated even at the court of Spain. The enlightenment of the 18th +century had penetrated as far as Madrid; the king, Charles III., was +favourable to reform; and a circle of men animated by the new spirit were +trying to infuse fresh vigour into an enfeebled state. Among these Cabarrus +became conspicuous, especially in finance. He originated a bank, and a +company to trade with the Philippine Islands; and as one of the council of +finance he had planned many reforms in that department of the +administration, when Charles III. died (1788), and the reactionary +government of Charles IV. arrested every kind of enlightened progress. The +men who had taken an active part in reform were suspected and prosecuted. +Cabarrus himself was accused of embezzlement and thrown into prison. After +a confinement of two years he was released, created a count and employed in +many honourable missions; he would even have been sent to Paris as Spanish +ambassador, had not the Directory objected to him as being of French birth. +Cabarrus took no part in the transactions by which Charles IV. was obliged +to abdicate and make way for Joseph, brother of Napoleon, but his French +birth and intimate knowledge of Spanish affairs recommended him to the +emperor as the fittest person for the difficult post of minister of +finance, which he held at his death. His beautiful daughter Therese, under +the name of Madame Tallien (afterwards princess of Chimay), played an +interesting part in the later stages of the French Revolution. + +CABASILAS, NICOLAUS (d. 1371), Byzantine mystic and theological writer. He +was on intimate terms with the emperor John VI. Cantacuzene, whom he +accompanied in his retirement to a monastery. In 1355 he succeeded his +uncle Nilus Cabasilas, like himself a determined opponent of the union of +the Greek and Latin churches, as archbishop of Thessalonica. In the +Hesychast controversy he took the side of the monks of Athos, but refused +to agree to the theory of the uncreated light. His chief work is his +[Greek: Peri tes en Christoi zoes] (_ed. pr._ of the Greek text, with +copious introduction, by W. Gass, 1849; new ed. by M. Heinze, 1899), in +which he lays down the principle that union with Christ is effected by the +three great mysteries of baptism, confirmation and the eucharist. He also +wrote homilies on various subjects, and a speech against usurers, printed +with other works in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, c. i. A large number of his +works is still extant in MS. + +See C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897), and +article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie fuer protestantische Theologie_ +(1901). + +CABATUAN, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on a +branch of the Suague river, 15 m. N.W. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903) +16,497. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of +Maasin, with a population of 8401, was annexed to Cabatuan. Its climate is +healthful. The surrounding country is very fertile and produces large +quantities of rice, as well as Indian corn, tobacco, sugar, coffee and a +great variety of fruits. The language is Visayan. Cabatuan was founded in +1732. + +CABBAGE. The parent form of the variety of culinary and fodder vegetables +included under this head is generally supposed to be the wild or sea +cabbage (_Brassica oleracea_), a plant found near the sea coast of various +parts of England and continental Europe, although Alphonse de Candolle +considered it to be really descended from the two or three allied species +which are yet found growing wild on the Mediterranean coast. In any case +the cultivated varieties have departed very widely from the original type, +and they present very marked and striking dissimilarities among themselves. +The wild cabbage is a comparatively insignificant plant, growing from 1 to +2 ft. high, in appearance very similar to the corn mustard or charlock +(_Sinapis arvensis_), but differing from it in having smooth leaves. The +wild plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the uppermost being +undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers, elongated seed-pod, and seeds +with conduplicate cotyledons. Notwithstanding the fact that the cultivated +forms differ in habit so widely, it is remarkable that the flower, +seed-pods and seeds of the varieties present no appreciable difference. + +John Lindley proposed the following classification for the various forms, +which includes all yet cultivated: (1) All the leaf-buds active and open, +as in wild cabbage and kale or greens; (2) All the leaf-buds active, but +forming heads, as in Brussels sprouts; (3) Terminal leaf-bud alone active, +forming a head, as in common cabbage, savoys, &c.; (4) Terminal leaf-bud +alone active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as +in cauliflower and broccoli; (5) All the leaf-buds active and open, with +most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as in sprouting broccoli. The +last variety bears the same relation to common broccoli as Brussels sprouts +do to the common cabbage. Of all these forms there are numerous gardeners' +varieties, all of which reproduce faithfully enough their parent form by +proper and separate cultivation. + +Under Lindley's first class, common or Scotch kale or borecole (_Brassica +oleracea_ var. _acephala_ or var. _fimbriata_) includes several varieties +which are amongst the hardiest of our esculents, and seldom fail to yield a +good supply of winter greens. They require well-enriched soil, and +sufficient space for full exposure to air; and they should also be sown +early, so as to be well [v.04 p.0915] established and hardened before +winter. The main crops should be sown about the first week of April, or, in +the north, in the third week of March, and a succession a month later. The +Buda kale is sown in May, and planted out in September, but a sowing for +late spring use may be made in the last week of August and transplanted +towards the end of September. To prevent overcrowding, the plants should be +transplanted as soon as they are of sufficient size, but if the ground is +not ready to receive them a sufficient number should be pricked out in some +open spot. In general the more vigorous sorts should be planted in rows 3 +ft. and the smaller growers 2 ft. apart, and 18 in. from plant to plant. In +these the heads should be first used, only so much of the heart as is fresh +and tender being cut out for boiling; side shoots or sprouts are afterwards +produced for a long time in succession, and may be used so long as they are +tender enough to admit of being gathered by snapping their stalks asunder. + +The plant sends up a stout central stem, growing upright to a height of +about 2 ft., with close-set, large thick, plain leaves of a light red or +purplish hue. The lower leaves are stripped off for use as the plants grow +up, and used for the preparation of broth or "Scotch kail," a dish at one +time in great repute in the north-eastern districts of Scotland. A very +remarkable variety of open-leaved cabbage is cultivated in the Channel +Islands under the name of the Jersey or branching cabbage. It grows to a +height of 8 ft, but has been known to attain double that altitude. It +throws out branches from the central stem, which is sufficiently firm and +woody to be fashioned into walking-sticks; and the stems are even used by +the islanders as rafters for bearing the thatch on their cottage-roofs. +Several varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants on account of their +beautifully coloured, frizzled and laciniated leaves. + +Brussels sprouts (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _bullata gemmifera_) are +miniature cabbage-heads, about an inch in diameter, which form in the axils +of the leaves. There appears to be no information as to the plant's origin, +but, according to Van Mons (1765-1842), physician and chemist, it is +mentioned in the year 1213, in the regulations for holding the markets of +Belgium, under the name of _spruyten_ (sprouts). It is very hardy and +productive, and is much esteemed for the table on account of its flavour +and its sightly appearance. The seed should be sown about the middle of +March, and again in the first or second week in April for succession. Any +good garden soil is suitable. For an early crop it may be sown in a warm +pit in February, pricked out and hardened in frames, and planted out in a +warm situation in April. The main crop may be planted in rows 2 ft. +asunder, the plants 18 in. apart. They should be got out early, so as to be +well established and come into use before winter. The head may be cut and +used after the best of the little rosettes which feather the stem have been +gathered; but, if cut too early, it exposes these rosettes, which are the +most delicate portion of the produce, to injury, if the weather be severe. +The earliest sprouts become fit for use in November, and they continue +good, or even improve in quality, till the month of March following; by +successive sowings the sprouts are obtained for the greater part of the +year. + +The third class is chiefly represented by the common or drumhead cabbage, +_Brassica oleracea_ var. _capitata_, the varieties of which are +distinguished by difference in size, form and colour. In Germany it is +converted into a popular article of diet under the name of _Sauerkraut_ by +placing in a tub alternate layers of salt and cabbage. An acid fermentation +sets in, which after a few days is complete, when the vessel is tightly +covered over and the product kept for use with animal food. + +The savoy is a hardy green variety, characterized by its very wrinkled +leaves. The Portugal cabbage, or _Couve Tronchuda_, is a variety, the tops +of which form an excellent cabbage, while the midribs of the large leaves +are cooked like sea-kale. + +Cabbages contain a very small percentage of nitrogenous compounds as +compared with most other articles of food. Their percentage composition, +when cooked, is--water, 97.4; fat, 0.1; carbohydrate, 0.4; mineral matter, +0.1; cellulose, 1.3; nitrogenous matter (only about half being proteid), +0.6. Their food-value, apart from their anti-scorbutic properties, is +therefore practically nil. + +The cabbage requires a well-manured and well-wrought loamy soil. It should +have abundant water in summer, liquid manure being specially beneficial. +Round London where it is grown in perfection, the ground for it is dug to +the depth of two spades or spits, the lower portion being brought up to the +action of the weather, and rendered available as food for the plants; while +the top-soil, containing the eggs and larvae of many insects, being deeply +buried, the plants are less liable to be attacked by the club disease. +Farm-yard manure is that most suitable for the cabbage, but artificial +manures such as guano, superphosphate of lime or gypsum, together with +lime-rubbish, wood-ashes and marl, may, if required, be applied with +advantage. + +The first sowing of cabbage should be made about the beginning of March; +this will be ready for use in July and August, following the autumn-sown +crops. Another sowing should be made in the last week of March or first +week of April, and will afford a supply from August till November; and a +further crop may be made in May to supply young-hearted cabbages in the +early part of winter. The autumn sowing, which is the most important, and +affords the supply for spring and early summer use, should be made about +the last week in August, in warm localities in the south, and about a +fortnight earlier in the north; or, to meet fluctuations of climate, it is +as well in both cases to anticipate this sowing by another two or three +weeks earlier, planting out a portion from each, but the larger number from +that sowing which promises best to stand without running to seed. + +The cabbages grown late in autumn and in the beginning of winter are +denominated coleworts (vulg. collards), from a kindred vegetable no longer +cultivated. Two sowings are made, in the middle of June and in July, and +the seedlings are planted a foot or 15 in. asunder, the rows being 8 or 10 +in. apart. The sorts employed are the Rosette and the Hardy Green. + +About London the large sorts, as Enfield Market, are planted for spring +cabbages 2 ft. apart each way; but a plant from an earlier sowing is +dibbled in between every two in the rows, and an intermediate row a foot +apart is put in between the permanent rows, these extra plants being drawn +as coleworts in the course of the winter. The smaller sorts of cabbage may +be planted 12 in. apart, with 12 or 15 in. between the rows. The large +sorts should be planted 2 ft. apart, with 21/2 ft. between the rows. The only +culture required is to stir the surface with the hoe to destroy the weeds, +and to draw up the soil round the stems. + +The red cabbage, _Brassica oleracea_ var. _capitata rubra_, of which the +Red Dutch is the most commonly grown, is much used for pickling. It is sown +about the end of July, and again in March or April. The Dwarf Red and +Utrecht Red are smaller sorts. The culture is in every respect the same as +in the other sorts, but the plants have to stand until they form hard close +hearts. + +Cauliflower, which is the chief representative of class 4, consists of the +inflorescence of the plant modified so as to form a compact succulent white +mass or head. The cauliflower (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _botrytis +cauliflora_) is said by our old authors to have been introduced from +Cyprus, where, as well as on the Mediterranean coasts, it appears to have +been cultivated for ages. It is one of the most delicately flavoured of +vegetables, the dense cluster formed by its incipient succulent flower-buds +being the edible portion. + +The sowing for the first or spring crop, to be in use in May and June, +should be made from the 15th to the 25th of August for England, and from +the 1st to the 15th of August for Scotland. In the neighbourhood of London +the growers adhere as nearly as possible to the 21st day. A sowing to +produce heads in July and August takes place in February on a slight +hotbed. A late spring sowing to produce cauliflowers in September or +October or later, should be made early in April and another about the 20th +of May. + +The cauliflower succeeds best in a rich soil and sheltered position; but, +to protect the young plants in winter, they are sometimes pricked out in a +warm situation at the foot of a south [v.04 p.0916] wall, and in severe +weather covered with hoops and mats. A better method is to plant them +thickly under a garden frame, securing them from cold by coverings and +giving air in mild weather. For a very early supply, a few scores of plants +may be potted and kept under glass during winter and planted out in spring, +defended with a hand-glass. Sometimes patches of three or four plants on a +south border are sheltered by hand-glasses throughout the winter. It is +advantageous to prick out the spring-sown plants into some sheltered place +before they are finally transplanted in May. The later crop, the +transplanting of which may take place at various times, is treated like +early cabbages. After planting, all that is necessary is to hoe the ground +and draw up the soil about the stems. + +It is found that cauliflowers ready for use in October may be kept in +perfection over winter. For this purpose they are lifted carefully with the +spade, keeping a ball of earth attached to the roots. Some of the large +outside leaves are removed, and any points of leaves that immediately +overhang the flower are cut off. They are then placed either in pots or in +garden frames, the plants being arranged close together, but without +touching. In mild dry weather the glass frames are drawn off, but they are +kept on during rainstorms, ventilation being afforded by slightly tilting +the frames, and in severe frost they are thickly covered with mats. + +Broccoli is merely a variety of cauliflower, differing from the other in +the form and colour of its inflorescence and its hardiness. The broccoli +(_Brassica oleracea_ var. _botrytis asparagoides_) succeeds best in loamy +soil, somewhat firm in texture. For the autumn broccolis the ground can +scarcely be too rich, but the winter and spring sorts on ground of this +character are apt to become so succulent and tender that the plants suffer +from frost even in sheltered situations, while plants less stimulated by +manure and growing in the open field may be nearly all saved, even in +severe winters. The main crops of the early sorts for use in autumn should +be sown early in May, and planted out while young to prevent them coming +too early into flower; in the north they may be sown a fortnight earlier. +The later sorts for use during winter and spring should be sown about the +middle or end of May, or about ten days earlier in the north. The seed-beds +should be made in fresh light soil; and if the season be dry the ground +should be well watered before sowing. If the young plants are crowding each +other they should be thinned. The ground should not be dug before planting +them out, as the firmer it is the better; but a shallow drill may be drawn +to mark the lines. The larger-growing sorts may be put in rows 3 ft. apart, +and the plants about 21/2 ft. apart in the rows, and the smaller-growing ones +at from 2 to 21/2 ft. between, and 11/2 to 2 ft. in the rows. If the ground is +not prepared when young plants are ready for removal, they should be +transferred to nursery beds and planted at 3 to 4 in. apart, but the +earlier they can be got into their permanent places the better. + +It is of course the young flower-heads of the plant which are eaten. When +these form, they should be shielded from the light by bending or breaking +down an inner leaf or two. In some of the sorts the leaves naturally curve +over the heads. To prevent injury to the heads by frost in severe winters, +the plants should be laid in with their heads sloping towards the north, +the soil being thrown back so as to cover their stems; or they may be taken +up and laid in closely in deep trenches, so that none of the lower bare +portion of the stem may be exposed. Some dry fern may also be laid over the +tops. The spring varieties are extremely valuable, as they come at a season +when the finer vegetables are scarce. They afford a supply from December to +May inclusive. + +Broccoli sprouts, the representative of the fifth class, are a form of +recent introduction, and consist of flowering sprouts springing from the +axils of the leaves. The purple-leaved variety is a very hardy and +much-esteemed vegetable. + +Kohl-rabi (_Brassica oleracea_ var. _caulo-rapa_) is a peculiar variety of +cabbage in which the stem, just above ground, swells into a fleshy +turnip-like mass. It is much cultivated in certain districts as a food for +stock, for which purpose the drumhead cabbage and the thousand-headed kale +are also largely used. Kohl-rabi is exceedingly hardy, withstanding both +severe frosts and drought. It is not much grown in English gardens, though +when used young it forms a good substitute for turnips. The seeds should be +sown in May and June, and the seedlings should be planted shallowly in +well-manured ground, 8 or 10 in. apart, in rows 15 in. asunder; and they +should be well watered, so as to induce quick growth. + +The varieties of cabbage, like other fresh vegetables, are possessed of +anti-scorbutic properties; but unless eaten when very fresh and tender they +are difficult of digestion, and have a very decided tendency to produce +flatulence. + +Although the varieties reproduce by seed with remarkable constancy, +occasional departures from the types occur, more especially among the +varieties of spring cabbages, cauliflowers and broccoli. The departures, +known technically as "rogues," are not as a rule sufficiently numerous to +materially affect crops grown for domestic purposes. Rogues appearing among +the stocks of seed-growers, however, if allowed to remain, very materially +affect the character of particular stocks by the dissemination of strange +pollen and by the admixture of their seed. Great care is exercised by +seed-growers, with reputations to maintain, to eliminate these from among +their stock-plants before the flowering period is reached. + +Several species of palm, from the fact of yielding large sapid central buds +which are cooked as vegetables, are known as cabbage-palms. The principal +of these is _Areca oleracea_, but other species, such as the coco-palm, the +royal palm (_Oreodoxa regia_), _Arenga saccharifera_ and others yield +similar edible leaf-buds. + +CABEIRI, in Greek mythology, a group of minor deities, of whose character +and worship nothing certain is known. Their chief seats of worship were the +islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, the coast of Troas, Thessalia and +Boeotia. The name appears to be of Phoenician origin, signifying the +"great" gods, and the Cabeiri seem to have been deities of the sea who +protected sailors and navigation, as such often identified with the +Dioscuri, the symbol of their presence being St Elmo's fire. Originally the +Cabeiri were two in number, an older identified with Hephaestus (or +Dionysus), and a younger identified with Hermes, who in the Samothracian +mysteries was called Cadmilus or Casmilus. Their cult at an early date was +united with that of Demeter and Kore, with the result that two pairs of +Cabeiri appeared, Hephaestus and Demeter, and Cadmilus and Kore. According +to Mnaseas[1] (quoted by the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius i. 917) they +were four in number:--Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, Casmilus. It is there +stated that Axieros is Demeter; Axiokersa, Persephone; Axiokersos, Hades; +and Casmilus, Hermes. The substitution of Hades for Hephaestus is due to +the fact that Hades was regarded as the husband of Persephone. Cabeiro, who +is mentioned in the logographers Acusilaus and Pherecydes as the wife of +Hephaestus, is identical with Demeter, who indeed is expressly called +[Greek: Kabeiria] in Thebes. Roman antiquarians identified the Cabeiri with +the three Capitoline deities or with the Penates. In Lemnos an annual +festival of the Cabeiri was held, lasting nine days, during which all the +fires were extinguished and fire brought from Delos. From this fact and +from the statement of Strabo x. p. 473, that the father of the Cabeiri was +Camillus, a son of Hephaestus, the Cabeiri have been thought to be, like +the Corybantes, Curetes and Dactyli, demons of volcanic fire. But this view +is not now generally held. In Lemnos they fostered the vine and fruits of +the field, and from their connexion with Hermes in Samothrace it would also +seem that they promoted the fruitfulness of cattle. + +By far the most important seat of their worship was Samothrace. Here, as +early as the 5th century B.C., their mysteries, possibly under Athenian +influence, attracted great attention, and initiation was looked upon as a +general safeguard against all misfortune. But it was in the period after +the death of Alexander the Great that their cult reached its height. +Demetrius Poliorcetes, Lysimachus and Arsinoe regarded the Cabeiri with +especial favour, and initiation was sought, not only by large numbers of +pilgrims, but by persons of distinction. Initiation included also an asylum +or refuge within the strong walls of Samothrace, for which purpose it was +used among others by Arsinoe, who, to show her gratitude, afterwards caused +a monument to be erected there, the ruins of which were explored in [v.04 +p.0917] 1874 by an Austrian archaeological expedition. In 1888 interesting +details as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were obtained by the +excavations of their temple in the neighbourhood of Thebes, conducted by +the German archaeological institute. The two male deities worshipped were +Cabeiros and a boy: the Cabeiros resembles Dionysus, being represented on +vases as lying on a couch, his head surrounded with a garland of ivy, a +drinking cup in his right hand; and accompanied by maenads and satyrs. The +boy is probably his cup-bearer. The Cabeiri were held in even greater +esteem by the Romans, who regarded themselves as descendants of the +Trojans, whose ancestor Dardanus (himself identified in heroic legend with +one of the Cabeiri) came from Samothrace. The identification of the three +Capitoline deities with the Penates, and of these with the Cabeiri, tended +to increase this feeling. + +See C.A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (1829); F.G. Welcker, _Die Aeschylische +Trilogie und die Kabirenweihe zu Lemnos_ (1824); J.P. Rossignol, _Les +Metaux dans l'antiquite_ (1863), discussing the gods of Samothrace (the +Dactyli, the Cabeiri, the Corybantes, the Curetes, and the Telchines) as +workers in metal, and the religious origin of metallurgy; O. Rubensohn, +_Die Mysterienheiligtuemer in Eleusis und Samothrake_ (1892); W.H. Roscher, +_Lexikon der Mythologie_ (_s.v._ "Megaloi Theoi"); L. Preller, _Griechische +Mythologie_ (4th ed., appendix); and the article by F. Lenormant in +Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites_. + +[1] A grammarian of Patrae in Achaea (or Patara in Lycia), pupil of +Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.), and author of a periplus and a collection of +Delphic oracles. + +CABER TOSSING (Gaelic _cabar_, a pole or beam), a Scottish athletic +exercise which consists in throwing a section of a trunk of a tree, called +the "caber," in such a manner that it shall turn over in the air and fall +on the ground with its small end pointing in the direction directly +opposite to the "tosser." Tossing the caber is usually considered to be a +distinctly Scottish sport, although "casting the bar," an exercise +evidently similar in character, was popular in England in the 16th century +but afterwards died out. The caber is the heavy trunk of a tree from 16 to +20 ft. long. It is often brought upon the field heavier than can be thrown +and then cut to suit the contestants, although sometimes cabers of +different sizes are kept, each contestant taking his choice. The toss is +made after a run, the caber being set up perpendicularly with the heavy end +up by assistants on the spot indicated by the tosser, who sets one foot +against it, grasps it with both hands, and, as soon as he feels it properly +balanced, gives the word to the assistants to let go their hold. He then +raises the caber and gets both hands underneath the lower end. "A practised +hand, having freed the caber from the ground, and got his hands underneath +the end, raises it till the lower end is nearly on a level with his elbows, +then advances for several yards, gradually increasing his speed till he is +sometimes at a smart run before he gives the toss. Just before doing this +he allows the caber to leave his shoulder, and as the heavy top end begins +to fall forward, he throws the end he has in his hands upwards with all his +strength, and, if successful, after the heavy end strikes the ground the +small end continues its upward motion till perpendicular, when it falls +forward, and the caber lies in a straight line with the tosser" (W.M. +Smith). The winner is he who tosses with the best and easiest style, +according to old Highland traditions, and whose caber falls straightest in +a direct line from him. In America a style called the Scottish-American +prevails at Caledonian games. In this the object is distance alone, the +same caber being used by all contestants and the toss being measured from +the tosser's foot to the spot where the small end strikes the ground. This +style is repudiated in Scotland. Donald Dinnie, born in 1837 and still a +champion in 1890, was the best tosser of modern times. + +See W.M. Smith, _Athletics and Athletic Sports in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, +1891). + +CABET, ETIENNE (1788-1856), French communist, was born at Dijon in 1788, +the son of a cooper. He chose the profession of advocate, without +succeeding in it, but ere long became notable as the persevering apostle of +republicanism and communism. He assisted in a secondary way in the +revolution of 1830, and obtained the appointment of _procureur-general_ in +Corsica under the government of Louis Philippe; but was dismissed for his +attack upon the conservatism of the government, in his _Histoire de la +revolution de 1830_. Elected, notwithstanding, to the chamber of deputies, +he was prosecuted for his bitter criticism of the government, and obliged +to go into exile in England in 1834, where he became an ardent disciple of +Robert Owen. On the amnesty of 1839 he returned to France, and attracted +some notice by the publication of a badly written and fiercely democratic +history of the Revolution of 1789 (4 vols., 1840), and of a social romance, +_Voyage en Icarie_, in which he set forth his peculiar views. These works +met with some success among the radical working-men of Paris. Like Owen, he +sought to realize his ideas in practice, and, pressed as well by his +friends, he made arrangements for an experiment in communism on American +soil. By negotiations in England favoured by Owen, he purchased a +considerable tract of land on the Red river, Texas, and drew up an +elaborate scheme for the intending colony, community of property being the +distinctive principle of the society. Accordingly in 1848 an expedition of +1500 "Icarians" sailed to America; but unexpected difficulties arose and +the complaints of the disenchanted settlers soon reached Europe. Cabet, who +had remained in France, had more than one judicial investigation to undergo +in consequence, but was honourably acquitted. In 1849 he went out in person +to America, but on his arrival, finding that the Mormons had been expelled +from their city Nauvoo (_q.v._), in Illinois, he transferred his settlement +thither. There, with the exception of a journey to France, where he +returned to defend himself successfully before the tribunals, he remained, +the dictator of his little society. In 1856, however, he withdrew and died +the same year at St Louis. + +See COMMUNISM. Also Felix Bonnaud, _Cabet et son oeuvre, appel a tous les +socialistes_ (Paris, 1900); J. Prudhommeaux, _Icaria and its Founder, +Etienne Cabet_ (Nimes, 1907). + +CABIN, a small, roughly built hut or shelter; the term is particularly +applied to the thatched mud cottages of the negro slaves of the southern +states of the Unites States of America, or of the poverty-stricken +peasantry of Ireland or the crofter districts of Scotland. In a special +sense it is used of the small rooms or compartments on board a vessel used +for sleeping, eating or other accommodation. The word in its earlier +English forms was _cabane_ or _caban_, and thus seems to be an adaptation +of the French _cabane_; the French have taken _cabine_, for the room on +board a ship, from the English. In French and other Romanic languages, in +which the word occurs, _e.g._ Spanish _cabana_, Portuguese _cabana_, the +origin is usually found in the Medieval Latin _capanna_. Isidore of Seville +(_Origines_, lib. xiv. 12) says:--_Tugurium_ (hut) _parva casula est, quam +faciunt sibi custodes vinearum, ad tegimen seu quasi tegurium. Hoc rustici +Capannam vocant, quod unum tantum capiat_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. +_Capanna_). Others derive from Greek [Greek: kape], crib, manger. Skeat +considers the English word was taken from the Welsh _caban_, rather than +from the French, and that the original source for all the forms was Celtic. + +CABINET, a word with various applications which may be traced to two +principal meanings, (1) a small private chamber, and (2) an article of +furniture containing compartments formed of drawers, shelves, &c. The word +is a diminutive of "cabin" and therefore properly means a small hut or +shelter. This meaning is now obsolete; the _New English Dictionary_ quotes +from Leonard Digges's _Stratioticos_ (published with additions by his son +Thomas in 1579), "the Lance Knights encamp always in the field very +strongly, two or three to a Cabbonet." From the use both of the article of +furniture and of a small chamber for the safe-keeping of a collection of +valuable prints, pictures, medals or other objects, the word is frequently +applied to such a collection or to objects fit for such safe-keeping. The +name of _Cabinet du Roi_ was given to the collection of prints prepared by +the best artists of the 17th century by order of Louis XIV. These were +intended to commemorate the chief events of his reign, and also to +reproduce the paintings and sculptures and other art treasures contained in +the royal palaces. It was begun in 1667 and was placed under the +superintendence of Nicholas Clement (1647 or 1651-1712), the royal +librarian. The collection was published in 1727. The plates are now in the +Louvre. A "cabinet" edition [v.04 p.0918] of a literary work is one of +somewhat small size, and bound in such a way as would suit a tasteful +collection. The term is applied also to a size of photograph of a larger +size than the _carte de visite_ but smaller than the "panel." The political +use of the term is derived from the private chamber of the sovereign or +head of a state in which his advisers met. + +_Cabinet in Furniture._--The artificer who constructs furniture is still +called a "cabinet-maker," although the manufacture of cabinets, properly so +called, is now a very occasional part of his work. Cabinets can be divided +into a very large number of classes according to their shape, style, period +and country of origin; but their usual characteristic is that they are +supported upon a stand, and that they contain a series of drawers and +pigeon-holes. The name is, however, now given to many pieces of furniture +for the safe-keeping or exhibition of valuable objects, which really answer +very little to the old conception of a cabinet. The cabinet represented an +evolution brought about by the necessities of convenience, and it appealed +to so many tastes and needs that it rapidly became universal in the houses +of the gentle classes, and in great measure took the impress of the peoples +who adopted it. It would appear to have originated in Italy, probably at +the very beginning of the 16th century. In its rudimentary form it was +little more than an oblong box, with or without feet, small enough to stand +upon a table or chair, filled with drawers and closed with doors. In this +early form its restricted dimensions permitted of its use only for the +safeguard of jewels, precious stones and sometimes money. One of the +earliest cabinets of which we have mention belonged to Francis I. of +France, and is described as covered with gilt leather, tooled with +mauresque work. As the Renaissance became general these early forms gave +place to larger, more elaborate and more architectural efforts, until the +cabinet became one of the most sumptuous of household adornments. It was +natural that the countries which were earliest and most deeply touched by +the Renaissance should excel in the designing of these noble and costly +pieces of furniture. The cabinets of Italy, France and the Netherlands were +especially rich and monumental. Those of Italy and Flanders are often of +great magnificence and of real artistic skill, though like all other +furniture their style was often grievously debased, and their details +incongruous and bizarre. Flanders and Burgundy were, indeed, their lands of +adoption, and Antwerp added to its renown as a metropolis of art by +developing consummate skill in their manufacture and adornment. The cost +and importance of the finer types have ensured the preservation of +innumerable examples of all but the very earliest periods; and the student +never ceases to be impressed by the extraordinary variety of the work of +the 16th and 17th centuries, and very often of the 18th also. The basis of +the cabinet has always been wood, carved, polished or inlaid; but lavish +use has been made of ivory, tortoise-shell, and those cut and polished +precious stones which the Italians call _pietra dura_. In the great Flemish +period of the 17th century the doors and drawers of cabinets were often +painted with classical or mythological scenes. Many French and Florentine +cabinets were also painted. In many classes the drawers and pigeon-holes +are enclosed by folding doors, carved or inlaid, and often painted on the +inner sides. Perhaps the most favourite type during a great part of the +16th and 17th centuries--a type which grew so common that it became +cosmopolitan--was characterized by a conceit which acquired astonishing +popularity. When the folding doors are opened there is disclosed in the +centre of the cabinet a tiny but palatial interior. Floored with alternate +squares of ebony and ivory to imitate a black and white marble pavement, +adorned with Corinthian columns or pilasters, and surrounded by mirrors, +the effect, if occasionally affected and artificial, is quite as often +exquisite. Although cabinets have been produced in England in considerable +variety, and sometimes of very elegant and graceful form, the foreign +makers on the whole produced the most elaborate and monumental examples. As +we have said, Italy and the Netherlands acquired especial distinction in +this kind of work. In France, which has always enjoyed a peculiar genius +for assimilating modes in furniture, Flemish cabinets were so greatly in +demand that Henry IV. determined to establish the industry in his own +dominions. He therefore sent French workmen to the Low Countries to acquire +the art of making cabinets, and especially those which were largely +constructed of ebony and ivory. Among these workmen were Jean Mace and +Pierre Boulle, a member of a family which was destined to acquire something +approaching immortality. Many of the Flemish cabinets so called, which were +in such high favour in France and also in England, were really _armoires_ +consisting of two bodies superimposed, whereas the cabinet proper does not +reach to the floor. Pillared and fluted, with panelled sides, and front +elaborately carved with masks and human figures, these pieces which were +most often in oak were exceedingly harmonious and balanced. Long before +this, however, France had its own school of makers of cabinets, and some of +their carved work was of the most admirable character. At a somewhat later +date Andre Charles Boulle made many pieces to which the name of cabinet has +been more or less loosely given. They were usually of massive proportions +and of extreme elaboration of marquetry. The North Italian cabinets, and +especially those which were made or influenced by the Florentine school, +were grandiose and often gloomy. Conceived on a palatial scale, painted or +carved, or incrusted with marble and _pietra dura_, they were intended for +the adornment of galleries and lofty bare apartments where they were not +felt to be overpowering. These North Italian cabinets were often covered +with intarsia or marquetry, which by its subdued gaiety retrieved somewhat +their heavy stateliness of form. It is, however, often difficult to ascribe +a particular fashion of shape or of workmanship to a given country, since +the interchange of ideas and the imports of actual pieces caused a rapid +assimilation which destroyed frontiers. The close connexion of centuries +between Spain and the Netherlands, for instance, led to the production +north and south of work that was not definitely characteristic of either. +Spain, however, was more closely influenced than the Low Countries, and +contains to this day numbers of cabinets which are not easily to be +distinguished from the characteristic ebony, ivory and tortoise-shell work +of the craftsmen whose skill was so rapidly acquired by the emissaries of +Henry IV. The cabinets of southern Germany were much influenced by the +models of northern Italy, but retained to a late date some of the +characteristics of domestic Gothic work such as elaborately fashioned +wrought-iron handles and polished steel hinges. Often, indeed, 17th-century +South Germany work is a curious blend of Flemish and Italian ideas executed +in oak and Hungarian ash. Such work, however interesting, necessarily lacks +simplicity and repose. A curious little detail of Flemish and Italian, and +sometimes of French later 17th-century cabinets, is that the interiors of +the drawers are often lined with stamped gold or silver paper, or marbled +ones somewhat similar to the "end papers" of old books. The great English +cabinet-makers of the 18th century were very various in their cabinets, +which did not always answer strictly to their name; but as a rule they will +not bear comparison with the native work of the preceding century, which +was most commonly executed in richly marked walnut, frequently enriched +with excellent marquetry of woods. Mahogany was the dominating timber in +English furniture from the accession of George II. almost to the time of +the Napoleonic wars; but many cabinets were made in lacquer or in the +bright-hued foreign woods which did so much to give lightness and grace to +the British style. The glass-fronted cabinet for China or glass was in high +favour in the Georgian period, and for pieces of that type, for which +massiveness would have been inappropriate, satin and tulip woods, and other +timbers with a handsome grain taking a high polish were much used. + +(J. P.-B.) + +_The Political Cabinet._--Among English political institutions, the +"Cabinet" is a conventional but not a legal term employed to describe those +members of the privy council who fill the highest executive offices in the +state, and by their concerted policy direct the government, and are +responsible for all the acts of the crown. The cabinet now always includes +the persons filling the following offices, who are therefore called +"cabinet ministers," viz.:--the first lord of the treasury, the lord +chancellor of England, the lord president of the council, the lord privy +seal, the five secretaries of state, the chancellor of the exchequer [v.04 +p.0919] and the first lord of the admiralty. The chancellor of the duchy of +Lancaster, the postmaster-general, the first commissioner of works, the +president of the board of trade, the chief secretary for Ireland, the lord +chancellor of Ireland, the president of the local government board, the +president of the board of agriculture, and the president of the board of +education, are usually members of the cabinet, but not necessarily so. A +modern cabinet contains from sixteen to twenty members. It used to be said +that a large cabinet is an evil; and the increase in its numbers in recent +years has often been criticized. But the modern widening of the franchise +has tended to give the cabinet the character of an executive committee for +the party in power, no less than that of the prime-minister's consultative +committee, and to make such a committee representative it is necessary to +include the holders of all the more important offices in the +administration, who are generally selected as the influential politicians +of the party rather than for special aptitude in the work of the +departments. + +The word "cabinet," or "cabinet council," was originally employed as a term +of reproach. Thus Lord Bacon says, in his essay _Of Counsel_ (xx.), "The +doctrine of Italy and practice of France, in some kings' times, hath +introduced cabinet councils--a remedy worse than the disease"; and, again, +"As for cabinet councils, it may be their motto _Plenus rimarum sum_." Lord +Clarendon--after stating that, in 1640, when the great Council of Peers was +convened by the king at York, the burden of affairs rested principally on +Laud, Strafford and Cottington, with five or six others added to them on +account of their official position and ability--adds, "These persons made +up the committee of state, which was reproachfully after called the +_Juncto_, and enviously then in court the _Cabinet Council_." And in the +Second Remonstrance in January 1642, parliament complained "of the managing +of the great affairs of the realm in _Cabinet Councils_ by men unknown and +not publicly trusted." But this use of the term, though historically +curious, has in truth nothing in common with the modern application of it. +It meant, at that time, the employment of a select body of favourites by +the king, who were supposed to possess a larger share of his confidence +than the privy council at large. Under the Tudors, at least from the later +years of Henry VIII. and under the Stuarts, the privy council was the +council of state or government. During the Commonwealth it assumed that +name. + +The Cabinet Council, properly so called, dates from the reign of William +III. and from the year 1693, for it was not until some years after the +Revolution that the king discovered and adopted the two fundamental +principles of a constitutional executive government, namely, that a +ministry should consist of statesmen holding the same political principles +and identified with each other; and, secondly, that the ministry should +stand upon a parliamentary basis, that is, that it must command and retain +the majority of votes in the legislature. It was long before these +principles were thoroughly worked out and understood, and the perfection to +which they have been brought in modern times is the result of time, +experience and in part of accident. But the result is that the cabinet +council for the time being _is_ the government of Great Britain; that all +the powers vested in the sovereign (with one or two exceptions) are +practically exercised by the members of this body; that all the members of +the cabinet are jointly and severally responsible for all its measures, for +if differences of opinion arise their existence is unknown as long as the +cabinet lasts--when publicly manifested the cabinet is at an end; and +lastly, that the cabinet, being responsible to the sovereign for the +conduct of executive business, is also collectively responsible to +parliament both for its executive conduct and for its legislative measures, +the same men being as members of the cabinet the servants of the crown, and +as members of parliament and leaders of the majority responsible to those +who support them by their votes and may challenge in debate every one of +their actions. In this latter sense the cabinet has sometimes been +described as a standing committee of both Houses of Parliament. + +One of the consequences of the close connexion of the cabinet with the +legislature is that it is desirable to divide the strength of the ministry +between the two Houses of Parliament. Pitt's cabinet of 1783 consisted of +himself in the House of Commons and seven peers. But so aristocratic a +government would now be impracticable. In Gladstone's cabinet of 1868, +eight, and afterwards nine, ministers were in the House of Commons and six +in the House of Lords. Great efforts were made to strengthen the +ministerial bench in the Commons, and a new principle was introduced, that +the representatives of what are called the spending departments--that is, +the secretary of state for war and the first lord of the admiralty--should, +if possible, be members of the House which votes the supplies. Disraeli +followed this precedent but it has since been disregarded. In Sir H. +Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet formed in 1905, six ministers were in the +House of Lords and thirteen in the House of Commons. + +Cabinets are usually convoked by a summons addressed to "His Majesty's +confidential servants" by the prime minister; and the ordinary place of +meeting is either at the official residence of the first lord of the +treasury in Downing Street or at the foreign office, but they may be held +anywhere. No secretary or other officer is present at the deliberations of +this council. No official record is kept of its proceedings, and it is even +considered a breach of ministerial confidence to keep a private record of +what passed in the cabinet, inasmuch as such memoranda may fall into other +hands. But on some important occasions, as is known from the _Memoirs of +Lord Sidmouth_, the _Correspondence of Earl Grey with King William IV._, +and from Sir Robert Peel's _Memoirs_, published by permission of Queen +Victoria, cabinet minutes are drawn up and submitted to the sovereign, as +the most formal manner in which the advice of the ministry can be tendered +to the crown and placed upon record. (See also Sir Algernon West's +_Recollections_, 1899.) More commonly, it is the duty of the prime minister +to lay the collective opinion of his colleagues before the sovereign, and +take his pleasure on public measures and appointments. The sovereign never +presides at a cabinet; and at the meetings of the privy council, where the +sovereign does preside, the business is purely formal. It has been laid +down by some writers as a principle of the British constitution that the +sovereign is never present at a discussion between the advisers of the +crown; and this is, no doubt, an established fact and practice. But like +many other political usages of Great Britain it originated in a happy +accident. + +King William and Queen Anne always presided at weekly cabinet councils. But +when the Hanoverian princes ascended the throne, they knew no English, and +were barely able to converse at all with their ministers; for George I. or +George II. to take part in, or even to listen to, a debate in council was +impossible. When George III. mounted the throne the practice of the +independent deliberations of the cabinet was well established, and it has +never been departed from. + +Upon the resignation or dissolution of a ministry, the sovereign exercises +the undoubted prerogative of selecting the person who may be thought by him +most fit to form a new cabinet. In several instances the statesmen selected +by the crown have found themselves unable to accomplish the task confided +to them. But in more favourable cases the minister chosen for this supreme +office by the crown has the power of distributing all the political offices +of the government as may seem best to himself, subject only to the ultimate +approval of the sovereign. The prime minister is therefore in reality the +author and constructor of the cabinet; he holds it together; and in the +event of his retirement, from whatever cause, the cabinet is really +dissolved, even though its members are again united under another head. + +AUTHORITIES.--Sir W. Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_ (1896); W. +Bagehot, _The English Constitution_; M.T. Blauvelt, _The Development of +Cabinet Government in England_ (New York, 1902); E. Boutmy, _The English +Constitution_ (trans. I.M. Eaden, 1891); A. Lawrence Lowell, _The +Government of England_ (1908), part I.; A.V. Dicey, _Law of the +Constitution_ (1902); Sir T. Erskine May, _Constitutional History of +England_ (1863-1865); H. Hallam, _Constitutional History of England_; W.E. +Hearn, _The Government of England_ (1867); S. Low, _The Governance of +England_ (1904); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_; Hannis +Taylor, _Origin and Growth of the English Constitution_ (Boston, +1889-1900); [v.04 p.0920] A. Todd, _Parliamentary Government in England_ +(1867-1869); much valuable information will also be found in such works as +W.E. Gladstone's _Gleanings_; the third earl of Malmesbury's _Memoirs of an +ex-Minister_ (1884-1885); Greville's _Memoirs_; Sir A. West's +_Recollections_, 1832-1886 (1889), &c. + +CABINET NOIR, the name given in France to the office where the letters of +suspected persons were opened and read by public officials before being +forwarded to their destination. This practice had been in vogue since the +establishment of posts, and was frequently used by the ministers of Louis +XIII. and Louis XIV.; but it was not until the reign of Louis XV. that a +separate office for this purpose was created. This was called the _cabinet +du secret des postes_, or more popularly the _cabinet noir_. Although +declaimed against at the time of the Revolution, it was used both by the +revolutionary leaders and by Napoleon. The _cabinet noir_ has now +disappeared, but the right to open letters in cases of emergency appears +still to be retained by the French government; and a similar right is +occasionally exercised in England under the direction of a secretary of +state, and, indeed, in all civilized countries. In England this power was +frequently employed during the 18th century and was confirmed by the Post +Office Act of 1837; its most notorious use being, perhaps, the opening of +Mazzini's letters in 1844. + +CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844- ) American author, was born in New Orleans, +Louisiana, on the 12th of October 1844. At the age of fourteen he entered a +mercantile establishment as a clerk; joined the Confederate army (4th +Mississippi Cavalry) at the age of nineteen; at the close of the war +engaged in civil engineering, and in newspaper work in New Orleans; and +first became known in literature by sketches and stories of old +French-American life in that city. These were first published in +_Scribner's Monthly_, and were collected in book form in 1879, under the +title of _Old Creole Days_. The characteristics of the series--of which the +novelette _Madame Delphine_ (1881) is virtually a part--are neatness of +touch, sympathetic accuracy of description of people and places, and a +constant combination of gentle pathos with quiet humour. These shorter +tales were followed by the novels _The Grandissimes_ (1880), _Dr Sevier_ +(1883) and _Bonaventure_ (1888), of which the first dealt with Creole life +in Louisiana a hundred years ago, while the second was related to the +period of the Civil War of 1861-65. _Dr Sevier_, on the whole, is to be +accounted Cable's masterpiece, its character of Narcisse combining nearly +all the qualities which have given him his place in American literature as +an artist and a social chronicler. In this, as in nearly all of his +stories, he makes much use of the soft French-English dialect of Louisiana. +He does not confine himself to New Orleans, laying many of his scenes, as +in the short story _Belles Demoiselles Plantation_, in the marshy lowlands +towards the mouth of the Mississippi. Cable was the leader in the +noteworthy literary movement which has influenced nearly all southern +writers since the war of 1861--a movement of which the chief importance lay +in the determination to portray local scenes, characters and historical +episodes with accuracy instead of merely imaginative romanticism, and to +interest readers by fidelity and sympathy in the portrayal of things well +known to the authors. Other writings by Cable have dealt with various +problems of race and politics in the southern states during and after the +"reconstruction period" following the Civil War; while in _The Creoles of +Louisiana_ (1884) he presented a history of that folk from the time of its +appearance as a social and military factor. His dispassionate treatment of +his theme in this volume and its predecessors gave increasing offence to +sensitive Creoles and their sympathizers, and in 1886 Cable removed to +Northampton, Massachusetts. At one time he edited a magazine in +Northampton, and afterwards conducted the monthly _Current Literature_, +published in New York. His _Collected Works_ were published in a uniform +issue in 5 vols. (New York, 1898). Among his later volumes are _The +Cavalier_ (1901), _Bylow Hill_ (1902), and _Kincaid's Battery_ (1908). + +CABLE (from Late Lat. _capulum_, a halter, from _capere_, to take hold of), +a large rope or chain, used generally with ships, but often employed for +other purposes; the term "cable" is also used by analogy in minor varieties +of similar engineering or other attachments, and in the case of "electric +cables" for the submarine wires (see TELEGRAPH) by which telegraphic +messages are transmitted.[1] + +The cable by which a ship rides at her anchor is now made of iron; prior to +1811 only hempen cables were supplied to ships of the British navy, a +first-rate's complement on the East Indian station being eleven; the +largest was 25 in. (equal to 21/4 in. iron cable) and weighed 6 tons. In +1811, iron cables were supplied to stationary ships; their superiority over +hempen ones was manifest, as they were less liable to foul or to be cut by +rocks, or to be injured by enemy's shot. Iron cables are also handier and +cleaner, an offensive odour being exhaled from dirty hempen cables, when +unbent and stowed inboard. The first patent for iron cables was by Phillip +White in 1634; twisted links were suggested in 1813 by Captain Brown (who +afterwards, in conjunction with Brown, Lenox & Co., planned the Brighton +chain pier in 1823); and studs were introduced in 1816. Hempen cables are +not now supplied to ships, having been superseded by steel wire hawsers. +The length of a hempen cable is 101 fathoms, and a cable's length, as a +standard of measurement, usually placed on charts, is assumed to be 100 +fathoms or 600 ft. The sizes, number and lengths of cables supplied to +ships of the British navy are given in the official publication, the +_Ship's Establishment_; cables for merchant ships are regulated by Lloyds, +and are tested according to the Anchors and Chain Cables Act 1899. + +In manufacturing chain cables, the bars are cut to the required length of +link, at an angle for forming the welds and, after heating, are bent by +machinery to the form of a link and welded by smiths, each link being +inserted in the previous one before welding. Cables of less than 11/4 in. are +welded at the crown, there not being sufficient room for a side weld; +experience has shown that the latter method is preferable and it is +employed in making larger sized cables. In 1898 steel studs were introduced +instead of cast iron ones, the latter having a tendency to work loose, but +the practice is not universal. After testing, the licensed tester must +place on every five fathoms of cable a distinctive mark which also +indicates the testing establishments; the stamp or die employed must be +approved by the Board of Trade. The iron used in the construction, also the +testing, of mooring chains and cables for the London Trinity House +Corporation are subject to more stringent regulations. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stud-link Chain.] + +Cables for the British navy and mercantile marine are supplied in 121/2 +fathom and 15 fathom lengths respectively, connected together by "joining +shackles", D (fig. 1). Each length is "marked" by pieces of iron wire being +twisted round the studs of the links; the wire is placed on the first studs +on each side of the first shackle, on the second studs on each side of the +second shackle, and so on; thus the number of lengths of cable out is +clearly indicated. For instance, if the wire is on the sixth [v.04 p.0921] +studs on each side of the shackle, it indicates that six lengths or 75 +fathoms of cable are out. In joining the lengths together, the round end of +the shackle is placed towards the anchor. The end links of each length +(C.C.) are made without studs, in order to take the shackle; but as studs +increase the strength of a link, in a studless or open link the iron is of +greater diameter. The next links (B.B.) have to be enlarged, in order to +take the increased size of the links C.C. In the joining shackle (D), the +pin is oval, its greater diameter being in the direction of the strain. The +pin of a shackle, which attaches the cable to the anchor (called an "anchor +shackle", to distinguish it from a joining shackle) projects and is secured +by a forelock; but since any projection in a joining shackle would be +liable to be injured when the cable is running out or when passing around a +capstan, the pins are made as shown at D, and are secured by a small pin d. +This small pin is kept from coming out by being made a little short, and +lead pellets are driven in at either end to fill up the holes in the +shackle, which are made with a groove, so that as the pellets are driven in +they expand or dovetail, keeping the small pin in its place.[2] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mooring Swivel.] + +The cables are stowed in chain lockers, the inboard ends being secured by a +"slip" (in the mercantile marine the cable is often shackled or lashed to +the kelson); the slip prevents the cable's inner end from passing +overboard, and also enables the cable to be "slipped", or let go, in case +of necessity. In the British navy, swivel pieces are fitted in the first +and last lengths of cable, to avoid and, if required, to take out turns in +a cable, caused by a ship swinging round when at anchor. With a ship moored +with two anchors, the cables are secured to a mooring swivel (fig. 2), +which prevents a "foul hawse", _i.e._ the cables being entwined round each +other. When mooring, unmooring, and as may be necessary, cables are +temporarily secured by "slips" shackled to eye or ring bolts in the deck +(see ANCHOR). The cable is hove up by either a capstan or windlass (see +CAPSTAN) actuated by steam, electricity or manual power. Ships in the +British navy usually ride by the compressor, the cable holder being used +for checking the cable running out. When a ship has been given the +necessary cable, the cable holder is eased up and the compressor "bowsed +to"; in a heavy sea, a turn, or if necessary two turns, are taken round the +"bitts," a strong iron structure placed between the hawse and navel +("deck") pipes. A single turn of cable is often taken round the bitts when +anchoring in deep water. Small vessels of the mercantile marine ride by +turns around the windlass; in larger or more modern vessels fitted with a +steam windlass, the friction brakes take the strain, aided when required by +the bitts, compressor or controller in bad weather. + +(J. W. D.) + +[1] The word "cable" is a various reading for "camel" in the Biblical +phrase, "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle" of +Matt. xix. 24, Mark x. 25, and Luke xviii. 25, mentioned as early as Cyril +of Alexandria (5th cent.); and it was adopted by Sir John Cheke and other +16th century and later English writers. The reading [Greek: kamilos] for +[Greek: kamelos] is found in several late cursive MSS. Cheyne, in the +_Ency. Biblica_, ascribes it to a non-Semitic scribe, and regards [Greek: +kamelos] as correct. (See under CAMEL.) + +[2] The dimensions marked in the figure are those for 1-in. chains, and +signify so many diameters of the iron of the common links; thus forming a +scale for all sizes. + +CABLE MOULDING, in architecture, the term given to a convex moulding carved +in imitation of a rope or cord, and used to decorate the mouldings of the +Romanesque style in England, France and Spain. The word "cabling" by itself +indicates a convex circular moulding sunk in the concave fluting of a +classic column, and rising about one-third of the height of the shaft. + +CABOCHE, SIMON. Simon Lecoustellier, called "Caboche", a skinner of the +Paris Boucherie, played an important part in the Parisian riots of 1413. He +had relations with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, since 1411, and was +prominent in the seditious disturbances which broke out in April and May, +following on the _Etats_ of February 1413. In April he stirred the people +to the point of revolt, and was among the first to enter the hotel of the +dauphin. When the butchers had made themselves masters of Paris, Caboche +became bailiff (_huissier d'armes_) and warden of the bridge of Charenton. +Upon the publication of the great ordinance of May 26th, he used all his +efforts to prevent conciliation between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. +After the fall of the _Cabochien_ party on the 4th of August he fled to +Burgundy in order to escape from royal justice. Doubtless he returned to +Paris in 1418 with the Burgundians. + +See Colville, _Les Cabochiens et l'ordonnance de 1413_ (Paris, 1888). + +CABOT, GEORGE (1751-1823), American political leader, was born in Salem, +Massachusetts, on the 16th of December 1751. He studied at Harvard from +1766 to 1768, when he went to sea as a cabin boy. He gradually became a +ship-owner and a successful merchant, retiring from business in 1794. +Throughout his life he was much interested in politics, and though his +temperamental indolence and his aversion for public life often prevented +his accepting office, he exercised, as a contributor to the press and +through his friendships, a powerful political influence, especially in New +England. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of +1770-1780, of the state senate in 1782-1783, of the convention which in +1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, and from 1791 to +1796 of the United States Senate, in which, besides serving on various +important committees, he became recognized as an authority on economic and +commercial matters. Among the bills introduced by him in the Senate was the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. Upon the establishment of the navy department +in 1798, he was appointed and confirmed as its secretary, but he never +performed the duties of the office, and was soon replaced by Benjamin +Stoddert (1751-1813), actually though not nominally the first secretary of +the department. In 1814-1815 Cabot was the president of the Hartford +Convention, and as such was then and afterwards acrimoniously attacked by +the Republicans throughout the country. He died in Boston on the 18th of +April 1823. In politics he was a staunch Federalist, and with Fisher Ames, +Timothy Pickering and Theophilus Parsons (all of whom lived in Essex +county, Massachusetts) was classed as a member of the "Essex Junto",--a +wing of the party and not a formal organization. A fervent advocate of a +strong centralized government, he did much to secure the ratification by +Massachusetts of the Federal Constitution, and after the overturn of the +Federalist by the Republican party, he wrote (1804): "We are democratic +altogether, and I hold democracy in its natural operation to be a +government of the worst". + +See Henry Cabot Lodge's _Life and Letters of George Cabot_ (Boston, 1877). + +CABOT, JOHN [GIOVANNI CABOTO] (1450-1498), Italian navigator and discoverer +of North America, was born in Genoa, but in 1461 went to live in Venice, of +which he became a naturalized citizen in 1476. During one of his trading +voyages to the eastern Mediterranean, Cabot paid a visit to Mecca, then the +greatest mart in the world for the exchange of the goods of the East for +those of the West. On inquiring whence came the spices, perfumes, silks and +precious stones bartered there in great quantities, Cabot learned that they +were brought by caravan from the north-eastern parts of farther Asia. Being +versed in a knowledge of the sphere, it occurred to him that it would be +shorter and quicker to bring these goods to Europe straight across the +western ocean. First of all, however, a way would have to be found across +this ocean from Europe to Asia. Full of this idea, Cabot, about the year +1484, removed with his family to London. His plans were in course of time +made known to [v.04 p.0922] the leading merchants of Bristol, from which +port an extensive trade was carried on already with Iceland. It was decided +that an attempt should be made to reach the island of Brazil or that of the +Seven Cities, placed on medieval maps to the west of Ireland, and that +these should form the first halting-places on the route to Asia by the +west. + +To find these islands vessels were despatched from Bristol during several +years, but all in vain. No land of any sort could be seen. Affairs were in +this state when in the summer of 1493 news reached England that another +Genoese, Christopher Columbus, had set sail westward from Spain and had +reached the Indies. Cabot and his friends at once determined to forgo +further search for the islands and to push straight on to Asia. With this +end in view application was made to the king for formal letters patent, +which were not issued until March 5, 1496. By these Henry VII. granted to +his "well-beloved John Cabot, citizen of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian and +Santius,[1] sonnes of the said John, full and free authority, leave and +power upon theyr own proper costs and charges, to seeke out, discover and +finde whatsoever isles, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen and +infidels, which before this time have been unknown to all Christians". +Merchandise from the countries visited was to be entered at Bristol free of +duty, but one-fifth of the net gains was to go to the king. + +Armed with these powers Cabot set sail from Bristol on Tuesday the 2nd of +May 1497, on board a ship called the "Mathew" manned by eighteen men. +Rounding Ireland they headed first north and then west. During several +weeks they were forced by variable winds to keep an irregular course, +although steadily towards the west. At length, after being fifty-two days +at sea, at five o'clock on Saturday morning, June 24, they reached the +northern extremity of Cape Breton Island. The royal banner was unfurled, +and in solemn form Cabot took possession of the country in the name of King +Henry VII. The soil being found fertile and the climate temperate, Cabot +was convinced he had reached the north-eastern coast of Asia, whence came +the silks and precious stones he had seen at Mecca. Cape North was named +Cape Discovery, and as the day was the festival of St John the Baptist, St +Paul Island, which lies opposite, was called the island of St John. + +Having taken on board wood and water, preparations were made to return home +as quickly as possible. Sailing north, Cabot named Cape Ray, St George's +Cape, and christened St Pierre and Miquelon, which then with Langley formed +three separate islands, the Trinity group. Hereabout they met great schools +of cod, quantities of which were caught by the sailors merely by lowering +baskets into the water. Cape Race, the last land seen, was named England's +Cape. + +The return voyage was made without difficulty, since the prevailing winds +in the North Atlantic are westerly, and on Sunday, the 6th of August, the +"Mathew" dropped anchor once more in Bristol harbour. Cabot hastened to +Court, and on Thursday the 10th of August received from the king L10 for +having "found the new isle". Cabot reported that 700 leagues beyond Ireland +he had reached the country of the Grand Khan. Although both silk and +brazil-wood could be obtained there, he intended on his next voyage to +follow the coast southward as far as Cipangu or Japan, then placed near the +equator. Once Cipangu had been reached London would become a greater centre +for spices than Alexandria. Henry VII. was delighted, and besides granting +Cabot a pension of L20 promised him in the spring a fleet of ten ships with +which to sail to Cipangu. + +On the 3rd of February 1498, fresh letters patent were issued, whereby +Cabot was empowered to "take at his pleasure VI. englisshe shippes and +theym convey and lede to the londe and iles of late founde by the seid +John". Henry VII. himself also advanced considerable sums of money to +various members of the expedition. As success seemed assured, it was +expected the returns would be high. + +In the spring Cabot visited Lisbon and Seville, to secure the services of +men who had sailed along the African coast with Cam and Diaz or to the +Indies with Columbus. At Lisbon he met a certain Joao Fernandes, called +Llavrador, who about the year 1492 appears to have made his way from +Iceland to Greenland. Cabot, on learning from Fernandes that part of Asia, +as they supposed Greenland to be, lay so near Iceland, determined to return +by way of this country. On reaching Bristol he laid his plans accordingly. +Early in May the expedition, which consisted of two ships and 300 men, left +Bristol. Several vessels in the habit of trading to Iceland accompanied +them. Off Ireland a storm forced one of these to return, but the rest of +the fleet proceeded on its way along the parallel of 58 deg.. Each day the +ships were carried northward by the Gulf Stream. Early in June Cabot +reached the east coast of Greenland, and as Fernandes was the first who had +told him of this country he named it the Labrador's Land. + +In the hope of finding a passage Cabot proceeded northward along the coast. +As he advanced, the cold became more intense and the icebergs thicker and +larger. It was also noticed that the land trended eastward. As a result on +the 11th of June in latitude 67 deg. 30' the crews mutinied and refused to +proceed farther in that direction. Cabot had no alternative but to put his +ships about and look for a passage towards the south. Rounding Cape +Farewell he explored the southern coast of Greenland and then made his way +a certain distance up the west coast. Here again his progress was checked +by icebergs, whereupon a course was set towards the west. Crossing Davis +Strait Cabot reached our modern Baffin Land in 66 deg.. Judging this to be the +Asiatic mainland, he set off southward in search of Cipangu. South of +Hudson Strait a little bartering was done with the Indians, but these could +offer nothing in exchange but furs. Our strait of Belle Isle was mistaken +for an ordinary bay, and Newfoundland was regarded by Cabot as the main +shore itself. Rounding Cape Race he visited once more the region explored +in the previous summer, and then proceeded to follow the coast of our Nova +Scotia and New England in search of Cipangu. He made his way as far south +as the thirty-eighth parallel, when the absence of all signs of eastern +civilization and the low state of his stores forced him to abandon all hope +of reaching Cipangu on this voyage. Accordingly the ships were put about +and a course set for England, where they arrived safely late in the autumn +of 1498. Not long after his return John Cabot died. + +His son, SEBASTIAN CABOT (1476-1557),[2] is not independently heard of +until May 1512, when he was paid twenty shillings "for making a carde of +Gascoigne and Guyenne", whither he accompanied the English army sent that +year by Henry VIII. to aid his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon against +the French. Since Ferdinand and his daughter Joanna were contemplating the +dispatch of an expedition from Santander to explore Newfoundland, Sebastian +was questioned about this coast by the king's councillors. As a result +Ferdinand summoned him in September 1512 to Logrono, and on the 30th of +October appointed him a captain in the navy at a salary of 50,000 maravedis +a year. A letter was also written to the Spanish ambassador in England to +help Cabot and his family to return to Spain, with the result that in March +1514 he was again back at Court discussing with Ferdinand the proposed +expedition to Newfoundland. Preparations were made for him to set sail in +March 1516; but the death of the king in January of that year put an end to +the undertaking. His services were retained by Charles V., and on the 5th +of February 1518 Cabot was named Pilot Major and official examiner of +pilots. + +In the winter of 1520-1521 Sebastian Cabot returned to England [v.04 +p.0923] and while there was offered by Wolsey the command of five vessels +which Henry VIII. intended to despatch to Newfoundland. Being reproached by +a fellow Venetian with having done nothing for his own country, Cabot +refused, and on reaching Spain entered into secret negotiations with the +Council of Ten at Venice. It was agreed that as soon as an opportunity +offered Cabot should come to Venice and lay his plans before the Signiory. +The conference of Badajoz took up his time in 1524, and on the 4th of March +1525 he was appointed commander of an expedition fitted out at Seville "to +discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, Ophir, Cipango and Cathay." + +The three vessels set sail in April, and by June were off the coast of +Brazil and on their way to the Straits of Magellan. Near the La Plata river +Cabot found three Spaniards who had formed part of De Solis's expedition of +1515. These men gave such glowing accounts of the riches of the country +watered by this river that Cabot was at length induced, partly by their +descriptions and in part by the casting away of his flag-ship, to forgo the +search for Tarsis and Ophir and to enter the La Plata, which was reached in +February 1527. All the way up the Parana Cabot found the Indians friendly, +but those on the Paraguay proved so hostile that the attempt to reach the +mountains, where the gold and silver were procured, had to be given up. On +reaching Seville in August 1530, Cabot was condemned to four years' +banishment to Oran in Africa, but in June 1533 he was once more reinstated +in his former post of Pilot Major, which he continued to fill until he +again removed to England. + +As early as 1538 Cabot tried to obtain employment under Henry VIII., and it +is possible he was the Sevillian pilot who was brought to London by the +king in 1541. Soon after the accession of Edward VI., however, his friends +induced the Privy Council to advance money for his removal to England, and +on the 5th of January 1549 the king granted him a pension of L166, 13s. 4d. +On Charles V. objecting to this proceeding, the Privy Council, on the zist +of April 1550, made answer that since "Cabot of himself refused to go +either into Spayne or to the emperour, no reason or equitie wolde that he +shulde be forced or compelled to go against his will." A fresh application +to Queen Mary on the 9th of September 1553 likewise proved of no avail. + +On the 26th of June 1550 Cabot received L200 "by waie of the kinges +Majesties rewarde," but it is not clear whether this was for his services +in putting down the privileges of the German Merchants of the Steelyard or +for founding the company of Merchant Adventurers incorporated on the 18th +of December 1551. Of this company Cabot was made governor for life. Three +ships were sent out in May 1553 to search for a passage to the East by the +north-east. Two of the vessels were caught in the ice near Arzina and the +crews frozen to death. Chancellor's vessel alone reached the White Sea, +whence her captain made his way overland to Moscow. He returned to England +in the summer of 1554 and was the means of opening up a very considerable +trade with Russia. Vessels were again despatched to Russia in 1555 and +1556. On the departure of the "Searchthrift" in May 1556, "the good old +gentleman Master Cabot gave to the poor most liberal alms, wishing them to +pray for the good fortune and prosperous success of the 'Searchthrift'; and +then, at the sign of the Christopher, he and his friends banqueted and made +them that were in the company good cheer; and for very joy that he had to +see the towardness of our intended discovery, he entered into the dance +himself among the rest of the young and lusty company." On the arrival of +King Philip II. in England Cabot's pension was stopped on the 26th of May +1557, but three days later Mary had it renewed. The date of Cabot's death +has not been definitely discovered. It is supposed that he died within the +year. + +See G.P. Winship, _Cabot Bibliography, with an Introductory Essay on the +Careers of the Cabots_ (London, 1900); and H.P. Biggar, "The Voyages of the +Cabots to North America and Greenland," in the _Revue Hispanique_, tome x. +pp. 485-593 (Paris, 1903). + +(H. P. B.) + +[1] Nothing further is known of Lewis and Santius. + +[2] The dates are conjectural. Richard Eden (_Decades of the Newe Worlde_, +f. 255) says Sebastian told him that when four years old he was taken by +his father to Venice, and returned to England "after certeyne yeares; +wherby he was thought to have bin born in Venice"; Stow (_Annals_, under +year 1498) styles "Sebastian Caboto, a Genoas sonne, borne in Bristow". +Galvano and Herrera also give England the honour of his nativity. See also +Nicholls, _Remarkable Life of Sebastian Cabot_ (1869), a eulogistic +account, with which may be contrasted Henry Harrisse's _John Cabot and his +son Sebastian_ (1896). + +CABOTAGE, the French term for coasting-trade, a coast-pilotage. It is +probably derived from _cabot_, a small boat, with which the name Cabot may +be connected; the conjecture that the word comes from _cabo_, the Spanish +for cape, and means "sailing from cape to cape", has little foundation. + +CABRA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 28 m. S.E. by +S. of Cordova, on the Jaen-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,127. Cabra is +built in a fertile valley between the Sierra de Cabra and the Sierra de +Montilla, which together form the watershed between the rivers Cabra and +Guadajoz. The town was for several centuries an episcopal see. Its chief +buildings are the cathedral, originally a mosque, and the ruined castle, +which is the chief among many interesting relics of Moorish rule. The +neighbouring fields of clay afford material for the manufacture of bricks +and pottery; coarse cloth is woven in the town; and there is a considerable +trade in farm produce. Cabra is the Roman _Baebro_ or _Aegabro_. It was +delivered from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1240, and +entrusted to the Order of Calatrava; in 1331 it was recaptured by the +Moorish king of Granada; but in the following century it was finally +reunited to Christian Spain. + +CABRERA, RAMON (1806-1877), Carlist general, was born at Tortosa, province +of Tarragona, Spain, on the 27th of December 1806. As his family had in +their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to the seminary of +Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed +up in disturbances and careless in his studies. After he had taken minor +orders, the bishop refused to ordain him as a priest, telling him that the +Church was not his vocation, and that everything in him showed that he +ought to be a soldier. Cabrera followed this advice and took part in +Carlist conspiracies on the death of Ferdinand VII. The authorities exiled +him and he absconded to Morella to join the forces of the pretender Don +Carlos. In a very short time he rose by sheer daring, fanaticism and +ferocity to the front rank among the Carlist chiefs who led the bands of +Don Carlos in Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. As a raider he was often +successful, and he was many times wounded in the brilliant fights in which +he again and again defeated the generals of Queen Isabella. He sullied his +victories by acts of cruelty, shooting prisoners of war whose lives he had +promised to spare and not respecting the lives and property of +non-combatants. The queen's generals seized his mother as a hostage, +whereupon Cabrera shot several mayors and officers. General Nogueras +unfortunately caused the mother of Cabrera to be shot, and the Carlist +leader then started upon a policy of reprisals so merciless that the people +nicknamed him "The Tiger of the Maeztrazgo". It will suffice to say that he +shot 1110 prisoners of war, 100 officers and many civilians, including the +wives of four leading Isabellinos, to avenge his mother. When Marshal +Espartero induced the Carlists of the north-western provinces, with Maroto +at their head, to submit in accordance with the Convention of Vergara, +which secured the recognition of the rank and titles of 1000 Carlist +officers, Cabrera held out in Central Spain for nearly a year. Marshals +Espartero and O'Donnell, with the bulk of the Isabellino armies, had to +conduct a long and bloody campaign against Cabrera before they succeeded in +driving him into French territory in July 1840. The government of Louis +Philippe kept him in a fortress for some months and then allowed him to go +to England, where he quarrelled with the pretender, disapproving of his +abdication in favour of the count of Montemolin. In 1848 Cabrera reappeared +in the mountains of Catalonia at the head of Carlist bands. These were soon +dispersed and he again fled to France. After this last effort he did not +take a very active part in the propaganda and subsequent risings of the +Carlists, who, however, continued to consult him. He took offence when new +men, not a few of them quondam regular officers, became the advisers and +lieutenants of Don Carlos in the war which lasted more or less from +1870-1876. Indeed, his long residence in England, his marriage with Miss +Richards, and his prolonged absence from Spain had much shaken his devotion +to his old cause and belief in its success. In March 1875 Cabrera sprang +upon Don Carlos a manifesto in which he called upon the adherents of the +pretender to follow his own example and submit to the restored monarchy of +Alphonso XII., the son of Queen Isabella, who recognized the rank of +captain-general and the title of count of Morella conferred on Cabrera by +[v.04 p.0924] the first pretender. Only a very few insignificant Carlists +followed Cabrera's example, and Don Carlos issued a proclamation declaring +him a traitor and depriving him of all his honours and titles. Cabrera, who +was ever afterwards regarded with contempt and execration by the Carlists, +died in London on the 24th of May 1877. He did not receive much attention +from the majority of his fellow-countrymen, who commonly said that his +disloyalty to his old cause had proved more harmful to him than beneficial +to the new state of things. A pension which had been granted to his widow +was renounced by her in 1899 in aid of the Spanish treasury after the loss +of the colonies. + +(A. E. H.) + +CACCINI, GIULIO (1558-1615?), Italian musical composer, also known as +Giulio Romano, but to be distinguished from the painter of that name, was +born at Rome about 1558, and in 1578 entered the service of the grand duke +of Tuscany at Florence. He collaborated with J. Peri in the early attempts +at musical drama which were the ancestors of modern opera (_Dafne_, 1594, +and _Euridice_, 1600), produced at Florence by the circle of musicians and +amateurs which met at the houses of G. Bardi and Corsi. He also published +in 1601 _Le nuove musiche_, a collection of songs which is of great +importance in the history of singing as well as in that of the transition +period of musical composition. He was a lyric composer rather than a +dramatist like Peri, and the genuine beauty of his works makes them +acceptable even at the present day. + +CACERES, a province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken +from Estremadura, and bounded on the N. by Salamanca and Avila, E. by +Toledo, S. by Badajoz, and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 362,164; area, 7667 +sq. m. Caceres is the largest of Spanish provinces, after Badajoz, and one +of the most thinly peopled, although the number of its inhabitants steadily +increases. Except for the mountainous north, where the Sierra de Gata and +the Sierra de Gredos mark respectively the boundaries of Salamanca and +Avila, and in the south-east, where there are several lower ranges, almost +the entire surface is flat or undulating, with wide tracts of moorland and +thin pasture. There is little forest and many districts suffer from +drought. The whole province, except the extreme south, belongs to the basin +of the river Tagus, which flows from east to west through the central +districts, and is joined by several tributaries, notably the Alagon and +Tietar, from the north, and the Salor and Almonte from the south. The +climate is temperate except in summer, when hot east winds prevail. Fair +quantities of grain and olives are raised, but as a stock-breeding province +Caceres ranks second only to Badajoz. In 1900 its flocks and herds numbered +more than 1,000,000 head. It is famed for its sheep and pigs, and exports +wool, hams and the red sausages called _embutidos_. Its mineral resources +are comparatively insignificant. The total number of mines at work in 1903 +was only nine; their output consisted of phosphates, with a small amount of +zinc and tin. Brandy, leather and cork goods, and coarse woollen stuffs are +manufactured in many of the towns, but the backwardness of education, the +lack of good roads, and the general poverty retard the development of +commerce. The more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways enters the +province on the east; passes south of Plasencia, where it is joined by the +railway from Salamanca, on the north; and reaches the Portuguese frontier +at Valencia de Alcantara. This line is supplemented by a branch from Arroyo +to the city of Caceres, and thence southwards to Merida in Badajoz. Here it +meets the railways from Seville and Cordova. The principal towns of Caceres +are Caceres (pop. 1900, 16,933); Alcantara (3248), famous for its Roman +bridge; Plasencia (8208); Trujillo (12,512), and Valencia de Alcantara +(9417). These are described in separate articles. Arroyo, or Arroyo del +Puerco (7094), is an important agricultural market. (See also ESTREMADURA.) + +CACERES, the capital of the Spanish province of Caceres, about 20 m. S. of +the river Tagus, on the Caceres-Merida railway, and on a branch line which +meets the more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways at Arroyo, 10 m. +W. Pop. (1900) 16,933. Caceres occupies a conspicuous eminence on a low +ridge running east and west. At the highest point rises the lofty tower of +San Mateo, a fine Gothic church, which overlooks the old town, with its +ancient palaces and massive walls, gateways and towers. Many of the +palaces, notably those of the provincial legislature, the dukes of +Abrantes, and the counts of la Torre, are good examples of medieval +domestic architecture. The monastery and college of the Jesuits, formerly +one of the finest in Spain, has been secularized and converted into a +hospital. In the modern town, built on lower ground beyond the walls, are +the law courts, town-hall, schools and the palace of the bishops of Coria +(pop. 3124), a town on the river Alagon. The industries of Caceres include +the manufacture of cork and leather goods, pottery and cloth. There is also +a large trade in grain, oil, live-stock and phosphates from the +neighbouring mines. The name of _Caceres_ is probably an adaptation of _Los +Alcazares_, from the Moorish _Alcazar_, a tower or castle; but it is +frequently connected with the neighbouring _Castra Caecilia_ and _Castra +Servilia_, two Roman camps on the Merida-Salamanca road. The town is of +Roman origin and probably stands on the site of _Norba Caesarina_. Several +Roman inscriptions, statues and other remains have been discovered. + +CACHAR, or KACHAR, a district of British India, in the province of Eastern +Bengal and Assam. It occupies the upper basin of the Surma or Barak river, +and is bounded on three sides by lofty hills. Its area is 3769 sq. m. It is +divided naturally between the plain and hills. The scenery is beautiful, +the hills rising generally steeply and being clothed with forests, while +the plain is relieved of monotony by small isolated undulations and by its +rich vegetation. The Surma is the chief river, and its principal +tributaries from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and from the south the +Sonai and Daleswari. The climate is extremely moist. Several extensive +fens, notably that of Chatla, which becomes lakes in time of flood, are +characteristic of the plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of +rice, next to which in importance is tea. The industry connected with the +latter crop employs large numbers of the population; manufacturing +industries are otherwise slight. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the +district, including the capital town of Silchar. The population of the +district in 1901 was 455,593, and showed a large increase, owing in great +part to immigration from the adjacent district of Sylhet. The plain is the +most thickly populated part of the district; in the North Cachar Hills the +population is sparse. About 66 % of the population are Hindus and 20 % +Mahommedans. There are three administrative subdivisions of the district: +Silchar, Hailakandi and North Cachar. The district takes name from its +former rulers of the Kachari tribe, of whom the first to settle here did so +early in the 18th century, after being driven out of the Assam valley in +1536, and from the North Cachar Hills in 1706, by the Ahoms. About the +close of the 18th century the Burmans threatened to expel the Kachari raja +and annex his territory; the British, however, intervened to prevent this, +and on the death of the last raja without heir in 1830 they obtained the +territory under treaty. A separate principality which had been established +in the North Cachar Hills earlier in the century by a servant of the raja, +and had been subsequently recognized as such, was taken over by the British +in 1854 owing to the misconduct of its rulers. The southern part of the +district was raided several times in the 19th century by the turbulent +tribe of Lushais. + +CACHOEIRA, an important inland town of Bahia, Brazil, on the Paraguassu +river, about 48 m. from Sao Salvador, with which it is connected by +river-boats. Pop. (1890) of the city, 12,607; of the municipality, 48,352. +The Bahia Central railway starts from this point and extends S. of W. to +Machado Portella, 161 m., and N. to Feira de Santa Anna, 28 m. Although +badly situated on the lower levels of the river (52 ft. above sea-level) +and subject to destructive floods, Cachoeira is one of the most thriving +commercial and industrial centres in the state. It exports sugar and +tobacco and is noted for its cigar and cotton factories. + +CACTUS. This word, applied in the form of [Greek: Kaktos] by the ancient +Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus as the name of a +group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed plants, most of them prickly +and leafless, some of which produce [v.04 p.0925] beautiful flowers, and +are now so popular in our gardens that the name has become familiar. As +applied by Linnaeus, the name _Cactus_ is almost conterminous with what is +now regarded as the natural order Cactaceae, which embraces several modern +genera. It is one of the few Linnaean generic terms which have been +entirely set aside by the names adopted for the modern divisions of the +group. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Prickly Pear (_Opuntia vulgaris_). 1, Flower +reduced; 2, Same in vertical section; 3, Flattened branch much reduced; 4, +Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.] + +The _Cacti_ may be described in general terms as plants having a woody +axis, overlaid with thick masses of cellular tissue forming the fleshy +stems. These are extremely various in character and form, being globose, +cylindrical, columnar or flattened into leafy expansions or thick +joint-like divisions, the surface being either ribbed like a melon, or +developed into nipple-like protuberances, or variously angular, but in the +greater number of the species furnished copiously with tufts of horny +spines, some of which are exceedingly keen and powerful. These tufts show +the position of buds, of which, however, comparatively few are developed. +The stems are in most cases leafless, using the term in a popular sense; +the leaves, if present at all, being generally reduced to minute scales. In +one genus, however, _Peireskia_, the stems are less succulent, and the +leaves, though rather fleshy, are developed in the usual form. The flowers +are frequently large and showy, and are generally attractive from their +high colouring. In one group, represented by _Cereus_, they consist of a +tube, more or less elongated, on the outer surface of which, towards the +base, are developed small and at first inconspicuous scales, which +gradually increase in size upwards, and at length become crowded, numerous +and petaloid, forming a funnel-shaped blossom, the beauty of which is much +enhanced by the multitude of conspicuous stamens which with the pistil +occupy the centre. In another group, represented by _Opuntia_ (fig. 1), the +flowers are rotate, that is to say, the long tube is replaced by a very +short one. At the base of the tube, in both groups, the ovary becomes +developed into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, that produced by the +_Opuntia_ being known as the prickly pear or Indian fig. + +The principal modern genera are grouped by the differences in the +flower-tube just explained. Those with long-tubed flowers comprise the +genera _Melocactus_, _Mammillaria_, _Echinocactus_, _Cereus_, _Pilocereus_, +_Echinopsis_, _Phyllocactus_, _Epiphyllum_, &c.; while those with +short-tubed flowers are _Rhipsalis_, _Opuntia_, _Peireskia_, and one or two +of minor importance. Cactaceae belong almost entirely to the New World; but +some of the Opuntias have been so long distributed over certain parts of +Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean and the volcanic soil +of Italy, that they appear in some places to have taken possession of the +soil, and to be distinguished with difficulty from the aboriginal +vegetation. The habitats which they affect are the hot, dry regions of +tropical America, the aridity of which they are enabled to withstand in +consequence of the thickness of their skin and the paucity of evaporating +pores or stomata with which they are furnished,--these conditions not +permitting the moisture they contain to be carried off too rapidly; the +thick fleshy stems and branches contain a store of water. The succulent +fruits are not only edible but agreeable, and in fevers are freely +administered as a cooling drink. The Spanish Americans plant the Opuntias +around their houses, where they serve as impenetrable fences. + +MELOCACTUS, the genus of melon-thistle or Turk's-cap cactuses, contains, +according to a recent estimate, about 90 species, which inhabit chiefly the +West Indies, Mexico and Brazil, a few extending into New Granada. The +typical species, _M. communis_, forms a succulent mass of roundish or ovate +form, from 1 ft. to 2 ft. high, the surface divided into numerous furrows +like the ribs of a melon, with projecting angles, which are set with a +regular series of stellated spines--each bundle consisting of about five +larger spines, accompanied by smaller but sharp bristles--and the tip of +the plant being surmounted by a cylindrical crown 3 to 5 in. high, composed +of reddish-brown, needle-like bristles, closely packed with cottony wool. +At the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers are produced, half +protruding from the mass of wool, and these are succeeded by small red +berries. These strange plants usually grow in rocky places with little or +no earth to support them; and it is said that in times of drought the +cattle resort to them to allay their thirst, first ripping them up with +their horns and tearing off the outer skin, and then devouring the moist +succulent parts. The fruit, which has an agreeably acid flavour, is +frequently eaten in the West Indies. The _Melocacti_ are distinguished by +the distinct cephalium or crown which bears the flowers. + +MAMMILLARIA.--This genus, which comprises nearly 300 species, mostly +Mexican, with a few Brazilian and West Indian, is called nipple cactus, and +consists of globular or cylindrical succulent plants, whose surface instead +of being cut up into ridges with alternate furrows, as in _Melocactus_, is +broken up into teat-like cylindrical or angular tubercles, spirally +arranged, and terminating in a radiating tuft of spines which spring from a +little woolly cushion. The flowers issue from between the mammillae, +towards the upper part of the stem, often disposed in a zone just below the +apex, and are either purple, rose-pink, white or yellow, and of moderate +size. The spines are variously coloured, white and yellow tints +predominating, and from the symmetrical arrangement of the areolae or tufts +of spines they are very pretty objects, and are hence frequently kept in +drawing-room plant cases. They grow freely in a cool greenhouse. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Echinocactus_ much reduced; the flowers are +several inches in diameter.] + +ECHINOCACTUS (fig. 2) is the name given to the genus bearing the popular +name of hedgehog cactus. It comprises some 200 species, distributed from +the south-west United States to Brazil and Chile. They have the fleshy +stems characteristic of the order, these being either globose, oblong or +cylindrical, and either ribbed as in _Melocactus_, or broken up into +distinct tubercles, and most of them armed with stiff sharp pines, set in +little woolly cushions occupying the place of the buds. The flowers, +produced near the apex of the plant, are generally large and showy, yellow +and rose being the prevailing colours. They are succeeded by succulent +fruits, which are exserted, and frequently scaly or spiny, in which +respects this genus differs both from _Melocactus_ and _Mamrmllaria_, which +have the fruits immersed and smooth. One of the most interesting species is +the _E. ingens_, of which some very large plants have been from time to +time imported. These large plants have from 40 to 50 ridges, on which the +buds and clusters of spines are sunk at intervals, the aggregate number of +the spines having been in some cases computed at upwards of 50,000 on a +single plant. These spines are used by the Mexicans as toothpicks. The +plants are slow growers and must have plenty of sun heat; they require +sandy loam with a mixture of sand and bricks finely broken and must be kept +dry in winter. + +CEREUS.--This group bears the common name of torch thistle. It comprises +about 100 species, largely Mexican but scattered through South America and +the West Indies. The stems are columnar or elongated, some of the latter +creeping on the ground or climbing up the trunks of trees, rooting as they +grow. _C. giganteus_, the largest and most striking species of the genus, +is a native of hot, arid, desert regions of New Mexico, growing there in +rocky valleys and on mountain sides, where the tall stems with their erect +branches have the appearance of telegraph poles. The stems grow to a height +of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., and have a diameter of from 1 ft. to 2 ft., often +unbranched, but sometimes furnished with branches [v.04 p.0926] which grow +out at right angles from the main stem, and then curve upwards and continue +their growth parallel to it; these stems have from twelve to twenty ribs, +on which at intervals of about an inch are the buds with their thick yellow +cushions, from which issue five or six large and numerous smaller spines. +The fruits of this plant, which are green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long, +contain a crimson pulp from which the Pimos and Papagos Indians prepare an +excellent preserve; and they also use the ripe fruit as an article of food, +gathering it by means of a forked stick attached to a long pole. The +Cereuses include some of our most interesting and beautiful hothouse +plants. In the allied genus _Echinocereus_, with 25 to 30 species in North +and South America, the stems are short, branched or simple, divided into +few or many ridges all armed with sharp, formidable spines. _E. pectinatus +_produces a purplish fruit resembling a gooseberry, which is very good +eating; and the fleshy part of the stem itself, which is called _cabeza del +viego_ by the Mexicans, is eaten by them as a vegetable after removing the +spines. + +PILOCEREUS, the old man cactus, forms a small genus with tallish erect, +fleshy, angulate stems, on which, with the tufts of spines, are developed +hair-like bodies, which, though rather coarse, bear some resemblance to the +hoary locks of an old man. The plants are nearly allied to _Cereus_, +differing chiefly in the floriferous portion developing these longer and +more attenuated hair-like spines, which surround the base of the flowers +and form a dense woolly head or cephalium. The most familiar species is _P. +senilis_, a Mexican plant, which though seldom seen more than a foot or two +in height in greenhouses, reaches from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in its native +country. + +ECHINOPSIS is another small group of species, separated by some authors +from _Cereus_. They are dwarf, ribbed, globose or cylindrical plants; and +the flowers, which are produced from the side instead of the apex of the +stem, are large, and in some cases very beautiful, being remarkable for the +length of the tube, which is more or less covered with bristly hairs. They +are natives of Brazil, Bolivia and Chile. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Branch of _Phyllocactus_ much reduced; the flowers +are 6 in. or more in diameter.] + +PHYLLOCACTUS (fig. 3), the Leaf Cactus family, consists of about a dozen +species, found in Central and tropical South America. They differ from all +the forms already noticed in being shrubby and epiphytal in habit, and in +having the branches compressed and dilated so as to resemble thick fleshy +leaves, with a strong median axis and rounded woody base. The margins of +these leaf-like branches are more or less crenately notched, the notches +representing buds, as do the spine-clusters in the spiny genera; and from +these crenatures the large showy flowers are produced. As garden plants the +_Phyllocacti_ are amongst the most ornamental of the whole family, being of +easy culture, free blooming and remarkably showy, the colour of the flowers +ranging from rich crimson, through rose-pink to creamy white. Cuttings +strike readily in spring before growth has commenced; they should be potted +in 3-in. or 4-in. pots, well drained, in loamy soil made very porous by the +admixture of finely broken crocks and sand, and placed in a temperature of +60 deg.; when these pots are filled with roots they are to be shifted into +larger ones, but overpotting must be avoided. During the summer they need +considerable heat, all the light possible and plenty of air; in winter a +temperature of 45 deg. or 50 deg. will be sufficient, and they must be kept +tolerably dry at the root. By the spring they may have larger pots if +required and should be kept in a hot and fairly moistened atmosphere; and +by the end of June, when they have made new growth, they may be turned out +under a south wall in the full sun, water being given only as required. In +autumn they are to be returned to a cool house and wintered in a dry stove. +The turning of them outdoors to ripen their growth is the surest way to +obtain flowers, but they do not take on a free blooming habit until they +have attained some age. They are often called _Epiphyllum_, which name is, +however, properly restricted to the group next to be mentioned. + +EPIPHYLLUM.--This name is now restricted to two or three dwarf branching +Brazilian epiphytal plants of extreme beauty, which agree with +_Phyllocactus_ in having the branches dilated into the form of fleshy +leaves, but differ in haying them divided into short truncate leaf-like +portions, which are articulated, that is to say, provided with a joint by +which they separate spontaneously; the margins are crenate or dentate, and +the flowers, which are large and showy, magenta or crimson, appear at the +apex of the terminal joints. In _E. truncatum_ the flowers have a very +different aspect from that of other _Cacti_, from the mouth of the tube +being oblique and the segments all reflexed at the tip. The short separate +pieces of which these plants are made up grow out of each other, so that +the branches may be said to resemble leaves joined together endwise. + +RHIPSALIS, a genus of about 50 tropical species, mainly in Central and +South America, but a few in tropical Africa and Madagascar. It is a very +heterogeneous group, being fleshy-stemmed with a woody axis, the branches +being angular, winged, flattened or cylindrical, and the flowers small, +short-tubed, succeeded by small, round, pea-shaped berries. _Rhipsalis +Cassytha_, when seen laden with its white berries, bears some resemblance +to a branch of mistletoe. All the species are epiphytal in habit. + +OPUNTIA, the prickly pear, or Indian fig cactus, is a large typical group, +comprising some 150 species, found in North America, the West Indies, and +warmer parts of South America, extending as far as Chile. In aspect they +are very distinct from any of the other groups. They are fleshy shrubs, +with rounded, woody stems, and numerous succulent branches, composed in +most of the species of separate joints or parts, which are much compressed, +often elliptic or suborbicular, dotted over in spiral lines with small, +fleshy, caducous leaves, in the axils of which are placed the areoles or +tufts of barbed or hooked spines of two forms. The flowers are mostly +yellow or reddish-yellow, and are succeeded by pear-shaped or egg-shaped +fruits, having a broad scar at the top, furnished on their soft, fleshy +rind with tufts of small spines. The sweet, juicy fruits of _O. vulgaris_ +and _O. Tuna_ are much eaten under the name of prickly pears, and are +greatly esteemed for their cooling properties. Both these species are +extensively cultivated for their fruit in Southern Europe, the Canaries and +northern Africa; and the fruits are not unfrequently to be seen in Covent +Garden Market and in the shops of the leading fruiterers of the metropolis. +_O. vulgaris_ is hardy in the south of England. + +The cochineal insect is nurtured on a species of _Opuntia_ (_O. +coccinellifera_), separated by some authors under the name of _Nopalea_, +and sometimes also on _O. Tuna_. Plantations of the nopal and the tuna, +which are called nopaleries, are established for the purpose of rearing +this insect, the _Coccus Cacti_, and these often contain as many as 50,000 +plants. The females are placed on the plants about August, and in four +months the first crop of cochineal is gathered, two more being produced in +the course of the year. The native country of the insect is Mexico, and it +is there more or less cultivated; but the greater part of our supply comes +from Colombia and the Canary Islands. + +PEIRESKIA ACULEATA, or Barbadoes gooseberry, the _Cactus peireskia_ of +Linnaeus, differs from the rest in having woody stems and leaf-bearing +branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, but otherwise of the ordinary +laminate character. The flowers are subpaniculate, white or yellowish. This +species is frequently used as a stock on which to graft other _Cacti_. +There are about a dozen species known of this genus, mainly Mexican. + +CADALSO VAZQUEZ, JOSE (1741-1782), Spanish author, was born at Cadiz on the +8th of October 1741. Before completing his twentieth year he had travelled +through Italy, Germany, England, France and Portugal, and had studied the +literatures of these countries. On his return to Spain he entered the army +and rose to the rank of colonel. He was killed at the siege of Gibraltar, +on the 27th of February 1782. His first published work was a rhymed +tragedy, _Don Sancho Garcia, Conde de Castilla_ (1771). In the following +year he published his _Eruditos a la Violeta_, a prose satire on +superficial knowledge, which was very successful. In 1773 appeared a volume +of miscellaneous poems, _Ocios de mi juventud_, and after his death there +was found among his MSS. a series of fictitious letters in the style of the +_Lettres Persanes_; these were issued in 1793 under the title of _Cartas +marruecas_. A good edition of his works appeared at Madrid, in 3 vols., +1823. This is supplemented by the _Obras ineditas_ (Paris, 1894) published +by R. Foulche-Delbosc. + +[v.04 p.0927] CADAMOSTO (or CA DA MOSTO), ALVISE (1432-1477), a Venetian +explorer, navigator and writer, celebrated for his voyages in the +Portuguese service to West Africa. In 1454 he sailed from Venice for +Flanders, and, being detained by contrary winds off Cape St Vincent, was +enlisted by Prince Henry the Navigator among his explorers, and given +command of an expedition which sailed (22nd of March 1455) for the south. +Visiting the Madeira group and the Canary Islands (of both which he gives +an elaborate account, especially concerned with European colonization and +native customs), and coasting the West Sahara (whose tribes, trade and +trade-routes he likewise describes in detail), he arrived at the Senegal, +whose lower course had already, as he tells us, been explored by the +Portuguese 60 m. up. The negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and +especially the country and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning +about 50 m. beyond the river, are next treated with equal wealth of +interesting detail, and Cadamosto thence proceeded towards the Gambia, +which he ascended some distance (here also examining races, manners and +customs with minute attention), but found the natives extremely hostile, +and so returned direct to Portugal. Cadamosto expressly refers to the chart +he kept of this voyage. At the mouth of the Gambia he records an +observation of the "Southern Chariot" (Southern Cross). Next year (1456) he +went out again under the patronage of Prince Henry. Doubling Cape Blanco he +was driven out to sea by contrary winds, and thus made the first known +discovery of the Cape Verde Islands. Having explored Boavista and Santiago, +and found them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland, and pushed +on to the Gambia, Rio Grande and Geba. Returning thence to Portugal, he +seems to have remained there till 1463, when he reappeared at Venice. He +died in 1477. + +Besides the accounts of his two voyages, Cadamosto left a narrative of +Pedro de Cintra's explorations in 1461 (or 1462) to Sierre Leone and beyond +Cape Mesurado to El Mina and the Gold Coast; all these relations first +appeared in the 1507 Vicenza Collection of Voyages and Travels (the _Paesi +novamente retrovati et novo mondo da Alberico Vesputio Florentino_); they +have frequently since been reprinted and translated (_e.g._ Ital. text in +1508, 1512, 1519, 1521, 1550 (Ramusio), &c.; Lat. version, _Itinerarium +Portugallensium_, &c.,1508, 1532 (Grynaeus), &c.; Fr. _Sensuyt le nouveau +monde_, &c., 1516, 1521; German, _Newe unbekante Landte_, &c., 1508). See +also C. Schefer, _Relation des voyages ... de Ca' da Mosto_ (1895); R.H. +Major, _Henry the Navigator_ (1868), pp. 246-287; C.R. Beazley, _Henry the +Navigator_ (1895), pp. 261-288; Yule Oldham, _Discovery of the Cape Verde +Islands_ (1892), esp. pp. 4-15. + +It may be noted that Antonio Uso di Mare (Antoniotto Ususmaris), the +Genoese, wrote his famous letter of the 12th of December 1455 (purporting +to record a meeting with the last surviving descendant of the +Genoese-Indian expedition of 1291, at or near the Gambia), after +accompanying Cadamosto to West Africa; see Beazley, _Dawn of Modern +Geography_ (1892), iii. 416-418. + +CADASTRE (a French word from the Late Lat. _capitastrum_, a register of the +poll-tax), a register of the real property of a country, with details of +the area, the owners and the value. A "cadastral survey" is properly, +therefore, one which gives such information as the Domesday Book, but the +term is sometimes used loosely of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom +(1=2500), which is on sufficiently large a scale to give the area of every +field or piece of ground. + +CADDIS-FLY and CADDIS-WORM, the name given to insects with a superficial +resemblance to moths, sometimes referred to the Neuroptera, sometimes to a +special order, the Trichoptera, in allusion to the hairy clothing of the +body and wings. Apart from this feature the Trichoptera also differ from +the typical Neuroptera in the relatively simple, mostly longitudinal +neuration of the wings, the absence or obsolescence of the mandibles and +the semi-haustellate nature of the rest of the mouth-parts. Although +caddis-flies are sometimes referred to several families, the differences +between the groups are of no great importance. Hence the insects may more +conveniently be regarded as constituting the single family _Phryganeidae_. +The larvae known as caddis-worms are aquatic. The mature females lay their +eggs in the water, and the newly-hatched larvae provide themselves with +cases made of various particles such as grains of sand, pieces of wood or +leaves stuck together with silk secreted from the salivary glands of the +insect. These cases differ greatly in structure and shape. Those of +_Phyrganea_ consist of bits of twigs or leaves cut to a suitable length and +laid side by side in a long spirally-coiled band, forming the wall of a +subcylindrical cavity. The cavity of the tube of _Helicopsyche_, composed +of grains of sand, is itself spirally coiled, so that the case exactly +resembles a small snail-shell in shape. One species of _Limnophilus_ uses +small but entire leaves; another, the shells of the pond-snail _Planorbis_; +another, pieces of stick arranged transversely with reference to the long +axis of the tube. To admit of the free inflow and outflow of currents of +water necessary for respiration, which is effected by means of filamentous +abdominal tracheal gills, the two ends of the tube are open. Sometimes the +cases are fixed, but more often portable. In the latter case the larva +crawls about the bottom of the water or up the stems of plants, with its +thickly-chitinized head and legs protruding from the larger orifice, while +it maintains a secure hold of the silk lining of the tube by means of a +pair of strong hooks at the posterior end of its soft defenceless abdomen. +Their food appears for the most part to be of a vegetable nature. Some +species, however, are alleged to be carnivorous, and a North American form +of the genus _Hydropsyche_ is said to spin around the mouth of its burrow a +silken net for the capture of small animal organisms living in the water. +Before passing into the pupal stage, the larva partially closes the orifice +of the tube with silk or pieces of stone loosely spun together and pervious +to water. Through this temporary protection the active pupa, which closely +resembles the mature insect, subsequently bites a way by means of its +strong mandibles, and rising to the surface of the water casts the pupal +integument and becomes sexually adult. + +The above sketch may be regarded as descriptive of the life-history of a +great majority of species of caddis-flies. It is only necessary here to +mention one anomalous form, _Enoicyla pusilla_, in which the mature female +is wingless and the larva is terrestrial, living in moss or decayed leaves. + +Caddis-flies are universally distributed. Geologically they are known to +date back to the Oligocene period, and wings believed to be referable to +them have been found in Liassic and Jurassic beds. + +(R. I. P.) + +CADDO, a confederacy of North American Indian tribes which gave its name to +the Caddoan stock, represented in the south by the Caddos, Wichita and +Kichai, and in the north by the Pawnee and Arikara tribes. The Caddos, now +reduced to some 500, settled in western Oklahoma, formerly ranged over the +Red River (Louisiana) country, in what is now Arkansas, northern Texas and +Oklahoma. The native name of the confederacy is Hasinai, corrupted by the +French into Asinais and Cenis. The Caddoan tribes were mostly agricultural +and sedentary, and to-day they are distinguished by their industry and +intelligence. + +See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + +CADE, JOHN (d. 1450), commonly called JACK CADE, English rebel and leader +of the rising of 1450, was probably an Irishman by birth, but the details +of his early life are very scanty. He seems to have resided for a time in +Sussex, to have fled from the country after committing a murder, and to +have served in the French wars. Returning to England, he settled in Kent +under the name of Aylmer and married a lady of good position. When the men +of Kent rose in rebellion in May 1450, they were led by a man who took the +name of Mortimer, and who has generally been regarded as identical with +Cade. Mr James Gairdner, however, considers it probable that Cade did not +take command of the rebels until after the skirmish at Sevenoaks on the +18th of June. At all events, it was Cade who led the insurgents from +Blackheath to Southwark, and under him they made their way into London on +the 3rd of July. A part of the populace was doubtless favourable to the +rebels, but the opposing party gained strength when Cade and his men began +to plunder. Having secured the execution of James Fiennes, Baron Say and +Sele, and of William Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, Cade and his followers +retired to Southwark, and on the 5th of July, after a fierce struggle on +London Bridge, the citizens prevented them from re-entering the city. Cade +then met the chancellor, John [v.04 p.0928] Kemp, archbishop of York, and +William of Wayneflete, bishop of Winchester, and terms of peace were +arranged. Pardons were drawn up, that for the leaders being in the name of +Mortimer. Cade, however, retained some of his men, and at this time, or a +day or two earlier, broke open the prisons in Southwark and released the +prisoners, many of whom joined his band. Having collected some booty, he +went to Rochester, made a futile attempt to capture Queenborough castle, +and then quarrelled with his followers over some plunder. On the 10th of +July a proclamation was issued against him in the name of Cade, and a +reward was offered for his apprehension. Escaping into Sussex he was +captured at Heathfield on the 12th. During the scuffle he had been severely +wounded, and on the day of his capture he died in the cart which was +conveying him to London. The body was afterwards beheaded and quartered, +and in 1451 Cade was attainted. + +See Robert Fabyan, _The New Chronicles of England and France_, edited by H. +Ellis (London, 1811); William of Worcester, _Annales rerum Anglicarum_, +edited by J. Stevenson, (London, 1864); _An English Chronicle of the Reigns +of Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI._, edited by J.S. Davies +(London, 1856); _Historical Collections of a Citizen of London_, edited by +J. Gairdner (London, 1876); _Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles_, edited by +J. Gairdner (London, 1880); J. Gairdner, Introduction to the _Paston +Letters_ (London, 1904); G. Kriehn, _The English Rising of 1450_ +(Strassburg, 1892.) + +CADENABBIA, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, about 15 +m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como. It is situated on the W. shore +of the lake of Como, and owing to the great beauty of the scenery and of +the vegetation, and its sheltered situation, is a favourite spring and +autumn resort. The most famous of its villas is the Villa Carlotta, now the +property of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, which contains marble reliefs by +Thorwaldsen, representing the triumph of Alexander, and statues by Canova. + +CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. _cadentia_, from _cadere_, to fall), +a falling or sinking, especially as applied to rhythmical or musical +sounds, as in the "fall" of the voice in speaking, the rhythm or measure of +verses, song or dance. In music, the word is used of the closing chords of +a musical phrase, which succeed one another in such a way as to produce, +first an expectation or suspense, and then an impression of finality, +indicating also the key strongly. "Cadenza," the Italian form of the same +word, is used of a free flourish in a vocal or instrumental composition, +introduced immediately before the close of a movement or at the end of the +piece. The object is to display the performer's technique, or to prevent +too abrupt a contrast between two movements. Cadenzas are usually left to +the improvisation of the performer, but are sometimes written in full by +the composer, or by some famous executant, as in the cadenza in Brahms's +_Violin Concerto_, written by Joseph Joachim. + +CADER IDRIS ("the Seat of Idris"), the second most imposing mountain in +North Wales, standing in Merionethshire to the S. of Dolgelly, between the +broad estuaries of the Mawddach and the Dovey. It is so called in memory of +Idris Gawr, celebrated in the Triads as one of the three "Gwyn +Serenyddion," or "Happy Astronomers," of Wales, who is traditionally +supposed to have made his observations on this peak. Its loftiest point, +known as Pen-y-gader, rises to the height of 2914 ft., and in clear weather +commands a magnificent panorama of immense extent. The mountain is +everywhere steep and rocky, especially on its southern side, which falls +abruptly towards the Lake of Tal-y-llyn. Mention of Cader Idris and its +legends is frequent in Welsh literature, old and modern. + +CADET (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _capitettum_, a diminutive of +_caput_, head, through the Provencal form _capdet_), the head of an +inferior branch of a family, a younger son; particularly a military term +for an accepted candidate for a commission in the army or navy, who is +undergoing training to become an officer. This latter use of the term arose +in France, where it was applied to the younger sons of the _noblesse_ who +gained commissioned rank, not by serving in the ranks or by entering the +_ecoles militaires_, but by becoming attached to corps without pay but with +certain privileges. "Cadet Corps," in the British service, are bodies of +boys or youths organized, armed and trained on volunteer military lines. +Derived from "cadet," through the Scots form "cadee," comes "caddie," a +messenger-boy, and particularly one who carries clubs at golf, and also the +slang word "cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person. + +CADGER (a word of obscure origin possibly connected with "catch"), a hawker +or pedlar, a carrier of farm produce to market. The word in this sense has +fallen into disuse, and now is used for a beggar or loafer, one who gets +his living in more or less questionable ways. + +CADI (_qadi_), a judge in a _mahkama_ or Mahommedan ecclesiastical court, +in which decisions are rendered on the basis of the canon law of Islam +(_shari `a_). It is a general duty, according to canon law, upon a Moslem +community to judge legal disputes on this basis, and it is an individual +duty upon the ruler of the community to appoint a cadi to act for the +community. According to Shafi`ite law, such a cadi must be a male, free, +adult Moslem, intelligent, of unassailed character, able to see, hear and +write, learned in the Koran, the traditions, the Agreement, the differences +of the legal schools, acquainted with Arabic grammar and the exegesis of +the Koran. He must not sit in a mosque, except under necessity, but in some +open, accessible place. He must maintain a strictly impartial attitude of +body and mind, accept no presents from the people of his district, and +render judgment only when he is in a normal condition mentally and +physically. He may not engage in any business. He shall ride to the place +where he holds court, greeting the people on both sides. He shall visit the +sick and those returned from a journey, and attend funerals. On some of +these points the codes differ, and the whole is to be regarded as the ideal +qualification, built up theoretically by the canonists. + +See MAHOMMEDAN LAW; also Juynboll, _De Mohammedaansche Wet_ (Leiden, 1903), +pp. 287 ff.; Sachau, _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Berlin, 1897), pp. 687 ff. + +(D. B. MA.) + +CADILLAC, a city and the county seat of Wexford county, Michigan, U.S.A., +on Lake Cadillac, about 95 m. N. by E. of Grand Rapids and about 85 m. N.W. +of Bay City. Pop. (1890) 4461; (1900) 5997, of whom 1676 were foreign-born; +(1904) 6893; (1910) 8375. It is served by the Ann Arbor and the Grand +Rapids & Indiana railways. Cadillac overlooks picturesque lake scenery, and +the good fishing for pike, pickerel and perch in the lake, and for brook +trout in streams near by, attracts many visitors. Among the city's chief +manufactures are hardwood lumber, iron, tables, crates and woodenware, +veneer, flooring and flour. Cadillac was settled in 1871, was incorporated +as a village under the name of Clam Lake in 1875, was chartered as a city +under its present name (from Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac) in 1877, and was +rechartered in 1895. + +CADIZ, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros, +Philippine Islands, on the N. coast, about 53 m. N.N.E. of Bacolod, the +capital. Pop. (1903) 16,429. Lumber products are manufactured in the town, +and a saw-mill here is said to be the largest in the Philippines. + +CADIZ (_Cadiz_), a maritime province in the extreme south of Spain, formed +in 1833 of districts taken from the province of Seville; and bounded on the +N. by Seville, E. by Malaga, S.E. by the Mediterranean sea, S. by the +Straits of Gibraltar, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 452,659; +area 2834 sq. m.; inclusive, in each case, of the town and territory of +Ceuta, on the Moroccan coast, which belong, for administrative purposes, to +Cadiz. The sea-board of Cadiz possesses several features of exceptional +interest. On the Atlantic littoral, the broad Guadalquivir estuary marks +the frontier of Seville; farther south, the river Guadalete, which waters +the northern districts, falls into the magnificent double bay of Cadiz; +farther south again, is Cape Trafalgar, famous for the British naval +victory of 1805. Near Trafalgar, the river Barbate issues into the straits +of Gibraltar, after receiving several small tributaries, which combine with +it to form, near its mouth, the broad and marshy Laguna de la Janda. Punta +Marroqui, on the straits, is the southernmost promontory of the European +mainland. The [v.04 p.0929] most conspicuous feature of the east coast is +Algeciras Bay, overlooked by the rock and fortress of Gibraltar. The river +Guadiaro, which drains the eastern highlands, enters the Mediterranean +close to the frontier of Malaga. In the interior there is a striking +contrast between the comparatively level western half of Cadiz and the very +picturesque mountain ranges of the eastern half, which are well wooded and +abound in game. The whole region known as the Campo de Gibraltar is of this +character; but it is in the north-east that the summits are most closely +massed together, and attain their greatest altitudes in the Cerro de San +Cristobal (5630 ft.) and the Sierra del Pinar (5413 ft.). + +The climate is generally mild and temperate, some parts of the coast only +being unhealthy owing to a marshy soil. Severe drought is not unusual, and +it was largely this cause, together with want of capital, and the +dependence of the peasantry on farming and fishing, that brought about the +distress so prevalent early in the 20th century. The manufactures are +insignificant compared with the importance of the natural products of the +soil, especially wines and olives. Jerez de la Frontera (Xeres) is famous +for the manufacture and export of sherry. The fisheries furnish about 2500 +tons of fish per annum, one-fifth part of which is salted for export and +the rest consumed in Spain. There are no important mines, but a +considerable amount of salt is obtained by evaporation of sea-water in pans +near Cadiz, San Fernando, Puerto Real and Santa Maria. The railway from +Seville passes through Jerez de la Frontera to Cadiz and San Fernando, and +another line, from Granada, terminates at Algeciras; but at the beginning +of the 20th century, although it was proposed to construct railways from +Jerez inland to Grazalema and coastwise from San Fernando to Tarifa, +travellers who wished to visit these places were compelled to use the +old-fashioned diligence, over indifferent roads, or to go by sea. The +principal seaports are, after Cadiz the capital (pop. 1900, 69,382), +Algeciras (13,302), La Linea (31,862), Puerto de Santa Maria (20,120), +Puerto Real (10,535), the naval station of San Fernando (29,635), San Lucar +(23,883) and Tarifa (11,723); the principal inland towns are Arcos de la +Frontera (13,926), Chiclana (10,868), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Medina +Sidonia (11,040), and Vejer de la Frontera (11,298). These are all +described in separate articles. Grazalema (5587), Jimena de la Frontera +(7549), and San Roque (8569) are less important towns with some trade in +leather, cork, wine and farm produce. They all contain many Moorish +antiquities, and Grazalema probably represents the Roman _Lacidulermium_. +(See also ANDALUSIA.) + +CADIZ (in Lat. _Gades_, and formerly called _Cales_ by the English), the +capital and principal seaport of the Spanish province of Cadiz; on the Bay +of Cadiz, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, in 36 deg. 27' N. and 6 deg. 12' W., 94 +m. by rail S. of Seville. Pop. (1900) 69,382. Cadiz is built on the +extremity of a tongue of land, projecting about 5 m. into the sea, in a +north-westerly direction from the Isla de Leon. Its noble bay, more than 30 +m. in circuit, and almost entirely land-locked by the isthmus and the +headlands which lie to the north-east, has principally contributed to its +commercial importance. The outer bay stretches from the promontory and town +of Rota to the mouth of the river Guadalete; the inner bay, protected by +the forts of Matagorda and Puntales, affords generally good anchorage, and +contains a harbour formed by a projecting mole, where vessels of small +burden may discharge. The entrance to the bays is rendered somewhat +dangerous by the low shelving rocks (Cochinos and Las Puercas) which +encumber the passage, and by the shifting banks of mud deposited by the +Guadalete and the Rio Santi Petri, a broad channel separating the Isla de +Leon from the mainland. At the mouth of this channel is the village of +Caracca; close beside it is the important naval arsenal of San Fernando +(_q.v._); and on the isthmus are the defensive works known as the +Cortadura, or Fort San Fernando, and the well-frequented sea-bathing +establishments. + +From its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild and serene climate. +The _Medina_, or land-wind, so-called because it blows from the direction +of Medina Sidonia, prevails during the winter; the moisture-laden +_Virazon_, a westerly sea-breeze, sets in with the spring. The mean annual +temperature is about 64 deg. F., while the mean summer and winter temperatures +vary only about 10 deg. above and below this point; but the damp atmosphere is +very oppressive in summer, and its unhealthiness is enhanced by the +inadequate drainage and the masses of rotting seaweed piled along the +shore. The high death-rate, nearly 45 per thousand, is also due to the bad +water-supply, the water being either collected in cisterns from the tops of +the houses, or brought at great expense from Santa Maria on the opposite +coast by an aqueduct nearly 30 m. long. An English company started a +waterworks in Cadiz about 1875, but came to grief through the incapacity of +the population to appreciate its necessity. + +The city, which is 6 or 7 m. in circumference, is surrounded by a wall with +five gates, one of which communicates with the isthmus. Seen from a +distance off the coast, it presents a magnificent display of snow-white +turrets rising majestically from the sea; and for the uniformity and +elegance of its buildings, it must certainly be ranked as one of the finest +cities of Spain, although, being hemmed in on all sides, its streets and +squares are necessarily contracted. Every house annually receives a coating +of whitewash, which, when it is new, produces a disagreeable glare. The +city is distinguished by its somewhat deceptive air of cleanliness, its +quiet streets, where no wheeled traffic passes, and its lavish use of white +Italian marble. But the most characteristic feature of Cadiz is the marine +promenades, fringing the city all round between the ramparts and the sea, +especially that called the _Alameda_, on the eastern side, commanding a +view of the shipping in the bay and the ports on the opposite shore. The +houses are generally lofty and surmounted by turrets and flat roofs in the +Moorish style. + +Cadiz is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop of +Seville, but its chief conventual and monastic institutions have been +suppressed. Of its two cathedrals, one was originally erected by Alphonso +X. of Castile (1252-1284), and rebuilt after 1596; the other, begun in +1722, was completed between 1832 and 1838. Under the high altar of the old +cathedral rises the only freshwater spring in Cadiz. The chief secular +buildings include the Hospicio, or Casa de Misericordia, adorned with a +marble portico, and having an interior court with Doric colonnades; the +bull-ring, with room for 12,000 spectators; the two theatres, the prison, +the custom-house, and the lighthouse of San Sebastian on the western side +rising 172 ft. from the rock on which it stands. Besides the Hospicio +already mentioned, which sometimes contains 1000 inmates, there are +numerous other charitable institutions, such as the women's hospital, the +foundling institution, the admirable Hospicio de San Juan de Dios for men, +and the lunatic asylum. Gratuitous instruction is given to a large number +of children, and there are several mathematical and commercial academies, +maintained by different commercial corporations, a nautical school, a +school of design, a theological seminary and a flourishing medical school. +The museum is filled for the most part with Roman and Carthaginian coins +and other antiquities; the academy contains a valuable collection of +pictures. In the church of Santa Catalina, which formerly belonged to the +Capuchin convent, now secularized, there is an unfinished picture of the +marriage of St Catherine, by Murillo, who met his death by falling from the +scaffold on which he was painting it (3rd of April 1682). + +Cadiz no longer ranks among the first marine cities of the world. Its +harbour works are insufficient and antiquated, though a scheme for their +improvement was adopted in 1903; its communications with the mainland +consist of a road and a single line of railway; its inhabitants, apart from +foreign residents and a few of the more enterprising merchants, rest +contented with such prosperity as a fine natural harbour and an unsurpassed +geographical situation cannot fail to confer. Several great shipping lines +call here; shipbuilding yards and various factories exist on the mainland; +and there is a considerable trade in the exportation of wine, principally +sherry from Jerez, salt, olives, figs, canary-seed and ready-made corks; +and in the importation of fuel, iron and machinery, building materials, +American oak staves for casks, &c. In 1904, 2753 ships of 1,745,588 tons +[v.04 p.0930] entered the port. But local trade, though still considerable, +remains stationary if it does not actually recede. Its decline, originally +due to the Napoleonic wars and the acquisition of independence by many +Spanish colonies early in the 19th century, was already recognised, and an +attempt made to check it in 1828, when the Spanish government declared +Cadiz a free warehousing port; but this valuable privilege was withdrawn in +1832. Among the more modern causes of depression have been the rivalry of +Gibraltar and Seville; the decreasing demand for sherry; and the disasters +of the Spanish-American war of 1898, which almost ruined local commerce +with Cuba and Porto Rico. + +_History._--Cadiz represents the Sem. _Agadir_, _Gadir_, or _Gaddir_ +("stronghold") of the Carthaginians, the Gr. _Gadeira_, and the Lat. +_Gades_. Tradition ascribes its foundation to Phoenician merchants from +Tyre, as early as 1100 B.C.; and in the 7th century it had already become +the great mart of the west for amber and tin from the Cassiterides +(_q.v._). About 501 B.C. it was occupied by the Carthaginians, who made it +their base for the conquest of southern Iberia, and in the 3rd century for +the equipment of the armaments with which Hannibal undertook to destroy the +power of Rome. But the loyalty of Gades, already weakened by trade rivalry +with Carthage, gave way after the second Punic War. Its citizens welcomed +the victorious Romans, and assisted them in turn to fit out an expedition +against Carthage. Thenceforward, its rapidly-growing trade in dried fish +and meat, and in all the produce of the fertile Baetis (Guadalquivir) +valley, attracted many Greek settlers; while men of learning, such as +Pytheas in the 4th century B.C., Polybius and Artemidorus of Ephesus in the +2nd, and Posidonius in the 1st, came to study the ebb and flow of its +tides, unparalleled in the Mediterranean. C. Julius Caesar conferred the +_civitas_ of Rome on all its citizens in 49 B.C.; and, not long after L. +Cornelius Balbus Minor built what was called the "New City," constructed +the harbour which is now known as Puerto Real, and spanned the strait of +Santi Petri with the bridge which unites the Isla de Leon with the +mainland, and is now known as the Puente de Zuazo, after Juan Sanchez de +Zuazo, who restored it in the 15th century. Under Augustus, when it was the +residence of no fewer than 500 _equites_, a total only surpassed in Rome +and Padua, Gades was made a _municipium_ with the name of _Augusta Urbs +Gaditana_, and its citizens ranked next to those of Rome. In the 1st +century A.D. it was the birthplace or home of several famous authors, +including Lucius Columella, poet and writer on husbandry; but it was more +renowned for gaiety and luxury than for learning. Juvenal and Martial write +of _Jocosae Gades_, "Cadiz the Joyous," as naturally as the modern +Andalusian speaks of _Cadiz la Joyosa_; and throughout the Roman world its +cookery and its dancing-girls were famous. In the 5th century, however, the +overthrow of Roman dominion in Spain by the Visigoths involved Cadiz in +destruction. A few fragments of masonry, submerged under the sea, are +almost all that remains of the original city. Moorish rule over the port, +which was renamed _Jezirat-Kadis_, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz +was captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alphonso X. of Castile. Its renewed +prosperity dates from the discovery of America in 1492. As the headquarters +of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon recovered its position as the +wealthiest port of western Europe, and consequently it was a favourite +point of attack for the enemies of Spain. During the 16th century it +repelled a series of raids by the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 all the +shipping in its harbour was burned by the English squadron under Sir +Francis Drake; in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord Charles +Howard sacked the city, and destroyed forty merchant vessels and thirteen +warships. This disaster necessitated the rebuilding of Cadiz on a new plan. +Its recovered wealth tempted the duke of Buckingham to promote the +fruitless expedition to Cadiz of 1626; thirty years later Admiral Blake +blockaded the harbour in an endeavour to intercept the treasure fleet; and +in 1702 another attack was made by the British under Sir George Rooke and +the duke of Ormonde. During the 18th century the wealth of Cadiz became +greater than ever; from 1720 to 1765, when it enjoyed a monopoly of the +trade with Spanish America, the city annually imported gold and silver to +the value of about L5,000,000. With the closing years of the century, +however, it entered upon a period of misfortune. From February 1797 to +April 1798 it was blockaded by the British fleet, after the battle of Cape +St Vincent; and in 1800 it was bombarded by Nelson. In 1808 the citizens +captured a French squadron which was imprisoned by the British fleet in the +inner bay. From February 1810 until the duke of Wellington raised the siege +in August 1812, Cadiz resisted the French forces sent to capture it; and +during these two years it served as the capital of all Spain which could +escape annexation by Napoleon. Here, too, the Cortes met and promulgated +the famous Liberal constitution of March 1812. To secure a renewal of this +constitution, the citizens revolted in 1820; the revolution spread +throughout Spain; the king, Ferdinand VII., was imprisoned at Cadiz, which +again became the seat of the Cortes; and foreign intervention alone checked +the movement towards reform. A French army, under the duc d'Angouleme, +seized Cadiz in 1823, secured the release of Ferdinand and suppressed +Liberalism. In 1868 the city was the centre of the revolution which +effected the dethronement of Queen Isabella. + +See _Sevilla y Cadiz, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza e historia_, an +illustrated volume in the series "Espana," by P. de Madrazo (Barcelona, +1884); _Recuerdos Gaditanos_, a very full history of local affairs, by J.M. +Leon y Dominguez (Cadiz, 1897); _Historia de Cadiz y de su provincia desde +los remotos tiempos hasta_ 1824, by A. de Castro (Cadiz, 1858); and +_Descripcion historico-artistica de la catedral de Cadiz_, by J. de Urrutia +(Cadiz, 1843). + +CADMIUM (symbol Cd, atomic weight 112.4 (O=16)), a metallic element, +showing a close relationship to zinc, with which it is very frequently +associated. It was discovered in 1817 by F. Stromeyer in a sample of zinc +carbonate from which a specimen of zinc oxide was obtained, having a yellow +colour, although quite free from iron; Stromeyer showing that this +coloration was due to the presence of the oxide of a new metal. +Simultaneously Hermann, a German chemical manufacturer, discovered the new +metal in a specimen of zinc oxide which had been thought to contain +arsenic, since it gave a yellow precipitate, in acid solution, on the +addition of sulphuretted hydrogen. This supposition was shown to be +incorrect, and the nature of the new element was ascertained. + +Cadmium does not occur naturally in the uncombined condition, and only one +mineral is known which contains it in any appreciable quantity, namely, +greenockite, or cadmium sulphide, found at Greenock and at Bishopton in +Scotland, and in Bohemia and Pennsylvania. It is, however, nearly always +found associated with zinc blende, and with calamine, although only in +small quantities. + +The metal is usually obtained from the flue-dust (produced during the first +three or four hours working of a zinc distillation) which is collected in +the sheet iron cones or adapters of the zinc retorts. This is mixed with +small coal, and when redistilled gives an enriched dust, and by repeating +the process and distilling from cast iron retorts the metal is obtained. It +can be purified by solution in hydrochloric acid and subsequent +precipitation by metallic zinc. + +Cadmium is a white metal, possessing a bluish tinge, and is capable of +taking a high polish; on breaking, it shows a distinct fibrous fracture. By +sublimation in a current of hydrogen it can be crystallized in the form of +regular octahedra; it is slightly harder than tin, but is softer than zinc, +and like tin, emits a crackling sound when bent. It is malleable and can be +rolled out into sheets. The specific gravity of the metal is 8.564, this +value being slightly increased after hammering; its specific heat is 0.0548 +(R. Bunsen), it melts at 310-320 deg. C. and boils between 763-772 deg. C. (T. +Carnelley), forming a deep yellow vapour. The cadmium molecule, as shown by +determinations of the density of its vapour, is monatomic. The metal unites +with the majority of the heavy metals to form alloys; some of these, the +so-called fusible alloys, find a useful application from the fact that they +possess a low melting-point. It also forms amalgams with mercury, and on +this account has been employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or +filling) [v.04 p.0931] teeth. The metal is quite permanent in dry air, but +in moist air it becomes coated with a superficial layer of the oxide; it +burns on heating to redness, forming a brown coloured oxide; and is readily +soluble in mineral acids with formation of the corresponding salts. Cadmium +vapour decomposes water at a red heat, with liberation of hydrogen, and +formation of the oxide of the metal. + +Cadmium oxide, CdO, is a brown powder of specific gravity 6.5, which can be +prepared by heating the metal in air or in oxygen; or by ignition of the +nitrate or carbonate; by heating the metal to a white heat in a current of +oxygen it is obtained as a dark red crystalline sublimate. It does not melt +at a white heat, and is easily reduced to the metal by heating in a current +of hydrogen or with carbon. It is a basic oxide, dissolving readily in +acids, with the formation of salts, somewhat analogous to those of zinc. + +Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)_2, is obtained as a white precipitate by adding +potassium hydroxide to a solution of any soluble cadmium salt. It is +decomposed by heat into the oxide and water, and is soluble in ammonia but +not in excess of dilute potassium hydroxide; this latter property serves to +distinguish it from zinc hydroxide. + +The chloride, CdCl_2, bromide, CdBr_2, and iodide, CdI_2, are also known, +cadmium iodide being sometimes used in photography, as it is one of the few +iodides which are soluble in alcohol. Cadmium chloride and iodide have been +shown to behave in an anomalous way in aqueous solution (W. Hittorf, _Pogg. +Ann._, 1859, 106, 513), probably owing to the formation of complex ions; +the abnormal behaviour apparently diminishing as the solution becomes more +and more dilute, until, at very high dilutions the salts are ionized in the +normal manner. + +Cadmium sulphate, CdSO_4, is known in several hydrated forms; being +deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated aqueous solution, +in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of composition 3CdSO_4.8H_2O, +whilst a boiling saturated solution, to which concentrated sulphuric acid +has been added, deposits crystals of composition CdSO_4.H_2O. It is largely +used for the purpose of making standard electric cells, such for example as +the Weston cell. + +Cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurs naturally as greenockite (_q.v._), and can be +artificially prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through acid +solutions of soluble cadmium salts, when it is precipitated as a pale +yellow amorphous solid. It is used as a pigment (cadmium yellow), for it +retains its colour in an atmosphere containing sulphuretted hydrogen; it +melts at a white heat, and on cooling solidifies to a lemon-yellow +micaceous mass. + +Normal cadmium carbonates are unknown, a white precipitate of variable +composition being obtained on the addition of solutions of the alkaline +carbonates to soluble cadmium salts. + +Cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO_3)_2.4H_2O, is a deliquescent salt, which may be +obtained by dissolving either the metal, or its oxide or carbonate in +dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in needles and is soluble in alcohol. + +Cadmium salts can be recognized by the brown incrustation which is formed +when they are heated on charcoal in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe; +and also by the yellow precipitate formed when sulphuretted hydrogen is +passed though their acidified solutions. This precipitate is insoluble in +cold dilute acids, in ammonium sulphide, and in solutions of the caustic +alkalis, a behaviour which distinguishes it from the yellow sulphides of +arsenic and tin. Cadmium is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the +oxide, being precipitated from boiling solutions by the addition of sodium +carbonate, the carbonate thus formed passing into the oxide on ignition. It +can also be determined as sulphide, by precipitation with sulphuretted +hydrogen, the precipitated sulphide being dried at 100 deg. C. and weighed. + +The atomic weight of cadmium was found by O.W. Huntington (_Berichte_, +1882, 15, p. 80), from an analysis of the pure bromide, to be 111.9. H.N. +Morse and H.C. Jones (_Amer. Chem. Journ._, 1892, 14, p. 261) by conversion +of cadmium into the oxalate and then into oxide, obtained values ranging +from 111.981 to 112.05, whilst W.S. Lorimer and E.F. Smith (_Zeit. fuer +anorg. Chem._, 1891, 1, p. 364), by the electrolytic reduction of cadmium +oxide in potassium cyanide solution, obtained as a mean value 112.055. The +atomic weight of cadmium has been revised by G.P. Baxter and M.A. Hines +(_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1905, 27, p. 222), by determinations of the +ratio of cadmium chloride to silver chloride, and of the amount of silver +required to precipitate cadmium chloride. The mean value obtained was +112.469 (Ag=107.93). The mean value 112.467 was obtained by Baxter, Hines +and Frevert (ibid., 1906, 28, p. 770) by analysing cadmium bromide. + +CADMUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia and brother of +Europa. After his sister had been carried off by Zeus, he was sent out to +find her. Unsuccessful in his search, he came in the course of his +wanderings to Delphi, where he consulted the oracle. He was ordered to give +up his quest and follow a cow which would meet him, and to build a town on +the spot where she should lie down exhausted. The cow met him in Phocis, +and guided him to Boeotia, where he founded the city of Thebes. Intending +to sacrifice the cow, he sent some of his companions to a neighbouring +spring for water. They were slain by a dragon, which was in turn destroyed +by Cadmus; and by the instructions of Athena he sowed its teeth in the +ground, from which there sprang a race of fierce armed men, called Sparti +(sown). By throwing a stone among them Cadmus caused them to fall upon each +other till only five survived, who assisted him to build the Cadmeia or +citadel of Thebes and became the founders of the noblest families of that +city (Ovid, _Metam._ iii. 1 ff.; Apollodorus iii. 4, 5). Cadmus, however, +because of this bloodshed, had to do penance for eight years. At the +expiration of this period the gods gave him to wife Harmonia (_q.v._), +daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, by whom he had a son Polydorus, and four +daughters, Ino, Autonoe, Agave and Semele--a family which was overtaken by +grievous misfortunes. At the marriage all the gods were present; Harmonia +received as bridal gifts a peplos worked by Athena and a necklace made by +Hephaestus. Cadmus is said to have finally retired with Harmonia to +Illyria, where he became king. After death, he and his wife were changed +into snakes, which watched the tomb while their souls were translated to +the Elysian fields. + +There is little doubt that Cadmus was originally a Boeotian, that is, a +Greek hero. In later times the story of a Phoenician immigrant of that name +became current, to whom was ascribed the introduction of the alphabet, the +invention of agriculture and working in bronze and of civilization +generally. But the name itself is Greek rather than Phoenician; and the +fact that Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace under the name of Cadmus or +Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was originally an ancestral +Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian. The name may mean "order," +and be used to characterize one who introduces order and civilization. + +The exhaustive article by O. Crusius in W.H. Roscher's _Lexikon der +Mythologie_ contains a list of modern authorities on the subject of Cadmus; +see also O. Gruppe, _De Cadmi Fabula_ (1891). + +CADMUS OF MILETUS, according to some ancient authorities the oldest of the +logographi (_q.v._). Modern scholars, who accept this view, assign him to +about 550 B.C.; others regard him as purely mythical. A confused notice in +Suidas mentions three persons of the name: the first, the inventor of the +alphabet; the second, the son of Pandion, "according to some" the first +prose writer, a little later than Orpheus, author of a history of the +_Foundation of Miletus_ and of Ionia generally, in four books; the third, +the son of Archelaus, of later date, author of a history of Attica in +fourteen books, and of some poems of an erotic character. As Dionysius of +Halicarnassus (_Judicium de Thucydide_, c. 23) distinctly states that the +work current in his time under the name of Cadmus was a forgery, it is most +probable that the two first are identical with the Phoenician Cadmus, who, +as the reputed inventor of letters, was subsequently transformed into the +Milesian and the author of an historical work. In this connexion it should +be observed that the old Milesian nobles traced their descent back to the +Phoenician or one of his companions. The text of the notice of the third +Cadmus of Miletus in Suidas is unsatisfactory; and it is uncertain whether +he is to be explained in the same way, or whether he was an historical +personage, of whom all further record is lost. + +See C.W. Mueller, _Frag. Hist. Graec_, ii. 2-4; and O. Crusius in Roscher's +_Lexikon der Mythologie_ (article "Kadmos," 90, 91). + +CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN, 1ST EARL (1675-1726), British soldier, was the +son of Henry Cadogan, a Dublin barrister, and grandson of Major William +Cadogan (1601-1661), governor of Trim. The family has been credited with a +descent from Cadwgan, the old Welsh prince. Cadogan began his military +career as a cornet of horse under William III. at the Boyne, and, with the +regiment now known as the 5th (Royal Irish) Lancers, made the campaigns in +the Low Countries. In the course of these years he attracted the notice of +Marlborough. In 1701 Cadogan was employed by him as a staff officer in the +complicated task of concentrating the grand army formed by contingents from +[v.04 p.0932] multitudinous states, and Marlborough soon made the young +officer his confidential staff officer and right-hand man. His services in +the campaign of 1701 were rewarded with the colonelcy of the famous +"Cadogan's Horse" (now the 5th Dragoon Guards). As quartermaster-general, +it fell to his lot to organize the celebrated march of the allies to the +Danube, which, as well as the return march with its heavy convoys, he +managed with consummate skill. At the Schellenberg he was wounded and his +horse shot under him, and at Blenheim he acted as Marlborough's chief of +staff. Soon afterwards he was promoted brigadier-general, and in 1705 he +led "Cadogan's Horse" at the forcing of the Brabant lines between Wange and +Elissem, capturing four standards. He was present at Ramillies, and +immediately afterwards was sent to take Antwerp, which he did without +difficulty. Becoming major-general in 1706, he continued to perform the +numerous duties of chief staff officer, quartermaster-general and colonel +of cavalry, besides which he was throughout constantly employed in delicate +diplomatic missions. In the course of the campaign of 1707, when leading a +foraging expedition, he fell into the hands of the enemy but was soon +exchanged. In 1708 he commanded the advanced guard of the army in the +operations which culminated in the victory of Oudenarde, and in the same +year he was with Webb at the action of Wynendael. On the 1st of January +1709 he was made lieutenant-general. At the siege of Menin in this year +occurred an incident which well illustrates his qualifications as a staff +officer and diplomatist. Marlborough, riding with his staff close to the +French, suddenly dropped his glove and told Cadogan to pick it up. This +seemingly insolent command was carried out at once, and when Marlborough on +the return to camp explained that he wished a battery to be erected on the +spot, Cadogan informed him that he had already given orders to that effect. +He was present at Malplaquet, and after the battle was sent off to form the +siege of Mons, at which he was dangerously wounded. At the end of the year +he received the appointment of lieutenant of the Tower, but he continued +with the army in Flanders to the end of the war. His loyalty to the fallen +Marlborough cost him, in 1712, his rank, positions and emoluments under the +crown. George I. on his accession, however, reinstated Cadogan, and, +amongst other appointments, made him lieutenant of the ordnance. In 1715, +as British plenipotentiary, he signed the third Barrier Treaty between +Great Britain, Holland and the emperor. His last campaign was the Jacobite +insurrection of 1715-1716. At first as Argyle's subordinate (see Coxe, +_Memoirs of Marlborough_, cap. cxiv.), and later as commander-in-chief, +General Cadogan by his firm, energetic and skilful handling of his task +restored quiet and order in Scotland. Up to the death of Marlborough he was +continually employed in diplomatic posts of special trust, and in 1718 he +was made Earl Cadogan, Viscount Caversham and Baron Cadogan of Oakley. In +1722 he succeeded his old chief as head of the army and master-general of +the ordnance, becoming at the same time colonel of the 1st or Grenadier +Guards. He sat in five successive parliaments as member for Woodstock. He +died at Kensington in 1726, leaving two daughters, one of whom married the +second duke of Richmond and the other the second son of William earl of +Portland. + +Readers of _Esmond_ will have formed a very unfavourable estimate of +Cadogan, and it should be remembered that Thackeray's hero was the friend +and supporter of the opposition and General Webb. As a soldier, Cadogan was +one of the best staff officers in the annals of the British army, and in +command of detachments, and also as a commander-in-chief, he showed himself +to be an able, careful and withal dashing leader. + +He was succeeded, by special remainder, in the barony by his brother, +General Charles Cadogan (1691-1776), who married the daughter of Sir Hans +Sloane, thus beginning the association of the family with Chelsea, and died +in 1776, being succeeded in turn by his son Charles Sloane (1728-1807), who +in the year 1800 was created Viscount Chelsea and Earl Cadogan. His +descendant George Henry, 5th Earl Cadogan (b. 1840), was lord privy seal +from 1886 to 1892, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1895 to 1902. + +CADOUDAL, GEORGES (1771-1804), leader of the _Chouans_ during the French +Revolution, was born in 1771 near Auray. He had received a fair education, +and when the Revolution broke out he remained true to his royalist and +Catholic teaching. From 1793 he organized a rebellion in the Morbihan +against the revolutionary government. It was quickly suppressed and he +thereupon joined the army of the revolted Vendeans, taking part in the +battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in December 1793. Returning to Morbihan, +he was arrested, and imprisoned at Brest. He succeeded, however, in +escaping, and began again the struggle against the Revolution. In spite of +the defeat of his party, and of the fact that he was forced several times +to take refuge in England, Cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to +conspire in favour of the royalist pretenders. He refused to come to any +understanding with the government, although offers were made to him by +Bonaparte, who admired his skill and his obstinate energy. From 1800 it was +impossible for Cadoudal to continue to wage open war, so he took altogether +to plotting. He was indirectly concerned in the attempt made by Saint +Regent in the rue Sainte Nicaise on the life of the First Consul, in +December 1800, and fled to England again. In 1803 he returned to France to +undertake a new attempt against Bonaparte. Though watched for by the +police, he succeeded in eluding them for six months, but was at length +arrested. Found guilty and condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon +and was executed in Paris on the 10th of June 1804, along with eleven of +his companions. He is often called simply Georges. + +See _Proces de Georges, Moreau et Pichegru_ (Paris, 1804, 8 vols. 8vo); the +_Memoires_ of Bourrienne, of Hyde de Neuville and of Rohu; Lenotre, +_Tournebut_ (on the arrest); Lejean, _Biographie bretonne_; and the +bibliography to the article VENDEE. + +CADRE (Fr. for a frame, from the Lat. _quadrum_, a square), a framework or +skeleton, particularly the permanent establishment of a military corps, +regiment, &c. which can be expanded on emergency. + +CADUCEUS (the Lat. adaptation of the Doric Gr. [Greek: karukeion], Attic +[Greek: kerukeion], a herald's wand), the staff used by the messengers of +the gods, and especially by Hermes as conductor of the souls of the dead to +the world below. The caduceus of Hermes, which was given him by Apollo in +exchange for the lyre, was a magic wand which exercised influence over the +living and the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned everything +it touched into gold. In its oldest form it was a rod ending in two prongs +twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with two shoots, adorned with +ribbons or garlands), for which, later, two serpents, with heads meeting at +the top, were substituted. The mythologists explained this by the story of +Hermes finding two serpents thus knotted together while fighting; he +separated them with his wand, which, crowned by the serpents, became the +symbol of the settlement of quarrels (Thucydides i. 53; Macrobius, _Sat._ +i. 19; Hyginus, _Poet. Astron._ ii. 7). A pair of wings was sometimes +attached to the top of the staff, in token of the speed of Hermes as a +messenger. In historical times the caduceus was the attribute of Hermes as +the god of commerce and peace, and among the Greeks it was the distinctive +mark of heralds and ambassadors, whose persons it rendered inviolable. The +caduceus itself was not used by the Romans, but the derivative _caduceator_ +occurs in the sense of a peace commissioner. + +See L. Preller, "Der Hermesstab" in _Philologus_, i. (1846); O.A. Hoffmann, +_Hermes und Kerykeion_ (1890), who argues that Hermes is a male lunar +divinity and his staff the special attribute of Aphrodite-Astarte. + +CADUCOUS (Lat. _caducus_), a botanical term for "falling early," as the +sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand. + +CAECILIA. This name was given by Linnaeus to the blind, or nearly blind, +worm-like Batrachians which were formerly associated with the snakes and +are now classed as an order under the names of _Apoda, Peromela_ or +_Gymnophiona_. The type of the genus _Caecilia_ is _Caecilia tentaculata_, +a moderately slender species, not unlike a huge earth-worm, growing to 2 +ft. in length with a diameter of three-quarters of an inch. It is one of +the largest species of the order. Other species of the same genus are very +slender in form, as for instance _Caecilia gracilis_, [v.04 p.0933] which +with a length of 21/4 ft. has a diameter of only a quarter of an inch. One of +the most remarkable characters of the genus _Caecilia_, which it shares +with about two-thirds of the known genera of the order, is the presence of +thin, cycloid, imbricate scales imbedded in the skin, a character only to +be detected by raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or +less completely encircle the body. This feature, unique among living +Batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly _Stegocephalia_, +a view which is further strengthened by the similarity of structure of +these scales in both groups, which the histological investigations of H. +Credner have revealed. The skull is well ossified and contains a greater +number of bones than occur in any other living Batrachian. There is +therefore strong reason for tracing the Caecilians directly from the +Stegocephalia, as was the view of T.H. Huxley and of R. Wiedersheim, since +supported by H. Gadow and by J.S. Kingsley. E.D. Cope had advocated the +abolition of the order Apoda and the incorporation of the Caecilians among +the Urodela or Caudata in the vicinity of the Amphiumidae, of which he +regarded them as further degraded descendants; and this opinion, which was +supported by very feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately +received the support of the two great authorities, P. and F. Sarasin, to +whom we are indebted for our first information on the breeding habits and +development of these Batrachians. + +The knowledge of species of Caecilians has made rapid progress, and we are +now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred to twenty-one genera. +The principal characters on which these genera are founded reside in the +presence or absence of scales, the presence or absence of eyes, the +presence of one or of two series of teeth in the lower jaw, the structure +of the tentacle (representing the so-called "balancers" of Urodele larvae) +on the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of a vacuity between +the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. Of these twenty-one genera +six are peculiar to tropical Africa, one to the Seychelles, four to +south-eastern Asia, eight to Central and South America, one occurs in both +continental Africa and the Seychelles, and one is common to Africa and +South America. + +These Batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in soft mud. The +complete development of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ has been observed in +Ceylon by P. and F. Sarasin. The eggs, forming a rosary-like string, are +very large, and deposited in a burrow near the water. The female protects +them by coiling herself round the egg-mass, which the young do not leave +till after the loss of the very large external gills (one on each side); +they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with an opening, or +spiraculum, on each side of the neck. In these larvae the head is +fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes, with the eyes much +more distinct than in the perfect animal; the tail, which is quite +rudimentary in all Caecilians, is very distinct, strongly compressed, and +bordered above and beneath by a dermal fold. + +In _Hypogeophis_, a Caecilian from the Seychelles studied by A. Brauer, the +development resembles that of _Ichthyophis_, but there is no aquatic larval +stage. The young leaves the egg in the perfect condition, and at once leads +a terrestrial life like its parents. In accordance with this abbreviated +development, the caudal membranous crest does not exist, and the branchial +aperture closes as soon as the external gills disappear. + +In the South American _Typhlonectes_, and in the _Dermophis_ from the +Island of St Thome, West Africa, the young are brought forth alive, in the +former as larvae with external gills, and in the latter in the perfect +air-breathing condition. + +REFERENCES.--R. Wiedersheim, _Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena, 1879), 4to; +G.A. Boulenger, "Synopsis of the Genera and Species," _P.Z.S._, 1895, p. +401; R. Greeff, "Ueber Siphonops thomensis," _Sizb. Ges. Naturw._ (Marburg, +1884), p. 15; P. and F. Sarasin, _Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen auf +Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890), 4to; A. Brauer, "Beitraege zur Kenntnis +der Entwicklungsgeschichte und der Anatomie der Gymnophionen," _Zool. +Jahrb. Ana._ x., 1897, p. 389, xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, Suppl. +p. 381; E.A. Goeldi, "Entwicklung von Siphonops annulatus," _Zool. Jahrb. +Syst._ xii., 1899, p. 170; J.S. Kingsley, "The systematic Position of the +Caecilians," _Tufts Coll. Stud._ vii., 1902, p. 323. + +(G. A. B.) + +CAECILIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which diverged from the Via +Salaria at the 35th m. from Rome, and ran by Amiternum to the Adriatic +coast, passing probably by Hadria. A branch ran to Interamna Praetuttiorum +(Teramo) and thence probably to the sea at Castrum Novum (Giulianova), a +distance of about 151 m. from Rome. It was probably constructed by L. +Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (consul in 117 B.C.). + +See C. Huelsen in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1896), 87 seq. N. Persichetti in +_Roemische Mitteilungen_ (1898), 193 seq.; (1902), 277 seq. + +CAECILIUS, of Calacte ([Greek: Kale\ Akte]) in Sicily, Greek rhetorician, +flourished at Rome during the reign of Augustus. Originally called +Archagathus, he took the name of Caecilius from his patron, one of the +Metelli. According to Suidas, he was by birth a Jew. Next to Dionysius of +Halicarnassus, he was the most important critic and rhetorician of the +Augustan age. Only fragments are extant of his numerous and important +works, among which may be mentioned: _On the Style of the Ten Orators_ +(including their lives and a critical examination of their works), the +basis of the pseudo-Plutarchian treatise of the same name, in which +Caecilius is frequently referred to; _On the Sublime_, attacked by (?) +Longinus in his essay on the same subject (see L. Martens, _De Libello_ +[Greek: Peri hupsous], 1877); _History of the Servile Wars_, or slave +risings in Sicily, the local interest of which would naturally appeal to +the author; _On Rhetoric_ and _Rhetorical Figures_; an _Alphabetical +Selection of Phrases_, intended to serve as a guide to the acquirement of a +pure Attic style--the first example of an Atticist lexicon, mentioned by +Suidas in the preface to his lexicon as one of his authorities; _Against +the Phrygians_, probably an attack on the florid style of the Asiatic +school of rhetoric. + +The fragments have been collected and edited by T. Burckhardt (1863), and +E. Ofenloch (1907); some in C.W. Mueller, _Fragmenta Historicorum +Graecorum_, iii.; C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht ... der classischen +Altertumswissenschaft_, xxiii. (1896), contains full notices of recent +works on Caecilius, by C. Hammer; F. Blass, _Griechische Beredsamkeit von +Alexander bis auf Augustus_ (1865), treats of Dionysius of Halicarnassus +and Caecilius together; see also J. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa, +_Realencyclopaedie_ (1897). + +CAECILIUS STATIUS, or STATIUS CAECILIUS, Roman comic poet, contemporary and +intimate friend of Ennius, died in 168 (or 166) B.C. He was born in the +territory of the Insubrian Gauls, and was probably taken as a prisoner to +Rome (c. 200), during the great Gallic war. Originally a slave, he assumed +the name of Caecilius from his patron, probably one of the Metelli. He +supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the Roman stage from the new +comedy writers, especially Menander. If the statement in the life of +Terence by Suetonius is correct and the reading sound, Caecilius's judgment +was so esteemed that he was ordered to hear Terence's _Andria_ (exhibited +166 B.C.) read and to pronounce an opinion upon it. After several failures +Caecilius gained a high reputation. Volcacius Sedigitus, the dramatic +critic, places him first amongst the comic poets; Varro credits him with +pathos and skill in the construction of his plots; Horace (_Epistles_, ii. +1. 59) contrasts his dignity with the art of Terence. Quintilian (_Inst. +Orat._, x. 1. 99) speaks somewhat disparagingly of him, and Cicero, +although he admits with some hesitation that Caecilius may have been the +chief of the comic poets (_De Optimo Genere Oratorum_, 1), considers him +inferior to Terence in style and Latinity (_Ad Att._ vii. 3), as was only +natural, considering his foreign extraction. The fact that his plays could +be referred to by name alone without any indication of the author (Cicero, +_De Finibus_, ii. 7) is sufficient proof of their widespread popularity. +Caecilius holds a place between Plautus and Terence in his treatment of the +Greek originals; he did not, like Plautus, confound things Greek and Roman, +nor, like Terence, eliminate everything that could not be romanized. + +The fragments of his plays are chiefly preserved in Aulus Gellius, who +cites several passages from the _Plocium_ (necklace) together with the +original Greek of Menander. The translation which is diffuse and by no +means close, fails to reproduce the spirit of the original. Fragments in +Ribbeck, _Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta_ (1898); see also W.S. +Teuffel, _Caecilius Statius_, &c. (1858); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. +tr.), bk. iii. ch. 14; F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_ +(1897). + +[v.04 p.0934] + +CAECINA, the name of a distinguished Etruscan family of Volaterrae. Graves +have been discovered belonging to the family, whose name is still preserved +in the river and hamlet of Cecina. + +AULUS CAECINA, son of Aulus Caecina who was defended by Cicero (69 B.C.) in +a speech still extant, took the side of Pompey in the civil wars, and +published a violent tirade against Caesar, for which he was banished. He +recanted in a work called _Querelae_, and by the intercession of his +friends, above all, of Cicero, obtained pardon from Caesar. Caecina was +regarded as an important authority on the Etruscan system of divination +(_Etrusca Disciplina_), which he endeavoured to place on a scientific +footing by harmonizing its theories with the doctrines of the Stoics. +Considerable fragments of his work (dealing with lightning) are to be found +in Seneca (_Naturales Quaestiones_, ii. 31-49). Caecina was on intimate +terms with Cicero, who speaks of him as a gifted and eloquent man and was +no doubt considerably indebted to him in his own treatise _De Divinatione_. +Some of their correspondence is preserved in Cicero's letters (_Ad Fam._ +vi. 5-8; see also ix. and xiii. 66). + +AULUS CAECINA ALIENUS, Roman general, was quaestor of Baetica in Spain +(A.D. 68). On the death of Nero, he attached himself to Galba, who +appointed him to the command of a legion in upper Germany. Having been +prosecuted for embezzling public money, Caecina went over to Vitellius, who +sent him with a large army into Italy. Caecina crossed the Alps, but was +defeated near Cremona by Suetonius Paulinus, the chief general of Otho. +Subsequently, in conjunction with Fabius Valens, Caecina defeated Otho at +the decisive battle of Bedriacum (Betriacum). The incapacity of Vitellius +tempted Vespasian to take up arms against him. Caecina, who had been +entrusted with the repression of the revolt, turned traitor, and tried to +persuade his army to go over to Vespasian, but was thrown into chains by +the soldiers. After the overthrow of Vitellius, he was released, and taken +into favour by the new emperor. But he could not remain loyal to any one. +In 79 he was implicated in a conspiracy against Vespasian, and was put to +death by order of Titus. Caecina is described by Tacitus as a man of +handsome presence and boundless ambition, a gifted orator and a great +favourite with the soldiers. + +Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 53, 61, 67-70, ii. 20-25, 41-44, iii. 13; Dio +Cassius lxv. 10-14, lxvi. 16; Plutarch, _Otho_, 7; Suetonius, _Titus_, 6; +Zonaras xi. 17. + +CAEDMON, the earliest English Christian poet. His story, and even his very +name, are known to us only from Baeda (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 24). He was, +according to Baeda (see BEDE), a herdsman, who received a divine call to +poetry by means of a dream. One night, having quitted a festive company +because, from want of skill, he could not comply with the demand made of +each guest in turn to sing to the harp, he sought his bed and fell asleep. +He dreamed that there appeared to him a stranger, who addressed him by his +name, and commanded him to sing of "the beginning of created things." He +pleaded inability, but the stranger insisted, and he was compelled to obey. +He found himself uttering "verses which he had never heard." Of Caedmon's +song Baeda gives a prose paraphrase, which may be literally rendered as +follows:--"Now must we praise the author of the heavenly kingdom, the +Creator's power and counsel, the deeds of the Father of glory: how He, the +eternal God, was the author of all marvels--He, who first gave to the sons +of men the heaven for a roof, and then, Almighty Guardian of mankind, +created the earth." Baeda explains that his version represents the sense +only, not the arrangement of the words, because no poetry, however +excellent, can be rendered into another language, without the loss of its +beauty of expression. When Caedmon awoke he remembered the verses that he +had sung and added to them others. He related his dream to the farm bailiff +under whom he worked, and was conducted by him to the neighbouring +monastery at Streanaeshalch (now called Whitby). The abbess Hild and her +monks recognized that the illiterate herdsman had received a gift from +heaven, and, in order to test his powers, proposed to him that he should +try to render into verse a portion of sacred history which they explained +to him. On the following morning he returned having fulfilled his task. At +the request of the abbess he became an inmate of the monastery. Throughout +the remainder of his life his more learned brethren from time to time +expounded to him the events of Scripture history and the doctrines of the +faith, and all that he heard from them he reproduced in beautiful poetry. +"He sang of the creation of the world, of the origin of mankind and of all +the history of Genesis, of the exodus of Israel from Egypt and their +entrance into the Promised Land, of many other incidents of Scripture +history, of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection and ascension, of +the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles. He also made +many songs of the terrors of the coming judgment, of the horrors of hell +and the sweetness of heaven; and of the mercies and the judgments of God." +All his poetry was on sacred themes, and its unvarying aim was to turn men +from sin to righteousness and the love of God. Although many amongst the +Angles had, following his example, essayed to compose religious poetry, +none of them, in Baeda's opinion, had approached the excellence of Caedmon's +songs. + +Baeda's account of Caedmon's deathbed has often been quoted, and is of +singular beauty. It is commonly stated that he died in 680, in the same +year as the abbess Hild, but for this there is no authority. All that we +know of his date is that his dream took place during the period (658-680) +in which Hild was abbess of Streanaeshalch, and that he must have died some +considerable time before Baeda finished his history in 731. + +The hymn said to have been composed by Caedmon in his dream is extant in its +original language. A copy of it, in the poet's own Northumbrian dialect, +and in a handwriting of the 8th century, appears on a blank page of the +Moore MS. of Baeda's History; and five other Latin MSS. of Baeda have the +poem (but transliterated into a more southern dialect) as a marginal note. +In the old English version of Baeda, ascribed to King Alfred, and certainly +made by his command if not by himself, it is given in the text. Probably +the Latin MS. used by the translator was one that contained this addition. +It was formerly maintained by some scholars that the extant Old English +verses are not Baeda's original, but a mere retranslation from his Latin +prose version. The argument was that they correspond too closely with the +Latin; Baeda's words, "hic est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum," being +taken to mean that he had given, not a literal translation, but only a free +paraphrase. But the form of the sentences in Baeda's prose shows a close +adherence to the parallelistic structure of Old English verse, and the +alliterating words in the poem are in nearly every case the most obvious +and almost the inevitable equivalents of those used by Baeda. The sentence +quoted above[1] can therefore have been meant only as an apology for the +absence of those poetic graces that necessarily disappear in translations +into another tongue. Even on the assumption that the existing verses are a +retranslation, it would still be certain that they differ very slightly +from what the original must have been. It is of course possible to hold +that the story of the dream is pure fiction, and that the lines which Baeda +translated were not Caedmon's at all. But there is really nothing to justify +this extreme of scepticism. As the hymn is said to have been Caedmon's first +essay in verse, its lack of poetic merit is rather an argument for its +genuineness than against it. Whether Baeda's narrative be historical or +not--and it involves nothing either miraculous or essentially +improbable--there is no reason to doubt that the nine lines of the Moore +MS. are Caedmon's composition. + +This poor fragment is all that can with confidence be affirmed to remain of +the voluminous works of the man whom Baeda regarded as the greatest of +vernacular religious poets. It is true that for two centuries and a half a +considerable body of verse has been currently known by his name; but among +modern scholars the use of the customary designation is merely a matter of +convenience, and does not imply any belief in the correctness of the +attribution. The so-called Caedmon poems are contained [v.04 p.0935] in a +MS. written about A.D. 1000, which was given in 1651 by Archbishop Ussher +to the famous scholar Francis Junius, and is now in the Bodleian library. +They consist of paraphrases of parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and +three separate poems the first on the lamentations of the fallen angels, +the second on the "Harrowing of Hell," the resurrection, ascension and +second coming of Christ, and the third (a mere fragment) on the temptation. +The subjects correspond so well with those of Caedmon's poetry as described +by Baeda that it is not surprising that Junius, in his edition, published in +1655, unhesitatingly attributed the poems to him. The ascription was +rejected in 1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the character +of the language, is now known to be fallacious, as most of the poetry that +has come down to us in the West Saxon dialect is certainly of Northumbrian +origin. Since, however, we learn from Baeda that already in his time Caedmon +had had many imitators, the abstract probability is rather unfavourable +than otherwise to the assumption that a collection of poems contained in a +late 10th century MS. contains any of his work. Modern criticism has shown +conclusively that the poetry of the "Caedmon MS." cannot be all by one +author. Some portions of it are plainly the work of a scholar who wrote +with his Latin Bible before him. It is possible that some of the rest may +be the composition of the Northumbrian herdsman; but in the absence of any +authenticated example of the poet's work to serve as a basis of comparison, +the internal evidence can afford no ground for an affirmative conclusion. +On the other hand, the mere unlikeness of any particular passage to the +nine lines of the _Hymn_ is obviously no reason for denying that it may +have been by the same author. + +The _Genesis_ contains a long passage (ii. 235-851) on the fall of the +angels and the temptation of our first parents, which differs markedly in +style and metre from the rest. This passage, which begins in the middle of +a sentence (two leaves of the MS. having been lost) is one of the finest in +all Old English poetry. In 1877 Professor E. Sievers argued, on linguistic +grounds, that it was a translation, with some original insertions, from a +lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the author of the _Heliand_. Sievers's +conclusions were brilliantly confirmed in 1894 by the discovery in the +Vatican library of a MS. containing 62 lines of the _Heliand_ and three +fragments of an old Saxon poem on the story of Genesis. The first of these +fragments includes the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of +the Old English _Genesis_. The Old Saxon Biblical poetry belongs to the +middle of the 9th century; the Old English translation of a portion of it +is consequently later than this. + +As the _Genesis_ begins with a line identical in meaning, though not in +wording, with the opening of Caedmon's _Hymn_, we may perhaps infer that the +writer knew and used Caedmon's genuine poems. Some of the more poetical +passages may possibly echo Caedmon's expressions; but when, after treating +of the creation of the angels and the revolt of Lucifer, the paraphrast +comes to the Biblical part of the story, he follows the sacred text with +servile fidelity, omitting no detail, however prosaic. The ages of the +antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately rendered into verse. +In all probability the _Genesis_ is of Northumbrian origin. The names +assigned to the wives of Noah and his three sons (Phercoba, Olla, Olliua, +Olliuani[2]) have been traced to an Irish source, and this fact seems to +point to the influence of the Irish missionaries in Northumbria. + +The _Exodus_ is a fine poem, strangely unlike anything else in Old English +literature. It is full of martial spirit, yet makes no use of the phrases +of the heathen epic, which Cynewulf and other Christian poets were +accustomed to borrow freely, often with little appropriateness. The +condensation of the style and the peculiar vocabulary make the _Exodus_ +somewhat obscure in many places. It is probably of southern origin, and can +hardly be supposed to be even an imitation of Caedmon. + +The _Daniel_ is often unjustly depreciated. It is not a great poem but the +narration is lucid and interesting. The author has borrowed some 70 lines +from the beginning of a poetical rendering of the Prayer of Azarias and the +Song of the Three Children, of which there is a copy in the Exeter Book. +The borrowed portion ends with verse 3 of the canticle, the remainder of +which follows in a version for the most part independent, though containing +here and there a line from _Azarias_. Except in inserting the prayer and +the _Benedicite_, the paraphrast draws only from the canonical part of the +book of Daniel. The poem is obviously the work of a scholar, though the +Bible is the only source used. + +The three other poems, designated as "Book II" in the Junius MS., are +characterized by considerable imaginative power and vigour of expression, +but they show an absence of literary culture and are somewhat rambling, +full of repetitions and generally lacking in finish. They abound in +passages of fervid religious exhortation. On the whole, both their merits +and their defects are such as we should expect to find in the work of the +poet celebrated by Baeda, and it seems possible, though hardly more than +possible, that we have in these pieces a comparatively little altered +specimen of Caedmon's compositions. + +Of poems not included in the Junius MS., the _Dream of the Rood_ (see +CYNEWULF) is the only one that has with any plausibility been ascribed to +Caedmon. It was affirmed by Professor G. Stephens that the Ruthwell Cross, +on which a portion of the poem is inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone +the name "Cadmon";[3] but, according to Professor W. Vietor, the traces of +runes that are still visible exclude all possibility of this reading. The +poem is certainly Northumbrian and earlier than the date of Cynewulf. It +would be impossible to prove that Caedmon was not the author, though the +production of such a work by the herdsman of Streanaeshalch would certainly +deserve to rank among the miracles of genius. + +Certain similarities between passages in _Paradise Lost_ and parts of the +translation from Old Saxon interpolated in the Old English _Genesis_ have +given occasion to the suggestion that some scholar may have talked to +Milton about the poetry published by Junius in 1655, and that the poet may +thus have gained some hints which he used in his great work. The parallels, +however, though very interesting, are only such as might be expected to +occur between two poets of kindred genius working on what was essentially +the same body of traditional material. + +The name Caedmon (in the MSS. of the Old English version of Baeda written +_Cedmon, Ceadmann_) is not explicable by means of Old English; the +statement that it means "boatman" is founded on the corrupt gloss +_liburnam, ced_, where _ced_ is an editorial misreading for _ceol_. It is +most probably the British _Cadman_, intermediate between the Old Celtic +_Catumanus_ and the modern Welsh _Cadfan_. Possibly the poet may have been +of British descent, though the inference is not certain, as British names +may sometimes have been given to English children. The name Caedwalla or +Ceadwalla was borne by a British king mentioned by Baeda and by a king of +the West Saxons. The initial element _Caed_--or _Cead_ (probably adopted +from British names in which it represents _catu_, war) appears combined +with an Old English terminal element in the name _Caedbaed_ (cp., however, +the Irish name Cathbad), and hypocoristic forms of names containing it were +borne by the English saints Ceadda (commonly known as St Chad) and his +brother Cedd, called Ceadwealla in one MS. of the _Old English +Martyrology_. A Cadmon witnesses a Buckinghamshire charter of about A.D. +948. + +The older editions of the so-called "Caedmon's Paraphrase" by F. Junius +(1655); B. Thorpe (1832), with an English translation; K.W. Bouterwek +(1851-1854); C.W.M. Grein in his _Bibliothek der angelsaechsischen Poesie_ +(1857) are superseded, so far as the text is concerned, by R. Wuelker's +re-edition of Grein's _Bibliothek_, Bd. ii. (1895). This work contains also +the texts of the _Hymn_ and the _Dream of the Rood_. The pictorial +illustrations of the Junius MS. were published in 1833 by Sir H. Ellis. + +(H. BR.) + +[1] It is a significant fact that the Alfredian version, instead of +translating this sentence, introduces the verses with the words, "This is +the order of the words." + +[2] The invention of these names was perhaps suggested by _Pericope Oollae +et Oolibae_, which may have been a current title for the 23rd chapter of +Ezekiel. + +[3] Stephens read the inscription on the top-stone as _Cadmon mae fauaepo_, +which he rendered "Cadmon made me." But these words are mere jargon, not +belonging to any known or possible Old English dialect. + +[v.04 p.0936] CAELIA, the name of two ancient cities in Italy, (1) In +Apulia (mod. _Ceglie di Bari_) on the Via Traiana, 5 m. S. of Barium. Coins +found here bearing the inscription [Greek: Kailinon] prove that it was once +an independent town. Discoveries of ruins and tombs have also been made. +(2) In Calabria (mod. _Ceglie Messapica_) 25 m. W. of Brundusium, and 991 +ft. above sea-level. It was in early times a place of some importance, as +is indicated by the remains of a prehistoric _enceinte_ and by the +discovery of several Messapian inscriptions. + +See Ch. Huelsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1252. + +CAEN, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of +Calvados, 71/2 m. from the English Channel and 149 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the +Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) 36,247. It is situated in the +valley and on the left bank of the Orne, the right bank of which is +occupied by the suburb of Vaucelles with the station of the Western +railway. To the south-west of Caen, the Orne is joined by the Odon, arms of +which water the "Prairie," a fine plain on which a well-known race-course +is laid out. Its wide streets, of which the most important is the rue St +Jean, shady boulevards, and public gardens enhance the attraction which the +town derives from an abundance of fine churches and old houses. Hardly any +remains of its once extensive ramparts and towers are now to be seen; but +the castle, founded by William the Conqueror and completed by Henry I., is +still employed as barracks, though in a greatly altered condition. St +Pierre, the most beautiful church in Caen, stands at the northern extremity +of the rue St Jean, in the centre of the town. In the main, its +architecture is Gothic, but the choir and the apsidal chapels, with their +elaborate interior and exterior decoration, are of Renaissance workmanship. +The graceful tower, which rises beside the southern portal to a height of +255 ft., belongs to the early 14th century. The church of St Etienne, or +l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes, in the west of the town, is an important specimen of +Romanesque architecture, dating from about 1070, when it was founded by +William the Conqueror. It is unfortunately hemmed in by other buildings, so +that a comprehensive view of it is not to be obtained. The whole building, +and especially the west facade, which is flanked by two towers with lofty +spires, is characterized by its simplicity. The choir, which is one of the +earliest examples of the Norman Gothic style, dates from the early 13th +century. In 1562 the Protestants did great damage to the building, which +was skilfully restored in the early 17th century. A marble slab marks the +former resting-place of William the Conqueror. The abbey-buildings were +rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, and now shelter the lycee. Matilda, +wife of the Conqueror, was the foundress of the church of La Trinite or +l'Abbaye-aux-Dames, which is of the same date as St Etienne. Two square +unfinished towers flank the western entrance, and another rises above the +transept. Queen Matilda is interred in the choir, and a fine crypt beneath +it contains the remains of former abbesses. The buildings of the nunnery, +reconstructed in the early 18th century, now serve as a hospital. Other +interesting old churches are those of St Sauveur, St Michel de Vaucelles, +St Jean, St Gilles, Notre-Dame de la Gloriette, St Etienne le Vieux and St +Nicolas, the last two now secularized. Caen possesses many old timber +houses and stone mansions, in one of which, the hotel d'Ecoville (c. 1530), +the exchange and the tribunal of commerce are established. The hotel de +Than, also of the 16th century, is remarkable for its graceful +dormer-windows. The Maison des Gens d'Armes (15th century), in the eastern +outskirts of the town, has a massive tower adorned with medallions and +surmounted by two figures of armed men. The monuments at Caen include one +to the natives of Calvados killed in 1870 and 1871 and one to the lawyer +J.C.F. Demolombe, together with statues of Louis XIV, Elie de Beaumont, +Pierre Simon, marquis de Laplace, D.F.E. Auber and Francois de Malherbe, +the two last natives of the town. Caen is the seat of a court of appeal, of +a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is the centre of an academy and has +a university with faculties of law, science and letters and a preparatory +school of medicine and pharmacy; there are also a lycee, training colleges, +schools of art and music, and two large hospitals. The other chief public +institutions are tribunals of first instance and commerce, an exchange, a +chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The hotel-de-ville +contains the library, with more than 100,000 volumes and the art museum +with a fine collection of paintings. The town is the seat of several +learned societies including the Societe des Antiquaires, which has a rich +museum of antiquities. Caen, despite a diversity of manufactures, is +commercial rather than industrial. Its trade is due to its position in the +agricultural and horse-breeding district known as the "Campagne de Caen" +and to its proximity to the iron mines of the Orne valley, and to +manufacturing towns such as Falaise, Le Mans, &c. In the south-east of the +town there is a floating basin lined with quays and connected with the Orne +and with the canal which debouches into the sea at Ouistreham 9 m. to the +N.N.E. The port, which also includes a portion of the river-bed, +communicates with Havre and Newhaven by a regular line of steamers; it has +a considerable fishing population. In 1905 the number of vessels entered +was 563 with a tonnage of 190,190. English coal is foremost among the +imports, which also include timber and grain, while iron ore, Caen +stone[1], butter and eggs and fruit are among the exports. Important horse +and cattle fairs are held in the town. The industries of Caen include +timber-sawing, metal-founding and machine-construction, cloth-weaving, +lace-making, the manufacture of leather and gloves, and of oil from the +colza grown in the district, furniture and other wooden goods and chemical +products. + +Though Caen is not a town of great antiquity, the date of its foundation is +unknown. It existed as early as the 9th century, and when, in 912, Neustria +was ceded to the Normans by Charles the Simple, it was a large and +important place. Under the dukes of Normandy, and particularly under +William the Conqueror, it rapidly increased. It became the capital of lower +Normandy, and in 1346 was besieged and taken by Edward III. of England. It +was again taken by the English in 1417, and was retained by them till 1450, +when it capitulated to the French. The university was founded in 1436 by +Henry VI. of England. During the Wars of Religion, Caen embraced the +reform; in the succeeding century its prosperity was shattered by the +revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the city was the focus of +the Girondist movement against the Convention. + +See G. Mancel et C. Woinez, _Hist. de la ville de Caen et de ses progres_ +(Caen, 1836); B. Pent, _Hist. de la ville de Caen, ses origines_ (Caen, +1866); E. de R. de Beaurepaire, _Caen illustre: son histoire, ses +monuments_ (Caen, 1896). + +[1] A limestone well adapted for building. It was well known in the 15th +and 16th centuries, at which period many English churches were built of it. + +CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIUS, Roman general, consul 106 B.C. During his year +of office, he brought forward a law by which the jurymen were again to be +chosen from the senators instead of the equites (Tacitus, _Ann._ xii. 60). +As governor of Gallia Narbonensis, he plundered the temple of the Celtic +Apollo at Tolosa (Toulouse), which had joined the Cimbri. In 105, Caepio +suffered a crushing defeat from the Cimbri at Arausio (Orange) on the +Rhone, which was looked upon as a punishment for his sacrilege; hence the +proverb _Aurum Tolosanum habet_, of an act involving disastrous +consequences. In the same year he was deprived of his proconsulship and his +property confiscated; subsequently (the chronology is obscure, see Mommsen, +_History of Rome_, bk. iv. ch. 5) he was expelled from the senate, accused +by the tribune Norbanus of embezzlement and misconduct during the war, +condemned and imprisoned. He either died during his confinement or escaped +to Smyrna. + +Livy, _Epit._ 67; Valerius Maximus iv. 7. 3; Justin xxxii. 3; Aulus Gellius +iii. 9. + +CAERE (mod. _Cerveteri, i.e. Caere vetus_, see below), an ancient city of +Etruria about 5 m. from the sea coast and about 20 m. N.W. of Rome, direct +from which it was reached by branch roads from the Via Aurelia and Via +Clodia. Ancient writers tell us that its original Pelasgian name was +Agylla, and that the Etruscans took it and called it Caere (when this +occurred is not known), [v.04 p.0937] but the former name lasted on into +later times as well as Caere. It was one of the twelve cities of Etruria, +and its trade, through its port Pyrgos (_q.v._), was of considerable +importance. It fought with Rome in the time of Tarquinus Priscus and +Servius Tullius, and subsequently became the refuge of the expelled +Tarquins. After the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C., the vestal virgins +and the sacred objects in their custody were conveyed to Caere for safety, +and from this fact some ancient authorities derive the word _caerimonia_, +ceremony. A treaty was made between Rome and Caere in the same year. In +353, however, Caere took up arms against Rome out of friendship for +Tarquinii, but was defeated, and it is probably at this time that it became +partially incorporated with the Roman state, as a community whose members +enjoyed only a restricted form of Roman citizenship, without the right to a +vote, and which was, further, without internal autonomy. The status is +known as the _ius Caeritum_, and Caere was the first of a class of such +municipalities (Th. Mommsen, _Roemische Staatsrecht_, iii. 583). In the +First Punic War, Caere furnished Rome with corn and provisions, but +otherwise, up till the end of the Republic, we only hear of prodigies being +observed at Caere and reported at Rome, the Etruscans being especially +expert in augural lore. By the time of Augustus its population had actually +fallen behind that of the Aquae Caeretanae (the sulphur springs now known +as the Bagni del Sasso, about 5 m. W.), but under either Augustus or +Tiberius its prosperity was to a certain extent restored, and inscriptions +speak of its municipal officials (the chief of them called _dictator_) and +its town council, which had the title of _senatus_. In the middle ages, +however, it sank in importance, and early in the 13th century, a part of +the inhabitants founded Caere novum (mod. _Ceri_) 3 m. to the east. + +The town lay on a hill of tufa, running from N.E. to S.W., isolated except +on the N.E., and about 300 ft. above sea-level. The modern town, at the +western extremity, probably occupies the site of the acropolis. The line of +the city walls, of rectangular blocks of tufa, can be traced, and there +seem to have been eight gates in the circuit, which was about 4 m. in +length. There are no remains of buildings of importance, except the +theatre, in which many inscriptions and statues of emperors were found. The +necropolis in the hill to the north-west, known as the Banditaccia, is +important. The tomb chambers are either hewn in the rock or covered by +mounds. One of the former class was the family tomb of the +Tarchna-Tarquinii, perhaps descended from the Roman kings; others are +interesting from their architectural and decorative details. One +especially, the Grotta dei Bassirilievi, has interesting reliefs cut in the +rock and painted, while the walls of another were decorated with painted +tiles of terracotta. The most important tomb of all, the Regolini-Galassi +tomb (taking its name from its discoverers), which lies S.W. of the ancient +city, is a narrow rock-hewn chamber about 60 ft. long, lined with masonry, +the sides converging to form the roof. The objects found in it (a chariot, +a bed, silver goblets with reliefs, rich gold ornaments, &c.) are now in +the Etruscan Museum at the Vatican: they are attributed to about the middle +of the 7th century B.C. At a short distance from the modern town on the +west, thousands of votive terracottas were found in 1886, some representing +divinities, others parts of the human body (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, +38). They must have belonged to some temple. + +See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, i. 226 seq.; C. Huelsen +in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, iii. 1281. + +(T. AS.) + +CAERLEON, an ancient village in the southern parliamentary division of +Monmouthshire, England, on the right (west) bank of the Usk, 3 m. N.E. of +Newport. Pop. (1901) 1411. Its claim to notice rests on its Roman and +British associations. As _Isca Silurum_, it was one of the three great +legionary fortresses of Roman Britain, established either about A.D. 50 +(Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 32), or perhaps, as coin-finds suggest, about A.D. +74-78 in the governorship of Julius Frontinus, and in either case intended +to coerce the wild Silures. It was garrisoned by the Legio II. Augusta from +its foundation till near the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Though never +seriously excavated, it contains plentiful visible traces of its Roman +period--part of the ramparts, the site of an amphitheatre, and many +inscriptions, sculptured stones, &c., in the local museum. No civil life or +municipality seems, however, to have grown up outside its walls, as at York +(_Eburacum_). Like Chester (see DEVA), it remained purely military, and the +common notion that it was the seat of a Christian bishopric in the 4th +century is unproved and improbable. Its later history is obscure. We do not +know when the legion was finally withdrawn, nor what succeeded. But Welsh +legend has made the site very famous with tales of Arthur (revived by +Tennyson in his _Idylls_), of Christian martyrs, Aaron and Julius, and of +an archbishopric held by St Dubric and shifted to St David's in the 6th +century. Most of these traditions date from Geoffrey of Monmouth (about +1130-1140), and must not be taken for history. The ruins of Caerleon +attracted notice in the 12th and following centuries, and gave plain cause +for legend-making. There is better, but still slender, reason for the +belief that it was here, and not at Chester, that five kings of the Cymry +rowed Edgar in a barge as a sign of his sovereignty (A.D. 973). The name +Caerleon seems to be derived from the Latin _Castra legionum_, but it is +not peculiar to Caerleon-on-Usk, being often used of Chester and +occasionally of Leicester and one or two other places. + +(F. J. H.) + +CAERPHILLY, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, 1521/4 m. from London by +rail _via_ Cardiff, 7 m. from Cardiff, 12 m. from Newport and 6 m. from +Pontypridd. The origin of the name is unknown. It was formerly in the +ancient parish of Eglwysilan, but from that and Bedwas (Mon.) an +ecclesiastical parish was formed in 1850, while the whole of the parishes +of Eglwysilan and Llanfabon, with a total acreage of 14,426, were in 1893 +constituted into an urban district; its population in 1901 was 15,385, of +which 4343 were in the "town" ward. In 1858 was opened the Rhymney railway +from Rhymney to Caerphilly and on to Taff's Well, whence it had running +powers over the Taff Vale railway to Cardiff, but in 1871, by means of a +tunnel about 2000 yds. long, under Cefn Onn, a direct line was provided +from Caerphilly to Cardiff. A branch line, 4 m. long, was opened in 1894 to +Senghenydd. The Pontypridd and Newport railway was constructed in 1887, and +there is a joint station at Caerphilly for both railways. Some 2 m. +eastwards there is a station on the Brecon and Merthyr railway at Bedwas. + +The ancient commote of Senghenydd (corresponding to the modern hundred of +Caerphilly) comprised the mountainous district extending from the ridge of +Cefn Onn on the south to Breconshire on the north, being bounded by the +rivers Taff and Rumney on the west and east. Its inhabitants, though +nominally subject to the lords of Glamorgan since Fitzhamon's conquest, +enjoyed a large measure of independence and often raided the lowlands. To +keep these in check, Gilbert de Clare, during the closing years of the +reign of Henry III., built the castle of Caerphilly on the southern edge of +this district, in a wide plain between the two rivers. It had probably not +been completed, though it was already defensible, when Prince Llewelyn ab +Griffith, incensed by its construction and claiming its site as his own, +laid siege to it in 1271 and refused to retire except on conditions. +Subsequently completed and strengthened it became and still remains (in the +words of G.T. Clark) "both the earliest and the most complete example in +Britain of a concentric castle of the type known as 'Edwardian', the circle +of walls and towers of the outer, inner and middle wards exhibiting the +most complete illustration of the most scientific military architecture". +The knoll on which it stood was converted almost into an island by the +damming up of an adjacent brook, and the whole enclosed area amounted to 30 +acres. The great hall (which is 73 ft. by 35 ft. and about 30 ft. high) is +a fine example of Decorated architecture. This and other additions are +attributed to Hugh le Despenser (1318-1326). Edward II. visited the castle +shortly before his capture in 1326. The defence of the castle was committed +by Henry IV. to Constance, Lady Despenser, in September 1403, but it was +shortly afterwards taken by Owen Glyndwr, to whose mining operations +tradition ascribes the leaning position of a large [v.04 p.0938] circular +tower, about 50 ft. high, the summit of which overhangs its base about 9 +ft. Before the middle of the 15th century it had ceased to be a fortified +residence and was used as a prison, which was also the case in the time of +Leland (1535), who describes it as in a ruinous state. It is still, +however, one of the most extensive and imposing ruins of the kind in the +kingdom. + +The town grew up around the castle but never received a charter or had a +governing body. In 1661 the corporation of Cardiff complained of Cardiff's +impoverishment by reason of a fair held every three weeks for the previous +four years at Caerphilly, though "no Borough." Its markets during the 19th +century had been chiefly noted for the Caerphilly cheese sold there. The +district was one of the chief centres of the Methodist revival of the 18th +century, the first synod of the Calvinistic Methodists being held in 1743 +at Watford farm close to the town, from which place George Whitefield was +married at Eglwysilan church two years previously. The church of St Martin +was built in 1879, and there are Nonconformist chapels. Mining is now the +chief industry of the district. + +(D. LL. T.) + +CAESALPINUS (CESALPINO), ANDREAS (1519-1603), Italian natural philosopher, +was born in Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. He studied anatomy and medicine at +the university of Pisa, where he took his doctor's degree in 1551, and in +1555 became professor materia medica and director of the botanical garden. +Appointed physician to Pope Clement VIII., he removed in 1592 to Rome, +where he died on the 23rd of February 1603. Caesalpinus was the most +distinguished botanist of his time. His work, _De Plantis libri xvi._ +(Florence, 1583), was not only the source from which various subsequent +writers, and especially Robert Morison (1620-1683) derived their ideas of +botanical arrangement but it was a mine of science to which Linnaeus +himself gratefully avowed his obligations. Linnaeus's copy of the book +evinces the great assiduity with which he studied it; he laboured +throughout to remedy the defect of the want of synonyms, sub-joined his own +generic names to nearly every species, and particularly indicated the two +remarkable passages where the germination of plants and their sexual +distinctions are explained. Caesalpinus was also distinguished as a +physiologist, and it has been claimed that he had a clear idea of the +circulation of the blood (see HARVEY, WILLIAM). His other works include +_Daemonum investigatio peripatetica_ (1580), _Quaestionum medicarum libri +ii._ (1593), _De Metallicis_ (1596), and _Quaestionum peripateticarum libri +v._ (1571) + +CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102-44 B.C.), the great Roman soldier and statesman, +was born on the 12th of July 102 B.C.[1] [Sidenote: Early years.] His +family was of patrician rank and traced a legendary descent from Iulus, the +founder of Alba Longa, son of Aeneas and grandson of Venus and Anchises. +Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and built a temple in his forum +to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician descent was of little importance in +politics and disqualified Caesar from holding the tribunate, an office to +which, as a leader of the popular party, he would naturally have aspired. +The Julii Caesares, however, had also acquired the new _nobilitas_, which +belonged to holders of the great magistracies. Caesar's uncle was consul in +91 B.C., and his father held the praetorship. Most of the family seem to +have belonged to the senatorial party (_optimates_); but Caesar himself was +from the first a _popularis_. The determining factor is no doubt to be +sought in his relationship with C. Marius, the husband of his aunt Julia. +Caesar was born in the year of Marius's first great victory over the +Teutones, and as he grew up, inspired by the traditions of the great +soldier's career, attached himself to his party and its fortunes. Of his +education we know scarcely anything. His mother, Aurelia, belonged to a +distinguished family, and Tacitus (_Dial. de Orat._ xxviii.) couples her +name with that of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the +Roman matron whose _disciplina_ and _severitas_ formed her son for the +duties of a soldier and statesman. His tutor was M. Antonius Gnipho, a +native of Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is said to have +been equally learned in Greek and Latin literature, and to have set up in +later years a school of rhetoric which was attended by Cicero in his +praetorship 66 B.C. It is possible that Caesar may have derived from him +his interest in Gaul and its people and his sympathy with the claims of the +Romanized Gauls of northern Italy to political rights. + +In his sixteenth year (87 B.C.) Caesar lost his father, and assumed the +_toga virilis_ as the token of manhood. The social war (90-89 B.C.) had +been brought to a close by the enfranchisement of Rome's Italian subjects; +and the civil war which followed it led, after the departure of Sulla for +the East, to the temporary triumph of the _populares_, led by Marius and +Cinna, and the indiscriminate massacre of their political opponents, +including both of Caesar's uncles. Caesar was at once marked out for high +distinction, being created _flamen Dialis_ or priest of Jupiter. In the +following year (which saw the death of Marius) Caesar, rejecting a proposed +marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress, sought and obtained the hand +of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and thus became further identified with +the ruling party. His career was soon after interrupted by the triumphant +return of Sulla (82 B.C.), who ordered him to divorce his wife, and on his +refusal deprived him of his property and priesthood and was induced to +spare his life only by the intercession of his aristocratic relatives and +the college of vestal virgins. + +Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 B.C.) left Rome for +the East and served his first campaign under Minucius Thermus, who was +engaged in stamping out the embers of resistance to Roman rule in the +province of Asia, and received from him the "civic crown" for saving a +fellow-soldier's life at the storm of Mytilene. In 78 B.C. he was serving +under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician pirates when the news of +Sulla's death reached him and he at once returned to Rome. Refusing to +entangle himself in the abortive and equivocal schemes of Lepidus to +subvert the Sullan constitution, Caesar took up the only instrument of +political warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial +governors, Cn. Cornelius Dolabella (in 77 B.C.) and C. Antonius (in 76 +B.C.) for extortion in the provinces of Macedonia and Greece, and though he +lost both cases, probably convinced the world at large of the corruption of +the senatorial tribunals. After these failures Caesar determined to take no +active part in politics for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in +order to study rhetoric under Molon, at Rhodes. On the journey thither he +was caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate nonchalance while +awaiting his ransom, threatening to return and crucify them; when released +he lost no time in carrying out his threat. Whilst he was studying at +Rhodes the third Mithradatic War broke out, and Caesar at once raised a +corps of volunteers and helped to secure the wavering loyalty of the +provincials of Asia. When Lucullus assumed the command of the Roman troops +in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had been elected to a +seat on the college of _pontifices_ left vacant by the death of his uncle, +C. Aurelius Cotta. He was likewise elected first of the six _tribuni +militum a populo_, but we hear nothing of his service in this capacity. +Suetonius tells us that he threw himself into the agitation for the +restoration of the ancient powers of the tribunate curtailed by Sulla, and +that he secured the passing of a law of amnesty in favour of the partisans +of Sertorius. He was not, however, destined to compass the downfall of the +Sullan _regime_; the crisis of the Slave War placed the Senate at the mercy +of Pompey and Crassus, who in 70 B.C. swept away the safeguards of +senatorial ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to the +tribunes, and replaced the Equestrian order, _i.e._ the capitalists, in +partial possession of the jury-courts. This judicial reform (or rather +compromise) was the work of Caesar's uncle, L. Aurelius Cotta. Caesar +himself, however, gained no accession of influence. In 69 B.C. he served as +quaestor under Antistius Vetus, governor of Hither Spain, and on his way +back to Rome (according to Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation +[v.04 p.0939] amongst the Transpadanes for the acquisition of full +political rights, which had been denied them by Sulla's settlement. + +Caesar was now best known as a man of pleasure, celebrated for his debts +and his intrigues; in politics he had no force behind [Sidenote: Opposition +to the Optimates.] him save that of the discredited party of the +_populares_, reduced to lending a passive support to Pompey and Crassus. +But as soon as the proved incompetence of the senatorial government had +brought about the mission of Pompey to the East with the almost unlimited +powers conferred on him by the Gabinian and Manilian laws of 67 and 66 B.C. +(see POMPEY), Caesar plunged into a network of political intrigues which it +is no longer possible to unravel. In his public acts he lost no opportunity +of upholding the democratic tradition. Already in 68 B.C. he had paraded +the bust of Marius at his aunt's funeral; in 65 B.C., as curule aedile, he +restored the trophies of Marius to their place on the Capitol; in 64 B.C., +as president of the murder commission, he brought three of Sulla's +executioners to trial, and in 63 B.C. he caused the ancient procedure of +trial by popular assembly to be revived against the murderer of Saturninus. +By these means, and by the lavishness of his expenditure on public +entertainments as aedile, he acquired such popularity with the plebs that +he was elected _pontifex maximus_ in 63 B.C. against such distinguished +rivals as Q. Lutatius Catulus and P. Servilius Isauricus. But all this was +on the surface. There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of some at +least of the threads of conspiracy which were woven during Pompey's absence +in the East. According to one story, the _enfants perdus_ of the +revolutionary party--Catiline, Autronius and others--designed to +assassinate the consuls on the 1st of January 65, and make Crassus +dictator, with Caesar as master of the horse. We are also told that a +public proposal was made to confer upon him an extraordinary military +command in Egypt, not without a legitimate king and nominally under the +protection of Rome. An equally abortive attempt to create a counterpoise to +Pompey's power was made by the tribune Rullus at the close of 64 B.C. He +proposed to create a land commission with very wide powers, which would in +effect have been wielded by Caesar and Crassus. The bill was defeated by +Cicero, consul in 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy associated with +the name of Catiline came to a head. The charge of complicity was freely +levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by Cato in the great debate in +the senate. But Caesar, for party reasons, was bound to oppose the +execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who shared in the accusation, +was the richest man in Rome and the least likely to further anarchist +plots. Both, however, doubtless knew as much and as little as suited their +convenience of the doings of the left wing of their party, which served to +aggravate the embarrassments of the government. + +As praetor (62 B.C.) Caesar supported proposals in Pompey's favour which +brought him into violent collision with the senate. This was a +master-stroke of tactics, as Pompey's return was imminent. Thus when Pompey +landed in Italy and disbanded his army he found in Caesar a natural ally. +After some delay, said to have been caused by the exigencies of his +creditors, which were met by a loan of L200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left +Rome for his province of Further Spain, where he was able to retrieve his +financial position, and to lay the foundations of a military reputation. He +returned to Rome in 60 B.C. to find that the senate had sacrificed the +support of the capitalists (which Cicero had worked so hard to secure), and +had finally alienated Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and grant lands +to his soldiers. Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus, who +alike detested the existing system of government but were personally at +variance, and succeeded in persuading them to forget their quarrel and join +him in a coalition which should put an end to the rule of the oligarchy. He +even made a generous, though unsuccessful, endeavour to enlist the support +of Cicero. The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, and constitutional +government ceased to exist save in name. + +The first prize which fell to Caesar was the consulship, to secure which he +forewent the triumph which he had earned in Spain. His colleague was M. +Bibulus, who belonged to the straitest sect of the senatorial oligarchy +and, together with [Sidenote: Coalition with Pompey and Crassus.] his +party, placed every form of constitutional obstruction in the path of +Caesar's legislation. Caesar, however, overrode all opposition, mustering +Pompey's veterans to drive his colleague from the forum. Bibulus became a +virtual prisoner in his own house, and Caesar placed himself outside the +pale of the free republic. Thus the programme of the coalition was carried +through. Pompey was satisfied by the ratification of his acts in Asia, and +by the assignment of the Campanian state domains to his veterans, the +capitalists (with whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain +for the farming of the Asiatic revenues cancelled, Ptolemy Auletes received +the confirmation of his title to the throne of Egypt (for a consideration +amounting to L1,500,000), and a fresh act was passed for preventing +extortion by provincial governors. + +It was now all-important for Caesar to secure practical irresponsibility by +obtaining a military command. The senate, [Sidenote: Gallic wars.] in +virtue of its constitutional prerogative, had assigned as the _provincia_ +of the consuls of 59 B.C. the supervision of roads and forests in Italy. +Caesar secured the passing of a legislative enactment conferring upon +himself the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria for five years, and +exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine Gaul, where, +as he well knew, a storm was brewing which threatened to sweep away Roman +civilization beyond the Alps. The mutual jealousies of the Gallic tribes +had enabled German invaders first to gain a foothold on the left bank of +the Rhine, and then to obtain a predominant position in Central Gaul. In 60 +B.C. the German king Ariovistus had defeated the Aedui, who were allies of +Rome, and had wrested from the Sequani a large portion of their territory. +Caesar must have seen that the Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome +the mastery of Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 B.C. +Ariovistus was inscribed on the roll of the friends of the Roman people. In +58 B.C. the Helvetii, a Celtic people inhabiting Switzerland, determined to +migrate for the shores of the Atlantic and demanded a passage through Roman +territory. According to Caesar's statement they numbered 368,000, and it +was necessary at all hazards to save the Roman province from the invasion. +Caesar had but one legion beyond the Alps. With this he marched to Geneva, +destroyed the bridge over the Rhone, fortified the left bank of the river, +and forced the Helvetii to follow the right bank. Hastening back to Italy +he withdrew his three remaining legions from Aquileia, raised two more, +and, crossing the Alps by forced marches, arrived in the neighbourhood of +Lyons to find that three-fourths of the Helvetii had already crossed the +Saone, marching westward. He destroyed their rearguard, the Tigurini, as it +was about to cross, transported his army across the river in twenty-four +hours, pursued the Helvetii in a northerly direction, and utterly defeated +them at Bibracte (Mont Beuvray). Of the survivors a few were settled +amongst the Aedui; the rest were sent back to Switzerland lest it should +fall into German hands. + +The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from the actual or +threatened tyranny of Ariovistus. He at once demanded a conference, which +Ariovistus refused, and on hearing that fresh swarms were crossing the +Rhine, marched with all haste to Vesontio (Besancon) and thence by way of +Belfort into the plain of Alsace, where he gained a decisive victory over +the Germans, of whom only a few (including Ariovistus) reached the right +bank of the Rhine in safety. These successes roused natural alarm in the +minds of the Belgae--a confederacy of tribes in the north-west of Gaul, +whose civilization was less advanced than that of the Celtae of the +centre--and in the spring of 57 B.C. Caesar determined to anticipate the +offensive movement which they were understood to be preparing and marched +northwards into the territory of the Remi (about Reims), who alone amongst +their neighbours were friendly to Rome. He successfully checked the advance +of the enemy at the passage of the Aisne (between Laon and Reims) and their +ill-organized force melted away as he advanced. But the Nervii, and their +neighbours further to the north-west, remained to be dealt with, and were +[v.04 p.0940] crushed only after a desperate struggle on the banks of the +Sambre, in which Caesar was forced to expose his person in the _melee_. +Finally, the Aduatuci (near Namur) were compelled to submit, and were +punished for their subsequent treachery by being sold wholesale into +slavery. In the meantime Caesar's lieutenant, P. Crassus, received the +submission of the tribes of the north-east, so that by the close of the +campaign almost the whole of Gaul--except the Aquitani in the +south-west--acknowledged Roman suzerainty. + +In 56 B.C., however, the Veneti of Brittany threw off the yoke and detained +two of Crassus's officers as hostages. Caesar, who had been hastily +summoned from Illyricum, crossed the Loire and invaded Brittany, but found +that he could make no headway without destroying the powerful fleet of +high, flat-bottomed boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti. A +fleet was hastily constructed in the estuary of the Loire, and placed under +the command of Decimus Brutus. The decisive engagement was fought +(probably) in the Gulf of Morbihan and the Romans gained the victory by +cutting down the enemy's rigging with sickles attached to poles. As a +punishment for their treachery, Caesar put to death the senate of the +Veneti and sold their people into slavery. Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious +on the northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani. At the close of +the season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and Menapii in the +extreme north-west. + +In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the +lower Rhine, and invaded the modern Flanders. [Sidenote: Expeditions to +Britain ] Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pretext that +they had violated a truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with +him, and then surprised and practically destroyed their host. His enemies +in Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be +handed over to the Germans. Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge +over the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right +bank. In the remaining weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to +Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C. On the first +occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected little beyond +a landing on the coast of Kent. The second expedition consisted of five +legions and 2000 cavalry, and set out from the Portus Itius (Boulogne or +Wissant; see T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius +Caesar_, 1907, later views in _Classical Review_, May 1909, and H.S. Jones, +in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xxiv., 1909, p. 115). Caesar now penetrated into +Middlesex and crossed the Thames, but the British prince Cassivellaunus +with his war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled +to return to Gaul after imposing a tribute which was never paid. + +The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for freedom. +Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan chief, had +been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an attempt to escape +from Caesar's camp. At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his +legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory. Two of their camps were +treacherously attacked. At Aduatuca (near Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised +legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones under Ambiorix, while Quintus +Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in +time by Caesar, who was obliged to winter in Gaul in order to check the +spread of the rebellion. Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of the Treveri (about +Treves), revolted and attacked Labienus, but was defeated and killed. The +campaign of 53 B.C. was marked by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the +destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, escaped. In +the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), and Acco, a +chief of the Senones, was convicted of treason and flogged to death. + +Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at Cenabum (Orleans), +and, on hearing the news, the Arverni revolted under Vercingetorix and were +quickly joined by other tribes, especially the Bituriges, whose capital was +Avaricum (Bourges). Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past +Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (Sens), the headquarters of his +legions. Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be met in open battle, and +determined to concentrate his forces in a few strong positions. Caesar +first besieged and took Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then +invested Gergovia (near the Puy-de-Dome), the capital of the Arverni, but +suffered a severe repulse and was forced to raise the siege. Hearing that +the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated +Vercingetorix near Dijon and shut him up in Alesia (Mont-Auxois), which he +surrounded with lines of circumvallation. An attempt at relief by +Vercassivellaunus was defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix +surrendered. The struggle was over except for some isolated operations in +51 B.C., ending with the siege and capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu), +whose defenders had their hands cut off. Caesar now reduced Gaul to the +form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000 sesterces (L350,000), +and dealing liberally with the conquered tribes, whose cantons were not +broken up. + +In the meantime his own position was becoming critical. In 56 B.C., at the +conference of Luca (Lucca), Caesar, Pompey [Sidenote: Break-up of the +Coalition.] and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command +in Gaul, which would have expired on the 1st of March 54 B.C., was renewed, +probably for five years, _i.e._ to the 1st of March 49 B.C., and it was +enacted that the question of his successor should not be discussed until +the 1st of March 50 B.C., by which time the provincial commands for 49 B.C. +would have been assigned, so that Caesar would retain _imperium_, and thus +immunity from persecution, until the end of 49 B.C. He was to be elected +consul for 48 B.C., and, as the law prescribed a personal canvass, he was +by special enactment dispensed from its provisions. But in 54 B.C. Julia, +the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C. Crassus was +killed at Carrhae. Pompey now drifted apart from Caesar and became the +champion of the senate. In 52 B.C. he passed a fresh law _de jure +magistratuum_ which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it +possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of +49 B.C., which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private +person, and thus liable to be called to account for his unconstitutional +acts. Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising obstruction, which he +sustained by enormous bribes. His representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C. +Scribonius Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm majority of the +senate to refrain from extreme measures, insisting that Pompey, as well as +Caesar, should resign the _imperium_. But all attempts at negotiation +failed, and in January 49 B.C., martial law having been proclaimed on the +proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar, +who crossed the Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, +exclaiming "_Alea jacta est._" + +Pompeys available force consisted in two legions stationed in Campania, and +eight, commanded by his lieutenants, Afranius [Sidenote: The Civil war ] +and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in Italy. Caesar was soon +joined by two legions from Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic +coast, overtaking Pompey at Brundisium (Brindisi), but failing to prevent +him from embarking with his troops for the East, where the prestige of his +name was greatest. Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed "I am going to +Spain to fight an army without a general, and thence to the East to fight a +general without an army." He carried out the first part of this programme +with marvellous rapidity. He reached Ilerda (Lerida) on the 23rd of June +and, after extricating his army from a perilous situation, outmanoeuvred +Pompey's lieutenants and received their submission on the 2nd of August. +Returning to Rome, he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected +consul for 48 B.C., and set sail for Epirus at Brundisium on the 4th of +January. He attempted to invest Pompey's lines at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), +though his opponent's force was double that of his own, and was defeated +with considerable loss. He now marched eastwards, in order if possible to +intercept the reinforcements which Pompeys father-in-law, Scipio, was +bringing up; but Pompey [v.04 p.0941] was able to effect a junction with +this force and descended into the plain of Thessaly, where at the battle of +Pharsalus he was decisively defeated and fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, +who learnt of his rival's murder on landing at Alexandria. Here he remained +for nine months, fascinated (if the story be true) by Cleopatra, and almost +lost his life in an _emeute_. In June 47 B.C. he proceeded to the East and +Asia Minor, where he "came, saw and conquered" Pharnaces, son of +Mithradates the Great, at Zela. Returning to Italy, he quelled a mutiny of +the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and crossed to +Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions under Scipio was cut to +pieces at Thapsus (6th of April 46 B.C.). Here most of the republican +leaders were killed and Cato committed suicide. On the 26th to 29th July +Caesar celebrated a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten +years. In November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where the +sons of Pompey still held out. On the 17th of March 45 B.C. they were +crushed at Munda. Caesar returned to Rome in September, and six months +later (15th of March 44 B.C.) was murdered in the senate house at the foot +of Pompey's statue. + +It was remarked by Seneca that amongst the murderers of Caesar were to be +found more of his friends than of his enemies. [Sidenote: Caesar's +dictatorship ] We can account for this only by emphasizing the fact that +the form of Caesar's government became as time went on more undisguised in +its absolutism, while the honours conferred upon seemed designed to raise +him above the rest of humanity. It is explained elsewhere (see ROME: +_History, Ancient_) that Caesar's power was exercised under the form of +dictatorship. In the first instance (autumn of 49 B.C.) this was conferred +upon him as the only solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the +flight of the magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including +that of Caesar himself to the consulship) might be held in due course. For +this there were republican precedents. In 48 B.C. he was created dictator +for the second time, probably with constituent powers and for an undefined +period, according to the dangerous and unpopular precedent of Sulla. In May +46 B.C. a third dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten +years and apparently as a yearly office, so that he became Dictator IV. in +May 45 B.C. Finally, before the 15th of February 44 B.C., this was +exchanged for a life-dictatorship. Not only was this a contradiction in +terms, since the dictatorship was by tradition a makeshift justified only +when the state had to be carried through a serious crisis, but it involved +military rule in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional +guarantees, such as _intercessio_ and _provocatio_, by which the liberties +of Romans were protected. That Caesar held the _imperium_ which he enjoyed +as dictator to be distinct in kind from that of the republican magistrates +he indicated by placing the term _imperator_ at the head of his titles.[2] +Besides the dictatorship, Caesar held the consulship in each year of his +reign except 47 B.C. (when no curule magistrates were elected save for the +last three months of the year); and he was moreover invested by special +enactments with a number of other privileges and powers; of these the most +important was the _tribunicia potestas_, which we may believe to have been +free from the limits of place (_i.e._ Rome) and collegiality. Thus, too, he +was granted the sole right of making peace and war, and of disposing of the +funds in the treasury of the state.[3] Save for the title of dictator, +which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and was formally abolished +on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's death, this cumulation of powers +has little to distinguish it from the Principate of Augustus; and the +assumption of the perpetual dictatorship would hardly by itself suffice to +account for the murder of Caesar. But there are signs that in the last six +months of his life he aspired not only to a monarchy in name as well as in +fact, but also to a divinity which Romans should acknowledge as well as +Greeks, Orientals and barbarians. His statue was set up beside those of the +seven kings of Rome, and he adopted the throne of gold, the sceptre of +ivory and the embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them. He allowed +his supporters to suggest the offer of the regal title by putting in +circulation an oracle according to which it was destined for a king of Rome +to subdue the Parthians, and when at the Lupercalia (15th February 44 B.C.) +Antony set the diadem on his head he rejected the offer half-heartedly on +account of the groans of the people. His image was carried in the _pompa +circensis_ amongst those of the immortal gods, and his statue set up in the +temple of Quirinus with the inscription "To the Unconquerable God." A +college of Luperci, with the surname Juliani, was instituted in his honour +and _flamines_ were created as priests of his godhead. This was intolerable +to the aristocratic republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious +commanders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks and +Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the same worship to a +Roman. + +Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be borne in mind in +considering his record of legislative and [Sidenote: Legislative reforms.] +administrative reform. Some account of this is given elsewhere (see ROME: +_History, Ancient_), but it may be well to single out from the list of his +measures (some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and the children +of proscribed persons, were dictated by political expediency, while others, +such as his financial proposals for the relief of debtors, and the steps +which he took to restore Italian agriculture, were of the nature of +palliatives) those which have a permanent significance as indicating his +grasp of imperial problems. The Social War had brought to the inhabitants +of Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman citizenship; it remained +to extend this gift to the Transpadane Italians, to establish a uniform +system of local administration and to devise representative institutions by +which at least some voice in the government of Rome might be permitted to +her new citizens. This last conception lay beyond the horizon of Caesar, as +of all ancient statesmen, but his first act on gaining control of Italy was +to enfranchise the Transpadanes, whose claims he had consistently +advocated, and in 45 B.C. he passed the _Lex Julia Municipalis_, an act of +which considerable fragments are inscribed on two bronze tables found at +Heraclea near Tarentum.[4] This law deals _inter alia_ with the police and +the sanitary arrangements of the city of Rome, and hence it has been argued +by Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to reduce Rome to the level of a +municipal town. But it is not likely that such is the case. Caesar made no +far-reaching modifications in the government of the city, such as were +afterwards carried out by Augustus, and the presence in the _Lex Julia +Municipalis_ of the clauses referred to is an example of the common process +of "tacking" (legislation _per saturam_, as it was called by the Romans). +The law deals with the constitution of the local senates, for whose members +qualifications of age (30 years) and military service are laid down, while +persons who have suffered conviction for various specified offences, or who +are insolvent, or who carry on discreditable or immoral trades are +excluded. It also provides that the local magistrates shall take a census +of the citizens at the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and +send the registers to Rome within sixty days. The existing fragments tell +us little as to the decentralization of the functions of government, but +from the _Lex Rubria_, which applies to the Transpadane districts +enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul remained +nominally a province until 42 B.C.) we gather that considerable powers of +independent jurisdiction were reserved to the municipal magistrates. But +Caesar was not content with framing a uniform system of local government +[v.04 p.0942] for Italy. He was the first to carry out on a large scale +those plans of transmarine colonization whose inception was due to the +Gracchi. As consul in 59 B.C. Caesar had established colonies [Sidenote: +Colonies.] of veterans in Campania under the _Lex Julia Agraria_, and had +even then laid down rules for the foundation of such communities. As +dictator he planted numerous colonies both in the eastern and western +provinces, notably at Corinth and Carthage. Mommsen interprets this policy +as signifying that "the rule of the urban community of Rome over the shores +of the Mediterranean was at an end," and says that the first act of the +"new Mediterranean state" was "to atone for the two greatest outrages which +that urban community had perpetrated on civilization." This, however, +cannot be admitted. The sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for their +commercial value, and that the citizens of Rome should cease to be rulers +of the Mediterranean basin could never have entered into Caesar's mind. The +colonists were in many cases veterans who had served under Caesar, in +others members of the city proletariat. We possess the charter of the +colony planted at Urso in southern Spain under the name of _Colonia Julia +Genetiva Urbanorum_. Of the two latter titles, the first is derived from +the name of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian house, the second +indicates that the colonists were drawn from the _plebs urbana_. +Accordingly, we find that free birth is not, as in Italy, a necessary +qualification for municipal office. By such foundations Caesar began the +extension to the provinces of that Roman civilization which the republic +had carried to the bounds of the Italian peninsula. Lack of time alone +prevented him from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of +the Isthmus of Corinth, whose object was to promote trade and intercourse +throughout the Roman dominions, and we are told that at the time of his +death he was contemplating the extension of the empire to its natural +frontiers, and was about to engage in a war with Parthia with the object of +carrying Roman arms to the Euphrates. Above all, he was determined that the +empire should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer +exploited by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the _legati_, +who, under the form of military subordination, were responsible to him for +the administration of their provinces. + +Caesar's writings are treated under LATIN LITERATURE. It is sufficient here +to say that of those preserved to us the [Sidenote: The Commentaries.] +seven books _Commentarii de bello Gallico_ appear to have been written in +51 B.C. and carry the narrative of the Gallic campaigns down to the close +of the previous year (the eighth book, written by A. Hirtius, is a +supplement relating the events of 51-50 B.C.), while the three books _De +bello civili_ record the struggle between Caesar and Pompey (49-48 B.C.). +Their veracity was impeached in ancient times by Asinius Pollio and has +often been called in question by modern critics. The _Gallic War_, though +its publication was doubtless timed to impress on the mind of the Roman +people the great services rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands the test of +criticism as far as it is possible to apply it, and the accuracy of its +narrative has never been seriously shaken. The _Civil War_, especially in +its opening chapters is, however, not altogether free from traces of +misrepresentation. With respect to the first moves made in the struggle, +and the negotiations for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's +account sometimes conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's correspondence +or implies movements which cannot be reconciled with geographical facts. We +have but few fragments of Caesar's other works, whether political pamphlets +such as the _Anticato_, grammatical treatises (_De Analogia_) or poems. All +authorities agree in describing him as a consummate orator. Cicero (_Brut. +22_) wrote: _de Caesare ita judico, illum omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui +elegantissime_, while Quintilian (x. i. 114) says that had he practised at +the bar he would have been the only serious rival of Cicero. + +The verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured by their +political sympathies. All have recognised his commanding [Sidenote: +Character.] genius, and few have failed to do justice to his personal charm +and magnanimity, which almost won the heart of Cicero, who rarely appealed +in vain to his clemency. Indeed, he was singularly tolerant of all but +intellectual opposition. His private life was not free from scandal, +especially in his youth, but it is difficult to believe the worst of the +tales which were circulated by his opponents, _e.g._ as to his relations +with Nicomedes of Bithynia. As to his public character, however, no +agreement is possible between those who regard Caesarism as a great +political creation, and those who hold that Caesar by destroying liberty +lost a great opportunity and crushed the sense of dignity in mankind. The +latter view is unfortunately confirmed by the undoubted fact that Caesar +treated with scant respect the historical institutions of Rome, which with +their magnificent traditions might still have been the organs of true +political life. He increased the number of senators to 900 and introduced +provincials into that body; but instead of making it into a grand council +of the empire, representative of its various races and nationalities, he +treated it with studied contempt, and Cicero writes that his own name had +been set down as the proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing, +conferring the title of king on potentates of whom he had never heard. A +similar treatment was meted out to the ancient magistracies of the +republic; and thus began the process by which the emperors undermined the +self-respect of their subjects and eventually came to rule over a nation of +slaves. Few men, indeed, have partaken as freely of the inspiration of +genius as Julius Caesar; few have suffered more disastrously from its +illusions. See further ROME: _History_, ii. "The Republic," Period C _ad +fin._ + +AUTHORITIES.--The principal ancient authorities for the life of Caesar are +his own _Commentaries_, the biographies of Plutarch and Suetonius, letters +and speeches of Cicero, the _Catiline_ of Sallust, the _Pharsalia_ of +Lucan, and the histories of Appian, Dio Cassius and Velleius Paterculus +(that of Livy exists only in the _Epitome_). Amongst modern works may be +named the exhaustive repertory of fact contained in Drumann, _Geschichte +Roms_, vol. iii. (new ed. by Groebe, 1906, pp. 125-829), and the brilliant +but partial panegyric of Th. Mommsen in his _History of Rome_ (Eng. trans., +vol. iv., esp. p. 450 ff.). J.A. Froude's _Caesar; a Sketch_ (2nd ed., +1896) is equally biased and much less critical. W. Warde Fowler's _Julius +Caesar_ (1892) gives a favourable account (see also his _Social Life at +Rome_, 1909). On the other side see especially A. Holm, _History of Greece_ +(Eng. trans., vol. iv. p. 582 ff.), J.L. Strachan Davidson, _Cicero_ +(1894), p. 345 ff., and the introductory Lections in Prof. Tyrrell's +edition of the _Correspondence of Cicero_, particularly "Cicero's case +against Caesar," vol. v. p. 13 ff. Vol. ii. of G. Ferrero's _Greatness and +Decline of Rome_ (Eng. trans., 1907) is largely devoted to Caesar, but must +be used with caution. The Gallic campaigns have been treated by Napoleon +III., _Histoire de Jules Cesar_ (1865-1866), which is valuable as giving +the result of excavations, and in English by T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's +Conquest of Gaul_ (1901), in which references to earlier literature will be +found. A later account is that of G. Veith, _Geschichte der Feldzuege C. +Julius Caesars_ (1906). For maps see A. von Kampen. For the Civil War see +Colonel Stoffel (the collaborator of Napoleon III.), _Histoire de Jules +Cesar: guerre civile_ (1887). There is an interesting article, "The +Likenesses of Julius Caesar," by J.C. Ropes, in _Scribner's Magazine_, Feb. +1887, with 18 plates. + +(H. S. J.) + +_Medieval Legends._ + +In the middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such extraordinary +transformations as befell the history of Alexander the Great and the Theban +legend. Lucan was regularly read in medieval schools, and the general facts +of Caesar's life were too well known. He was generally, by a curious error, +regarded as the first emperor of Rome,[5] and representing as he did in the +popular mind the glory of Rome, by an easy transition he became a pillar of +the Church. Thus, in a French pseudo-historic romance, _Les Faits des +Romains_ (c. 1223), he receives the honour of a bishopric. His name was not +usually associated with the marvellous, and the _trouvere_ of _Huon de +Bordeaux_ outstepped the usual sober tradition when he made Oberon the son +of Julius Caesar and Morgan la Fay. About 1240 Jehan de Tuim composed a +prose _Hystore de Julius Cesar_ (ed. F. Settegast, Halle, 1881) based on +the _Pharsalia_ of Lucan, and the _commentaries_ of Caesar (on the Civil +War) and his continuators (on the Alexandrine, African and Spanish wars). +The author gives a romantic description of the meeting with Cleopatra, with +an interpolated dissertation on _amour courtois_ as understood by the +_trouveres_. [v.04 p.0943] The _Hystore_ was turned into verse +(alexandrines) by Jacot de Forest (latter part of the 13th century) under +the title of _Roman de Julius Cesar_. A prose compilation by an unknown +author, _Les Fails des Romains_ (c. 1225), has little resemblance to the +last two works, although mainly derived from the same sources. It was +originally intended to contain a history of the twelve Caesars, but +concluded with the murder of the dictator, and in some MSS. bears the title +of _Li livres de Cesar_. Its popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in +which it is preserved and by three separate translations into Italian. A +_Mistaire de Julius Cesar_ is said to have been represented at Amboise in +1500 before Louis XII. + +See A. Graf, _Roma nella memoria e nella imaginazione del medio evo_, i. +ch. 8 (1882-1883); P. Meyer in _Romania_, xiv. (Paris, 1885), where the +_Faits des Romains_ is analysed at length; A. Duval in _Histoire litteraire +de la France_, xix. (1838); L. Constans in Petit de Jullevilles' _Hist. de +la langue et de la litt. francaise_, i. (1896); H. Wesemann, _Die +Caesarfabeln des Mittelalters_ (Loewenberg, 1879). + +(M. BR.) + +[1] In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, Plutarch and Appian +that Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his murder, it is, +as Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 B.C., +since he held the chief offices of state in regular order, beginning with +the aedileship in 65 B.C., and the legal age for this was fixed at 37-38. + +[2] Suetonius, _Jul._ 76, errs in stating that he used the title +_imperator_ as a _praenomen_. + +[3] The statement of Dio and Suetonius, that a general _cura legum et +morum_ was conferred on Caesar in 46 B.C., is rejected by Mommsen. It is +possible that it may have some foundation in the terms of the law +establishing his third dictatorship. + +[4] Since the discovery of a fragmentary municipal charter at Tarentum (see +ROME), dating from a period shortly after the Social War, doubts have been +cast on the identification of the tables of Heraclea with Caesar's +municipal statute. It has been questioned whether Caesar passed such a law, +since the _Lex Julia Municipalis_ mentioned in an inscription of Patavium +(Padua) may have been a local charter. See Legras, _La Table latine +d'Heraclee_ (Paris, 1907). + +[5] Brunetto Latini, _Tresor_: "_Et ainsi Julius Cesar fu li premiers +empereres des Romains._" + +CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636), English judge, descended by the female +line from the dukes de' Cesarini in Italy, was born near Tottenham in +Middlesex. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and afterwards studied +at the university of Paris, where in the year 1581 he was made a doctor of +the civil law. Two years later he was admitted to the same degree at +Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law. He held many high offices +during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., including a judgeship of the +admiralty court (1584), a mastership in chancery (1588), a mastership of +the court of requests (1595), chancellor and under treasurer of the +exchequer (1606). He was knighted by King James in 1603, and in 1614 was +appointed master of the rolls, an office which he held till his death on +the 18th of April 1636, He was so remarkable for his bounty and charity to +all persons of worth that it was said of him that he seemed to be the +almoner-general of the nation. His manuscripts, many of which are now in +the British Museum, were sold by auction in 1757 for upwards of L500. + +See E. Lodge, _Life of Sir Julius Caesar_ (1810); Wood, _Fasti Oxonienses_, +ed. Bliss; Foss, _Lives of the Judges_. + +CAESAREA MAZACA (mod. _Kaisarieh_), chief town of a sanjak in the Angora +vilayet of Asia Minor. Mazaca, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia, +later called _Eusebea_ (perhaps after Ariarathes Eusebes), and named +_Caesarea_ probably by Claudius, stood on a low spur on the north side of +Erjies Dagh (_M. Argaeus_). The site, now called _Eski-shehr_, shows only a +few traces of the old town. It was taken by Tigranes and destroyed by the +Persian king Shapur (Sapor) I. after his defeat of Valerian in A.D. 260. At +this time it is stated to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. In the 4th +century Basil, when bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the +plain, about 1 m. to the north-east, and this gradually supplanted the old +town. A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong walls and +turned into a fortress by Justinian; and within the walls, rebuilt in the +13th and 16th centuries, lies the greater part of Kaisarieh, altitude 3500 +ft. The town was captured by the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, 1064, and by +the Mongols, 1243, before passing to the Osmanli Turks. Its geographical +situation has made it a place of commercial importance throughout history. +It lay on the ancient trade route from Sinope to the Euphrates, on the +Persian "Royal Road" from Sardis to Susa, and on the great Roman highway +from Ephesus to the East. It is still the most important trade centre in +eastern Asia Minor. The town is noted for its fruit, especially its vines; +and it exports tissues, carpets, hides, yellow berries and dried fruit. +Kaisarieh is the headquarters of the American mission in Cappadocia, which +has several churches and schools for boys and girls and does splendid +medical work. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, an Armenian archbishop and +a Roman Catholic bishop, and there is a Jesuit school. On the 30th of +November 1895 there was a massacre of Armenians, in which several Gregorian +priests and Protestant pastors lost their lives. Pop., according to Cuinet, +71,000 (of whom 26,000 are Christians). Sir C. Wilson gave it as 50,000 +(23,000 Christians). + +(C. W. W.; J. G. C. A.) + +CAESAREAN SECTION, in obstetrics (_q.v._) the operation for removal of a +foetus from the uterus by an abdominal incision, so called from a legend of +its employment at the birth of Julius Caesar. This procedure has been +practised on the dead mother since very early times; in fact it was +prescribed by Roman law that every woman dying in advanced pregnancy should +be so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice enacted that any +practitioner who failed to perform this operation on a pregnant woman +supposed to be dead, laid himself open to very heavy penalties. But the +first recorded instance of its being performed on a living woman occurred +about 1500, when a Swiss pig-gelder operated on his own wife. From this +time onwards it was tried in many ways and under many conditions, but +almost invariably with the same result, the death of the mother. Even as +recently as the first half of the 19th century the recorded mortality is +over 50%. Thus it is no surprise that craniotomy--in which the life of the +child is sacrificed to save that of the mother--was almost invariably +preferred. As the use of antiseptics was not then understood, and as it was +customary to return the uterus to the body cavity without suturing the +incision, the immediate cause of death was either septicaemia or +haemorrhage. But in 1882 Saenger published his method of suturing the +uterus--that of employing two series of sutures, one deep, the other +superficial. This method of procedure was immediately adopted by many +obstetricians, and it has proved so satisfactory that it is still in use +today. This, and the increasing knowledge of aseptic technique, has brought +the mortality from this operation to less than 3% for the mother and about +5% for the child; and every year it is being advised more freely for a +larger number of morbid conditions, and with increasingly favourable +results. Craniotomy, _i.e._ crushing the head of the foetus to reduce its +size, is now very rarely performed on the living child, but symphysiotomy, +_i.e._ the division of the symphysis pubis to produce a temporary +enlargement of the pelvis, or caesarean section, is advocated in its place. +Of these two operations, symphysiotomy is steadily being replaced by +caesarean section. + +This operation is now advised for (1) extreme degrees of pelvic +contraction, (2) any malformation or tumour of the uterus, cervix or +vagina, which would render the birth of the child through the natural +passages impossible, (3) maternal complications, as eclampsia and concealed +accidental haemorrhage, and (4) at the death of the mother for the purpose +of saving the child. + +CAESAREA PALAESTINA, a town built by Herod about 25-13 B.C., on the +sea-coast of Palestine, 30 miles N. of Joppa, on the site of a place +previously called _Tunis Stratonis_. Remains of all the principal buildings +erected by Herod existed down to the end of the 19th century; the ruins +were much injured by a colony of Bosnians established here in 1884. These +buildings are a temple, dedicated to Caesar; a theatre; a hippodrome; two +aqueducts; a boundary wall; and, chief of all, a gigantic mole, 200 ft. +wide, built of stones 50 ft. long, in 20 fathoms of water, protecting the +harbour on the south and west. The harbour measures 180 yds. across. The +massacre of Jews at this place led to the Jewish rebellion and to the Roman +war. Vespasian made it a colony and called it Flavia: the old name, +however, persisted, and still survives as _Kaisarieh_. Eusebius was +archbishop here (A.D. 315-318). It was captured by the Moslems in 638 and +by the Crusaders in 1102, by Saladin in 1187, recaptured by the Crusaders +in 1191, and finally lost by them in 1265, since when till its recent +settlement it has lain in ruins. Remains of the medieval town are also +visible, consisting of the walls (one-tenth the area of the Roman city), +the castle, the cathedral (now covered by modern houses), and a church. + +(R. A. S. M.) + +CAESAREA PHILIPPI, the name of a town 95 miles N. of Jerusalem, 35 miles +S.W. from Damascus, 1150 ft. above the sea, on the south base of Hermon, +and at an important source of the Jordan. It does not certainly appear in +the Old Testament history, though identifications with Baal-Gad and (less +certainly) with Laish (Dan) have been proposed. It was certainly a place of +great sanctity from very early times, and when foreign [v.04 p.0944] +religious influences intruded upon Palestine, the cult of its local _numen_ +gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom was dedicated the cave in which +the copious spring feeding the Jordan arises. It was long known as _Panium_ +or _Panias_, a name that has survived in the modern _Banias_. When Herod +the Great received the territory from Augustus, 20 B.C., he erected here a +temple in honour of his patron; but the re-foundation of the town is due to +his son, Philip the Tetrarch, who here erected a city which he named +_Caesarea_ in honour of Tiberius, adding _Philippi_ to immortalize his own +name and to distinguish his city from the similarly-named city founded by +his father on the sea-coast. Here Christ gave His charge to Peter (Matt. +xvi. 13). Many Greek inscriptions have been found here, some referring to +the shrine. Agrippa II. changed the name to _Neronias_, but this name +endured but a short while. Titus here exhibited gladiatorial shows to +celebrate the capture of Jerusalem. The Crusaders took the city in 1130, +and lost it to the Moslems in 1165. Banias is a poor village inhabited by +about 350 Moslems; all round it are gardens of fruit-trees. It is well +watered and fertile. There are not many remains of the Roman city above +ground. The Crusaders' castle of Subeibeh, one of the finest in Palestine, +occupies the summit of a conical hill above the village. + +(R. A. S. M.) + +CAESIUM (symbol Cs, atomic weight 132.9), one of the alkali metals. Its +name is derived from the Lat. _caesius_, sky-blue, from two bright blue +lines of its spectrum. It is of historical importance, since it was the +first metal to be discovered by the aid of the spectroscope (R. Bunsen, +_Berlin Acad. Ber._, 1860), although caesium salts had undoubtedly been +examined before, but had been mistaken for potassium salts (see C.F. +Plattner, _Pog. Ann._, 1846, p. 443, on the analysis of pollux and the +subsequent work of F. Pisani, _Comptes Rendus_, 1864, 58, p. 714). Caesium +is found in the mineral springs of Frankenhausen, Montecatini, di Val di +Nievole, Tuscany, and Wheal Clifford near Redruth, Cornwall (W.A. Miller, +_Chem. News_, 1864, 10, p. 181), and, associated with rubidium, at +Duerkheim; it is also found in lepidolite, leucite, petalite, triphylline +and in the carnallite from Stassfurt. The separation of caesium from the +minerals which contain it is an exceedingly difficult and laborious +process. According to R. Bunsen, the best source of rubidium and caesium +salts is the residue left after extraction of lithium salts from +lepidolite. This residue consists of sodium, potassium and lithium +chlorides, with small quantities of caesium and rubidium chlorides. The +caesium and rubidium are separated from this by repeated fractional +crystallization of their double platinum chlorides, which are much less +soluble in water than those of the other alkali metals (R. Bunsen, _Ann._, +1862, 122, p. 347; 1863, 125, p. 367). The platino-chlorides are reduced by +hydrogen, and the caesium and rubidium chlorides extracted by water. See +also A. Schroetter (_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1864, 93, p. 2075) and W. Heintz +(_Journ. prak. Chem._, 1862, 87, p. 310). W. Feit and K. Kubierschky +(_Chem. Zeit._, 1892, 16, p. 335) separate rubidium and caesium from the +other alkali metals by converting them into double chlorides with stannic +chloride; whilst J. Redtenbacher (_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1865, 94, p. 442) +separates them from potassium by conversion into alums, which C. Setterberg +(_Ann._, 1882, 211, p. 100) has shown are very slightly soluble in a +solution of potash alum. In order to separate caesium from rubidium, use is +made of the different solubilities of their various salts. The bitartrates +RbHC_4H_40_6 and CsHC_4H_40_6 have been employed, as have also the alums +(see above). The double chloride of caesium and antimony 3CsCl.2SbCl_3 (R. +Godeffroy, _Ber._, 1874, 7, p. 375; _Ann._, 1876, 181, p. 176) has been +used, the corresponding compound not being formed by rubidium. The metal +has been obtained by electrolysis of a mixture of caesium and barium +cyanides (C. Setterberg, _Ann._, 1882, 211, p. 100) and by heating the +hydroxide with magnesium or aluminium (N. Beketoff, _Chem. Centralblatt_, +1889, 2, p. 245). L. Hackspill (_Comptes Rendus_, 1905, 141, p. 101) finds +that metallic caesium can be obtained more readily by heating the chloride +with metallic calcium. A special V-shaped tube is used in the operation, +and the reaction commences between 400 deg.C. and 500 deg.C. It is a silvery white +metal which burns on heating in air. It melts at 26 deg. to 27 deg.C. and has a +specific gravity of 1.88 (15 deg.C.). + +The atomic weight of caesium has been determined by the analysis of its +chloride and bromide. Richards and Archibald (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1903, +34, p. 353) obtained 132.879 (O=16). + +_Caesium hydroxide_, Cs(OH)_2, obtained by the decomposition of the +sulphate with baryta water, is a greyish-white deliquescent solid, which +melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide rapidly. It readily +dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. _Caesium chloride_, CsCl, +is obtained by the direct action of chlorine on caesium, or by solution of +the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. It forms small cubes which melt at a +red heat and volatilize readily. It deliquesces in moist air. Many double +chlorides are known, and may be prepared by mixing solutions of the two +components in the requisite proportions. The _bromide_, CsBr, and _iodide_, +CsI, resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of +caesium are also known, such as CsBr_3, CsClBr_2, CsI_3, CsBrI_2, CsBr_2I, +&c. (H.L. Wells and S.L. Penfield, _Zeit. fur anorg. Chem._, 1892, i, p. +85). _Caesium sulphate_, Cs_2SO_4, may be prepared by dissolving the +hydroxide or carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in short hard +prisms, which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol. It +combines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, nickel, &c.) +to form double sulphates of the type Cs_2SO_4.RSO_4.6H_2O. It also forms a +caesium-alum Cs_2SO_4.Al_2(SO_4)_3.24H_2O. _Caesium nitrate_, CsNO_3, is +obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizes in +glittering prisms, which melt readily, and on heating evolve oxygen and +leave a residue of caesium nitrite. The carbonate, Cs_2CO_3, +silicofluoride, Cs_2SiF_6, borate, Cs_2O.3B_2O_3, and the sulphides +Cs_2S.4H_2O, Cs_2S_2.H_2O, Cs_2S_3.H_2O, Cs_2S_4 and Cs_2S_6.H_2O, are also +known. + +Caesium compounds can be readily recognized by the two bright blue lines +(of wave length 4555 and 4593) in their flame spectrum, but these are not +present in the spark spectrum. The other lines include three in the green, +two in the yellow, and two in the orange. + +CAESPITOSE (Lat. _caespes_, a sod), a botanical term for "growing in +tufts," like many grasses. + +CAESTUS, or CESTUS (from Lat. _caedo_, strike), a gauntlet or boxing-glove +used by the ancient pugilists. Of this there were several varieties, the +simplest and least dangerous being the _meilichae_ ([Greek: meilichai]), +which consisted of strips of raw hide tied under the palm, leaving the +fingers bare. With these the athletes in the _palaestrae_ were wont to +practise, reserving for serious contests the more formidable kinds, such as +the _sphaerae_ ([Greek: sphairai]), which were sewn with small metal balls +covered with leather, and the terrible _murmekes_ ([Greek: murmekes]), +sometimes called "limb-breakers" ([Greek: guiotoroi]), which were studded +with heavy nails. The straps ([Greek: himantes]) were of different lengths, +many reaching to the elbow, in order to protect the forearm when guarding +heavy blows (see J.H. Krause, _Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_, +1841). The _caestus_ is to be distinguished from _cestus_ (=embroidered, +from [Greek: kentein]), an adjective used as a noun in the sense of +"girdle," especially the girdle of Aphrodite, which was supposed to have +the power of exciting love. + +CAESURA (Lat. for "cutting," Gr. [Greek: tome]), in prosody, a rest or +pause, usually occurring about the middle of a verse, which is thereby +separated into two parts ([Greek: kola], members). In Greek and Latin +hexameters the best and most common caesura is the penthemimeral (_i.e._ +after the 5th half-foot): + +[Greek: Menin a | eide, the | a, | Pe | leia | deo Achi | leos] +Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Tro | jae qui | primus ab | oris. + +Another caesura very common in Homer, but rare in Latin verse, is after the +2nd syllable of the 3rd dactyl: + +[Greek: Oio | noisi te | pasi Di | os d' ete | leieto | boule.] + +On the other hand, the hephthemimeral caesura (_i.e._ after the 7th +half-foot) is common in Latin, but rare in Greek: + +Formo | sam reso | nare do | ces Ama | ryllida | silvas. + +The "bucolic" caesura, peculiar to Greek (so called because it is chiefly +found in writers like Theocritus) occurs after the 4th dactyl: + +[Greek: Andra moi | ennepe, | Mousa, po | lutropon, | hos mala | polla] + +In the pentameter verse of the elegiac distich the caesura is always +penthemimeral. In the iambic trimeter (consisting of three dipodia or pairs +of feet), both in Greek and Latin, the most usual caesura is the +penthemimeral; next, the hephthemimeral: + +[Greek: O tek | na Kad | mou tou | palai | nea | trophe] +Supplex | et o | ro reg | na per | Proser | pinae. + +[v.04 p.0945] Verses in which neither of these caesuras occurs are +considered faulty. On the other hand, secondary or subsidiary caesuras are +found in both Greek and Latin; thus, a trithemimeral (after the 3rd +half-foot) is combined with the hephthemimeral, which divides the verse +into two unequal parts. A caesura is often called masculine when it falls +after a long, feminine when it falls after a short syllable. + +The best treatise on Greek and Latin metre for general use is L. Mueller, +_Die Metrik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885); see also the article VERSE. + +CAFFEINE, or THEINE (1.3.7 trimethyl 2.6 dioxypurin), C_8H_{10}N_4O_2.H_2O, +a substance found in the leaves and beans of the coffee tree, in tea, in +Paraguay tea, and in small quantities in cocoa and in the kola nut. It may +be extracted from tea or coffee by boiling with water, the dissolved tannin +precipitated by basic lead acetate, the solution filtered, excess of lead +precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtered liquid then +evaporated to crystallization; or, tea is boiled with water, and the whole +then evaporated to a syrup, which is mixed with slaked lime, evaporated to +dryness on the water-bath and extracted with chloroform (P. Cazeneuve, +_Bull. de la soc. chim. de Paris_, 1876-1877, 27, p. 199). Synthetically it +may be prepared by the methylation of silver theobromine and silver +theophyllin or by boiling heteroxanthine with methyl iodide and potash. E. +Fischer and L. Ach (_Berichte_, 1895, 28, p. 3135) have synthesized it from +dimethyl alloxan, whilst W. Traube (_Berichte_, 1900, 33, p. 3435) has +obtained it from 1.3 diamethyl 4.5 diamino 2.6 dioxypyrimidine. On the +constitution of caffeine see PURIN and also E. Fischer (_Annalen_, 1882, +215, p. 253). + +Caffeine crystallizes in long silky needles, which are slightly soluble in +cold water. It becomes anhydrous at 100 deg.C. and melts at 234 deg. to 235 deg.C. It +has a faint bitter taste and gives salts with mineral acids. On oxidation +with nitric acid caffeine gives cholesterophane (dimethyl parabanic acid), +but if chlorine water be used as the oxidant, then it yields monomethyl +urea and dimethyl alloxan (E. Fischer). + +CAFFIERI, JACQUES (1678-1755), French worker in metal, the most famous +member of a family several of whom distinguished themselves in plastic art, +was the fifth son of Philippe Caffieri (1634-1716), a decorative sculptor, +who, after serving Pope Alexander VII., entered the service of Louis XIV. +in 1660. An elder son of Philippe, Francois Charles (1667-1721), was +associated with him. As a _fondeur ciseleur_, however, the renown of the +house centred in Jacques, though it is not always easy to distinguish +between his own work and that of his son Philippe (1714-1777). A large +proportion of his brilliant achievement as a designer and chaser in bronze +and other metals was executed for the crown at Versailles, Fontainebleau, +Compiegne, Choisy and La Muette, and the crown, ever in his debt, still +owed him money at his death. Jacques and his son Philippe undoubtedly +worked together in the "Appartement du Dauphin" at Versailles, and although +much of their contribution to the palace has disappeared, the decorations +of the marble chimney-piece still remain. They belong to the best type of +the Louis XV. style--vigorous and graceful in design, they are executed +with splendid skill. It is equally certain that father and son worked +together upon the gorgeous bronze case of the famous astronomical clock +made by Passement and Danthiau for Louis XV. between 1749 and 1753. The +form of the case has been much criticized, and even ridiculed, but the +severest critics in that particular have been the readiest to laud the +boldness and freedom of the motives, the jewel-like finish of the +craftsmanship, the magnificent dexterity of the master-hand. The elder +Caffieri was, indeed, the most consummate practitioner of the _style +rocaille_, which he constantly redeemed from its mannered conventionalism +by the ease and mastery with which he treated it. From the studio in which +he and his son worked side by side came an amazing amount of work, chiefly +in the shape of those gilded bronze mounts which in the end became more +insistent than the pieces of furniture which they adorned. Little of his +achievement was ordinary; an astonishingly large proportion of it is +famous. There is in the Wallace collection (Hertford House, London) a +commode from the hand of Jacques Caffieri in which the brilliance and +spontaneity, the sweeping boldness and elegance of line that mark his style +at its best, are seen in a perfection hardly exceeded in any other example. +Also at Hertford House is the exceptionally fine lustre which was a wedding +present from Louis XV. to Louise Elizabeth of France. After Jacques' death +his son Philippe continued to work for the crown, but had many private +clients. He made a great cross and six candlesticks for the high altar of +Notre Dame, which disappeared in the revolution, but similar work for +Bayeux cathedral still exists. A wonderful enamelled toilet set which he +executed for the Princess of Asturias has also disappeared. Philippe's +style was gradually modified into that which prevailed in the third quarter +of the 18th century, since by 1777, when he died, the taste for the +magnificent mounts of his early days had passed away. Like his father, he +drew large sums from the crown, usually after giving many years' credit, +while many other years were needed by his heirs to get in the balance of +the royal indebtedness. Philippe's younger brother, Jean Jacques Caffieri +(1725-1792), was a sculptor, but was sufficiently adept in the treatment of +metals to design the fine _rampe d'escalier_ which still adorns the Palais +Royal. + +CAFTAN, or KAFTAN (a Turkish word, also in use in Persia), a tunic or +under-dress with long hanging sleeves, tied with a girdle at the waist, +worn in the East by persons of both sexes. The caftan was worn by the upper +and middle classes in Russia till the time of Peter the Great, when it was +generally discarded. + +CAGLI, a town and (with Pergola) an episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in +the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 18 m. S. of the latter town by rail, and +830 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4628; commune, 12,533. The +church of S. Domenico contains a good fresco (Madonna and saints) by +Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael. The citadel of the 15th century, +constructed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini of Siena, is on the S.E. of the +modern town. Cagli occupies the site of an ancient _vicus_ (village) on the +Via Flaminia, which seems to have borne the name Cale, 24 m. N. of +Helvillum (mod. _Sigillo_) and 18 m. S.W. of Forum Sempronii (mod. +_Fossombrone_). Below the town to the north is a single arched bridge of +the road, the arch having the span of 381/4 ft. (See G. Mochi, _Storia di +Cagli_, Cagli, 1878.) About 5 m. to the N.N.W. of Cagli and 21/2 m. W. of the +Via Flaminia at the mod. _Acqualagna_ is the site of an ancient town; the +place is now called _piano di Valeria_, and is scattered with ruins. +Inscriptions show that this was a Roman _municipium_, perhaps Pitinum +Mergens (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. [Berlin, 1901] p. 876). Three miles north +of Acqualagna the Via Flaminia, which is still in use as the modern +high-road, traverses the Furlo Pass, a tunnel about 40 yds. long, excavated +by Vespasian in A.D. 77, as an inscription at the north end records. There +is another tunnel at lower level, which belongs to an earlier date; this +seems to have been in use till the construction of the Roman road, which at +first ran round the rock on the outside, until Vespasian cut the tunnel. In +repairing the modern road just outside the south entrance to the tunnel, a +stratum of carbonized corn, beans, &c., and a quantity of burnt wood, +stones, tiles, pottery, &c., was found under and above the modern road, for +a distance of some 500 yds. This debris must have belonged to the castle of +Petra Pertusa, burned by the Lombards in 570 or 571 on their way to Rome. +The castle itself is mentioned by Procopius (_Bell. Goth._ ii. 11, iii. 6, +iv. 28, 34). Here also was found the inscription of A.D. 295, relating to +the measures taken to suppress brigandage in these parts. (See APENNINES.) + +See A. Vernarecci in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 411 (cf. _ibid._ 227); +_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, 6107. + +(T. AS.) + +CAGLIARI (anc. _Carales_), the capital of the island of Sardinia, an +archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of Cagliari, which +embraces the southern half of the island. It is 270 m. W.S.W. of Naples, +and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea. Pop. (1900) of town, 48,098; of commune, +53,057. It is finely situated at the northern extremity of the Gulf of +Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of the island. The medieval town +occupies a long narrow hill running N. and S. with precipitous [v.04 +p.0946] cliffs on the E. and W. which must have been the ancient acropolis, +but the modern town, like the Roman town before it, extends to the slopes +of the hill and to the low ground by the sea. On each side of the town are +lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W., which produces fish in abundance, was +originally an open bay. That of Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans. +The upper town still retains in part its fortifications, including the two +great towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (S.) +and the Torre di S. Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the Pisans, the former +in 1307, the latter in 1305. The Torre di S. Pancrazio at the highest point +(367 ft. above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. Close to it is the +archaeological museum, the most important in the island. To the north of it +are the modern citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public promenade. +The narrow streets run from north to south for the whole length of the +upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the cathedral, built in +1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the original transept doors. +The pulpit of the same period is also fine: it now stands, divided into +two, on each side of the entrance, while the lions which supported it are +on the balustrade in front of the cathedral (see E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_, +Rome, 1901, 59; D. Scano, _ibid._ 204). Near the sacristy are also some +Gothic chapels of the Aragonese period. The church was, however, remodelled +in 1676, and the interior is baroque. Two fine silver candelabra, the +tabernacle and the altar front are of the 17th century; and the treasury +also contains some good silver work. (See D. Scano in _Bolletino d'Arte_, +February 1907, p. 14; and E. Brunelli in _L'Arte_, 1907, p. 47.) The crypt +contains three ancient sarcophagi. The facade, in the baroque style, was +added in 1703. The university, a little farther north, the buildings of +which were erected in 1764, has some 240 students. At the south extremity +of the hill, on the site of the bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace, +the Passeggiata Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on +summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are covered promenades, +and from it steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part of which (the +so-called Marina), sloping gradually towards the sea, is probably the +nucleus of the Roman _municipium_, while the quarter of Stampace lies to +the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace. The northern +portion of this, below the castle hill, is the older, while the part near +the shore consists mainly of modern buildings of no great interest. To the +east of the castle hill and the Marina is the quarter of Villanova, which +contains the church of S. Saturnino, a domed church of the 8th century with +a choir of the Pisan period. The harbour of Cagliari (along the north side +of which runs a promenade called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a +considerable trade, exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals and +salt, the total annual value of exports amounting to nearly 11/2 million +sterling in value. The Campidano of Cagliari, the plain which begins at the +north end of the lagoon of S. Gilla, is very fertile and much cultivated, +as is also the district to the east round Quarto S. Elena, a village with +8459 inhabitants (1901). The national costumes are rarely now seen in the +neighbourhood of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that of +S. Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see NORA). The methods of cultivation are +primitive: the curious water-wheels, made of brushwood with pots tied on to +them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey, may be noted. The ox-carts are +often made with solid wheels, for greater strength. Prickly pear +(_opuntia_) hedges are as frequent as in Sicily. Cagliari is considerably +exposed to winds in winter, while in summer it is almost African in +climate. The aqueduct was constructed in quite recent times, rain-water +having previously given the only supply. The main line of railway runs +north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), Oristano, Macomer and Chilivani (for +Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); while another line (narrow-gauge) runs to +Mandas (for Sorgono and Tortoli). There is also a tramway to Quarto S. +Elena. + +In A.D. 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken by the Vandals from Africa; but +in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In 687 Cagliari rose against the East +Roman emperors, under Gialetus, one of the citizens, who made himself king +of the whole island, his three brothers becoming governors of Torres (in +the N.W.), Arborea (in the S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island). +The Saracens devastated it in the 8th century, but were driven out, and the +island returned to the rule of kings, until they fell in the 10th century, +their place being taken by four "judges" of the four provinces, Cagliari, +Torres, Arborea and Gallura. In the 12th century Musatto, a Saracen, +established himself in Cagliari, but was driven out with the help of the +Pisans and Genoese. The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole +island with the exception of Arborea, which continued to be independent. In +1297 Boniface VIII. invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and in 1326 +they finally drove the Pisans out of Cagliari, and made it the seat of +their government. In 1348 the island was devastated by the plague described +by Boccaccio. It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to +conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated Eleonora +(whose code of laws--the so-called _Carta de Logu_--was famous), offered a +heroic resistance. In 1479 the native princes were deprived of all +independence. The island remained in the hands of Spain until the peace of +Utrecht (1714), by which it was assigned to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded +by the latter, in exchange for Sicily, to the duke of Savoy, who assumed +the title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing to be the seat of +government), and this remained the title of the house of Savoy until 1861. +Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1793, but Napoleon's attempt +to take the island failed. + +(T. AS.) + +CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, COUNT (1743-1793), Italian alchemist and impostor, +was born at Palermo on the 8th of June 1743. Giuseppe Balsamo--for such was +the "count's" real name--gave early indications of those talents which +afterwards gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of +his education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but was expelled +from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations. He now signalized +himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity with which he contrived to +perpetrate forgeries and other crimes without exposing himself to the risk +of detection. Having at last got into trouble with the authorities he fled +from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, +Rhodes--where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate sciences from the +Greek Althotas--and Malta. There he presented himself to the grand master +of the Maltese order as Count Cagliostro, and curried favour with him as a +fellow alchemist, for the grand master's tastes lay in the same direction. +From him he obtained introductions to the great houses of Rome and Naples, +whither he now hastened. At Rome he married a beautiful but unprincipled +woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with whom he travelled, under different names, +through many parts of Europe. It is unnecessary to recount the various +infamous means which he employed to pay his expenses during these journeys. +He visited London and Paris in 1771, selling love-philtres, elixirs of +youth, mixtures for making ugly women beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c., +and deriving large profits from his trade. After further travels on the +continent he returned to London, where he posed as the founder of a new +system of freemasonry, and was well received in the best society, being +adored by the ladies. He went to Germany and Holland once more, and to +Russia, Poland, and then again to Paris, where, in 1785, he was implicated +in the affair of the Diamond Necklace (_q.v._); and although Cagliostro +escaped conviction by the matchless impudence of his defence, he was +imprisoned for other reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited +England once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately +outwitted by some English lawyers, and confined for a while in the Fleet +prison. Leaving England, he travelled through Europe as far as Rome, where +he was arrested in 1789. He was tried and condemned to death for being a +heretic, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while his +wife was immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San Leo in +1795. + +The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe Balsamo +is contained in Carlyle's _Miscellanies_. Dumas's novel, _Memoirs of a +Physician_, is founded on his adventures; see also a [v.04 p.0947] series +of papers in the _Dublin University Magazine_, vols. lxxviii. and lxxix.; +_Memorial, or Brief for Cagliostro in the Cause of Card. de Rohan_, &c. +(Fr.) by P. Macmahon (1786); _Compendio della vita e delle gesta di +Giuseppe Balsamo denominato il conte di Cagliostro_ (Rome, 1791); Sierke, +_Schwarmer und Schwindler zu Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderts_ (1875); and the +sketch of his life in D. Silvagni's _La Corte e la Societa Romana nei +secoli XVIII. e XIX._ vol. i. (Florence, 1881). + +(L. V.*) + +CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES (1777-1859), French engineer and physicist, +was born in Paris on the 31st of March 1777, and after attending the Ecole +Polytechnique became one of the _ingenieurs geographiques_. He was made a +baron in 1818, and died in Paris on the 5th of July 1859. He was the author +of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a blowing machine, +which consists essentially of an Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank +of water in such a way that its lower end is completely and its upper end +partially immersed, and operated by being rotated in the opposite direction +to that required for raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819, +the improved siren which is known by his name, using it for ascertaining +the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch, +and he also made experiments on the mechanism of voice-production. In +course of an investigation in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure +on certain liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature +above which it refused to remain liquid but passed into the gaseous state, +no matter what the amount of pressure to which it was subjected, and in the +case of water he determined this critical temperature, with a remarkable +approach to accuracy, to be 362 deg.C. He also studied the nature of yeast and +the influence of extreme cold upon its life. + +CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARCHESE (1762-1833), Italian architect, was born on the +9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent at the age of fourteen to the +Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards studied at the university of +Pavia. He was intended for the legal profession, but his passion for +architecture was too strong, and after holding some government posts at +Milan, he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Porta +Orientale. His designs were commended, but were not selected on account of +the expense their adoption would have involved. From that time Cagnola +devoted himself entirely to architecture. After the death of his father he +spent two years in Verona and Venice, studying the architectural structures +of these cities. In 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for +the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria. The arch +was of wood, but was of such beauty that it was resolved to carry it out in +marble. The result was the magnificent Arco della Pace in Milan, surpassed +in dimensions only by the Arc de l'Etoile at Paris. Among other works +executed by Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at +Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died on the 14th +of August 1833, five years before the completion of the Arco del Sempione, +which he designed for his native city. + +CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Bearn, Gascony and +Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1288, when they appear to have +been called Christiens or Christianos. In the 16th century they had many +names, Cagots, Gahets, Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; and +Cacons, Cahets, Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle ages +they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and even as +cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted separate quarters in +towns, called _cagoteries_, and lived in wretched huts in the country +distinct from the villages. Excluded from all political and social rights, +they were only allowed to enter a church by a special door, and during the +service a rail separated them from the other worshippers. Either they were +altogether forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the holy wafer was +handed to them on the end of a stick, while a receptacle for holy water was +reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled to wear a distinctive +dress, to which, in some places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck +(whence they were sometimes called _Canards_). And so pestilential was +their touch considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road +barefooted. The only trades allowed them were those of butcher and +carpenter, and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their language +is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a Teutonic origin +seems to be indicated by their fair complexions and blue eyes. Their crania +have a normal development; their cheek-bones are high; their noses +prominent, with large nostrils; their lips straight; and they are marked by +the absence of the auricular lobules. + +The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littre defines them as "a people of +the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism." It has been suggested that +they were descendants of the Visigoths, and Michael derives the name from +_caas_ (dog) and _Goth_. But opposed to this etymology is the fact that the +word _cagot_ is first found in the _for_ of Bearn not earlier than 1551. +Marca, in his _Histoire de Bearn_, holds that the word signifies "hunters +of the Goths," and that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens. Others +made them descendants of the Albigenses. The old MSS. call them Chretiens +or Chrestiaas, and from this it has been argued that they were Visigoths +who originally lived as Christians among the Gascon pagans. A far more +probable explanation of their name "Chretiens" is to be found in the fact +that in medieval times all lepers were known as _pauperes Christi_, and +that, Goths or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages with a +particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus would arise +the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day their descendants are +not more subject to goitre and cretinism than those dwelling around them, +and are recognized by tradition and not by features or physical degeneracy. +It was not until the French Revolution that any steps were taken to +ameliorate their lot, but to-day they no longer form a class, but have been +practically lost sight of in the general peasantry. + +See Francisque Michel, _Histoire des races maudites de France et d'Espagne_ +(Paris, 1846); Abbe Venuti, _Recherches sur les Cahets de Bordeaux_ (1754); +_Bulletins de la societe anthropologique_ (1861, 1867, 1868, 1871); +_Annales medico-psychologiques_ (Jan. 1867); Lagneau, _Questionnaire sur +l'ethnologie de la France_; Paul Raymond, _Moeurs bearnaises_ (Pau, 1872); +V. de Rochas, _Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohemiens)_ +(Paris, 1877); J. Hack Tuke, _Jour. Anthropological Institute_ (vol. ix., +1880). + +CAHER (or CAHIR), a market-town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the south +parliamentary division, beautifully situated on the river Suir at the foot +of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. (1901) 2058. It stands midway between Clonmel +and Tipperary town on the Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern +and Western railway, 124 m. S.W. from Dublin. It is the centre of a rich +agricultural district, and there is some industry in flour-milling. Its +name (_cathair_, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity and the site of +the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in the river, was occupied +from very early times. Here was a fortress-palace of Munster, originally +called _Dun-iasgach_, the suffix signifying "abounding in fish." The +present castle dates from 1142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond, +and is well restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647, and +by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the demesne of Caher Park +is especially noteworthy. The Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, 10 m. S.W., +and the finely-placed Norman castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous crag 6 +m. down the Suir, are other neighbouring features of interest, while the +Galtee Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., command +admirable prospects. + +CAHITA, a group of North American Indians, mainly of the Mayo and Yaqui +tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the Piman family, and +numbering some 40,000. + +CAHOKIA, the name of a North American Indian tribe of the Illinois +confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis. The "Cahokia +mound" there (a model of which is in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) +is interesting as the largest pre-historic earth-work in America. + +CAHORS, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Lot, +70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. +(1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on the right bank of the river Lot, occupying +a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. It is divided into two +portions [v.04 p.0948] by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs from the Pont +Louis Philippe on the south to within a short distance of the fortified +wall of the 14th and 15th centuries enclosing the town on the north. To the +east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets and closely-packed +houses; west of the Boulevard a newer quarter, with spacious squares and +promenades, stretches to the bank of the river. Cahors communicates with +the opposite shore by three bridges. One of these, the Pont Valentre to the +west of the town, is the finest fortified bridge of the middle ages in +France. It is a structure of the early 14th century, restored in the 19th +century, and is defended at either end by high machicolated towers, another +tower, less elaborate, surmounting the centre pier. The east bridge, the +Pont Neuf, also dates from the 14th century. The cathedral of St Etienne +stands in the heart of the old town. It dates from the 12th century, but +was entirely restored in the 13th century. Its exterior, for the most part +severe in appearance, is relieved by some fine sculpture, that of the north +portal being especially remarkable. The nave, which is without aisles, is +surmounted by two cupolas; its interior is whitewashed and plain in +appearance, while the choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining +the church to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from +1494 to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings, +stands near the cathedral. Dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, it +preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. The principal +of the civil buildings is the palace of Pope John XXII., built at the +beginning of the 14th century; a massive square tower is still standing, +but the rest is in ruins. The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a +building of the 14th to the 17th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, also +remains. The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in Cahors, is +one of the 15th century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV. Most of the state +buildings are modern, with the exception of the prefecture which occupies +the old episcopal palace, and the old convent and the Jesuit college in +which the Lycee Gambetta is established. The Porte de Diane is a large +archway of the Roman period, probably the entrance to the baths. Of the +commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in the Place d'Armes to +Gambetta, who was a native of the town. There is also a statue of the poet +Clement Marot, born at Cahors in 1496. Cahors is the seat of a bishopric, a +prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There +are also training colleges, a lycee, a communal college for girls, an +ecclesiastical seminary, a library, museum and hospital. The manufacture of +farm implements, tanning, wool-spinning, metal-founding, distilling and the +preparation of _pate de foie gras_ and other delicacies are carried on. +Wine, nuts, oil of nuts, tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles +of commerce. + +_History._--Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew up near the +sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the Fontaine des Chartreux), was +the capital of the Cadurci. Under the Romans it enjoyed a prosperity partly +due to its manufacture of cloth and of mattresses, which were exported even +to Rome. The first bishop of Cahors, St Genulfus, appears to have lived in +the 3rd century. In the middle ages the town was the capital of Quercy, and +its territory until after the Albigensian Crusade was a fief of the counts +of Toulouse. The seigniorial rights, including that of coining money, +belonged to the bishops. In the 13th century Cahors was a financial centre +of much importance owing to its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name +_cahorsin_ consequently came to signify "banker" or "usurer." At the +beginning of the century a commune was organized in the town. Its constant +opposition to the bishops drove them, in 1316, to come to an arrangement +with the French king, by which the administration of the town was placed +almost entirely in the hands of royal officers, king and bishop being +co-seigneurs. This arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope +John XXII., a native of Cahors, founded there a university, which +afterwards numbered Jacques Cujas among its teachers and Francois Fenelon +among its students. It flourished till 1751, when it was united to its +rival the university of Toulouse. During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors, +like the rest of Quercy, consistently resisted the English occupation, from +which it was relieved in 1428. In the 16th century it belonged to the +viscounts of Bearn, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of Navarre +who took it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry IV. punished the +town by depriving it of its privileges as a wine-market; the loss of these +was the chief cause of its decline. + +CAIATIA (mod. _Caiazzo_), an ancient city of Campania, on the right bank of +the Volturnus, 11 m. N.E. of Capua, on the road between it and Telesia. It +was already in the hands of the Romans in 306 B.C., and since in the 3rd +century B.C. it issued copper coins with a Latin legend it must have had +the _civitas sine suffragio_. In the Social War it rebelled from Rome, and +its territory was added to that of Capua by Sulla. In the imperial period, +however, we find it once more a _municipium_. Caiatia has remains of +Cyclopean walls, and under the Piazza del Mercato is a large Roman cistern, +which still provides a good water supply. The episcopal see was founded in +A.D. 966. The place is frequently confused with Calatia (_q.v._). + +CAIETAE PORTUS (mod. _Gaeta_), an ancient harbour of _Latium adiectum_, +Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which it is 5 m. S.W. The name +(originally [Greek: Aiete]) is generally derived from the nurse of Aeneas. +The harbour, owing to its fine anchorage, was much in use, but the place +was never a separate town, but always dependent on Formiae. Livy mentions a +temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only between Caietae Portus and +Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as the modern Monte Scauri, was +a favourite summer resort (see FORMIA). Cicero may have had villas both at +Portus Caietae and at Formiae[1] proper, and the emperors certainly +possessed property at both places. After the destruction of Formiae in A.D. +847 it became one of the most important seaports of central Italy (see +GAETA). In the town are scanty remains of an amphitheatre and theatre: near +the church of La Trinita, higher up, are remains of a large reservoir. +There are also traces of an aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned +by the tomb of Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who +died after 22 B.C. It is a circular structure of blocks of travertine 160 +ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland is the so-called tomb of +L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae Portus was no doubt +connected with the Via Appia (which passed through Formiae) by a +_deverticulum_. There seems also to have been a road running W.N.W. along +the precipitous coast to Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga). + +See E. Gesualdo _Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via Appia di +Pratilli_ p. 7 (Naples, 1754). + +(T. AS.) + +[1] The two places are sufficiently close for the one villa to have borne +both names; but Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 603) +prefers to differentiate them. + +CAILLIE (or CAILLE), RENE AUGUSTE (1799-1838), French explorer, was born at +Mauze, Poitou, in 1799, the son of a baker. The reading of _Robinson +Crusoe_ kindled in him a love of travel and adventure, and at the age of +sixteen he made a voyage to Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning +to Senegal in 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a +British expedition then in that country. Ill with fever he was obliged to +go back to France, but in 1824 was again in Senegal with the fixed idea of +penetrating to Timbuktu. He spent eight months with the Brakna "Moors" +living north of Senegal river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a +convert, the laws and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching +Timbuktu before the governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement +went to Sierra Leone where the British authorities made him superintendent +of an indigo plantation. Having saved L80 he joined a Mandingo caravan +going inland. He was dressed as a Mussulman, and gave out that he was an +Arab from Egypt who had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was +desirous of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near Boke on +the Rio Nunez on 19th of April 1827, he travelled east along the hills of +Futa Jallon, passing the head streams of the Senegal and crossing the Upper +Niger at Kurussa. Still going east he came to the Kong highlands, where at +a place called Time he was detained five months by illness. Resuming his +journey [v.04 p.0949] in January 1828 he went north-east and gained the +city of Jenne, whence he continued his journey to Timbuktu by water. After +spending a fortnight (20th April-4th May) in Timbuktu he joined a caravan +crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fez on the 12th of August. From +Tangier he returned to France. He had been preceded at Timbuktu by a +British officer, Major Gordon Laing, but Laing had been murdered (1826) on +leaving the city and Caillie was the first to accomplish the journey in +safety. He was awarded the prize of L400 offered by the Geographical +Society of Paris to the first traveller who should gain exact information +of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given by Mungo Park. He also received +the order of the Legion of Honour, a pension, and other distinctions, and +it was at the public expense that his _Journal d'un voyage a Temboctou et a +Jenne dans l'Afrique Centrale_, etc. (edited by E.F. Jomard) was published +in three volumes in 1830. Caillie died at Badere in 1838 of a malady +contracted during his African travels. For the greater part of his life he +spelt his name Caillie, afterwards omitting the second "i." + +See Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap. xii. (London, +1892); Goepp and Cordier, _Les Grands Hommes de France, voyageurs: Rene +Caille_ (Paris, 1885); E.F. Jomard, _Notice historique sur la vie et les +voyages de R. Caillie_ (Paris, 1839). An English version of Caillie's +_Journal_ was published in London in 1830 in two volumes under the title of +_Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo_, &c. + +CAIN, in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.), was a tiller +of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was a keeper of sheep. +Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's offering, and rejected his own, he +slew his brother in the field (see ABEL). For this a curse was pronounced +upon him, and he was condemned to be a "fugitive and a wanderer" on the +earth, a mark being set upon him "lest any finding him should kill him." He +took up his abode in the land of Nod ("wandering") on the east of Eden, +where he built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. The narrative +presents a number of difficulties, which early commentators sought to solve +with more ingenuity than success. But when it is granted that the ancient +Hebrews, like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and +traditional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The mark set +upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or sign analogous to the +cattle marks of Bedouin and the related usages in Europe. Such marks had +often a religious significance, and denoted that the bearer was a follower +of a particular deity. The suggestion has been made that the name Cain is +the eponym of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good name almost +everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its destruction is +foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed a division, are +consistently represented as the inveterate enemies of Yahweh and of his +people Israel. The story of Cain and Abel, which appears to represent the +nomad life as a curse, may be an attempt to explain the origin of an +existence which in the eyes of the settled agriculturist was one of +continual restlessness, whilst at the same time it endeavours to find a +reason for the institution of blood-revenge on the theory that at some +remote age a man (or tribe) had killed his brother (or brother tribe). +Cain's subsequent founding of a city finds a parallel in the legend of the +origin of Rome through the swarms of outlaws and broken men of all kinds +whom Romulus attracted thither. The list of Cain's descendants reflects the +old view of the beginnings of civilization; it is thrown into the form of a +genealogy and is parallel to Gen. v. (see GENESIS). It finds its analogy in +the Phoenician account of the origin of different inventions which Eusebius +(_Praep. Evang._ i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus (Gebal), and probably +both go back to a common Babylonian origin. + +On this question, see Driver, _Genesis_ (Westminster Comm., London, 1904), +p. 80 seq.; A. Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orients_ (Leipzig, +1906), pp. 220 seq.; also ENOCH, LAMECH. On the story of Cain, see +especially Stade, _Akademische Reden_, pp. 229-273; Ed. Meyer, +_Israeliten_, pp. 395 sqq.; A.R. Gordon, _Early Trad. Genesis_ (Index). +Literary criticism (see Cheyne, _Encycl. Bib._ col. 620-628, and 4411-4417) +has made it extremely probable that Cain the nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv. +1-16) was originally distinct from Cain the city-builder (vv. 17 sqq.). The +latter was perhaps regarded as a "smith," cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the +"father" of those who work in bronze (or copper). That the Kenites, too, +were a race of metal-workers is quite uncertain, although even at the +present day the smiths in Arabia form a distinct nomadic class. Whatever be +the meaning of the name, the words put into Eve's mouth (v. I) probably are +not an etymology, but an assonance (Driver). It is noteworthy that Kenan, +son of Enosh ("man," Gen. v. 9), appears in Sabaean inscriptions of South +Arabia as the name of a tribal-god. + +A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of Cainites. They +are first mentioned by Irenaeus, who connects them with the Valentinians. +They believed that Cain derived his existence from the superior power, and +Abel from the inferior power, and that in this respect he was the first of +a line which included Esau, Korah, the Sodomites and Judas Iscariot. + +(S. A. C.) + +CAINE, THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), British novelist and dramatist, was born +of mixed Manx and Cumberland parentage at Runcorn, Cheshire, on the 14th of +May 1853. He was educated with a view to becoming an architect, but turned +to journalism, becoming a leader-writer on the _Liverpool Mercury_. He came +up to London at the suggestion of D.G. Rossetti, with whom he had had some +correspondence, and lived with the poet for some time before his death. He +published a volume of _Recollections of Rossetti_ (1882), and also some +critical work; but in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a +novelist of a melodramatic type with _The Shadow of a Crime_, followed by +_The Son of Hagar_ (1886), _The Deemster_ (1887), _The Bondman_ (1890), +_The Scapegoat_ (1891), _The Manxman_ (1894), _The Christian_ (1897), _The +Eternal City_ (1901), and _The Prodigal Son_ (1904). His writings on Manx +subjects were acknowledged by his election in 1901 to represent Ramsey in +the House of Keys. _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_ and _The Christian_ had +already been produced in dramatic form, when _The Eternal City_ was staged +with magnificent accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1902, and in 1905 _The +Prodigal Son_ had a successful run at Drury Lane. + +See C.F. Kenyon, _Hall Caine_; _The Man and the Novelist_ (1901); and the +novelist's autobiography, _My Story_ (1908). + +CA'ING WHALE (_Globicephalus melas_), a large representative of the dolphin +tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North +America, the Cape and New Zealand. From its nearly uniform black colour it +is also called the "black-fish." Its maximum length is about 20 ft. These +cetaceans are gregarious and inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly on +cuttle-fish. Their sociable character constantly leads to their +destruction, as when attacked they instinctively rush together, and blindly +follow the leaders of the herd, whence the names pilot-whale and ca'ing (or +driving) whale. Many hundreds at a time are thus frequently driven ashore +and killed, when a herd enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroe +Islands or north of Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has +been distinguished as _G. scammoni_, while one from the Atlantic coast, +south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are possibly also +distinct. (See CETACEA.) + +CAINOZOIC (from the Gr. _[Greek: kainos]_, recent, _[Greek: zoe]_, life), +also written Cenozoic (American), _Kainozoisch_, _Caenozoisch_ (German), +_Cenozoaire_ (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest of the +three great eras of geological time, the other two being the Mesozoic and +Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed the term "Neozoic" +(_Neozoisch_) with the same significance, others have restricted its +application to the Tertiary epoch (_Neozoique_, De Lapparent). The +"Neogene" of Hoernes (1853) included the Miocene and Pliocene periods; +Renevier subsequently modified its form to _Neogenique_. The remaining +Tertiary periods were classed as Paleogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The word +"Neocene" has been used in place of Neozoic, but its employment is open to +objection. + +Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term Cainozoic to +include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone, and on the other hand, +to make it include both the Tertiary and the post-Tertiary or Quaternary +epochs; and in order that it may bear a relationship to the concepts of +time and faunal development similar to those indicated by the terms +Mesozoic and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the latter +alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the geological +periods from Eocene to Recent. (See TERTIARY and PLEISTOCENE.) + +(J. A. H.) + +[v.04 p.0950] CAIQUE (from Turk. _Kaik_), a light skiff or rowing-boat used +by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a Levantine sailing +vessel of considerable size. + +CA IRA, a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:-- + + "_Ah! ca ira, ca ira, ca ira!_ + _Les aristocrates a la lanterne._" + +The words, written by one Ladre, a street singer, were put to an older +tune, called "Le Carillon National," and the song rivalled the "Carmagnole" +(_q.v._) during the Terror. It was forbidden by the Directory. + +CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908), British philosopher and theologian, brother of +John Caird (_q.v._), was born at Greenock on the 22nd of March 1835, and +educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first +class in moderations in 1862 and in _Literae humaniores_ in 1863, and was +Pusey and Ellerton scholar in 1861. From 1864 to 1866 he was fellow and +tutor of Merton College. In 1866 he became professor of moral philosophy in +the university of Glasgow, and in 1893 succeeded Benjamin Jowett as master +of Balliol. With Thomas Hill Green he founded in England a school of +orthodox neo-Hegelianism (see HEGEL, _ad fin._), and through his pupils he +exerted a far-reaching influence on English philosophy and theology. Owing +to failing health he gave up his lectures in 1904, and in May 1906 resigned +his mastership, in which he was succeeded by James Leigh Strachan-Davidson, +who had previously for some time, as senior tutor and fellow, borne the +chief burden of college administration. Dr Caird received the honorary +degree of D.C.L. in 1892; he was made a corresponding member of the French +Academy of Moral and Political Science and a fellow of the British Academy. +His publications include _Philosophy of Kant_ (1878); _Critical Philosophy +of Kant_ (1889); _Religion and Social Philosophy of Comte_ (1885); _Essays +on Literature and Philosophy_ (1892); _Evolution of Religion_ (Gifford +Lectures, 1891-1892); _Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers_ +(1904); and he is represented in this encyclopaedia by the article on +CARTESIANISM. He died on the 1st of November 1908. + +For a criticism of Dr Caird's theology, see A.W. Benn, _English Rationalism +in the 19th Century_ (London, 1906). + +CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born at +Greenock on the 15th of December 1820. In his sixteenth year he entered the +office of his father, who was partner and manager of a firm of engineers. +Two years later, however, he obtained leave to continue his studies at +Glasgow University. After a year of academic life he tried business again, +but in 1840 he gave it up finally and returned to college. In 1845 he +entered the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and after holding several +livings accepted the chair of divinity at Glasgow in 1862. During these +years he won a foremost place among the preachers of Scotland. In theology +he was a Broad Churchman, seeking always to emphasize the permanent +elements in religion, and ignoring technicalities. In 1873 he was appointed +vice-chancellor and principal of Glasgow University. He delivered the +Gifford Lectures in 1892-1893 and in 1895-1896. His _Introduction to the +Philosophy of Religion_ (1880) is an attempt to show the essential +rationality of religion. It is idealistic in character, being in fact a +reproduction of Hegelian teaching in clear and melodious language. His +argument for the Being of God is based on the hypothesis that thought--not +individual but universal--is the reality of all things, the existence of +this Infinite Thought being demonstrated by the limitations of finite +thought. Again his Gifford Lectures are devoted to the proof of the truth +of Christianity on grounds of right reason alone. Caird wrote also an +excellent study of Spinoza, in which he showed the latent Hegelianism of +the great Jewish philosopher. He died on the 30th of July 1898. + +CAIRN (in Gaelic and Welsh, _Carn_), a heap of stones piled up in a conical +form. In modern times cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient +times they were erected as sepulchral monuments. The _Duan Eireanach_, an +ancient Irish poem, describes the erection of a family cairn; and the +_Senchus Mor_, a collection of ancient Irish laws, prescribes a fine of +three three-year-old heifers for "not erecting the tomb of thy chief." +Meetings of the tribes were held at them, and the inauguration of a new +chief took place on the cairn of one of his predecessors. It is mentioned +in the _Annals of the Four Masters_ that, in 1225, the O'Connor was +inaugurated on the cairn of Fraech, the son of Fiodhach of the red hair. In +medieval times cairns are often referred to as boundary marks, though +probably not originally raised for that purpose. In a charter by King +Alexander II. (1221), granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss, +the boundary is described as passing "from the great oak in Malevin as far +as the _Rune Pictorum_," which is explained as "the Carne of the Pecht's +fieldis." In Highland districts small cairns used to be erected, even in +recent times, at places where the coffin of a distinguished person was +"rested" on its way to the churchyard. Memorial cairns are still +occasionally erected, as, for instance, the cairn raised in memory of the +prince consort at Balmoral, and "Maule's Cairn," in Glenesk, erected by the +earl of Dalhousie in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends +specified by name in the inscription placed upon it. (See BARROW.) + +CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT (1823-1875), British political economist, was born at +Castle Bellingham, Ireland, in 1823. After leaving school he spent some +years in the counting-house of his father, a brewer. His tastes, however, +lay altogether in the direction of study, and he was permitted to enter +Trinity College, Dublin, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1848, and six +years later that of M.A. After passing through the curriculum of arts he +engaged in the study of law and was called to the Irish bar. But he felt no +very strong inclination for the legal profession, and during some years he +occupied himself to a large extent with contributions to the daily press, +treating of the social and economical questions that affected Ireland. He +devoted most attention to political economy, which he studied with great +thoroughness and care. While residing in Dublin he made the acquaintance of +Archbishop Whately, who conceived a very high respect for his character and +abilities. In 1856 a vacancy occurred in the chair of political economy at +Dublin founded by Whately, and Cairnes received the appointment. In +accordance with the regulations of the foundation, the lectures of his +first year's course were published. The book appeared in 1857 with the +title _Character and Logical Method of Political Economy_. It follows up +and expands J.S. Mill's treatment in the _Essays on some Unsettled +Questions in Political Economy_, and forms an admirable introduction to the +study of economics as a science. In it the author's peculiar powers of +thought and expression are displayed to the best advantage. Logical +exactness, precision of language, and firm grasp of the true nature of +economic facts, are the qualities characteristic of this as of all his +other works. If the book had done nothing more, it would still have +conferred inestimable benefit on political economists by its clear +exposition of the true nature and meaning of the ambiguous term "law." To +the view of the province and method of political economy expounded in this +early work the author always remained true, and several of his later +essays, such as those on _Political Economy and Land_, _Political Economy +and Laissez-Faire_, are but reiterations of the same doctrine. His next +contribution to economical science was a series of articles on the gold +question, published partly in _Fraser's Magazine_, in which the probable +consequences of the increased supply of gold attendant on the Australian +and Californian gold discoveries were analysed with great skill and +ability. And a critical article on M. Chevalier's work _On the Probable +Fall in the Value of Gold_ appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ for July +1860. + +In 1861 Cairnes was appointed to the professorship of political economy and +jurisprudence in Queen's College, Galway, and in the following year he +published his admirable work _The Slave Power_, one of the finest specimens +of applied economical philosophy. The inherent disadvantages of the +employment of slave labour were exposed with great fulness and ability, and +the conclusions arrived at have taken their place among the recognized +doctrines of political economy. The opinions expressed by Cairnes as to the +probable issue of the war in America were largely verified by the actual +course of events, and the appearance of the book had a marked influence on +the attitude taken by serious political thinkers in England towards the +southern states. + +[v.04 p.0951] + +During the remainder of his residence at Galway Professor Cairnes published +nothing beyond some fragments and pamphlets mainly upon Irish questions. +The most valuable of these papers are the series devoted to the +consideration of university education. His health, at no time very good, +was still further weakened in 1865 by a fall from his horse. He was ever +afterwards incapacitated from active exertion and was constantly liable to +have his work interfered with by attacks of illness. In 1866 he was +appointed professor of political economy in University College, London. He +was compelled to spend the session 1868-1869 in Italy but on his return +continued to lecture till 1872. During his last session he conducted a +mixed class, ladies being admitted to his lectures. His health soon +rendered it impossible for him to discharge his public duties; he resigned +his post in 1872, and retired with the honorary title of emeritus professor +of political economy. In 1873 his own university conferred on him the +degree of LL.D. He died at Blackheath, near London, on the 8th of July +1875. + +The last years of his life were spent in the collection and publication of +some scattered papers contributed to various reviews and magazines, and in +the preparation of his most extensive and important work. The _Political +Essays_, published in 1873, comprise all his papers relating to Ireland and +its university system, together with some other articles of a somewhat +similar nature. The _Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical and Applied_, +which appeared in the same year, contain the essays towards a solution of +the gold question, brought up to date and tested by comparison with +statistics of prices. Among the other articles in the volume the more +important are the criticisms on Bastiat and Comte, and the essays on +_Political Economy and Land_, and on _Political Economy and Laissez-Faire_, +which have been referred to above. In 1874 appeared his largest work, _Some +Leading Principles of Political Economy, newly Expounded_, which is beyond +doubt a worthy successor to the great treatises of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo +and Mill. It does not expound a completed system of political economy; many +important doctrines are left untouched; and in general the treatment of +problems is not such as would be suited for a systematic manual. The work +is essentially a commentary on some of the principal doctrines of the +English school of economists, such as value, cost of production, wages, +labour and capital, and international values, and is replete with keen +criticism and lucid illustration. While in fundamental harmony with Mill, +especially as regards the general conception of the science, Cairnes +differs from him to a greater or less extent on nearly all the cardinal +doctrines, subjects his opinions to a searching examination, and generally +succeeds in giving to the truth that is common to both a firmer basis and a +more precise statement. The last labour to which he devoted himself was a +republication of his first work on the _Logical Method of Political +Economy_. + +Taken as a whole the works of Cairnes formed the most important +contribution to economical science made by the English school since the +publication of J.S. Mill's _Principles_. It is not possible to indicate +more than generally the special advances in economic doctrine effected by +him, but the following points may be noted as establishing for him a claim +to a place beside Ricardo and Mill: (1) His exposition of the province and +method of political economy. He never suffers it to be forgotten that +political economy is a _science_, and consequently that its results are +entirely neutral with respect to social facts or systems. It has simply to +trace the necessary connexions among the phenomena of wealth and dictates +no rules for practice. Further, he is distinctly opposed both to those who +would treat political economy as an integral part of social philosophy, and +to those who have attempted to express economic facts in quantitative +formulae and to make economy a branch of applied mathematics. According to +him political economy is a mixed science, its field being partly mental, +partly physical. It may be called a positive science, because its premises +are facts, but it is hypothetical in so far as the laws it lays down are +only approximately true, _i.e._ are only valid in the absence of +counteracting agencies. From this view of the nature of the science, it +follows at once that the method to be pursued must be that called by Mill +the physical or concrete deductive, which starts from certain known causes, +investigates their consequences and verifies or tests the result by +comparison with facts of experience. It may, perhaps, be thought that +Cairnes gives too little attention to the effects of the organism of +society on economic facts, and that he is disposed to overlook what Bagehot +called the postulates of political economy. (2) His analysis of cost of +production in its relation to value. According to Mill, the universal +elements in cost of production are the wages of labour and the profits of +capital. To this theory Cairnes objects that wages, being remuneration, can +in no sense be considered as cost, and could only have come to be regarded +as cost in consequence of the whole problem being treated from the point of +view of the capitalist, to whom, no doubt, the wages paid represent cost. +The real elements of cost of production he looks upon as labour, abstinence +and risk, the second of these falling mainly, though not necessarily, upon +the capitalist. In this analysis he to a considerable extent follows and +improves upon Senior, who had previously defined cost of production as the +sum of the labour and abstinence necessary to production. (3) His +exposition of the natural or social limit to free competition, and of its +bearing on the theory of value. He points out that in any organized society +there can hardly be the ready transference of capital from one employment +to another, which is the indispensable condition of free competition; while +class distinctions render it impossible for labour to transfer itself +readily to new occupations. Society may thus be regarded as consisting of a +series of non-competing industrial groups, with free competition among the +members of any one group or class. Now the only condition under which cost +of production will regulate value is perfect competition. It follows that +the normal value of commodities--the value which gives to the producers the +average and usual remuneration--will depend upon cost of production only +when the exchange is confined to the members of one class, among whom there +is free competition. In exchange between classes or non-competing +industrial groups, the normal value is simply a case of international +value, and depends upon reciprocal demand, that is to say, is such as will +satisfy the equation of demand. This theory is a substantial contribution +to economical science and throws great light upon the general problem of +value. At the same time, it may be thought that Cairnes overlooked a point +brought forward prominently by Senior, who also had called attention to the +bearing of competition on the relation between cost of production and +value. The cost to the producer fixes the limit below which the price +cannot fall without the supply being affected; but it is the desire of the +consumer--_i.e._ what he is willing to give up rather than be compelled to +produce the commodity for himself--that fixes the maximum value of the +article. To treat the whole problem of natural or normal value from the +point of view of the producer is to give but a one-sided theory of the +facts. (4) His defence of the wages fund doctrine. This doctrine, expounded +by Mill in his _Principles_, had been relinquished by him, but Cairnes +still undertook to defend it. He certainly succeeded in removing from the +theory much that had tended to obscure its real meaning and in placing it +in its very best aspect. He also showed the sense in which, when treating +the problem of wages, we must refer to some fund devoted to the payment of +wages, and pointed out the conditions under which the wages fund may +increase or decrease. It may be added that his _Leading Principles_ contain +admirable discussions on trade unions and protection, together with a clear +analysis of the difficult theory of international trade and value, in which +there is much that is both novel and valuable. The _Logical Method_ +contains about the best exposition and defence of Ricardo's theory of rent; +and the _Essays_ contain a very clear and formidable criticism of Bastiat's +economic doctrines. + +Professor Cairnes's son, CAPTAIN W.E. CAIRNES (1862-1906), was an able +writer on military subjects, being author of _An Absent-minded War_ (1900), +_The Coming Waterloo_ (1905), &c. + +[v.04 p.0952] + +CAIRNGORM, a yellow or brown variety of quartz, named from Cairngorm or +Cairngorum, one of the peaks of the Grampian Mountains in Banffshire, +Scotland. According to Mr E.H. Cunningham-Craig, the mineral occurs in +crystals lining cavities in highly-inclined veins of a fine-grained granite +running through the coarser granite of the main mass: Shallow pits were +formerly dug in the kaolinized granite for sake of the cairngorm and the +mineral was also found as pebbles in the bed of the river Avon. Cairngorm +is a favourite ornamental stone in Scotland, being set in the lids of +snuff-mulls, in the handles of dirks and in brooches for Highland costume. +A rich sherry-yellow colour is much esteemed. Quartz of yellow and brown +colour is often known in trade as "false topaz," or simply "topaz." Such +quartz is found at many localities in Brazil, Russia and Spain. Much of the +yellow quartz used in jewellery is said to be "burnt amethyst"; that is, it +was originally amethystine quartz, the colour of which has been modified by +heat (see AMETHYST). Yellow quartz is sometimes known as citrine; when the +quartz presents a pale brown tint it is called "smoky quartz"; and when the +brown is so deep that the stone appears almost black it is termed morion. +The brown colour has been referred to the presence of titanium. + +CAIRNS, HUGH MCCALMONT CAIRNS, 1ST EARL (1819-1885), Irish statesman, and +lord chancellor of England, was born at Cultra, Co. Down, Ireland, on the +27th of December 1819. His father, William Cairns, formerly a captain in +the 47th regiment, came of a family[1] of Scottish origin, which migrated +to Ireland in the time of James I. Hugh Cairns was his second son, and was +educated at Belfast academy and at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with +a senior moderatorship in classics in 1838. In 1844 he was called to the +bar at the Middle Temple, to which he had migrated from Lincoln's Inn. +During his first years at the chancery bar, Cairns showed little promise of +the eloquence which afterwards distinguished him. Never a rapid speaker, he +was then so slow and diffident, that he feared that this defect might +interfere with his legal career. Fortunately he was soon able to rid +himself of the idea that he was only fit for practice as a conveyancer. In +1852 he entered parliament as member for Belfast, and his Inn, on his +becoming a Q.C. in 1856, made him a bencher. + +In 1858 Cairns was appointed solicitor-general, and was knighted, and in +May of that year made two of his most brilliant and best-remembered +speeches in the House of Commons. In the first, he defended the action of +Lord Ellenborough, who, as president of the board of control, had not only +censured Lord Canning for a proclamation issued by him as governor-general +of India but had made public the despatch in which the censure was +conveyed. On the other occasion referred to, Sir Hugh Cairns spoke in +opposition to Lord John Russell's amendment to the motion for the second +reading of the government Reform Bill, winning the most cordial +commendation of Disraeli. Disraeli's appreciation found an opportunity for +displaying itself some years later, when in 1868 he invited him to be lord +chancellor in the brief Conservative administration which followed Lord +Derby's resignation of the leadership of his party. Meanwhile, Cairns had +maintained his reputation in many other debates, both when his party was in +power and when it was in opposition. In 1866 Lord Derby, returning to +office, had made him attorney-general, and in the same year he had availed +himself of a vacancy to seek the comparative rest of the court of appeal. +While a lord justice he had been offered a peerage, and though at first +unable to accept it, he had finally done so on a relative, a member of the +wealthy family of McCalmont, providing the means necessary for the +endowment of a title. + +The appointment of Baron Cairns of Garmoyle as lord chancellor in 1868 +involved the superseding of Lord Chelmsford, an act which apparently was +carried out by Disraeli with less tact than might have been expected of +him. Lord Chelmsford bitterly declared that he had been sent away with less +courtesy than if he had been a butler, but the testimony of Lord Malmesbury +is strong that the affair was the result of an understanding arrived at +when Lord Chelmsford took office. Disraeli held office on this occasion for +a few months only, and when Lord Derby died in 1869, Lord Cairns became the +leader of the Conservative opposition in the House of Lords. He had +distinguished himself in the Commons by his resistance to the Roman +Catholics' Oath Bill brought in in 1865; in the Lords, his efforts on +behalf of the Irish Church were equally strenuous. His speech on +Gladstone's Suspensory Bill was afterwards published as a pamphlet, but the +attitude which he and the peers who followed him had taken up, in insisting +on their amendments to the preamble of the bill, was one difficult to +maintain, and Lord Cairns made terms with Lord Granville in circumstances +which precluded his consulting his party first. He issued a circular to +explain his action in taking a course for which many blamed him. Viewed +dispassionately, the incident appears to have exhibited his statesmanlike +qualities in a marked degree, for he secured concessions which would have +been irretrievably lost by continued opposition. Not long after this, Lord +Cairns resigned the leadership of his party in the upper house, but he had +to resume it in 1870 and took a strong part in opposing the Irish Land Bill +in that year. On the Conservatives coming into power in 1874, he again +became lord chancellor; in 1878 he was made Viscount Garmoyle and Earl +Cairns; and in 1880 his party went out of office. In opposition he did not +take as prominent a part as previously, but when Lord Beaconsfield died in +1881, there were some Conservatives who considered that his title to lead +the party was better than that of Lord Salisbury. His health, however, +never robust, had for many years shown intermittent signs of failing. He +had periodically made enforced retirements to the Riviera, and for many +years had had a house at Bournemouth, and it was here that he died on the +2nd of April 1885. + +Cairns was a great lawyer, with an immense grasp of first principles and +the power to express them; his judgments taking the form of luminous +expositions or treatises upon the law governing the case before him, rather +than of controversial discussions of the arguments adduced by counsel or of +analysis of his own reasons. Lucidity and logic were the leading +characteristics of his speeches in his professional capacity and in the +political arena. In an eloquent tribute to his memory in the House of +Lords, Lord Chief Justice Coleridge expressed the high opinion of the legal +profession upon his merits and upon the severe integrity and single-minded +desire to do his duty, which animated him in his selections for the bench. +His piety was reflected by that of his great opponent, rival and friend, +Lord Selborne. Like Lord Selborne and Lord Hatherley, Cairns found leisure +at his busiest for teaching in the Sunday-school, but it is not recorded of +them (as of him) that they refused to undertake work at the bar on +Saturdays, in order to devote that day to hunting. He used to say that his +great incentive to hard work at his profession in early days was his desire +to keep hunters, and he retained his keenness as a sportsman as long as he +was able to indulge it. Of his personal characteristics, it may be said +that he was a spare man, with a Scottish, not an Irish, cast of +countenance. He was scrupulously neat in his personal appearance, faultless +in bands and necktie, and fond of wearing a flower in his button-hole. His +chilly manner, coupled with his somewhat austere religious principles, had +no doubt much to do with the fact that he was never a popular man. His +friends claimed for him a keen sense of humour, but it was not to be +detected by those whose knowledge of him was professional rather than +personal. Probably he thought the exhibition of humour incompatible with +the dignity of high judicial position. Of his legal attainments there can +be no doubt. His influence upon the legislation of the day was largely felt +where questions affecting religion and the Church were involved and in +matters peculiarly affecting his own profession. His power was felt, as has +been said, both when he was in office and when his party was in opposition. +He had been chairman of the committee on judicature reform, and although he +was not in office when the Judicature Act was passed, all the reforms in +the legal procedure of his day owed much to him. He took part, when out of +office, in the passing of the Married Women's Property Act, and was +directly responsible for the Conveyancing Acts of 1881-1882, and [v.04 +p.0953] for the Settled Land Act. Many other statutes in which he was +largely concerned might be quoted. His judgments are to be found in the Law +Reports and those who wish to consider his oratory should read the speeches +above referred to, or that delivered in the House of Lords on the +Compensation for Disturbance Bill in 1880, and his memorable criticism of +Mr Gladstone's policy in the Transvaal, after Majuba Hill. (See Hansard and +_The Times_, 1st of April 1881.) His style of delivery was, as a rule, cold +to a marked degree. The term "frozen oratory" has been applied to his +speeches, and it has been said of them that they flowed "like water from a +glacier.... The several stages of his speech are like steps cut out in ice, +as sharply defined, as smooth and as cold." Lord Caims married in 1856 Mary +Harriet, eldest daughter of John McNeill, of Parkmount, Co. Antrim, by whom +he had issue five sons and two daughters. He was succeeded in the earldom +by his second but eldest surviving son, Arthur William (1861-1890), who +left one daughter, and from whom the title passed to his two next younger +brothers in succession, Herbert John, third earl (1863-1905), and Wilfrid +Dallas, fourth earl (b. 1865). + +AUTHORITIES.--See _The Times_, 3rd and 14th of April 1885; _Law Journal, +Law Times, Solicitors' Journal_, 11th of April 1885; the _Law Magazine_, +vol. xi. p. 133; the _Law Quarterly_, vol. i. p. 365; _Earl Russell's +Recollections; Memoirs of Lord Malmesbury_; Sir Theodore Martin, _The Life +of the Prince Consort_; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_; J.B. Atlay, +_Victorian Chancellors_, vol. ii. + +[1] See _History of the family of Cairnes or Cairns_, by H.C. Lawlor +(1907). + +CAIRNS, JOHN (1818-1892), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born at Ayton +Hill, Berwickshire, on the 23rd of August 1818, the son of a shepherd. He +went to school at Ayton and Oldcambus, Berwickshire, and was then for three +years a herd boy, but kept up his education. In 1834 he entered Edinburgh +University, but during 1836 and 1837, owing to financial straits, taught in +a school at Ayton. In November 1837 he returned to Edinburgh, where he +became the most distinguished student of his time, graduating M.A. in 1841, +first in classics and philosophy and bracketed first in mathematics. While +at Edinburgh he organized the Metaphysical Society along with A. Campbell +Fraser and David Masson. He entered the Presbyterian Secession Hall in +1840, and in 1843 wrote an article in the _Secession Magazine_ on the Free +Church movement, which aroused the interest of Thomas Chalmers. The years +1843-1844 he spent at Berlin studying German philosophy and theology. He +was licensed as preacher on the 3rd of February 1845, and on the 6th of +August ordained as minister of Golden Square Church, Berwick-on-Tweed. +There his preaching was distinguished by its impressiveness and by a broad +and unaffected humanity. He had many "calls" to other churches, but chose +to remain at Berwick. In 1857 he was one of the representatives at the +meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, and in 1858 Edinburgh +University conferred on him an honorary D.D. In the following year he +declined an invitation to become principal of Edinburgh University. In 1872 +he was elected moderator of the United Presbyterian Synod and represented +his church in Paris at the first meeting of the Reformed Synod of France. +In May 1876, he was appointed joint professor of systematic theology and +apologetics with James Harper, principal of the United Presbyterian +Theological College, whom he succeeded as principal in 1879. He was an +indefatigable worker and speaker, and in order to facilitate his efforts in +other countries and other literatures he learnt Arabic, Norse, Danish and +Dutch. In 1890 he visited Berlin and Amsterdam to acquaint himself with the +ways of younger theologians, especially with the Ritschlians, whose work he +appreciated but did not accept as final. On his return he wrote a long +article on "Recent Scottish Theology" for the _Presbyterian and Reformed +Review_, for which he read over every theological work of note published in +Scotland during the preceding half-century. He died on the 12th of March, +1892, at Edinburgh. Among his principal publications are _An Examination of +Ferrier's "Knowing and Being," and the Scottish Philosophy_--(a work which +gave him the reputation of being an independent Hamiltonian in philosophy); +_Memoir of John Brown, D.D._ (1860); _Romanism and Rationalism_ (1863); +_Outlines of Apologetical Theology_ (1867); _The Doctrine of the +Presbyterian Church_ (1876); _Unbelief in the 18th Century_ (1881); +_Doctrinal Principles of the United Presbyterian Church_ (Dr Blair's +Manual, 1888). + +See MacEwen's _Life and Letters of John Cairns_ (1895). + +(D. MN.) + +CAIRNS, a seaport of Nares county, Queensland, Australia, 890 m. direct +N.N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 3557. The town lies parallel with the sea, +on the western shore of Trinity Bay, with an excellent harbour, and a long +beach, finely timbered. Cairns is the natural outlet for the gold-fields, +tin-mines and silver-fields of the district and for the rich copper +district of Chillagoe. A government railway, 48 m. long, runs to Mareeba, +whence a private company's line continues to Mungana, 100 m. W. There is +also a line belonging to a private company connecting Chillagoe with +Mareeba. In the vicinity of Cairns are extensive sugar plantations, with +sugar mills and refineries; the culture of coffee and tobacco has rapidly +extended; bananas, pine-apples and other fruits are exported in +considerable quantities and there is a large industry in cedar. The Barron +Falls, among the finest in Australia, are near Kuranda, 19 m. from Cairns. +Cairns became a municipality in 1885. + +CAIRO (Arabic _Misr-al-Kahira_, or simply _Misr_), the capital of modern +Egypt and the most populous city in Africa, on the Nile, 12 m. S. of the +apex of the Delta, in 30 deg. 3' N. and 31 deg. 21' E. It is 130 m. S.E. of +Alexandria, and 148 E. of Suez by rail, though only 84 m. from the +last-named port by the overland route across the desert, in use before the +opening of the Suez Canal. Cairo occupies a length of 5 m. on the east bank +of the Nile, stretching north from the old Roman fortress of Babylon, and +covers an area of about 8 sq. m. It is built partly on the alluvial plain +of the Nile valley and partly on the rocky slopes of the Mokattam hills, +which rise 550 ft. above the town. + +The citadel, which is built on a spur of the Mokattam hills, occupies the +S.E. angle of the city. The prospect from the ramparts of this fortress is +one of striking picturesqueness and beauty. Below lies the city with its +ancient walls and lofty towers, its gardens and squares, its palaces and +its mosques, with their delicately-carved domes and minarets covered with +fantastic tracery, the port of Bulak, the gardens and palace of Shubra, the +broad river studded with islands, the valley of the Nile dotted with groups +of trees, with the pyramids on the north horizon, and on the east the +barren cliffs, backed by a waste of sand. Since the middle of the 19th +century the city has more than doubled in size and population. The newer +quarters, situated near the river, are laid out in the fashion of French +cities, but the eastern parts of the town retain, almost unimpaired, their +Oriental aspect, and in scores of narrow, tortuous streets, and busy +bazaars it is easy to forget that there has been any change from the Cairo +of medieval times. Here the line of fortifications still marks the eastern +limits of the city, though on the north large districts have grown up +beyond the walls. Neither on the south nor towards the river are there any +fortifications left. + +_Principal Quarters and Modern Buildings._--From the citadel a straight +road, the Sharia Mehemet Ali, runs N. to the Ezbekia (Ezbekiyeh) Gardens, +which cover over 20 acres, and form the central point of the foreign +colony. North and west of the Ezbekia runs the Ismailia canal, and on the +W. side of the canal, about half a mile N. of the Gardens, is the Central +railway station, approached by a broad road, the Sharia Clot Bey. The Arab +city and the quarters of the Copts and Jews lie E. of the two streets +named. West of the Ismailia canal lies the Bulak quarter, the port or +riverside district. At Bulak are the arsenal, foundry and railway works, a +paper manufactory and the government printing press, founded by Mehemet +Ali. A little distance S.E. of the Ezbekia is the Place Atabeh, the chief +point of intersection of the electric tramways which serve the newer parts +of the town. From the Place Atabeh a narrow street, the Muski, leads E. +into the heart of the Arab city. Another street leads S.W. to the Nile, at +the point where the Kasr en Nil or Great Nile bridge spans the river, +leading to Gezira Bulak, an island whereon is a palace, now turned into a +hotel, polo, cricket and tennis grounds, and a racecourse. The districts +between the bridge, the Ezbekia [v.04 p.0954] and the Ismailia canal, are +known as the Ismailia and Tewfikia quarters, after the khedives in whose +reigns they were laid out. The district immediately south of the bridge is +called the Kasr el-Dubara quarter. Abdin Square, which occupies a central +position, is connected with Ezbekia Gardens by a straight road. The narrow +canal, El Khalig, which branched from the Nile at Old Cairo and traversed +the city from S.W. to N.E., was filled up in 1897, and an electric tramway +runs along the road thus made. With the filling up of the channel the +ancient festival of the cutting of the canal came to an end. + +The government offices and other modern public buildings are nearly all in +the western half of the city. On the south side of the Ezbekia are the post +office, the courts of the International Tribunals, and the opera house. On +the east side are the bourse and the Credit Lyonnais, on the north the +buildings of the American mission. On or near the west side of the gardens +are most of the large and luxurious hotels which the city contains for the +accommodation of Europeans. Facing the river immediately north of the Great +Nile bridge are the large barracks, called Kasr-en-Nil, and the new museum +of Egyptian antiquities (opened in 1902). South of the bridge are the +Ismailia palace (a khedivial residence), the British consulate general, the +palace of the khedive's mother, the medical school and the government +hospital. Farther removed from the river are the offices of the ministries +of public works and of war--a large building surrounded by gardens--and of +justice and finance. On the east side of Abdin Square is Abdin palace, an +unpretentious building used for official receptions. Adjoining the palace +are barracks. N.E. of Abdin Square, in the Sharia Mehemet Ali, is the Arab +museum and khedivial library. Near this building are the new courts of the +native tribunals. Private houses in these western districts consist chiefly +of residential flats, though in the Kasr el-Dubara quarter are many +detached residences. + +_The Oriental City._--The eastern half of Cairo is divided into many +quarters. These quarters were formerly closed at night by massive gates. A +few of these gates remain. In addition to the Mahommedan quarters, usually +called after the trade of the inhabitants or some notable building, there +are the Copt or Christian quarter, the Jews' quarter and the old "Frank" +quarter. The last is the Muski district where, since the days of Saladin, +"Frank" merchants have been permitted to live and trade. Some of the +principal European shops are still to be found in this street. The Copt and +Jewish quarters lie north of the Muski. The Coptic cathedral, dedicated to +St Mark, is a modern building in the basilica style. The oldest Coptic +church in Cairo is, probably, the Keniset-el-Adra, or Church of the Virgin, +which is stated to preserve the original type of Coptic basilica. The +Coptic churches in the city are not, however, of so much interest as those +in Old Cairo (see below). In the Copt quarter are also Armenian, Syrian, +Maronite, Greek and Roman Catholic churches. In the Copt and Jewish +quarters the streets, as in the Arab quarters, are winding and narrow. In +them the projecting upper stories of the houses nearly meet. Sebils or +public fountains are numerous. These fountains are generally two-storeyed, +the lower chamber enclosing a well, the upper room being often used for +scholastic purposes. Many of the fountains are fine specimens of Arab +architecture. While the houses of the poorer classes are mean and too often +dirty, in marked contrast are the houses of the wealthier citizens, built +generally in a style of elaborate arabesque, the windows shaded with +projecting cornices of graceful woodwork (_mushrebiya_) and ornamented with +stained glass. A winding passage leads through the ornamental doorway into +the court, in the centre of which is a fountain shaded with palm-trees. The +principal apartment is generally paved with marble; in the centre a +decorated lantern is suspended over a fountain, while round the sides are +richly inlaid cabinets and windows of stained glass; and in a recess is the +_divan_, a low, narrow, cushioned seat. The basement storey is generally +built of the soft calcareous stone of the neighbouring hills, and the upper +storey, which contains the harem, of painted brick. The shops of the +merchants are small and open to the street. The greater part of the trade +is done, however, in the bazaars or markets, which are held in large +_khans_ or storehouses, of two storeys and of considerable size. Access to +them is gained from the narrow lanes which usually surround them. The khans +often possess fine gateways. The principal bazaar, the Khan-el-Khalil, +marks the site of the tombs of the Fatimite caliphs. + +_The Citadel and the Mosques._--Besides the citadel, the principal edifices +in the Arab quarters are the mosques and the ancient gates. The citadel or +El-Kala was built by Saladin about 1166, but it has since undergone +frequent alteration, and now contains a palace erected by Mehemet Ali, and +a mosque of Oriental alabaster (based on the model of the mosques at +Constantinople) founded by the same pasha on the site of "Joseph's Hall," +so named after the prenomen of Saladin. The dome and the two slender +minarets of this mosque form one of the most picturesque features of Cairo, +and are visible from a great distance. In the centre is a well called +Joseph's Well, sunk in the solid rock to the level of the Nile. There are +four other mosques within the citadel walls, the chief being that of Ibn +Kalaun, built in A.D. 1317 by Sultan Nasir ibn Kalaun. The dome has fallen +in. After having been used as a prison, and, later, as a military +storehouse, it has been cleared and its fine colonnades are again visible. +The upper parts of the minarets are covered with green tiles. They are +furnished with bulbous cupolas. The most magnificent of the city mosques is +that of Sultan Hasan, standing in the immediate vicinity of the citadel. It +dates from A.D. 1357, and is celebrated for the grandeur of its porch and +cornice and the delicate stalactite vaulting which adorns them. The +restoration of parts of the mosque which had fallen into decay was begun in +1904. Besides it there is the mosque of Tulun (c. A.D. 879) exhibiting very +ancient specimens of the pointed arch; the mosque of Sultan El Hakim (A.D. +1003), the mosque el Azhar (the splendid), which dates from about A.D. 970, +and is the seat of a Mahommedan university; and the mosque of Sultan +Kalaun, which is attached to the hospital or madhouse (_muristan_) begun by +Kalaun in A.D. 1285. The whole forms a large group of buildings, now +partially in ruins, in a style resembling the contemporaneous medieval work +in Europe, with pointed arches in several orders. Besides the mosque proper +there is a second mosque containing the fine mausoleum of Kalaun. Adjacent +to the _muristan_ on the north is the tomb mosque of al Nasir, completed +1303, with a fine portal. East of the Khan-el-Khalil is the mosque of El +Hasanen, which is invested with peculiar sanctity as containing relics of +Hosain and Hasan, grandsons of the Prophet. This mosque was rebuilt in the +19th century and is of no architectural importance. In all Cairo contains +over 260 mosques, and nearly as many _zawias_ or chapels. Of the gates the +finest are the Bab-en-Nasr, in the north wall of the city, and the +Bab-ez-Zuwela, the only surviving part of the southern fortifications. + +_Tombs of the Caliphs and Mamelukes._--Beyond the eastern wall of the city +are the splendid mausolea erroneously known to Europeans as the tombs of +the caliphs; they really are tombs of the Circassian or Burji Mamelukes, a +race extinguished by Mehemet Ali. Their lofty gilt domes and fanciful +network or arabesque tracery are partly in ruins, and the mosques attached +to them are also partly ruined. The chief tomb mosques are those of Sultan +Barkuk, with two domes and two minarets, completed AD. 1410, and that of +Kait Bey (c. 1470), with a slender minaret 135 ft. high. This mosque was +carefully restored in 1898. South of the citadel is another group of +tomb-mosques known as the tombs of the Mamelukes. They are architecturally +of less interest than those of the "caliphs". Southwest of the Mameluke +tombs is the much-venerated tomb-mosque of the Imam esh-Shafih or Shaf'i, +founder of one of the four orthodox sects of Islam. Near the imam's mosque +is a family burial-place built by Mehemet Ali. + +[Illustration] + +_Old Cairo: the Fortress of Babylon and the Nilometer._--About a mile south +of the city is Masr-el-Atika, called by Europeans Old Cairo. Between Old +Cairo and the newer city are large mounds of debris marking the site of +Fostat (see below, _History_). [v.04 p.0955] The road to Old Cairo by the +river leads past the monastery of the "Howling" Dervishes, and the head of +the aqueduct which formerly supplied the citadel with water. Farther to the +east is the mosque of Amr, a much-altered building dating from A.D. 643 and +containing the tomb of the Arab conqueror of Egypt. Most important of the +quarters of Masr-el-Atika is that of Kasr-esh-Shama (Castle of the Candle), +built within the outer walls of the Roman fortress of Babylon. Several +towers of this fortress remain, and in the south wall is a massive gateway, +uncovered in 1901. In the quarter are five Coptic churches, a Greek convent +and two churches, and a synagogue. The principal Coptic church is that of +Abu Serga (St Sergius). The crypt dates from about the 6th century and is +dedicated to Sitt Miriam (the Lady Mary), from a tradition that in the +flight into Egypt the Virgin and Child rested at this spot. The upper +church is basilican in form, the nave being, as customary in Coptic +churches, divided into three sections by wooden screens, which are adorned +by carvings in ivory and wood. The wall above the high altar is faced with +beautiful mosaics of marbles, blue glass and mother-of-pearl. Of the other +churches in Kasr-esh-Shama the most noteworthy is that of El Adra (the +Virgin), also called El Moallaka, or The Suspended, being built in one of +the towers of the Roman gateway. It contains fine wooden and ivory screens. +The pulpit is supported on fifteen columns, which rest on a slab of white +marble. The patriarch of the Copts was formerly consecrated in this church. +The other buildings in Old Cairo, or among the mounds of rubbish which +adjoin it, include several fort-like _ders_ or convents. One, south of the +Kasr-esh-Shama, is called Der Bablun, thus preserving the name of the +ancient fortress. In the Der Abu Sephin, to the north of Babylon, is a +Coptic church of the 10th century, possessing magnificent carved screens, a +pulpit with fine mosaics and a semi-circle of marble steps. + +Opposite Old Cairo lies the island of Roda, where, according to Arab +tradition, Pharaoh's daughter found Moses in the bulrushes. Two bridges, +opened in 1908, connect Old Cairo with Roda, and a third bridge joins Roda +to Giza on the west bank of the river. Roda Island contains a mosque built +by Kait Bey, and at its southern extremity is the Nilometer, by which the +Cairenes have for over a thousand years measured the rise of the river. It +is a square well with an octagonal pillar marked in cubits in the centre. + +_Northern and Western Suburbs._--Two miles N.E. of Cairo and on the edge of +the desert is the suburb of Abbasia (named after the viceroy Abbas), +connected with the city by a continuous line of houses. Abbasia is now +largely a military colony, the cavalry barracks being the old palace of +Abbas Pasha. In these barracks Arabi Pasha surrendered to the British on +the 14th of September 1882, the day after the battle of Tel el-Kebir. +Mataria, a village 3 m. farther to the N.E., is the site of the defeat of +the Mamelukes by the Turks in 1517, and of the defeat of the Turks by the +French under General Kleber in 1800. At Mataria was a sycamore-tree, the +successor of a tree which decayed in 1665, venerated as being that beneath +which the Holy Family, rested on their flight into Egypt. This tree was +blown down in July 1906 and its place taken by a cutting made from the tree +some years previously. Less than a mile N.E. of Mataria are the scanty +remains of the ancient city of On or Heliopolis. The chief monument is an +obelisk, about 66 ft. high, erected by Usertesen I. of the XIIth dynasty. A +residential suburb, named Heliopolis, containing many fine buildings, was +laid out between Mataria and Abbasia during 1905-10. + +On the west bank of the Nile, opposite the southern end of Roda Island, is +the small town of Giza or Gizeh, a fortified place of considerable +importance in the times of the Mamelukes. In the viceregal palace here the +museum of Egyptian antiquities was housed for several years (1889-1902). +The grounds of this palace have been converted into zoological gardens. A +broad, tree-bordered, macadamized road, along which run electric trams, +leads S.S.W. across the plain to the Pyramids of Giza, 5 m. distant, built +on the edge of the desert. + +_Helwan._--Fourteen miles S. of Cairo and connected with it by railway is +the town of Helwan, built in the desert 3 m. E. of the Nile, and much +frequented by invalids on account of its sulphur baths, which are owned by +the Egyptian government. A khedivial astronomical observatory was built +here in 1903-1904, to take the place of that at Abbasia, that site being no +longer suitable in consequence of the northward extension of the city. The +ruins of Memphis are on the E. bank of the Nile opposite Helwan. + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants are of many diverse races, the various +nationalities being frequently distinguishable by differences in dress as +well as in physiognomy and colour. In the oriental quarters of the city the +curious shops, the markets of different trades (the shops of each trade +being generally congregated in one street or district), the easy merchant +sitting before his shop, the musical and quaint street-cries of the +picturesque vendors of fruit, sherbet, water, &c., with the ever-changing +and many-coloured throng of passengers, all render the streets a delightful +study for the lover of Arab life, nowhere else to be seen in such +perfection, or with so fine a background of magnificent buildings. The +Cairenes, or native citizens, differ from the fellahin in having a much +larger mixture of Arab blood, and are at once keener witted and more +conservative than the peasantry. The Arabic spoken by the middle and higher +classes is generally inferior in grammatical correctness and pronunciation +to that of the Bedouins of Arabia, but is purer than that of Syria or the +dialect spoken by the Western Arabs. Besides the Cairenes proper, who are +largely engaged in trade or handicrafts, the inhabitants include Arabs, +numbers of Nubians and Negroes--mostly labourers or domestics in nominal +slavery--and many Levantines, there being considerable colonies of Syrians +and Armenians. The higher classes of native society are largely of Turkish +or semi-Turkish descent. Of other races the most numerous are Greeks, +Italians, British, French and Jews. Bedouins from the desert frequent the +bazaars. + +At the beginning of the 19th century the population was estimated at about +200,000, made up of 120,000 Moslems, 60,000 Copts, 4000 Jews and 16,000 +Greeks, Armenians and "Franks." In 1882 the population had risen to +374,000, in 1897 to 570,062, and in 1907, including Helwan and Mataria, the +total population was 654,476, of whom 46,507 were Europeans. + +_Climate and Health._--In consequence of its insanitary condition, Cairo +used to have a heavy death-rate. Since the British occupation in 1882 much +has been done to better this state of things, notably by a good +water-supply and a proper system of drainage. The death-rate of the native +population is about 35 per 1000. The climate of the city is generally +healthy, with a mean temperature of about 68 deg. F. Though rain seldom falls, +exhalations from the river, especially when the flood has begun to subside, +render the districts near the Nile damp during September, October and +November, and in winter early morning fogs are not uncommon. The prevalent +north wind and the rise of the water tend to keep the air cool in summer. + +_Commerce._--The commerce of Cairo, of considerable extent and variety, +consists mainly in the transit of goods. Gum, ivory, hides, and ostrich +feathers from the Sudan, cotton and sugar from Upper Egypt, indigo and +shawls from India and Persia, sheep and tobacco from Asiatic Turkey, and +European manufactures, such as machinery, hardware, cutlery, glass, and +cotton and woollen goods, are the more important articles. The traffic in +slaves ceased in 1877. In Bulak are several factories founded by Mehemet +Ali for spinning, weaving and printing cotton, and a paper-mill established +by the khedive Ismail in 1870. Various kinds of paper are manufactured, and +especially a fine quality for use in the government offices. In the Island +of Roda there is a sugar-refinery of considerable extent, founded in 1859, +and principally managed by Englishmen. Silk goods, saltpetre, gunpowder, +leather, &c., are also manufactured. An octroi duty of 9% _ad valorem_ +formerly levied on all food stuffs entering the city was abolished in 1903. +It used to produce about L150,000 per annum. + +_Mahommedan Architecture._--Architecturally considered Cairo is still the +most remarkable and characteristic of Arab cities. The edifices raised by +the Moorish kings of Spain and the Moslem [v.04 p.0956] rulers of India may +have been more splendid in their materials, and more elaborate in their +details; the houses of the great men of Damascus may be more costly than +were those of the Mameluke beys; but for purity of taste and elegance of +design both are far excelled by many of the mosques and houses of Cairo. +These mosques have suffered much in the beauty of their appearance from the +effects of time and neglect; but their colour has been often thus softened, +and their outlines rendered the more picturesque. What is most to be +admired in their style of architecture is its extraordinary freedom from +restraint, shown in the wonderful variety of its forms, and the skill in +design which has made the most intricate details to harmonize with grand +outlines. Here the student may best learn the history of Arab art. Like its +contemporary Gothic, it has three great periods, those of growth, maturity +and decline. Of the first, the mosque of Ahmed Ibn-Tulun in the southern +part of Cairo, and the three great gates of the city, the Bab-en-Nasr, +Bab-el-Futuh and Bab-Zuwela, are splendid examples. The design of these +entrance gateways is extremely simple and massive, depending for their +effect on the fine ashlar masonry in which they are built, the decoration +being more or less confined to ornamental disks. The mosque of Tulun was +built entirely in brick, and is the earliest instance of the employment of +the pointed arch in Egypt. The curve of the arch turns in slightly below +the springing, giving a horse-shoe shape. Built in brick, it was found +necessary to give a more monumental appearance to the walls by a casing of +stucco, which remains in fair preservation to the present day. This led to +the enrichment of the archivolts and imposts with that peculiar type of +conventional foliage which characterizes Mahommedan work, and which in this +case was carried out by Coptic craftsmen. The attached angle-shafts of +piers are found here for the first time, and their capitals are enriched, +as also the frieze surmounting the walls, with other conventional patterns. +The second period passes from the highest point to which this art attained +to a luxuriance promising decay. The mosque of sultan Hasan, below the +citadel, those of Muayyad and Kalaun, with the Barkukiya and the mosque of +Barkuk in the cemetery of Kait Bey, are instances of the second and more +matured style of the period. The simple plain ashlar masonry still +predominates, but the wall surface is broken up with sunk panels, sometimes +with geometrical patterns in them. The principal characteristics of this +second period are the magnificent portals, rising sometimes, as in the +mosque of sultan Hasan, to 80 or 90 ft., with elaborate stalactite vaulting +at the top, and the deep stalactite cornices which crown the summit of the +building. The decoration of the interior consists of the casing of the +walls with marble with enriched borders, and (about 20 ft. above the +ground) friezes 3 to 5 ft. in height in which the precepts of the Koran are +carved in relief, with a background of conventional foliage. Of the last +style of this period the Ghuriya and the mosque of Kait Bey in his cemetery +are beautiful specimens. They show an elongation of forms and an excess of +decoration in which the florid qualities predominate. Of the age of decline +the finest monument is the mosque of Mahommad Bey Abu-Dahab. The forms are +now poor, though not lacking in grandeur, and the details are not as well +adjusted as before, with a want of mastery of the most suitable decoration. +The usual plan of a congregational mosque is a large, square, open court, +surrounded by arcades of which the chief, often several bays deep, and +known as the Manksura, or prayer-chamber, faces Mecca (eastward), and has +inside its outer wall a decorated niche to mark the direction of prayer. In +the centre of the court is a fountain for ablutions, often surmounted by a +dome, and in the prayer-chamber a pulpit and a desk for readers. When a +mosque is also the founder's tomb, it has a richly ornamented sepulchral +chamber always covered by a dome (see further MOSQUE, which contains plans +of the mosques of Amr and sultan Hasan, and of the tomb mosque of Kait +Bey). + +After centuries of neglect efforts are now made to preserve the monuments +of Arabic art, a commission with that object having been appointed in 1881. +To this commission the government makes an annual grant of L4000. The +careful and syste-matic work accomplished by this commission has preserved +much of interest and beauty which would otherwise have gone utterly to +ruin. Arrangements were made in 1902 for the systematic repair and +preservation of Coptic monuments. + +_Museums and Library._--The museum of Egyptian antiquities was founded at +Bulak in 1863, being then housed in a mosque, by the French savant Auguste +Mariette. In 1889 the collection was transferred to the Giza (Ghezireh) +palace, and in 1902 was removed to its present quarters, erected at a cost +of over L250,000. A statue of Mariette was unveiled in 1904. The museum is +entirely devoted to antiquities of Pharaonic times, and, except in +historical papyri, in which it is excelled by the British Museum, is the +most valuable collection of such antiquities in existence. + +The Arab museum and khedivial library are housed in a building erected for +the purpose, at a cost of L66,000, and opened in 1903. In the museum are +preserved treasures of Saracenic art, including many objects removed from +the mosques for their better security. The khedivial library contains some +64,000 volumes, over two-thirds being books and MSS. in Arabic, Persian, +Turkish, Amharic and Syriac. The Arabic section includes a unique +collection of 2677 korans. The Persian section is rich in illuminated MSS. +The numismatic collection, as regards the period of the caliphs and later +dynasties, is one of the richest in the world. + +_History._--Before the Arab conquest of Egypt the site of Cairo appears to +have been open country. Memphis was some 12 m. higher up on the opposite +side of the Nile, and Heliopolis was 5 or 6 m. distant on the N.E. The most +ancient known settlement in the immediate neighbourhood of the present city +was the town called Babylon. From its situation it may have been a north +suburb of Memphis, which was still inhabited in the 7th century A.D. +Babylon is said by Strabo to have been founded by emigrants from the +ancient city of the same name in 525 B.C., _i.e._ at the time of the +Persian conquest of Egypt. Here the Romans built a fortress and made it the +headquarters of one of the three legions which garrisoned the country. The +church of Babylon mentioned in 1 Peter v. 13 has been thought by some +writers to refer to this town--an improbable supposition. Amr, the +conqueror of Egypt for the caliph Omar, after taking the town besieged the +fortress for the greater part of a year, the garrison surrendering in April +A.D. 641. The town of Babylon disappeared, but the strong walls of the +fortress in part remain, and the name survived, "Babylon of Egypt," or +"Babylon" simply, being frequently used in medieval writings as synonymous +with Cairo or as denoting the successive Mahommedan dynasties of Egypt. + +Cairo itself is the fourth Moslem capital of Egypt; the site of one of +those that had preceded it is, for the most part, included within its +walls, while the other two were a little to the south. Amr founded +El-Fostat, the oldest of these, close to the fortress which he had +besieged. Fostat signifies "the tent," the town being built where Amr had +pitched his tent. The new town speedily became a place of importance, and +was the residence of the naibs, or lieutenants, appointed by the orthodox +and Omayyad caliphs. It received the name of Masr, properly Misr, which was +also applied by the Arabs to Memphis and to Cairo, and is to-day, with the +Roman town which preceded it, represented by Masr el-Atika, or "Old Cairo." +Shortly after the overthrow of the Omayyad dynasty, and the establishment +of the Abbasids, the city of El-'Askar was founded (A.D. 750) by Suleiman, +the general who subjugated the country, and became the capital and the +residence of the successive lieutenants of the Abbasid caliphs. El-'Askar +was a small town N.E. of and adjacent to El-Fostat, of which it was a kind +of suburb. Its site is now entirely desolate. The third capital, El-Katai, +was founded about A.D. 873 by Ahmed Ibn Tulun, as his capital. It continued +the royal residence of his successors; but was sacked not long after the +fall of the dynasty and rapidly decayed. A part of the present Cairo +occupies its site and contains its great mosque, that of Ahmed Ibn Tulun. + +Jauhar (Gohar) el-Kaid, the conqueror of Egypt for the Fatimite caliph +El-Moizz, founded a new capital, A.D. 968, which [v.04 p.0957] was named +El-Kahira, that is, "the Victorious," a name corrupted into Cairo. The new +city, like that founded by Amr, was originally the camp of the conqueror. +This town occupied about a fourth part, the north-eastern, of the present +metropolis. By degrees it became greater than El-Fostat, and took from it +the name of Misr, or Masr, which is applied to it by the modern Egyptians. +With its rise Fostat, which had been little affected by the establishment +of Askar and Katai, declined. It continually increased so as to include the +site of El-Katai to the south. In A.D. 1176 Cairo was unsuccessfully +attacked by the Crusaders; shortly afterwards Saladin built the citadel on +the lowest point of the mountains to the east, which immediately overlooked +El-Katai, and he partly walled round the towns and large gardens within the +space now called Cairo. Under the prosperous rule of the Mameluke sultans +this great tract was filled with habitations; a large suburb to the north, +the Hoseynia, was added; and the town of Bulak was founded. After the +Turkish conquest (A.D. 1517) the metropolis decayed, but its limits were +the same. In 1798 the city was captured by the French, who were driven out +in 1801 by the Turkish and English forces, the city being handed over to +the Turks. Mehemet Ali, originally the Turkish viceroy, by his massacre of +the Mamelukes in 1811, in a narrow street leading to the citadel, made +himself master of the country, and Cairo again became the capital of a +virtually independent kingdom. Under Mehemet and his successors all the +western part of the city has grown up. The khedive Ismail, in making the +straight road from the citadel to the Ezbekia gardens, destroyed many of +the finest houses of the old town. In 1882 Cairo was occupied by the +British, and British troops continue to garrison the citadel. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S.L. Poole, _The Story of Cairo_ (London, 1902), a +historical and architectural survey of the Moslem city; E. Reynolds-Ball, +_Cairo: the City of the Caliphs_ (Boston, U.S.A., 1897); Prisse d'Avennes, +_L'Art arabe d'apres les monuments du Caire_ (Paris, 1847); P. Ravaisse, +_L'Histoire et la topographie du Caire d'apres Makrizi_ (Paris, 1887); E.W. +Lane, _Cairo Fifty Years Ago_ (London, 1896), presents a picture of the +city as it was before the era of European "improvements," and gives +extracts from the _Khitat_ of Maqrizi, written in 1417, the chief original +authority on the antiquities of Cairo; Murray's and Baedeker's _Guides_, +and A. and C. Black's _Cairo of To-day_ (1905), contain much useful and +accurate information about Cairo. For the fortress of Babylon and its +churches consult A.J. Butler, _Ancient Coptic Churches in Egypt_ (Oxford, +1884). + +CAIRO, a city and the county-seat of Alexander county, Illinois, U.S.A., in +the S. part of the state, at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi +rivers, 365 m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,324; (1900) 12,566, of whom +5000 were negroes; (1910 census) 14,548. Cairo is served by the Illinois +Central, the Mobile & Ohio, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, +the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, and the St Louis South-Western +railways, and by river steamboat lines. The city, said to be the "Eden" of +Charles Dickens's _Martin Chuzzlewit_, is built on a tongue of land between +the rivers, and has suffered many times from inundations, notably in 1858. +It is now protected by great levees. A fine railway bridge (1888) spans the +Ohio. The city has a large government building, a U.S. marine hospital +(1884), and the A.B. Safford memorial library (1882), and is the seat of St +Joseph's Loretto Academy (Roman Catholic, 1864). In one of the squares +there is a bronze statue, "The Hewer," by G.G. Barnard. In the N. part of +the city is St Mary's park (30 acres). At Mound City (pop. in 1910, 2837), +5 m. N. of Cairo, there is a national cemetery. Lumber and flour are +Cairo's principal manufactured products, and the city is an important +hardwood and cotton-wood market; the Singer Manufacturing Co. has veneer +mills here, and there are large box factories. In 1905 the value of the +city's factory products was $4,381,465, an increase of 40.6% since 1900. +Cairo is a shipping-point for the surrounding agricultural country. The +city owes its origin to a series of commercial experiments. In 1818 a +charter was secured from the legislature of the territory of Illinois +incorporating the city and bank of Cairo. The charter was soon forfeited, +and the land secured by it reverted to the government. In 1835 a new +charter was granted to a second company, and in 1837 the Cairo City & Canal +Co. was formed. By 1842, however, the place was practically abandoned. A +successful settlement was made in 1851-1854 under the auspices of the New +York Trust Co.; the Illinois Central railway was opened in 1856; and Cairo +was chartered as a city in 1857. During the Civil War Cairo was an +important strategic point, and was a military centre and depot of supplies +of considerable importance for the Federal armies in the west. In 1862 +Admiral Andrew H. Foote established at Mound City a naval depot, which was +the basis of his operations on the Mississippi. + +CAIROLI, BENEDETTO (1825-1889), Italian statesman, was born at Pavia on the +28th of January 1825. From 1848 until the completion of Italian unity in +1870, his whole activity was devoted to the Risorgimento, as Garibaldian +officer, political refugee, anti-Austrian conspirator and deputy to +parliament. He commanded a volunteer company under Garibaldi in 1859 and +1860, being wounded slightly at Calatafimi and severely at Palermo in the +latter year. In 1866, with the rank of colonel, he assisted Garibaldi in +Tirol, in 1867 fought at Mentana, and in 1870 conducted the negotiations +with Bismarck, during which the German chancellor is alleged to have +promised Italy possession of Rome and of her natural frontiers if the +Democratic party could prevent an alliance between Victor Emmanuel and +Napoleon. The prestige personally acquired by Benedetto Cairoli was +augmented by that of his four brothers, who fell during the wars of +Risorgimento, and by the heroic conduct of their mother. His refusal of all +compensation or distinction further endeared him to the Italian people. +When in 1876 the Left came into power, Cairoli, then a deputy of sixteen +years' standing, became parliamentary leader of his party, and, after the +fall of Depretis, Nicotera and Crispi, formed his first cabinet in March +1878 with a Francophil and Irredentist policy. After his marriage with the +countess Elena Sizzo of Trent, he permitted the Irredentist agitation to +carry the country to the verge of a war with Austria. General irritation +was caused by his and Count Corti's policy of "clean hands" at the Berlin +Congress, where Italy obtained nothing, while Austria-Hungary secured a +European mandate to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. A few months later +the attempt of Passanante to assassinate King Humbert at Naples (12th of +December 1878) caused his downfall, in spite of the courage displayed and +the severe wound received by him in protecting the king's person on that +occasion. On the 3rd of July 1879 Cairoli returned to power, and in the +following November formed with Depretis a coalition ministry, in which he +retained the premiership and the foreign office. Confidence in French +assurances, and belief that Great Britain would never permit the extension +of French influence in North Africa, prevented him from foreseeing the +French occupation of Tunis (11th of May 1881). In view of popular +indignation he resigned in order to avoid making inopportune declarations +to the chamber. Thenceforward he practically disappeared from political +life. In 1887 he received the knighthood of the Annunziata, the highest +Italian decoration, and on the 8th of August 1889 died while a guest of +King Humbert in the royal palace of Capodimonte near Naples. Cairoli was +one of the most conspicuous representatives of that type of Italian public +men who, having conspired and fought for a generation in the cause of +national unity, were despite their valour little fitted for the responsible +parliamentary and official positions they subsequently attained; and who by +their ignorance of foreign affairs and of internal administration +unwittingly impeded the political development of their country. + +CAISSON (from the Fr. _caisse_, the variant form "cassoon" being adapted +from the Ital. _casone_), a chest or case. When employed as a military +term, it denotes an ammunition wagon or chest; in architecture it is the +term used for a sunk panel or coffer in a ceiling, or in the soffit of an +arch or a vault. + +In civil engineering, however, the word has attained a far wider +signification, and has been adopted in connexion with a considerable +variety of hydraulic works. A caisson in this sense implies a case or +enclosure of wood or iron, generally employed for keeping out water during +the execution of foundations and other works in water-bearing strata, at +the side of or under rivers, and also [v.04 p.0958] in the sea. There are +two distinct forms of this type of caisson:--(1) A caisson open at the top, +whose sides, when it is sunk in position, emerge above the water-level, and +which is either provided with a water-tight bottom or is carried down, by +being weighted at the top and having a cutting edge round the bottom, into +a water-tight stratum, aided frequently by excavation inside; (2) A +bottomless caisson, serving as a sort of diving-bell, in which men can work +when compressed air is introduced to keep out the water in proportion to +the depth below the water-level, which is gradually carried down to an +adequately firm foundation by excavating at the bottom of the caisson, and +building up a quay-wall or pier out of water on the top of its roof as it +descends. An example of a caisson with a water-tight bottom is furnished by +the quays erected alongside the Seine at Rouen, where open-timber caissons +were sunk on to bearing-piles down to a depth of 93/4 ft. below low-water, +the brick and concrete lower portions of the quay-wall being built inside +them out of water (see DOCK). At Bilbao, Zeebrugge and Scheveningen +harbours, large open metal caissons, built inland, ballasted with concrete, +floated out into position, and then sunk and filled with concrete, have +been employed for forming very large foundation blocks for the breakwaters +(see BREAKWATER). Open iron caissons are frequently employed for enclosing +the site of river piers for bridges, where a water-tight stratum can be +reached at a moderate depth, into which the caisson can be taken down, so +that the water can be pumped out of the enclosure and the foundations laid +and the pier carried up in the open air. Thus the two large river piers +carrying the high towers, bascules, and machinery of the Tower Bridge, +London, were each founded and built within a group of twelve plate-iron +caissons open at the top; whilst four of the piers on which the cantilevers +of the Forth Bridge rest, were each erected within an open plate-iron +caisson fitted at the bottom to the sloping rock, where ordinary cofferdams +could not have been adopted. + +Where foundations have to be carried down to a considerable depth in +water-bearing strata, or through the alluvial bed of a river, to reach a +hard stratum, bottomless caissons sunk by excavating under compressed air +are employed. The caisson at the bottom, forming the working chamber, is +usually provided with a strong roof, round the top of which, when the +caisson is floated into a river, plate-iron sides are erected forming an +upper open caisson, inside which the pier or quay-wall is built up out of +water, on the top of the roof, as the sinking proceeds. Shafts through the +roof up to the open air provide access for men and materials to the working +chamber, through an air-lock consisting of a small chamber with an +air-tight door at each end, enabling locking into and out of the +compressed-air portion to be readily effected, on the same principle as a +water-lock on a canal. When a sufficiently reliable stratum has been +reached, the men leave the working chamber; and it is filled with concrete +through the shafts, the bottomless caisson remaining embedded in the work. +The foundations for the two river piers of the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, +carried down to the solid rock, 78 and 45 ft. respectively below +high-water, by means of bottomless timber caissons with compressed air, +were an early instance of this method of carrying out subaqueous +foundations; whilst the Antwerp quay-walls, commenced many years ago in the +river Scheldt at some distance out from the right bank, and the foundations +of six of the piers supporting the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge, carried +down to rock between 64 and 89 ft. below high-water, are notable examples +of works founded under water within wrought iron bottomless caissons by the +aid of compressed air. The foundations of the two piers of the Eiffel Tower +adjoining the Seine were carried down through soft water-bearing strata to +a depth of 33 ft. by means of wrought iron bottomless caissons sunk by the +help of compressed air; and the deep foundations under the sills of the new +large Florida lock at Havre (see DOCK) were laid underneath the water +logged alluvial strata close to the Seine estuary by similar means. +Workmen, after emerging from such caissons, sometimes exhibit symptoms of +illness which is known as _caisson disease_ (_q.v._). + +As in the above system, significantly termed by French engineers _par +caisson perdu_, the materials of the bottomless caisson have to be left in +the work, a more economical system has been adapted for carrying out +similar foundations, at moderate depths, by using movable caissons, which, +after the lowest portions of the foundations have been laid, are raised by +screw-jacks for constructing the next portions. In this way, instead of +building the pier or wall on the roof of the caisson, the work is carried +out under water in successive stages, by raising the bottomless caisson as +the work proceeds; and by this arrangement, the caisson, having completed +the subaqueous portion of the structure, is available for work elsewhere. +This movable system has been used with advantage for the foundations for +some piers of river bridges, some breakwater foundations, and, at the +Florida lock, Havre, for founding portions of the side walls. + +Closed iron caissons, termed ship-caissons, and sliding or rolling +caissons, are generally employed for closing graving-docks, especially the +former (so called from their resemblance in shape to a vessel) on account +of their simplicity, being readily floated into and out of position; whilst +sliding caissons are sometimes used instead of lock-gates at docks, but +require a chamber at the side to receive them when drawn back. They possess +the advantage, particularly for naval dockyards where heavy weights are +transported, of providing in addition a strong movable bridge, thereby +dispensing with a swing-bridge across the opening. + +The term caisson is sometimes applied to flat air-tight constructions used +for raising vessels out of water for cleaning or repairs, by being sunk +under them and then floated; but these floating caissons are more commonly +known as pontoons, or, when air-chambers are added at the sides, as +floating dry-docks. + +(L. F. V.-H.) + +CAISSON DISEASE. In order to exclude the water, the air pressure within a +caisson used for subaqueous works must be kept in excess of the pressure +due to the superincumbent water; that is, it must be increased by one +atmosphere, or 15 lb per sq. in. for every 331/2 ft. that the caisson is +submerged below the surface. Hence at a depth of 100 ft. a worker in a +caisson, or a diver in a diving-dress, must be subjected to a pressure of +four atmospheres or 60 lb per sq. in. Exposure to such pressures is apt to +be followed by disagreeable and even dangerous physiological effects, which +are commonly referred to as caisson disease or compressed air illness. The +symptoms are of a very varied character, including pains in the muscles and +joints (the "bends"), deafness, embarrassed breathing, vomiting, paralysis +("divers' palsy"), fainting and sometimes even sudden death. At the St +Louis bridge, where a pressure was employed equal to 41/4 atmospheres, out of +600 workmen, 119 were affected and 14 died. At one time the symptoms were +attributed to congestion produced by the mechanical effects of the pressure +on the internal organs of the body, but this explanation is seen to be +untenable when it is remembered that the pressure is immediately +transmitted by the fluids of the body equally to all parts. They do not +appear during the time that the pressure is being raised nor so long as it +is continued, but only after it has been removed; and the view now +generally accepted is that they are due to the rapid effervescence of the +gases which are absorbed in the body-fluids during exposure to pressure. +Experiment has proved that in animals exposed to compressed air nitrogen is +dissolved in the fluids in accordance with Dalton's law, to the extent of +roughly 1% for each atmosphere of pressure, and also that when the pressure +is suddenly relieved the gas is liberated in bubbles within the body. It is +these bubbles that do the mischief. Set free in the spinal cord, for +instance, they may give rise to partial paralysis, in the labyrinth of the +ear to auditory vertigo, or in the heart to stoppage of the circulation; on +the other hand, they may be liberated in positions where they do no harm. +But if the pressure is relieved gradually they are not formed, because the +gas comes out of solution slowly and is got rid of by the heart and lungs. +Paul Bert exposed 24 dogs to pressure of 7-91/2 atmospheres and +"decompressed" them rapidly in 1-4 minutes. The result was that 21 died, +while only one showed no symptoms. In one of his cases, in which the +apparatus burst while at a pressure of 91/2 atmospheres, death was +instantaneous and the body was enormously distended, with the right heart +full of gas. [v.04 p.0959] But he also found that dogs exposed, for +moderate periods, to similar pressures suffered no ill effects provided +that the pressure was relieved gradually, in 1-11/2 hours; and his results +have been confirmed by subsequent investigators. To prevent caisson +disease, therefore, the decompression should be slow; Leonard Hill suggests +it should be at a rate of not less than 20 minutes for each atmosphere of +pressure. Good ventilation of the caisson is also of great importance +(though experiment does not entirely confirm the view that the presence of +carbonic acid to an amount exceeding 1 or 11/4 parts per thousand exercises a +specific influence on the production of compressed air illness), and long +shifts should be avoided, because by fatigue the circulatory and +respiratory organs are rendered less able to eliminate the absorbed gas. +Another reason against long shifts, especially at high pressures, is that a +high partial pressure of oxygen acts as a general protoplasmic poison. This +circumstance also sets a limit to the pressures that can possibly be used +in caissons and therefore to the depths at which they can be worked, though +there is reason to think that the maximum pressure (43/4 atmospheres) so far +used in caisson work might be considerably exceeded with safety, provided +that proper precautions were observed in regard to slow decompression, the +physique of the workmen, and the hours of labour. As to the remedy for the +symptoms after they have appeared, satisfactory results have been obtained +by replacing the sufferers in a compressed air chamber ("recompression"), +when the gas is again dissolved by the body fluids, and then slowly +"decompressing" them. + +See Paul Bert, _La Pression barometrique_ (1878); and Leonard Hill, _Recent +Advances in Physiology and Biochemistry_ (1906), (both these works contain +bibliographies); also a lecture by Leonard Hill delivered at the Royal +Institution of Great Britain on the 25th of May 1906; "Diving and Caisson +Disease," a summary of recent investigations, by Surgeon Howard Mummery, +_British Medical Journal_, June 27th, 1908; _Diseases of Occupation_, by T. +Oliver (1908); _Diseases of Workmen_, by T. Luson and R. Hyde (1908). + +CAITHNESS, a county occupying the extreme north-east of Scotland, bounded +W. and S. by Sutherlandshire, E. by the North Sea, and N. by the Pentland +Firth. Its area is 446,017 acres, or nearly 697 sq. m. The surface +generally is flat and tame, consisting for the most part of barren moors, +almost destitute of trees. It presents a gradual slope from the north and +east up to the heights in the south and west, where the chief mountains are +Morven (2313 ft.), Scaraben (2054 ft.) and Maiden Pap (1587 ft.). The +principal rivers are the Thurso ("Thor's River"), which, rising in Cnoc +Crom Uillt (1199 ft.) near the Sutherlandshire border, pursues a winding +course till it reaches the sea in Thurso Bay; the Forss, which, emerging +from Loch Shurrery, follows a generally northward direction and enters the +sea at Crosskirk, a fine cascade about a mile from its mouth giving the +river its name (_fors_, Scandinavian, "waterfall;" in English the form is +_force_); and Wick Water, which, draining Loch Watten, flows into the sea +at Wick. There are many other smaller streams well stocked with fish. +Indeed, the county offers fine sport for rod and gun. The lochs are +numerous, the largest being Loch Watten, 23/4 m. by 3/4 m., and Loch Calder, 21/4 +by 1 m., and Lochs Colam, Hempriggs, Heilen, Ruard, Scarmclate, St John's, +Toftingale and Wester. So much of the land is low-lying and boggy that +there are no glens, except in the mountainous south-west, although towards +the centre of the county are Strathmore and Strathbeg (the great and little +valleys). Most of the coast-line is precipitous and inhospitable, +particularly at the headlands of the Ord, Noss, Skirsa, Duncansbay, St +John's Point, Dunnet Head (346 ft.), the most northerly point of Scotland, +Holburn and Brims Ness. From Berriedale at frequent intervals round the +coast occur superb "stacks," or detached pillars of red sandstone, which +add much to the grandeur of the cliff scenery. + +Caithness is separated from the Orkneys by the Pentland Firth, a strait +about 14 miles long and from 6 to 8 miles broad. Owing to the rush of the +tide, navigation is difficult, and, in rough weather, dangerous. The tidal +wave races at a speed which varies from 6 to 12 m. an hour. At the meeting +of the western and eastern currents the waves at times rise into the air +like a waterspout, but the current does not always nor everywhere flow at a +uniform rate, being broken up at places into eddies as perilous as itself. +The breakers caused by the sunken reefs off Duncansbay Head create the +Bores of Duncansbay, and eddies off St John's Point are the origin of the +Merry Men of Mey, while off the island of Stroma occurs the whirlpool of +the Swalchie, and off the Orcadian Swona is the vortex of the Wells of +Swona. Nevertheless, as the most direct road from Scandinavian ports to the +Atlantic the Firth is used by at least 5000 vessels every year. In the +eastern entrance to the Firth lies the group of islands known as the +Pentland Skerries. They are four in number--Muckle Skerry, Little Skerry, +Clettack Skerry and Louther Skerry--and the nearest is 41/2 m. from the +mainland. On Muckle Skerry, the largest (1/2 m. by 1/3 m.), stands a +lighthouse with twin towers, 100 ft. apart. The island of Stroma, 11/2 m. +from the mainland (pop. 375), belongs to Caithness and is situated in the +parish of Canisbay. It is 21/4 m. long by 11/4 m. broad. In 1862 a remarkable +tide climbed the cliffs (200 ft.) and swept across the island. + +_Geology._--Along the western margin of the county from Reay on the north +coast to the Scaraben Hills there is a narrow belt of country which is +occupied by metamorphic rocks of the types found in the east of Sutherland. +They consist chiefly of granulitic quartzose schists and felspathic +gneisses, permeated in places by strings and veins of pegmatite. On the +Scaraben Hills there is a prominent development of quartz-schists the age +of which is still uncertain. These rocks are traversed by a mass of granite +sometimes foliated, trending north and south, which is traceable from Reay +southwards by Aultnabreac station to Kinbrace and Strath Helmsdale in +Sutherland. Excellent sections of this rock, showing segregation veins, are +exposed in the railway cuttings between Aultnabreac and Forsinard. A rock +of special interest described by Professor Judd occurs on Achvarasdale +Moor, near Loch Scye, and hence named Scyelite. It forms a small isolated +boss, its relations to the surrounding rocks not being apparent. Under the +microscope, the rock consists of biotite, hornblende, serpentinous +pseudo-morphs after olivine and possibly after enstatite and magnetite, and +may be described as a mica-hornblende-picrite. The remainder of the county +is occupied by strata of Old Red Sandstone age, the greater portion being +grouped with the Middle or Orcadian division of that system, and a small +area on the promontory of Dunnet Head being provisionally placed in the +upper division. By means of the fossil fishes, Dr Traquair has arranged the +Caithness flagstone series in three groups, the Achanarras beds at the +base, the Thurso flagstones in the middle, and the John o' Groats beds at +the top. In the extreme south of the county certain minor subdivisions +appear which probably underlie the lowest fossiliferous beds containing the +Achanarras fauna. These comprise (1) the coarse basement conglomerate, (2) +dull chocolate-red sandstones, shales and clays around Braemore in the +Berriedale Water, (3) the brecciated conglomerate largely composed of +granite detritus seen at Badbea, (4) red sandstones, shales and +conglomeratic bands found in the Berriedale Water and further northwards in +the direction of Strathmore. Morven, the highest hill in Caithness, is +formed of gently inclined sandstones and conglomerates resting on an eroded +platform of quartz-schists and quartz-mica-granulites. The flagstones +yielding the fishes of the lowest division of the Orcadian series appear on +Achanarras Hill about three miles south of Halkirk. The members of the +overlying Thurso group have a wide distribution as they extend along the +shore on either side of Thurso and spread across the county by Castletown +and Halkirk to Sinclairs Bay and Wick. They are thrown into folds which are +traversed by faults some of which run in a north and south direction. They +consist of dark grey and cream-coloured flagstones, sometimes thick-bedded +with grey and blue shales and thin limestones and occasional intercalations +of sandstone. In the north-west of the county the members of the Thurso +group appear to overlap the Achanarras beds and to rest directly on the +platform of crystalline schists. In the extreme north-east there is a +passage upwards into the John o' Groats group [v.04 p.0960] with its +characteristic fishes, the strata consisting of sandstones, flagstones with +thin impure limestones. The rocks of Dunnet Head, which are provisionally +classed with the upper Old Red Sandstone, are composed of red and yellow +sandstones, marls and mudstones. Hitherto no fossils have been obtained +from these beds save some obscure plant-like markings, but they are +evidently a continuation southwards of the sandstones of Hoy, which there +rest unconformably on the flagstone series of Orkney. This patch of Upper +Old Red strata is faulted against the Caithness flagstones to the south. +For many years the flagstones have been extensively quarried for pavement +purposes, as for instance near Thurso, at Castletown and Achanarras. Two +instances of volcanic necks occur in Caithness, one piercing the red +sandstones at the Ness of Duncansbay and the other the sandstones of Dunnet +Head north of Brough. They point to volcanic activity subsequent to the +deposition of the John o' Groats beds and of the Dunnet sandstones. The +materials filling these vents consist of agglomerate charged with blocks of +diabase, sandstone, flagstone and limestone. + +An interesting feature connected with the geology of Caithness is the +deposit of shelly boulder clay which is distributed over the low ground, +being deepest in the valleys and in the cliffs surrounding the bays on the +east coast. Apart from the shell fragments, many of which are striated, the +deposit contains blocks foreign to the county, as for instance chalk and +chalk-flints, fragments of Jurassic rocks with fossils and pieces of jet. +The transport of local boulders shows that the ice must have moved from the +south-east towards the north-west, which coincides with the direction +indicated by the striae. The Jurassic blocks may have been derived from the +strip of rocks of that age on the east coast of Sutherland. The shell +fragments, many of which are striated, include arctic, boreal and southern +forms, only a small number being characteristic of the littoral zone. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is variable, and though the winter +storms fall with great severity on the coast, yet owing to proximity to a +vast expanse of sea the cold is not intense and snow seldom lies many days +continuously. In winter and spring the northern shore is subject to +frequent and disastrous gales from the N. and N.W. Only about two-fifths of +the arable land is good. In spite of this and the cold, wet and windy +climate, progressive landlords and tenants keep a considerable part of the +acreage of large farms successfully tilled. In 1824 James Traill of Ratter, +near Dunnet, recognizing that it was impossible to expect tenants to +reclaim and improve the land on a system of short leases, advocated large +holdings on long terms, so that farmers might enjoy a substantial return on +their capital and labour. Thanks to this policy and the farmers' skill and +enterprise, the county has acquired a remarkable reputation for its +produce; notably oats and barley, turnips, potatoes and beans. +Sheep--chiefly Leicester and Cheviots--of which the wool is in especial +request in consequence of its fine quality, cattle, horses and pigs are +raised for southern markets. + +_Other Industries._--The great source of profit to the inhabitants is to be +found in the fisheries of cod, ling, lobster and herring. The last is the +most important, beginning about the end of July and lasting for six weeks, +the centre of operations being at Wick. Besides those more immediately +engaged in manning the boats, the fisheries give employment to a large +number of coopers, curers, packers and helpers. The salmon fisheries on the +coast and at the mouths of rivers are let at high prices. The Thurso is one +of the best salmon streams in the north. The flagstone quarries, mostly +situated in the Thurso, Olrig and Halkirk districts, are another important +source of revenue. Of manufactures there is little beyond tweeds, ropes, +agricultural implements and whisky, and the principal imports consist of +coal, wood, manure, flour and lime. + +The only railway in the county is the Highland railway, which, from a point +some four miles to the south-west of Aultnabreac station, crosses the shire +in a rough semicircle, via Halkirk, to Wick, with a branch from Georgemas +Junction to Thurso. There is also, however, frequent communication by +steamer between Wick and Thurso and the Orkneys and Shetlands, Aberdeen, +Leith and other ports. The deficiency of railway accommodation is partly +made good by coach services between different places. + +_Population and Government._--The population of Caithness in 1891 was +33,177, and in 1901, 33,870, of whom twenty-four persons spoke Gaelic only, +and 2876 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Wick (pop. in 1901, 7911) +and Thurso (3723). The county returns one member to parliament. Wick is the +only royal burgh and one of the northern group of parliamentary burghs +which includes Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall and Tain. Caithness +unites with Orkney and Shetland to form a sheriffdom, and there is a +resident sheriff-substitute at Wick, who sits also at Thurso and Lybster. +The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are academies at +Wick and Thurso. The county council subsidizes elementary schools and +cookery classes and provides apparatus for technical classes. + +_History._--The early history of Caithness may, to some extent, be traced +in the character of its remains and its local nomenclature. Picts' houses, +still fairly numerous, Norwegian names and Danish mounds attest that these +peoples displaced each other in turn, and the number and strength of the +fortified keeps show that its annals include the usual feuds, assaults and +reprisals. Circles of standing stones, as at Stemster Loch and Bower, and +the ruins of Roman Catholic chapels and places of pilgrimage in almost +every district, illustrate the changes which have come over its +ecclesiastical condition. The most important remains are those of Bucholie +Castle, Girnigo Castle, and the tower of Keiss; and, on the S.E. coast, the +castles of Clyth, Swiney, Forse, Laveron, Knockinnon, Berriedale, Achastle +and Dunbeath, the last of which is romantically situated on a detached +stack of sandstone rock. About six miles from Thurso stand the ruins of +Braal Castle, the residence of the ancient bishops of Caithness. On the +coast of the Pentland Firth, 11/2 miles west of Dunscansbay Head, is the site +of John o' Groat's house. + +See S. Laing, _Prehistoric Remains of Caithness_ (London and Edinburgh, +1866); James T. Calder, _History of Caithness_ (2nd edition, Wick); John +Home, _In and About Wick_ (Wick); Thomas Sinclair, _Caithness Events_ +(Wick, 1899); _History of the Clan Gunn_ (Wick, 1890); J. Henderson, +_Caithness Family History_ (Edinburgh, 1884); Harvie-Brown, _Fauna of +Caithness_ (Edinburgh, 1887); Principal Miller, _Our Scandinavian +Forefathers_ (Thurso, 1872); Smiles, _Robert Dick, Botanist and Geologist_ +(London, 1878); H. Morrison, _Guide to Sutherland and Caithness_ (Wick, +1883); A. Auld, _Ministers and Men in the Far North_ (Edinburgh, 1891). + +CAIUS or GAIUS, pope from 283 to 296, was the son of Gaius, or of +Concordius, a relative of the emperor Diocletian, and became pope on the +17th of December 283. His tomb, with the original epitaph, was discovered +in the cemetery of Calixtus and in it the ring with which he used to seal +his letters (see Arringhi, _Roma subterr._, l. iv. _c._ xlviii. p. 426). He +died in 296. + +CAIUS [_Anglice_ KEES, KEYS, etc.], JOHN (1510-1573), English physician, +and second founder of the present Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, +was born at Norwich on the 6th of October 1510. He was admitted a student +at what was then Gonville Hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have mainly +studied divinity. After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he +studied under the celebrated Montanus and Vesalius at Padua; and in 1541 he +took his degree in physic at Padua. In 1543 he visited several parts of +Italy, Germany and France; and returned to England. He was a physician in +London in 1547, and was admitted fellow of the College of Physicians, of +which he was for many years president. In 1557, being then physician to +Queen Mary, he enlarged the foundation of his old college, changed the name +from "Gonville Hall" to "Gonville and Caius College," and endowed it with +several considerable estates, adding an entire new court at the expense of +L1834. Of this college he accepted the mastership (24th of January 1558/9) +on the death of Dr Bacon, and held it till about a month before his death. +He was physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. He returned +to Cambridge from London for a few days in June 1573, about a month before +his death, and resigned the mastership to Dr Legge, a tutor at Jesus +College. He died at his London House, in St Bartholomew's, on the 29th +[v.04 p.0961] of July, 1573, but his body was brought to Cambridge, and +buried in the chapel under the well-known monument which he had designed. +Dr Caius was a learned, active and benevolent man. In 1557 he erected a +monument in St Paul's to the memory of Linacre. In 1564 he obtained a grant +for Gonville and Caius College to take the bodies of two malefactors +annually for dissection; he was thus an important pioneer in advancing the +science of anatomy. He probably devised, and certainly presented, the +silver caduceus now in the possession of Caius College as part of its +_insignia_; he first gave it to the College of Physicians, and afterwards +presented the London College with another. + +His works are: _Annals of the College from 1555 to 1572_; translation of +several of Galen's works, printed at different times abroad. _Hippocrates +de Medicamenlis_, first discovered and published by Dr Caius; also _De +Ratione Victus_ (Lov. 1556, 8vo). _De Mendeti Methodo_ (Basel, 1554; +London, 1556, 8vo). _Account of the Sweating Sickness in England_ (London, +1556, 1721), (it is entitled _De Ephemera Britannica_). _History of the +University of Cambridge_ (London, 1568, 8vo; 1574, 4to, in Latin). _De +Thermis Britannicis_; but it is doubtful whether this work was ever +printed. _Of some Rare Plants and Animals_ (London, 1570). _De Canibus +Britannicis_ (1570, 1729). _De Pronunciation Graecae et Latinae Linguae_ +(London, 1574); _De Libris propriis_ (London, 1570). He also wrote numerous +other works which were never printed. + +For further details see the _Biographical History of Caius College_, an +admirable piece of historical work, by Dr John Venn (1897). + +CAJAMARCA, or CAXAMARCA, a city of northern Peru, capital of a department +and province of the same name, 90 m. E. by N. of Pacasmayo, its port on the +Pacific coast. Pop. (1906, estimate) of the department, 333,310; of the +city, 9000. The city is situated in an elevated valley between the Central +and Western Cordilleras, 9400 ft. above sea level, and on the Eriznejas, a +small tributary of the Maranon. The streets are wide and cross at right +angles; the houses are generally low and built of clay. Among the notable +public buildings are the old parish church built at the expense of Charles +II. of Spain, the church of San Antonio, a Franciscan monastery, a nunnery, +and the remains of the palace of Atahualpa, the Inca ruler whom Pizarro +treacherously captured and executed in this place in 1533. The hot sulphur +springs of Pultamarca, called the Banos del Inca (Inca's baths) are a short +distance east of the city and are still frequented. Cajamarca is an +important commercial and manufacturing town, being the distributing centre +for a large inland region, and having long-established manufactures of +woollen and linen goods, and of metal work, leather, etc. It is the seat of +one of the seven superior courts of the republic, and is connected with the +coast by telegraph and telephone. A railway has been undertaken from +Pacasmayo, on the coast, to Cajamarca, and by 1908 was completed as far as +Yonan, 60 m. from its starting-point. + +The department of Cajamarca lies between the Western and Central +Cordilleras and extends from the frontier of Ecuador S. to about 7 deg. S. +lat., having the departments of Piura and Lambayeque on the W. and Amazonas +on the E. Its area according to official returns is 12,542 sq. m. The upper +Maranon traverses the department from S. to N. The department is an +elevated region, well watered with a large number of small streams whose +waters eventually find their way through the Amazon into the Atlantic. Many +of its productions are of the temperate zone, and considerable attention is +given to cattle-raising. Coal is found in the province of Hualgayoc at the +southern extremity of the department, which is also one of the rich +silver-mining districts of Peru. Next to its capital the most important +town of the department is Cajamarquilla, whose population was about 6000 in +1906. + +CAJATAMBO, or CAXATAMBO, a town and province of the department of Ancachs, +Peru, on the western slope of the Andes. Since 1896 the population of the +town has been estimated at 6000, but probably it does not exceed 4500. The +town is 110 m. N. by E. of Lima, in lat. 9 deg. 53' S., long. 76 deg. 57' W. The +principal industries of the province are the raising of cattle and sheep, +and the cultivation of cereals. Cochineal is a product of this region. Near +the town there are silver mines, in which a part of its population is +employed. + +CAJETAN (GAETANUS), CARDINAL (1470-1534), was born at Gaeta in the kingdom +of Naples. His proper name was Tommaso[1] de Vio, but he adopted that of +Cajetan from his birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at the +age of sixteen, and ten years later became doctor of theology at Padua, +where he was subsequently professor of metaphysics. A public disputation at +Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola gave him a great reputation as a +theologian, and in 1508 he became general of his order. For his zeal in +defending the papal pretensions against the council of Pisa, in a series of +works which were condemned by the Sorbonne and publicly burnt by order of +King Louis XII., he obtained the bishopric of Gaeta, and in 1517 Pope Leo +X. made him a cardinal and archbishop of Palermo. The year following he +went as legate into Germany, to quiet the commotions raised by Luther. It +was before him that the Reformer appeared at the diet of Augsburg; and it +was he who, in 1519, helped in drawing up the bull of excommunication +against Luther. Cajetan was employed in several other negotiations and +transactions, being as able in business as in letters. In conjunction with +Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the conclave of 1521-1522, he secured the +election of Adrian Dedel, bishop of Tortosa, as Adrian VI. Though as a +theologian Cajetan was a scholastic of the older Thomist type, his general +position was that of the moderate reformers of the school to which Reginald +Pole, archbishop of Canterbury, also belonged; _i.e._ he desired to retain +the best elements of the humanist revival in harmony with Catholic +orthodoxy illumined by a revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine +of justification. Nominated by Clement VII. a member of the committee of +cardinals appointed to report on the "Nuremberg Recess," he recommended, in +opposition to the majority, certain concessions to the Lutherans, notably +the marriage of the clergy as in the Greek Church, and communion in both +kinds according to the decision of the council of Basel. In this spirit he +wrote commentaries upon portions of Aristotle, and upon the _Summa_ of +Aquinas, and towards the end of his life made a careful translation of the +Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song, the Prophets and the +Revelation of St John. In contrast to the majority of Italian cardinals of +his day, Cajetan was a man of austere piety and fervent zeal; and if, from +the standpoint of the Dominican idea of the supreme necessity of +maintaining ecclesiastical discipline, he defended the extremist claims of +the papacy, he also proclaimed that the pope should be "the mirror of God +on earth." He died at Rome on the 9th of August 1534. + +See "Aktenstuecke ueber das Verhalten der roemischen Kurie zur Reformation, +1524-1531," in _Quellen und Forschungen_ (Koen. Preuss. Hist. Inst., Rome), +vol. iii. p. 1-20; T.M. Lindsay, _History of the Reformation_, vol. i. +(Edinburgh, 1906). + +[1] He was christened Giacomo, but afterwards took the name of Tommaso in +honour of Thomas Aquinas. + +CAJUPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of the +myrtaceous tree _Melaleuca leucadendron_, and probably other species. The +trees yielding the oil are found throughout the Indian Archipelago, the +Malay Peninsula and over the hotter parts of the Australian continent; but +the greater portion of the oil is produced from Celebes Island. The name +cajuput is derived from the native _Kayuputi_ or white wood. The oil is +prepared from leaves collected on a hot dry day, which are macerated in +water, and distilled after fermenting for a night. This oil is extremely +pungent to the taste, and has the odour of a mixture of turpentine and +camphor. It consists mainly of cineol (see TERPENES), from which cajuputene +having a hyacinthine odour can be obtained by distillation with phosphorus +pentoxide. The drug is a typical volatile oil, and is used internally in +doses of 1/2 to 3 minims, for the same purposes as, say, clove oil. It is +frequently employed externally as a counter-irritant. + +CAKCHIQUEL, a tribe of Central American Indians of Mayan stock, inhabiting +parts of Guatemala. Their name is said to be that of a native tree. At the +conquest they were found to be in a much civilized condition. + +See D.G. Brinton, _Annals of the Cakchiquels_. + +[v.04 p.0962] CALABAR (or OLD CALABAR), a seaport of West Africa in the +British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, on the left bank of the Calabar +river in 4 deg. 56' N., 8 deg. 18' E., 5 m. above the point where the river falls +into the Calabar estuary of the Gulf of Guinea. Pop. about 15,000. It is +the capital of the eastern province of the protectorate, and is in regular +steamship and telegraphic communication with Europe. From the beach, where +are the business houses and customs office, rise cliffs of moderate +elevation, and on the sides or summits of the hills are the principal +buildings, such as Government House, the European hospital and the church +of the Presbyterian mission. The valley between the hills is occupied by +the native quarter, called Duke Town. Here are several fine houses in +bungalow style, the residences of the chiefs or wealthy natives. Along the +river front runs a tramway connecting Duke Town with Queen Beach, which is +higher up and provided with excellent quay accommodation. Among the public +institutions are government botanical gardens, primary schools and a high +school. Palms, mangos and other trees grow luxuriantly in the gardens and +open spaces, and give the town a picturesque setting. The trade is very +largely centred in the export of palm oil and palm kernels and the import +of cotton goods and spirits, mostly gin. (See NIGERIA for trade returns.) + +Calabar was the name given by the Portuguese discoverers of the 15th +century to the tribes on this part of the Guinea coast at the time of their +arrival, when as yet the present inhabitants were unknown in the district. +It was not till the early part of the 18th century that the Efik, owing to +civil war with their kindred and the Ibibio, migrated from the +neighbourhood of the Niger to the shores of the river Calabar, and +established themselves at Ikoritungko or Creek Town, a spot 4 m. higher up +the river. To get a better share in the European trade at the mouth of the +river a body of colonists migrated further down and built Obutoeng or Old +Town, and shortly afterwards a rival colony established itself at Aqua Akpa +or Duke Town, which thus formed the nucleus of the existing town. The +native inhabitants are still mainly Efik. They are pure negroes. They have +been for several generations the middle men between the white traders on +the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross river and Calabar district. +Christian missions have been at work among the Efiks since the middle of +the 19th century. Many of the natives are well educated, profess +Christianity and dress in European fashion. A powerful bond of union among +the Efik, and one that gives them considerable influence over other tribes, +is the secret society known as the Egbo (_q.v._). The chiefs of Duke Town +and other places in the neighbourhood placed themselves in 1884 under +British protection. From that date until 1906 Calabar was the headquarters +of the European administration in the Niger delta. In 1906 the seat of +government was removed to Lagos. + +Until 1904 Calabar was generally, and officially, known as Old Calabar, to +distinguish it from New Calabar, the name of a river and port about 100 m. +to the east. Since the date mentioned the official style is Calabar simply. +Calabar estuary is mainly formed by the Cross river (_q.v._), but receives +also the waters of the Calabar and other streams. The Rio del Rey creek at +the eastern end of the estuary marks the boundary between (British) Nigeria +and (German) Cameroon. The estuary is 10 to 12 m. broad at its mouth and +maintains the same breadth for about 30 m. + +CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, _Physostigma venenosum_, a +native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific name from a curious +beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the centre of the flower; +this appendage though solid was supposed to be hollow (hence the name from +[Greek: phusa], a bladder, and _stigma_). The plant has a climbing habit +like the scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 ft. with a stem +an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or three +seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 in. in length; and the beans are about the size +of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with a deep chocolate-brown +colour. They constitute the E-ser-e or ordeal beans of the negroes of Old +Calabar, being administered to persons accused of witchcraft or other +crimes. In cases where the poisonous material did its deadly work, it was +held at once to indicate and rightly to punish guilt; but when it was +rejected by the stomach of the accused, innocence was held to be +satisfactorily established. A form of duelling with the seeds is also known +among the natives, in which the two opponents divide a bean, each eating +one-half; that quantity has been known to kill both adversaries. Although +thus highly poisonous, the bean has nothing in external aspect, taste or +smell to distinguish it from any harmless leguminous seed, and very +disastrous effects have resulted from its being incautiously left in the +way of children. The beans were first introduced into England in the year +1840; but the plant was not accurately described till 1861, and its +physiological effects were investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas R. Fraser. + +The bean usually contains a little more than 1% of alkaloids. Of these two +have been identified, one called _calabarine_, and the other, now a highly +important drug, known as _physostigmine_--or occasionally as _eserine_. The +British pharmacopoeia contains an alcoholic extract of the bean, intended +for internal administration; but the alkaloid is now always employed. This +is used as the sulphate, which has the empirical formula of +(C_{15}H_{21}N_3O_2)_2, H_2SO_4, plus an unknown number of molecules of +water. It occurs in small yellowish crystals, which are turned red by +exposure to light or air. They are readily soluble in water or alcohol and +possess a bitter taste. The dose is 1/60-1/30 grain, and should invariably +be administered by hypodermic injection. For the use of the oculist, who +constantly employs this drug, it is also prepared in _lamellae_ for +insertion within the conjunctival sac. Each of these contains +one-thousandth part of a grain of physostigmine sulphate, a quantity which +is perfectly efficient. + +Physostigmine has no action on the unbroken skin. When swallowed it rapidly +causes a great increase in the salivary secretion, being one of the most +powerful _sialogogues_ known. It has been shown that the action is due to a +direct influence on the secreting gland-cells themselves. After a few +minutes the salivation is arrested owing to the constricting influence of +the drug upon the blood-vessels that supply the glands. There is also felt +a sense of constriction in the pharynx, due to the action of the drug on +its muscular fibres. A similar stimulation of the non-striped muscle in the +alimentary canal results in violent vomiting and purging, if a large dose +has been taken. Physostigmine, indeed, stimulates nearly all the +non-striped muscles in the body, and this action upon the muscular coats of +the arteries, and especially of the arterioles, causes a great rise in +blood-pressure shortly after its absorption, which is very rapid. The +terminals of the vagus nerve are also stimulated, causing the heart to beat +more slowly. Later in its action, the drug depresses the intra-cardiac +motor ganglia, causing prolongation of diastole and finally arrest of the +heart in dilatation. A large lethal dose kills by this action, but the +minimum lethal dose by its combined action on the respiration and the +heart. The respiration is at first accelerated by a dose of physostigmine, +but is afterwards slowed and ultimately arrested. The initial hastening is +due to a stimulation of the vagus terminals in the lung, as it does not +occur if these nerves are previously divided. The final arrest is due to +paralysis of the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata, hastened by a +quasi-asthmatic contraction of the non-striped muscular tissue in the +bronchial tubes, and by a "water-logging" of the lungs due to an increase +in the amount of bronchial secretion. It may here be stated that the +non-striped muscular tissue of the bladder, the uterus and the spleen is +also stimulated, as well as that of the iris (see below). It is only in +very large doses that the voluntary muscles are poisoned, there being +induced in them a tremor which may simulate ordinary convulsions. The +action is a direct one upon the muscular tissue (cf. the case of the +gland-cells), since it occurs in an animal whose motor nerves have been +paralysed by curare. + +Consciousness is entirely unaffected by physostigmine, there being +apparently no action on any part of the brain above the medulla oblongata. +But the influence of the alkaloid upon the [v.04 p.0963] spinal cord is +very marked and characteristic. The reflex functions of the cord are +entirely abolished, and it has been experimentally shown that this is due +to a direct influence upon the cells in the anterior cornua. It is +precisely the reverse of the typical action of strychnine. Near the +termination of a fatal case there is a paralysis of the sensory columns of +the cord, so that general sensibility is lowered. The alkaloid calabarine +is, on the other hand, a stimulant of the motor and reflex functions of the +cord, so that only the pure alkaloid physostigmine and not any preparation +of Calabar bean itself should be used when it is desired to obtain this +action. + +Besides the secretions already mentioned as being stimulated, the bile, the +tears and the perspiration are increased by the exhibition of this drug. + +There remains only to consider its highly important action upon the eye. +Whether administered in the form of the official lamella or by subcutaneous +injection, physostigmine causes a contraction of the pupil more marked than +in the case of any other known drug. That this action is a direct and not a +nervous one is shown by the fact that if the eye be suddenly shaded the +pupil will dilate a little, showing that the nerves which cause dilatation +are still competent after the administration of physostigmine. Besides the +_sphincter pupillae_, the fibres of the ciliary muscle are stimulated. +There is consequently spasm of accommodation, so that clear vision of +distant objects becomes impossible. The intra-ocular tension is markedly +lowered. This action, at first sight somewhat obscure, is due to the +extreme pupillary contraction which removes the mass of the iris from +pressing upon the spaces of Fontana, through which the intraocular fluids +normally make a very slow escape from the eye into its efferent lymphatics. + +There is a marked antagonism in nearly all important particulars between +the actions of physostigmine and of atropine. The details of this +antagonism, as well as nearly all our knowledge of this valuable drug, we +owe to Sir Thomas Fraser, who introduced it into therapeutics. + +The clinical uses of physostigmine are based upon the facts of its +pharmacology, as above detailed. It has been recommended in cases of +chronic constipation, and of want of tone in the muscular wall of the +urinary bladder. It has undoubtedly been of value in many cases of tetanus, +in which it must be given in maximal doses. (The tetanus antitoxin should +invariably be employed as well.) Sir Thomas Fraser differs from nearly all +other authorities in regarding the drug as useless in cases of strychnine +poisoning, and the question must be left open. There is some doubtful +evidence of the value of the alkaloid in chorea. The oculist uses it for at +least six purposes. Its stimulant action on the iris and ciliary muscle is +employed when they are weak or paralysed. It is used in all cases where one +needs to reduce the intra-ocular tension, and for this and other reasons in +glaucoma. It is naturally the most efficient agent in relieving the +discomfort or intolerable pain of photophobia; and it is the best means of +breaking down adhesions of the iris, and of preventing prolapse of the iris +after injuries to the cornea. In fact it is hardly possible to +over-estimate its value in ophthalmology. The drug has been highly and +widely recommended in general paralysis, but there remains grave doubt as +to its utility in this disease. + +_Toxicology._--The symptoms of Calabar bean poisoning have all been stated +above. The obvious antidote is atropine, which may often succeed; and the +other measures are those usually employed to stimulate the circulation and +respiration. Unfortunately the antagonism between physostigmine and +atropine is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has shown that in such cases +there comes a time when, if the action of the two drugs be summated, death +results sooner than from either alone. Thus atropine will save life after +three and a half times the fatal dose of physostigmine has been taken, but +will hasten the end if four or more times the fatal dose has been ingested. +Thus it would be advisable to use the physiological antidote only when the +dose of the poison--assuming estimation to be possible--was known to be +comparatively small. + +CALABASH (from the Span. _calabaza_, a gourd or pumpkin, possibly derived +from the Pers. _kharlunza_, a melon), the shell of a gourd or pumpkin made +into a vessel for holding liquids; also a vessel of similar shape made of +other materials. It is the name of a tree (_Crescentia Cujete_) of tropical +America, whose gourd-like fruit is so hard that vessels made of it can be +used over a fire many times before being burned. + +CALABASH TREE, a native of the West Indies and South America, known +botanically as _Crescentia Cujete_ (natural order, Bignoniaceae). The fruit +resembles a gourd, and has a woody rind, which after removal of the pulp +forms a calabash. + +CALABOZO, or CALABOSO, an inland town of Venezuela, once capital of the +province of Caracas in the colonial period, and now capital of the state of +Guarico. Pop. (1891) 5618. Calabozo is situated in the midst of an +extensive _llano_ on the left bank of the Guarico river, 325 ft. above +sea-level and 123 m. S.S.W. of Caracas. The plain lies slightly above the +level of intersecting rivers and is frequently flooded in the rainy season; +in summer the heat is most oppressive, the average temperature being 88 deg.F. +The town is regularly laid out with streets crossing at right angles, and +possesses several fine old churches, a college and public school. It is +also a bishop's see, and a place of considerable commercial importance +because of its situation in the midst of a rich cattle-raising country. It +is said to have been an Indian town originally, and was made one of the +trading stations of the Compania Guipuzcoana in 1730. However, like most +Venezuelan towns, Calabozo made little growth during the 19th century. In +1820 the Spanish forces under Morales were defeated here by the +revolutionists under Bolivar and Paez. + +CALABRESELLA (sometimes spelt Calabrasella), an Italian card-game ("the +little Calabrian game") for three players. All the tens, nines and eights +are removed from an ordinary pack; the order of the cards is three, two, +ace, king, queen, &c. In scoring the ace counts 3; the three 2; king, queen +and knave 1 each. The last trick counts 3. Each separate hand is a whole +game. One player plays against the other two, paying to each or receiving +from each the difference between the number of points that he and they +hold. Each player receives twelve cards, dealt two at a time. The remainder +form the stock, which is left face downwards. There are no trumps. The +player on the dealer's left declares first: he can either play or pass. The +dealer has the last option. If one person announces that he plays, the +others combine against him. If all decline to play, the deal passes, the +hands being abandoned. The single player may demand any "three" he chooses, +giving a card in exchange. If the three demanded is in the stock, no other +card may be asked for. If a player hold all the threes, he may demand a +two. The single player must take one card from the stock, in exchange for +one of his own (which is never exposed) and may take more. He puts out the +cards he wishes to exchange face downwards, and selects what he wishes from +the stock, which is now exposed; the rejected cards and cards left in the +stock form the "discard." The player on the dealer's left then leads. The +highest card wins the trick, there being no trumps. Players must follow +suit, if they can. The single player and the allies collect all the tricks +they win respectively. The winner of the last trick, besides scoring three, +adds the discard to his heap. The heaps are then searched for the scoring +cards, the scores are compared and the stakes paid. It is important to +remember that the value and the order of the cards are not the same, thus +the ace, whose value is 3, is only third as a trick-winner; also that it is +highly important to win the last trick. Thirty-five is the full score. + +CALABRIA, a territorial district of both ancient and modern Italy. + +(1) The ancient district consisted of the peninsula at its southeast +extremity, between the Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Tarentum, ending in the +lapygian promontory (Lat. _Promunturium Sallentinum_; the village upon it +was called Leuca--Gr. [Greek: Leuka], white, from its colour--and is still +named S. Maria di Leuca) and corresponding in the main with the modern +province of Lecce, Brundisium and Tarentum being its most north-westerly +cities, though the boundary of the latter extends somewhat farther [v.04 +p.0964] west. It is a low terrace of limestone, the highest parts of which +seldom reach 1500 ft.; the cliffs, though not high, are steep, and it has +no rivers of any importance, but despite lack of water it was (and is) +remarkably fertile. Strabo mentions its pastures and trees, and its olives, +vines and fruit trees (which are still the principal source of prosperity) +are frequently spoken of by the ancients. The wool of Tarentum and +Brundisium was also famous, and at the former place were considerable +dye-works. These two towns acquired importance in very early times owing to +the excellence of their harbours. Traces of a prehistoric population of the +stone and early bronze age are to be found all over Calabria. Especially +noticeable are the menhirs (_pietre fitte_) and the round tower-like +_specchie_ or _truddhi_, which are found near Lecce, Gallipolli and Muro +Leccese (and only here in Italy); they correspond to similar monuments, the +_perdas fittas_ and the _nuraghi_, of Sardinia, and the inter-relation +between the two populations which produced them requires careful study. In +272-266 B.C. we find six triumphs recorded in the Roman _fasti_ over the +Tarentini, Sallentini and Messapii, while the name Calabria does not occur; +but after the foundation of a colony at Brundisium in 246-245 B.C., and the +final subjection of Tarentum in 209 B.C., Calabria became the general name +for the peninsula. The population declined to some extent; Strabo (vi. 281) +tells us that in earlier days Calabria had been extremely populous and had +had thirteen cities, but that in his time all except Tarentum and +Brundisium, which retained their commercial importance, had dwindled down +to villages. The Via Appia, prolonged to Brundisium perhaps as early as 190 +B.C., passed through Tarentum; the shorter route by Canusium, Barium and +Gnathia was only made into a main artery of communication by Trajan (see +APPIA, VIA). The only other roads were the two coast roads, the one from +Brundisium by Lupiae, the other from Tarentum by Manduria, Neretum, Aletium +(with a branch to Callipolis) and Veretum (hence a branch to Leuca), which +met at Hydruntum. Augustus joined Calabria to Apulia and the territory of +the Hirpini to form the second region of Italy. From the end of the second +century we find Calabria for juridical purposes associated either with +Apulia or with Lucania and the district of the Bruttii, while Diocletian +placed it under one _corrector_ with Apulia. The loss of the name Calabria +came with the Lombard conquest of this district, when it was transferred to +the land of the Bruttii, which the Byzantine empire still held. + +(2) The modern Calabria consists of the south extremity of Italy (the "toe +of the boot" in the popular simile, while the ancient Calabria, with which +the present province of Lecce more or less coincides, is the "heel"), +bounded on the N. by the province of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the other +three sides by the sea. Area 5819 sq. m. The north boundary is rather +farther north than that of the ancient district of the Bruttii (_q.v._). +Calabria acquired its present name in the time of the Byzantine supremacy, +after the ancient Calabria had fallen into the hands of the Lombards and +been lost to the Eastern empire about A.D. 668. The name is first found in +the modern sense in Paulus Diaconus's _Historia Langobardorum_ (end of the +8th century). It is mainly mountainous; at the northern extremity of the +district the mountains still belong to the Apennines proper (the highest +point, the Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., is on the boundary between Basilicata +and Calabria), but after the plain of Sibari, traversed by the Crati (anc. +Crathis, a river 58 m. long, the only considerable one in Calabria), the +granite mountains of Calabria proper (though still called Apennines in +ordinary usage) begin. They consist of two groups. The first extends as far +as the isthmus, about 22 m. wide, formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia and +Squillace; its highest point is the Botte Donato (6330 ft.). It is in +modern times generally called the Sila, in contradistinction to the second +(southern) group, the Aspromonte (6420 ft.); the ancients on the other hand +applied the name Sila to the southern group. The rivers in both parts of +the chain are short and unimportant. The mountain districts are in parts +covered with forest (though less so than in ancient times), still largely +government property, while in much of the rest there is good pasture. The +scenery is fine, though the country is hardly at all visited by travellers. +The coast strip is very fertile, and though some parts are almost deserted +owing to malaria, others produce wine, olive-oil and fruit (oranges and +lemons, figs, &c.) in abundance, the neighbourhood of Reggio being +especially fertile. The neighbourhood of Cosenza is also highly cultivated; +and at the latter place a school of agriculture has been founded, though +the methods used in many parts of Calabria are still primitive. Wheat, +rice, cotton, liquorice, saffron and tobacco are also cultivated. The coast +fisheries are important, especially in and near the straits of Messina. +Commercial organization is, however, wanting. The climate is very hot in +summer, while snow lies on the mountain-tops for at least half the year. +Earthquakes are frequent and have done great damage: that of the autumn of +1905 was very disastrous (O. Malagodi, _Calabria Desolata_, Rome, 1905), +but it was surpassed in its effects by the terrible earthquake of 1908, by +which Messina (_q.v._) was destroyed, and in Calabria itself Reggio and +numerous smaller places ruined. The railway communications are sufficient +for the coast districts; there are lines along both the east and west +coasts (the latter forms part of the through route by land from Italy to +Sicily, ferry-boats traversing the Strait of Messina with the through +trains on board) which meet at Reggio di Calabria. They are connected by a +branch from Marina di Catanzaro passing through Catanzaro to S. Eufemia; +and there is also a line from Sibari up the valley of the Crati to Cosenza +and Pietrafitta. The interior is otherwise untouched by railways; indeed +many of the villages in the interior can only be approached by paths; and +this is one of the causes of the economic difficulties of Calabria. Another +is the unequal distribution of wealth, there being practically no middle +class; a third is the injudicious disforestation which has been carried on +without regard to the future. The natural check upon torrents is thus +removed, and they sometimes do great damage. The Calabrian costumes are +still much worn in the remoter districts: they vary considerably in the +different villages. There is, and has been, considerable emigration to +America, but many of the emigrants return, forming a slightly higher class, +and producing a rise in the rate of payment to cultivators, which has +increased the difficulties of the small proprietors. The smallness and +large number of the communes, and the consequently large number of the +professional classes and officials, are other difficulties, which, +noticeable throughout Italy, are especially felt in Calabria. The +population of Calabria was 1,439,329 in 1901. The chief towns of the +province of Catanzaro were in 1901:---Catanzaro (32,005), Nicastro +(18,150), Monteleone (13,481), Cotrone (9545), total of province (1871) +412,226; (1901) 498,791; number of communes, 152; of the province of +Cosenza, Cosenza (20,857), Corigliano Calabro (15,379), Rossano (13,354), +S. Giovanni in Fiore (13,288), Castrovillari (9945), total of province +(1871) 440,468; (1901) 503,329, number of communes, 151; of the province of +Reggio, Reggio di Calabria (44,569), Palmi (13,346), Cittanova (11,782), +Gioiosa Ionica(11,200), Bagnara Calabra (11,136), Siderno Marina (10,775), +Gerace (10,572), Polistena (10,112); number of communes 106; total of +province (1871) 353,608; (1901) 437,209. A feature of modern Calabria is +the existence of several Albanian colonies, founded in the 15th century by +Albanians expelled by the Turks, who still speak their own language, wear +their national costume, and worship according to the Greek rite. Similar +colonies exist in Sicily, notably at Piana dei Greci near Palermo. + +(T. AS.) + +CALAFAT, a town of Rumania in the department of Doljiu; on the river +Danube, opposite the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin. Pop. (1900) 7113. Calafat +is an important centre of the grain trade, and is connected by a branch +line with the principal Walachian railways, and by a steam ferry with +Vidin. It was founded in the 14th century by Genoese colonists, who +employed large numbers of workmen (_Calfats_) in repairing ships--which +industry gave its name to the place. In 1854 a Russian force was defeated +at Calafat by the Turks under Ahmed Pasha, who surprised the enemy's camp. + +CALAH (so in the Bible; _Kalah_ in the Assyrian inscriptions), an ancient +city situated in the angle formed by the Tigris and [v.04 p.0965] the upper +Zab, 19 m. S. of Nineveh, and one of the capitals of Assyria. According to +the inscriptions, it was built by Shalmaneser I. about 1300 B.C., as a +residence city in place of the older Assur. After that it seems to have +fallen into decay or been destroyed, but was restored by Assur-nasir-pal, +about 880 B.C., and from that time to the overthrow of the Assyrian power +it remained a residence city of the Assyrian kings. It shared the fate of +Nineveh, was captured and destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians toward the +close of the 7th century, and from that time has remained a ruin. The site +was discovered by Sir A.H. Layard, in 1845, in the _tel_ of Nimrud. Hebrew +tradition (in the J narrative, Genesis x. 11, 12) mentions Calah as built +by Nimrod. Modern Arabic tradition likewise ascribes the ruins, like those +of Birs Nimrud, near Babylon, to Nimrod, because they are the most +prominent ruins of that region. Similarly the ancient dike in the river +Tigris at this point is ascribed to Nimrod. The ruin mounds of Nimrud +consist of an oblong enclosure, formed by the walls of the ancient city, of +which fifty-eight towers have been traced on the N. and about fifty on the +E. In the S.W. corner of this oblong is an elevated platform in the form of +a rectangular parallelogram, some 600 yds. from N. to S. and 400 yds. from +E. to W., raised on an average about 40 ft. above the plain, with a lofty +cone 140 ft. high in the N.W. corner. This is the remains of the raised +platform of unbaked brick, faced with baked bricks and stone, on which +stood the principal palaces and temples of the city, the cone at the N.W. +representing the _ziggurat_, or stage-tower, of the principal temple. +Originally on the banks of the Tigris, this platform now stands some +distance E. of the river. Here Layard conducted excavations from 1845 to +1847, and again from 1849 to 1851. The means at his disposal were +inadequate, his excavations were incomplete and also unscientific in that +his prime object was the discovery of inscriptions and museum objects; but +he was wonderfully successful in achieving the results at which he aimed, +and the numerous statues, monuments, inscribed stones, bronze objects and +the like found by him in the ruins of Calah are among the most precious +possessions of the British Museum. Excavations were also conducted by +Hormuzd Rassan in 1852-1854, and again in 1878, and by George Smith in +1873. But while supplementing in some important respects Layard's +excavations, this later work added relatively little to his discoveries +whether of objects or of facts. The principal buildings discovered at Calah +are:--(_a_) the North-West palace, south of the _ziggurat_, one of the most +complete and perfect Assyrian buildings known, about 350 ft. square, +consisting of a central court, 129 ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a number of +halls and chambers. This palace was originally constructed by +Assur-nasir-pal I. (885-860 B.C.), and restored and reoccupied by Sargon +(722-705 B.C.). In it were found the winged lions, now in the British +Museum, the fine series of sculptured bas-reliefs glorifying the deeds of +Assur-nasir-pal in war and peace, and the large collection of bronze +vessels and implements, numbering over 200 pieces; (_b_) the Central +palace, in the interior of the mound, toward its southern end, erected by +Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) and rebuilt by Tiglath-pileser III. (745-727 +B.C.). Here were found the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser, now in the +British Museum, in the inscription on which the tribute of Jehu, son of +Omri, is mentioned, the great winged bulls, and also a fine series of slabs +representing the battles and sieges of Tiglath-pileser; (_c_) the +South-West palace, in the S.W. corner of the platform, an uncompleted +building of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), who robbed the North-West and +Central palaces, effacing the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, to obtain +material for his construction; (_d_) the smaller West palace, between the +South-West and the North-West palaces, a construction of Hadad-nirari or +Adadnirari III. (812-783 B.C.); (_e_) the South-East palace, built by +Assur-etil-ilani, after 626 B.C., for his harem, in the S.E. corner of the +platform, above the remains of an older similar palace of Shalmaneser; +(_f_) two small temples of Assur-nasir-pal, in connexion with the +_ziggurat_ in the N.W. corner; and (_g_) a temple called E-Zida, and +dedicated to Nebo, near the South-East palace. From the number of colossal +figures of Nebo discovered here it would appear that the cult of Nebo was a +favourite one, at least during the later period. The other buildings on the +E. side of the platform had been ruined by the post-Assyrian use of the +mound for a cemetery, and for tunnels for the storage and concealment of +grain. While the ruins of Calah were remarkably rich in monumental +material, enamelled bricks, bronze and ivory objects and the like, they +yielded few of the inscribed clay tablets found in such great numbers at +Nineveh and various Babylonian sites. Not a few of the astrological and +omen tablets in the Kuyunjik collection of the British Museum, however, +although found at Nineveh, were executed, according to their own testimony, +at Calah for the _rab-dup-sarre_ or principal librarian during the reigns +of Sargon and Sennacherib (716-684 B.C.). From this it would appear that +there was at that time at Calah a library or a collection of archives which +was later removed to Nineveh. In the prestige of antiquity and religious +renown, Calah was inferior to the older capital, Assur, while in population +and general importance it was much inferior to the neighbouring Nineveh. +There is no proper ground for regarding it, as some Biblical scholars of a +former generation did, through a false interpretation of the book of Jonah, +as a part or suburb of Nineveh. + +See A.H. Layard, _Nineveh and its Remains_ (London, 1849); George Smith, +_Assyrian Discoveries_ (London, 1883); Hormuzd Rassam, _Ashur and the Land +of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897). + +(J. P. PE.) + +CALAHORRA (anc. _Calagurris_), a city of northern Spain, in the province of +Logrono; on the left bank of the river Cidacos, which enters the Ebro 3 m. +E., and on the Bilbao-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) 9475. Calahorra is +built on the slope of a hill overlooking the wide Ebro valley, which +supplies its markets with an abundance of grain, wine, oil and flax. Its +cathedral, which probably dates from the foundation of the see of Calahorra +in the 5th century, was restored in 1485, and subsequently so much altered +that little of the original Gothic structure survives. The Casa Santa, +annually visited by many thousands of pilgrims on the 31st of August, is +said to contain the bodies of the martyrs Emeterius and Celedonius, who +were beheaded in the 3rd or 4th century, on the site now occupied by the +cathedral. Their heads, according to local legend, were cast into the Ebro, +and, after floating out to sea and rounding the Iberian peninsula, are now +preserved at Santander. + +The chief remains of the Roman Calagurris are the vestiges of an aqueduct +and an amphitheatre. Calagurris became famous in 76 B.C., when it was +successfully defended against Pompey by the adherents of Sertorius. Four +years later it was captured by Pompey's legate, Afranius, after starvation +had reduced the garrison to cannibalism. Under Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14) +Calagurris received the privileges of Roman citizenship, and at a later +date it was given the additional name of _Nassica_ to distinguish it from +the neighbouring town of _Calagurris Fibularensis_, the exact site of which +is uncertain. The rhetorician Quintilian was born at Calagurris Nassica +about A.D. 35. + +CALAIS, a seaport and manufacturing town of northern France, in the +department of Pas-de-Calais, 18 m. E.S.E. of Dover, and 185 m. N. of Paris +by the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 59,623. Calais, formerly a celebrated +fortress, is defended by four forts, not of modern construction, by a +citadel built in 1560, which overlooks it on the west, and by batteries. +The old town stands on an island hemmed in by the canal and the harbour +basins, which divide it from the much more extensive manufacturing quarter +of St Pierre, enveloping it on the east and south. The demolition of the +ramparts of Old Calais was followed by the construction of a new circle of +defences, embracing both the old and new quarters, and strengthened by a +deep moat. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Armes, in which +stands the former hotel-de-ville (rebuilt in 1740, restored in 1867), with +busts of Eustache de St Pierre, Francis, duke of Guise, and Cardinal +Richelieu. The belfry belongs to the 16th and early 17th century. Close by +is the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, used as a lighthouse until 1848. The +church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais, has a +[v.04 p.0966] fine high altar of the 17th century; its lofty tower serves +as a landmark for sailors. A gateway flanked by turrets (14th century) is a +relic of the Hotel de Guise, built as a gild hall for the English +woolstaplers, and given to the duke of Guise as a reward for the recapture +of Calais. The modern town-hall and a church of the 19th century are the +chief buildings of the quarter of St Pierre. Calais has a board of +trade-arbitrators, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, a commercial and +industrial school, and a communal college. + +The harbour is entered from the roads by way of a channel leading to the +outer harbour which communicates with a floating basin 22 acres in extent, +on the east, and with the older and less commodious portion of the harbour +to the north and west of the old town. The harbour is connected by canals +with the river Aa and the navigable waterways of the department. + +Calais is the principal port for the continental passenger traffic with +England carried on by the South-Eastern & Chatham and the Northern of +France railways. The average number of passengers between Dover and Calais +for the years 1902-1906 inclusive was 315,012. Trade is chiefly with the +United Kingdom. The principal exports are wines, especially champagne, +spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, fruit, glass-ware, lace +and metal-ware. Imports include cotton and silk goods, coal, iron and +steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and cork. During the five +years 1901-1905 the average annual value of exports was L8,388,000 +(L6,363,000 in the years 1896-1900), of imports L4,145,000 (L3,759,000 in +1896-1900). In 1905, exclusive of passenger and mail boats, there entered +the port 848 vessels of 312,477 tons and cleared 857 of 305,284 tons, these +being engaged in the general carrying trade of the port. The main industry +of Calais is the manufacture of tulle and lace, for which it is the chief +centre in France. Brewing, saw-milling, boat-building, and the manufacture +of biscuits, soap and submarine cables are also carried on. Deep-sea and +coast fishing for cod, herring and mackerel employ over 1000 of the +inhabitants. + +Calais was a petty fishing-village, with a natural harbour at the mouth of +a stream, till the end of the 10th century. It was first improved by +Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 997, and afterwards, in 1224, was +regularly fortified by Philip Hurepel, count of Boulogne. It was besieged +in 1346, after the battle of Crecy, by Edward III. and held out resolutely +by the bravery of Jean de Vienne, its governor, till after nearly a year's +siege famine forced it to surrender. Its inhabitants were saved from +massacre by the devotion of Eustache de St Pierre and six of the chief +citizens, who were themselves spared at the prayer of Queen Philippa. The +city remained in the hands of the English till 1558, when it was taken by +Francis, duke of Guise, at the head of 30,000 men from the ill-provided +English garrison, only 800 strong, after a siege of seven days. From this +time the _Calaisis_ or territory of Calais was known as the _Pays +Reconquis_. It was held by the Spaniards from 1595 to 1598, but was +restored to France by the treaty of Vervins. + +CALAIS, a city and sub-port of entry of Washington county, Maine, U.S.A., +on the Saint Croix river, 12 m. from its mouth, opposite Saint Stephens, +New Brunswick, with which it is connected by bridges. Pop. (1890) +7290;(1900) 7655 (1908 being foreign-born); (1910) 6116. It is served by +the Washington County railway (102.5 m. to Washington Junction, where it +connects with the Maine Central railway), and by steamboat lines to Boston, +Portland and Saint Johns. In the city limits are the post-offices of +Calais, Milltown and Red Beach. The city has a small public library. The +valley here is wide and deep, the banks of the river bold and picturesque, +and the tide rises and falls about 25 ft. The city has important interests +in lumber, besides foundries, machine shops, granite works--there are +several granite (notably red granite) quarries in the vicinity--a tannery, +and manufactories of shoes and calcined plaster. Big Island, now in the +city of Calais, was visited in the winter of 1604-1605 by Pierre du Guast, +sieur de Monts. Calais was first settled in 1779, was incorporated as a +town in 1809, and was chartered as a city in 1851. + +CALAIS and ZETES (the Boreadae), in Greek mythology, the winged twin sons +of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival with the Argonauts at Salmydessus +in Thrace, they liberated their sister Cleopatra, who had been thrown into +prison with her two sons by her husband Phineus, the king of the country +(Sophocles, _Antigone_, 966; Diod. Sic. iv. 44). According to another +story, they delivered Phineus from the Harpies (_q.v._), in pursuit of whom +they perished (Apollodorus i. 9; iii. 15). Others say that they were slain +by Heracles near the island of Tenos, in consequence of a quarrel with +Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts, or because they refused to wait during +the search for Hylas, the favourite of Heracles (Hyginus, _Fab._, 14. 273; +schol. on Apollonius Rhodius i. 1304). They were changed by the gods into +winds, and the pillars over their tombs in Tenos were said to wave whenever +the wind blew from the north. Like the Harpies, Calais and Zetes are +obvious personifications of winds. Legend attributed the foundation of +Cales in Campania to Calais (Silius Italicus viii. 512). + +CALAMINE, a mineral species consisting of zinc carbonate, ZnCO_3, and +forming an important ore of zinc. It is rhombohedral in crystallization and +isomorphous with calcite and chalybite. Distinct crystals are somewhat +rare; they have the form of the primitive rhombohedron (rr' = 72 deg. 20'), the +faces of which are generally curved and rough. Botryoidal and stalactitic +masses are more common, or again the mineral may be compact and granular or +loose and earthy. As in the other rhombohedral carbonates, the crystals +possess perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron. The +hardness is 5; specific gravity, 4.4. The colour of the pure mineral is +white; more often it is brownish, sometimes green or blue: a bright-yellow +variety containing cadmium has been found in Arkansas, and is known locally +as "turkey-fat ore." The pure material contains 52% of zinc, but this is +often partly replaced isomorphously by small amounts of iron and manganese, +traces of calcium and magnesium, and sometimes by copper or cadmium. + +Calamine is found in beds and veins in limestone rocks, and is often +associated with galena and blende. It is a product of alteration of blende, +having been formed from this by the action of carbonated waters; or in many +cases the zinc sulphide may have been first oxidized to sulphate, which in +solution acted on the surrounding limestone, producing zinc carbonate. The +latter mode of origin is suggested by the frequent occurrence of calamine +pseudomorphous after calcite, that is, having the form of calcite crystals. +Deposits of calamine have been extensively mined in the limestones of the +Mendip Hills, in Derbyshire, and at Alston Moor in Cumberland. It also +occurs in large amount in the province of Santander in Spain, in Missouri, +and at several other places where zinc ores are mined. The best crystals of +the mineral were found many years ago at Chessy near Lyons; these are +rhombohedra of a fine apple-green colour. A translucent botryoidal calamine +banded with blue and green is found at Laurion in Greece, and has sometimes +been cut and polished for small ornaments such as brooches. + +The name calamine (German, _Galmei_), from _lapis calaminaris_, a Latin +corruption of cadmia ([Greek: kadmia]), the old name for zinc ores in +general (G. Agricola in 1546 derived it from the Latin _calamus_, a reed), +was early used indiscriminately for the carbonate and the hydrous silicate +of zinc, and even now both species are included by miners under the same +term. The two minerals often closely resemble each other in appearance, and +can usually only be distinguished by chemical analysis; they were first so +distinguished by James Smithson in 1803. F.S. Beudant in 1832 restricted +the name calamine to the hydrous silicate and proposed the name +"smithsonite" for the carbonate, and these meanings of the terms are now +adopted by Dana and many other mineralogists. Unfortunately, however, in +England (following Brooke and Miller, 1852) these designations have been +reversed, calamine being used for the carbonate and smithsonite for the +silicate. This unfortunate confusion is somewhat lessened by the use of the +terms zinc-spar and hemimorphite (_q.v._) for the carbonate and silicate +respectively. + +(L. J. S.) + +[v.04 p.0967] CALAMIS, an Athenian sculptor of the first half of the 5th +century B.C. He made statues of Apollo the averter of ill, Hermes the +ram-bearer, Aphrodite and other deities, as well as part of a chariot group +for Hiero, king of Syracuse. His works are praised by ancient critics for +delicacy and grace, as opposed to breadth and force. Archaeologists are +disposed to regard the bronze charioteer recently found at Delphi as a work +of Calamis; but the evidence is not conclusive (see GREEK ART). + +CALAMY, EDMUND, known as "the elder" (1600-1666), English Presbyterian +divine, was born of Huguenot descent in Walbrook, London, in February 1600, +and educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his opposition to the +Arminian party, then powerful in that society, excluded him from a +fellowship. Nicholas Felton, bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain, +and gave him the living of St Mary, Swaffham Prior, which he held till +1626. He then removed to Bury St Edmunds, where he acted as lecturer for +ten years, retiring when his bishop (Wren) insisted on the observance of +certain ceremonial articles. In 1636 he was appointed rector (or perhaps +only lecturer) of Rochford in Essex, which was so unhealthy that he had +soon to leave it, and in 1639 he was elected to the perpetual curacy of St +Mary Aldermanbury in London, where he had a large following. Upon the +opening of the Long Parliament he distinguished himself in defence of the +Presbyterian cause, and had a principal share in writing the conciliatory +work known as _Smectymnuus_, against Bishop Joseph Hall's presentation of +episcopacy. The initials of the names of the several contributors formed +the name under which it was published, viz., S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T. +Young, M. Newcomen and W. Spurstow. Calamy was an active member in the +Westminster assembly of divines, and, refusing to advance to +Congregationalism, found in Presbyterianism the middle course which best +suited his views of theology and church government. He opposed the +execution of Charles I., lived quietly under the Commonwealth, and was +assiduous in promoting the king's return; for this he was afterwards +offered the bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield, but declined it, it is +said, on his wife's persuasion. He was made one of Charles's chaplains, and +vainly tried to secure the legal ratification of Charles's declaration of +the 25th of October 1660. He was ejected for Nonconformity in 1662, and was +so affected by the sight of the devastation caused by the great fire of +London that he died shortly afterwards, on the 29th of October 1666. He was +buried in the ruins of his church, near the place where the pulpit had +stood. His publications are almost entirely sermons. His eldest son +(Edmund), known as "the younger," was educated at Cambridge, and was +ejected from the rectory of Moreton, Essex, in 1662. He was of a retiring +disposition and moderate views, and died in 1685. + +CALAMY, EDMUND (1671-1732), English Nonconformist divine, the only son of +Edmund Calamy "the younger," was born in London, in the parish of St Mary +Aldermanbury, on the 5th of April 1671. He was sent to various schools, +including Merchant Taylors', and in 1688 proceeded to the university of +Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a professor's chair in the +university of Edinburgh made to him by the principal, William Carstares, +who had gone over on purpose to find suitable men for such posts. After his +return to England in 1691 he began to study divinity, and on Baxter's +advice went to Oxford, where he was much influenced by Chillingworth. He +declined invitations from Andover and Bristol, and accepted one as +assistant to Matthew Sylvester at Blackfriars (1692). In June 1694 he was +publicly ordained at Annesley's meeting-house in Little St Helen's, and +soon afterwards was invited to become assistant to Daniel Williams in Hand +Alley, Bishopsgate. In 1702 he was chosen one of the lecturers in Salters' +Hall, and in 1703 he succeeded Vincent Alsop as pastor of a large +congregation in Westminster. In 1709 Calamy made a tour through Scotland, +and had the degree of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the +universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Glasgow. Calamy's forty-one +publications are mainly sermons, but his fame rests on his nonconformist +biographies. His first essay was a table of contents to Baxter's +_Narrative_ of his life and times, which was sent to the press in 1696; he +made some remarks on the work itself and added to it an index, and, +reflecting on the usefulness of the book, he saw the expediency of +continuing it, as Baxter's history came no further than the year 1684. +Accordingly, he composed an abridgment of it, with an account of many other +ministers who were ejected after the restoration of Charles II.; their +apology, containing the grounds of their nonconformity and practice as to +stated and occasional communion with the Church of England; and a +continuation of their history until the year 1691. This work was published +in 1702. The most important chapter (ix.) is that which gives a detailed +account of the ministers ejected in 1662; it was afterwards published as a +distinct volume. He afterwards published a moderate defence of +Nonconformity, in three tracts, in answer to some tracts of Benjamin, +afterwards Bishop, Hoadly. In 1713 he published a second edition (2 vols.) +of his _Abridgment of Baxter's History_, in which, among various additions, +there is a continuation of the history through the reigns of William and +Anne, down to the passing of the Occasional Bill. At the end is subjoined +the reformed liturgy, which was drawn up and presented to the bishops in +1661. In 1718 he wrote a vindication of his grandfather and several other +persons against certain reflections cast upon them by Laurence Echard in +his _History of England_. In 1719 he published _The Church and the +Dissenters Compar'd as to Persecution_, and in 1728 appeared his +_Continuation of the Account_ of the ejected ministers and teachers, a +volume which is really a series of emendations of the previously published +account. He died on the 3rd of June 1732, having been married twice and +leaving six of his thirteen children to survive him. Calamy was a kindly +man, frankly self-conscious, but very free from jealousy. He was an able +diplomatist and generally secured his ends. His great hero was Baxter, of +whom he wrote three distinct memoirs. His eldest son Edmund (the fourth) +was a Presbyterian minister in London and died 1755; another son (Edmund, +the fifth) was a barrister who died in 1816; and this one's son (Edmund, +the sixth) died in 1850, his younger brother Michael, the last of the +direct Calamy line, surviving till 1876. + +CALARASHI (_Calarasi_), the capital of the Jalomitza department, Rumania, +situated on the left bank of the Borcea branch of the Danube, amid wide +fens, north of which extends the desolate Baragan Steppe. Pop. (1900) +11,024. Calarashi has a considerable transit trade in wheat, linseed, hemp, +timber and fish from a broad mere on the west or from the Danube. Small +vessels carry cargo to Braila and Galatz, and a branch railway from +Calarashi traverses the Steppe from south to north, and meets the main line +between Bucharest and Constantza. + +CALAS, JEAN (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse, whose legal +murder is a celebrated case in French history. His wife was an Englishwoman +of French extraction. They had three sons and three daughters. His son +Louis had embraced the Roman Catholic faith through the persuasions of a +female domestic who had lived thirty years in the family. In October 1761 +another son, Antoine, hanged himself in his father's warehouse. The crowd, +which collected on so shocking a discovery, took up the idea that he had +been strangled by the family to prevent him from changing his religion, and +that this was a common practice among Protestants. The officers of justice +adopted the popular tale, and were supplied by the mob with what they +accepted as conclusive evidence of the fact. The fraternity of White +Penitents buried the body with great ceremony, and performed a solemn +service for the deceased as a martyr; the Franciscans followed their +example; and these formalities led to the popular belief in the guilt of +the unhappy family. Being all condemned to the rack in order to extort +confession, they appealed to the parlement; but this body, being as weak as +the subordinate magistrates, sentenced the father to the torture, ordinary +and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the wheel, and then to be burnt +to ashes; which decree was carried into execution on the 9th of March 1762. +Pierre Calas, the surviving son, was banished for life; the rest were +acquitted. The distracted widow, however, found some friends, and among +them Voltaire, who laid her case before the council of state at [v.04 +p.0968] Versailles. For three years he worked indefatigably to procure +justice, and made the Calas case famous throughout Europe (see VOLTAIRE). +Finally the king and council unanimously agreed to annul the proceeding of +the parlement of Toulouse; Calas was declared to have been innocent, and +every imputation of guilt was removed from the family. + +See _Causes celebres_, tome iv.; Raoul Allier, _Voltaire et Calas, une +erreur judiciaire au XVIII^e siecle_ (Paris, 1898); and biographies of +Voltaire. + +CALASH (from Fr. _caleche_, derived from Polish _kolaska_, a wheeled +carriage), a light carriage with a folding hood; the Canadian calash is +two-wheeled and has a seat for the driver on the splash-board. The word is +also used for a kind of hood made of silk stretched over hoops, formerly +worn by women. + +CALASIAO, a town of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on a branch of the Agno river, about 4 m. S. by E. of Dagupan, the N. +terminal of the Manila & Dagupan railway. Pop. (1903) 16,539. In 1903, +after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town of Santa Barbara +(pop. 10,367) was annexed to Calasiao. It is in the midst of a fertile +district and has manufactures of hats and various woven fabrics. + +CALASIO, MARIO DI (1550-1620), Italian Minorite friar, was born at a small +town in the Abruzzi whence he took his name. Joining the Franciscans at an +early age, he devoted himself to Oriental languages and became an authority +on Hebrew. Coming to Rome he was appointed by Paul V., whose confessor he +was, to the chair of Scripture at Ara Coeli, where he died on the 1st of +February 1620. Calasio is known by his _Concordantiae sacrorum Bibliorum +hebraicorum_, published in 4 vols. (Rome, 1622), two years after his death, +a work which is based on Nathan's _Hebrew Concordance_ (Venice, 1523). For +forty years Calasio laboured on this work, and he secured the assistance of +the greatest scholars of his age. The _Concordance_ evinces great care and +accuracy. All root-words are treated in alphabetical order and the whole +Bible has been collated for every passage containing the word, so as to +explain the original idea, which is illustrated from the cognate usages of +the Chaldee, Syrian, Rabbinical Hebrew and Arabic. Calasio gives under each +Hebrew word the literal Latin translation, and notes any existing +differences from the Vulgate and Septuagint readings. An incomplete English +translation of the work was published in London by Romaine in 1747. Calasio +also wrote a Hebrew grammar, _Canones generates linguae sanctatae_ (Rome, +1616), and the _Dictionarium hebraicum_ (Rome, 1617). + +CALATAFIMI, a town of the province of Trapani, Sicily, 30 m. W.S.W. of +Palermo direct (511/2 m. by rail). Pop. (1901) 11,426. The name of the town +is derived from the Saracenic castle of _Kalat-al-Fimi_ (castle of +Euphemius), which stands above it. The principal church contains a fine +Renaissance reredos in marble. Samuel Butler, the author of _Erewhon_, did +much of his work here. The battlefield where Garibaldi won his first +victory over the Neapolitans on the 15th of May 1860, lies 2 m. S.W. + +CALATAYUD, a town of central Spain, in the province of Saragossa, at the +confluence of the rivers Jalon and Jiloca, and on the Madrid-Saragossa and +Calatayud-Sagunto railways. Pop. (1900) 11,526. Calatayud consists of a +lower town, built on the left bank of the Jalon, and an upper or Moorish +town, which contains many dwellings hollowed out of the rock above and +inhabited by the poorer classes. Among a number of ecclesiastical +buildings, two collegiate churches are especially noteworthy. Santa Maria, +originally a mosque, has a lofty octagonal tower and a fine Renaissance +doorway, added in 1528; while Santo Sepulcro, built in 1141, and restored +in 1613, was long the principal church of the Spanish Knights Templar. In +commercial importance Calatayud ranks second only to Saragossa among the +Aragonese towns, for it is the central market of the exceptionally fertile +expanse watered by the Jalon and Jiloca. About 2 m. E. are the ruins of the +ancient _Bilbilis_, where the poet Martial was born c. A.D. 40. It was +celebrated for its breed of horses, its armourers, its gold and its iron; +but Martial also mentions its unhealthy climate, due to the icy winds which +sweep down from the heights of Moncayo (7705 ft.) on the north. In the +middle ages the ruins were almost destroyed to provide stone for the +building of Calatayud, which was founded by a Moorish amir named Ayub and +named _Kalat Ayub_, "Castle of Ayub." Calatayud was captured by Alphonso I. +of Aragon in 1119. + +CALATIA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, 6 m. S.E. of Capua, on the Via +Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia branches off from it. It is +represented by the church of St. Giacomo alle Galazze. The Via Appia here, +as at Capua, abandons its former S.E. direction for a length of 2000 Oscan +ft. (18041/2 English ft.), for which it runs due E. and then resumes its +course S.E. There are no ruins, but a considerable quantity of debris; and +the pre-Roman necropolis was partially excavated in 1882. Ten shafts lined +with slabs of tufa which were there found may have been the approaches to +tombs or may have served as wells. The history of Calatia is practically +that of its more powerful neighbour Capua, but as it lay near the point +where the Via Appia turns east and enters the mountains, it had some +strategic importance. In 313 B.C. it was taken by the Samnites and +recaptured by the dictator Q. Fabius; the Samnites captured it again in +311, but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the 3rd century +we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but in 211 B.C. it shared +the fate of Capua. In 174 we hear of its walls being repaired by the +censors. In 59 B.C. a colony was established here by Caesar. + +See Ch. Huelsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, iii. 1334 (Stuttgart, +1899). + +CALAVERAS SKULL, a famous fossil cranium, reported by Professor J.D. +Whitney as found (1886) in the undisturbed auriferous gravels of Calaveras +county, California. The discovery at once raised the still discussed +question of "tertiary man" in the New World. Doubt has been thrown on the +genuineness of the find, as the age of the gravels is disputed and the +skull is of a type corresponding exactly with that of the present Indian +inhabitants of the district. Whitney assigns the fossil to late Tertiary +(Pliocene) times, and concludes that "man existed in California previous to +the cessation of volcanic activity in the Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of +the greatest extension of the glaciers in that region and to the erosion of +the present river canons and valleys, at a time when the animal and +vegetable creation differed entirely from what they now are...." The +specimen is preserved in the Peabody museum, Cambridge, Mass. + +CALBAYOG, a town of the province of Samar, Philippine Islands, on the W. +coast at the mouth of the Calbayog river, about 30 m. N.W. of Catbalogan, +the capital, in lat. 12 deg. 3' N. Pop. (1903) 15,895. Calbayog has an +important export trade in hemp, which is shipped to Manila. Copra is also +produced in considerable quantity, and there is fine timber in the +vicinity. There are hot springs near the town. The neighbouring valleys of +the Gandara and Hippatan rivers are exceedingly fertile, but in 1908 were +uncultivated. The climate is very warm, but healthy. The language is +Visayan. + +CALBE, or KALBE, a town of Germany, on the Saale, in Prussian Saxony. It is +known as Calbe-an-der-Saale, to distinguish it from the smaller town of +Calbe on the Milde in the same province. Pop. (1905) 12,281. It is a +railway junction, and among its industries are wool-weaving and the +manufacture of cloth, paper, stoves, sugar and bricks. Cucumbers and onions +are cultivated, and soft coal is mined in the neighbourhood. + +CALCAR (or KALCKER), JOHN DE (1499-1546), Italian painter, was born at +Calcar, in the duchy of Cleves. He was a disciple of Titian at Venice, and +perfected himself by studying Raphael. He imitated those masters so closely +as to deceive the most skilful critics. Among his various pieces is a +Nativity, representing the angels around the infant Christ, which he +arranged so that the light emanated wholly from the child. He died at +Naples. + +CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order +Scrophulariaceae, containing about 150 species of herbaceous or shrubby +plants, chiefly natives of the South American Andes of Peru and Chile. The +calceolaria of the present day has [v.04 p.0969] been developed into a +highly decorative plant, in which the herbaceous habit has preponderated. +The plants are now very generally raised annually from seed, which is sown +about the end of June in a mixture of loam, leaf-mould and sand, and, being +very small, must be only slightly covered. When the plants are large enough +to handle they are pricked out an inch or two apart into 3-inch or 5-inch +pots; when a little more advanced they are potted singly. They should be +wintered in a greenhouse with a night temperature of about 40 deg., occupying a +shelf near the light. By the end of February they should be moved into +8-inch or 10-inch pots, using a compost of three parts good turfy loam, one +part leaf-mould, and one part thoroughly rotten manure, with a fair +addition of sand. They need plenty of light and air, but must not be +subjected to draughts. When the pots get well filled with roots, they must +be liberally supplied with manure water. In all stages of growth the plants +are subject to the attacks of the green-fly, for which they must be +fumigated. + +The so-called shrubby calceolarias used for bedding are increased from +cuttings, planted in autumn in cold frames, where they can be wintered, +protected from frost by the use of mats and a good layer of litter placed +over the glass and round the sides. + +CALCHAQUI, a tribe of South American Indians, now extinct, who formerly +occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them to have +reached a high degree of civilization. They offered a vigorous resistance +to the first Spanish colonists coming from Chile. + +CALCHAS, of Mycenae or Megara, son of Thestor, the most famous soothsayer +among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war. He foretold the duration of +the siege of Troy, and, when the fleet was detained by adverse winds at +Aulis, he explained the cause and demanded the sacrifice of Iphigeneia. +When the Greeks were visited with pestilence on account of Chryseis, he +disclosed the reasons of Apollo's anger. It was he who suggested that +Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched from Scyros and Lemnos to +Troy, and he was one of those who advised the construction of the wooden +horse. When the Greeks, on their journey home after the fall of Troy, were +overtaken by a storm, Calchas is said to have been thrown ashore at +Colophon. According to another story, he foresaw the storm and did not +attempt to return by sea. It had been predicted that he should die when he +met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was fulfilled in the +person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met in the grove of the Clarian Apollo near +Colophon. Having been beaten in a trial of soothsaying, Calchas died of +chagrin or committed suicide. He had a temple and oracle in Apulia. + +Ovid, _Metam._ xii. 18 ff.; Homer, _Iliad_ i. 68, ii. 322; Strabo vi. p. +284, xiv. p. 642. + +CALCITE, a mineral consisting of naturally occurring calcium carbonate, +CaCO_3, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. With the exception of +quartz, it is the most widely distributed of minerals, whilst in the +beautiful development and extraordinary variety of form of its crystals it +is surpassed by none. In the massive condition it occurs as large +rock-masses (marble, limestone, chalk) which are often of organic origin, +being formed of the remains of molluscs, corals, crinoids, &c., the hard +parts of which consist largely of calcite. + +The name calcite (Lat. _calx_, _calcis_, meaning burnt lime) is of +comparatively recent origin, and was first applied, in 1836, to the +"barleycorn" pseudomorphs of calcium carbonate after celestite from +Sangerhausen in Thuringia; it was not until about 1843 that the name was +used in its present sense. The mineral had, however, long been known under +the names calcareous spar and calc-spar, and the beautifully transparent +variety called Iceland-spar had been much studied. The strong double +refraction and perfect cleavages of Iceland-spar were described in detail +by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 in his book _Experimenta Crystalli Islandici +disdiaclastici_; the study of the same mineral led Christiaan Huygens to +discover in 1690 the laws of double refraction, and E.L. Malus in 1808 the +polarization of light. + +An important property of calcite is the great ease with which it may be +cleaved in three directions; the three perfect cleavages are parallel to +the faces of the primitive rhombohedron, and the angle between them was +determined by W.H. Wollaston in 1812, with the aid of his newly invented +reflective goniometer, to be 74 deg. 55'. The cleavage is of great help in +distinguishing calcite from other minerals of similar appearance. The +hardness of 3 (it is readily scratched with a knife), the specific gravity +of 2.72, and the fact that it effervesces briskly in contact with cold +dilute acids are also characters of determinative value. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1-6.--Crystals of Calcite.] + +Crystals of calcite are extremely varied in form, but, as a rule, they may +be referred to four distinct habits, namely: rhombohedral, prismatic, +scalenohedral and tabular. The primitive rhombohedron, r {100} (fig. 1), is +comparatively rare except in combination with other forms. A flatter +rhombohedron, e {110}, is shown in fig. 2, and a more acute one, f {11-1}, +in fig. 3. These three rhombohedra are related in such a manner that, when +in combination, the faces of r truncate the polar edges of f, and the faces +of e truncate the edges of r. The crystal of prismatic habit shown in fig. +4 is a combination of the prism m {2-1-1} and the rhombohedron e {110}; +fig. 5 is a combination of the scalenohedron v {20-1} and the rhombohedron +r {100}; and the crystal of tabular habit represented in fig. 6 is a +combination of the basal pinacoid c {111}, prism m {2-1-1}, and +rhombohedron e {110}. In these figures only six distinct forms (r, e, f, m, +v, c) are represented, but more than 400 have been recorded for calcite, +whilst the combinations of them are almost endless. + +Depending on the habits of the crystals, certain trivial names have been +used, such, for example, as dog-tooth-spar for the crystals of +scalenohedral habit, so common in the Derbyshire lead mines and limestone +caverns; nail-head-spar for crystals terminated by the obtuse rhombohedron +e, which are common in the lead mines of Alston Moor in Cumberland; +slate-spar (German _Schieferspath_) for crystals of tabular habit, and +sometimes as thin as paper: cannon-spar for crystals of prismatic habit +terminated by the basal pinacoid c. + +Calcite is also remarkable for the variety and perfection of its twinned +crystals. Twinned crystals, though not of infrequent occurrence, are, +however, far less common than simple (untwinned) crystals. No less than +four well-defined twin-laws are to be distinguished:-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 7-10.--Twinned Crystals of Calcite.] + +i. Twin-plane c (111).--Here there is rotation of one portion with respect +to the other through 180 deg. about the principal (trigonal) axis, which is +perpendicular to the plane c (111); or the same result may be obtained by +reflection across this plane. Fig. 7 shows a prismatic crystal (like fig. +4) twinned in this manner, and fig. 8 represents a twinned scalenohedron v +{20-1}. + +ii. Twin-plane e (110).--The principal axes of the two portions are +inclined at an angle of 52 deg. 301/2'. Repeated twinning on this plane is very +common, and the twin-lamellae (fig. 9) to which it gives rise are often to +be observed in the grains of calcite of crystalline limestones which have +been subjected to pressure. This lamellar twinning is of secondary origin; +it may be readily produced artificially by pressure, for example, by +pressing a knife into the edge of a cleavage rhombohedron. + +[v.04 p.0970] iii. Twin-plane r (100).--Here the principal axes of the two +portions are nearly at right angles (89 deg. 14'), and one of the directions of +cleavage in both portions is parallel to the twin-plane. Fine crystals of +prismatic habit twinned according to this law were formerly found in +considerable numbers at Wheal Wrey in Cornwall, and of scalenohedral habit +at Eyam in Derbyshire and Cleator Moor in Cumberland; those from the last +two localities are known as "butterfly twins" or "heart-shaped twins" (fig. +10), according to their shape. + +iv. Twin-plane f (11-1).--The principal axes are here inclined at 53 deg. 46'. +This is the rarest twin-law of calcite. + +Calcite when pure, as in the well-known Iceland-spar, is perfectly +transparent and colourless. The lustre is vitreous. Owing to the presence +of various impurities, the transparency and colour may vary considerably. +Crystals are often nearly white or colourless, usually with a slight +yellowish tinge. The yellowish colour is in most cases due to the presence +of iron, but in some cases it has been proved to be due to organic matter +(such as apocrenic acid) derived from the humus overlying the rocks in +which the crystals were formed. An opaque calcite of a grass-green colour, +occurring as large cleavage masses in central India and known as hislopite, +owes its colour to enclosed "green-earth" (glauconite and celadonite). A +stalagmitic calcite of a beautiful purple colour, from Reichelsdorf in +Hesse, is coloured by cobalt. + +Optically, calcite is uniaxial with negative bi-refringence, the index of +refraction for the ordinary ray being greater than for the extraordinary +ray; for sodium-light the former is 1.6585 and the latter 1.4862. The +difference, 0.1723, between these two indices gives a measure of the +bi-refringence or double refraction. + +Although the double refraction of some other minerals is greater than that +of calcite (_e.g._ for cinnabar it is 0.347, and for calomel 0.683), yet +this phenomenon can be best demonstrated in calcite, since it is a mineral +obtainable in large pieces of perfect transparency. Owing to the strong +double refraction and the consequent wide separation of the two polarized +rays of light traversing the crystal, an object viewed through a cleavage +rhombohedron of Iceland-spar is seen double, hence the name +doubly-refracting spar. Iceland-spar is extensively used in the +construction of Nicol's prisms for polariscopes, polarizing microscopes and +saccharimeters, and of dichroscopes for testing the pleochroism of +gem-stones. + +Chemically, calcite has the same composition as the orthorhombic aragonite +(_q.v._), these minerals being dimorphous forms of calcium carbonate. +Well-crystallized material, such as Iceland-spar, usually consists of +perfectly pure calcium carbonate, but at other times the calcium may be +isomorphously replaced by small amounts of magnesium, barium, strontium, +manganese, zinc or lead. When the elements named are present in large +amount we have the varieties dolomitic calcite, baricalcite, +strontianocalcite, ferrocalcite, manganocalcite, zincocalcite and +plumbocalcite, respectively. + +Mechanically enclosed impurities are also frequently present, and it is to +these that the colour is often due. A remarkable case of enclosed +impurities is presented by the so-called Fontainbleau limestone, which +consists of crystals of calcite of an acute rhombohedral form (fig. 3) +enclosing 50 to 60% of quartz-sand. Similar crystals, but with the form of +an acute hexagonal pyramid, and enclosing 64% of sand, have recently been +found in large quantity over a wide area in South Dakota, Nebraska and +Wyoming. The case of hislopite, which encloses up to 20% of "green earth," +has been noted above. + +In addition to the varieties of calcite noted above, some others, depending +on the state of aggregation of the material, are distinguished. A finely +fibrous form is known as satin-spar (_q.v._), a name also applied to +fibrous gypsum: the most typical example of this is the snow-white +material, often with a rosy tinge and a pronounced silky lustre, which +occurs in veins in the Carboniferous shales of Alston Moor in Cumberland. +Finely scaly varieties with a pearly lustre are known as argentine and +aphrite (German _Schaumspath_); soft, earthy and dull white varieties as +agaric mineral, rock-milk, rock-meal, &c.--these form a transition to +marls, chalk, &c. Of the granular and compact forms numerous varieties are +distinguished (see LIMESTONE and MARBLE). In the form of stalactites +calcite is of extremely common occurrence. Each stalactite usually consists +of an aggregate of radially arranged crystalline individuals, though +sometimes it may consist of a single individual with crystal faces +developed at the free end. Onyx-marbles or Oriental alabaster (see +ALABASTER) and other stalagmitic deposits also consist of calcite, and so +do the allied deposits of travertine, calc-sinter or calc-tufa. + +The modes of occurrence of calcite are very varied. It is a common gangue +mineral in metalliferous deposits, and in the form of crystals is often +associated with ores of lead, iron, copper and silver. It is a common +product of alteration in igneous rocks, and frequently occurs as +well-developed crystals in association with zeolites lining the +amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic and other rocks. Veins and cavities in +limestones are usually lined with crystals of calcite. The wide +distribution, under various conditions, of crystallized calcite is readily +explained by the solubility of calcium carbonate in water containing carbon +dioxide, and the ease with which the material is again deposited in the +crystallized state when the carbon dioxide is liberated by evaporation. On +this also depends the formation of stalactites and calc-sinter. + +Localities at which beautifully crystallized specimens of calcite are found +are extremely numerous. For beauty of crystals and variety of forms the +haematite mines of the Cleator Moor district in west Cumberland and the +Furness district in north Lancashire are unsurpassed. The lead mines of +Alston in Cumberland and of Derbyshire, and the silver mines of Andreasberg +in the Harz and Guanajuato in Mexico have yielded many fine specimens. From +the zinc mines of Joplin in Missouri enormous crystals of golden-yellow and +amethystine colours have been recently obtained. At all the localities here +mentioned the crystals occur with metalliferous ores. In Iceland the mode +of occurrence is quite distinct, the mineral being here found in a cavity +in basalt. + +The quarry, which since the 19th century has supplied the famous +Iceland-spar, is in a cavity in basalt, the cavity itself measuring 12 by 5 +yds. in area and about 10 ft. in height. It is situated quite close to the +farm Helgustadir, about an hour's ride from the trading station of +Eskifjordur on Reydar Fjordur, on the east coast of Iceland. This cavity +when first found was filled with pure crystallized masses and enormous +crystals. The crystals measure up to a yard across, and are rhombohedral or +scalenohedral in habit; their faces are usually dull and corroded or coated +with stilbite. In recent years much of the material taken out has not been +of sufficient transparency for optical purposes, and this, together with +the very limited supply, has caused a considerable rise in price. Only very +occasionally has calcite from any locality other than Iceland been used for +the construction of a Nicol's prism. + +(L. J. S.) + +CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (O=16)], a metallic chemical +element, so named by Sir Humphry Davy from its [v.04 p.0971] occurrence in +chalk (Latin _calx_). It does not occur in nature in the free state, but in +combination it is widely and abundantly diffused. Thus the sulphate +constitutes the minerals anhydrite, alabaster, gypsum, and selenite; the +carbonate occurs dissolved in most natural waters and as the minerals +chalk, marble, calcite, aragonite; also in the double carbonates such as +dolomite, bromlite, barytocalcite; the fluoride as fluorspar; the +fluophosphate constitutes the mineral apatite; while all the more important +mineral silicates contain a proportion of this element. + +_Extraction._--Calcium oxide or lime has been known from a very remote +period, and was for a long time considered to be an elementary or +undecomposable earth. This view was questioned in the 18th century, and in +1808 Sir Humphry Davy (_Phil. Trans._, 1808, p. 303) was able to show that +lime was a combination of a metal and oxygen. His attempts at isolating +this metal were not completely successful; in fact, metallic calcium +remained a laboratory curiosity until the beginning of the 20th century. +Davy, inspired by his successful isolation of the metals sodium and +potassium by the electrolysis of their hydrates, attempted to decompose a +mixture of lime and mercuric oxide by the electric current; an amalgam of +calcium was obtained, but the separation of the mercury was so difficult +that even Davy himself was not sure as to whether he had obtained pure +metallic calcium. Electrolysis of lime or calcium chloride in contact with +mercury gave similar results. Bunsen (_Ann._, 1854, 92, p. 248) was more +successful when he electrolysed calcium chloride moistened with +hydrochloric acid; and A. Matthiessen (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1856, p. 28) +obtained the metal by electrolysing a mixture of fused calcium and sodium +chlorides. Henri Moissan obtained the metal of 99% purity by electrolysing +calcium iodide at a low red heat, using a nickel cathode and a graphite +anode; he also showed that a more convenient process consisted in heating +the iodide with an excess of sodium, forming an amalgam of the product, and +removing the sodium by means of absolute alcohol (which has but little +action on calcium), and the mercury by distillation. + +The electrolytic isolation of calcium has been carefully investigated, and +this is the method followed for the commercial production of the metal. In +1902 W. Borchers and L. Stockem (_Zeit. fuer Electrochemie_, 1902, p. 8757) +obtained the metal of 90% purity by electrolysing calcium chloride at a +temperature of about 780 deg., using an iron cathode, the anode being the +graphite vessel in which the electrolysis was carried out. In the same +year, O. Ruff and W. Plato (_Ber._ 1902, 35, p. 3612) employed a mixture of +calcium chloride (100 parts) and fluorspar (16.5 parts), which was fused in +a porcelain crucible and electrolysed with a carbon anode and an iron +cathode. Neither of these processes admitted of commercial application, but +by a modification of Ruff and Plato's process, W. Ruthenau and C. Suter +have made the metal commercially available. These chemists electrolyse +either pure calcium chloride, or a mixture of this salt with fluorspar, in +a graphite vessel which serves as the anode. The cathode consists of an +iron rod which can be gradually raised. On electrolysis a layer of metallic +calcium is formed at the lower end of this rod on the surface of the +electrolyte; the rod is gradually raised, the thickness of the layer +increases, and ultimately a rod of metallic calcium, forming, as it were, a +continuation of the iron cathode, is obtained. This is the form in which +calcium is put on the market. + +An idea as to the advance made by this method is recorded in the variation +in the price of calcium. At the beginning of 1904 it was quoted at 5s. per +gram, L250 per kilogram or L110 per pound; about a year later the price was +reduced to 21s. per kilogram, or 12s. per kilogram in quantities of 100 +kilograms. These quotations apply to Germany; in the United Kingdom the +price (1905) varied from 27s. to 30s. per kilogram (12s. to 13s. per lb.). + +_Properties._--A freshly prepared surface of the metal closely resembles +zinc in appearance, but on exposure to the air it rapidly tarnishes, +becoming yellowish and ultimately grey or white in colour owing to the +information of a surface layer of calcium hydrate. A faint smell of +acetylene may be perceived during the oxidation in moist air; this is +probably due to traces of calcium carbide. It is rapidly acted on by water, +especially if means are taken to remove the layer of calcium hydrate formed +on the metal; alcohol acts very slowly. In its chemical properties it +closely resembles barium and strontium, and to some degree magnesium; these +four elements comprise the so-called metals of the "alkaline earths." It +combines directly with most elements, including nitrogen; this can be taken +advantage of in forming almost a perfect vacuum, the oxygen combining to +form the oxide, CaO, and the nitrogen to form the nitride, Ca_3N_2. Several +of its physical properties have been determined by K. Arndt (_Ber._, 1904, +37, p. 4733). The metal as prepared by electrolysis generally contains +traces of aluminium and silica. Its specific gravity is 1.54, and after +remelting 1.56; after distillation it is 1.52. It melts at about 800 deg., but +sublimes at a lower temperature. + +_Compounds._--Calcium hydride, obtained by heating electrolytic calcium in +a current of hydrogen, appears in commerce under the name hydrolite. Water +decomposes it to give hydrogen free from ammonia and acetylene, 1 gram +yielding about 100 ccs. of gas (Prats Aymerich, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii p. +460). Calcium forms two oxides--the monoxide, CaO, and the dioxide, CaO_2. +The monoxide and its hydrate are more familiarly known as lime (_q.v._) and +slaked-lime. The dioxide was obtained as the hydrate, CaO_2.8H_2O, by P. +Thenard (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1818, 8, p. 213), who precipitated lime-water +with hydrogen peroxide. It is permanent when dry; on heating to 130 deg. C. it +loses water and gives the anhydrous dioxide as an unstable, pale +buff-coloured powder, very sparingly soluble in water. It is used as an +antiseptic and oxidizing agent. + +Whereas calcium chloride, bromide, and iodide are deliquescent solids, the +fluoride is practically insoluble in water; this is a parallelism to the +soluble silver fluoride, and the insoluble chloride, bromide and iodide. +_Calcium fluoride_, CaF_2, constitutes the mineral fluor-spar (_q.v._), and +is prepared artificially as an insoluble white powder by precipitating a +solution of calcium chloride with a soluble fluoride. One part dissolves in +26,000 parts of water. _Calcium chloride_, CaCl_2, occurs in many natural +waters, and as a by-product in the manufacture of carbonic acid (carbon +dioxide), and potassium chlorate. Aqueous solutions deposit crystals +containing 2, 4 or 6 molecules of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride, +prepared by heating the hydrate to 200 deg. (preferably in a current of +hydrochloric acid gas, which prevents the formation of any oxychloride), is +very hygroscopic, and is used as a desiccating agent. It fuses at 723 deg.. It +combines with gaseous ammonia and forms crystalline compounds with certain +alcohols. The crystallized salt dissolves very readily in water with a +considerable absorption of heat; hence its use in forming "freezing +mixtures." A temperature of -55 deg.C. is obtained by mixing 10 parts of the +hexahydrate with 7 parts of snow. A saturated solution of calcium chloride +contains 325 parts of CaCl_2 to 100 of water at the boiling point (179.5 deg.). +Calcium iodide and bromide are white deliquescent solids and closely +resemble the chloride. + +_Chloride of lime_ or "bleaching powder" is a calcium chlor-hypochlorite or +an equimolecular mixture of the chloride and hypochlorite (see ALKALI +MANUFACTURE and BLEACHING). + +_Calcium carbide_, CaC_2, a compound of great industrial importance as a +source of acetylene, was first prepared by F. Wohler. It is now +manufactured by heating lime and carbon in the electric furnace (see +ACETYLENE). Heated in chlorine or with bromine, it yields carbon and +calcium chloride or bromide; at a dull red heat it burns in oxygen, forming +calcium carbonate, and it becomes incandescent in sulphur vapour at 500 deg., +forming calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide. Heated in the electric +furnace in a current of air, it yields calcium cyanamide (see CYANAMIDE). + +_Calcium carbonate_, CaCO_3, is of exceptionally wide distribution in both +the mineral and animal kingdoms. It constitutes the bulk of the chalk +deposits and limestone rocks; it forms over one-half of the mineral +dolomite and the rock magnesium limestone; it occurs also as the dimorphous +minerals aragonite (_q.v._) and calcite (_q.v._). Tuff (_q.v._) and +travertine are calcareous deposits found in volcanic districts. Most +natural waters contain it dissolved in carbonic acid; this confers +"temporary hardness" on the water. The dissipation of the dissolved carbon +dioxide results in the formation of "fur" in kettles or boilers, and if the +solution is falling, as from the roof of a cave, in the formation of +stalactites and stalagmites. In the animal kingdom it occurs as both +calcite and aragonite in the tests of the foraminifera, echinoderms, +brachiopoda, and mollusca; also in the skeletons of sponges and corals. +Calcium carbonate is obtained as a white precipitate, almost insoluble in +water (1 part requiring 10,000 of water for solution), by mixing solutions +of a carbonate and a calcium salt. Hot or dilute cold solutions deposit +minute orthorhombic crystals of aragonite, cold saturated or moderately +strong solutions, hexagonal (rhombohedral) crystals of calcite. Aragonite +is the least stable form; crystals have been found altered to calcite. + +_Calcium nitride_, Ca_3N_2, is a greyish-yellow powder formed by heating +calcium in air or nitrogen; water decomposes it with evolution of ammonia +(see H. Moissan, _Compt. Rend._, 127, p. 497). + +_Calcium nitrate_, Ca(NO_3)_2.4H_2O, is a highly deliquescent salt, [v.04 +p.0972] crystallizing in monoclinic prisms, and occurring in various +natural waters, as an efflorescence in limestone caverns, and in the +neighbourhood of decaying nitrogenous organic matter. Hence its synonyms, +"wall-saltpetre" and "lime-saltpetre"; from its disintegrating action on +mortar, it is sometimes referred to as "saltpetre rot." The anhydrous +nitrate, obtained by heating the crystallized salt, is very phosphorescent, +and constitutes "Baldwin's phosphorus." A basic nitrate, +Ca(NO_3)_2.Ca(OH)_2.3H_2O, is obtained by dissolving calcium hydroxide in a +solution of the normal nitrate. + +_Calcium phosphide_, Ca_3P_2, is obtained as a reddish substance by passing +phosphorus vapour over strongly heated lime. Water decomposes it with the +evolution of spontaneously inflammable hydrogen phosphide; hence its use as +a marine signal fire ("Holmes lights"), (see L. Gattermann and W. +Haussknecht, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 1176, and H. Moissan, _Compt. Rend._, +128, p. 787). + +Of the calcium orthophosphates, the normal salt, Ca_3(PO_4)_2, is the most +important. It is the principal inorganic constituent of bones, and hence of +the "bone-ash" of commerce (see PHOSPHORUS); it occurs with fluorides in +the mineral apatite (_q.v._); and the concretions known as coprolites +(_q.v._) largely consist of this salt. It also constitutes the minerals +ornithite, Ca_3(PO_4)_2.2H_2O, osteolite and sombrerite. The mineral +brushite, CaHPO_4.2H_2O, which is isomorphous with the acid arsenate +pharmacolite, CaHAsO_4.2H_2O, is an acid phosphate, and assumes monoclinic +forms. The normal salt may be obtained artificially, as a white gelatinous +precipitate which shrinks greatly on drying, by mixing solutions of sodium +hydrogen phosphate, ammonia, and calcium chloride. Crystals may be obtained +by heating di-calcium pyrophosphate, Ca_2P_2O_7, with water under pressure. +It is insoluble in water; slightly soluble in solutions of carbonic acid +and common salt, and readily soluble in concentrated hydrochloric and +nitric acid. Of the acid orthophosphates, the mono-calcium salt, +CaH_4(PO_4)_2, may be obtained as crystalline scales, containing one +molecule of water, by evaporating a solution of the normal salt in +hydrochloric or nitric acid. It dissolves readily in water, the solution +having an acid reaction. The artificial manure known as "superphosphate of +lime" consists of this salt and calcium sulphate, and is obtained by +treating ground bones, coprolites, &c., with sulphuric acid. The di-calcium +salt, Ca_2H_2(PO_4)_2, occurs in a concretionary form in the ureters and +cloaca of the sturgeon, and also in guano. It is obtained as rhombic plates +by mixing dilute solutions of calcium chloride and sodium phosphate, and +passing carbon dioxide into the liquid. Other phosphates are also known. + +_Calcium monosulphide_, CaS, a white amorphous powder, sparingly soluble in +water, is formed by heating the sulphate with charcoal, or by heating lime +in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is particularly noteworthy from +the phosphorescence which it exhibits when heated, or after exposure to the +sun's rays; hence its synonym "Canton's phosphorus," after John Canton +(1718-1772), an English natural philosopher. The sulphydrate or +hydrosulphide, Ca(SH)_2, is obtained as colourless, prismatic crystals of +the composition Ca(SH)_2.6H_2O, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into milk +of lime. The strong aqueous solution deposits colourless, four-sided prisms +of the hydroxy-hydrosulphide, Ca(OH)(SH). The disulphide, CaS_2 and +pentasulphide, CaS_5, are formed when milk of lime is boiled with flowers +of sulphur. These sulphides form the basis of Balmain's luminous paint. An +oxysulphide, 2CaS.CaO, is sometimes present in "soda-waste," and +orange-coloured, acicular crystals of 4CaS.CaSO_4.18H_2O occasionally +settle out on the long standing of oxidized "soda- or alkali-waste" (see +ALKALI MANUFACTURE). + +_Calcium sulphite_, CaSO_3, a white substance, soluble in water, is +prepared by passing sulphur dioxide into milk of lime. This solution with +excess of sulphur dioxide yields the "bisulphite of lime" of commerce, +which is used in the "chemical" manufacture of wood-pulp for paper making. + +_Calcium sulphate_, CaSO_4, constitutes the minerals anhydrite (_q.v._), +and, in the hydrated form, selenite, gypsum (_q.v._), alabaster (_q.v._), +and also the adhesive plaster of Paris (see CEMENT). It occurs dissolved in +most natural waters, which it renders "permanently hard." It is obtained as +a white crystalline precipitate, sparingly soluble in water (100 parts of +water dissolve 24 of the salt at 15 deg.C.), by mixing solutions of a sulphate +and a calcium salt; it is more soluble in solutions of common salt and +hydrochloric acid, and especially of sodium thiosulphate. + +_Calcium silicates_ are exceptionally abundant in the mineral kingdom. +Calcium metasilicate, CaSiO_3, occurs in nature as monoclinic crystals +known as tabular spar or wollastonite; it may be prepared artificially from +solutions of calcium chloride and sodium silicate. H. Le Chatelier +(_Annales des mines_, 1887, p. 345) has obtained artificially the +compounds: CaSiO_3, Ca_2SiO_4, Ca_3Si_2O_7, and Ca_3SiO_5. (See also G. +Oddo, _Chemisches Centralblatt_, 1896, 228.) Acid calcium silicates are +represented in the mineral kingdom by gyrolite, H_2Ca_2(SiO_3)_3.H_2O, a +lime zeolite, sometimes regarded as an altered form of apophyllite +(_q.v._), which is itself an acid calcium silicate containing an alkaline +fluoride, by okenite, H_2Ca(SiO_3)_2.H_2O, and by xonalite 4CaSiO_3.H_2O. +Calcium silicate is also present in the minerals: olivine, pyroxenes, +amphiboles, epidote, felspars, zeolites, scapolites (_qq.v._). + +_Detection and Estimation._--Most calcium compounds, especially when +moistened with hydrochloric acid, impart an orange-red colour to a Bunsen +flame, which when viewed through green glass appears to be finch-green; +this distinguishes it in the presence of strontium, whose crimson +coloration is apt to mask the orange-red calcium flame (when viewed through +green glass the strontium flame appears to be a very faint yellow). In the +spectroscope calcium exhibits two intense lines--an orange line ([alpha]), +([lambda] 6163), a green line ([beta]), ([lambda] 4229), and a fainter +indigo line. Calcium is not precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, but +falls as the carbonate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution. +Sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate of calcium sulphate with strong +solutions; ammonium oxalate gives calcium oxalate, practically insoluble in +water and dilute acetic acid, but readily soluble in nitric or hydrochloric +acid. Calcium is generally estimated by precipitation as oxalate which, +after drying, is heated and weighed as carbonate or oxide, according to the +degree and duration of the heating. + +CALCULATING MACHINES. Instruments for the mechanical performance of +numerical calculations, have in modern times come into ever-increasing use, +not merely for dealing with large masses of figures in banks, insurance +offices, &c., but also, as cash registers, for use on the counters of +retail shops. They may be classified as follows:--(i.) Addition machines; +the first invented by Blaise Pascal (1642). (ii.) Addition machines +modified to facilitate multiplication; the first by G.W. Leibnitz (1671). +(iii.) True multiplication machines; Leon Bolles (1888), Steiger (1894). +(iv.) Difference machines; Johann Helfrich von Mueller (1786), Charles +Babbage (1822). (v.) Analytical machines; Babbage (1834). The number of +distinct machines of the first three kinds is remarkable and is being +constantly added to, old machines being improved and new ones invented; +Professor R. Mehmke has counted over eighty distinct machines of this type. +The fullest published account of the subject is given by Mehmke in the +_Encyclopaedie der mathematischen Wissenschaften_, article "Numerisches +Rechnen," vol. i., Heft 6 (1901). It contains historical notes and full +references. Walther von Dyck's _Catalogue_ also contains descriptions of +various machines. We shall confine ourselves to explaining the principles +of some leading types, without giving an exact description of any +particular one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Practically all calculating machines contain a "counting work," a series of +"figure disks" consisting in the original form of horizontal circular disks +(fig. 1), on which the figures 0, 1, 2, to 9 are marked. Each disk can turn +about its vertical axis, and is covered by a fixed plate with a hole or +"window" in it through which one figure can be seen. On turning the disk +through one-tenth of a revolution this figure will be changed into the next +higher or lower. Such turning may be called a "step," _positive_ [Sidenote: +Addition machines.] if the next higher and _negative_ if the next lower +figure appears. Each positive step therefore adds one unit to the figure +under the window, while two steps add two, and so on. If a series, say six, +of such figure disks be placed side by side, their windows lying in a row, +then any number of six places can be made to appear, for instance 000373. +In order to add 6425 to this number, the disks, counting from right to +left, have to be turned 5, 2, 4 and 6 steps respectively. If this is done +the sum 006798 will appear. In case the sum of the two figures at any disk +is greater than 9, if for instance the last figure to be added is 8 instead +of 5, the sum for this disk is 11 and the 1 only will appear. Hence an +arrangement for "carrying" has to be introduced. This may be done as +follows. The axis of a figure disk contains a wheel with ten teeth. Each +figure disk has, besides, one long tooth which when its 0 passes the window +turns the next wheel to the left, one tooth forward, and hence the figure +disk one step. The actual mechanism is not quite so simple, because the +long teeth as described would gear also into the wheel to the right, and +besides would interfere with each other. They must therefore be replaced by +a somewhat more complicated arrangement, which has been done in various +ways not necessary to describe more fully. On the way in which this is +done, however, depends to a great extent the durability and trustworthiness +of any arithmometer; in fact, it is often its weakest point. If to the +series of figure disks arrangements are added for turning each disk through +a required number of steps, [v.04 p.0973] we have an addition machine, +essentially of Pascal's type. In it each disk had to be turned by hand. +This operation has been simplified in various ways by mechanical means. For +pure addition machines key-boards have been added, say for each disk nine +keys marked 1 to 9. On pressing the key marked 6 the disk turns six steps +and so on. These have been introduced by Stettner (1882), Max Mayer (1887), +and in the comptometer by Dorr Z. Felt of Chicago. In the comptograph by +Felt and also in "Burrough's Registering Accountant" the result is printed. + +These machines can be used for multiplication, as repeated addition, but +the process is laborious, depending for rapid execution [Sidenote: MODIFIED +ADDITION MACHINES.] essentially on the skill of the operator.[1] To adapt +an addition machine, as described, to rapid multiplication the turnings of +the separate figure disks are replaced by one motion, commonly the turning +of a handle. As, however, the different disks have to be turned through +different steps, a contrivance has to be inserted which can be "set" in +such a way that by one turn of the handle each disk is moved through a +number of steps equal to the number of units which is to be added on that +disk. This may be done by making each of the figure disks receive on its +axis a ten-toothed wheel, called hereafter the A-wheel, which is acted on +either directly or indirectly by another wheel (called the B-wheel) in +which the number of teeth can be varied from 0 to 9. This variation of the +teeth has been effected in different ways. Theoretically the simplest seems +to be to have on the B-wheel nine teeth which can be drawn back into the +body of the wheel, so that at will any number from 0 to 9 can be made to +project. This idea, previously mentioned by Leibnitz, has been realized by +Bohdner in the "Brunsviga." Another way, also due to Leibnitz, consists in +inserting between the axis of the handle bar and the A-wheel a "stepped" +cylinder. This may be considered as being made up of ten wheels large +enough to contain about twenty teeth each; but most of these teeth are cut +away so that these wheels retain in succession 9, 8, ... 1, 0 teeth. If +these are made as one piece they form a cylinder with teeth of lengths from +9, 8 ... times the length of a tooth on a single wheel. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +In the diagrammatic vertical section of such a machine (fig. 2) FF is a +figure disk with a conical wheel A on its axis. In the covering plate HK is +the window W. A stepped cylinder is shown at B. The axis Z, which runs +along the whole machine, is turned by a handle, and itself turns the +cylinder B by aid of conical wheels. Above this cylinder lies an axis EE +with square section along which a wheel D can be moved. The same axis +carries at E' a pair of conical wheels C and C', which can also slide on +the axis so that either can be made to drive the A-wheel. The covering +plate MK has a slot above the axis EE allowing a rod LL' to be moved by aid +of a button L, carrying the wheel D with it. Along the slot is a scale of +numbers 0 1 2 ... 9 corresponding with the number of teeth on the cylinder +B, with which the wheel D will gear in any given position. A series of such +slots is shown in the top middle part of Steiger's machine (fig. 3). Let +now the handle driving the axis Z be turned once round, the button being +set to 4. Then four teeth of the B-wheel will turn D and with it the +A-wheel, and consequently the figure disk will be moved four steps. These +steps will be positive or forward if the wheel C gears in A, and +consequently four will be added to the figure showing at the window W. But +if the wheels CC' are moved to the right, C' will gear with A moving +backwards, with the result that four is subtracted at the window. This +motion of all the wheels C is done simultaneously by the push of a lever +which appears at the top plate of the machine, its two positions being +marked "addition" and "subtraction." The B-wheels are in fixed positions +below the plate MK. Level with this, but separate, is the plate KH with the +window. On it the figure disks are mounted. + +This plate is hinged at the back at H and can be lifted up, thereby +throwing the A-wheels out of gear. When thus raised the figure disks can be +set to any figures; at the same time it can slide to and fro so that an +A-wheel can be put in gear with any C-wheel forming with it one "element." +The number of these varies with the size of the machine. Suppose there are +six B-wheels and twelve figure disks. Let these be all set to zero with the +exception of the last four to the right, these showing 1 4 3 2, and let +these be placed opposite the last B-wheels to the right. If now the buttons +belonging to the latter be set to 3 2 5 6, then on turning the B-wheels all +once round the latter figures will be added to the former, thus showing 4 6 +8 8 at the windows. By aid of the axis Z, this turning of the B-wheels is +performed simultaneously by the movement of one handle. We have thus an +addition machine. If it be required to multiply a number, say 725, by any +number up to six figures, say 357, the buttons are set to the figures 725, +the windows all showing zero. The handle is then turned, 725 appears at the +windows, and successive turns add this number to the first. Hence seven +turns show the product seven times 725. Now the plate with the A-wheels is +lifted and moved one step to the right, then lowered and the handle turned +five times, thus adding fifty times 725 to the product obtained. Finally, +by moving the piate again, and turning the handle three times, the required +product is obtained. If the machine has six B-wheels and twelve disks the +product of two six-figure numbers can be obtained. Division is performed by +repeated subtraction. The lever regulating the C-wheel is set to +subtraction, producing negative steps at the disks. The dividend is set up +at the windows and the divisor at the buttons. Each turn of the handle +subtracts the divisor once. To count the number of turns of the handle a +second set of windows is arranged with number disks below. These have no +carrying arrangement, but one is turned one step for each turn of the +handle. The machine described is essentially that of Thomas of Colmar, +which was the first that came into practical use. Of earlier machines those +of Leibnitz, Mueller (1782), and Hahn (1809) deserve to be mentioned (see +Dyck, _Catalogue_). Thomas's machine has had many imitations, both in +England and on the Continent, with more or less important alterations. +Joseph Edmondson of Halifax has given it a circular form, which has many +advantages. + +The accuracy and durability of any machine depend to a great extent on the +manner in which the carrying mechanism is constructed. Besides, no wheel +must be capable of moving in any other way than that required; hence every +part must be locked and be released only when required to move. Further, +any disk must carry to the next only after the carrying to itself has been +completed. If all were to carry at the same time a considerable force would +be required to turn the handle, and serious strains would be introduced. It +is for this reason that the B-wheels or cylinders have the greater part of +the circumference free from teeth. Again, the carrying acts generally as in +the machine described, in one sense only, and this involves that the handle +be turned always in the same direction. Subtraction therefore cannot be +done by turning it in the opposite way, hence the two wheels C and C' are +introduced. These are moved all at once by one lever acting on a bar shown +at R in section (fig. 2). + +In the Brunsviga, the figure disks are all mounted on a common horizontal +axis, the figures being placed on the rim. On the side of each disk and +rigidly connected with it lies its A-wheel with which it can turn +independent of the others. The B-wheels, all fixed on another horizontal +axis, gear directly on the A-wheels. By an ingenious contrivance the teeth +are made to appear from out of the rim to any desired number. The carrying +mechanism, too, is different, and so arranged that the handle can be turned +either way, no special setting being required for subtraction or division. +It is extremely handy, taking up much less room than the others. Professor +Eduard Selling of Wuerzburg has invented an altogether different machine, +which has been made by Max Ott, of Munich. The B-wheels are replaced by +lazy-tongs. To the joints of these the ends of racks are pinned; and as +they are stretched out the racks are moved forward 0 to 9 steps, according +to the joints they are pinned to. The racks gear directly in the A-wheels, +and the figures are placed on cylinders as in the Brunsviga. The carrying +is done continuously by a train of epicycloidal wheels. The working is thus +rendered very smooth, without the jerks which the ordinary carrying tooth +produces; but the arrangement has the disadvantage that the resulting +figures do not appear in a straight line, a figure followed by a 5, for +instance, being already carried half a step forward. This is not a serious +matter in the hands of a mathematician or an operator using the machine +constantly, but it is serious for casual work. Anyhow, it has prevented the +machine from being a commercial success, and it is not any longer made. For +ease and rapidity of working it surpasses all others. Since the lazy-tongs +allow of an extension equivalent to five turnings of the handle, if the +multiplier is 5 or under, one push forward will do the [v.04 p.0974] same +as five (or less) turns of the handle, and more than two pushes are never +required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The _Steiger-Egli_ machine is a multiplication machine, of which fig. 3 +gives a picture as it appears to the manipulator. The lower [Sidenote: +Multiplication machines.] part of the figure contains, under the covering +plate, a carriage with two rows of windows for the figures marked ff and +gg. On pressing down the button W the carriage can be moved to right or +left. Under each window is a figure disk, as in the Thomas machine. The +upper part has three sections. The one to the right contains the handle K +for working the machine, and a button U for setting the machine for +addition, multiplication, division, or subtraction. In the middle section a +number of parallel slots are seen, with indices which can each be set to +one of the numbers 0 to 9. Below each slot, and parallel to it, lies a +shaft of square section on which a toothed wheel, the A-wheel, slides to +and fro with the index in the slot. Below these wheels again lie 9 toothed +racks at right angles to the slots. By setting the index in any slot the +wheel below it comes into gear with one of these racks. On moving the rack, +the wheels turn their shafts and the figure disks gg opposite to them. The +dimensions are such that a motion of a rack through 1 cm. turns the figure +disk through one "step" or adds 1 to the figure under the window. The racks +are moved by an arrangement contained in the section to the left of the +slots. There is a vertical plate called the multiplication table block, or +more shortly, the _block_. From it project rows of horizontal rods of +lengths varying from 0 to 9 centimetres. If one of these rows is brought +opposite the row of racks and then pushed forward to the right through 9 +cm., each rack will move and add to its figure disk a number of units equal +to the number of centimetres of the rod which operates on it. The block has +a square face divided into a hundred squares. Looking at its face from the +right--_i.e._ from the side where the racks lie--suppose the horizontal +rows of these squares numbered from 0 to 9, beginning at the top, and the +columns numbered similarly, the 0 being to the right; then the +multiplication table for numbers 0 to 9 can be placed on these squares. The +row 7 will therefore contain the numbers 63, 56, ... 7, 0. Instead of these +numbers, each square receives two "rods" perpendicular to the plate, which +may be called the units-rod and the tens-rod. Instead of the number 63 we +have thus a tens-rod 6 cm. and a units-rod 3 cm. long. By aid of a lever H +the block can be raised or lowered so that any row of the block comes to +the level of the racks, the units-rods being opposite the ends of the +racks. + +The action of the machine will be understood by considering an example. Let +it be required to form the product 7 times 385. The indices of three +consecutive slots are set to the numbers 3, 8, 5 respectively. Let the +windows gg opposite these slots be called a, b, c. Then to the figures +shown at these windows we have to add 21, 56, 35 respectively. This is the +same thing as adding first the number 165, formed by the units of each +place, and next 2530 corresponding to the tens; or again, as adding first +165, and then moving the carriage one step to the right, and adding 253. +The first is done by moving the block with the units-rods opposite the +racks forward. The racks are then put out of gear, and together with the +block brought back to their normal position; the block is moved sideways to +bring the tens-rods opposite the racks, and again moved forward, adding the +tens, the carriage having also been moved forward as required. This +complicated movement, together with the necessary carrying, is actually +performed by one turn of the handle. During the first quarter-turn the +block moves forward, the units-rods coming into operation. During the +second quarter-turn the carriage is put out of gear, and moved one step to +the right while the necessary carrying is performed; at the same time the +block and the racks are moved back, and the block is shifted so as to bring +the tens-rods opposite the racks. During the next two quarter-turns the +process is repeated, the block ultimately returning to its original +position. Multiplication by a number with more places is performed as in +the Thomas. The advantage of this machine over the Thomas in saving time is +obvious. Multiplying by 817 requires in the Thomas 16 turns of the handle, +but in the Steiger-Egli only 3 turns, with 3 settings of the lever H. If +the lever H is set to 1 we have a simple addition machine like the Thomas +or the Brunsviga. The inventors state that the product of two 8-figure +numbers can be got in 6-7 seconds, the quotient of a 6-figure number by one +of 3 figures in the same time, while the square root to 5 places of a +9-figure number requires 18 seconds. + +Machines of far greater powers than the arithmometers mentioned have been +invented by Babbage and by Scheutz. A description is impossible without +elaborate drawings. The following account will afford some idea of the +working of Babbage's difference machine. Imagine a number of striking +clocks placed in a row, each with only an hour hand, and with only the +striking apparatus retained. Let the hand of the first clock be turned. As +it comes opposite a number on the dial the clock strikes that number of +times. Let this clock be connected with the second in such a manner that by +each stroke of the first the hand of the second is moved from one number to +the next, but can only strike when the first comes to rest. If the second +hand stands at 5 and the first strikes 3, then when this is done the second +will strike 8; the second will act similarly on the third, and so on. Let +there be four such clocks with hands set to the numbers 6, 6, 1, 0 +respectively. Now set the third clock striking 1, this sets the hand of the +fourth clock to 1; strike the second (6), this puts the third to 7 and the +fourth to 8. Next strike the first (6); this moves the other hands to 12, +19, 27 respectively, and now repeat the striking of the first. The hand of +the fourth clock will then give in succession the numbers 1, 8, 27, 64, +&c., being the cubes of the natural numbers. The numbers thus obtained on +the last dial will have the differences given by those shown in succession +on the dial before it, their differences by the next, and so on till we +come to the constant difference on the first dial. A function + + y = a + bx + cx^2 + dx^3 + ex^4 + +gives, on increasing x always by unity, a set of values for which the +fourth difference is constant. We can, by an arrangement like the above, +with five clocks calculate y for x = 1, 2, 3, ... to any extent. This is +the principle of Babbage's difference machine. The clock dials have to be +replaced by a series of dials as in the arithmometers described, and an +arrangement has to be made to drive the whole by turning one handle by hand +or some other power. Imagine further that with the last clock is connected +a kind of typewriter which prints the number, or, better, impresses the +number in a soft substance from which a stereotype casting can be taken, +and we have a machine which, when once set for a given formula like the +above, will automatically print, or prepare stereotype plates for the +printing of, tables of the function without any copying or typesetting, +thus excluding all possibility of errors. Of this "Difference engine," as +Babbage called it, a part was finished in 1834, the government having +contributed L17,000 towards the cost. This great expense was chiefly due to +the want of proper machine tools. + +Meanwhile Babbage had conceived the idea of a much more powerful machine, +the "analytical engine," intended to perform any series of possible +arithmetical operations. Each of these was to be communicated to the +machine by aid of cards with holes punched in them into which levers could +drop. It was long taken for granted that Babbage left complete plans; the +committee of the British Association appointed to consider this question +came, however, to the conclusion (_Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1878, pp. 92-102) +that no detailed working drawings existed at all; that the drawings left +were only diagrammatic and not nearly sufficient to put into the hands of a +draughtsman for making working plans; and "that in the present state of the +design it is not more than a theoretical possibility." A full account of +the work done by Babbage in connexion with calculating machines, and much +else published by others in connexion therewith, is contained in a work +published by his son, General Babbage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +Slide rules are instruments for performing logarithmic calculations +mechanically, and are extensively used, especially where [Sidenote: Slide +rules.] only rough approximations are required. They are almost as old as +logarithms themselves. Edmund Gunter drew a "logarithmic line" on his +"Scales" as follows (fig. 4):--On a line AB lengths are set off to scale to +represent the common logarithms of the numbers 1 2 3 ... 10, and the points +thus obtained are marked with these numbers. [v.04 p.0975] As log 1 = 0, +the beginning A has the number 1 and B the number 10, hence the unit of +length is AB, as log 10 = 1. The same division is repeated from B to C. The +distance 1,2 thus represents log 2, 1,3 gives log 3, the distance between 4 +and 5 gives log 5 - log 4 = log 5/4, and so for others. In order to +multiply two numbers, say 2 and 3, we have log 2 x 3 = log 2 + log 3. +Hence, setting off the distance 1,2 from 3 forward by the aid of a pair of +compasses will give the distance log 2 + log 3, and will bring us to 6 as +the required product. Again, if it is required to find 4/5 of 7, set off +the distance between 4 and 5 from 7 backwards, and the required number will +be obtained. In the actual scales the spaces between the numbers are +subdivided into 10 or even more parts, so that from two to three figures +may be read. The numbers 2, 3 ... in the interval BC give the logarithms of +10 times the same numbers in the interval AB; hence, if the 2 in the latter +means 2 or .2, then the 2 in the former means 20 or 2. + +Soon after Gunter's publication (1620) of these "logarithmic lines," Edmund +Wingate (1672) constructed the slide rule by repeating the logarithmic +scale on a tongue or "slide," which could be moved along the first scale, +thus avoiding the use of a pair of compasses. A clear idea of this device +can be formed if the scale in fig. 4 be copied on the edge of a strip of +paper placed against the line A C. If this is now moved to the right till +its 1 comes opposite the 2 on the first scale, then the 3 of the second +will be opposite 6 on the top scale, this being the product of 2 and 3; and +in this position every number on the top scale will be twice that on the +lower. For every position of the lower scale the ratio of the numbers on +the two scales which coincide will be the same. Therefore multiplications, +divisions, and simple proportions can be solved at once. + +Dr John Perry added log log scales to the ordinary slide rule in order to +facilitate the calculation of a^x or e^x according to the formula log +loga^x = log loga + logx. These rules are manufactured by A.G. Thornton of +Manchester. + +Many different forms of slide rules are now on the market. The handiest for +general use is the Gravet rule made by Tavernier-Gravet in Paris, according +to instructions of the mathematician V.M.A. Mannheim of the Ecole +Polytechnique in Paris. It contains at the back of the slide scales for the +logarithms of sines and tangents so arranged that they can be worked with +the scale on the front. An improved form is now made by Davis and Son of +Derby, who engrave the scales on white celluloid instead of on box-wood, +thus greatly facilitating the readings. These scales have the distance from +one to ten about twice that in fig. 4. Tavernier-Gravet makes them of that +size and longer, even 1/2 metre long. But they then become somewhat unwieldy, +though they allow of reading to more figures. To get a handy long scale +Professor G. Fuller has constructed a spiral slide rule drawn on a +cylinder, which admits of reading to three and four figures. The handiest +of all is perhaps the "Calculating Circle" by Boucher, made in the form of +a watch. For various purposes special adaptations of the slide rules are +met with--for instance, in various exposure meters for photographic +purposes. General Strachey introduced slide rules into the Meteorological +Office for performing special calculations. At some blast furnaces a slide +rule has been used for determining the amount of coke and flux required for +any weight of ore. Near the balance a large logarithmic scale is fixed with +a slide which has three indices only. A load of ore is put on the scales, +and the first index of the slide is put to the number giving the weight, +when the second and third point to the weights of coke and flux required. + +By placing a number of slides side by side, drawn if need be to different +scales of length, more complicated calculations may be performed. It is +then convenient to make the scales circular. A number of rings or disks are +mounted side by side on a cylinder, each having on its rim a log-scale. + +The "Callendar Cable Calculator," invented by Harold Hastings and +manufactured by Robert W. Paul, is of this kind. In it a number of disks +are mounted on a common shaft, on which each turns freely unless a button +is pressed down whereby the disk is clamped to the shaft. Another disk is +fixed to the shaft. In front of the disks lies a fixed zero line. Let all +disks be set to zero and the shaft be turned, with the first disk clamped, +till a desired number appears on the zero line; let then the first disk be +released and the second clamped and so on; then the fixed disk will add up +all the turnings and thus give the product of the numbers shown on the +several disks. If the division on the disks is drawn to different scales, +more or less complicated calculations may be rapidly performed. Thus if for +some purpose the value of say ab cubed [root]c is required for many different +values of a, b, c, three movable disks would be needed with divisions drawn +to scales of lengths in the proportion 1: 3: 1/2. The instrument now on sale +contains six movable disks. + +_Continuous Calculating Machines or Integrators._--In order to measure the +length of a curve, such as the road on a map, a [Sidenote: Curvometers.] +wheel is rolled along it. For one revolution of the wheel the path +described by its point of contact is equal to the circumference of the +wheel. Thus, if a cyclist counts the number of revolutions of his front +wheel he can calculate the distance ridden by multiplying that number by +the circumference of the wheel. An ordinary cyclometer is nothing but an +arrangement for counting these revolutions, but it is graduated in such a +manner that it gives at once the distance in miles. On the same principle +depend a number of instruments which, under various fancy names, serve to +measure the length of any curve; they are in the shape of a small meter +chiefly for the use of cyclists. They all have a small wheel which is +rolled along the curve to be measured, and this sets a hand in motion which +gives the reading on a dial. Their accuracy is not very great, because it +is difficult to place the wheel so on the paper that the point of contact +lies exactly over a given point; the beginning and end of the readings are +therefore badly defined. Besides, it is not easy to guide the wheel along +the curve to which it should always lie tangentially. To obviate this +defect more complicated curvometers or kartometers have been devised. The +handiest seems to be that of G. Coradi. He uses two wheels; the +tracing-point, halfway between them, is guided along the curve, the line +joining the wheels being kept normal to the curve. This is pretty easily +done by eye; a constant deviation of 8 deg. from this direction produces an +error of only 1%. The sum of the two readings gives the length. E. +Fleischhauer uses three, five or more wheels arranged symmetrically round a +tracer whose point is guided along the curve; the planes of the wheels all +pass through the tracer, and the wheels can only turn in one direction. The +sum of the readings of all the wheels gives approximately the length of the +curve, the approximation increasing with the number of the wheels used. It +is stated that with three wheels practically useful results can be +obtained, although in this case the error, if the instrument is +consistently handled so as always to produce the greatest inaccuracy, may +be as much as 5%. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Planimeters are instruments for the determination by mechanical means of +the area of any figure. A pointer, generally called the [Sidenote: +Planimeters.] "tracer," is guided round the boundary of the figure, and +then the area is read off on the recording apparatus of the instrument. The +simplest and most useful is Amsler's (fig. 5). It consists of two bars of +metal OQ and QT, [v.04 p.0976] which are hinged together at Q. At O is a +needle-point which is driven into the drawing-board, and at T is the +tracer. As this is guided round the boundary of the figure a wheel W +mounted on QT rolls on the paper, and the turning of this wheel measures, +to some known scale, the area. We shall give the theory of this instrument +fully in an elementary manner by aid of geometry. The theory of other +planimeters can then be easily understood. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +Consider the rod QT with the wheel W, without the arm OQ. Let it be placed +with the wheel on the paper, and now moved perpendicular to itself from AC +to BD (fig. 6). The rod sweeps over, or generates, the area of the +rectangle ACDB = lp, where l denotes the length of the rod and p the +distance AB through which it has been moved. This distance, as measured by +the rolling of the wheel, which acts as a curvometer, will be called the +"roll" of the wheel and be denoted by w. In this case p = w, and the area P +is given by P = wl. Let the circumference of the wheel be divided into say +a hundred equal parts u; then w registers the number of u's rolled over, +and w therefore gives the number of areas lu contained in the rectangle. By +suitably selecting the radius of the wheel and the length l, this area lu +may be any convenient unit, say a square inch or square centimetre. By +changing l the unit will be changed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +Again, suppose the rod to turn (fig. 7) about the end Q, then it will +describe an arc of a circle, and the rod will generate an area 1/2l squared[theta], +where [theta] is the angle AQB through which the rod has turned. The wheel +will roll over an arc c[theta], where c is the distance of the wheel from +Q. The "roll" is now w = c[theta]; hence the area generated is + + P = 1/2 l squared/c w, + +and is again determined by w. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +Next let the rod be moved parallel to itself, but in a direction not +perpendicular to itself (fig. 8). The wheel will now not simply roll. +Consider a _small_ motion of the rod from QT to Q'T'. This may be resolved +into the motion to RR' perpendicular to the rod, whereby the rectangle +QTR'R is generated, and the sliding of the rod along itself from RR' to +Q'T'. During this second step no area will be generated. During the first +step the roll of the wheel will be QR, whilst during the second step there +will be no roll at all. The roll of the wheel will therefore measure the +area of the rectangle which equals the parallelogram QTT'Q'. If the whole +motion of the rod be considered as made up of a very great number of small +steps, each resolved as stated, it will be seen that the roll again +measures the area generated. But it has to be noticed that now the wheel +does not only roll, but also slips, over the paper. This, as will be +pointed out later, may introduce an error in the reading. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +We can now investigate the most general motion of the rod. We again resolve +the motion into a number of small steps. Let (fig. 9) AB be one position, +CD the next after a step so small that the arcs AC and BD over which the +ends have passed may be considered as straight lines. The area generated is +ABDC. This motion we resolve into a step from AB to CB', parallel to AB and +a turning about C from CB' to CD, steps such as have been investigated. +During the first, the "roll" will be p the altitude of the parallelogram; +during the second will be c[theta]. Therefore + + w = p + c[theta]. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +The area generated is lp + 1/2 l^2[theta], or, expressing p in terms of w, lw ++ (1/2l^2 - lc)[theta]. For a finite motion we get the area equal to the sum +of the areas generated during the different steps. But the wheel will +continue rolling, and give the whole roll as the sum of the rolls for the +successive steps. Let then w denote the whole roll (in fig. 10), and let +[alpha] denote the sum of all the small turnings [theta]; then the area is + + P = lw + (1/2l^2 - lc)[alpha] . . . (1) + +Here [alpha] is the angle which the last position of the rod makes with the +first. In all applications of the planimeter the rod is brought back to its +original position. Then the angle [alpha] is either zero, or it is 2[pi] if +the rod has been once turned quite round. + +Hence in the first case we have + + P = lw . . . (2a) + +and w gives the area as in case of a rectangle. + +In the other case + + P = lw + lC . . . (2b) + +where C = (1/2l-c)2[pi], if the rod has once turned round. The number C will +be seen to be always the same, as it depends only on the dimensions of the +instrument. Hence now again the area is determined by w if C is known. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +Thus it is seen that the area generated by the motion of the rod can be +measured by the roll of the wheel; it remains to show how any given area +can be generated by the rod. Let the rod move in any manner but return to +its original position. Q and T then describe closed curves. Such motion may +be called cyclical. Here the theorem holds:--_If a rod QT performs a +cyclical motion, then the area generated equals the difference of the areas +enclosed by the paths of T and Q respectively._ The truth of this +proposition will be seen from a figure. In fig. 11 different positions of +the moving rod QT have been marked, and its motion can be easily followed. +It will be seen that every part of the area TT'BB' will be passed over once +and always by a _forward motion_ of the rod, whereby the wheel will +_increase_ its roll. The area AA'QQ' will also be swept over once, but with +a _backward_ roll; it must therefore be counted as negative. The area +between the curves is passed over twice, once with a forward and once with +a backward roll; it therefore counts once positive and once negative; hence +not at all. In more complicated figures it may happen that the area within +one of the curves, say TT'BB', is passed over several times, but then it +will be passed over once more in the forward direction than in the backward +one, and thus the theorem will still hold. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +To use Amsler's planimeter, place the pole O on the paper _outside_ the +figure to be measured. Then the area generated by QT is that of the figure, +because the point Q moves on an arc of a circle to and fro enclosing no +area. At the same time the rod comes back without making a complete +rotation. We have therefore in formula (1), [alpha] = 0; and hence + + P = lw, + +[v.04 p.0977] which is read off. But if the area is too large the pole O +may be placed within the area. The rod describes the area between the +boundary of the figure and the circle with radius r = OQ, whilst the rod +turns once completely round, making [alpha] = 2[pi]. The area measured by +the wheel is by formula (1), lw + (1/2l squared-lc) 2[pi]. + +To this the area of the circle [pi]r squared must be added, so that now + + P = lw + (1/2l squared-lc)2[pi] + [pi]r squared, + +or + + P = lw + C, + +where + + C = (1/2l squared-lc)2[pi] + [pi]r squared, + +is a constant, as it depends on the dimensions of the instrument alone. +This constant is given with each instrument. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +Amsler's planimeters are made either with a rod QT of fixed length, which +gives the area therefore in terms of a fixed unit, say in square inches, or +else the rod can be moved in a sleeve to which the arm OQ is hinged (fig. +13). This makes it possible to change the unit lu, which is proportional to +l. + +In the planimeters described the recording or integrating apparatus is a +smooth wheel rolling on the paper or on some other surface. Amsler has +described another recorder, viz. a wheel with a sharp edge. This will roll +on the paper but not slip. Let the rod QT carry with it an arm CD +perpendicular to it. Let there be mounted on it a wheel W, which can slip +along and turn about it. If now QT is moved parallel to itself to Q'T', +then W will roll without slipping parallel to QT, and slip along CD. This +amount of slipping will equal the perpendicular distance between QT and +Q'T', and therefore serve to measure the area swept over like the wheel in +the machine already described. The turning of the rod will also produce +slipping of the wheel, but it will be seen without difficulty that this +will cancel during a cyclical motion of the rod, provided the rod does not +perform a whole rotation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +The first planimeter was made on the following principles:--A frame FF +(fig. 15) can move parallel to OX. It carries a rod TT [Sidenote: Early +forms.] movable along its own length, hence the tracer T can be guided +along any curve ATB. When the rod has been pushed back to Q'Q, the tracer +moves along the axis OX. On the frame a cone VCC' is mounted with its axis +sloping so that its top edge is horizontal and parallel to TT', whilst its +vertex V is opposite Q'. As the frame moves it turns the cone. A wheel W is +mounted on the rod at T', or on an axis parallel to and rigidly connected +with it. This wheel rests on the top edge of the cone. If now the tracer T, +when pulled out through a distance y above Q, be moved parallel to OX +through a distance dx, the frame moves through an equal distance, and the +cone turns through an angle d[theta] proportional to dx. The wheel W rolls +on the cone to an amount again proportional to dx, and also proportional to +y, its distance from V. Hence the roll of the wheel is proportional to the +area ydx described by the rod QT. As T is moved from A to B along the curve +the roll of the wheel will therefore be proportional to the area AA'B'B. If +the curve is closed, and the tracer moved round it, the roll will measure +the area independent of the position of the axis OX, as will be seen by +drawing a figure. The cone may with advantage be replaced by a horizontal +disk, with its centre at V; this allows of y being negative. It may be +noticed at once that the roll of the wheel gives at every moment the area +A'ATQ. It will therefore allow of registering a set of values of +[Integral,a:x] ydx for any values of x, and thus of tabulating the values +of any indefinite integral. In this it differs from Amsler's planimeter. +Planimeters of this type were first invented in 1814 by the Bavarian +engineer Hermann, who, however, published nothing. They were reinvented by +Prof. Tito Gonnella of Florence in 1824, and by the Swiss engineer +Oppikofer, and improved by Ernst in Paris, the astronomer Hansen in Gotha, +and others (see Henrici, _British Association Report_, 1894). But all were +driven out of the field by Amsler's simpler planimeter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +Altogether different from the planimeters described is the hatchet +planimeter, invented by Captain Prytz, a Dane, and made by Herr [Sidenote: +Hatchet planimeters.] Cornelius Knudson in Copenhagen. It consists of a +single rigid piece like fig. 16. The one end T is the tracer, the other Q +has a sharp hatchet-like edge. If this is placed with QT on the paper and T +is moved along any curve, Q will follow, describing a "curve of pursuit." +In consequence of the sharp edge, Q can only move in the direction of QT, +but the whole can turn about Q. Any small step forward can therefore be +considered as made up of a motion along QT, together with a turning about +Q. The latter motion alone generates an area. If therefore a line OA = QT +is turning about a fixed point O, always keeping parallel to QT, it will +sweep over an area equal to that generated by the more general motion of +QT. Let now (fig. 17) QT be placed on OA, and T be guided round the closed +curve in the sense of the arrow. Q will describe a curve OSB. It may be +made visible by putting a piece of "copying paper" under the hatchet. When +T has returned to A the hatchet has the position BA. A line turning from OA +about O kept parallel to QT will describe the circular sector OAC, which is +equal in magnitude and sense to AOB. This therefore measures the area +generated by the motion of QT. To make this motion cyclical, suppose the +hatchet turned about A till Q comes from B to O. Hereby the sector AOB is +again described, and again in the positive sense, if it is remembered that +it turns about the tracer T fixed at A. The whole area now generated is +therefore twice the area of this sector, or equal to OA. OB, where OB is +measured along the arc. According to the theorem given above, this area +also equals the area of the given curve less the area OSBO. To make this +area disappear, a slight modification of the motion of QT is required. Let +the tracer T be moved, both from the first position OA and the last BA of +the rod, along some straight line AX. Q describes curves OF and BH +respectively. Now begin the motion with T at some point R on AX, and move +it along this line to A, round the curve and back to R. Q will describe the +curve DOSBED, if the motion is again made cyclical by turning QT with T +fixed at A. If R is properly selected, the path of Q will cut itself, and +parts of the area will be positive, parts negative, as marked in the +figure, and may therefore be made to vanish. When this is done the area of +the curve will equal twice the area of the sector RDE. It is therefore +equal to the arc DE multiplied by the length QT; if the latter equals 10 +in., then 10 times the number of inches contained in the arc DE gives the +number of square inches contained within the given figure. If the area is +not too large, the arc DE may be replaced by the straight line DE. + +To use this simple instrument as a planimeter requires the possibility of +selecting the point R. The geometrical theory here given has so far failed +to give any rule. In fact, every line through any point in the curve +contains such a point. The analytical theory of the inventor, which is very +similar to that given by F.W. Hill (_Phil. Mag._ 1894), is too complicated +to repeat here. The integrals expressing the area generated by QT have to +be expanded in a series. By retaining only the most important terms a +result is obtained which comes to this, that if the mass-centre of the area +be taken as R, then A may be any point on the curve. This is only +approximate. Captain Prytz gives the following instructions:--Take a point +R as near as you can guess to the mass-centre, put the tracer T on it, the +knife-edge Q outside; make a mark on the paper by pressing the knife-edge +into it; guide the tracer from R along a straight line to a point A on the +boundary, round the boundary, [v.04 p.0978] and back from A to R; lastly, +make again a mark with the knife-edge, and measure the distance c between +the marks; then the area is nearly cl, where l = QT. A nearer approximation +is obtained by repeating the operation after turning QT through 180 deg. from +the original position, and using the mean of the two values of c thus +obtained. The greatest dimension of the area should not exceed 1/2l, +otherwise the area must be divided into parts which are determined +separately. This condition being fulfilled, the instrument gives very +satisfactory results, especially if the figures to be measured, as in the +case of indicator diagrams, are much of the same shape, for in this case +the operator soon learns where to put the point R. + +Integrators serve to evaluate a definite integral [Integral,a:b] f(x)dx If +we plot out [Sidenote: Integrators.] the curve whose equation is y = f(x), +the integral [Integral]ydx between the proper limits represents the area of +a figure bounded by the curve, the axis of x, and the ordinates at x=a, +x=b. Hence if the curve is drawn, any planimeter may be used for finding +the value of the integral. In this sense planimeters are integrators. In +fact, a planimeter may often be used with advantage to solve problems more +complicated than the determination of a mere area, by converting the one +problem graphically into the other. We give an example:-- + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.] + +Let the problem be to determine for the figure ABG (fig. 18), not only the +area, but also the first and second moment with regard to the axis XX. At a +distance a draw a line, C'D', parallel to XX. In the figure draw a number +of lines parallel to AB. Let CD be one of them. Draw C and D vertically +upwards to C'D', join these points to some point O in XX, and mark the +points C_1D_1 where OC' and OD' cut CD. Do this for a sufficient number of +lines, and join the points C_1D_1 thus obtained. This gives a new curve, +which may be called the first derived curve. By the same process get a new +curve from this, the second derived curve. By aid of a planimeter determine +the areas P, P_1, P_2, of these three curves. Then, if [=x] is the distance +of the mass-centre of the given area from XX; [=x]_1 the same quantity for +the first derived figure, and I = Ak squared the moment of inertia of the first +figure, k its radius of gyration, with regard to XX as axis, the following +relations are easily proved:-- + + P[=x] = aP_1; P_1[=x]_1 = aP_2; I = aP_1[=x]_1 = a squaredP_1P_2; k squared = + [=x][=x]_1, + +which determine P, [=x] and I or k. Amsler has constructed an integrator +which serves to determine these quantities by guiding a tracer once round +the boundary of the given figure (see below). Again, it may be required to +find the value of an integral [Integral]y[phi](x)dx between given limits +where [phi](x) is a simple function like sin nx, and where y is given as +the ordinate of a curve. The harmonic analysers described below are +examples of instruments for evaluating such integrals. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.] + +Amsler has modified his planimeter in such a manner that instead of the +area it gives the first or second moment of a figure about an axis in its +plane. An instrument giving all three quantities simultaneously is known as +Amsler's integrator or moment-planimeter. It has one tracer, but three +recording wheels. It is mounted on a [Sidenote: Amsler's Integrator.] +carriage which runs on a straight rail (fig. 19). This carries a horizontal +disk A, movable about a vertical axis Q. Slightly more than half the +circumference is circular with radius 2a, the other part with radius 3a. +Against these gear two disks, B and C, with radii a; their axes are fixed +in the carriage. From the disk A extends to the left a rod OT of length l, +on which a recording wheel W is mounted. The disks B and C have also +recording wheels, W_1 and W_2, the axis of W_1 being perpendicular, that of +W_2 parallel to OT. If now T is guided round a figure F, O will move to and +fro in a straight line. This part is therefore a simple planimeter, in +which the one end of the arm moves in a straight line instead of in a +circular arc. Consequently, the "roll" of W will record the area of the +figure. Imagine now that the disks B and C also receive arms of length l +from the centres of the disks to points T_1 and T_2, and in the direction +of the axes of the wheels. Then these arms with their wheels will again be +planimeters. As T is guided round the given figure F, these points T_1 and +T_2 will describe closed curves, F_1 and F_2, and the "rolls" of W_1 and +W_2 will give their areas A_1 and A_2. Let XX (fig. 20) denote the line, +parallel to the rail, on which O moves; then when T lies on this line, the +arm BT_1 is perpendicular to XX, and CT_2 parallel to it. If OT is turned +through an angle [theta], clockwise, BT_1 will turn counter-clockwise +through an angle 2[theta], and CT_2 through an angle 3[theta], also +counter-clockwise. If in this position T is moved through a distance x +parallel to the axis XX, the points T_1 and T_2 will move parallel to it +through an equal distance. If now the first arm is turned through a small +angle d[theta], moved back through a distance x, and lastly turned back +through the angle d[theta], the tracer T will have described the boundary +of a small strip of area. We divide the given figure into [v.04 p.0979] +such strips. Then to every such strip will correspond a strip of equal +length x of the figures described by T_1 and T_2. + +The distances of the points, T, T_1, T_2, from the axis XX may be called y, +y_1, y_2. They have the values + + y = l sin [theta], y_1 = l cos 2[theta], y_2 = -l sin 3[theta], + +from which + + dy = l cos [theta].d[theta], dy_1 = - 2l sin 2[theta].d[theta], dy_2 = - + 3l cos 3[theta].d[theta]. + +The areas of the three strips are respectively + + dA = xdy, dA_1 = xdy_1, dA_2 = xdy_2. + +Now dy_1 can be written dy_1 = - 4l sin [theta] cos [theta]d[theta] = - 4 +sin [theta]dy; therefore + + dA_1 = - 4 sin [theta].dA = - (4/l) ydA; + +whence + + A_1 = - 4/l [Integral]ydA = - 4/l A[=y], + +where A is the area of the given figure, and [=y] the distance of its +mass-centre from the axis XX. But A_1 is the area of the second figure F_1, +which is proportional to the reading of W_1. Hence we may say + + A[=y] = C_1w_1, + +where C_1 is a constant depending on the dimensions of the instrument. The +negative sign in the expression for A_1 is got rid of by numbering the +wheel W_1 the other way round. + +Again + + dy_2 = - 3l cos [theta] {4 cos squared [theta] - 3} d[theta] = - 3 {4 cos squared + [theta] - 3} dy = - 3 {(4/l squared) y squared - 3} dy, + +which gives + + dA_2 = - (12/l squared)y squareddA + 9dA, + +and + + A_2 = - (12/l squared) [Integral]y squareddA + 9A. + +But the integral gives the moment of inertia I of the area A about the axis +XX. As A_2 is proportional to the roll of W_2, A to that of W, we can write + + I = Cw - C_2 w_2, + A[=y] = C_1 w_1, + A = C_c w. + +If a line be drawn parallel to the axis XX at the distance [=y], it will +pass through the mass-centre of the given figure. If this represents the +section of a beam subject to bending, this line gives for a proper choice +of XX the neutral fibre. The moment of inertia for it will be I + A[=y] squared. +Thus the instrument gives at once all those quantities which are required +for calculating the strength of the beam under bending. One chief use of +this integrator is for the calculation of the displacement and stability of +a ship from the drawings of a number of sections. It will be noticed that +the length of the figure in the direction of XX is only limited by the +length of the rail. + +This integrator is also made in a simplified form without the wheel W_2. It +then gives the area and first moment of any figure. + +While an integrator determines the value of a definite integral, hence a +[Sidenote: Integraphs.] mere constant, an integraph gives the value of an +indefinite integral, which is a function of x. Analytically if y is a given +function f(x) of x and + + Y = [Integral,c:x]ydx or Y = [Integral]ydx + const. + +the function Y has to be determined from the condition + + dY/dx = y. + +Graphically y = f(x) is either given by a curve, or the graph of the +equation is drawn: y, therefore, and similarly Y, is a length. But dY/dx is +in this case a mere number, and cannot equal a length y. Hence we introduce +an arbitrary constant length a, the unit to which the integraph draws the +curve, and write + + dY/dx = y/a and aY = [Integral]ydx + +Now for the Y-curve dY/dx = tan [phi], where [phi] is the angle between the +tangent to the curve, and the axis of x. Our condition therefore becomes + + tan [phi] = y / a. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.] + +This [phi] is easily constructed for any given point on the y-curve:--From +the foot B' (fig. 21) of the ordinate y = B'B set off, as in the figure, +B'D = a, then angle BDB' = [phi]. Let now DB' with a perpendicular B'B move +along the axis of x, whilst B follows the y-curve, then a pen P on B'B will +describe the Y-curve provided it moves at every moment in a direction +parallel to BD. The object of the integraph is to draw this new curve when +the tracer of the instrument is guided along the y-curve. + +The first to describe such instruments was Abdank-Abakanowicz, who in 1889 +published a book in which a variety of mechanisms to obtain the object in +question are described. Some years later G. Coradi, in Zuerich, carried out +his ideas. Before this was done, C.V. Boys, without knowing of +Abdank-Abakanowicz's work, actually made an integraph which was exhibited +at the Physical Society in 1881. Both make use of a sharp edge wheel. Such +a wheel will not slip sideways; it will roll forwards along the line in +which its plane intersects the plane of the paper, and while rolling will +be able to turn gradually about its point of contact. If then the angle +between its direction of rolling and the x-axis be always equal to [phi], +the wheel will roll along the Y-curve required. The axis of x is fixed only +in direction; shifting it parallel to itself adds a constant to Y, and this +gives the arbitrary constant of integration. + +In fact, if Y shall vanish for x = c, or if + + Y = [Integral,c:x]ydx, + +then the axis of x has to be drawn through that point on the y-curve which +corresponds to x = c. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.] + +In Coradi's integraph a rectangular frame F_1F_2F_3F_4 (fig. 22) rests with +four rollers R on the drawing board, and can roll freely in the direction +OX, which will be called the axis of the instrument. On the front edge +F_1F_2 travels a carriage AA' supported at A' on another rail. A bar DB can +turn about D, fixed to the frame in its axis, and slide through a point B +fixed in the carriage AA'. Along it a block K can slide. On the back edge +F_3F_4 of the frame another carriage C travels. It holds a vertical spindle +with the knife-edge wheel at the bottom. At right angles to the plane of +the wheel, the spindle has an arm GH, which is kept parallel to a [v.04 +p.0980] similar arm attached to K perpendicular to DB. The plane of the +knife-edge wheel r is therefore always parallel to DB. If now the point B +is made to follow a curve whose y is measured from OX, we have in the +triangle BDB', with the angle [phi] at D, + + tan [phi] = y/a, + +where a = DB' is the constant base to which the instrument works. The point +of contact of the wheel r or any point of the carriage C will therefore +always move in a direction making an angle [phi] with the axis of x, whilst +it moves in the x-direction through the same distance as the point B on the +y-curve--that is to say, it will trace out the integral curve required, and +so will any point rigidly connected with the carriage C. A pen P attached +to this carriage will therefore draw the integral curve. Instead of moving +B along the y-curve, a tracer T fixed to the carriage A is guided along it. +For using the instrument the carriage is placed on the drawing-board with +the front edge parallel to the axis of y, the carriage A being clamped in +the central position with A at E and B at B' on the axis of x. The tracer +is then placed on the x-axis of the y-curve and clamped to the carriage, +and the instrument is ready for use. As it is convenient to have the +integral curve placed directly opposite to the y-curve so that +corresponding values of y or Y are drawn on the same line, a pen P' is +fixed to C in a line with the tracer. + +Boys' integraph was invented during a sleepless night, and during the +following days carried out as a working model, which gives highly +satisfactory results. It is ingenious in its simplicity, and a direct +realization as a mechanism of the principles explained in connexion with +fig. 21. The line B'B is represented by the edge of an ordinary T-square +sliding against the edge of a drawing-board. The points B and P are +connected by two rods BE and EP, jointed at E. At B, E and P are small +pulleys of equal diameters. Over these an endless string runs, ensuring +that the pulleys at B and P always turn through equal angles. The pulley at +B is fixed to a rod which passes through the point D, which itself is fixed +in the T-square. The pulley at P carries the knife-edge wheel. If then B +and P are kept on the edge of the T-square, and B is guided along the +curve, the wheel at P will roll along the Y-curve, it having been +originally set parallel to BD. To give the wheel at P sufficient grip on +the paper, a small loaded three-wheeled carriage, the knife-edge wheel P +being one of its wheels, is added. If a piece of copying paper is inserted +between the wheel P and the drawing paper the Y-curve is drawn very +sharply. + +Integraphs have also been constructed, by aid of which ordinary +differential equations, especially linear ones, can be solved, the solution +being given as a curve. The first suggestion in this direction was made by +Lord Kelvin. So far no really useful instrument has been made, although the +ideas seem sufficiently developed to enable a skilful instrument-maker to +produce one should there be sufficient demand for it. Sometimes a +combination of graphical work with an integraph will serve the purpose. +This is the case if the variables are separated, hence if the equation + + Xdx + Ydy = 0 + +has to be integrated where X = p(x), Y = [phi](y) are given as curves. If +we write + + au = [Integral]Xdx, av = [Integral]Ydy, + +then u as a function of x, and v as a function of y can be graphically +found by the integraph. The general solution is then + + u + v = c + +with the condition, for the determination for c, that y = y_0, for x = x_0. +This determines c = u_0 + v_0, where u_0 and v_0 are known from the graphs +of u and v. From this the solution as a curve giving y a function of x can +be drawn:--For any x take u from its graph, and find the y for which v = c +- u, plotting these y against their x gives the curve required. + +If a periodic function y of x is given by its graph for one period c, it +can, according to the theory of Fourier's Series, be [Sidenote: Harmonic +analysers.] expanded in a series. + + y = A_0 + A_1 cos [theta] + A_2 cos 2[theta] + ... + A_n cos n[theta] + + ... + + B_1 sin [theta] + B_2 sin 2[theta] + ... + B_n sin n[theta] + + ... + +where [theta] = 2[pi]x / c. + +The absolute term A_0 equals the mean ordinate of the curve, and can +therefore be determined by any planimeter. The other co-efficients are + + A_n = 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] y cos n[theta].d[theta]; + + B_n = 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] y sin n[theta].d[theta]. + +A harmonic analyser is an instrument which determines these integrals, and +is therefore an integrator. The first instrument of this kind is due to +Lord Kelvin (_Proc. Roy Soc._, vol xxiv., 1876). Since then several others +have been invented (see Dyck's _Catalogue_; Henrici, _Phil. Mag._, July +1894; _Phys. Soc._, 9th March; Sharp, _Phil. Mag._, July 1894; _Phys. +Soc._, 13th April). In Lord Kelvin's instrument the curve to be analysed is +drawn on a cylinder whose circumference equals the period _c_, and the sine +and cosine terms of the integral are introduced by aid of simple harmonic +motion. Sommerfeld and Wiechert, of Konigsberg, avoid this motion by +turning the cylinder about an axis perpendicular to that of the cylinder. +Both these machines are large, and practically fixtures in the room where +they are used. The first has done good work in the Meteorological Office in +London in the analysis of meteorological curves. Quite different and +simpler constructions can be used, if the integrals determining A_n and B_n +be integrated by parts. This gives + + nA_n = - 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] sin n[theta].dy; + + nB_n = 1/[pi] [Integral,0:2[pi]] cos n[theta].dy. + +An analyser presently to be described, based on these forms, has been +constructed by Coradi in Zurich (1894). Lastly, a most powerful analyser +has been invented by Michelson and Stratton (U.S.A.) (_Phil Mag._, 1898), +which will also be described. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.] + +The _Henrici-Coradi_ analyser has to add up the values of dy.sin n[theta] +and dy.cos n[theta]. But these are the components of dy in two directions +perpendicular to each other, of which one makes an angle n[theta] with the +axis of x or of [theta]. This decomposition can be performed by Amsler's +registering wheels. Let two of these be mounted, perpendicular to each +other, in one horizontal frame which can be turned about a vertical axis, +the wheels resting on the paper on which the curve is drawn. When the +tracer is placed on the curve at the point [theta] = 0 the one axis is +parallel to the axis of [theta]. As the tracer follows the curve the frame +is made to turn through an angle n[theta]. At the same time the frame moves +with the tracer in the direction of y. For a small motion the two wheels +will then register just the components required, and during the continued +motion of the tracer along the curve the wheels will add these components, +and thus give the values of nA_n and nB_n. The factors 1/[pi] and -1/[pi] +are taken account of in the graduation of the wheels. The readings have +then to be divided by n to give the coefficients required. Coradi's +realization of this idea will be understood from fig. 23. The frame PP' of +the instrument rests on three rollers E, E', and D. The first two drive an +axis with a disk C on it. It is placed parallel to the axis of x of the +curve. The tracer is attached to a carriage WW which runs on the rail P. As +it follows the curve this carriage moves through a distance x whilst the +whole instrument runs forward through a distance y. The wheel C turns +through an angle proportional, during each small motion, to dy. On it rests +a glass sphere which will therefore also turn about its horizontal axis +proportionally, to dy. The registering frame is suspended by aid of a +spindle S, having a disk H. It is turned by aid of a wire connected with +the carriage WW, and turns n times round as the tracer describes the whole +length of the curve. The registering wheels R, R' rest against the glass +sphere and give the values nA_n and nB_n. The value of n can be altered by +changing the disk H into one of different diameter. It is also possible to +mount on the same frame a number of spindles with registering wheels and +glass spheres, each of the latter resting on a separate disk C. As many as +five have been introduced. One guiding of the tracer over the curve gives +then at once the ten coefficients A_n and B_n for n = 1 to 5. + +All the calculating machines and integrators considered so far have been +kinematic. We have now to describe a most remarkable instrument based on +the equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of springs. The body +itself for rigidity's sake is made a hollow [v.04 p.0981] [Sidenote: +Michelson and Stratton analyzer] cylinder H, shown in fig. 24 in end view. +It can turn about its axis, being supported on knife-edges O. To it springs +are attached at the prolongation of a horizontal diameter; to the left a +series of n small springs s, all alike, side by side at equal intervals at +a distance a from the axis of the knife-edges; to the right a single spring +S at distance b. These springs are supposed to follow Hooke's law. If the +elongation beyond the natural length of a spring is [lambda], the force +asserted by it is p = k[lambda]. Let for the position of equilibrium l, L +be respectively the elongation of a small and the large spring, k, K their +constants, then + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + + nkla = KLb. + +The position now obtained will be called the _normal_ one. Now let the top +ends C of the small springs be raised through distances y_1, y_2, ... y_n. +Then the body H will turn; B will move down through a distance z and A up +through a distance (a/b)z. The new forces thus introduced will be in +equilibrium if + + ak([Sigma]y - n (a/b) z) = bKz. + +Or + + z = [Sigma]y / (n a/b + b/a K/k) = [Sigma]y / (n (a/b + l/L)). + +This shows that the displacement z of B is proportional to the sum of the +displacements y of the tops of the small springs. The arrangement can +therefore be used for the addition of a number of displacements. The +instrument made has eighty small springs, and the authors state that from +the experience gained there is no impossibility of increasing their number +even to a thousand. The displacement z, which necessarily must be small, +can be enlarged by aid of a lever OT'. To regulate the displacements y of +the points C (fig. 24) each spring is attached to a lever EC, fulcrum E. To +this again a long rod FG is fixed by aid of a joint at F. The lower end of +this rod rests on another lever GP, fulcrum N, at a changeable distance y" += NG from N. The elongation y of any spring s can thus be produced by a +motion of P. If P be raised through a distance y', then the displacement y +of C will be proportional to y'y"; it is, say, equal to [mu]y'y" where [mu] +is the same for all springs. Now let the points C, and with it the springs +s, the levers, &c., be numbered C_0, C_1, C_2 ... There will be a +zero-position for the points P all in a straight horizontal line. When in +this position the points C will also be in a line, and this we take as axis +of x. On it the points C_0, C_1, C_2 ... follow at equal distances, say +each equal to h. The point C_k lies at the distance kh which gives the x of +this point. Suppose now that the rods FG are all set at unit distance NG +from N, and that the points P be raised so as to form points in a +continuous curve y' = [phi](x), then the points C will lie in a curve y = +[mu][phi](x). The area of this curve is + + [mu] [Integral,0:c][phi](x)dx. + +Approximately this equals [Sigma]hy = h[Sigma]y. Hence we have + + [Integral,0:c][phi](x)dx = h/[mu] [Sigma]y = ([lambda]h/[mu])z, + +where z is the displacement of the point B which can be measured. The curve +y' = [phi](x) may be supposed cut out as a templet. By putting this under +the points P the area of the curve is thus determined--the instrument is a +simple integrator. + +The integral can be made more general by varying the distances NG = y". +These can be set to form another curve y" = f(x). We have now y = [mu]y'y" += [mu] f(x) [phi](x), and get as before + + [Integral,0:c]f(x) [phi](x)dx = ([lambda]h/[mu])z. + +These integrals are obtained by the addition of ordinates, and therefore by +an approximate method. But the ordinates are numerous, there being 79 of +them, and the results are in consequence very accurate. The displacement z +of B is small, but it can be magnified by taking the reading of a point T' +on the lever AB. The actual reading is done at point T connected with T' by +a long vertical rod. At T either a scale can be placed or a drawing-board, +on which a pen at T marks the displacement. + +If the points G are set so that the distances NG on the different levers +are proportional to the terms of a numerical series + + u_0 + u_1 + u_2 + ... + +and if all P be moved through the same distance, then z will be +proportional to the sum of this series up to 80 terms. We get an _Addition +Machine_. + +The use of the machine can, however, be still further extended. Let a +templet with a curve y' = [phi]([xi]) be set under each point P at right +angles to the axis of x hence parallel to the plane of the figure. Let +these templets form sections of a continuous surface, then each section +parallel to the axis of x will form a curve like the old y' = [phi](x), but +with a variable parameter [xi], or y' = [phi]([xi], x). For each value of +[xi] the displacement of T will give the integral + + Y = [Integral,0:c] f(x) [phi]([xi]x) dx = F([xi]), . . . (1) + +where Y equals the displacement of T to some scale dependent on the +constants of the instrument. + +If the whole block of templets be now pushed under the points P and if the +drawing-board be moved at the same rate, then the pen T will draw the curve +Y = F([xi]). The instrument now is an _integraph_ giving the value of a +definite integral as function of a _variable parameter_. + +Having thus shown how the lever with its springs can be made to serve a +variety of purposes, we return to the description of the actual instrument +constructed. The machine serves first of all to sum up a series of harmonic +motions or to draw the curve + + Y = a_1 cos x + a_2 cos 2x + a_3 cos 3x + . . . (2) + +The motion of the points P_1P_2 ... is here made harmonic by aid of a +series of excentric disks arranged so that for one revolution of the first +the other disks complete 2, 3, ... revolutions. They are all driven by one +handle. These disks take the place of the templets described before. The +distances NG are made equal to the amplitudes a_1, a_2, a_3, ... The +drawing-board, moved forward by the turning of the handle, now receives a +curve of which (2) is the equation. If all excentrics are turned through a +right angle a sine-series can be added up. + +It is a remarkable fact that the same machine can be used as a harmonic +analyser of a given curve. Let the curve to be analysed be set off along +the levers NG so that in the old notation it is + + y" = f(x), + +whilst the curves y' = [phi](x[xi]) are replaced by the excentrics, hence +[xi] by the angle [theta] through which the first excentric is turned, so +that y'_k = cos k[theta]. But kh = x and nh = [pi], n being the number of +springs s, and [pi] taking the place of c. This makes + + k[theta] = (n/[pi])[theta].x. + +Hence our instrument draws a curve which gives the integral (1) in the form + + y = 2/[pi] [Integral,0:[pi]] f(x)cos((n/[pi])[theta]x) dx + +as a function of [theta]. But this integral becomes the coefficient a_m in +the cosine expansion if we make + + [theta]n/[pi] = m or [theta] = m[pi]/n. + +The ordinates of the curve at the values [theta] = [pi]/n, 2[pi]/n, ... +give therefore all coefficients up to m = 80. The curve shows at a glance +which and how many of the coefficients are of importance. + +The instrument is described in _Phil. Mag._, vol. xlv., 1898. A number of +curves drawn by it are given, and also examples of the analysis of curves +for which the coefficients a_m are known. These indicate that a remarkable +accuracy is obtained. + +(O. H.) + +[1] For a fuller description of the manner in which a mere addition machine +can be used for multiplication and division, and even for the extraction of +square roots, see an article by C.V. Boys in _Nature_, 11th July 1901. + +CALCUTTA, the capital of British India and also of the province of Bengal. +It is situated in 22 deg. 34' N. and 88 deg. 24' E., on the left or east bank of +the Hugli, about 80 m. from the sea. Including its suburbs it covers an +area of 27,267 acres, and contains a population (1901) of 949,144. Calcutta +and Bombay have long contested the position of the premier city of India in +population and trade; but during the decade 1891-1901 the prevalence of +plague in Bombay gave a considerable advantage to Calcutta, which was +comparatively free from that disease. Calcutta lies only some 20 ft. above +sea-level, and extends about 6 m. along the Hugli, and is bounded elsewhere +by the Circular Canal and the Salt Lakes, and by suburbs which form +separate municipalities. Fort William stands in its centre. + +_Public Buildings._--Though Calcutta was called by Macaulay "the city of +palaces," its modern public buildings cannot compare with those of Bombay. +Its chief glory is the Maidan or park, which is large enough to embrace the +area of Fort William and a racecourse. Many monuments find a place on the +Maidan, among them being modern equestrian statues of Lord Roberts and Lord +Lansdowne, which face one another on each side of the Red Road, where the +rank and [v.04 p.0982] fashion of Calcutta take their evening drive. In the +north-eastern corner of the Maidan the Indian memorial to Queen Victoria, +consisting of a marble hall, with a statue and historical relics, was +opened by the prince of Wales in January 1906. The government acquired +Metcalfe Hall, in order to convert it into a public library and +reading-room worthy of the capital of India; and also the country-house of +Warren Hastings at Alipur, for the entertainment of Indian princes. Lord +Curzon restored, at his own cost, the monument which formerly commemorated +the massacre of the Black Hole, and a tablet let into the wall of the +general post office indicates the position of the Black Hole in the +north-east bastion of Fort William, now occupied by the roadway. Government +House, which is situated near the Maidan and Eden Gardens, is the residence +of the viceroy; it was built by Lord Wellesley in 1799, and is a fine pile +situated in grounds covering six acres, and modelled upon Kedleston Hall in +Derbyshire, one of the Adam buildings. Belvedere House, the official +residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, is situated close to the +botanical gardens in Alipur, the southern suburb of Calcutta. Facing the +Maidan for a couple of miles is the Chowringhee, one of the famous streets +of the world, once a row of palatial residences, but now given up almost +entirely to hotels, clubs and shops. + +_Commerce._--Calcutta owes its commercial prosperity to the fact that it is +situated near the mouth of the two great river systems of the Ganges and +Brahmaputra. It thus receives the produce of these fertile river valleys, +while the rivers afford a cheaper mode of conveyance than any railway. In +addition Calcutta is situated midway between Europe and the Far East and +thus forms a meeting-place for the commerce and peoples of the Eastern and +Western worlds. The port of Calcutta is one of the busiest in the world, +and the banks of the Hugli rival the port of London in their show of +shipping. The total number of arrivals and departures during 1904-1905 was +3027 vessels with an average tonnage of 3734. But though the city is such a +busy commercial centre, most of its industries are carried on outside +municipal limits. Howrah, on the opposite side of the Hugli, is the +terminus of three great railway systems, and also the headquarters of the +jute industry and other large factories. It is connected with Calcutta by +an immense floating bridge, 1530 ft. in length, which was constructed in +1874. Other railways have their terminus at Sealdah, an eastern suburb. The +docks lie outside Calcutta, at Kidderpur, on the south; and at Alipur are +the zoological gardens, the residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, +cantonments for a native infantry regiment, the central gaol and a +government reformatory. The port of Calcutta stretches about 10 m. along +the river. It is under the control of a port trust, whose jurisdiction +extends to the mouth of the Hugli and also over the floating bridge. New +docks were opened in 1892, which cost upwards of two millions sterling. The +figures for the sea-borne trade of Calcutta are included in those of +Bengal. Its inland trade is carried on by country boat, inland steamer, +rail and road, and amounted in 1904-1905 to about four and three quarter +millions sterling. More than half the total is carried by the East Indian +railway, which serves the United Provinces. Country boats hold their own +against inland steamers, especially in imports. + +_Municipality._--The municipal government of Calcutta was reconstituted by +an act of the Bengal legislature, passed in 1899. Previously, the governing +body consisted of seventy-five commissioners, of whom fifty were elected. +Under the new system modelled upon that of the Bombay municipality, this +body, styled the corporation, remains comparatively unaltered; but a large +portion of their powers is transferred to a general committee, composed of +twelve members, of whom one-third are elected by the corporation, one-third +by certain public bodies and one-third are nominated by the government. At +the same time, the authority of the chairman, as supreme executive officer, +is considerably strengthened. The two most important works undertaken by +the old municipality were the provision of a supply of filtered water and +the construction of a main drainage system. The water-supply is derived +from the river Hugli, about 16 m. above Calcutta, where there are large +pumping-stations and settling-tanks. The drainage-system consists of +underground sewers, which are discharged by a pumping-station into a +natural depression to the eastward, called the Salt Lake. Refuse is also +removed to the Salt Lake by means of a municipal railway. + +_Education._--The Calcutta University was constituted in 1857, as an +examining body, on the model of the university of London. The chief +educational institutions are the Government Presidency College; three aided +missionary colleges, and four unaided native colleges; the Sanskrit College +and the Mahommedan Madrasah; the government medical college, the government +engineering college at Sibpur, on the opposite bank of the Hugli, the +government school of art, high schools for boys, the Bethune College and +high schools for girls. + +_Population._--The population of Calcutta in 1710 was estimated at 12,000, +from which figure it rose to about 117,000 in 1752. In the census of 1831 +it was 187,000, in 1839 it had become 229,000 and in 1901, 949,144. Thus in +the century between 1801 and 1901 it increased sixfold, while during the +same period London only increased fivefold. Out of the total population of +town and suburbs in 1901, 615,000 were Hindus, 286,000 Mahommedans and +38,000 Christians. + +_Climate and Health._--The climate of the city was originally very +unhealthy, but it has improved greatly of recent years with modern +sanitation and drainage. The climate is hot and damp, but has a pleasant +cold season from November to March. April, May and June are hot; and the +monsoon months from June to October are distinguished by damp heat and +malaria. The mean annual temperature is 79 deg. F., with a range from 85 deg. in +the hot season and 83 deg. in the rains to 72 deg. in the cool season, a mean +maximum of 102 deg. in May and a mean minimum of 48 deg. in January. Calcutta has +been comparatively fortunate in escaping the plague. The disease manifested +itself in a sporadic form in April 1898, but disappeared by September of +that year. Many of the Marwari traders fled the city, and some trouble was +experienced in shortage of labour in the factories and at the docks. The +plague returned in 1899 and caused a heavy mortality during the early +months of the following year; but the population was not demoralized, nor +was trade interfered with. A yet more serious outbreak occurred in the +early months of 1901, the number of deaths being 7884. For three following +years the totals were (1902-1903) 7284; (1903-1904) 8223; and (1904-1905) +4689; but these numbers compared very favourably with the condition of +Bombay at the same time. + +_History._--The history of Calcutta practically dates from the 24th of +August 1690, when it was founded by Job Charnock (_q.v._) of the English +East India Company. In 1596 it had obtained a brief entry as a rent-paying +village in the survey of Bengal executed by command of the emperor Akbar. +But it was not till ninety years later that it emerged into history. In +1686 the English merchants at Hugli under Charnock's leadership, finding +themselves compelled to quit their factory in consequence of a rupture with +the Mogul authorities, retreated about 26 m. down the river to Sutanati, a +village on the banks of the Hugli, now within the boundaries of Calcutta. +They occupied Sutanati temporarily in December 1686, again in November 1687 +and permanently on the 24th of August 1690. It was thus only at the third +attempt that Charnock was able to obtain the future capital of India for +his centre and the subsequent prosperity of Calcutta is due entirely to his +tenacity of purpose. The new settlement soon extended itself along the +river bank to the then village of Kalikata, and by degrees the cluster of +neighbouring hamlets grew into the present town. In 1696 the English built +the original Fort William by permission of the nawab, and in 1698 they +formally purchased the three villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindpur +from Prince Azim, son of the emperor Aurangzeb. + +The site thus chosen had an excellent anchorage and was defended by the +river from the Mahrattas, who harried the districts on the other side. The +fort, subsequently rebuilt on the Vauban principle, and a moat, designed to +form a semicircle [v.04 p.0983] round the town, and to be connected at both +ends with the river, but never completed, combined with the natural +position of Calcutta to render it one of the safest places for trade in +India during the expiring struggles of the Mogul empire. It grew up without +any fixed plan, and with little regard to the sanitary arrangements +required for a town. Some parts of it lay below high-water mark on the +Hugli, and its low level throughout rendered its drainage a most difficult +problem. Until far on in the 18th century the malarial jungle and paddy +fields closely hemmed in the European mansions; the vast plain (_maidan_), +now covered with gardens and promenades, was then a swamp during three +months of each year; the spacious quadrangle known as Wellington Square was +built upon a filthy creek. A legend relates how one-fourth of the European +inhabitants perished in twelve months, and during seventy years the +mortality was so great that the name of Calcutta, derived from the village +of Kalikata, was identified by mariners with Golgotha, the place of a +skull. + +The chief event in the history of Calcutta is the sack of the town, and the +capture of Fort William in 1756, by Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the nawab of Bengal. +The majority of the English officials took ship and fled to the mouth of +the Hugli river. The Europeans, under John Zephaniah Holwell, who remained +were compelled, after a short resistance, to surrender themselves to the +mercies of the young prince. The prisoners, numbering 146 persons, were +forced into the guard-room, a chamber measuring only 18 ft. by 14 ft. 10 +in., with but two small windows, where they were left for the night. It was +the 20th of June; the heat was intense; and next morning only 23 were taken +out alive, among them Holwell, who left an account of the awful sufferings +endured in the "Black Hole." The site of the Black Hole is now covered with +a black marble slab, and the incident is commemorated by a monument erected +by Lord Curzon in 1902. The Mahommedans retained possession of Calcutta for +about seven months, and during this brief period the name of the town was +changed in official documents to Alinagar. In January 1757 the expedition +despatched from Madras, under the command of Admiral Watson and Colonel +Clive, regained possession of the city. They found many of the houses of +the English residents demolished and others damaged by fire. The old church +of St John lay in ruins. The native portion of the town had also suffered +much. Everything of value had been swept away, except the merchandise of +the Company within the fort, which had been reserved for the nawab. The +battle of Plassey was fought on the 23rd of June 1757, exactly twelve +months after the capture of Calcutta. Mir Jafar, the nominee of the +English, was created nawab of Bengal, and by the treaty which raised him to +this position he agreed to make restitution to the Calcutta merchants for +their losses. The English received L500,000, the Hindus and Mahommedans +L200,000, and the Armenians L70,000. By another clause in this treaty the +Company was permitted to establish a mint, the visible sign in India of +territorial sovereignty, and the first coin, still bearing the name of the +Delhi emperor, was issued on the 19th of August 1757. The restitution money +was divided among the sufferers by a committee of the most respectable +inhabitants. Commerce rapidly revived and the ruined city was rebuilt. +Modern Calcutta dates from 1757. The old fort was abandoned, and its site +devoted to the custom-house and other government offices. A new fort, the +present Fort William, was begun by Clive a short distance lower down the +river, and is thus the second of that name. It was not finished till 1773, +and is said to have cost two millions sterling. At this time also the +_maidan_, the park of Calcutta, was formed; and the healthiness of its +position induced the European inhabitants gradually to shift their +dwellings eastward, and to occupy what is now the Chowringhee quarter. + +Up to 1707, when Calcutta was first declared a presidency, it had been +dependent upon the older English settlement at Madras. From 1707 to 1773 +the presidencies were maintained on a footing of equality; but in the +latter year the act of parliament was passed, which provided that the +presidency of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions +of the Company; that the chief of that presidency should be styled +governor-general; and that a supreme court of judicature should be +established at Calcutta. In the previous year, 1772, Warren Hastings had +taken under the immediate management of the Company's servants the general +administration of Bengal, which had hitherto been left in the hands of the +old Mahommedan officials, and had removed the treasury from Murshidabad to +Calcutta. The latter town thus became the capital of Bengal and the seat of +the supreme government in India. In 1834 the governor-general of Bengal was +created governor-general of India, and was permitted to appoint a +deputy-governor to manage the affairs of Lower Bengal during his occasional +absence. It was not until 1854 that a separate head was appointed for +Bengal, who, under the style of lieutenant-governor, exercises the same +powers in civil matters as those vested in the governors in council of +Madras or Bombay, although subject to closer supervision by the supreme +government. Calcutta is thus at present the seat both of the supreme and +the local government, each with an independent set of offices. (See +BENGAL.) + +See A.K. Ray, _A Short History of Calcutta_ (Indian Census, 1901); H.B. +Hyde, _Parochial Annals of Bengal_ (1901); K. Blechynden, _Calcutta, Past +and Present_ (1905); H.E. Busteed, _Echoes from Old Calcutta_ (1897); G.W. +Forrest, _Cities of India_ (1903); C.R. Wilson, _Early Annals of the +English in Bengal_ (1895); and _Old Fort William in Bengal_ (1906); +_Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), _s.v._ "Calcutta." + +CALDANI, LEOPOLDO MARCO ANTONIO (1725-1813), Italian anatomist and +physician, was born at Bologna in 1725. After studying under G.B. Morgagni +at Padua, he began to teach practical medicine at Bologna, but in +consequence of the intrigues of which he was the object he returned to +Padua, where in 1771 he succeeded Morgagni in the chair of anatomy. He +continued to lecture until 1805 and died at Padua in 1813. His works +include _Institutiones pathologicae_ (1772), _Institutiones physiologicae_ +(1773) and _Icones anatomicae_ (1801-1813). + +His brother, PETRONIO MARIA CALDANI (1735-1808), was professor of +mathematics at Bologna, and was described by J. le R. D'Alembert as the +"first geometer and algebraist of Italy." + +CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH (1846-1886), English artist and illustrator, was born +at Chester on the 22nd of March 1846. From 1861 to 1872 he was a bank +clerk, first at Whitchurch in Shropshire, afterwards at Manchester; but +devoted all his spare time to the cultivation of a remarkable artistic +faculty. In 1872 he migrated to London, became a student at the Slade +School and finally adopted the artist's profession. He gained immediately a +wide reputation as a prolific and original illustrator, gifted with a +genial, humorous faculty, and he succeeded also, though in less degree, as +a painter and sculptor. His health gave way in 1876, and after prolonged +suffering he died in Florida on the 12th of February 1886. His chief book +illustrations are as follows:--_Old Christmas_ (1876) and _Bracebridge +Hall_ (1877), both by Washington Irving; _North Italian Folk_ (1877), by +Mrs Comyns Carr; _The Harz Mountains_ (1883); _Breton Folk_ (1879), by +Henry Blackburn; picture-books (_John Gilpin, The House that Jack Built_, +and other children's favourites) from 1878 onwards; _Some Aesop's Fables +with Modern Instances, &c._ (1883). He held a roving commission for the +_Graphic_, and was an occasional contributor to _Punch_. He was a member of +the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-colours. + +See Henry Blackburn, _Randolph Caldecott, Personal Memoir of his Early +Life_ (London, 1886). + +CALDER, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1745-1818), British admiral, was born at Elgin, +in Scotland, on the 2nd of July 1745 (o.s.). He belonged to a very ancient +family of Morayshire, and was the second son of Sir Thomas Calder of +Muirton. He was educated at the grammar school of Elgin, and at the age of +fourteen entered the British navy as midshipman. In 1766 he was serving as +lieutenant of the "Essex," under Captain the Hon. George Faulkner, in the +West Indies. Promotion came slowly, and it was not till 1782 that he +attained the rank of post-captain. He acquitted himself honourably in the +various services to which he was called, but for a long time had no +opportunity [v.04 p.0984] of distinguishing himself. In 1796 he was named +captain of the fleet by Sir John Jervis, and took part in the great battle +off Cape St Vincent (February 14, 1797). He was selected as bearer of the +despatches announcing the victory, and on that occasion was knighted by +George III. He also received the thanks of parliament, and in the following +year was created a baronet. In 1799 he became rear-admiral; and in 1801 he +was despatched with a small squadron in pursuit of a French force, under +Admiral Gantheaume, conveying supplies to the French in Egypt. In this +pursuit he was not successful, and returning home at the peace he struck +his flag. When the war again broke out he was recalled to service, was +promoted vice-admiral in 1804, and was employed in the following year in +the blockade of the ports of Ferrol and Corunna, in which (amongst other +ports) ships were preparing for the invasion of England by Napoleon I. He +held his position with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy, and +refused to be enticed out to sea. On its becoming known that the first +movement directed by Napoleon was the raising of the blockade of Ferrol, +Rear-Admiral Stirling was ordered to join Sir R. Calder and cruise with him +to intercept the fleets of France and Spain on their passage to Brest. The +approach of the enemy was concealed by a fog; but on the 22nd of July 1805 +their fleet came in sight. It still outnumbered the British force; but Sir +Robert entered into action. After a combat of four hours, during which he +captured two Spanish ships, he gave orders to discontinue the action. He +offered battle again on the two following days, but the challenge was not +accepted. The French admiral Villeneuve, however, did not pursue his +voyage, but took refuge in Ferrol. In the judgment of Napoleon, his scheme +of invasion was baffled by this day's action; but much indignation was felt +in England at the failure of Calder to win a complete victory. In +consequence of the strong feeling against him at home he demanded a +court-martial. This was held on the 23rd of December, and resulted in a +severe reprimand of the vice-admiral for not having done his utmost to +renew the engagement, at the same time acquitting him of both cowardice and +disaffection. False expectations had been raised in England by the +mutilation of his despatches, and of this he indignantly complained in his +defence. The tide of feeling, however, turned again; and in 1815, by way of +public testimony to his services, and of acquittal of the charge made +against him, he was appointed commander of Portsmouth. He died at Holt, +near Bishop's Waltham, in Hampshire, on the 31st of August 1818. + +See _Naval Chronicle_, xvii.; James, _Naval History_, iii. 356-379 (1860). + +CALDER, an ancient district of Midlothian, Scotland. It has been divided +into the parishes of Mid-Calder (pop. in 1901 3132) and West-Calder (pop. +8092), East-Calder belonging to the parish of Kirknewton (pop. 3221). The +whole locality owes much of its commercial importance and prosperity to the +enormous development of the mineral oil industry. Coal-mining is also +extensively pursued, sandstone and limestone are worked, and paper-mills +flourish. Mid-Calder, a town on the Almond (pop. 703), has an ancient +church, and John Spottiswood (1510-1585), the Scottish reformer, was for +many years minister. His sons--John, archbishop of St Andrews, and James +(1567-1645), bishop of Clogher--were both born at Mid-Calder. West-Calder +is situated on Breich Water, an affluent of the Almond, 15 1/2 m. S.W. of +Edinburgh by the Caledonian railway, and is the chief centre of the +district. Pop. (1901) 2652. At Addiewell, about 1 1/2 m. S.W., the +manufacture of ammonia, naphtha, paraffin oil and candles is carried on, +the village practically dating from 1866, and having in 1901 a population +of 1591. The Highland and Agricultural Society have an experimental farm at +Pumpherston (pop. 1462). The district contains several tumuli, old ruined +castles and a Roman camp in fair preservation. + +CALDERON, RODRIGO (d. 1621), COUNT OF OLIVA AND MARQUES DE LAS SIETE +IGLESIAS, Spanish favourite and adventurer, was born at Antwerp. His +father, Francisco Calderon, a member of a family ennobled by Charles V., +was a captain in the army who became afterwards _comendador mayor_ of +Aragon, presumably by the help of his son. The mother was a Fleming, said +by Calderon to have been a lady by birth and called by him Maria Sandelin. +She is said by others to have been first the mistress and then the wife of +Francisco Calderon. Rodrigo is said to have been born out of wedlock. In +1598 he entered the service of the duke of Lerma as secretary. The +accession of Philip III. in that year made Lerma, who had unbounded +influence over the king, master of Spain. Calderon, who was active and +unscrupulous, made himself the trusted agent of Lerma. In the general +scramble for wealth among the worthless intriguers who governed in the name +of Philip III., Calderon was conspicuous for greed, audacity and insolence. +He was created count of Oliva, a knight of Santiago, commendador of Ocana +in the order, secretary to the king (_secretario de camara_), was loaded +with plunder, and made an advantageous marriage with Ines de Vargas. As an +insolent upstart he was peculiarly odious to the enemies of Lerma. Two +religious persons, Juan de Santa Maria, a Franciscan, and Mariana de San +Jose, prioress of La Encarnacion, worked on the queen Margarita, by whose +influence Calderon was removed from the secretaryship in 1611. He, however, +retained the favour of Lerma, an indolent man to whom Calderon's activity +was indispensable. In 1612 he was sent on a special mission to Flanders, +and on his return was made marques de las Siete Iglesias in 1614. When the +queen Margarita died in that year in childbirth, Calderon was accused of +having used witchcraft against her. Soon after it became generally known +that he had ordered the murder of one Francisco de Juaras. When Lerma was +driven from court in 1618 by the intrigues of his own son, the duke of +Uceda, and the king's confessor, the Dominican Aliaga, Calderon was seized +upon as an expiatory victim to satisfy public clamour. He was arrested, +despoiled, and on the 7th of January 1620 was savagely tortured to make him +confess to the several charges of murder and witchcraft brought against +him. Calderon confessed to the murder of Juaras, saying that the man was a +pander, and adding that he gave the particular reason by word of mouth +since it was more fit to be spoken than written. He steadfastly denied all +the other charges of murder and the witchcraft. Some hope of pardon seems +to have remained in his mind till he heard the bells tolling for Philip +III. in March 1621. "He is dead, and I too am dead" was his resigned +comment. One of the first measures of the new reign was to order his +execution. Calderon met his fate firmly and with a show of piety on the +21st of October 1621, and this bearing, together with his broken and +prematurely aged appearance, turned public sentiment in his favour. The +magnificent devotion of his wife helped materially to placate the hatred he +had aroused. Lord Lytton made Rodrigo Calderon the hero of his story +_Calderon the Courtier_. + +See Modests de la Fuente, _Historia General Espana_ (Madrid, 1850-1867), +vol. xv. pp. 452 et seq.; Quevedo, _Obras_ (Madrid, 1794), vol. +x.--_Grandes Anales de Quince Dias_. A curious contemporary French pamphlet +on him, _Histoire admirable et declin pitoyable advenue en la personne +d'unfawory de la Cour d'Espagne,_ is reprinted by M.E. Fournier in +_Varietes historiques_ (Paris, 1855), vol. i. + +(D. H.) + +CALDERON DE LA BARCA, PEDRO (1600-1681), Spanish dramatist and poet, was +born at Madrid on the 17th of January 1600. His mother, who was of Flemish +descent, died in 1610; his father, who was secretary to the treasury, died +in 1615. Calderon was educated at the Jesuit College in Madrid with a view +to taking orders and accepting a family living; abandoning this project, he +studied law at Salamanca, and competed with success at the literary fetes +held in honour of St Isaidore at Madrid (1620-1632). According to his +biographer, Vera Tassis, Calderon served with the Spanish army in Italy and +Flanders between 1625 and 1635; but this statement is contradicted by +numerous legal documents which prove that Calderon resided at Madrid during +these years. Early in 1629 his brother Diego was stabbed by an actor who +took sanctuary in the convent of the Trinitarian nuns; Calderon and his +friends broke into the cloister and attempted to seize the offender. This +violation was denounced by the fashionable preacher, Hortensio Felix +Paravicino (_q.v._), in a sermon preached before Philip IV.; [v.04 p.0985] +Calderon retorted by introducing into _El Principe constante_ a mocking +reference (afterwards cancelled) to Paravicino's gongoristic verbiage, and +was committed to prison. He was soon released, grew rapidly in reputation +as a playwright, and, on the death of Lope de Vega in 1635, was recognized +as the foremost Spanish dramatist of the age. A volume of his plays, edited +by his brother Jose in 1636, contains such celebrated and diverse +productions as _La Vida es sueno, El Purgatorio de San Patricia, La +Devocion de la cruz, La Dama duende_ and _Peor esta que estaba_. In +1636-1637 he was made a knight of the order of Santiago by Philip IV., who +had already commissioned from him a series of spectacular plays for the +royal theatre in the Buen Retiro. Calderon was almost as popular with the +general public as Lope de Vega had been in his zenith; he was, moreover, in +high favour at court, but this royal patronage did not help to develop the +finer elements of his genius. On the 28th of May 1640 he joined a company +of mounted cuirassiers recently raised by Olivares, took part in the +Catalonian campaign, and distinguished himself by his gallantry at +Tarragona; his health failing, he retired from the army in November 1642, +and three years later was awarded a special military pension in recognition +of his services in the field. The history of his life during the next few +years is obscure. He appears to have been profoundly affected by the death +of his mistress--the mother of his son Pedro Jose--about the year +1648-1649; his long connexion with the theatre had led him into +temptations, but it had not diminished his instinctive spirit of devotion, +and he now sought consolation in religion. He became a tertiary of the +order of St Francis in 1650, and finally reverted to his original intention +of joining the priesthood. He was ordained in 1651, was presented to a +living in the parish of San Salvador at Madrid, and, according to his +statement made a year or two later, determined to give up writing for the +stage. He did not adhere to this resolution after his preferment to a +prebend at Toledo in 1653, though he confined himself as much as possible +to the composition of _autos sacramentales_--allegorical pieces in which +the mystery of the Eucharist was illustrated dramatically, and which were +performed with great pomp on the feast of Corpus Christi and during the +weeks immediately ensuing. In 1662 two of Calderon's _autos_--_Las ordenes +militares_ and _Misticay real Babilonia_--were the subjects of an inquiry +by the Inquisition; the former was censured, the manuscript copies were +confiscated, and the condemnation was not rescinded till 1671. Calderon was +appointed honorary chaplain to Philip IV, in 1663, and the royal favour was +continued to him in the next reign. In his eighty-first year he wrote his +last secular play, _Hado y Divisa de Leonido y Marfisa_, in honour of +Charles II.'s marriage to Marie-Louise de Bourbon. Notwithstanding his +position at court and his universal popularity throughout Spain, his +closing years seem to have been passed in poverty. He died on the 25th of +May 1681. + +Like most Spanish dramatists, Calderon wrote too much and too speedily, and +he was too often content to recast the productions of his predecessors. His +_Saber del mal y del bien_ is an adaptation of Lope de Vega's play, _Las +Mudanzas de la fortuna y sucesos de Don Beltran de Aragon_; his _Selva +confusa_ is also adapted from a play of Lope's which bears the same title; +his _Encanto sin encanto_ derives from Tirso de Molina's _Amar par senas_, +and, to take an extreme instance, the second act of his _Cabellos de +Absalon _is transferred almost bodily from the third act of Tirso's +_Venganza de Tamar_. It would be easy to add other examples of Calderon's +lax methods, but it is simple justice to point out that he committed no +offence against the prevailing code of literary morality. Many of his +contemporaries plagiarized with equal audacity, but with far less success. +Sometimes, as in _El Alcalde de Zalamea_, the bold procedure is completely +justified by the result; in this case by his individual treatment he +transforms one of Lope de Vega's rapid improvisations into a finished +masterpiece. It was not given to him to initiate a great dramatic movement; +he came at the end of a literary revolution, was compelled to accept the +conventions which Lope de Vega had imposed on the Spanish stage, and he +accepted them all the more readily since they were peculiarly suitable to +the display of his splendid and varied gifts. Not a master of observation +nor an expert in invention, he showed an unexampled skill in contriving +ingenious variants on existing themes; he had a keen dramatic sense, an +unrivalled dexterity in manipulating the mechanical resources of the stage, +and in addition to these minor indispensable talents he was endowed with a +lofty philosophic imagination and a wealth of poetic diction. Naturally, he +had the defects of his great qualities; his ingenuity is apt to degenerate +into futile embellishment; his employment of theatrical devices is the +subject of his own good-humoured satire in _No hay burlas con el amor_; his +philosophic intellect is more interested in theological mysteries than in +human passions; and the delicate beauty of his style is tinged with a +wilful preciosity. Excelling Lope de Vega at many points, Calderon falls +below his great predecessor in the delineation of character. Yet in almost +every department of dramatic art Calderon has obtained a series of +triumphs. In the symbolic drama he is best represented by _El Principe +constante_, by _El Magico prodigioso_ (familiar to English readers in +Shelley's free translation), and by _La Vida es sueno_, perhaps the most +profound and original of his works. His tragedies are more remarkable for +their acting qualities than for their convincing truth, and the fact that +in _La Nina de Gomez Arias_ he interpolates an entire act borrowed from +Velez de Guevara's play of the same title seems to indicate that this kind +of composition awakened no great interest in him; but in _El Medico de sa +honra_ and _El Mayor monstruo los celos_ the theme of jealousy is handled +with sombre power, while _El Alcalde de Zalamea_ is one of the greatest +tragedies in Spanish literature. Calderon is seen to much less advantage in +the spectacular plays--_dramas de tramoya_--which he wrote at the command +of Philip IV.; the dramatist is subordinated to the stage-carpenter, but +the graceful fancy of the poet preserves even such a mediocre piece as _Los +Tres Mayores prodigies_ (which won him his knighthood) from complete +oblivion. A greater opportunity is afforded in the more animated _comedias +palaciegas_, or melodramatic pieces destined to be played before courtly +audiences in the royal palace: _La Banda y la flor_ and _El Galan fantasma_ +are charming illustrations of Calderon's genial conception and refined +artistry. His historical plays (_La Gran Cenobia, Las armas de la +hermosura_, &c.) are the weakest of all his formal dramatic productions; +_El Golfo de la sirenas_ and _La Purpura de la rosa_ are typical +_zarzuelas_, to be judged by the standard of operatic libretti, and the +_entremeses_ are lacking in the lively humour which should characterize +these dramatic interludes. On the other hand, Calderon's faculty of +ingenious stagecraft is seen at its best in his "cloak-and-sword" plays +(_comedias de capa y espada_) which are invaluable pictures of contemporary +society. They are conventional, no doubt, in the sense that all +representations of a specially artificial society must be conventional; but +they are true to life, and are still as interesting as when they first +appeared. In this kind _No siempre lo peor es cierto, La Dama duende, Una +casa con dos puertas mala es de guardar_ and _Guardate del agua mansa_ are +almost unsurpassed. But it is as a writer of _autos sacramentales_ that +Calderon defies rivalry: his intense devotion, his subtle intelligence, his +sublime lyrism all combine to produce such marvels of allegorical poetry as +_La Cena del rey Baltasar, La Vina del Senor_ and _La Serpiente de metal_. +The _autos_ lingered on in Spain till 1765, but they may be said to have +died with Calderon, for his successors merely imitated him with a tedious +fidelity. Almost alone among Spanish poets, Calderon had the good fortune +to be printed in a fairly correct and readable edition (1682-1691), thanks +to the enlightened zeal of his admirer, Juan de Vera Tassis y Villaroel, +and owing to this happy accident he came to be regarded generally as the +first of Spanish dramatists. The publication of the plays of Lope de Vega +and of Tirso de Molina has affected the critical estimate of Calderon's +work; he is seen to be inferior to Lope de Vega in creative power, and +inferior to Tirso de Molina in variety of conception. But, setting aside +the extravagances of his admirers, he is admittedly an exquisite poet, an +expert in the dramatic form, and a typical representative of the [v.04 +p.0986] devout, chivalrous, patriotic and artificial society in which he +moved. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Breymann, _Calderon-Studien_ (Muenchen and Berlin, 1905), +i. Teil, contains a fairly exhaustive list of editions, translations and +arrangements; _Autos sacramentales_ (Madrid, 1759-1760, 6 vols.), edited by +Juan Fernandez de Apontes; _Comedias_ (Madrid, 1848-1850, 4 vols.), edited +by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbuch; Max Krenkel, _Klassische Buhnendichtungen der +Spanier_, containing _La Vida es sueno, El magico prodigioso_ and _El +Alcalde de Zalamca_ (Leipzig, 1881-1887, 3 vols.); _Teatro selecto_ +(Madrid, 1884, 4 vols.), edited by M. Menendez y Pelayo; _El Magico +prodigioso_ (Heilbronn, 1877), edited by Alfred Morel-Fatio; _Select Plays +of Calderon_ (London, 1888), edited by Norman MacColl; F.W.V. Schmidt, _Die +Schauspiele Calderon's_ (Elberfeld, 1857); E. Guenthner, _Calderon und seine +Werke_ (Freiburg i. B., 1888, 2 vols.); Felipe Picatoste y Rodriguez, +_Biografia de Don Pedro Calderon de la Barca_ in _Homenage a Calderon_ +(Madrid, 1881); Antonio Sanchez Moguel, _Memoria acerca de "El Magico +prodigioso"_ (Madrid, 1881); M. Menendez y Pelayo, _Calderon y su teatro_ +(Madrid, 1881); Ernest Martinenche, _La Comedia espagnole en France de +Hardy a Racine_ (Paris, 1900). + +(J. F.-K.) + +CALDERWOOD, DAVID (1575-1650), Scottish divine and historian, was born in +1575. He was educated at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.A. in +1593. About 1604 he became minister of Crailing, near Jedburgh, where he +became conspicuous for his resolute opposition to the introduction of +Episcopacy. In 1617, while James was in Scotland, a Remonstrance, which had +been drawn up by the Presbyterian clergy, was placed in Calderwood's hands. +He was summoned to St Andrews and examined before the king, but neither +threats nor promises could make him deliver up the roll of signatures to +the Remonstrance. He was deprived of his charge, committed to prison at St +Andrews and afterwards removed to Edinburgh. The privy council ordered him +to be banished from the kingdom for refusing to acknowledge the sentence of +the High Commission. He lingered in Scotland, publishing a few tracts, till +the 27th of August 1619, when he sailed for Holland. During his residence +in Holland he published his _Altare Damascenum_. Calderwood appears to have +returned to Scotland in 1624, and he was soon afterwards appointed minister +of Pencaitland, in the county of Haddington. He continued to take an active +part in the affairs of the church, and introduced in 1649 the practice, now +confirmed by long usage, of dissenting from the decision of the Assembly, +and requiring the protest to be entered in the record. His last years were +devoted to the preparation of a _History of the Church of Scotland_. In +1648 the General Assembly urged him to complete the work he had designed, +and voted him a yearly pension of L800. He left behind him a historical +work of great extent and of great value as a storehouse of authentic +materials for history. An abridgment, which appears to have been prepared +by himself, was published after his death. An excellent edition of the +complete work was published by the Wodrow Society, 8 vols., 1842-1849. The +manuscript, which belonged to General Calderwood Durham, was presented to +the British Museum. Calderwood died at Jedburgh on the 29th of October +1650. + +CALDERWOOD, HENRY (1830-1897), Scottish philosopher and divine, was born at +Peebles on the 10th of May 1830. He was educated at the Royal High school, +and later at the university of Edinburgh. He studied for the ministry of +the United Presbyterian Church, and in 1856 was ordained pastor of the +Greyfriars church, Glasgow. He also examined in mental philosophy for the +university of Glasgow from 1861 to 1864, and from 1866 conducted the moral +philosophy classes at that university, until in 1868 he became professor of +moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He was made LL.D. of Glasgow in 1865. He +died on the 19th of November 1897. His first and most famous work was _The +Philosophy of the Infinite_ (1854), in which he attacked the statement of +Sir William Hamilton that we can have no knowledge of the Infinite. +Calderwood maintained that such knowledge, though imperfect, is real and +ever-increasing; that Faith implies Knowledge. His moral philosophy is in +direct antagonism to Hegelian doctrine, and endeavours to substantiate the +doctrine of divine sanction. Beside the data of experience, the mind has +pure activity of its own whereby it apprehends the fundamental realities of +life and combat. He wrote in addition _A Handbook of Moral Philosophy, On +the Relations of Mind and Brain, Science and Religion, The Evolution of +Man's Place in Nature_. Among his religious works the best-known is his +_Parables of Our Lord_, and just before his death he finished a _Life of +David Hume_ in the "Famous Scots" series. His interests were not confined +to religious and intellectual matters; as the first chairman of the +Edinburgh school board, he worked hard to bring the Education Act into +working order. He published a well-known treatise on education. In the +cause of philanthropy and temperance he was indefatigable. In politics he +was at first a Liberal, but became a Liberal Unionist at the time of the +Home Rule Bill. + +A biography of Calderwood was published in 1900 by his son W.C. Calderwood +and the Rev. David Woodside, with a special chapter on his philosophy by +Professor A.S. Pringle-Pattison. + +CALEB (Heb. _keleb_, "dog"), in the Bible, one of the spies sent by Moses +from Kadesh in South Palestine to spy out the land of Canaan. For his +courage and confidence he alone was rewarded by the promise that he and his +seed should obtain a possession in it (Num. xiii. seq.). The later +tradition includes Joshua, the hero of the conquest of the land. +Subsequently Caleb settled in Kirjath-Arba (Hebron), but the account of the +occupation is variously recorded. Thus (_a_) Caleb by himself drove out the +Anakites, giants of Hebron, and promised to give his daughter Achsah to the +hero who could take Kirjath-Sepher (Debir). This was accomplished by +Othniel, the brother of Caleb (Josh. xv. 14-19). Both are "sons" of Kenaz, +and Kenaz is an Edomite clan (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 42). Elsewhere (_b_) +Caleb the Kenizzite reminds Joshua of the promise at Kadesh; he asks that +he may have the "mountain whereof Yahweh spake," and hopes to drive out the +giants from its midst. Joshua blesses him and thus Hebron becomes the +inheritance of Caleb (Josh. xiv. 6-15). Further (_c_) the capture of Hebron +and Debir is ascribed to Judah who gives them to Caleb (Judg. i. 10 seq. +20); and finally (_d_) these cities are taken by Joshua himself in the +course of a great and successful campaign against South Canaan (Josh. x. +36-39). Primarily the clan Caleb was settled in the south of Judah but +formed an independent unit (i Sam. xxv., xxx. 14). Its seat was at Carmel, +and Abigail, the wife of the Calebite Nabal, was taken by David after her +husband's death. Not until later are the small divisions of the south +united under the name Judah, and this result is reflected in the +genealogies where the brothers Caleb and Jerahmeel are called "sons of +Hezron" (the name typifies nomadic life) and become descendants of JUDAH. + +Similarly in Num. xiii. 6, xxxiv. 19 (post-exilic), Caleb becomes the +representative of the tribe of Judah, and also in _c_ (above) Caleb's +enterprise was later regarded as the work of the tribe with which it became +incorporated, _b_ and _d_ are explained in accordance with the aim of the +book to ascribe to the initiation or the achievements of one man the +conquest of the whole of Canaan (see JOSHUA). The mount or hill-country in +_b_ appears to be that which the Israelites unsuccessfully attempted to +take (Num. xiv. 41-45), but according to another old fragment Hormah was +the scene of a victory (Num. xxi. 1-3), and it seems probable that Caleb, +at least, was supposed to have pushed his way northward to Hebron. (See +JERAHMEEL, KENITES, SIMEON.) + +The genealogical lists place the earliest seats of Caleb in the south of +Judah (1 Chron. ii. 42 sqq.; Hebron, Maon, &c.). Another list numbers the +more northerly towns of Kirjath-jearim, Bethlehem, &c., and adds the +"families of the scribes," and the Kenites (ii. 50 seq.). This second move +is characteristically expressed by the statements that Caleb's first wife +was Azubah ("abandoned," desert region)--Jerioth ("tent curtains") appears +to have been another--and that after the death of Hezron he united with +Ephrath (p. 24 Bethlehem). On the details in 1 Chron. ii., iv., see +further, J. Wellhausen, _De Gent. et Famil. Judaeorum_ (1869); S. Cook, +_Critical Notes on O.T. History, Index_, s.v.; E. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. +400 sqq.; and the commentaries on Chronicles (_q.v._). + +(S. A. C.) + +CALEDON (1) a town of the Cape Province, 81 m. by rail E.S.E. of Cape Town. +Pop. (1904) 3508. The town is 15 m. N. of the sea at Walker Bay and is +built on a spur of the Zwartberg, 800 ft. high. The streets are lined with +blue gums and oaks. From the early day of Dutch settlement at the Cape +Caledon has been noted for the curative value of its mineral springs, which +yield 150,000 gallons daily. There are seven springs, six with a natural +temperature of 120 deg. F., the seventh [v.04 p.0987] being cold. The district +is rich in flowering heaths and everlasting flowers. The name Caledon was +given to the town and district in honour of the 2nd earl of Caledon, +governor of the Cape 1807-1811. (2) A river of South Africa, tributary to +the Orange (_q.v._), also named after Lord Caledon. + +CALEDONIA, the Roman name of North Britain, still used especially in poetry +for Scotland. It occurs first in the poet Lucan (A.D. 64), and then often +in Roman literature. There were (1) a district Caledonia, of which the +southern border must have been on or near the isthmus between the Clyde and +the Forth, (2) a Caledonian Forest (possibly in Perthshire), and (3) a +tribe of Caledones or Calidones, named by the geographer Ptolemy as living +within boundaries which are now unascertainable. The Romans first invaded +Caledonia under Agricola (about A.D. 83). They then fortified the Forth and +Clyde Isthmus with a line of forts, two of which, those at Camelon and +Barhill, have been identified and excavated, penetrated into Perthshire, +and fought the decisive battle of the war (according to Tacitus) on the +slopes of Mons Graupius.[1] The site--quite as hotly contested among +antiquaries as between Roman and Caledonian--may have been near the Roman +encampment of Inchtuthill (in the policies of Delvine, 10 m. N. of Perth +near the union of Tay and Isla), which is the most northerly of the +ascertained Roman encampments in Scotland and seems to belong to the age of +Agricola. Tacitus represents the result as a victory. The home government, +whether averse to expensive conquests of barren hills, or afraid of a +victorious general, abruptly recalled Agricola, and his northern +conquests--all beyond the Tweed, if not all beyond Cheviot--were abandoned. +The next advance followed more than fifty years later. About A.D. 140 the +district up to the Firth of Forth was definitely annexed, and a rampart +with forts along it, the Wall of Antoninus Pius, was drawn from sea to sea +(see BRITAIN: _Roman_; and GRAHAM'S DYKE). At the same time the Roman forts +at Ardoch, north of Dunblane, Carpow near Abernethy, and perhaps one or two +more, were occupied. But the conquest was stubbornly disputed, and after +several risings, the land north of Cheviot seems to have been lost about +A.D. 180-185. About A.D. 208 the emperor Septimius Severus carried out an +extensive punitive expedition against the northern tribes, but while it is +doubtful how far he penetrated, it is certain that after his death the +Roman writ never again ran north of Cheviot. Rome is said, indeed, to have +recovered the whole land up to the Wall of Pius in A.D. 368 and to have +established there a province, Valentia. A province with that name was +certainly organized somewhere. But its site and extent is quite uncertain +and its duration was exceedingly brief. Throughout, Scotland remained +substantially untouched by Roman influences, and its Celtic art, though +perhaps influenced by Irish, remained free from Mediterranean infusion. +Even in the south of Scotland, where Rome ruled for half a century (A.D. +142-180), the occupation was military and produced no civilizing effects. +Of the actual condition of the land during the period of Roman rule in +Britain, we have yet to learn the details by excavation. The curious +carvings and ramparts, at Burghead on the coast of Elgin, and the +underground stone houses locally called "wheems," in which Roman fragments +have been found, may represent the native forms of dwelling, &c., and some +of the "Late Celtic" metal-work may belong to this age. But of the +political divisions, the boundaries and capitals of the tribes, and the +like, we know nothing. Ptolemy gives a list of tribe and place-names. But +hardly one can be identified with any approach to certainty, except in the +extreme south. Nor has any certainty been reached about the ethnological +problems of the population, the Aryan or non-Aryan character of the Picts +and the like. That the Caledonians, like the later Scots, sometimes sought +their fortunes in the south, is proved by a curious tablet of about A.D. +220, found at Colchester, dedicated to an unknown equivalent of Mars, +Medocius, by one "Lossio Veda, nepos [ = kin of] Vepogeni, Caledo." The +name Caledonia is said to survive in the second syllable of Dunkeld and in +the mountain name Schiehallion (Sith-chaillinn). + +AUTHORITIES.--Tacitus, _Agricola_; Hist. Augusta, _Vita Severi_; Dio +lxxvi.; F. Haverfield, _The Antonine Wail Report_ (Glasgow, 1899), pp. +154-168; J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (ed. 3). On Burghead, see H.W. Young, +_Proc. of Scottish Antiq._ xxv., xxvii.; J. Macdonald, _Trans. Glasgow +Arch. Society_. The Roman remains of Scotland are described in Rob. +Stuart's _Caled. Romana_ (Edinburgh, 1852), the volumes of the Scottish +Antiq. Society, the _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vol. vii., and +elsewhere. + +(F. J. H.) + +[1] This, not Grampius, is the proper spelling, though Grampius was at one +time commonly accepted and indeed gave rise to the modern name Grampian. + +CALEDONIAN CANAL. The chain of fresh-water lakes--Lochs Ness, Oich and +Lochy--which stretch along the line of the Great Glen of Scotland in a S.W. +direction from Inverness early suggested the idea of connecting the east +and west coasts of Scotland by a canal which would save ships about 400 m. +of coasting voyage round the north of Great Britain through the stormy +Pentland Firth. In 1773 James Watt was employed by the government to make a +survey for such a canal, which again was the subject of an official report +by Thomas Telford in 1801. In 1803 an act of parliament was passed +authorizing the construction of the canal, which was begun forthwith under +Telford's direction, and traffic was started in 1822. From the northern +entrance on Beauly Firth to the southern, near Fort William, the total +length is about 60 m., that of the artificial portion being about 22 m. The +number of locks is 28, and their standard dimensions are:--length 160 ft, +breadth 38 ft., water-depth 15 ft. Their lift is in general about 8 ft., +but some of them are for regulating purposes only. A flight of 8 at +Corpach, with a total lift of 64 ft., is known as "Neptune's Staircase." +The navigation is vested in and managed by the commissioners of the +Caledonian Canal, of whom the speaker of the House of Commons is _ex +officio_ chairman. Usually the income is between L7000 and L8000 annually, +and exceeds the expenditure by a few hundred pounds; but the commissioners +are not entitled to make a profit, and the credit balances, though +sometimes allowed to accumulate, must be expended on renewals and +improvements of the canal. They have not, however, always proved sufficient +for their purposes, and parliament is occasionally called upon to make +special grants. In the commissioners is also vested the Crinan Canal, which +extends from Ardrishaig on Loch Gilp to Crinan on Loch Crinan. This canal +was made by a company incorporated by act of parliament in 1793, and was +opened for traffic in 1801. At various times it received grants of public +money, and ultimately in respect of these it passed into the hands of the +government. In 1848 it was vested by parliament in the commissioners of the +Caledonian Canal (who had in fact administered it for many years +previously); the act contained a proviso that the company might take back +the undertaking on repayment of the debt within 20 years, but the power was +not exercised. The length of the canal is 9 m., and it saves vessels +sailing from the Clyde a distance of about 85 m. as compared with the +alternative route round the Mull of Kintyre. Its highest reach is 64 ft. +above sea level, and its locks, 15 in number, are 96 ft. long, by 24 ft. +wide, the depth of water being such as to admit vessels up to a draught of +9 1/2 ft. The revenue is over L6000 a year, and there is usually a small +credit balance which, as with the Caledonian Canal, must be applied to the +purposes of the undertaking. + +CALENBERG, or KALENBERG, the name of a district, including the town of +Hanover, which was formerly part of the duchy of Brunswick. It received its +name from a castle near Schulenburg, and is traversed by the rivers Weser +and Leine, its area being about 1050 sq. m. The district was given to +various cadets of the ruling house of Brunswick, one of these being Ernest +Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover, and the ancestor of the Hanoverian +kings of Great Britain and Ireland. + +CALENDAR, so called from the Roman Calends or Kalends, a method of +distributing time into certain periods adapted to the purposes of civil +life, as hours, days, weeks, months, years, &c. + +Of all the periods marked out by the motions of the celestial bodies, the +most conspicuous, and the most intimately connected with the affairs of +mankind, are the _solar day_, which is [v.04 p.0988] distinguished by the +diurnal revolution of the earth and the alternation of light and darkness, +and the _solar year_, which completes the circle of the seasons. But in the +early ages of the world, when mankind were chiefly engaged in rural +occupations, the phases of the moon must have been objects of great +attention and interest,--hence the _month_, and the practice adopted by +many nations of reckoning time by the motions of the moon, as well as the +still more general practice of combining lunar with solar periods. The +solar day, the solar year, and the lunar month, or lunation, may therefore +be called the _natural_ divisions of time. All others, as the hour, the +week, and the civil month, though of the most ancient and general use, are +only arbitrary and conventional. + +_Day._--The subdivision of the day (_q.v._) into twenty-four parts, or +hours, has prevailed since the remotest ages, though different nations have +not agreed either with respect to the epoch of its commencement or the +manner of distributing the hours. Europeans in general, like the ancient +Egyptians, place the commencement of the civil day at midnight, and reckon +twelve morning hours from midnight to midday, and twelve evening hours from +midday to midnight. Astronomers, after the example of Ptolemy, regard the +day as commencing with the sun's culmination, or noon, and find it most +convenient for the purposes of computation to reckon through the whole +twenty-four hours. Hipparchus reckoned the twenty-four hours from midnight +to midnight. Some nations, as the ancient Chaldeans and the modern Greeks, +have chosen sunrise for the commencement of the day; others, again, as the +Italians and Bohemians, suppose it to commence at sunset. In all these +cases the beginning of the day varies with the seasons at all places not +under the equator. In the early ages of Rome, and even down to the middle +of the 5th century after the foundation of the city, no other divisions of +the day were known than sunrise, sunset, and midday, which was marked by +the arrival of the sun between the Rostra and a place called Graecostasis, +where ambassadors from Greece and other countries used to stand. The Greeks +divided the natural day and night into twelve equal parts each, and the +hours thus formed were denominated _temporary hours_, from their varying in +length according to the seasons of the year. The hours of the day and night +were of course only equal at the time of the equinoxes. The whole period of +day and night they called [Greek: nuchthemeron]. + +_Week._--The week is a period of seven days, having no reference whatever +to the celestial motions,--a circumstance to which it owes its unalterable +uniformity. Although it did not enter into the calendar of the Greeks, and +was not introduced at Rome till after the reign of Theodosius, it has been +employed from time immemorial in almost all eastern countries; and as it +forms neither an aliquot part of the year nor of the lunar month, those who +reject the Mosaic recital will be at a loss, as Delambre remarks, to assign +it to an origin having much semblance of probability. It might have been +suggested by the phases of the moon, or by the number of the planets known +in ancient times, an origin which is rendered more probable from the names +universally given to the different days of which it is composed. In the +Egyptian astronomy, the order of the planets, beginning with the most +remote, is Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, the Moon. Now, +the day being divided into twenty-four hours, each hour was consecrated to +a particular planet, namely, one to Saturn, the following to Jupiter, the +third to Mars, and so on according to the above order; and the day received +the name of the planet which presided over its first hour. If, then, the +first hour of a day was consecrated to Saturn, that planet would also have +the 8th, the 15th, and the 22nd hour; the 23rd would fall to Jupiter, the +24th to Mars, and the 25th, or the first hour of the second day, would +belong to the Sun. In like manner the first hour of the 3rd day would fall +to the Moon, the first of the 4th day to Mars, of the 5th to Mercury, of +the 6th to Jupiter, and of the 7th to Venus. The cycle being completed, the +first hour of the 8th day would return to Saturn, and all the others +succeed in the same order. According to Dio Cassius, the Egyptian week +commenced with Saturday. On their flight from Egypt, the Jews, from hatred +to their ancient oppressors, made Saturday the last day of the week. + +The English names of the days are derived from the Saxon. The ancient +Saxons had borrowed the week from some Eastern nation, and substituted the +names of their own divinities for those of the gods of Greece. In +legislative and justiciary acts the Latin names are still retained. + + Latin. English. Saxon. + Dies Solis. Sunday. Sun's day. + Dies Lunae. Monday. Moon's day. + Dies Martis. Tuesday. Tiw's day. + Dies Mercurii. Wednesday. Woden's day. + Dies Jovis. Thursday. Thor's day. + Dies Veneris. Friday. Frigg's day. + Dies Saturni. Saturday. Seterne's day. + +_Month._--Long before the exact length of the year was determined, it must +have been perceived that the synodic revolution of the moon is accomplished +in about 291/2 days. Twelve lunations, therefore, form a period of 354 days, +which differs only by about 111/4 days from the solar year. From this +circumstance has arisen the practice, perhaps universal, of dividing the +year into twelve _months_. But in the course of a few years the accumulated +difference between the solar year and twelve lunar months would become +considerable, and have the effect of transporting the commencement of the +year to a different season. The difficulties that arose in attempting to +avoid this inconvenience induced some nations to abandon the moon +altogether, and regulate their year by the course of the sun. The month, +however, being a convenient period of time, has retained its place in the +calendars of all nations; but, instead of denoting a synodic revolution of +the moon, it is usually employed to denote an arbitrary number of days +approaching to the twelfth part of a solar year. + +Among the ancient Egyptians the month consisted of thirty days invariably; +and in order to complete the year, five days were added at the end, called +supplementary days. They made use of no intercalation, and by losing a +fourth of a day every year, the commencement of the year went back one day +in every period of four years, and consequently made a revolution of the +seasons in 1461 years. Hence 1461 Egyptian years are equal to 1460 Julian +years of 3651/4 days each. This year is called _vague_, by reason of its +commencing sometimes at one season of the year, and sometimes at another. + +The Greeks divided the month into three decades, or periods of ten days,--a +practice which was imitated by the French in their unsuccessful attempt to +introduce a new calendar at the period of the Revolution. This division +offers two advantages: the first is, that the period is an exact measure of +the month of thirty days; and the second is, that the number of the day of +the decade is connected with and suggests the number of the day of the +month. For example, the 5th of the decade must necessarily be the 5th, the +15th, or the 25th of the month; so that when the day of the decade is +known, that of the month can scarcely be mistaken. In reckoning by weeks, +it is necessary to keep in mind the day of the week on which each month +begins. + +The Romans employed a division of the month and a method of reckoning the +days which appear not a little extraordinary, and must, in practice, have +been exceedingly inconvenient. As frequent allusion is made by classical +writers to this embarrassing method of computation, which is carefully +retained in the ecclesiastical calendar, we here give a table showing the +correspondence of the Roman months with those of modern Europe. + +Instead of distinguishing the days by the ordinal numbers first, second, +third, &c., the Romans counted _backwards_ from three fixed epochs, namely, +the _Calends_, the _Nones_ and the _Ides_. The Calends (or Kalends) were +invariably the first day of the month, and were so denominated because it +had been an ancient custom of the pontiffs to call the people together on +that day, to apprize them of the festivals, or days that were to be kept +sacred during the month. The Ides (from an obsolete verb _iduare_, to +divide) were at the middle of the month, either the 13th or the 15th day; +and the Nones were the _ninth_ day before the [v.04 p.0989] Ides, counting +inclusively. From these three terms the days received their denomination in +the following manner:--Those which were comprised between the Calends and +the Nones were called _the days before the Nones_; those between the Nones +and the Ides were called _the days before the Ides_; and, lastly, all the +days after the Ides to the end of the month were called _the days before +the Calends_ of the succeeding month. In the months of March, May, July and +October, the Ides fell on the 15th day, and the Nones consequently on the +7th; so that each of these months had six days named from the Nones. In all +the other months the Ides were on the 13th and the Nones on the 5th; +consequently there were only four days named from the Nones. Every month +had eight days named from the Ides. The number of days receiving their +denomination from the Calends depended on the number of days in the month +and the day on which the Ides fell. For example, if the month contained 31 +days and the Ides fell on the 13th, as was the case in January, August and +December, there would remain 18 days after the Ides, which, added to the +first of the following month, made 19 days of Calends. In January, +therefore, the 14th day of the month was called the _nineteenth before the +Calends of February_ (counting inclusively), the 15th was the 18th before +the Calends and so on to the 30th, which was called the third before the +Calend (_tertio Calendas_), the last being the second of the Calends, or +the day before the Calends (_pridie Calendas_). + + +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | March. | | April. | | + |Days of| May. | January. | June. | | + | the | July. | August. | September. | February. | + | Month.| October. | December. | November. | | + +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | 1 | Calendae. | Calendae. | Calendae. | Calendae. | + | 2 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | + | 4 | 4 |Prid. Nonas.|Prid. Nonas.|Prid. Nonas.| + | 5 | 3 | Nonae. | Nonae. | Nonae. | + | 6 |Prid. Nonas.| 8 | 8 | 8 | + | 7 | Nonae. | 7 | 7 | 7 | + | 8 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 6 | + | 9 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | + | 10 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | Prid. Idus.| Prid. Idus.| Prid. Idus.| + | 13 | 3 | Idus. | Idus. | Idus. | + | 14 | Prid. Idus.| 19 | 18 | 16 | + | 15 | Idus. | 18 | 17 | 15 | + | 16 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 14 | + | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 13 | + | 18 | 15 | 15 | 14 | 12 | + | 19 | 14 | 14 | 13 | 11 | + | 20 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 10 | + | 21 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 9 | + | 22 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 8 | + | 23 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 7 | + | 24 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | + | 25 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 5 | + | 26 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 4 | + | 27 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 3 | + | 28 | 5 | 5 | 4 |Prid. Calen.| + | 29 | 4 | 4 | 3 | Mart. | + | 30 | 3 | 3 |Prid. Calen.| | + | 31 |Prid. Calen.|Prid. Calen.| | | + +-------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +YEAR.--The year is either astronomical or civil. The solar astronomical +year is the period of time in which the earth performs a revolution in its +orbit about the sun, or passes from any point of the ecliptic to the same +point again; and consists of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. and 46 sec. of mean +solar time. The civil year is that which is employed in chronology, and +varies among different nations, both in respect of the season at which it +commences and of its subdivisions. When regard is had to the sun's motion +alone, the regulation of the year, and the distribution of the days into +months, may be effected without much trouble; but the difficulty is greatly +increased when it is sought to reconcile solar and lunar periods, or to +make the subdivisions of the year depend on the moon, and at the same time +to preserve the correspondence between the whole year and the seasons. + +_Of the Solar Year._--In the arrangement of the civil year, two objects are +sought to be accomplished,--first, the equable distribution of the days +among twelve months; and secondly, the preservation of the beginning of the +year at the same distance from the solstices or equinoxes. Now, as the year +consists of 365 days and a fraction, and 365 is a number not divisible by +12, it is impossible that the months can all be of the same length and at +the same time include all the days of the year. By reason also of the +fractional excess of the length of the year above 365 days, it likewise +happens that the years cannot all contain the same number of days if the +epoch of their commencement remains fixed; for the day and the civil year +must necessarily be considered as beginning at the same instant; and +therefore the extra hours cannot be included in the year till they have +accumulated to a whole day. As soon as this has taken place, an additional +day must be given to the year. + +The civil calendar of all European countries has been borrowed from that of +the Romans. Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten months only, +including in all 304 days, and it is not very well known how the remaining +days were disposed of. The ancient Roman year commenced with March, as is +indicated by the names September, October, November, December, which the +last four months still retain. July and August, likewise, were anciently +denominated Quintilis and Sextilis, their present appellations having been +bestowed in compliment to Julius Caesar and Augustus. In the reign of Numa +two months were added to the year, January at the beginning and February at +the end; and this arrangement continued till the year 452 B.C., when the +Decemvirs changed the order of the months, and placed February after +January. The months now consisted of twenty-nine and thirty days +alternately, to correspond with the synodic revolution of the moon, so that +the year contained 354 days; but a day was added to make the number odd, +which was considered more fortunate, and the year therefore consisted of +355 days. This differed from the solar year by ten whole days and a +fraction; but, to restore the coincidence, Numa ordered an additional or +intercalary month to be inserted every second year between the 23rd and +24th of February, consisting of twenty-two and twenty-three days +alternately, so that four years contained 1465 days, and the mean length of +the year was consequently 3661/4 days. The additional month was called +_Mercedinus_ or _Mercedonius_, from _merces_, wages, probably because the +wages of workmen and domestics were usually paid at this season of the +year. According to the above arrangement, the year was too long by one day, +which rendered another correction necessary. As the error amounted to +twenty-four days in as many years, it was ordered that every third period +of eight years, instead of containing four intercalary months, amounting in +all to ninety days, should contain only three of those months, consisting +of twenty-two days each. The mean length of the year was thus reduced to +3651/4 days; but it is not certain at what time the octennial periods, +borrowed from the Greeks, were introduced into the Roman calendar, or +whether they were at any time strictly followed. It does not even appear +that the length of the intercalary month was regulated by any certain +principle, for a discretionary power was left with the pontiffs, to whom +the care of the calendar was committed, to intercalate more or fewer days +according as the year was found to differ more or less from the celestial +motions. This power was quickly abused to serve political objects, and the +calendar consequently thrown into confusion. By giving a greater or less +number of days to the intercalary month, the pontiffs were enabled to +prolong the term of a magistracy or hasten the annual elections; and so +little care had been taken to regulate the year, that, at the time of +Julius Caesar, the civil equinox differed from the astronomical by three +months, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn and the +autumnal into summer. + +In order to put an end to the disorders arising from the negligence or +ignorance of the pontiffs, Caesar abolished the use of the lunar year and +the intercalary month, and regulated the civil year entirely by the sun. +With the advice and assistance of Sosigenes, he fixed the mean length of +the year at 3651/4 days, and decreed that every fourth year should have 366 +days, the [v.04 p.0990] other years having each 365. In order to restore +the vernal equinox to the 25th of March, the place it occupied in the time +of Numa, he ordered two extraordinary months to be inserted between +November and December in the current year, the first to consist of +thirty-three, and the second of thirty-four days. The intercalary month of +twenty-three days fell into the year of course, so that the ancient year of +355 days received an augmentation of ninety days; and the year on that +occasion contained in all 445 days. This was called the last year of +confusion. The first Julian year commenced with the 1st of January of the +46th before the birth of Christ, and the 708th from the foundation of the +city. + +In the distribution of the days through the several months, Caesar adopted +a simpler and more commodious arrangement than that which has since +prevailed. He had ordered that the first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth and +eleventh months, that is January, March, May, July, September and November, +should have each thirty-one days, and the other months thirty, excepting +February, which in common years should have only twenty-nine, but every +fourth year thirty days. This order was interrupted to gratify the vanity +of Augustus, by giving the month bearing his name as many days as July, +which was named after the first Caesar. A day was accordingly taken from +February and given to August; and in order that three months of thirty-one +days might not come together, September and November were reduced to thirty +days, and thirty-one given to October and December. For so frivolous a +reason was the regulation of Caesar abandoned, and a capricious arrangement +introduced, which it requires some attention to remember. + +The additional day which occured every fourth year was given to February, +as being the shortest month, and was inserted in the calendar between the +24th and 25th day. February having then twenty-nine days, the 25th was the +6th of the calends of March, _sexto calendas_; the preceding, which was the +additional or intercalary day, was called _bis-sexto calendas_,--hence the +term _bissextile_, which is still employed to distinguish the year of 366 +days. The English denomination of _leap-year_ would have been more +appropriate if that year had differed from common years in _defect_, and +contained only 364 days. In the modern calendar the intercalary day is +still added to February, not, however, between the 24th and 25th, but as +the 29th. + +The regulations of Caesar were not at first sufficiently understood; and +the pontiffs, by intercalating every third year instead of every fourth, at +the end of thirty-six years had intercalated twelve times, instead of nine. +This mistake having been discovered, Augustus ordered that all the years +from the thirty-seventh of the era to the forty-eighth inclusive should be +common years, by which means the intercalations were reduced to the proper +number of twelve in forty-eight years. No account is taken of this blunder +in chronology; and it is tacitly supposed that the calendar has been +correctly followed from its commencement. + +Although the Julian method of intercalation is perhaps the most convenient +that could be adopted, yet, as it supposes the year too long by 11 minutes +14 seconds, it could not without correction very long answer the purpose +for which it was devised, namely, that of preserving always the same +interval of time between the commencement of the year and the equinox. +Sosigenes could scarcely fail to know that this year was too long; for it +had been shown long before, by the observations of Hipparchus, that the +excess of 3651/4 days above a true solar year would amount to a day in 300 +years. The real error is indeed more than double of this, and amounts to a +day in 128 years; but in the time of Caesar the length of the year was an +astronomical element not very well determined. In the course of a few +centuries, however, the equinox sensibly retrograded towards the beginning +of the year. When the Julian calendar was introduced, the equinox fell on +the 25th of March. At the time of the council of Nice, which was held in +325, it fell on the 21st; and when the reformation of the calendar was made +in 1582, it had retrograded to the 11th. In order to restore the equinox to +its former place, Pope Gregory XIII. directed ten days to be suppressed in +the calendar; and as the error of the Julian intercalation was now found to +amount to three days in 400 years, he ordered the intercalations to be +omitted on all the centenary years excepting those which are multiples of +400. According to the Gregorian rule of intercalation, therefore, every +year of which the number is divisible by four without a remainder is a leap +year, excepting the centurial years, which are only leap years when +divisible by four after omitting the two ciphers. Thus 1600 was a leap +year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 are common years; 2000 will be a leap year, +and so on. + +As the Gregorian method of intercalation has been adopted in all Christian +countries, Russia excepted, it becomes interesting to examine with what +degrees of accuracy it reconciles the civil with the solar year. According +to the best determinations of modern astronomy (Le Verrier's _Solar +Tables_, Paris, 1858, p. 102), the mean geocentric motion of the sun in +longitude, from the mean equinox during a Julian year of 365.25 days, the +same being brought up to the present date, is 360 deg. + 27".685. Thus the mean +length of the solar year is found to be + + 360 deg. + ---------------- x 365.25 = 365.2422 + 360 deg. + 27".685 + +days, or 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 46 sec. Now the Gregorian rule gives 97 +intercalations in 400 years; 400 years therefore contain 365 x 400 + 97, +that is, 146,097 days; and consequently one year contains 365.2425 days, or +365 days 5 hours 49 min. 12 sec. This exceeds the true solar year by 26 +seconds, which amount to a day in 3323 years. It is perhaps unnecessary to +make any formal provision against an error which can only happen after so +long a period of time; but as 3323 differs little from 4000, it has been +proposed to correct the Gregorian rule by making the year 4000 and all its +multiples common years. With this correction the rule of intercalation is +as follows:-- + +Every year the number of which is divisible by 4 is a leap year, excepting +the last year of each century, which is a leap year only when the number of +the century is divisible by 4; but 4000, and its multiples, 8000, 12,000, +16,000, &c. are common years. Thus the uniformity of the intercalation, by +continuing to depend on the number four, is preserved, and by adopting the +last correction the commencement of the year would not vary more than a day +from its present place in two hundred centuries. + +In order to discover whether the coincidence of the civil and solar year +could not be restored in shorter periods by a different method of +intercalation, we may proceed as follows:--The fraction 0.2422, which +expresses the excess of the solar year above a whole number of days, being +converted into a continued fraction, becomes + + 1 + ----- + 4 + 1 + ----- + 7 + 1 + ----- + 1 + 1 + ----- + 3 + 1 + ----- + 4 + 1 + ----- + 1 +, &c. + +which gives the series of approximating fractions, + + 1/4, 7/29, 8/33, 31/128, 132/545, 163/673, &c. + +The first of these, 1/4, gives the Julian intercalation of one day in four +years, and is considerably too great. It supposes the year to contain 365 +days 6 hours. + +The second, 7/29, gives seven intercalary days in twenty-nine years, and +errs in defect, as it supposes a year of 365 days 5 hours 47 min. 35 sec. + +The third, 8/33, gives eight intercalations in thirty-three years or seven +successive intercalations at the end of four years respectively, and the +eighth at the end of five years. This supposes the year to contain 365 days +5 hours 49 min. 5.45 sec. + +The fourth fraction, + + 31/128 = (24 + 7) / (99 + 29) = (3 x 8 + 7) / (3 x 33 + 29) + +combines three periods of thirty-three years with one of twenty-nine, and +would consequently be very convenient in application. It supposes the year +to consist of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 45 sec., and is practically exact. + +The fraction 8/33 offers a convenient and very accurate method of +intercalation. It implies a year differing in excess from the true year +only by 19.45 sec., while the Gregorian year is too long by 26 sec. It +produces a much nearer coincidence between the civil and solar years than +the Gregorian method; and, by reason of its shortness of period, confines +the evagations of the mean equinox from the true within much narrower +limits. It has been stated by Scaliger, Weidler, Montucla, and others, that +the modern Persians actually follow this method, and intercalate eight days +in thirty-three [v.04 p.0991] years. The statement has, however, been +contested on good authority; and it seems proved (see Delambre, _Astronomie +Moderne_, tom. i. p.81) that the Persian intercalation combines the two +periods 7/29 and 8/33. If they follow the combination (7 + 3 x 8) / (29 + 3 +x 33) = 31/128 their determination of the length of the tropical year has +been extremely exact. The discovery of the period of thirty-three years is +ascribed to Omar Khayyam, one of the eight astronomers appointed by Jelal +ud-Din Malik Shah, sultan of Khorasan, to reform or construct a calendar, +about the year 1079 of our era. + +If the commencement of the year, instead of being retained at the same +place in the seasons by a uniform method of intercalation, were made to +depend on astronomical phenomena, the intercalations would succeed each +other in an irregular manner, sometimes after four years and sometimes +after five; and it would occasionally, though rarely indeed, happen, that +it would be impossible to determine the day on which the year ought to +begin. In the calendar, for example, which was attempted to be introduced +in France in 1793, the beginning of the year was fixed at midnight +preceding the day in which the true autumnal equinox falls. But supposing +the instant of the sun's entering into the sign Libra to be very near +midnight, the small errors of the solar tables might render it doubtful to +which day the equinox really belonged; and it would be in vain to have +recourse to observation to obviate the difficulty. It is therefore +infinitely more commodious to determine the commencement of the year by a +fixed rule of intercalation; and of the various methods which might be +employed, no one perhaps is on the whole more easy of application, or +better adapted for the purpose of computation, than the Gregorian now in +use. But a system of 31 intercalations in 128 years would be by far the +most perfect as regards mathematical accuracy. Its adoption upon our +present Gregorian calendar would only require the suppression of the usual +bissextile once in every 128 years, and there would be no necessity for any +further correction, as the error is so insignificant that it would not +amount to a day in 100,000 years. + +_Of the Lunar Year and Luni-solar Periods._--The lunar year, consisting of +twelve lunar months, contains only 354 days; its commencement consequently +anticipates that of the solar year by eleven days, and passes through the +whole circle of the seasons in about thirty-four lunar years. It is +therefore so obviously ill-adapted to the computation of time, that, +excepting the modern Jews and Mahommedans, almost all nations who have +regulated their months by the moon have employed some method of +intercalation by means of which the beginning of the year is retained at +nearly the same fixed place in the seasons. + +In the early ages of Greece the year was regulated entirely by the moon. +Solon divided the year into twelve months, consisting alternately of +twenty-nine and thirty days, the former of which were called _deficient_ +months, and the latter _full_ months. The lunar year, therefore, contained +354 days, falling short of the exact time of twelve lunations by about 8.8 +hours. The first expedient adopted to reconcile the lunar and solar years +seems to have been the addition of a month of thirty days to every second +year. Two lunar years would thus contain 25 months, or 738 days, while two +solar years, of 3651/4 days each, contain 7301/2 days. The difference of 71/2 +days was still too great to escape observation; it was accordingly proposed +by Cleostratus of Tenedos, who flourished shortly after the time of Thales, +to omit the biennary intercalation every eighth year. In fact, the 71/2 days +by which two lunar years exceeded two solar years, amounted to thirty days, +or a full month, in eight years. By inserting, therefore, three additional +months instead of four in every period of eight years, the coincidence +between the solar and lunar year would have been exactly restored if the +latter had contained only 354 days, inasmuch as the period contains 354 x 8 ++ 3 x 30 = 2922 days, corresponding with eight solar years of 3651/4 days +each. But the true time of 99 lunations is 2923.528 days, which exceeds the +above period by 1.528 days, or thirty-six hours and a few minutes. At the +end of two periods, or sixteen years, the excess is three days, and at the +end of 160 years, thirty days. It was therefore proposed to employ a period +of 160 years, in which one of the intercalary months should be omitted; but +as this period was too long to be of any practical use, it was never +generally adopted. The common practice was to make occasional corrections +as they became necessary, in order to preserve the relation between the +octennial period and the state of the heavens; but these corrections being +left to the care of incompetent persons, the calendar soon fell into great +disorder, and no certain rule was followed till a new division of the year +was proposed by Meton and Euctemon, which was immediately adopted in all +the states and dependencies of Greece. + +The mean motion of the moon in longitude, from the mean equinox, during a +Julian year of 365.25 days (according to Hansen's _Tables de la Lune_, +London, 1857, pages 15, 16) is, at the present date, 13 x 360 deg. + +477644".409; that of the sun being 360 deg. + 27".685. Thus the corresponding +relative mean geocentric motion of the moon from the sun is 12 x 360 deg. + +477616".724; and the duration of the mean synodic revolution of the moon, +or lunar month, is therefore 360 deg. / (12 x 360 deg. + 477616".724) x 365.25 = +29.530588 days, or 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min. 2.8 sec. + +The _Metonic Cycle_, which may be regarded as the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of +ancient astronomy, is a period of nineteen solar years, after which the new +moons again happen on the same days of the year. In nineteen solar years +there are 235 lunations, a number which, on being divided by nineteen, +gives twelve lunations for each year, with seven of a remainder, to be +distributed among the years of the period. The period of Meton, therefore, +consisted of twelve years containing twelve months each, and seven years +containing thirteen months each; and these last formed the third, fifth, +eighth, eleventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, and nineteenth years of the cycle. +As it had now been discovered that the exact length of the lunation is a +little more than twenty-nine and a half days, it became necessary to +abandon the alternate succession of full and deficient months; and, in +order to preserve a more accurate correspondence between the civil month +and the lunation, Meton divided the cycle into 125 full months of thirty +days, and 110 deficient months of twenty-nine days each. The number of days +in the period was therefore 6940. In order to distribute the deficient +months through the period in the most equable manner, the whole period may +be regarded as consisting of 235 full months of thirty days, or of 7050 +days, from which 110 days are to be deducted. This gives one day to be +suppressed in sixty-four; so that if we suppose the months to contain each +thirty days, and then omit every sixty-fourth day in reckoning from the +beginning of the period, those months in which the omission takes place +will, of course, be the deficient months. + +The number of days in the period being known, it is easy to ascertain its +accuracy both in respect of the solar and lunar motions. The exact length +of nineteen solar years is 19 x 365.2422 = 6939.6018 days, or 6939 days 14 +hours 26.592 minutes; hence the period, which is exactly 6940 days, exceeds +nineteen revolutions of the sun by nine and a half hours nearly. On the +other hand, the exact time of a synodic revolution of the moon is 29.530588 +days; 235 lunations, therefore, contain 235 x 29.530588 = 6939.68818 days, +or 6939 days 16 hours 31 minutes, so that the period exceeds 235 lunations +by only seven and a half hours. + +After the Metonic cycle had been in use about a century, a correction was +proposed by Calippus. At the end of four cycles, or seventy-six years, the +accumulation of the seven and a half hours of difference between the cycle +and 235 lunations amounts to thirty hours, or one whole day and six hours. +Calippus, therefore, proposed to quadruple the period of Meton, and deduct +one day at the end of that time by changing one of the full months into a +deficient month. The period of Calippus, therefore, consisted of three +Metonic cycles of 6940 days each, and a period of 6939 days; and its error +in respect of the moon, consequently, amounted only to six hours, or to one +day in 304 years. This period exceeds seventy-six true solar years by +fourteen hours and a quarter nearly, but coincides exactly with seventy-six +Julian years; and in the time of Calippus the length of the solar year was +almost universally supposed to be exactly 3651/4 days. The Calippic period is +frequently referred to as a date by Ptolemy. + +_Ecclesiastical Calendar._--The ecclesiastical calendar, which is adopted +in all the Catholic, and most of the Protestant countries of Europe, is +luni-solar, being regulated partly by the solar, and partly by the lunar +year,--a circumstance which gives rise to the [v.04 p.0992] distinction +between the movable and immovable feasts. So early as the 2nd century of +our era, great disputes had arisen among the Christians respecting the +proper time of celebrating Easter, which governs all the other movable +feasts. The Jews celebrated their passover on the 14th day of _the first +month_, that is to say, the lunar month of which the fourteenth day either +falls on, or next follows, the day of the vernal equinox. Most Christian +sects agreed that Easter should be celebrated on a Sunday. Others followed +the example of the Jews, and adhered to the 14th of the moon; but these, as +usually happened to the minority, were accounted heretics, and received the +appellation of Quartodecimans. In order to terminate dissensions, which +produced both scandal and schism in the church, the council of Nicaea, +which was held in the year 325, ordained that the celebration of Easter +should thenceforth always take place on the Sunday which immediately +follows the full moon that happens upon, or next after, the day of the +vernal equinox. Should the 14th of the moon, which is regarded as the day +of full moon, happen on a Sunday, the celebration Of Easter was deferred to +the Sunday following, in order to avoid concurrence with the Jews and the +above-mentioned heretics. The observance of this rule renders it necessary +to reconcile three periods which have no common measure, namely, the week, +the lunar month, and the solar year; and as this can only be done +approximately, and within certain limits, the determination of Easter is an +affair of considerable nicety and complication. It is to be regretted that +the reverend fathers who formed the council of Nicaea did not abandon the +moon altogether, and appoint the first or second Sunday of April for the +celebration of the Easter festival. The ecclesiastical calendar would in +that case have possessed all the simplicity and uniformity of the civil +calendar, which only requires the adjustment of the civil to the solar +year; but they were probably not sufficiently versed in astronomy to be +aware of the practical difficulties which their regulation had to +encounter. + +_Dominical Letter._--The first problem which the construction of the +calendar presents is to connect the week with the year, or to find the day +of the week corresponding to a given day of any year of the era. As the +number of days in the week and the number in the year are prime to one +another, two successive years cannot begin with the same day; for if a +common year begins, for example, with Sunday, the following year will begin +with Monday, and if a leap year begins with Sunday, the year following will +begin with Tuesday. For the sake of greater generality, the days of the +week are denoted by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, +F, G, which are placed in the calendar beside the days of the year, so that +A stands opposite the first day of January, B opposite the second, and so +on to G, which stands opposite the seventh; after which A returns to the +eighth, and so on through the 365 days of the year. Now if one of the days +of the week, Sunday for example, is represented by E, Monday will be +represented by F, Tuesday by G, Wednesday by A, and so on; and every Sunday +through the year will have the same character E, every Monday F, and so +with regard to the rest. The letter which denotes Sunday is called the +_Dominical Letter_, or the _Sunday Letter_; and when the dominical letter +of the year is known, the letters which respectively correspond to the +other days of the week become known at the same time. + +_Solar Cycle._--In the Julian calendar the dominical letters are readily +found by means of a short cycle, in which they recut in the same order +without interruption. The number of years in the intercalary period being +four, and the days of the week being seven, their product is 4 x 7 = 28; +twenty-eight years is therefore a period which includes all the possible +combinations of the days of the week with the commencement of the year. +This period is called the _Solar Cycle_, or the _Cycle of the Sun_, and +restores the first day of the year to the same day of the week. At the end +of the cycle the dominical letters return again in the same order on the +same days of the month; hence a table of dominical letters, constructed for +twenty-eight years, will serve to show the dominical letter of any given +year from the commencement of the era to the Reformation. The cycle, though +probably not invented before the time of the council of Nicaea, is regarded +as having commenced nine years before the era, so that the year _one_ was +the tenth of the solar cycle. To find the year of the cycle, we have +therefore the following rule:--_Add nine to the date, divide the sum by +twenty-eight; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the +remainder is the year of the cycle._ Should there be no remainder, the +proposed year is the twenty-eighth or last of the cycle. This rule is +conveniently expressed by the formula + + ((x + 9) / 28)_r, + +in which x denotes the date, and the symbol r denotes that the remainder, +which arises from the division of x + 9 by 28, is the number required. +Thus, for 1840, we have + + (1840 + 9) / 28 = 66-1/28 + +therefore + + ((1840 + 9) / 28)_r = 1, + +and the year 1840 is the first of the solar cycle. In order to make use of +the solar cycle in finding the dominical letter, it is necessary to know +that the first year of the Christian era began with Saturday. The dominical +letter of that year, which was the tenth of the cycle, was consequently B. +The following year, or the 11th of the cycle, the letter was A; then G. The +fourth year was bissextile, and the dominical letters were F, E; the +following year D, and so on. In this manner it is easy to find the +dominical letter belonging to each of the twenty-eight years of the cycle. +But at the end of a century the order is interrupted in the Gregorian +calendar by the secular suppression of the leap year; hence the cycle can +only be employed during a century. In the reformed calendar the intercalary +period is four hundred years, which number being multiplied by seven, gives +two thousand eight hundred years as the interval in which the coincidence +is restored between the days of the year and the days of the week. This +long period, however, may be reduced to four hundred years; for since the +dominical letter goes back five places every four years, its variation in +four hundred years, in the Julian calendar, was five hundred places, which +is equivalent to only three places (for five hundred divided by seven +leaves three); but the Gregorian calendar suppresses exactly three +intercalations in four hundred years, so that after four hundred years the +dominical letters must again return in the same order. Hence the following +table of dominical letters for four hundred years will serve to show the +dominical letter of any year in the Gregorian calendar for ever. It +contains four columns of letters, each column serving for a century. In +order to find the column from which the letter in any given case is to be +taken, strike off the last two figures of the date, divide the preceding +figures by four, and the remainder will indicate the column. The symbol X, +employed in the formula at the top of the column, denotes the number of +centuries, that is, the figures remaining after the last two have been +struck off. For example, required the dominical letter of the year 1839? In +this case X = 18, therefore (X/4)_r = 2; and in the second column of +letters, opposite 39, in the table we find F, which is the letter of the +proposed year. + +It deserves to be remarked, that as the dominical letter of the first year +of the era was B, the first column of the following table will give the +dominical letter of every year from the commencement of the era to the +Reformation. For this purpose divide the date by 28, and the letter +opposite the remainder, in the first column of figures, is the dominical +letter of the year. For example, supposing the date to be 1148. On dividing +by 28, the remainder is 0, or 28; and opposite 28, in the first column of +letters, we find D, C, the dominical letters of the year 1148. + +_Lunar Cycle and Golden Number._--In connecting the lunar month with the +solar year, the framers of the ecclesiastical calendar adopted the period +of Meton, or lunar cycle, which they supposed to be exact. A different +arrangement has, however, been followed with respect to the distribution of +the months. The lunations are supposed to consist of twenty-nine and thirty +days alternately, or the lunar year of 354 days; and in order to make up +nineteen solar years, six embolismic or intercalary months, of thirty days +each, are introduced in the course of the cycle, and one of twenty-nine +days is added at the [v.04 p.0993] end. This gives 19 x 354 + 6 x 30 + 29 = +6935 days, to be distributed among 235 lunar months. But every leap year +one day must be added to the lunar month in which the 29th of February is +included. Now if leap year happens on the first, second or third year of +the period, there will be five leap years in the period, but only four when +the first leap year falls on the fourth. In the former case the number of +days in the period becomes 6940 and in the latter 6939. The mean length of +the cycle is therefore 69393/4 days, agreeing exactly with nineteen Julian +years. + + Table I.--_Dominical Letters._ + + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | | | + |Years of the Century.|(X/4)_r = 1|(X/4)_r = 2|(X/4)_r = 3|(X/4)_r = 0| + | | | | | | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 0 | C | E | G | B,A | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 1 29 57 85 | B | D | F | G | + | 2 30 58 86 | A | C | E | F | + | 3 31 59 87 | G | B | D | E | + | 4 32 60 88 | F,E | A,G | C,B | D,C | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 5 33 61 89 | D | F | A | B | + | 6 34 62 90 | C | E | G | A | + | 7 35 63 91 | B | D | F | G | + | 8 36 64 92 | A,G | C,B | E,D | F,E | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 9 37 65 93 | F | A | C | D | + | 10 38 66 94 | E | G | B | C | + | 11 39 67 95 | D | F | A | B | + | 12 40 68 96 | C,B | E,D | G,F | A,G | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 13 41 69 97 | A | C | E | F | + | 14 42 70 98 | G | B | D | E | + | 15 43 71 99 | F | A | C | D | + | 16 44 72 | E,D | G,F | B,A | C,B | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 17 45 73 | C | E | G | A | + | 18 46 74 | B | D | F | G | + | 19 47 75 | A | C | E | F | + | 20 48 76 | G,F | B,A | D,C | E,D | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 21 49 77 | E | G | B | C | + | 22 50 78 | D | F | A | B | + | 23 51 79 | C | E | G | A | + | 24 52 80 | B,A | D,C | F,E | G,F | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 25 53 81 | G | B | D | E | + | 26 54 82 | F | A | C | D | + | 27 55 83 | E | G | B | C | + | 28 56 84 | D,C | F,E | A,G | B,A | + +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + Table II.--_The Day of the Week._ + + +-----------------------+-----------------------------------------+ + | Month. | Dominical Letter. | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Jan. Oct. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Feb. Mar. Nov. | D | E | F | G | A | B | C | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | April July | G | A | B | C | D | E | F | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | May | B | C | D | E | F | G | A | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | June | E | F | G | A | B | C | D | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | August | C | D | E | F | G | A | B | + +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Sept. Dec. | F | G | A | B | C | D | E | + +---+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | 1 | 8 | 15 | 22 | 29 |Sun. |Sat |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues |Mon. | + | 2 | 9 | 16 | 23 | 30 |Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues.| + | 3 | 10 | 17 | 24 | 31 |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. | + | 4 | 11 | 18 | 25 | |Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.| + | 5 | 12 | 19 | 26 | |Thur.|Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. |Frid.| + | 6 | 13 | 20 | 27 | |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. |Sat. | + | 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | |Sat. |Frid.|Thur.|Wed. |Tues.|Mon. |Sun. | + +---+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +By means of the lunar cycle the new moons of the calendar were indicated +before the Reformation. As the cycle restores these phenomena to the same +days of the civil month, they will fall on the same days in any two years +which occupy the same place in the cycle; consequently a table of the +moon's phases for 19 years will serve for any year whatever when we know +its number in the cycle. This number is called the _Golden Number_, either +because it was so termed by the Greeks, or because it was usual to mark it +with red letters in the calendar. The Golden Numbers were introduced into +the calendar about the year 530, but disposed as they would have been if +they had been inserted at the time of the council of Nicaea. The cycle is +supposed to commence with the year in which the new moon falls on the 1st +of January, which took place the year preceding the commencement of our +era. Hence, to find the Golden Number N, for any year x, we have N = ((x + +1) / 19)_r, which gives the following rule: _Add 1 to the date, divide the +sum by 19; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder +is the Golden Number._ When the remainder is 0, the proposed year is of +course the last or 19th of the cycle. It ought to be remarked that the new +moons, determined in this manner, may differ from the astronomical new +moons sometimes as much as two days. The reason is that the sum of the +solar and lunar inequalities, which are compensated in the whole period, +may amount in certain cases to 10 deg., and thereby cause the new moon to +arrive on the second day before or after its mean time. + +_Dionysian Period._--The cycle of the sun brings back the days of the month +to the same day of the week; the lunar cycle restores the new moons to the +same day of the month; therefore 28 x 19 = 532 years, includes all the +variations in respect of the new moons and the dominical letters, and is +consequently a period after which the new moons again occur on the same day +of the month and the same day of the week. This is called the _Dionysian_ +or Great _Paschal Period_, from its having been employed by Dionysius +Exiguus, familiarly styled "Denys the Little," in determining Easter +Sunday. It was, however, first proposed by Victorius of Aquitain, who had +been appointed by Pope Hilary to revise and correct the church calendar. +Hence it is also called the _Victorian Period_. It continued in use till +the Gregorian reformation. + +_Cycle of Indiction._--Besides the solar and lunar cycles, there is a third +of 15 years, called the cycle of indiction, frequently employed in the +computations of chronologists. This period is not astronomical, like the +two former, but has reference to certain judicial acts which took place at +stated epochs under the Greek emperors. Its commencement is referred to the +1st of January of the year 313 of the common era. By extending it +backwards, it will be found that the first of the era was the fourth of the +cycle of indiction. The number of any year in this cycle will therefore be +given by the formula (x + 3) / 15)_r¸ that is to say, _add 3 to the date, +divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the year of the indiction_. When +the remainder is 0, the proposed year is the fifteenth of the cycle. + +_Julian Period._--The Julian period, proposed by the celebrated Joseph +Scaliger as an universal measure of chronology, is formed by taking the +continued product of the three cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the +indiction, and is consequently 28 x 19 x 15 = 7980 years. In the course of +this long period no two years can be expressed by the same numbers in all +the three cycles. Hence, when the number of any proposed year in each of +the cycles is known, its number in the Julian period can be determined by +the resolution of a very simple problem of the indeterminate analysis. It +is unnecessary, however, in the present case to exhibit the general +solution of the problem, because when the number in the period +corresponding to any one year in the era has been ascertained, it is easy +to establish the correspondence for all other years, without having again +recourse to the direct solution of the problem. We shall therefore find the +number of the Julian period corresponding to the first of our era. + +We have already seen that the year 1 of the era had 10 for its number in +the solar cycle, 2 in the lunar cycle, and 4 in the cycle of indiction; the +question is therefore to find a number such, that [v.04 p.0994] when it is +divided by the three numbers 28, 19, and 15 respectively the three +remainders shall be 10, 2, and 4. + +Let x, y, and z be the three quotients of the divisions; the number sought +will then be expressed by 28 x + 10, by 19 y + 2, or by 15 z + 4. Hence the +two equations + + 28 x + 10 = 19 y + 2 = 15 z + 4. + +To solve the equations 28 x + 10 = 19 y + 2, or y = (9 x + 8) / 19, let m = +(9 x + 8) / 19, we have then x = 2 m + (m - 8) / 9. Let (m - 8) / 9 = m'; +then m = 9 m' + 8; hence + + x = 18 m' + 16 + m' = 19 m' + 16 . . . (1). + +Again, since 28 x + 10 = 15 z + 4, we have + + 15 z = 28 x + 6, or z = 2 x - (2 x - 6) / 15. + +Let (2 x - 6) / 15 = n; then 2 x = 15 n + 6, and x = 7 n + 3 + n / 2. + +Let n / 2 = n'; then n = 2 n'; consequently + + x = 14 n' + 3 + n' = 15 n' + 3 . . . (2). + +Equating the above two values of x, we have + + 15 n' + 3 = 19 m' + 16; whence n' = m' + (4 m' + 13) / 15. + +Let (4 m' + 13) / 15 = p; we have then + + 4 m' = 15 p - 13, and m' = 4 p - (p + 13) / 4. + +Let (p + 13) / 4 = p'; then p = 4 p' - 13; + + whence m' = 16 p' - 52 - p' = 15 p' - 52. + +Now in this equation p' may be any number whatever, provided 15 p' exceed +52. The smallest value of p' (which is the one here wanted) is therefore 4; +for 15 x 4 = 60. Assuming therefore p' = 4, we have m' = 60 - 52 = 8; and +consequently, since x = 19 m' + 16, x = 19 x 8 + 16 = 168. The number +required is consequently 28 x 168 + 10 = 4714. + +Having found the number 4714 for the first of the era, the correspondence +of the years of the era and of the period is as follows:-- + + Era, 1, 2, 3, ... x, + Period, 4714, 4715, 4716, ... 4713 + x; + +from which it is evident, that if we take P to represent the year of the +Julian period, and x the corresponding year of the Christian era, we shall +have + + P = 4713 + x, and x = P - 4713. + +With regard to the numeration of the years previous to the commencement of +the era, the practice is not uniform. Chronologists, in general, reckon the +year preceding the first of the era -1, the next preceding -2, and so on. +In this case + + Era, -1, -2, -3, ... -x, + Period, 4713, 4712, 4711, ... 4714 - x; + +whence + + P = 4714 - x, and x = 4714 - P. + +But astronomers, in order to preserve the uniformity of computation, make +the series of years proceed without interruption, and reckon the year +preceding the first of the era 0. Thus + + Era, 0, -1, -2, ... -x, + Period, 4713, 4712, 4711, ... 4713 - x; + +therefore, in this case + + P = 4713 - x, and x = 4713 - P. + +_Reformation of the Calendar._--The ancient church calendar was founded on +two suppositions, both erroneous, namely, that the year contains 3651/4 days, +and that 235 lunations are exactly equal to nineteen solar years. It could +not therefore long continue to preserve its correspondence with the +seasons, or to indicate the days of the new moons with the same accuracy. +About the year 730 the venerable Bede had already perceived the +anticipation of the equinoxes, and remarked that these phenomena then took +place about three days earlier than at the time of the council of Nicaea. +Five centuries after the time of Bede, the divergence of the true equinox +from the 21st of March, which now amounted to seven or eight days, was +pointed out by Johannes de Sacro Bosco (John Holywood, _fl._ 1230) in his +_De Anni Ratione_; and by Roger Bacon, in a treatise _De Reformatione +Calendarii_, which, though never published, was transmitted to the pope. +These works were probably little regarded at the time; but as the errors of +the calendar went on increasing, and the true length of the year, in +consequence of the progress of astronomy, became better known, the project +of a reformation was again revived in the 15th century; and in 1474 Pope +Sixtus IV. invited Regiomontanus, the most celebrated astronomer of the +age, to Rome, to superintend the reconstruction of the calendar. The +premature death of Regiomontanus caused the design to be suspended for the +time; but in the following century numerous memoirs appeared on the +subject, among the authors of which were Stoffler, Albert Pighius, Johann +Schoener, Lucas Gauricus, and other mathematicians of celebrity. At length +Pope Gregory XIII. perceiving that the measure was likely to confer a great +_eclat_ on his pontificate, undertook the long-desired reformation; and +having found the governments of the principal Catholic states ready to +adopt his views, he issued a brief in the month of March 1582, in which he +abolished the use of the ancient calendar, and substituted that which has +since been received in almost all Christian countries under the name of the +_Gregorian Calendar_ or _New Style_ The author of the system adopted by +Gregory was Aloysius Lilius, or Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, a learned astronomer +and physician of Naples, who died, however, before its introduction; but +the individual who most contributed to give the ecclesiastical calendar its +present form, and who was charged with all the calculations necessary for +its verification, was Clavius, by whom it was completely developed and +explained in a great folio treatise of 800 pages, published in 1603, the +title of which is given at the end of this article. + +It has already been mentioned that the error of the Julian year was +corrected in the Gregorian calendar by the suppression of three +intercalations in 400 years. In order to restore the beginning of the year +to the same place in the seasons that it had occupied at the time of the +council of Nicaea, Gregory directed the day following the feast of St +Francis, that is to say the 5th of October, to be reckoned the 15th of that +month. By this regulation the vernal equinox which then happened on the +11th of March was restored to the 21st. From 1582 to 1700 the difference +between the old and new style continued to be ten days; but 1700 being a +leap year in the Julian calendar, and a common year in the Gregorian, the +difference of the styles during the 18th century was eleven days. The year +1800 was also common in the new calendar, and, consequently, the difference +in the 19th century was twelve days. From 1900 to 2100 inclusive it is +thirteen days. + +The restoration of the equinox to its former place in the year and the +correction of the intercalary period, were attended with no difficulty; but +Lilius had also to adapt the lunar year to the new rule of intercalation. +The lunar cycle contained 6939 days 18 hours, whereas the exact time of 235 +lunations, as we have already seen, is 235 x 29.530588 = 6939 days 16 hours +31 minutes. The difference, which is 1 hour 29 minutes, amounts to a day in +308 years, so that at the end of this time the new moons occur one day +earlier than they are indicated by the golden numbers. During the 1257 +years that elapsed between the council of Nicaea and the Reformation, the +error had accumulated to four days, so that the new moons which were marked +in the calendar as happening, for example, on the 5th of the month, +actually fell on the 1st. It would have been easy to correct this error by +placing the golden numbers four lines higher in the new calendar; and the +suppression of the ten days had already rendered it necessary to place them +ten lines lower, and to carry those which belonged, for example, to the 5th +and 6th of the month, to the 15th and 16th. But, supposing this correction +to have been made, it would have again become necessary, at the end of 308 +years, to advance them one line higher, in consequence of the accumulation +of the error of the cycle to a whole day. On the other hand, as the golden +numbers were only adapted to the Julian calendar, every omission of the +centenary intercalation would require them to be placed one line lower, +opposite the 6th, for example, instead of the 5th of the month; so that, +generally speaking, the places of the golden numbers would have to be +changed every century. On this account Lilius thought fit to reject the +golden numbers from the calendar, and supply their place by another set of +numbers called _Epacts_, the use of which we shall now proceed to explain. + +_Epacts._--Epact is a word of Greek origin, employed in the calendar to +signify the moon's age at the beginning of the year. [v.04 p.0995] The +common solar year containing 365 days, and the lunar year only 354 days, +the difference is eleven; whence, if a new moon fall on the 1st of January +in any year, the moon will be eleven days old on the first day of the +following year, and twenty-two days on the first of the third year. The +numbers eleven and twenty-two are therefore the epacts of those years +respectively. Another addition of eleven gives thirty-three for the epact +of the fourth year; but in consequence of the insertion of the intercalary +month in each third year of the lunar cycle, this epact is reduced to +three. In like manner the epacts of all the following years of the cycle +are obtained by successively adding eleven to the epact of the former year, +and rejecting thirty as often as the sum exceeds that number. They are +therefore connected with the golden numbers by the formula (11 n / 30) in +which n is any whole number; and for a whole lunar cycle (supposing the +first epact to be 11), they are as follows:--11, 22, 3, 14, 25, 6, 17, 28, +9, 20, 1, 12, 23, 4, 15, 26, 7, 18, 29. But the order is interrupted at the +end of the cycle; for the epact of the following year, found in the same +manner, would be 29 + 11 = 40 or 10, whereas it ought again to be 11 to +correspond with the moon's age and the golden number 1. The reason of this +is, that the intercalary month, inserted at the end of the cycle, contains +only twenty-nine days instead of thirty; whence, after 11 has been added to +the epact of the year corresponding to the golden number 19, we must reject +twenty-nine instead of thirty, in order to have the epact of the succeeding +year; or, which comes to the same thing, we must add twelve to the epact of +the last year of the cycle, and then reject thirty as before. + +This method of forming the epacts might have been continued indefinitely if +the Julian intercalation had been followed without correction, and the +cycle been perfectly exact; but as neither of these suppositions is true, +two equations or corrections must be applied, one depending on the error of +the Julian year, which is called the solar equation; the other on the error +of the lunar cycle, which is called the lunar equation. The solar equation +occurs three times in 400 years, namely, in every secular year which is not +a leap year; for in this case the omission of the intercalary day causes +the new moons to arrive one day later in all the following months, so that +the moon's age at the end of the month is one day less than it would have +been if the intercalation had been made, and the epacts must accordingly be +all diminished by unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, 14, &c., become 10, 21, +2, 13, &c. On the other hand, when the time by which the new moons +anticipate the lunar cycle amounts to a whole day, which, as we have seen, +it does in 308 years, the new moons will arrive one day earlier, and the +epacts must consequently be increased by unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, +14, &c., in consequence of the lunar equation, become 12, 23, 4, 15, &c. In +order to preserve the uniformity of the calendar, the epacts are changed +only at the commencement of a century; the correction of the error of the +lunar cycle is therefore made at the end of 300 years. In the Gregorian +calendar this error is assumed to amount to one day in 3121/2 years or eight +days in 2500 years, an assumption which requires the line of epacts to be +changed seven times successively at the end of each period of 300 years, +and once at the end of 400 years; and, from the manner in which the epacts +were disposed at the Reformation, it was found most correct to suppose one +of the periods of 2500 years to terminate with the year 1800. + +The years in which the solar equation occurs, counting from the +Reformation, are 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2500, &c. Those in +which the lunar equation occurs are 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300, +3600, 3900, after which, 4300, 4600 and so on. When the solar equation +occurs, the epacts are diminished by unity; when the lunar equation occurs, +the epacts are augmented by unity; and when both equations occur together, +as in 1800, 2100, 2700, &c., they compensate each other, and the epacts are +not changed. + +In consequence of the solar and lunar equations, it is evident that the +epact or moon's age at the beginning of the year, must, in the course of +centuries, have all different values from one to thirty inclusive, +corresponding to the days in a full lunar month. Hence, for the +construction of a perpetual calendar, there must be thirty different sets +or lines of epacts. These are exhibited in the subjoined table (Table III.) +called the _Extended Table of Epacts_, which is constructed in the +following manner. The series of golden numbers is written in a line at the +top of the table, and under each golden number is a column of thirty +epacts, arranged in the order of the natural numbers, beginning at the +bottom and proceeding to the top of the column. The first column, under the +golden number 1, contains the epacts, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., to 30 or 0. The +second column, corresponding to the following year in the lunar cycle, must +have all its epacts augmented by 11; the lowest number, therefore, in the +column is 12, then 13, 14, 15 and so on. The third column corresponding to +the golden number 3, has for its first epact 12 + 11 = 23; and in the same +manner all the nineteen columns of the table are formed. Each of the thirty +lines of epacts is designated by a letter of the alphabet, which serves as +its index or argument. The order of the letters, like that of the numbers, +is from the bottom of the column upwards. + +In the tables of the church calendar the epacts are usually printed in +Roman numerals, excepting the last, which is designated by an asterisk (*), +used as an indefinite symbol to denote 30 or 0, and 25, which in the last +eight columns is expressed in Arabic characters, for a reason that will +immediately be explained. In the table here given, this distinction is made +by means of an accent placed over the last figure. + +At the Reformation the epacts were given by the line D. The year 1600 was a +leap year; the intercalation accordingly took place as usual, and there was +no interruption in the order of the epacts; the line D was employed till +1700. In that year the omission of the intercalary day rendered it +necessary to diminish the epacts by unity, or to pass to the line C. In +1800 the solar equation again occurred, in consequence of which it was +necessary to descend one line to have the epacts diminished by unity; but +in this year the lunar equation also occurred, the anticipation of the new +moons having amounted to a day; the new moons accordingly happened a day +earlier, which rendered it necessary to take the epacts in the next higher +line. There was, consequently, no alteration; the two equations destroyed +each other. The line of epacts belonging to the present century is +therefore C. In 1900 the solar equation occurs, after which the line is B. +The year 2000 is a leap year, and there is no alteration. In 2100 the +equations again occur together and destroy each other, so that the line B +will serve three centuries, from 1900 to 2200. From that year to 2300 the +line will be A. In this manner the line of epacts belonging to any given +century is easily found, and the method of proceeding is obvious. When the +solar equation occurs alone, the line of epacts is changed to the next +lower in the table; when the lunar equation occurs alone, the line is +changed to the next higher; when both equations occur together, no change +takes place. In order that it may be perceived at once to what centuries +the different lines of epacts respectively belong, they have been placed in +a column on the left hand side of the table on next page. + +The use of the epacts is to show the days of the new moons, and +consequently the moon's age on any day of the year. For this purpose they +are placed in the calendar (Table IV.) along with the days of the month and +dominical letters, in a retrograde order, so that the asterisk stands +beside the 1st of January, 29 beside the 2nd, 28 beside the 3rd and so on +to 1, which corresponds to the 30th. After this comes the asterisk, which +corresponds to the 31st of January, then 29, which belongs to the 1st of +February, and so on to the end of the year. The reason of this distribution +is evident. If the last lunation of any year ends, for example, on the 2nd +of December, the new moon falls on the 3rd; and the moon's age on the 31st, +or at the end of the year, is twenty-nine days. The epact of the following +year is therefore twenty-nine. Now that lunation having commenced on the +3rd of December, and consisting of thirty days, will end on the 1st of +January. The 2nd of January is therefore the day [v.04 p.0996] of the new +moon, which is indicated by the epact twenty-nine. In like manner, if the +new moon fell on the 4th of December, the epact of the following year would +be twenty-eight, which, to indicate the day of next new moon, must +correspond to the 3rd of January. + +When the epact of the year is known, the days on which the new moons occur +throughout the whole year are shown by Table IV., which is called the +_Gregorian Calendar of Epacts_. For example, the golden number of the year +1832 is ((1832 + 1) / 19)_r = 9, and the epact, as found in Table III., is +twenty-eight. This epact occurs at the 3rd of January, the 2nd of February, +the 3rd of March, the 2nd of April, the 1st of May, &c., and these days are +consequently the days of the ecclesiastical new moons in 1832. The +astronomical new moons generally take place one or two days, sometimes even +three days, earlier than those of the calendar. + +There are some artifices employed in the construction of this table, to +which it is necessary to pay attention. The thirty epacts correspond to the +thirty days of a full lunar month; but the lunar months consist of +twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, therefore in six months of the +year the thirty epacts must correspond only to twenty-nine days. For this +reason the epacts twenty-five and twenty-four are placed together, so as to +belong only to one day in the months of February, April, June, August, +September and November, and in the same months another 25', distinguished +by an accent, or by being printed in a different character, is placed +beside 26, and belongs to the same day. The reason for doubling the 25 was +to prevent the new moons from being indicated in the calendar as happening +twice on the same day in the course of the lunar cycle, a thing which +actually cannot take place. For example, if we observe the line B in Table +III., we shall see that it contains both the epacts twenty-four and +twenty-five, so that if these correspond to the same day of the month, two +new moons would be indicated as happening on that day within nineteen +years. Now the three epacts 24, 25, 26, can never occur in the same line; +therefore in those lines in which 24 and 25 occur, the 25 is accented, and +placed in the calendar beside 26. When 25 and 26 occur in the same line of +epacts, the 25 is not accented, and in the calendar stands beside 24. The +lines of epacts in which 24 and 25 both occur, are those which are marked +by one of the eight letters b, e, k, n, r, B, E, N, in all of which 25' +stands in a column corresponding to a golden number higher than 11. There +are also eight lines in which 25 and 26 occur, namely, c, f, l, p, s, C, F, +P. In the other 14 lines, 25 either does not occur at all, or it occurs in +a line in which neither 24 nor 26 is found. From this it appears that if +the golden number of the year exceeds 11, the epact 25, in six months of +the year, must correspond to the same day in the calendar as 26; but if the +golden number does not exceed 11, that epact must correspond to the same +day as 24. Hence the reason for distinguishing 25 and 25'. In using the +calendar, if the epact of the year is 25, and the golden number not above +11, take 25; but if the golden number exceeds 11, take 25'. + +Another peculiarity requires explanation. The epact 19' (also distinguished +by an accent or different character) is placed in the same line with 20 at +the 31st of December. It is, however, only used in those years in which the +epact 19 concurs with the golden number 19. When the golden number is 19, +that is to say, in the last year of the lunar cycle, the supplementary +month contains only 29 days. Hence, if in that year the epact should be 19, +a new moon would fall on the 2nd of December, and the lunation would +terminate on the 30th, so that the next new moon would arrive on the 31st. +The epact of the year, therefore, or 19, must stand beside that day, +whereas, according to the regular order, the epact corresponding to the +31st of December is 20; and this is the reason for the distinction. + + TABLE III. _Extended Table of Epacts._ + + Golden Numbers. + Years. Index. + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 + +1700 1800 8700 C * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 +1900 2000 2100 B 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 +2200 2400 A 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 +2300 2500 u 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 +2600 2700 2800 t 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 + +2900 3000 s 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 +3100 3200 3300 r 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 +3400 3600 q 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 +3500 3700 p 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 +3800 3900 4000 n 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 + + 4100 m 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 +4200 4300 4400 l 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 +4500 4600 k 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 +4700 4800 4900 i 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 +5000 5200 h 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 + +5100 5300 g 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 +5400 5500 5600 f 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 +5700 5800 e 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 20 1 +5900 6000 6100 d 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * +6200 6400 c 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 + +6300 6500 b 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 +6600 6800 a 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 +6700 6900 P 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 +7000 7100 7200 N 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' +7300 7400 M 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 + +7500 7600 7700 H 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 +7800 8000 G 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 +7900 8100 F 3 14 25 6 17 28 9 20 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 +8200 8300 8400 E 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 * 11 22 3 14 25' 6 17 28 9 20 +1500 1600 8500 D 1 12 23 4 15 26 7 18 29 10 21 2 13 24 5 16 27 8 19 + +As an example of the use of the preceding tables, suppose it were required +to determine the moon's age on the 10th of April 1832. In 1832 the golden +number is ((1832 + 1) / 19)_r = 9 and the line of epacts belonging to the +century is C. In Table III, under 9, and in the line C, we find the epact +28. In the calendar, Table IV., look for April, and the epact 28 is found +opposite the second day. The 2nd of April is therefore the first day of the +moon, [v.04 p.0997] and the 10th is consequently the ninth day of the moon. +Again, suppose it were required to find the moon's age on the 2nd of +December in the year 1916. In this case the golden number is ((1916 + 1) / +19)_r = 17, and in Table III., opposite to 1900, the line of epacts is B. +Under 17, in line B, the epact is 25'. In the calendar this epact first +occurs before the 2nd of December at the 26th of November. The 26th of +November is consequently the first day of the moon, and the 2nd of December +is therefore the seventh day. + +_Easter._--The next, and indeed the principal use of the calendar, is to +find Easter, which, according to the traditional regulation of the council +of Nice, must be determined from the following conditions:--_1st_, Easter +must be celebrated on a Sunday; _2nd_, this Sunday must _follow_ the 14th +day of the paschal moon, so that if the 14th of the paschal moon falls on a +Sunday then Easter must be celebrated on the Sunday following; _3rd_, the +paschal moon is that of which the 14th day falls on or next follows the day +of the vernal equinox; _4th_ the equinox is fixed invariably in the +calendar on the 21st of March. Sometimes a misunderstanding has arisen from +not observing that this regulation is to be construed according to the +tabular full moon as determined from the epact, and not by the true full +moon, which, in general, occurs one or two days earlier. + +From these conditions it follows that the paschal full moon, or the 14th of +the paschal moon, cannot happen before the 21st of March, and that Easter +in consequence cannot happen before the 22nd of March. If the 14th of the +moon falls on the 21st, the new moon must fall on the 8th; for 21 - 13 = 8; +and the paschal new moon cannot happen before the 8th; for suppose the new +moon to fall on the 7th, then the full moon would arrive on the 20th, or +the day before the equinox. The following moon would be the paschal moon. +But the fourteenth of this moon falls at the latest on the 18th of April, +or 29 days after the 20th of March; for by reason of the double epact that +occurs at the 4th and 5th of April, this lunation has only 29 days. Now, if +in this case the 18th of April is Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated on +the following Sunday, or the 25th of April. Hence Easter Sunday cannot +happen earlier than the 22nd of March, or later than the 25th of April. + +Hence we derive the following rule for finding Easter Sunday from the +tables:--_1st_, Find the golden number, and, from Table III., the epact of +the proposed year. _2nd_, Find in the calendar (Table IV.) the first day +after the 7th of March which corresponds to the epact of the year; this +will be the first day of the paschal moon, _3rd_, Reckon thirteen days +after that of the first of the moon, the following will be the 14th of the +moon or the day of the full paschal moon. _4th_, Find from Table I. the +dominical letter of the year, and observe in the calendar the first day, +after the fourteenth of the moon, which corresponds to the dominical +letter; this will be Easter Sunday. + + TABLE IV.--_Gregorian Calendar._ + + |-----------------------------------------------------| + |Days.| Jan. | Feb. |March. |April. | May. | June. | + |-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 1 | * |A| 29 |D| * |D| 29 |G| 28 |B| 27 |E| + | 2 | 29 |B| 28 |E| 29 |E| 28 |A| 27 |C|25 26|F| + | 3 | 28 |C| 27 |F| 28 |F| 27 |B| 26 |D|25 24|G| + | 4 | 27 |D|25 26|G| 27 |G|25'26|C|25'25|E| 23 |A| + | 5 | 26 |E|25 24|A| 26 |A|25 24|D| 24 |F| 22 |B| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 6 |25'25|F| 23 |B|25'25|B| 23 |E| 23 |G| 21 |C| + | 7 | 24 |G| 22 |C| 24 |C| 22 |F| 22 |A| 20 |D| + | 8 | 23 |A| 21 |D| 23 |D| 21 |G| 21 |B| 19 |E| + | 9 | 22 |B| 20 |E| 22 |E| 20 |A| 20 |C| 18 |F| + | 10 | 21 |C| 19 |F| 21 |F| 19 |B| 19 |D| 17 |G| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 11 | 20 |D| 18 |G| 20 |G| 18 |C| 18 |E| 16 |A| + | 12 | 19 |E| 17 |A| 19 |A| 17 |D| 17 |F| 15 |B| + | 13 | 18 |F| 16 |B| 18 |B| 16 |E| 16 |G| 14 |C| + | 14 | 17 |G| 15 |C| 17 |C| 15 |F| 15 |A| 13 |D| + | 15 | 16 |A| 14 |D| 16 |D| 14 |G| 14 |B| 12 |E| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 16 | 15 |B| 13 |E| 15 |E| 13 |A| 13 |C| 11 |F| + | 17 | 14 |C| 12 |F| 14 |F| 12 |B| 12 |D| 10 |G| + | 18 | 13 |D| 11 |G| 13 |G| 11 |C| 11 |E| 9 |A| + | 19 | 12 |E| 10 |A| 12 |A| 10 |D| 10 |F| 8 |B| + | 20 | 11 |F| 9 |B| 11 |B| 9 |E| 9 |G| 7 |C| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 21 | 10 |G| 8 |C| 10 |C| 8 |F| 8 |A| 6 |D| + | 22 | 9 |A| 7 |D| 9 |D| 7 |G| 7 |B| 5 |E| + | 23 | 8 |B| 6 |E| 8 |E| 6 |A| 6 |C| 4 |F| + | 24 | 7 |C| 5 |F| 7 |F| 5 |B| 5 |D| 3 |G| + | 25 | 6 |D| 4 |G| 6 |G| 4 |C| 4 |E| 2 |A| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 26 | 5 |E| 3 |A| 5 |A| 3 |D| 3 |F| 1 |B| + | 27 | 4 |F| 2 |B| 4 |B| 2 |E| 2 |G| * |C| + | 28 | 3 |G| 1 |C| 3 |C| 1 |F| 1 |A| 29 |D| + | 29 | 2 |A| | | 2 |D| * |G| * |B| 28 |E| + | 30 | 1 |B| | | 1 |E| 29 |A| 29 |C| 29 |F| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+ + | 31 | * |C| | | * |F| | | 28 |D| | | + |------------------------------------------------------ + + |------------------------------------------------------| + |Days.| July. |August.| Sept. |October.| Nov. | Dec. | + |-----+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | E |L| E |L| E |L| E |L | E |L| E |L| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 1 | 26 |G|25 24|C| 23 |F| 22 |A | 21 |D| 20 |F| + | 2 |25'25|A| 23 |D| 22 |G| 21 |B | 20 |E| 19 |G| + | 3 | 24 |B| 22 |E| 21 |A| 20 |C | 19 |F| 18 |A| + | 4 | 23 |C| 21 |F| 20 |B| 19 |D | 18 |G| 17 |B| + | 5 | 22 |D| 20 |G| 19 |C| 18 |E | 17 |A| 16 |C| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 6 | 21 |E| 19 |A| 18 |D| 17 |F | 16 |B| 15 |D| + | 7 | 20 |F| 18 |B| 17 |E| 16 |G | 15 |C| 14 |E| + | 8 | 19 |G| 17 |C| 16 |F| 15 |A | 14 |D| 13 |F| + | 9 | 18 |A| 16 |D| 15 |G| 14 |B | 13 |E| 12 |G| + | 10 | 17 |B| 15 |E| 14 |A| 13 |C | 12 |F| 11 |A| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 11 | 16 |C| 14 |F| 13 |B| 12 |D | 11 |G| 10 |B| + | 12 | 15 |D| 13 |G| 12 |C| 11 |E | 10 |A| 9 |C| + | 13 | 14 |E| 12 |A| 11 |D| 10 |F | 9 |B| 8 |D| + | 14 | 13 |F| 11 |B| 10 |E| 9 |G | 8 |C| 7 |E| + | 15 | 12 |G| 10 |C| 9 |F| 8 |A | 7 |D| 6 |F| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 16 | 11 |A| 9 |D| 8 |G| 7 |B | 6 |E| 5 |G| + | 17 | 10 |B| 8 |E| 7 |A| 6 |C | 5 |F| 4 |A| + | 18 | 9 |C| 7 |F| 6 |B| 5 |D | 4 |G| 3 |B| + | 19 | 8 |D| 6 |G| 5 |C| 4 |E | 3 |A| 2 |C| + | 20 | 7 |E| 5 |A| 4 |D| 3 |F | 2 |B| 1 |D| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 21 | 6 |F| 4 |B| 3 |E| 2 |G | 2 |C| * |E| + | 22 | 5 |G| 3 |C| 2 |F| 1 |A | * |D| 29 |F| + | 23 | 4 |A| 2 |D| 1 |G| * |B | 29 |E| 28 |G| + | 24 | 3 |B| 1 |E| * |A| 29 |C | 28 |F| 27 |A| + | 25 | 2 |C| * |F| 29 |B| 28 |D | 27 |G| 26 |B| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 26 | 1 |D| 29 |G| 28 |C| 27 |E |25'26|A|25'25|C| + | 27 | * |E| 28 |A| 27 |D| 26 |F |25 24|B| 24 |D| + | 28 | 29 |F| 27 |B|25'26|E|25'25|G | 23 |C| 23 |E| + | 29 | 28 |G| 26 |C|25 24|F| 24 |A | 22 |D| 22 |F| + | 30 | 27 |A|25'25|D| 23 |G| 23 |B | 21 |E| 21 |G| + |-----+-----+-+-----+-+-----+-+-----+--+-----+-+-----+-| + | 31 |25'26|B| 24 |B| | | 22 |C | | |19'20|A| + |------------------------------------------------------| + +_Example._--Required the day on which Easter Sunday falls in the year 1840? +_1st_, For this year the golden number is ((1840 + 1) / 19)_r = 17, and the +epact (Table III. line C) is 26. _2nd_, After the 7th of March the epact 26 +first occurs in Table III. at the 4th of April, which, therefore, is the +day of the new moon. _3rd_, Since the new moon falls on the 4th, the full +moon is on the 17th (4 + 13 = 17). _4th_, The dominical letters of 1840 are +E, D (Table I.), of which D must be taken, as E belongs only to January and +February. After the 17th of April D first occurs in the calendar (Table +IV.) at the 19th. Therefore, in 1840, Easter Sunday falls on the 19th of +April. The operation is in all cases much facilitated by means of the table +on next page. + +Such is the very complicated and artificial, though highly ingenious +method, invented by Lilius, for the determination of Easter and the other +movable feasts. Its principal, though perhaps least obvious advantage, +consists in its being entirely independent of astronomical tables, or +indeed of any celestial phenomena whatever; so that all chances of +disagreement arising from the inevitable errors of tables, or the +uncertainty of observation, are avoided, and Easter determined without the +[v.04 p.0998] possibility of mistake. But this advantage is only procured +by the sacrifice of some accuracy; for notwithstanding the cumbersome +apparatus employed, the conditions of the problem are not always exactly +satisfied, nor is it possible that they can be always satisfied by any +similar method of proceeding. The equinox is fixed on the 21st of March, +though the sun enters Aries generally on the 20th of that month, sometimes +even on the 19th. It is accordingly quite possible that a full moon may +arrive after the true equinox, and yet precede the 21st of March. This, +therefore, would not be the paschal moon of the calendar, though it +undoubtedly ought to be so if the intention of the council of Nice were +rigidly followed. The new moons indicated by the epacts also differ from +the astronomical new moons, and even from the mean new moons, in general by +one or two days. In imitation of the Jews, who counted the time of the new +moon, not from the moment of the actual phase, but from the time the moon +first became visible after the conjunction, the fourteenth day of the moon +is regarded as the full moon: but the moon is in opposition generally on +the 16th day; therefore, when the new moons of the calendar nearly concur +with the true new moons, the full moons are considerably in error. The +epacts are also placed so as to indicate the full moons generally one or +two days after the true full moons; but this was done purposely, to avoid +the chance of concurring with the Jewish passover, which the framers of the +calendar seem to have considered a greater evil than that of celebrating +Easter a week too late. + + TABLE V.--_Perpetual Table, showing Easter._ + + -------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | + | | Dominical Letter. | + |Epact.| For Leap Years use the SECOND Letter. | + | |-------------------------------------------------------| + | | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | + |------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------| + | * |Apr. 16|Apr. 17|Apr. 18|Apr. 19|Apr. 20|Apr. 14|Apr. 15| + | 1 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 2 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 3 | " 16| " 17| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 4 | " 16| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 5 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 15| + | 6 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 14| " 8| + | 7 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 13| " 7| " 8| + | 8 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 12| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 9 | " 9| " 10| " 11| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 10 | " 9| " 10| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 11 | " 9| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 12 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 8| + | 13 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6| " 7| " 1| + | 14 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5| " 6|Mar. 31| " 1| + | 15 | " 2| " 3| " 4| " 5|Mar. 30| " 31| " 1| + | 16 | " 2| " 3| " 4|Mar. 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 17 | " 2| " 3|Mar. 28| " 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 18 | " 2|Mar. 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 19 |Mar. 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 31| " 1| + | 20 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 31|Mar. 25| + | 21 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 30| " 24| " 25| + | 22 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 29| " 23| " 24| " 25| + | 23 | " 26| " 27| " 28| " 22| " 23| " 24| " 25| + | 24 |Apr. 23|Apr. 24|Apr. 25|Apr. 19|Apr. 20|Apr. 21|Apr. 22| + | 25 | " 23| " 24| " 25| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 26 | " 23| " 24| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 27 | " 23| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 28 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 22| + | 29 | " 16| " 17| " 18| " 19| " 20| " 21| " 15| + -------------------------------------------------------------- + +We will now show in what manner this whole apparatus of methods and tables +may be dispensed with, and the Gregorian calendar reduced to a few simple +formulae of easy computation. + +And, first, to find the dominical letter. Let L denote the number of the +dominical letter of any given year of the era. Then, since every year which +is not a leap year ends with the same day as that with which it began, the +dominical letter of the following year must be L - 1, retrograding one +letter every common year. After x years, therefore, the number of the +letter will be L - x. But as L can never exceed 7, the number x will always +exceed L after the first seven years of the era. In order, therefore, to +render the subtraction possible, L must be increased by some multiple of 7, +as 7m, and the formula then becomes 7m + L - x. In the year preceding the +first of the era, the dominical letter was C; for that year, therefore, we +have L = 3; consequently for any succeeding year x, L = 7m + 3 - x, the +years being all supposed to consist of 365 days. But every fourth year is a +leap year, and the effect of the intercalation is to throw the dominical +letter one place farther back. The above expression must therefore be +diminished by the number of units in x/4, or by (x/4)_w (this notation +being used to denote the quotient, _in a whole number_, that arises from +dividing x by 4). Hence in the Julian calendar the dominical letter is +given by the equation + + L = 7m + 3 - x - (x/4)_w. + +This equation gives the dominical letter of any year from the commencement +of the era to the Reformation. In order to adapt it to the Gregorian +calendar, we must first add the 10 days that were left out of the year +1582; in the second place we must add one day for every century that has +elapsed since 1600, in consequence of the secular suppression of the +intercalary day; and lastly we must deduct the units contained in a fourth +of the same number, because every fourth centesimal year is still a leap +year. Denoting, therefore, the number of the century (or the date after the +two right-hand digits have been struck out) by c, the value of L must be +increased by 10 + (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w. We have then + + L = 7m + 3 - x - (x/4)_w + 10 + (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w; + +that is, since 3 + 10 = 13 or 6 (the 7 days being rejected, as they do not +affect the value of L), + + L = 7m + 6 - x - (x/4)_w + (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w; + +This formula is perfectly general, and easily calculated. + +As an example, let us take the year 1839. this case, x = 1839, (x/4)_w = +(1839/4)_w = 459, c = 18, c - 16 = 2, and ((c - 16) / 4)_w = 0. Hence + + L = 7m + 6 - 1839 - 459 + 2 - 0 + L = 7m - 2290 = 7 x 328 - 2290. + L = 6 = letter F. + +The year therefore begins with Tuesday. It will be remembered that in a +leap year there are always two dominical letters, one of which is employed +till the 29th of February, and the other till the end of the year. In this +case, as the formula supposes the intercalation already made, the resulting +letter is that which applies after the 29th of February. Before the +intercalation the dominical letter had retrograded one place less. Thus for +1840 the formula gives D; during the first two months, therefore, the +dominical letter is E. + +In order to investigate a formula for the epact, let us make + + E = the true epact of the given year; + + J = the Julian epact, that is to say, the number the epact would + have been if the Julian year had been still in use and the lunar + cycle had been exact; + + S = the correction depending on the solar year; + + M = the correction depending on the lunar cycle; + +then the equation of the epact will be + + E = J + S + M; + +so that E will be known when the numbers J, S, and M are determined. + +The epact J depends on the golden number N, and must be determined from the +fact that in 1582, the first year of the reformed calendar, N was 6, and J +26. For the following years, then, the golden numbers and epacts are as +follows: + + 1583, N = 7, J = 26 + 11 - 30 = 7; + 1584, N = 8, J = 7 + 11 = 18; + 1585, N = 9, J = 18 + 11 = 29; + 1586, N = 10, J = 29 + 11 - 30 = 10; + +and, therefore, in general J = ((26 + 11(N - 6)) / 30)_r. But the numerator +of this fraction becomes by reduction 11 N - 40 or 11 N - 10 (the 30 being +rejected, as the remainder only is sought) = N + 10(N - 1); therefore, +ultimately, + + J = ((N + 10(N - 1)) / 30)_r. + +On account of the solar equation S, the epact J must be diminished by unity +every centesimal year, excepting always the fourth. After x centuries, +therefore, it must be diminished by x - (x/4)_w. Now, as 1600 was a leap +year, the first correction of the Julian intercalation took place in 1700; +hence, taking c to denote the number of the century as before, the +correction becomes (c - 16) - ((c - 16) / 4)_w, which [v.04 p.0999] must be +deducted from J. We have therefore + + S = - (c - 16) + ((c - 16) / 4)_w + +With regard to the lunar equation M, we have already stated that in the +Gregorian calendar the epacts are increased by unity at the end of every +period of 300 years seven times successively, and then the increase takes +place once at the end of 400 years. This gives eight to be added in a +period of twenty-five centuries, and 8x/25 in x centuries. But 8x/25 = 1/3 +(x - x/25). Now, from the manner in which the intercalation is directed to +be made (namely, seven times successively at the end of 300 years, and once +at the end of 400), it is evident that the fraction x/25 must amount to +unity when the number of centuries amounts to twenty-four. In like manner, +when the number of centuries is 24 + 25 = 49, we must have x/25 = 2; when +the number of centuries is 24 + 2 x 25 = 74, then x/25 = 3; and, generally, +when the number of centuries is 24 + n x 25, then x/25 = n + 1. Now this is +a condition which will evidently be expressed in general by the formula n - +((n + 1) / 25)_w. Hence the correction of the epact, or the number of days +to be intercalated after x centuries reckoned from the commencement of one +of the periods of twenty-five centuries, is {(x - ((x+1) / 25)_w) / 3}_w. +The last period of twenty-five centuries terminated with 1800; therefore, +in any succeeding year, if c be the number of the century, we shall have x += c - 18 and x + 1 = c - 17. Let ((c - 17) / 25)_w = a, then for all years +after 1800 the value of M will be given by the formula ((c - 18 - a) / +3)_w; therefore, counting from the beginning of the calendar in 1582, + + M={(c - 15 - a) / 3}_w. + +By the substitution of these values of J, S and M, the equation of the +epact becomes + + E = (((N + 10(N - 1)) / 30)_r - (c - 16) + ((c - 16) / 4)_w + ((c - 15 - + a) / 3)_w. + +It may be remarked, that as a = ((c - 17) / 25)_w, the value of a will be 0 +till c - 17 = 25 or c = 42; therefore, till the year 4200, a may be +neglected in the computation. Had the anticipation of the new moons been +taken, as it ought to have been, at one day in 308 years instead of 3121/2, +the lunar equation would have occurred only twelve times in 3700 years, or +eleven times successively at the end of 300 years, and then at the end of +400. In strict accuracy, therefore, a ought to have no value till c - 17 = +37, or c = 54, that is to say, till the year 5400. The above formula for +the epact is given by Delambre (_Hist. de l'astronomie moderne,_ t. i. p. +9); it may be exhibited under a variety of forms, but the above is perhaps +the best adapted for calculation. Another had previously been given by +Gauss, but inaccurately, inasmuch as the correction depending on a was +omitted. + +Having determined the epact of the year, it only remains to find Easter +Sunday from the conditions already laid down. Let + + P = the number of days from the 21st of March to the 15th of the + paschal moon, which is the first day on which Easter Sunday can fall; + + p = the number of days from the 21st of March to Easter Sunday; + + L = the number of the dominical letter of the year; + + l = letter belonging to the day on which the 15th of the moon falls: + +then, since Easter is the Sunday following the 14th of the moon, we have + + p = P + (L - l), + +which is commonly called the _number of direction_. + +The value of L is always given by the formula for the dominical letter, and +P and l are easily deduced from the epact, as will appear from the +following considerations. + +When P = 1 the full moon is on the 21st of March, and the new moon on the +8th (21 - 13 = 8), therefore the moon's age on the 1st of March (which is +the same as on the 1st of January) is twenty-three days; the epact of the +year is consequently twenty-three. When P = 2 the new moon falls on the +ninth, and the epact is consequently twenty-two; and, in general, when P +becomes 1 + x, E becomes 23 - x, therefore P + E = 1 + x + 23 - x = 24, and +P = 24 - E. In like manner, when P = 1, l = D = 4; for D is the dominical +letter of the calendar belonging to the 22nd of March. But it is evident +that when l is increased by unity, that is to say, when the full moon falls +a day later, the epact of the year is diminished by unity; therefore, in +general, when l = 4 + x, E = 23 - x, whence, l + E = 27 and l = 27 - E. But +P can never be less than 1 nor l less than 4, and in both cases E = 23. +When, therefore, E is greater than 23, we must add 30 in order that P and l +may have positive values in the formula P = 24 - E and l = 27 - E. Hence +there are two cases. + + When E < 24, P = 24 - E; l = 27 - E, or ((27 - E) / 7)_r, + When E > 23, P = 54 - E; l = 57 - E, or ((57 - E) / 7)_r. + +By substituting one or other of these values of P and l, according as the +case may be, in the formula p = P + (L - l), we shall have p, or the number +of days from the 21st of March to Easter Sunday. It will be remarked, that +as L - l cannot either be 0 or negative, we must add 7 to L as often as may +be necessary, in order that L - l may be a positive whole number. + +By means of the formulae which we have now given for the dominical letter, +the golden number and the epact, Easter Sunday may be computed for any year +after the Reformation, without the assistance of any tables whatever. As an +example, suppose it were required to compute Easter for the year 1840. By +substituting this number in the formula for the dominical letter, we have x += 1840, c - 16 = 2, ((c - 16) / 4)_w = 0, therefore + + L = 7m + 6 - 1840 - 460 + 2 + = 7m - 2292 + = 7 x 328 - 2292 = 2296 - 2292 = 4 + L = 4 = letter D . . . (1). + +For the golden number we have N = ((1840 + 1) / 19)_w therefore N = 17 . . +. (2). + +For the epact we have + + ((N + 10(N - 1)) / 30)_r = ((17 + 160) / 30)_r = (177 / 30)_r = 27; + +likewise c - 16 = 18 - 16 = 2, (c - 15) / 3 = 1, a = 0; therefore + + E = 27 - 2 + 1 = 26 . . . (3). + +Now since E > 23, we have for P and l, + + P = 54 - E = 54 - 26 = 28, + l = ((57 - E) / 7)_r = ((57 - 26) / 7)_r = (31 / 7)_r = 3; + +consequently, since p = P + (L - l), + + p = 28 + (4 - 3) = 29; + +that is to say, Easter happens twenty-nine days after the 21st of March, or +on the 19th April, the same result as was before found from the tables. + +The principal church feasts depending on Easter, and the times of their +celebration are as follows:-- + + Septuagesima Sunday } { 9 weeks } + First Sunday in Lent } is { 6 weeks } before Easter. + Ash Wednesday } { 46 days } + + Rogation Sunday { 5 weeks } + Ascension day or Holy Thursday } { 39 days } + Pentecost or Whitsunday } is { 7 weeks } after Easter. + Trinity Sunday } { 8 weeks } + +The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, Portugal and part of +Italy the same day as at Rome. In France it was received in the same year +in the month of December, and by the Catholic states of Germany the year +following. In the Protestant states of Germany the Julian calendar was +adhered to till the year 1700, when it was decreed by the diet of +Regensburg that the new style and the Gregorian correction of the +intercalation should be adopted. Instead, however, of employing the golden +numbers and epacts for the determination of Easter and the movable feasts, +it was resolved that the equinox and the paschal moon should be found by +astronomical computation from the Rudolphine tables. But this method, +though at first view it may appear more accurate, was soon found to be +attended with numerous inconveniences, and was at length in 1774 abandoned +at the instance of Frederick II., king of Prussia. In Denmark and Sweden +the reformed calendar was received about the same time as in the Protestant +states of Germany. It is remarkable that Russia still adheres to the Julian +reckoning. + +In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for a long time +successfully opposed by popular prejudice. The inconvenience, however, of +using a different date from that employed by the greater part of Europe in +matters of history and chronology began to be generally felt; and at length +the Calendar (New [v.04 p.1000] Style) Act 1750 was passed for the adoption +of the new style in all public and legal transactions. The difference of +the two styles, which then amounted to eleven days, was removed by ordering +the day following the 2nd of September of the year 1752 to be accounted the +14th of that month; and in order to preserve uniformity in future, the +Gregorian rule of intercalation respecting the secular years was adopted. +At the same time, the commencement of the legal year was changed from the +25th of March to the 1st of January. In Scotland, January 1st was adopted +for New Year's Day from 1600, according to an act of the privy council in +December 1599. This fact is of importance with reference to the date of +legal deeds executed in Scotland between that period and 1751, when the +change was effected in England. With respect to the movable feasts, Easter +is determined by the rule laid down by the council of Nice; but instead of +employing the new moons and epacts, the golden numbers are prefixed to the +days of the _full_ moons. In those years in which the line of epacts is +changed in the Gregorian calendar, the golden numbers are removed to +different days, and of course a new table is required whenever the solar or +lunar equation occurs. The golden numbers have been placed so that Easter +may fall on the same day as in the Gregorian calendar. The calendar of the +church of England is therefore from century to century the same in form as +the old Roman calendar, excepting that the golden numbers indicate the full +moons instead of the new moons. + +_Hebrew Calendar._--In the construction of the Jewish calendar numerous +details require attention. The calendar is dated from the Creation, which +is considered to have taken place 3760 years and 3 months before the +commencement of the Christian era. The year is luni-solar, and, according +as it is ordinary or embolismic, consists of twelve or thirteen lunar +months, each of which has 29 or 30 days. Thus the duration of the ordinary +year is 354 days, and that of the embolismic is 384 days. In either case, +it is sometimes made a day more, and sometimes a day less, in order that +certain festivals may fall on proper days of the week for their due +observance. The distribution of the embolismic years, in each cycle of 19 +years, is determined according to the following rule:-- + +The number of the Hebrew year (Y) which has its commencement in a Gregorian +year (x) is obtained by the addition of 3761 years; that is, Y = x + 3761. +Divide the Hebrew year by 19; then the quotient is the number of the last +completed cycle, and the remainder is the year of the current cycle. If the +remainder be 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 or 19 (0), the year is embolismic; if any +other number, it is ordinary. Or, otherwise, if we find the remainder + + R=((7Y+1) / 19)_r + +the year is embolismic when R < 7. + +The calendar is constructed on the assumptions that the mean lunation is 29 +days 12 hours 44 min. 3-1/3 sec., and that the year commences on, or +immediately after, the new moon following the autumnal equinox. The mean +solar year is also assumed to be 365 days 5 hours 55 min. 25-25/57 sec., so +that a cycle of nineteen of such years, containing 6939 days 16 hours 33 +min. 3-1/3 sec., is the exact measure of 235 of the assumed lunations. The +year 5606 was the first of a cycle, and the mean new moon, appertaining to +the 1st of Tisri for that year, was 1845, October 1, 15 hours 42 min. +43-1/3 sec., as computed by Lindo, and adopting the civil mode of reckoning +from the previous midnight. The times of all future new moons may +consequently be deduced by successively adding 29 days 12 hours 44 min. +3-1/3 sec. to this date. + +To compute the times of the new moons which determine the commencement of +successive years, it must be observed that in passing from an ordinary year +the new moon of the following year is deduced by subtracting the interval +that twelve lunations fall short of the corresponding Gregorian year of 365 +or 366 days; and that, in passing from an embolismic year, it is to be +found by adding the excess of thirteen lunations over the Gregorian year. +Thus to deduce the new moon of Tisri, for the year immediately following +any given year (Y), when Y is + + ordinary, subtract (10;11) days 15 hours 11 min. 20 sec., + embolismic, add (18;17) days 21 hours 32 min. 431/2 sec. + +the second-mentioned number of days being used, in each case, whenever the +following or new Gregorian year is bissextile. + +Hence, knowing which of the years are embolismic, from their ordinal +position in the cycle, according to the rule before stated, the times of +the commencement of successive years may be thus carried on indefinitely +without any difficulty. But some slight adjustments will occasionally be +needed for the reasons before assigned, viz. to avoid certain festivals +falling on incompatible days of the week. Whenever the computed conjunction +falls on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, the new year is in such case to be +fixed on the day after. It will also be requisite to attend to the +following conditions:-- + +If the computed new moon be after 18 hours, the following day is to be +taken, and if that happen to be Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, it must be +further postponed one day. If, for an ordinary year, the new moon falls on +a Tuesday, as late as 9 hours 11 min. 20 sec., it is not to be observed +thereon; and as it may not be held on a Wednesday, it is in such case to be +postponed to Thursday. If, for a year immediately following an embolismic +year, the computed new moon is on Monday, as late as 15 hours 30 min. 52 +sec., the new year is to be fixed on Tuesday. + +After the dates of commencement of the successive Hebrew years are finally +adjusted, conformably with the foregoing directions, an estimation of the +consecutive intervals, by taking the differences, will show the duration +and character of the years that respectively intervene. According to the +number of days thus found to be comprised in the different years, the days +of the several months are distributed as in Table VI. + +The signs + and - are respectively annexed to Hesvan and Kislev to indicate +that the former of these months may sometimes require to have one day more, +and the latter sometimes one day less, than the number of days shown in the +table--the result, in every case, being at once determined by the total +number of days that the year may happen to contain. An ordinary year may +comprise 353, 354 or 355 days; and an embolismic year 383, 384 or 385 days. +In these cases respectively the year is said to be imperfect, common or +perfect. The intercalary month, Veadar, is introduced in embolismic years +in order that Passover, the 15th day of Nisan, may be kept at its proper +season, which is the full moon of the vernal equinox, or that which takes +place after the sun has entered the sign Aries. It always precedes the +following new year by 163 days, or 23 weeks and 2 days; and Pentecost +always precedes the new year by 113 days, or 16 weeks and 1 day. + + TABLE VI.--_Hebrew Months._ + + ---------------------------------- + | |Ordinary |Embolismic| + |Hebrew Month.| Year. | Year. | + |-------------|---------|----------| + |Tisri | 30 | 30 | + |Hesvan | 29 + | 29 + | + |Kislev | 30 - | 30 - | + |Tebet | 29 | 29 | + |Sebat | 30 | 30 | + |Adar | 29 | 30 | + |(Veadar) | (...) | (29) | + |Nisan | 30 | 30 | + |Yiar | 29 | 29 | + |Sivan | 30 | 30 | + |Tamuz | 29 | 29 | + |Ab | 30 | 30 | + |Elul | 29 | 29 | + |----------------------------------| + |Total | 354 | 384 | + |----------------------------------| + +The Gregorian epact being the age of the moon of Tebet at the beginning of +the Gregorian year, it represents the day of Tebet which corresponds to +January 1; and thus the approximate date of Tisri 1, the commencement of +the Hebrew year, may be otherwise deduced by subtracting the epact from + + Sept. 24 after an ordinary Hebrew year. + Oct. 24 after an embolismic Hebrew year. + +[v.04 p.1001] + +The result so obtained would in general be more accurate than the Jewish +calculation, from which it may differ a day, as fractions of a day do not +enter alike in these computations. Such difference may also in part be +accounted for by the fact that the assumed duration of the solar year is 6 +min. 39-25/57 sec. in excess of the true astronomical value, which will +cause the dates of commencement of future Jewish years, so calculated, to +advance forward from the equinox a day in error in 216 years. The lunations +are estimated with much greater precision. + +The following table is extracted from Woolhouse's _Measures, Weights and +Moneys of all Nations_:-- + +TABLE VII.--_Hebrew Years._ + + +Jewish Number Commencement Jewish Number Commencement +Year. of (1st of Tisri). Year. of (1st of Tisri). + Days. Days. + 296 Cycle. 302 Cycle. +5606 354 Thur. 2 Oct. 1845 5720 355 Sat. 3 Oct. 1959 + 07 355 Mon. 21 Sept. 1846 21 354 Thur. 22 Sept. 1960 + 08 383 Sat. 11 Sept. 1847 22 383 Mon. 11 Sept. 1961 + 09 354 Thur. 28 Sept. 1848 23 355 Sat. 29 Sept. 1962 + 10 355 Mon. 17 Sept. 1849 24 354 Thur. 19 Sept. 1963 + 11 385 Sat. 7 Sept. 1850 25 385 Mon. 7 Sept. 1964 + 12 353 Sat. 27 Sept. 1851 26 353 Mon. 27 Sept. 1965 + 13 384 Tues. 14 Sept. 1852 27 385 Thur. 15 Sept. 1966 + 14 355 Mon. 3 Oct. 1853 28 354 Thur. 5 Oct. 1967 + 15 355 Sat. 23 Sept. 1854 29 355 Mon. 23 Sept. 1968 + 16 383 Thur. 13 Sept. 1855 30 383 Sat. 13 Sept. 1969 + 17 354 Tues. 30 Sept. 1856 31 354 Thur. 1 Oct. 1970 + 18 355 Sat. 19 Sept. 1857 32 355 Mon. 20 Sept. 1971 + 19 385 Thur. 9 Sept. 1858 33 383 Sat. 9 Sept. 1972 + 20 354 Thur. 29 Sept. 1859 34 355 Thur. 27 Sept. 1973 + 21 353 Mon. 17 Sept. 1860 35 354 Tues. 17 Sept. 1974 + 22 385 Thur. 5 Sept. 1861 36 385 Sat. 6 Sept. 1975 + 23 354 Thur. 25 Sept. 1862 37 353 Sat. 25 Sept. 1976 + 24 383 Mon. 14 Sept. 1863 38 384 Tues. 13 Sept. 1977 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 297 Cycle. 303 Cycle. +5625 355 Sat. 1 Oct. 1864 5739 355 Mon. 2 Oct. 1978 + 26 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 1865 40 355 Sat. 22 Sept. 1979 + 27 385 Mon. 10 Sept. 1866 41 383 Thur. 11 Sept. 1980 + 28 353 Mon. 30 Sept. 1867 42 354 Tues. 29 Sept. 1981 + 29 354 Thur. 17 Sept. 1868 43 355 Sat. 18 Sept. 1982 + 30 385 Mon. 6 Sept. 1869 44 385 Thur. 8 Sept. 1983 + 31 355 Mon. 26 Sept. 1870 45 354 Thur. 27 Sept. 1984 + 32 383 Sat. 16 Sept. 1871 46 383 Mon. 16 Sept. 1985 + 33 354 Thur. 3 Oct. 1872 47 355 Sat. 4 Oct. 1986 + 34 355 Mon. 22 Sept. 1873 48 354 Thur. 24 Sept. 1987 + 35 383 Sat. 12 Sept. 1874 49 383 Mon. 12 Sept. 1988 + 36 355 Thur. 30 Sept. 1875 50 355 Sat. 30 Sept. 1989 + 37 354 Tues. 19 Sept. 1876 51 354 Thur. 20 Sept. 1990 + 38 385 Sat. 8 Sept. 1877 52 385 Mon. 9 Sept. 1991 + 39 355 Sat. 28 Sept. 1878 53 353 Mon. 28 Sept. 1992 + 40 354 Thur. 18 Sept. 1879 54 355 Thur. 16 Sept. 1993 + 41 383 Mon. 6 Sept. 1880 55 384 Tues. 6 Sept. 1994 + 42 355 Sat. 24 Sept. 1881 56 355 Mon. 25 Sept. 1995 + 43 383 Thur. 14 Sept. 1882 57 383 Sat. 14 Sept. 1996 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 298 Cycle. 304 Cycle. +5644 354 Tues. 2 Oct. 1883 5758 354 Thur. 2 Oct. 1997 + 45 355 Sat. 20 Sept. 1884 59 355 Mon. 21 Sept. 1998 + 46 385 Thur. 10 Sept. 1885 60 385 Sat. 11 Sept. 1999 + 47 354 Thur. 30 Sept. 1886 61 353 Sat. 30 Sept. 2000 + 48 353 Mon. 19 Sept. 1887 62 354 Tues. 18 Sept. 2001 + 49 385 Thur. 6 Sept. 1888 63 385 Sat. 7 Sept. 2002 + 50 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 1889 64 355 Sat. 27 Sept. 2003 + 51 383 Mon. 15 Sept. 1890 65 383 Thur. 16 Sept. 2004 + 52 355 Sat. 3 Oct. 1891 66 354 Tues. 4 Oct. 2005 + 53 354 Thur. 22 Sept. 1892 67 355 Sat. 23 Sept. 2006 + 54 385 Mon. 11 Sept. 1893 68 383 Thur. 13 Sept. 2007 + 55 353 Mon. 1 Oct. 1894 69 354 Tues. 30 Sept. 2008 + 56 355 Thur. 19 Sept. 1895 70 355 Sat. 19 Sept. 2009 + 57 384 Tues. 8 Sept. 1896 71 385 Thur. 8 Sept. 2010 + 58 355 Mon. 27 Sept. 1897 72 354 Thur. 29 Sept. 2011 + 59 353 Sat. 17 Sept. 1898 73 353 Mon. 17 Sept. 2012 + 60 384 Tues. 5 Sept. 1899 74 385 Thur. 5 Sept. 2013 + 61 355 Mon. 24 Sept. 1900 75 354 Thur. 25 Sept. 2014 + 62 383 Sat 14 Sept. 1901 76 385 Mon. 14 Sept. 2015 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 299 Cycle. 305 Cycle. +5663 355 Thur. 2 Oct. 1902 5777 353 Mon. 3 Oct. 2016 + 64 354 Tues. 22 Sept. 1903 78 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 2017 + 65 385 Sat. 10 Sept. 1904 79 385 Mon. 10 Sept. 2018 + 66 355 Sat. 30 Sept. 1905 80 355 Mon. 30 Sept. 2019 + 67 354 Thur. 20 Sept. 1906 81 353 Sat. 19 Sept. 2020 + 68 383 Mon. 9 Sept. 1907 82 384 Tues. 7 Sept. 2021 + 69 355 Sat. 26 Sept. 1908 83 355 Mon. 26 Sept. 2022 + 70 383 Thur. 16 Sept. 1909 84 383 Sat. 16 Sept. 2023 + 71 354 Tues. 4 Oct. 1910 85 355 Thur. 3 Oct. 2024 + 72 355 Sat. 23 Sept. 1911 86 354 Tues. 23 Sept. 2025 + 73 385 Thur. 12 Sept. 1912 87 385 Sat. 12 Sept. 2026 + 74 354 Thur. 2 Oct. 1913 88 355 Sat. 2 Oct. 2027 + 75 353 Mon. 21 Sept. 1914 89 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 2028 + 76 385 Thur. 9 Sept. 1915 90 383 Mon. 10 Sept. 2029 + 77 354 Thur. 28 Sept. 1916 91 355 Sat. 28 Sept. 2030 + 78 355 Mon. 17 Sept. 1917 92 354 Thur. 18 Sept. 2031 + 79 383 Sat. 7 Sept. 1918 93 383 Mon. 6 Sept. 2032 + 80 354 Thur. 25 Sept. 1919 94 355 Sat. 24 Sept. 2033 + 81 385 Mon. 13 Sept. 1920 95 385 Thur. 14 Sept. 2034 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 300 Cycle. 306 Cycle. +5682 355 Mon. 3 Oct. 1921 5796 354 Thur. 4 Oct. 2035 + 83 353 Sat. 23 Sept. 1922 97 353 Mon. 22 Sept. 2036 + 84 384 Tues. 11 Sept. 1923 98 385 Thur. 10 Sept. 2037 + 85 355 Mon. 29 Sept. 1924 99 354 Thur. 30 Sept. 2038 + 86 355 Sat. 19 Sept. 1925 5800 355 Mon. 19 Sept. 2039 + 87 383 Thur. 9 Sept. 1926 01 383 Sat. 8 Sept. 2040 + 88 354 Tues. 27 Sept. 1927 02 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 2041 + 89 385 Sat. 15 Sept. 1928 03 385 Mon. 15 Sept. 2042 + 90 353 Sat. 5 Oct. 1929 04 353 Mon. 5 Oct. 2043 + 91 354 Tues. 23 Sept. 1930 05 355 Thur. 22 Sept. 2044 + 92 385 Sat. 12 Sept. 1931 06 384 Tues. 12 Sept. 2045 + 93 355 Sat. 1 Oct. 1932 07 355 Mon. 1 Oct. 2046 + 94 354 Thur. 21 Sept. 1933 08 353 Sat. 21 Sept. 2047 + 95 383 Mon. 10 Sept. 1934 09 384 Tues. 8 Sept. 2048 + 96 355 Sat. 28 Sept. 1935 10 355 Mon. 27 Sept. 2049 + 97 354 Thur. 17 Sept. 1936 11 355 Sat. 17 Sept. 2050 + 98 385 Mon. 6 Sept. 1937 12 383 Thur. 7 Sept. 2051 + 99 353 Mon. 26 Sept. 1938 13 354 Tues. 24 Sept. 2052 +5700 385 Thur. 14 Sept. 1939 14 385 Sat. 13 Sept. 2053 +----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- + 301 Cycle. 307 Cycle. +5701 354 Thur. 3 Oct. 1940 5815 355 Sat. 3 Oct. 2054 + 02 355 Mon. 22 Sept. 1941 16 354 Thur. 23 Sept. 2055 + 03 383 Sat. 12 Sept. 1942 17 383 Mon. 11 Sept. 2056 + 04 354 Thur. 30 Sept. 1943 18 355 Sat. 29 Sept. 2057 + 05 355 Mon. 18 Sept. 1944 19 354 Thur. 19 Sept. 2058 + 06 383 Sat. 8 Sept. 1945 20 383 Mon. 8 Sept. 2059 + 07 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 1946 21 355 Sat. 25 Sept. 2060 + 08 385 Mon. 15 Sept. 1947 22 385 Thur. 15 Sept. 2061 + 09 355 Mon. 4 Oct. 1948 23 354 Thur. 5 Oct. 2062 + 10 353 Sat. 24 Sept. 1949 24 353 Mon. 24 Sept. 2063 + 11 384 Tues. 12 Sept. 1950 25 385 Thur. 11 Sept. 2064 + 12 355 Mon. 1 Oct. 1951 26 354 Thur. 1 Oct. 2065 + 13 355 Sat. 20 Sept. 1952 27 355 Mon. 20 Sept. 2066 + 14 383 Thur. 10 Sept. 1953 28 383 Sat. 10 Sept. 2067 + 15 354 Tues. 28 Sept. 1954 29 354 Thur. 27 Sept. 2068 + 16 355 Sat. 17 Sept. 1955 30 355 Mon. 16 Sept. 2069 + 17 385 Thur. 6 Sept. 1956 31 383 Sat. 6 Sept. 2070 + 18 354 Thur. 26 Sept. 1957 32 355 Thur. 24 Sept. 2071 + 19 383 Mon. 15 Sept. 1958 33 384 Tues. 13 Sept. 2072 + +_Mohammedan Calendar._--The Mahommedan era, or era of the Hegira, used in +Turkey, Persia, Arabia, &c., is dated from the first day of the month +preceding the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, _i.e._ Thursday the +15th of July A.D. 622, and it commenced on the day following. The years of +the Hegira are purely lunar, and always consist of twelve lunar months, +commencing with the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keep +them to the same season with respect to the sun, so that they retrograde +through all the seasons in about 321/2 years. They are also partitioned into +cycles of 30 years, 19 of which are common years of 354 days each, and the +other 11 are intercalary years having an additional day appended to the +last month. The mean length of the year is therefore 354-11/30 days, or 354 +days 8 hours 48 min., which divided by 12 gives 29-191/360 days, or 29 days +12 hours 44 min., as the time of a mean lunation, and this differs from the +astronomical mean lunation by only 2.8 seconds. This small error will only +amount to a day in about 2400 years. + +To find if a year is intercalary or common, divide it by 30; the quotient +will be the number of completed cycles and the remainder will be the year +of the current cycle; if this last be one of the numbers 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, +16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29, the year is intercalary and consists of 355 days; +if it be any other number, the year is ordinary. + +Or if Y denote the number of the Mahommedan year, and + + R = ((11 Y + 14) / 30)_r, + +the year is intercalary when R < 11. + +[v.04 p.1002] Also the number of intercalary years from the year 1 up to +the year Y inclusive = ((11 Y + 14) / 30)_w; and the same up to the year Y +- 1 = (11 Y + 3 / 30)_w. + +To find the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira begins, we +observe that the year 1 began on a Friday, and that after every common year +of 354 days, or 50 weeks and 4 days, the day of the week must necessarily +become postponed 4 days, besides the additional day of each intercalary +year. + + Hence if w = 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 + indicate Sun. | Mon. | Tue. | Wed. | Thur. | Frid. | Sat. + +the day of the week on which the year Y commences will be + + w = 2 + 4(Y / 7)_r + ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w (rejecting sevens). + + But, 30 ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w + ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r = 11 Y + 3 + + gives 120((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w = 12 + 44 Y - 4((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r, + + or ((11 Y + 3) / 30)_w = 5 + 2 Y + 3((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r (rejecting + sevens). + +So that + + w = 6(Y / 7)_r + 3((11 Y + 3) / 30)_r (rejecting sevens), + +the values of which obviously circulate in a period of 7 times 30 or 210 +years. + +Let C denote the number of completed cycles, and y the year of the cycle; +then Y = 30 C + y, and + + w = 5(C / 7)_r + 6(y / 7)_r + 3((11 y +3) / 30)_r (rejecting sevens). + +From this formula the following table has been constructed:-- + + TABLE VIII. + + Year of the Number of the Period of Seven Cycles = (C/7)_r + Current Cycle (y) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 + 0 8 Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. + 1 9 17 25 Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. + *2 *10 *18 *26 Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. + 3 11 19 27 Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. + 4 12 20 28 Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. + *5 *13 *21 *29 Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. + 6 14 22 30 Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. + *7 15 23 Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. Sun. Frid. + *16 *24 Sun. Frid. Wed. Mon. Sat. Thur. Tues. + +To find from this table the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira +commences, the rule to be observed will be as follows:-- + +_Rule._--Divide the year of the Hegira by 30; the quotient is the number of +cycles, and the remainder is the year of the current cycle. Next divide the +number of cycles by 7, and the second remainder will be the Number of the +Period, which being found at the top of the table, and the year of the +cycle on the left hand, the required day of the week is immediately shown. + +The intercalary years of the cycle are distinguished by an asterisk. + +For the computation of the Christian date, the ratio of a mean year of the +Hegira to a solar year is + + Year of Hegira / Mean solar year = 354-11/30 / 365.2422 = 0.970224. + +The year 1 began 16 July 622, Old Style, or 19 July 622, according to the +New or Gregorian Style. Now the day of the year answering to the 19th of +July is 200, which, in parts of the solar year, is 0.5476, and the number +of years elapsed = Y - 1. Therefore, as the intercalary days are +distributed with considerable regularity in both calendars, the date of +commencement of the year Y expressed in Gregorian years is + + 0.970224 (Y - 1) + 622.5476, + or 0.970224 Y + 621.5774. + +This formula gives the following rule for calculating the date of the +commencement of any year of the Hegira, according to the Gregorian or New +Style. + +_Rule._--Multiply 970224 by the year of the Hegira, cut off six decimals +from the product, and add 621.5774. The sum will be the year of the +Christian era, and the day of the year will be found by multiplying the +decimal figures by 365. + +The result may sometimes differ a day from the truth, as the intercalary +days do not occur simultaneously; but as the day of the week can always be +accurately obtained from the foregoing table, the result can be readily +adjusted. + +_Example._--Required the date on which the year 1362 of the Hegira begins. + + 970224 + 1362 + -------- + 1940448 + 5821344 + 2910672 + 970224 +----------- +1321.445088 + 621.5774 +----------- +1943.0225 + 365 + ---- + 1225 + 1350 + 675 + ------ + 8.2125 +Thus the date is the 8th day, or the 8th of January, of the year 1943. + +To find, as a test, the accurate day of the week, the proposed year of the +Hegira, divided by 30, gives 45 cycles, and remainder 12, the year of the +current cycle. + +Also 45, divided by 7, leaves a remainder 3 for the number of the period. + +Therefore, referring to 3 at the top of the table, and 12 on the left, the +required day is Friday. + +The tables, page 571, show that 8th January 1943 is a Friday, therefore the +date is exact. + +For any other date of the Mahommedan year it is only requisite to know the +names of the consecutive months, and the number of days in each; these +are-- + + Muharram . . . . . . . 30 + Saphar . . . . . . . . 29 + Rabia I. . . . . . . . 30 + Rabia II. . . . . . . . 29 + Jomada I. . . . . . . . 30 + Jomada II. . . . . . . 29 + Rajab . . . . . . . . . 30 + Shaaban . . . . . . . . 29 + Ramadan . . . . . . . . 30 + Shawall (Shawwal) . . . 29 + Dulkaada (Dhu'l Qa'da) 30 + Dulheggia (Dhu'l Hijja) 29 ) + and in intercalary ) + years . . . . . . . . 30 ) + +The ninth month, Ramadan, is the month of Abstinence observed by the +Moslems. + +The Moslem calendar may evidently be carried on indefinitely by successive +addition, observing only to allow for the additional day that occurs in the +bissextile and intercalary years; but for any remote date the computation +according to the preceding rules will be most efficient, and such +computation may be usefully employed as a check on the accuracy of any +considerable extension of the calendar by induction alone. + +The following table, taken from Woolhouse's _Measures, Weights and Moneys +of all Nations_, shows the dates of commencement of Mahommedan years from +1845 up to 2047, or from the 43rd to the 49th cycle inclusive, which form +the whole of the seventh period of seven cycles. Throughout the next period +of seven cycles, and all other like periods, the days of the week will +recur in exactly the same order. All the tables of this kind previously +published, which extend beyond the year 1900 of the Christian era, are +erroneous, not excepting the celebrated French work, _L'Art de verifier les +dates_, so justly regarded as the greatest authority in chronological +matters. The errors have probably arisen from a continued excess of 10 in +the discrimination of the intercalary years. + + TABLE IX.--_Mahommedan Years._ + + 43rd Cycle. 46th Cycle. (continued.) + Year of Commencement Year of Commencement + Hegira. (1st of Muharram). Hegira. (1st of Muharram). + 1261 Frid. 10 Jan. 1845 1365 Thur. 6 Dec. 1945 + 1262* Tues. 30 Dec. 1845 1366* Mon. 25 Nov. 1946 + 1263 Sun. 20 Dec. 1846 1367 Sat. 15 Nov. 1947 + 1264 Thur. 9 Dec. 1847 1368* Wed. 3 Nov. 1948 + 1265* Mon. 27 Nov. 1848 1369 Mon. 24 Oct. 1949 + 1266 Sat. 17 Nov. 1849 1370 Frid. 13 Oct. 1950 + 1267* Wed. 6 Nov. 1850 1371* Tues. 2 Oct. 1951 + 1268 Mon. 27 Oct. 1851 1372 Sun. 21 Sept. 1952 + 1269 Frid. 15 Oct. 1852 1373 Thur. 10 Sept. 1953 + 1270* Tues. 4 Oct. 1853 1374* Mon. 30 Aug. 1954 + 1271 Sun. 24 Sept. 1854 1375 Sat. 20 Aug. 1955 + 1272 Thur. 13 Sept. 1855 1376* Wed. 8 Aug. 1956 + 1273* Mon. 1 Sept. 1856 1377 Mon. 29 July 1957 + 1274 Sat. 22 Aug. 1857 1378 Frid. 18 July 1958 + 1275 Wed. 11 Aug. 1858 1379* Tues. 7 July 1959 + 1276* Sun. 31 July 1859 1380 Sun. 26 June 1960 + 1277* Frid. 20 July 1860 + 1278* Tues. 9 July 1861 47th Cycle. + 1279 Sun. 29 June 1862 1381 Thur. 15 June 1961 + 1280 Thur. 18 June 1863 1382* Mon. 4 June 1962 + 1281* Mon. 6 June 1864 1383 Sat. 25 May 1963 + 1282 Sat. 27 May 1865 1384 Wed. 13 May 1964 + 1283 Wed. 16 May 1866 1385* Sun. 2 May 1965 + 1284* Sun. 5 May 1867 1386 Frid. 22 April 1966 + 1285 Frid. 24 April 1868 1387* Tues. 11 April 1967 + 1286* Tues. 13 April 1869 1388 Sun. 31 Mar. 1968 + 1287 Sun. 3 April 1870 1389 Thur. 20 Mar. 1969 + 1288 Thur. 23 Mar. 1871 1390* Mon. 9 Mar. 1970 + 1289* Mon. 11 Mar. 1872 1391 Sat. 27 Feb. 1971 + 1290 Sat. 1 Mar. 1873 1392 Wed. 16 Feb. 1972 + 1393* Sun. 4 Feb. 1973 + 44th Cycle. 1394 Frid. 25 Jan. 1974 + 1291 Wed. 18 Feb. 1874 1395 Tues. 14 Jan. 1975 + 1292* Sun. 7 Feb. 1875 1396* Sat. 3 Jan. 1976 + 1293 Frid. 28 Jan. 1876 1397 Thur. 23 Dec. 1976 + 1294 Tues. 16 Jan. 1877 1398* Mon. 12 Dec. 1977 + 1295* Sat. 5 Jan. 1878 1399 Sat. 2 Dec. 1978 + 1296 Thur. 26 Dec. 1878 1400 Wed. 21 Nov. 1979 + 1297* Mon. 15 Dec. 1879 1401* Sun. 9 Nov. 1980 + 1298 Sat. 4 Dec. 1880 1402 Frid. 30 Oct. 1981 + 1299 Wed. 23 Nov. 1881 1403 Tues. 19 Oct. 1982 + 1300* Sun. 12 Nov. 1882 1404* Sat. 8 Oct. 1983 + 1301 Frid. 2 Nov. 1883 1405 Thur. 27 Sept. 1984 + 1302 Tues. 21 Oct. 1884 1406* Mon. 16 Sept. 1985 + 1303* Sat. 10 Oct. 1885 1407 Sat. 6 Sept. 1986 + 1304 Thur. 30 Sept. 1886 1408 Wed. 26 Aug. 1987 + 1305 Mon. 19 Sept. 1887 1409* Sun. 14 Aug. 1988 + 1306* Frid. 7 Sept. 1888 1410 Frid. 4 Aug. 1989 + 1307 Wed. 28 Aug. 1889 + 1308* Sun. 17 Aug. 1890 48th Cycle. + 1309 Frid. 7 Aug. 1891 1411 Tues. 24 July 1990 + 1310 Tues. 26 July 1892 1412* Sat. 13 July 1991 + 1311* Sat. 15 July 1893 1413 Thur. 2 July 1992 + 1312 Thur. 5 July 1894 1414 Mon. 21 June 1993 + 1313 Mon. 24 June 1895 1415* Frid. 10 June 1994 + 1314* Frid. 12 June 1896 1416 Wed. 31 May 1995 + 1315 Wed. 2 June 1897 1417* Sun. 19 May 1996 + 1316* Sun. 22 May 1898 1418 Frid. 9 May 1997 + 1317 Frid. 12 May 1899 1419 Tues. 28 April 1998 + 1318 Tues. 1 May 1900 1420* Sat. 17 April 1999 + 1319* Sat. 20 April 1901 1421 Thur. 6 April 2000 + 1320 Thur. 10 April 1902 1422 Mon. 26 Mar. 2001 + 1423 Frid. 15 Mar. 2002 + 45th Cycle. 1424 Wed. 5 Mar. 2003 + 1321 Mon. 30 Mar. 1903 1425 Sun. 22 Feb. 2004 + 1322* Frid. 18 Mar. 1904 1426* Thur. 10 Feb. 2005 + 1323 Wed. 8 Mar. 1905 1427 Tues. 31 Jan. 2006 + 1324 Sun. 25 Feb. 1906 1428* Sat. 20 Jan. 2007 + 1325 Thur. 14 Feb. 1907 1429 Thur. 10 Jan. 2008 + 1326 Tues. 4 Feb. 1908 1430 Mon. 29 Dec. 2008 + 1327* Sat. 23 Jan. 1909 1431* Frid. 18 Dec. 2009 + 1328 Thur. 13 Jan. 1910 1432 Wed. 8 Dec. 2010 + 1329 Mon. 2 Jan. 1911 1433 Sun. 27 Nov. 2011 + 1330* Frid. 22 Dec. 1911 1434* Thur. 15 Nov. 2012 + 1331 Wed. 11 Dec. 1912 1435 Tues. 5 Nov. 2013 + 1332 Sun. 30 Nov. 1913 1436* Sat. 25 Oct. 2014 + 1333* Thur. 19 Nov. 1914 1437 Thur. 15 Oct. 2015 + 1334 Tues. 9 Nov. 1915 1438 Mon. 3 Oct. 2016 + 1335 Sat. 28 Oct. 1916 1439* Frid. 22 Sept. 2017 + 1336* Wed. 17 Oct. 1917 1440 Wed. 12 Sept. 2018 + 1337 Mon. 7 Oct. 1918 + [v.04 p.1003] + 1338* Frid. 26 Sept. 1919 49th Cycle. + 1339 Wed. 15 Sept. 1920 1441 Sun. 1 Sept. 2019 + 1340 Sun. 4 Sept. 1921 1442* Thur. 20 Aug. 2020 + 1341* Thur. 24 Aug. 1922 1443 Tues. 10 Aug. 2021 + 1342 Tues. 14 Aug. 1923 1444 Sat. 30 July 2022 + 1343 Sat. 2 Aug. 1924 1445* Wed. 19 July 2023 + 1344* Wed. 22 July 1925 1446 Mon. 8 July 2024 + 1345 Mon. 12 July 1926 1447* Frid. 27 June 2025 + 1346* Frid. 1 July 1927 1448 Wed. 17 June 2026 + 1347 Wed. 20 June 1928 1449 Sun. 6 June 2027 + 1348 Sun. 9 June 1929 1450* Thur. 25 May 2028 + 1349* Thur. 29 May 1930 1451 Tues. 15 May 2029 + 1350 Tues. 19 May 1931 1452 Sat. 4 May 2030 + 1453* Wed. 23 April 2031 + 46th Cycle. 1454 Mon. 12 April 2032 + 1351 Sat. 7 May 1932 1455 Frid. 1 April 2033 + 1352* Wed. 26 April 1933 1456* Tues. 21 Mar. 2034 + 1353 Mon. 16 April 1934 1457 Sun. 11 Mar. 2035 + 1354 Frid. 5 April 1935 1458* Thur. 28 Feb. 2036 + 1355* Tues. 24 Mar. 1936 1459 Tues. 17 Feb. 2037 + 1356 Sun. 14 Mar. 1937 1460 Sat. 6 Feb. 2038 + 1357* Thur. 3 Mar. 1938 1461* Wed. 26 Jan. 2039 + 1358 Tues. 21 Feb. 1939 1462 Mon. 16 Jan. 2040 + 1359 Sat. 10 Feb. 1940 1463 Frid. 4 Jan. 2041 + 1360* Wed. 29 Jan. 1941 1464* Tues. 24 Dec. 2041 + 1361 Mon. 19 Jan. 1942 1465 Sun. 14 Dec. 2042 + 1362 Frid. 8 Jan. 1943 1466* Thur. 3 Dec. 2043 + 1363* Tues. 28 Dec. 1943 1467 Tues. 22 Nov. 2044 + 1364 Sun. 17 Dec. 1944 1468 Sat. 11 Nov. 2045 + + TABLE X.--_Principal Days of the Hebrew Calendar._ + + Tisri 1, New Year, Feast of Trumpets. + " 3,[1] Fast of Guedaliah. + " 10, Fast of Expiation. + " 15, Feast of Tabernacles. + " 21, Last Day of the Festival. + " 22, Feast of the 8th Day. + " 23, Rejoicing of the Law. + Kislev 25, Dedication of the Temple. + Tebet 10, Fast, Siege of Jerusalem. + Adar 13,[2] Fast of Esther, } In embolismic + " 14, Purim, } years. Veadar. + Nisan 15, Passover. + Sivan 6, Pentecost. + Tamuz 17,[1] Fast, Taking of Jerusalem. + Ab 9.[1] Fast, Destruction of the Temple. + +[1] If Saturday, substitute Sunday immediately following. + +[2] If Saturday, substitute Thursday immediately preceding. + + TABLE XI.--_Principal Days of the Mahommedan Calendar._ + + Muharram 1, New Year. + " 10, Ashura. + Rabia I. 11, Birth of Mahomet. + Jornada I. 20, Taking of Constantinople. + Rajab 15, Day of Victory. + " 20, Exaltation of Mahomet. + Shaaban 15, Borak's Night. + Shawall 1,2,3, Kutshuk Bairam. + Dulheggia 10, Qurban Bairam. + + TABLE XII.--_Epochs, Eras, and Periods._ + + Name. Christian Date of Commencement. + + Grecian Mundane era 1 Sep. 5598 B.C. + Civil era of Constantinople 1 Sep. 5508 " + Alexandrian era 29 Aug. 5502 " + Ecclesiastical|era of Antioch 1 Sep. 5492 " + Julian Period 1 Jan. 4713 " + Mundane era Oct. 4008 " + Jewish Mundane era Oct. 3761 " + Era of Abraham 1 Oct. 2015 " + Era of the Olympiads 1 July 776 " + Roman era 24 April 753 " + Era of Nabonassar 26 Feb. 747 " + Metonic Cycle 15 July 432 " + Grecian or Syro-Macedonian era 1 Sep. 312 " + Tyrian era 19 Oct. 125 " + Sidonian era Oct. 110 " + Caesarean era of Antioch 1 Sep. 48 " + Julian year 1 Jan. 45 " + Spanish era 1 Jan. 38 " + Actian era 1 Jan. 30 " + Augustan era 14 Feb. 27 " + Vulgar Christian era 1 Jan. 1 A.D. + Destruction of Jerusalem 1 Sep. 69 " + Era of Maccabees 24 Nov. 166 " + Era of Diocletian 17 Sep. 284 " + Era of Ascension 12 Nov. 295 " + Era of the Armenians 7 July 552 " + Mahommedan era of the Hegira 16 July 622 " + Persian era of Yezdegird 16 June 632 " + +For the Revolutionary Calendar see FRENCH REVOLUTION _ad fin._ + +The principal works on the calendar are the following:--Clavius, _Romani +Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P.M. restituti Explicatio_ (Rome, 1603); _L'Art +de verifier les dates_; Lalande, _Astronomie_ tome ii.; _Traite de la +sphere et du calendrier_, par M. Revard (Paris, 1816); Delambre, _Traite de +l'astronomie theorique et pratique_, tome iii.; _Histoire de l'astronomie +moderne; Methodus technica brevis, perfacilis, ac perpetua construendi +Calendarium Ecclesiasticum, Stylo tam novo quam vetere, pro cunctis +Christianis Europae populis, &c._, auctore Paulo Tittel (Gottingen, 1816); +_Formole analitiche pel calcolo delta Pasgua, e correzione di quello di +Gauss, con critiche osservazioni su quanta ha scritto del calendario il +Delambri_, di Lodovico Ciccolini (Rome, 1817); E.H. Lindo, _Jewish Calendar +for Sixty-four Years_ (1838); W.S.B. Woolhouse, _Measures, Weights, and +Moneys of all Nations_ (1869). + +(T. G.; W. S. B. W.) + +CALENDER, (1) (Fr. _calendre_, from the Med. Lat. _calendra_, a corruption +of the Latinized form of the Gr. [Greek: kulindros], a cylinder), a machine +consisting of two or more rollers or cylinders in close contact with each +other, and often heated, through which are passed cotton, calico and other +fabrics, for the purpose of having a finished smooth surface given to them; +the process flattens the fibres, removes inequalities, and also gives a +glaze to the surface. It is similarly employed in paper manufacture +(_q.v._). (2) (From the Arabic _qalandar_), an order of dervishes, who +separated from the Baktashite order in the 14th century; they were vowed to +perpetual travelling. Other forms of the name by which they are known are +Kalenderis, Kalenderites, and Qalandarites (see DERVISH). + +CALENUS, QUINTUS FUFIUS, Roman general. As tribune of the people in 61 +B.C., he wa$ chiefly instrumental in securing the acquittal of the +notorious Publius Clodius when charged with having profaned the mysteries +of Bona Dea (Cicero, _Ad. Att._ i. 16). In 59 Calenus was praetor, and +brought forward a law that the senators, knights, and tribuni aerarii, who +composed the judices, should vote separately, so that it might be known how +they gave their votes (Dio Cassius xxxviii. 8). He fought in Gaul (51) and +Spain (49) under Caesar, who, after he had crossed over to Greece (48), +sent Calenus from Epirus to bring over the rest of the troops from Italy. +On the passage to Italy, most of the ships were captured by Bibulus and +Calenus himself escaped with difficulty. In 47 he was raised to the +consulship through the influence of Caesar. After the death of the +dictator, he joined Antony, whose legions he afterwards commanded in the +north of Italy. He died in 41, while stationed with his army at the foot of +the Alps, just as he was on the point of marching against Octavianus. + +Caesar, _B.G._ viii. 39; _B.C._ i. 87, iii. 26; Cic. _Philippicae_, viii. +4. + +CALEPINO, AMBROGIO (1435-1511), Italian lexicographer, born at Bergamo in +1435, was descended of an old family of Calepio, whence he took his name. +Becoming an Augustinian monk, he devoted his whole life to the composition +of a polyglott dictionary, first printed at Reggio in 1502. This gigantic +work was afterwards augmented by Passerat and others. The most complete +edition, published at Basel in 1590, comprises no fewer than eleven +languages. The best edition is that published at Padua in seven languages +in 1772. Calepino died blind in 1511. + +CALES (mod. _Calvi_), an ancient city of Campania, belonging Originally to +the Aurunci, on the Via Latina, 8 m. N.N.W. of Casilinum. It was taken by +the Romans in 335 B.C., and, a colony with Latin rights of 2500 citizens +having been established there, it was for a long time the centre of the +Roman dominion in Campania, and the seat of the quaestor for southern Italy +even down to the days of Tacitus.[1] It was an important base in the war +against Hannibal, and at last refused further contributions for the war. +Before 184 more settlers were sent there. After the Social War it became a +_municipium_. The fertility of its territory and its manufacture of black +glazed pottery, which was even exported to Etruria, made it prosperous. At +the end of the 3rd century it appears as a colony, and in the 5th century +it became an episcopal see, which (jointly with Teano since 1818) it still +is, though it is now a mere village. The cathedral, of the 12th century, +has a carved portal and three apses decorated with small arches and +pilasters, and contains a fine pulpit and episcopal throne in marble +mosaic. Near it are two grottos [v.04 p.1004] which have been used for +Christian worship and contain frescoes of the 10th and 11th centuries (E. +Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie meridionale_ (Paris, 1904), i. 244, &c.). +Inscriptions name six gates of the town: and there are considerable remains +of antiquity, especially of an amphitheatre and theatre, of a supposed +temple, and other edifices. A number of tombs belonging to the Roman +necropolis were discovered in 1883. + +See C. Huelsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, iii. 1351 (Stuttgart, +1899). + +(T. AS.) + +[1] To the period after 335 belong numerous silver and bronze coins with +the legend _Caleno_. + +CALF. (1) (A word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. German +_Kalb_, and Dutch _kalf_), the young of the family of _Bovidae_, and +particularly of the domestic cow, also of the elephant, and of marine +mammals, as the whale and seal. The word is applied to a small island close +to a larger one, like a calf close to its mother's side, as in the "Calf of +Man," and to a mass of ice detached from an iceberg. (2) (Of unknown +origin, possibly connected with the Celtic _calpa_, a leg), the fleshy +hinder part of the leg, between the knee and the ankle. + +CALF, THE GOLDEN, a molten image made by the Israelites when Moses had +ascended the Mount of Yahweh to receive the Law (Ex. xxxii.). Alarmed at +his lengthy absence the people clamoured for "gods" to lead them, and at +the instigation of Aaron, they brought their jewelry and made the calf out +of it. This was celebrated by a sacred festival, and it was only through +the intervention of Moses that the people were saved from the wrath of +Yahweh (cp. Deut. ix. 19 sqq.). Nevertheless 3000 of them fell at the hands +of the Levites who, in answer to the summons of Moses, declared themselves +on the side of Yahweh. The origin of this particular form of worship can +scarcely be sought in Egypt; the Apis which was worshipped there was a live +bull, and image-worship was common among the Canaanites in connexion with +the cult of Baal and Astarte (_qq.v._). In early Israel it was considered +natural to worship Yahweh by means of images (cp. the story of Gideon, +Judg. viii. 24 sqq.), and even to Moses himself was attributed the +bronze-serpent whose cult at Jerusalem was destroyed in the time of +Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 4, Num. xxi. 4-9). The condemnation which later +writers, particularly those imbued with the spirit of the Deuteronomic +reformation, pass upon all image-worship, is in harmony with the judgment +upon Jeroboam for his innovations at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings xii. 28 sqq., +xvi. 26, &c.). But neither Elijah nor Elisha raised a voice against the +cult; then, as later, in the time of Amos, it was nominally Yahweh-worship, +and Hosea is the first to regard it as the fundamental cause of Israel's +misery. + +See further, W.R. Smith, _Prophets of Israel_, pp. 175 sqq.; Kennedy, +Hastings' _Dict. Bib._ i. 342; and HEBREW RELIGION. + +(S. A. C.) + +CALGARY, the oldest city in the province of Alberta. Pop. (1901) 4091; +(1907) 21,112. It is situated in 114 deg. 15' W., and 51 deg. 41/2' N., on the Bow +river, which flows with its crystal waters from the pass in the Rocky +Mountains, by which the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway crosses +the Rocky Mountains. The pass proper--Kananaskis--penetrates the mountains +beginning 40 m. west of Calgary, and the well-known watering-place, Banff, +lies 81 m. west of it, in the Canadian national park. The streets are wide +and laid out on a rectangular system. The buildings are largely of stone, +the building stone used being the brown Laramie sandstone found in the +valley of the Bow river in the neighbourhood of the city. Calgary is an +important point on the Canadian Pacific railway, which has a general +superintendent resident here. It is an important centre of wholesale +dealers, and also of industrial establishments. Calgary is near the site of +Fort La Jonquiere founded by the French in 1752. Old Bow fort was a trading +post for many years though now in ruins. The present city was created by +the building of the Canadian Pacific railway about 1883. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +p. 795, Buelow, Hans Guido von: "married in his twenty-eighth year": +'twenty-eight' in original + +p. 843, Internal Communications: "a great deal of road construction": +'constuction' in original + +p. 884, 6th para: "Throughout the whole of the Analogy it is manifest": +'manfest' in original. + +p. 904, 4th para: "additions to already existing types": 'exsiting' in +original + +p. 914, Cabasilas, Nicolaus: "a speech against usurers": 'againt' in +original + +p. 970, 3rd para: "coloured by cobalt": 'colbalt' in original + +p. 976, 1st equation: "P = 1/2 l squared/c w": the = sign is printed vertically in +original + +p. 979, 11th piece of text: "A_2 is proportional to the roll of W_2": 'roll +of w_2' in original: but properly W_2 is the wheel, w_2 is the measure of +its roll. + +p. 996, Table III: column 11 begins 20-17-19-17-16 in original, this should +be 20-19-18-17-16 (as described earlier, the columns are arranged in the +order of the natural numbers, beginning at the bottom and proceeding to the +top of the column.) + +p. 997, Table IV: Nov 27. contains "25'24" in original: according to the +text, 25 beside 24 should not be accented. + +p. 1000, Table VII: 5620 shown starting "29 Sept. 1858" in original: must +be 1859. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Part 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 19846.txt or 19846.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/4/19846/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of +public domain material from the Robinson Curriculum.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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