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margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figure p.in, .figcenter p.in, .figright p.in, .figleft p.in + {margin: 0; text-indent: 8em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle } + + // --> + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Part 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 4 + "Bulgaria" to "Calgary" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 14, 2007 [EBook #19846] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. Volume and page numbers are displayed in +the margin as: v.04 p.0001 +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 773 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page773"></a>[v.04 p.0773]</span></p> + + <p><b>BULGARIA</b> (<i>continued from part 3</i>)</p> + + <p>... the mean interval being 60 m.; the summits are, as a rule, + rounded, and the slopes gentle. The culminating points are in the centre + of the range: Yumrukchál (7835 ft.), Maragudúk (7808 ft.), and Kadimlía + (7464 ft.). The Balkans are known to the people of the country as the + <i>Stara Planina</i> or "Old Mountain," the adjective denoting their + greater size as compared with that of the adjacent ranges: "Balkán" is + not a distinctive term, being applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the + Turks, to all mountains. Closely parallel, on the south, are the minor + ranges of the Sredna Gora or "Middle Mountains" (highest summit 5167 ft.) + and the Karaja Dagh, enclosing respectively the sheltered valleys of + Karlovo and Kazanlyk. At its eastern extremity the Balkan chain divides + into three ridges, the central terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Eminé + ("Haemus"), the northern forming the watershed between the tributaries of + the Danube and the rivers falling directly into the Black Sea. The + Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether distinct from the Balkans, with + which, however, it is connected by the Malka Planina and the Ikhtiman + hills, respectively west and east of Sofia; it may be regarded as a + continuation of the great Alpine system which traverses the Peninsula + from the Dinaric Alps and the Shar Planina on the west to the Shabkhana + Dagh near the Aegean coast; its sharper outlines and pine-clad steeps + reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than that of the Balkans. The + imposing summit of Musallá (9631 ft.), next to Olympus, the highest in + the Peninsula, forms the centre-point of the group; it stands within the + Bulgarian frontier at the head of the Mesta valley, on either side of + which the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and south-east + respectively towards the Aegean. The chain of Rhodope proper radiates to + the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already mentioned, its + central ridge no longer completely coincides with the Bulgarian boundary, + but two of its principal summits, Sytké (7179 ft.) and Karlyk (6828 ft.), + are within the frontier. From Musallá in a westerly direction extends the + majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a picturesque valley + the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this chain attain 7000 + ft. Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the Osogovska Planina, + culminating in Ruyen (7392 ft.). To the north of the Rilska Planina the + almost isolated mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs Sofia. Snow and ice + remain in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the Balkans throughout + the summer. The fertile slope trending northwards from the Balkans to the + Danube is for the most part gradual and broken by hills; the eastern + portion known as the <i>Delí Orman</i>, or "Wild Wood," is covered by + forest, and thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes precipitous + character of the Bulgarian bank of the Danube contrasts with the swampy + lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side. Northern Bulgaria is watered + by the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern Lom, all, except + the Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing into the Danube. The + channels of these rivers are deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; + irrigation is consequently difficult and navigation impossible. The + course of the Iskr is remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river + descends into the basin of Samakov, passing thence through a serpentine + defile into the plateau of Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a + lake; it now forces its way through the Balkans by the picturesque gorge + of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik breaks the + central chain of the Balkans near their eastern extremity and, uniting + with the Great Kamchik, falls into the Black Sea. The Maritza, the + ancient <i>Hebrus</i>, springs from the slopes of Musallá, and, with its + tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the wide plain of Eastern + Rumelia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek <i>Strymon</i>) drains the + valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza, flows into the Aegean. The + elevated basins of Samakov (lowest altitude 3050 ft.), Trn (2525 ft.), + Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia (1640 ft.), and Kiustendil + (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature of the western highlands.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zbulgaria_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bulgaria_1.png" + alt="Bulgaria." title="Bulgaria." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + </div> + <p><i>Geology.</i>—The stratified formation presents a remarkable + variety, almost all the systems being exemplified. The Archean, composed + of gneiss and crystalline schists, and traversed by eruptive veins, + extends over the greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska + Planina, Rhodope, and the adjacent ranges. North of the Balkans it + appears only in the neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The other earlier + Palaeozoic systems are wanting, but the Carboniferous appears in the + western Balkans with a continental <i>facies</i> (Kulm). Here + anthracitiferous coal is found in beds of argillite and sandstone. Red + sandstone and conglomerate, representing the Permian system, appear + especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these, in the western + Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper Jurassic, + also occurring in the central part of the range. The Cretaceous system, + from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears throughout + the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the Balkans to + the Danube. Gosau beds are found on the southern declivity of the chain. + Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and Eocene systems, is widely + distributed. The Eocene, or older Tertiary, further appears with + nummulitic formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene + only near the Black Sea coast at Burgas. Of the Neogene, or younger + Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears near Pleven + (Plevna) in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between Varna and Burgas + with beds of spaniodons, as in the Crimea; the Sarmatian stage in the + plain of the Danube and in the districts of Silistria and Varna. A rich + mammaliferous deposit (<i>Hipparion</i>, <i>Rhinoceros</i>, + <i>Dinotherium</i>, <i>Mastodon</i>, &c.) of this period has been + found near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more limited space. + The Quaternary era is represented by the typical loess, which covers most + of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the alluvial deposits + of the riparian districts with remains of the <i>Ursus</i>, <i>Equus</i>, + &c., found in bone-caverns. Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans + and Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern <!-- + Page 774 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774"></a>[v.04 + p.0774]</span>ranges, presenting granite, syenite, diorite, diabase, + quartz-porphyry, melaphyre, liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt, + &c.</p> + + <p><i>Minerals.</i>—The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, + although, with the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited. The + minerals which are commercially valuable include gold (found in small + quantities), silver, graphite, galena, pyrite, marcasite, chalcosine, + sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, cuprite, hematite, limonite, ochre, + chromite, magnetite, azurite, manganese, malachite, gypsum, &c. The + combustibles are anthracitiferous coal, coal, "brown coal" and lignite. + The lignite mines opened by the government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in + 1904 142,000 tons. Coal beds have been discovered at Trevna and + elsewhere. Thermal springs, mostly sulphureous, exist in forty-three + localities along the southern slope of the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in + the districts of Sofia and Kiustendil; maximum temperature at Zaparevo, + near Dupnitza, 180.5° (Fahrenheit), at Sofia 118.4°. Many of these are + frequented now, as in Roman times, owing to their valuable therapeutic + qualities. The mineral springs on the north of the Balkans are, with one + exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), cold.</p> + + <p><i>Climate.</i>—The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in + comparison with that of other European regions of the same latitude is + attributable in part to the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in + part to the general configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme heat + in summer and cold in winter, great local contrasts, and rapid + transitions of temperature occur here as in the adjoining countries. The + local contrasts are remarkable. In the districts extending from the + Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed to the bitter north wind, the + winter cold is intense, and the river, notwithstanding the volume and + rapidity of its current, is frequently frozen over; the temperature has + been known to fall to 24° below zero. Owing to the shelter afforded by + the Balkans against hot southerly winds, the summer heat in this region + is not unbearable; its maximum is 99°. The high tableland of Sofia is + generally covered with snow in the winter months; it enjoys, however, a + somewhat more equable climate than the northern district, the maximum + temperature being 86°, the minimum 2°; the air is bracing, and the summer + nights are cool and fresh. In the eastern districts the proximity of the + sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold; the sea is occasionally + frozen at Varna. The coast-line is exposed to violent north-east winds, + and the Black Sea, the <span title="pontos axeinos" class="grk" + >πόντος + ἄξεινος</span> or "inhospitable + sea" of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation for storms. The + sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a comparatively warm + climate; spring begins six weeks earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and + the vegetation is that of southern Europe. In general the Bulgarian + winter is short and severe; the spring short, changeable and rainy; the + summer hot, but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (<i>yasen</i>, "the + clear time") magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month of + December. The mean temperature is 52°. The climate is healthy, especially + in the mountainous districts. Malarial fever prevails in the valley of + the Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in + the upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage. The mean annual + rainfall is 25-59 in. (Gabrovo, 41-73; Sofia, 27-68; Varna, 18-50).</p> + + <p><i>Fauna.</i>—Few special features are noticeable in the + Bulgarian fauna. Bears are still abundant in the higher mountain + districts, especially in the Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian + bear is small and of brown colour, like that of the Carpathians. Wolves + are very numerous, and in winter commit great depredations even in the + larger country towns and villages; in hard weather they have been known + to approach the outskirts of Sofia. The government offers a reward for + the destruction of both these animals. The roe deer is found in all the + forests, the red deer is less common; the chamois haunts the higher + regions of the Rilska Planina, Rhodope and the Balkans. The jackal + (<i>Canis aureus</i>) appears in the district of Burgas; the lynx is said + to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild boar, otter, fox, badger, hare, + wild cat, marten, polecat (<i>Foetorius putorius</i>; the rare tiger + polecat, <i>Foetorius sarmaticus</i>, is also found), weasel and + shrewmouse (<i>Spermophilus citillus</i>) are common. The beaver (Bulg. + <i>bebr</i>) appears to have been abundant in certain localities, + <i>e.g.</i> Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently extinct. + Snakes (<i>Coluber natrix</i> and other species), vipers (<i>Vipera + berus</i> and <i>V. ammodytes</i>), and land and water tortoises are + numerous. The domestic animals are the same as in the other countries of + southeastern Europe; the fierce shaggy grey sheep-dog leaves a lasting + impression on most travellers in the interior. Fowls, especially turkeys, + are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of geese may be seen in the + Moslem villages. The ornithology of Bulgaria is especially interesting. + Eagles (<i>Aquila imperialis</i> and the rarer <i>Aquila fulva</i>), + vultures (<i>Vultur monachus</i>, <i>Gyps fulvus</i>, <i>Neophron + percnopterus</i>), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of prey are + extraordinarily abundant; singing birds are consequently rare. The + lammergeier (<i>Gypaëtus barbatus</i>) is not uncommon. Immense flocks of + wild swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube + and the lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of the woods (<i>Tetrao + urogallus</i>) is found in the Balkan and Rhodope forests, the wild + pheasant in the Tunja valley, the bustard (<i>Otis tarda</i>) in the + Eastern Rumelian plain. Among the migratory birds are the crane, which + hibernates in the Maritza valley, woodcock, snipe and quail; the great + spotted cuckoo (<i>Coccystes glandarius</i>) is an occasional visitant. + The red starling (<i>Pastor roseus</i>) sometimes appears in large + flights. The stork, which is never molested, adds a picturesque feature + to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water fish, the sturgeon (<i>Acipenser + sturio</i> and <i>A. huso</i>), sterlet, salmon (<i>Salmo hucho</i>), and + carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams abound in trout. The + Black Sea supplies turbot, mackerel, &c.; dolphins and flying fish + may sometimes be seen.</p> + + <p><i>Flora.</i>—In regard to its flora the country may be divided + into (1) the northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) + the southern plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts + adjoining the Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov and + Kiustendil, (5) the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans and the + southern mountain group. In the first-mentioned region the vegetation + resembles that of the Russian and Rumanian steppes; in the spring the + country is adorned with the flowers of the crocus, orchis, iris, tulip + and other bulbous plants, which in summer give way to tall grasses, + umbelliferous growths, <i>dianthi</i>, <i>astragali</i>, &c. In the + more sheltered district south of the Balkans the richer vegetation + recalls that of the neighbourhood of Constantinople and the adjacent + parts of Asia Minor. On the Black Sea coast many types of the Crimean, + Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora present themselves. The + plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish specimens of sub-alpine plants, + while the vine disappears; the hollow of Kiustendil, owing to its + southerly aspect, affords the vegetation of the Macedonian valleys. The + flora of the Balkans corresponds with that of the Carpathians; the Rila + and Rhodope group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with those + of the central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The Alpine + types are often represented by variants: <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Campanula + alpina</i> by the <i>Campanula orbelica</i>, the <i>Primula farinosa</i> + by the <i>Primula frondosa</i> and <i>P. exigua</i>, the <i>Gentiana + germanica</i> by the <i>Gentiana bulgarica</i>, &c. The southern + mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the unexplored highlands of + Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown elsewhere in Europe, and + in some cases corresponding with those of the Caucasus. Among the more + characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are the + following:—<i>Centaurea</i>, <i>Cirsium</i>, <i>Linaria</i>, + <i>Scrophularia</i>, <i>Verbascum</i>, <i>Dianthus</i>, <i>Silene</i>, + <i>Trifolium</i>, <i>Euphorbia</i>, <i>Cytisus</i>, <i>Astragalus</i>, + <i>Ornithogalum</i>, <i>Allium</i>, <i>Crocus</i>, <i>Iris</i>, + <i>Thymus</i>, <i>Umbellifera</i>, <i>Sedum</i>, <i>Hypericum</i>, + <i>Scabiosa</i>, <i>Ranunculus</i>, <i>Orchis</i>, <i>Ophrys</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Forests.</i>—The principal forest trees are the oak, beech, + ash, elm, walnut, cornel, poplar, pine and juniper. The oak is universal + in the thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnificent + forests of beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska + Planina; the northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well + wooded, but the southern slope is bare. The walnut and chestnut are + mainly confined to eastern Rumelia. Conifers (<i>Pinus silvestris</i>, + <i>Picea excelsa</i>, <i>Pinus laricis</i>, <i>Pinus mughus</i>) are rare + in the Balkans, but abundant in the higher regions of the southern + mountain group, where the <i>Pinus peuce</i>, otherwise peculiar to the + Himalayas, also flourishes. The wild lilac forms a beautiful feature in + the spring landscape. Wild fruit trees, such as the apple, pear and plum, + are common. The vast forests of the middle ages disappeared under the + supine Turkish administration, which took no measures for their + protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of towns + and highways in order to deprive brigands of shelter. A law passed in + 1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting timber, and + places the state forests under the control of inspectors. According to + official statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of the whole superficies + of the kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion of this area is + covered only by brushwood and scrub. The beautiful forests of the Rila + district are rapidly disappearing under exploitation.</p> + + <p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Agriculture, the main source of wealth to + the country, is still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignorance + and conservatism of the peasantry, the habits engendered by widespread + insecurity and the fear of official rapacity under Turkish rule, + insufficiency of communications, want of capital, and in some districts + sparsity of population, have all tended to retard the development of this + most important industry. The peasants cling to traditional usage, and + look with suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of + production. The plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only + partially practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown. The + government has sedulously endeavoured to introduce more enlightened + methods and ideas by the establishment of agricultural schools, the + appointment of itinerant professors and inspectors, the distribution of + better kinds of seeds, improved implements, &c. Efforts have been + made to improve the breeds of native cattle and horses, and stallions + have been introduced from Hungary and distributed throughout the country. + Oxen and buffaloes are the principal animals of draught; the buffalo, + which was apparently introduced from Asia in remote times, is much prized + by the peasants for its patience and strength; it is, however, somewhat + delicate and requires much care. In <!-- Page 775 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page775"></a>[v.04 p.0775]</span>the eastern + districts camels are also employed. The Bulgarian horses are small, but + remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a rule unfitted for + draught and cavalry purposes. The best sheep are found in the district of + Karnobat in Eastern Rumelia. The number of goats in the country tends to + decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these animals owing to + the injury they inflict on young trees. The average price of oxen is £5 + each, draught oxen £12 the pair, buffaloes £14 the pair, cows £2, horses + £6, sheep, 7s., goats 5s., each. The principal cereals are wheat, maize, + rye, barley, oats and millet. The cultivation of maize is increasing in + the Danubian and eastern districts. Rice-fields are found in the + neighbourhood of Philippopolis. Cereals represent about 80% of the total + exports. Besides grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of roses, + silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could the + peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of wine-making + the Bulgarian vintages would rank among the best European growths. The + tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in considerable + quantities for home consumption and only an insignificant amount is + exported. The best tobacco-fields in Bulgaria are on the northern slopes + of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which produces the famous Kavala + growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The rose-fields + of Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between the Balkans + and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh. About 6000 lb + of the rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from £12 to £14 + per lb. Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia. + Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to + disease among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with + promise of success. Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern + Rumelia.</p> + + <p>Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averaging + about 18 acres each. There are scarcely any large estates owned by + individuals, but some of the monasteries possess considerable domains. + The large <i>tchifliks</i>, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish + landowners, have been divided among the peasants. The rural proprietors + enjoy the right of pasturing their cattle on the common lands belonging + to each village, and of cutting wood in the state forests. They live in a + condition of rude comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in + the towns. A peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricultural + life is the <i>zadruga</i>, or house-community, a patriarchal institution + apparently dating from prehistoric times. Family groups, sometimes + numbering several dozen persons, dwell together on a farm in the + observance of strictly communistic principles. The association is ruled + by a house-father (<i>domakin</i>, <i>stareïshina</i>), and a + house-mother (<i>domakinia</i>), who assign to the members their + respective tasks. In addition to the farm work the members often practise + various trades, the proceeds of which are paid into the general treasury. + The community sometimes includes a priest, whose fees for baptisms, + &c., augment the common fund. The national aptitude for combination + is also displayed in the associations of market gardeners (<i>gradinarski + druzhini</i>, <i>taifi</i>), who in the spring leave their native + districts for the purpose of cultivating gardens in the neighbourhood of + some town, either in Bulgaria or abroad, returning in the autumn, when + they divide the profits of the enterprise; the number of persons annually + thus engaged probably exceeds 10,000. Associations for various + agricultural, mining and industrial undertakings and provident societies + are numerous: the handicraftsmen in the towns are organized in + <i>esnafs</i> or gilds.</p> + + <p><i>Manufactures.</i>—The development of manufacturing enterprise + on a large scale has been retarded by want of capital. The principal + establishments for the native manufactures of <i>aba</i> and + <i>shayak</i> (rough and fine homespuns), and of <i>gaitan</i> (braided + embroidery) are at Sliven and Gabrovo respectively. The Bulgarian + homespuns, which are made of pure wool, are of admirable quality. The + exportation of textiles is almost exclusively to Turkey: value in 1806, + £104,046; in 1898, £144,726; in 1904, £108,685. Unfortunately the home + demand for native fabrics is diminishing owing to foreign competition; + the smaller textile industries are declining, and the picturesque, + durable, and comfortable costume of the country is giving way to cheap + ready-made clothing imported from Austria. The government has endeavoured + to stimulate the home industry by ordering all persons in its employment + to wear the native cloth, and the army is supplied almost exclusively by + the factories at Sliven. A great number of small distilleries exist + throughout the country; there are breweries in all the principal towns, + tanneries at Sevlievo, Varna, &c., numerous corn-mills worked by + water and steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain torrents, in the + Balkans and Rhodope. A certain amount of foreign capital has been + invested in industrial enterprises; the most notable are sugar-refineries + in the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis, and a cotton-spinning + mill at Varna, on which an English company has expended about + £60,000.</p> + + <p><i>Commerce.</i>—The usages of internal commerce have been + considerably modified by the development of communications. The primitive + system of barter in kind still exists in the rural districts, but is + gradually disappearing. The great fairs (<i>panaïri</i>, <span + title="panêgureis" class="grk" + >πανηγύρεις</span>) + held at Eski-Jumaia, Dobritch and other towns, which formerly attracted + multitudes of foreigners as well as natives, have lost much of their + importance; a considerable amount of business, however, is still + transacted at these gatherings, of which ninety-seven were held in 1898. + The principal seats of the export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on + the Black Sea, and Svishtov, Rustchuk, Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo, and + Vidin on the Danube. The chief centres of distribution for imports are + Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk, Philippopolis and Burgas. About 10% of the + exports passes over the Turkish frontier, but the government is making + great efforts to divert the trade to Varna and Burgas, and important + harbour works have been carried out at both these ports. The new port of + Burgas was formally opened in 1904, that of Varna in 1906.</p> + + <p>In 1887 the total value of Bulgarian foreign commerce was £4,419,589. + The following table gives the values for the six years ending 1904. The + great fluctuations in the exports are due to the variations of the + harvest, on which the prosperity of the country practically + depends:—</p> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Bulgarian foreign commerce" title="Bulgarian foreign commerce"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Year.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Exports.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Imports.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Total.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>£</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>£</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>£</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1899</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,138,684</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,407,123</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,545,807</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1900</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,159,305</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,853,684</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,012,989</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1901</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3,310,790</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,801,762</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6,112,552</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1902</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,147,381</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,849,059</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7,996,440</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1903</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4,322,945</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3,272,103</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7,595,048</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1904</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6,304,756</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5,187,583</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11,492,339</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hides, + cheese, eggs, attar of roses. Exports to the United Kingdom in 1900 were + valued at £239,665; in 1904 at £989,127. The principal imports are + textiles, metal goods, colonial goods, implements, furniture, leather, + petroleum. Imports from the United Kingdom in 1900, £301,150; in 1904, + £793,972.</p> + + <p>The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of £400,000, has + its central establishment at Sofia, and branches at Philippopolis, + Rustchuk, Varna, Trnovo and Burgas. Besides conducting the ordinary + banking operations, it issues loans on mortgage. Four other banks have + been founded at Sofia by groups of foreign and native capitalists. There + are several private banks in the country. The Imperial Ottoman Bank and + the Industrial Bank of Kiev have branches at Philippopolis and Sofia + respectively. The agricultural chests, founded by Midhat Pasha in 1863, + and reorganized in 1894, have done much to rescue the peasantry from the + hands of usurers. They serve as treasuries for the local administration, + accept deposits at interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage + or the security of two solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887 + was £569,260; in 1904, £1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been constituted + as the "Bulgarian Agricultural Bank"; the central direction is at Sofia. + The post-office savings bank, established 1896, had in 1905 a capital of + £1,360,560.</p> + + <p>There are over 200 registered provident societies in the country. The + legal rate of interest is 10%, but much higher rates are not + uncommon.</p> + + <p>Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has adopted + the metric system. Turkish weights and measures, however, are still + largely employed in local commerce. The monetary unit is the <i>lev</i>, + or "lion" (pl. <i>leva</i>), nominally equal to the franc, with its + submultiple the <i>stotinka</i> (pl. <i>-ki</i>), or centime. The coinage + consists of nickel and bronze coins (2½, 5, 10 and 20 <i>stotinki</i>) + and silver coins <!-- Page 776 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page776"></a>[v.04 p.0776]</span>(50 <i>stotinki</i>; 1, 2 and 5 + <i>leva</i>). A gold coinage was struck in 1893 with pieces corresponding + to those of the Latin Union. The Turkish pound and foreign gold coins are + also in general circulation. The National Bank issues notes for 5, 10, + 20, 50 and 100 <i>leva</i>, payable in gold. Notes payable in silver are + also issued.</p> + + <p><i>Finance.</i>—It is only possible here to deal with Bulgarian + finance prior to the declaration of independence in 1908. At the outset + of its career the principality was practically unencumbered with any + debt, external or internal. The stipulations of the Berlin Treaty (Art. + ix.) with regard to the payment of a tribute to the sultan and the + assumption of an "equitable proportion" of the Ottoman Debt were never + carried into effect. In 1883 the claim of Russia for the expenses of the + occupation (under Art. xx. of the treaty) was fixed at 26,545,625 fr. + (£1,061,820) payable in annual instalments of 2,100,000 fr. (£84,000). + The union with Eastern Rumelia in 1885 entailed liability for the + obligations of that province consisting of an annual tribute to Turkey of + 2,951,000 fr. (£118,040) and a loan of 3,375,000 fr. (£135,000) + contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank. In 1888 the purchase of the + Varna-Rustchuk railway was effected by the issue of treasury bonds at 6% + to the vendors. In 1889 a loan of 30,000,000 fr. (£1,200,000) bearing 6% + interest was contracted with the Vienna Länderbank and Bankverein at 85½. + In 1892 a further 6% loan of 142,780,000 fr. (£5,711,200) was contracted + with the Länderbank at 83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a 5% loan of 106,000,000 + fr. (£4,240,000), secured on the tobacco dues and the stamp-tax, was + contracted with the Banque de l'État de Russie and the Banque de Paris et + des Pays Bas at 81½, for the purpose of consolidating the floating debt, + and in 1904 a 5% loan of 99,980,000 fr. (£3,999,200) at 82, with the same + guarantees, was contracted with the last-named bank mainly for the + purchase of war material in France and the construction of railways. In + January 1906 the national debt stood as follows:—Outstanding amount + of the consolidated loans, 363,070,500 fr. (£14,522,820); internal debt, + 15,603,774 fr. (£624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208 (£76,408). In + February 1907 a 4½% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85, secured on the surplus + proceeds of the revenues already pledged to the loans of 1902 and 1904, + was contracted with the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas associated with + some German and Austrian banks for the conversion of the loans of 1888 + and 1889 (requiring about 53,000,000 fr.) and for railway construction + and other purposes. The total external debt was thus raised to upwards of + 450,000,000 fr. The Eastern Rumelian tribute and the rent of the + Sarambey-Belovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a further + sum of 50,919,100 fr. (£2,036,765). The national debt was not + disproportionately great in comparison with annual revenue. After the + union with Eastern Rumelia the budget receipts increased from 40,803,262 + leva (£1,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (£4,786,220) in 1904; the + estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva (£4,476,800), of which + 41,179,000 (£1,647,160) were derived from direct and 38,610,000 + (£1,544,400) from indirect taxation; the estimated expenditure was + 111,903,281 leva (£4,476,131), the principal items being: public debt, + 31,317,346 (£1,252,693); army, 26,540,720 (£1,061,628); education, + 10,402,470 (£416,098); public works, 14,461,171 (£578,446); interior, + 7,559,517 (£302,380). The actual receipts in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. + In 1895 direct taxation, which pressed heavily on the agricultural class, + was diminished and indirect taxation (import duties and excise) + considerably increased. In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c., + indirect to 8 fr. 58 c., per head of the population. The financial + difficulties in which the country was involved at the close of the 19th + century were attributable not to excessive indebtedness but to heavy + outlay on public works, the army, and education, and to the maintenance + of an unnecessary number of officials, the economic situation being + aggravated by a succession of bad harvests. The war budget during ten + years (1888-1897) absorbed the large sum of 275,822,017 leva + (£11,033,300) or 35.77% of the whole national income within that period. + In subsequent years military expenditure continued to increase; the total + during the period since the union with Eastern Rumelia amounting to + 599,520,698 leva (£23,980,800).</p> + + <p><i>Communications.</i>—In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria was + the Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English company in + 1867. In Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to Philippopolis and the + Turkish frontier (122 m.), with a branch to Yamboli (66 m.), had been + built by Baron Hirsch in 1873, and leased by the Turkish government to + the Oriental Railways Company until 1958. It was taken over by the + Bulgarian government in 1908 (see <i>History</i>, below). The + construction of a railway from the Servian frontier at Tzaribrod to the + Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel was imposed on the principality by + the Berlin Treaty, but political difficulties intervened, and the line, + which touches Sofia, was not completed till 1888. In that year the + Bulgarian government seized the short connecting line Belovo-Sarambey + belonging to Turkey, and railway communication between Constantinople and + the western capitals was established. Since that time great progress has + been made in railway construction. In 1888, 240 m. of state railways were + open to traffic; in 1899, 777 m.; in 1902, 880 m. Up to October 1908 all + these lines were worked by the state, and, with the exception of the + Belovo-Sarambey line (29 m.), which was worked under a convention with + Turkey, were its property. The completion of the important line + Radomir-Sofia-Shumen (November 1899) opened up the rich agricultural + district between the Balkans and the Danube and connected Varna with the + capital. Branches to Samovit and Rustchuk establish connexion with the + Rumanian railway system on the opposite side of the river. It was hoped, + with the consent of the Turkish government, to extend the line + Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to Uskub, and thus to secure a direct route to + Salonica and the Aegean. Road communication is still in an unsatisfactory + condition. Roads are divided into three classes: "state roads," or main + highways, maintained by the government; "district roads" maintained by + the district councils; and "inter-village roads" (<i>mezhduselski + shosseta</i>), maintained by the communes. Repairs are effected by the + <i>corvée</i> system with requisitions of material. There are no canals, + and inland navigation is confined to the Danube. The Austrian + <i>Donaudampschiffahrtsgesellschaft</i> and the Russian <i>Gagarine</i> + steamship company compete for the river traffic; the grain trade is + largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants. The coasting + trade on the Black Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian steamship company; + the steamers of the Austrian Lloyd, and other foreign companies call at + Varna, and occasionally at Burgas.</p> + + <p>The development of postal and telegraphic communication has been + rapid. In 1886, 1,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 29,063,043. + Receipts of posts and telegraphs in 1886 were £40,975, in 1903 £134,942. + In 1903 there were 3261 m. of telegraph lines and 531 m. of + telephones.</p> + + <p><i>Towns.</i>—The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the + capital (Bulgarian <i>Sredetz</i>, a name now little used), pop. in + January 1906, 82,187; Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Rumelia + (Bulg. <i>Plovdiv</i>), pop. 45,572; Varna, 37,155; Rustchuk (Bulg. + <i>Russé</i>), 33,552; Sliven, 25,049; Shumla (Bulg. <i>Shumen</i>), + 22,290; Plevna (Bulg. <i>Pleven</i>), 21,208; Stara-Zagora, 20,647; + Tatar-Pazarjik, 17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek <i>Hyampolis</i>), + 15,708; Dobritch (Turkish <i>Hajiolu-Pazarjik</i>), 15,369; Haskovo, + 15,061; Vratza, 14,832; Stanimaka (Greek <i>Stenimachos</i>), 14,120; + Razgrad, 13,783; Sistova (Bulg. <i>Svishtov</i>), 13,408; Burgas, 12,846; + Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the ancient capital, 12,171. All these are + described in separate articles.</p> + + <p><i>Population.</i>—The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq. + m.; of Eastern Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240 sq. m. + According to the census of the 12th of January 1906, the population of + northern Bulgaria was 2,853,704; of Eastern Rumelia, 1,174,535; of united + Bulgaria, 4,028,239 or 88 per sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between Rumania + and Portugal in regard to area; between the Netherlands and Switzerland + in regard to population: in density of population it may be compared with + Spain and Greece.</p> + + <p>The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave the + total population as 3,154,375. In January 1893 the population was + 3,310,713; in January 1901, 3,744,283.</p> + + <p>The movement of the population at intervals of five years has been as + follows:—</p> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Bulgarian population" title="Bulgarian population"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Year.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Marriages.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Births<br />(living).</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Still-<br />born.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Deaths.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Natural<br />Increase.<a name="FnAnchor_011" + href="#Footnote_011"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1882</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19,795</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>74,642</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>300</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>38,884</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>35,758</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1887</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20,089</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>83,179</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>144</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>39,396</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>43,783</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1892</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27,553</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>117,883</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>321</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>103,550</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14,333</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1897</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29,227</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>149,631</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>858</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>90,134</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>59,497</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1902</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>36,041</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>149,542</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>823</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>91,093</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>58,449</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_011" href="#FnAnchor_011">[1]</a> Excess of births + over deaths.</p> + +</div> + <p>The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the five years 1882-1886 + the mean death-rate was 18.0 per 1000; in 1887-1891, 20.4; in 1892-1896, + 27.0; in 1897-1902, 23.92. Infant mortality is high, especially among the + peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely survive, the adult + population is in general robust, hardy and long-lived. The census of + January 1901 gives 2719 persons of 100 years and upwards. Young men, as a + rule, marry betore the age of twenty-five, girls before eighteen. The + number of illegitimate births is inconsiderable, averaging only 0.12 of + the total. The population according to sex in 1901 is given as 1,909,567 + males and 1,834,716 females, or 51 males to 49 females. A somewhat + similar disparity may be observed in the other countries of the + Peninsula. Classified according to occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or + 74.85% of the population, are engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various + productive industries; 118,824 in the service of the government or the + exercise of liberal professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population + according to race cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is + approximately shown by the census of 1901, which gives the various + nationalities according to language as follows:—Bulgars, 2,888,219; + Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063; Greeks, 66,635; Gipsies (Tziganes), + 89,549; Jews (Spanish speaking), 33,661; Tatars, <!-- Page 777 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page777"></a>[v.04 p.0777]</span>18,884; + Armenians, 14,581; other nationalities, 30,451. The Bulgarian inhabitants + of the Peninsula beyond the limits of the principality may, perhaps, be + estimated at 1,500,000 or 1,600,000, and the grand total of the race + possibly reaches 5,500,000.</p> + + <p><i>Ethnology.</i>—The Bulgarians, who constitute 77.14% of the + inhabitants of the kingdom, are found in their purest type in the + mountain districts, the Ottoman conquest and subsequent colonization + having introduced a mixed population into the plains.</p> + + <p>The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish invasion + resulted in the extirpation or flight of a large proportion of the + Bulgarian inhabitants of the lowlands, who were replaced by Turkish + colonists. The mountainous districts, however, retained their original + population and sheltered large numbers of the fugitives. The passage of + the Turkish armies during the wars with Austria, Poland and Russia led to + further Bulgarian emigrations. The flight to the Banat, where 22,000 + Bulgarians still remain, took place in 1730. At the beginning of the 19th + century the majority of the population of the Eastern Rumelian plain was + Turkish. The Turkish colony, however, declined, partly in consequence of + the drain caused by military service, while the Bulgarian remnant + increased, notwithstanding a considerable emigration to Bessarabia before + and after the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1828. Efforts were made by the + Porte to strengthen the Moslem element by planting colonies of Tatars in + 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The advance of the Russian army in + 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus of the Turkish population, of which + only a small proportion returned to settle permanently. The emigration + continued after the conclusion of peace, and is still in progress, + notwithstanding the efforts of the Bulgarian government to arrest it. In + twenty years (1879-1899), at least 150,000 Turkish peasants left + Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains unoccupied. On + the other hand, a considerable influx of Bulgarians from Macedonia, the + vilayet of Adrianople, Bessarabia, and the Dobrudja took place within the + same period, and the inhabitants of the mountain villages show a tendency + to migrate into the richer districts of the plains.</p> + + <p>The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to Elena are + inhabited almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in Eastern Rumelia the + national element is strongest in the Sredna Gora and Rhodope. Possibly + the most genuine representatives of the race are the Pomaks or Mahommedan + Bulgarians, whose conversion to Islam preserved their women from the + licence of the Turkish conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope + and certain districts in the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch) and + Plevna. Retaining their Bulgarian speech and many ancient national + usages, they may be compared with the indigenous Cretan, Bosnian and + Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks in the principality are estimated at 26,000, + but their numbers are declining. In the north-eastern district between + the Yantra and the Black Sea the Bulgarian race is as yet thinly + represented; most of the inhabitants are Turks, a quiet, submissive, + agricultural population, which unfortunately shows a tendency to + emigrate. The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a variety of races. The + Greek element is strong in the maritime towns, and displays its natural + aptitude for navigation and commerce. The Gagäuzi, a peculiar race of + Turkish-speaking Christians, inhabit the littoral from Cape Eminé to Cape + Kaliakra: they are of Turanian origin and descend from the ancient + Kumani. The valleys of the Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed + population consisting of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the principal + Greek colonies are in Stanimaka, Kavakly and Philippopolis. The origin of + the peculiar Shôp tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of Sofia, + Breznik and Radomir is a mystery. The Shôps are conceivably a remnant of + the aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in its mountain home + during the Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions: they cling with much + tenacity to their distinctive customs, apparel and dialect. The + considerable Vlach or Ruman colony in the Danubian districts dates from + the 18th century, when large numbers of Walachian peasants sought a + refuge on Turkish soil from the tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the + department of Vidin alone contains 36 Ruman villages with a population of + 30,550. Especially interesting is the race of nomad shepherds from the + Macedonian and the Aegean coast who come in thousands every summer to + pasture their flocks on the Bulgarian mountains; they are divided into + two tribes—the Kutzovlachs, or "lame Vlachs," who speak Rumanian, + and the Hellenized Karakatchans or "black shepherds" (compare the + Morlachs, or Mavro-vlachs, <span title="mauroi blaches" class="grk" + >μαῦροι + βλάχες</span>, of Dalmatia), who + speak Greek. The Tatars, a peaceable, industrious race, are chiefly found + in the neighbourhood of Varna and Silistria; they were introduced as + colonists by the Turkish government in 1861. They may be reckoned at + 12,000. The gipsies, who are scattered in considerable numbers throughout + the country, came into Bulgaria in the 14th century. They are for the + most part Moslems, and retain their ancient Indian speech. They live in + the utmost poverty, occupy separate cantonments in the villages, and are + treated as outcasts by the rest of the population. The Bulgarians, being + of mixed origin, possess few salient physical characteristics. The + Slavonic type is far less pronounced than among the kindred races; the + Ugrian or Finnish cast of features occasionally asserts itself in the + central Balkans. The face is generally oval, the nose straight, the jaw + somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are rather below middle height, + compactly built, and, among the peasantry, very muscular; the women are + generally deficient in beauty and rapidly grow old. The upper class, the + so-called <i>intelligenzia</i>, is physically very inferior to the rural + population.</p> + + <p><i>National Character.</i>—The character of the Bulgarians + presents a singular contrast to that of the neighbouring nations. Less + quick-witted than the Greeks, less prone to idealism than the Servians, + less apt to assimilate the externals of civilization than the Rumanians, + they possess in a remarkable degree the qualities of patience, + perseverance and endurance, with the capacity for laborious effort + peculiar to an agricultural race. The tenacity and determination with + which they pursue their national aims may eventually enable them to + vanquish their more brilliant competitors in the struggle for hegemony in + the Peninsula. Unlike most southern races, the Bulgarians are reserved, + taciturn, phlegmatic, unresponsive, and extremely suspicious of + foreigners. The peasants are industrious, peaceable and orderly; the + vendetta, as it exists in Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia, and the use + of the knife in quarrels, so common in southern Europe, are alike + unknown. The tranquillity of rural life has, unfortunately, been invaded + by the intrigues of political agitators, and bloodshed is not uncommon at + elections. All classes practise thrift bordering on parsimony, and any + display of wealth is generally resented. The standard of sexual morality + is high, especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is an + object of public contempt, and in former times was punished with death. + Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the case in most + primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but usually take place + with the consent of the parents on both sides, in order to avoid the + expense of a regular wedding. The principal amusement on Sundays and + holidays is the <i>choró</i> (<span title="choros" class="grk" + >χορός</span>), which is danced on the + village green to the strains of the <i>gaida</i> or bagpipe, and the + <i>gûsla</i>, a rudimentary fiddle. The Bulgarians are religious in a + simple way, but not fanatical, and the influence of the priesthood is + limited. Many ancient superstitions linger among the peasantry, such as + the belief in the vampire and the evil eye; witches and necromancers are + numerous and are much consulted.</p> + + <p><i>Government.</i>—Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by + Art. iii. of the Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the family + of a prince "freely elected by the population and confirmed by the + Sublime Porte with the assent of the powers." According to the + constitution of Trnovo, voted by the Assembly of Notables on the 29th of + April 1879, revised by the Grand Sobranye on the 27th of May 1893, and + modified by the proclamation of a Bulgarian kingdom on the 5th of October + 1908, the royal dignity descends in the direct male line. The king must + profess the Orthodox faith, only the first elected sovereign and his + immediate heir being released from this obligation. The legislative power + is vested in the king in conjunction with the <!-- Page 778 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page778"></a>[v.04 p.0778]</span>national + assembly; he is supreme head of the army, supervises the executive power, + and represents the country in its foreign relations. In case of a + minority or an interregnum, a regency of three persons is appointed. The + national representation is embodied in the Sobranye, or ordinary assembly + (Bulgarian, <i>Sŭbranïe</i>, the Russian form <i>Sobranye</i> being + usually employed by foreign writers), and the Grand Sobranye, which is + convoked in extraordinary circumstances. The Sobranye is elected by + manhood suffrage, in the proportion of 1 to 20,000 of the population, for + a term of five years. Every Bulgarian citizen who can read and write and + has completed his thirtieth year is eligible as a deputy. Annual sessions + are held from the 27th of October to the 27th of December. All + legislative and financial measures must first be discussed and voted by + the Sobranye and then sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The + government is responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether + deputies or not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which is + elected in the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants, is convoked + to elect a new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction a change in the + constitution, or to ratify an alteration in the boundaries of the + kingdom. The executive is entrusted to a cabinet of eight + members—the ministers of foreign affairs and religion, finance, + justice, public works, the interior, commerce and agriculture, education + and war. Local administration, which is organized on the Belgian model, + is under the control of the minister of the interior. The country is + divided into twenty-two departments (<i>okrŭg</i>, pl. + <i>okrŭzi</i>), each administered by a prefect (<i>uprávitel</i>), + assisted by a departmental council, and eighty-four sub-prefectures + (<i>okolía</i>), each under a sub-prefect (<i>okoliiski natchálnik</i>). + The number of these functionaries is excessive. The four principal towns + have each in addition a prefect of police (<i>gradonatchalnik</i>) and + one or more commissaries (<i>pristav</i>). The gendarmery numbers about + 4000 men, or 1 to 825 of the inhabitants. The prefects and sub-prefects + have replaced the Turkish <i>mutessarifs</i> and <i>kaimakams</i>; but + the system of municipal government, left untouched by the Turks, descends + from primitive times. Every commune (<i>obshtina</i>), urban or rural, + has its <i>kmet</i>, or mayor, and council; the commune is bound to + maintain its primary schools, a public library or reading-room, &c.; + the kmet possesses certain magisterial powers, and in the rural districts + he collects the taxes. Each village, as a rule, forms a separate commune, + but occasionally two or more villages are grouped together.</p> + + <p><i>Justice.</i>—The civil and penal codes are, for the most + part, based on the Ottoman law. While the principality formed a portion + of the Turkish empire, the privileges of the capitulations were + guaranteed to foreign subjects (Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.). The lowest + civil and criminal court is that of the village kmet, whose jurisdiction + is confined to the limits of the commune; no corresponding tribunal + exists in the towns. Each sub-prefecture and town has a justice of the + peace—in some cases two or more; the number of these officials is + 130. Next follows the departmental tribunal or court of first instance, + which is competent to pronounce sentences of death, penal servitude and + deprivation of civil rights; in specified criminal cases the judges are + aided by three assessors chosen by lot from an annually prepared panel of + forty-eight persons. Three courts of appeal sit respectively at Sofia, + Rustchuk and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is the court of + cassation, sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president, two + vice-presidents and nine judges. There is also a high court of audit + (<i>vrkhovna smetna palata</i>), similar to the French <i>cour des + comptes.</i> The judges are poorly paid and are removable by the + government. In regard to questions of marriage, divorce and inheritance + the Greek, Mahommedan and Jewish communities enjoy their own spiritual + jurisdiction.</p> + + <p><i>Army and Navy.</i>—The organization of the military forces of + the principality was undertaken by Russian officers, who for a period of + six years (1879-1885) occupied all the higher posts in the army. In + Eastern Rumelia during the same period the "militia" was instructed by + foreign officers; after the union it was merged in the Bulgarian army. + The present organization is based on the law of the 1st of January 1904. + The army consists of: (1) the active or field army (<i>deïstvuyushta + armia</i>), divided into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active army + reserve; (2) the reserve army (<i>reservna armia</i>); (3) the + <i>opltchenïe</i> or militia; the two former may operate outside the + kingdom, the latter only within the frontier for purposes of defence. In + time of peace the active army (i.) alone is on a permanent footing.</p> + + <p>The peace strength in 1905 was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and 8000 + horses, the active army being composed of 9 divisions of infantry, each + of 4 regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together with 12 squadrons + attached to the infantry divisions, 9 regiments of artillery each of 3 + groups of 3 batteries, together with 2 groups of mountain artillery, each + of 3 batteries, and 3 battalions of siege artillery; 9 battalions of + engineers with 1 railway and balloon section and 1 bridging section. At + the same date the army was locally distributed in nine divisional areas + with headquarters at Sofia, Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, + Vratza, Plevna, Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area being + subdivided into four districts, from each of which one regiment of four + battalions was recruited and completed with reservists. In case of + mobilization each of the nine areas would furnish 20,106 men (16,000 + infantry, 1200 artillery, 1000 engineers, 300 divisional cavalry and 1606 + transport and hospital services, &c.). The war strength thus amounted + to 180,954 of the active army and its reserve, exclusive of the five + regiments of cavalry. In addition the 36 districts each furnished 3 + battalions of the reserve army and one battalion of opltchenïe, or + 144,000 infantry, which with the cavalry regiments (3000 men) and the + reserves of artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry, &c. (about + 10,000), would bring the grand total in time of war to about 338,000 + officers and men with 18,000 horses. The men of the reserve battalions + are drafted into the active army as occasion requires, but the militia + serves as a separate force. Military service is obligatory, but Moslems + may claim exemption on payment of £20; the age of recruitment in time of + peace is nineteen, in time of war eighteen. Each conscript serves two + years in the infantry and subsequently eight years in the active reserve, + or three years in the other corps and six years in the active reserve; he + is then liable to seven years' service in the reserve army and finally + passes into the opltchenïe. The Bulgarian peasant makes an admirable + soldier—courageous, obedient, persevering, and inured to hardship; + the officers are painstaking and devoted to their duties. The active army + and reserve, with the exception of the engineer regiments, are furnished + with the .315″ Mannlicher magazine rifle, the engineer and militia + with the Berdan; the artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of 8.7- and + 7.5-cm. Krupp guns (field) and 6.5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12 cm. Krupp and + 15 cm. Creuzot (Schneider) howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp and 12 cm. Creuzot + siege guns, and 7.5 cm. Creuzot quick-firing guns; total of all + description, 1154. Defensive works were constructed at various + strategical points near the frontier and elsewhere, and at Varna and + Burgas. The naval force consisted of a flotilla stationed at Rustchuk and + Varna, where a canal connects Lake Devno with the sea. It was composed in + 1905 of 1 prince's yacht, 1 armoured cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3 torpedo boats + and 10 other small vessels, with a complement of 107 officers and 1231 + men.</p> + + <p><i>Religion.</i>—The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims + to be an indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, and + asserts historic continuity with the autocephalous Bulgarian church of + the middle ages. It was, however, declared schismatic by the Greek + patriarch of Constantinople in 1872, although differing in no point of + doctrine from the Greek Church. The Exarch, or supreme head of the + Bulgarian Church, resides at Constantinople; he enjoys the title of + "Beatitude" (<i>negovo Blazhenstvo</i>), receives an annual subvention of + about £6000 from the kingdom, and exercises jurisdiction over the + Bulgarian hierarchy in all parts of the Ottoman empire. The exarch is + elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy Synod, and a general + assembly (<i>obshti sbor</i>), in which the laity is represented; their + choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian independence, was subject to + the sultan's approval. The occupant of the dignity is titular + metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The organization of the church + within the principality was regulated <!-- Page 779 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page779"></a>[v.04 p.0779]</span>by statute in + 1883. There are eleven eparchies or dioceses in the country, each + administered by a metropolitan with a diocesan council; one diocese has + also a suffragan bishop. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, + consisting of four metropolitans, which assembles once a year. The laity + take part in the election of metropolitans and parish priests, only the + "black clergy," or monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All + ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the + government. There are 2106 parishes (<i>eporii</i>) in the kingdom with 9 + archimandrites, 1936 parish priests and 21 deacons, 78 monasteries with + 184 monks, and 12 convents with 346 nuns. The celebrated monastery of + Rila possesses a vast estate in the Rilska Planina; its abbot or + <i>hegumen</i> owns no spiritual superior but the exarch. Ecclesiastical + affairs are under the control of the minister of public worship; the + clergy of all denominations are paid by the state, being free, however, + to accept fees for baptisms, marriages, burials, the administering of + oaths, &c. The census of January 1901 gives 3,019,999 persons of the + Orthodox faith (including 66,635 Patriarchist Greeks), 643,300 + Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews, 28,569 Catholics, 13,809 Gregorian Armenians, + 4524 Protestants and 419 whose religion is not stated. The Greek Orthodox + community has four metropolitans dependent on the patriarchate. The + Mahommedan community is rapidly diminishing; it is organized under 16 + muftis who with their assistants receive a subvention from the + government. The Catholics, who have two bishops, are for the most part + the descendants of the medieval Paulicians; they are especially numerous + in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova. The Armenians have one + bishop. The Protestants are mostly Methodists; since 1857 Bulgaria has + been a special field of activity for American Methodist missionaries, who + have established an important school at Samakov. The Berlin Treaty (Art. + V.) forbade religious disabilities in regard to the enjoyment of civil + and political rights, and guaranteed the free exercise of all + religions.</p> + + <p><i>Education.</i>—No educational system existed in many of the + rural districts before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance, and the + older generation remained totally illiterate. In the towns the schools + were under the superintendence of the Greek clergy, and Greek was the + language of instruction. The first Bulgarian school was opened at Gabrovo + in 1835 by the patriots Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski. After the Crimean + War, Bulgarian schools began to appear in the villages of the Balkans and + the south-eastern districts. The children of the wealthier class were + generally educated abroad. The American institution of Robert College on + the Bosporus rendered an invaluable service to the newly created state by + providing it with a number of well-educated young men fitted for + positions of responsibility. In 1878, after the liberation of the + country, there were 1658 schools in the towns and villages. Primary + education was declared obligatory from the first, but the scarcity of + properly qualified teachers and the lack of all requisites proved serious + impediments to educational organization. The government has made great + efforts and incurred heavy expenditure for the spread of education; the + satisfactory results obtained are largely due to the keen desire for + learning which exists among the people. The present educational system + dates from 1891. Almost all the villages now possess "national" + (<i>narodni</i>) primary schools, maintained by the communes with the aid + of a state subvention and supervised by departmental and district + inspectors. The state also assists a large number of Turkish primary + schools. The penalties for non-attendance are not very rigidly enforced, + and it has been found necessary to close the schools in the rural + districts during the summer, the children being required for labour in + the fields.</p> + + <p>The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890, 47.01% + of the boys and 16.11% of the girls attended the primary schools; in + 1898, 85% of the boys and 40% of the girls. In 1904 there were 4344 + primary schools, of which 3060 were "national," or communal, and 1284 + denominational (Turkish, Greek, Jewish, &c.), attended by 340,668 + pupils, representing a proportion of 9.1 per hundred inhabitants. In + addition to the primary schools, 40 infant schools for children of 3 to 6 + years of age were attended by 2707 pupils. In 1888 only 327,766 persons, + or 11% of the population, were literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to + 19.88%; in 1901 to 23.9%.</p> + + <p>In the system of secondary education the distinction between the + classical and "real" or special course of study is maintained as in most + European countries; in 1904 there were 175 secondary schools and 18 + gymnasia (10 for boys and 8 for girls). In addition to these there are 6 + technical and 3 agricultural schools; 5 of pedagogy, 1 theological, 1 + commercial, 1 of forestry, 1 of design, 1 for surgeons' assistants, and a + large military school at Sofia. Government aid is given to students of + limited means, both for secondary education and the completion of their + studies abroad. The university of Sofia, formerly known as the "high + school," was reorganized in 1904; it comprises 3 faculties (philology, + mathematics and law), and possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 + lecturers. The number of students in 1905 was 943.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Political History</span></p> + + <p>The ancient Thraco-Illyrian race which inhabited the district between + the Danube and the Aegean was expelled, or more probably absorbed, by the + great Slavonic immigration which took place at various intervals between + the end of the 3rd century after Christ and the beginning of the 6th. The + numerous tumuli which are found in all parts of the country (see + Herodotus v. 8) and some stone tablets with bas-reliefs remain as + monuments of the aboriginal population; and certain structural + peculiarities, which are common to the Bulgarian and Rumanian languages, + may conceivably be traced to the influence of the primitive Illyrian + speech, now probably represented by the Albanian. The Slavs, an + agricultural people, were governed, even in those remote times, by the + democratic local institutions to which they are still attached; they + possessed no national leaders or central organization, and their only + political unit was the <i>pleme</i>, or tribe. They were considerably + influenced by contact with Roman civilization. It was reserved for a + foreign race, altogether distinct in origin, religion and customs, to + give unity and coherence to the scattered Slavonic groups, and to weld + them into a compact and powerful state which for some centuries played an + important part in the history of eastern Europe and threatened the + existence of the Byzantine empire.</p> + + <p><i>The Bulgars.</i>—The Bulgars, a Turanian race akin to the + Tatars, Huns, Avars, Petchenegs and Finns, made their appearance on the + banks of the Pruth in the latter part of the 7th century. They were a + horde of wild horsemen, fierce and barbarous, practising polygamy, and + governed despotically by their <i>khans</i> (chiefs) and <i>boyars</i> or + <i>bolyars</i> (nobles). Their original abode was the tract between the + Ural mountains and the Volga, where the kingdom of Great (or Black) + Bolgary existed down to the 13th century. In 679, under their khan + Asparukh (or Isperikh), they crossed the Danube, and, after subjugating + the Slavonic population of Moesia, advanced to the gates of + Constantinople and Salonica. The East Roman emperors were compelled to + cede to them the province of Moesia and to pay them an annual tribute. + The invading horde was not numerous, and during the next two centuries it + became gradually merged in the Slavonic population. Like the Franks in + Gaul the Bulgars gave their name and a political organization to the more + civilized race which they conquered, but adopted its language, customs + and local institutions. Not a trace of the Ugrian or Finnish element is + to be found in the Bulgarian speech. This complete assimilation of a + conquering race may be illustrated by many parallels.</p> + + <p><i>Early Dynasties.</i>—The history of the early Bulgarian + dynasties is little else than a record of continuous conflicts with the + Byzantine emperors. The tribute first imposed on the Greeks by Asparukh + was again exacted by Kardam (791-797) and Krum (802-815), a sovereign + noted alike for his cruelty and his military and political capacity. + Under his rule the Bulgarian realm extended from the Carpathians to the + neighbourhood of Adrianople; Serdica (the present Sofia) was taken, and + the valley of the Struma conquered. Prêslav, the Bulgarian capital, was + attacked and burned by the emperor Nicephorus, but the Greek army on its + return was annihilated in one of the Balkan passes; the emperor was + slain, and his skull was converted by Krum into a goblet. The reign of + Boris (852-884) is memorable <!-- Page 780 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page780"></a>[v.04 p.0780]</span>for the introduction of + Christianity into Bulgaria. Two monks of Salonica, SS. Cyril and + Methodius, are generally reverenced as the national apostles; the scene + of their labours, however, was among the Slavs of Moravia, and the + Bulgars were evangelized by their disciples. Boris, finding himself + surrounded by Christian states, decided from political motives to abandon + paganism. He was baptized in 864, the emperor Michael III. acting as his + sponsor. It was at this time that the controversies broke out which ended + in the schism between the Churches of the East and West. Boris long + wavered between Constantinople and Rome, but the refusal of the pope to + recognize an autocephalous Bulgarian church determined him to offer his + allegiance to the Greek patriarch. The decision was fraught with + momentous consequences for the future of the race. The nation altered its + religion in obedience to its sovereign, and some of the boyars who + resisted the change paid with their lives for their fidelity to the + ancient belief. The independence of the Bulgarian church was recognized + by the patriarchate, a fact much dwelt upon in recent controversies. The + Bulgarian primates subsequently received the title of patriarch; their + see was transferred from Prêslav to Sofia, Voden and Prespa successively, + and finally to Ochrida.</p> + + <p><i>The First Empire.</i>—The national power reached its zenith + under Simeon (893-927), a monarch distinguished in the arts of war and + peace. In his reign, says Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a rank among the + civilized powers of the earth." His dominions extended from the Black Sea + to the Adriatic, and from the borders of Thessaly to the Save and the + Carpathians. Having become the most powerful monarch in eastern Europe, + Simeon assumed the style of "Emperor and Autocrat of all the Bulgars and + Greeks" (<i>tsar i samodrzhetz vsêm Blgarom i Grkom</i>), a title which + was recognized by Pope Formosus. During the latter years of his reign, + which were spent in peace, his people made great progress in + civilization, literature nourished, and Prêslav, according to + contemporary chroniclers, rivalled Constantinople in magnificence. After + the death of Simeon the Bulgarian power declined owing to internal + dissensions; the land was distracted by the Bogomil heresy (see <span + class="sc">Bogomils</span>), and a separate or western empire, including + Albania and Macedonia, was founded at Ochrida by Shishman, a boyar from + Trnovo. A notable event took place in 967, when the Russians, under + Sviatoslav, made their first appearance in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian tsar, + Boris II., with the aid of the emperor John Zimisces, expelled the + invaders, but the Greeks took advantage of their victory to dethrone + Boris, and the first Bulgarian empire thus came to an end after an + existence of three centuries. The empire at Ochrida, however, rose to + considerable importance under Samuel, the son of Shishman (976-1014), who + conquered the greater part of the Peninsula, and ruled from the Danube to + the Morea. After a series of campaigns this redoubtable warrior was + defeated at Bêlasitza by the emperor Basil II., surnamed Bulgaroktonos, + who put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners taken in the fight, and sent + them into the camp of his adversary. The Bulgarian tsar was so + overpowered by the spectacle that he died of grief. A few years later his + dynasty finally disappeared, and for more than a century and a half + (1018-1186) the Bulgarian race remained subject to the Byzantine + emperors.</p> + + <p><i>The Second Empire.</i>—In 1186, after a general insurrection + of Vlachs and Bulgars under the brothers Ivan and Peter Asên of Trnovo, + who claimed descent from the dynasty of the Shishmanovtzi, the nation + recovered its independence, and Ivan Asên assumed the title of "Tsar of + the Bulgars and Greeks." The seat of the second, or "Bulgaro-Vlach" + empire was at Trnovo, which the Bulgarians regard as the historic capital + of their race. Kaloyan, the third of the Asên monarchs, extended his + dominions to Belgrade, Nish and Skopïe (Uskub); he acknowledged the + spiritual supremacy of the pope, and received the royal crown from a + papal legate. The greatest of all Bulgarian rulers was Ivan Asên II. + (1218-1241), a man of humane and enlightened character. After a series of + victorious campaigns he established his sway over Albania, Epirus, + Macedonia and Thrace, and governed his wide dominions with justice, + wisdom and moderation. In his time the nation attained a prosperity + hitherto unknown: commerce, the arts and literature flourished; Trnovo, + the capital, was enlarged and embellished; and great numbers of churches + and monasteries were founded or endowed. The dynasty of the Asêns became + extinct in 1257, and a period of decadence began. Two other dynasties, + both of Kuman origin, followed—the Terterovtzi, who ruled at + Trnovo, and the Shishmanovtzi, who founded an independent state at Vidin, + but afterwards reigned in the national capital. Eventually, on the 28th + June 1330, a day commemorated with sorrow in Bulgaria, Tsar Michael + Shishman was defeated and slain by the Servians, under Stephen Urosh + III., at the battle of Velbûzhd (Kiustendil). Bulgaria, though still + retaining its native rulers, now became subject to Servia, and formed + part of the short-lived empire of Stephen Dushan (1331-1355). The Servian + hegemony vanished after the death of Dushan, and the Christian races of + the Peninsula, distracted by the quarrels of their petty princes, fell an + easy prey to the advancing might of the Moslem invader.</p> + + <p><i>The Turkish Conquest.</i>—In 1340 the Turks had begun to + ravage the valley of the Maritza; in 1362 they captured Philippopolis, + and in 1382 Sofia. In 1366 Ivan Shishman III., the last Bulgarian tsar, + was compelled to declare himself the vassal of the sultan Murad I., and + to send his sister to the harem of the conqueror. In 1389 the rout of the + Servians, Bosnians and Croats on the famous field of Kossovo decided the + fate of the Peninsula. Shortly afterwards Ivan Shishman was attacked by + the Turks; and Trnovo, after a siege of three months, was captured, + sacked and burnt in 1393. The fate of the last Bulgarian sovereign is + unknown: the national legend represents him as perishing in a battle near + Samakov. Vidin, where Ivan's brother, Strazhimir, had established + himself, was taken in 1396, and with its fall the last remnant of + Bulgarian independence disappeared.</p> + + <p>The five centuries of Turkish rule (1396-1878) form a dark epoch in + Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and sword through the land; + towns, villages and monasteries were sacked and destroyed, and whole + districts were converted into desolate wastes. The inhabitants of the + plains fled to the mountains, where they founded new settlements. Many of + the nobles embraced the creed of Islam, and were liberally rewarded for + their apostasy; others, together with numbers of the priests and people, + took refuge across the Danube. All the regions formerly ruled by the + Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and Thrace, were placed under the + administration of a governor-general, styled the beylerbey of Rum-ili, + residing at Sofia; Bulgaria proper was divided into the sanjaks of Sofia, + Nikopolis, Vidin, Silistria and Kiustendil. Only a small proportion of + the people followed the example of the boyars in abandoning Christianity; + the conversion of the isolated communities now represented by the Pomaks + took place at various intervals during the next three centuries. A new + kind of feudal system replaced that of the boyars, and fiefs or + <i>spahiliks</i> were conferred on the Ottoman chiefs and the renegade + Bulgarian nobles. The Christian population was subjected to heavy + imposts, the principal being the <i>haratch</i>, or capitation-tax, paid + to the imperial treasury, and the tithe on agricultural produce, which + was collected by the feudal lord. Among the most cruel forms of + oppression was the requisitioning of young boys between the ages of ten + and twelve, who were sent to Constantinople as recruits for the corps of + janissaries. Notwithstanding the horrors which attended the Ottoman + conquest, the condition of the peasantry during the first three centuries + of Turkish government was scarcely worse than it had been under the + tyrannical rule of the boyars. The contemptuous indifference with which + the Turks regarded the Christian <i>rayas</i> was not altogether to the + disadvantage of the subject race. Military service was not exacted from + the Christians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either their + religion or their language, and within certain limits they were allowed + to retain their ancient local administration and the jurisdiction of + their clergy in regard to inheritances and family affairs. At the time of + the conquest certain towns and villages, known as the <i>voïnitchki + sela</i>, obtained important privileges which were not infringed till the + 18th century; on condition of <!-- Page 781 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page781"></a>[v.04 p.0781]</span>furnishing contingents to the + Turkish army or grooms for the sultan's horses they obtained exemption + from most of the taxes and complete self-government under their + <i>voïvodi</i> or chiefs. Some of them, such as Koprivshtitza in the + Sredna Gora, attained great prosperity, which has somewhat declined since + the establishment of the principality. While the Ottoman power was at its + height the lot of the subject-races was far less intolerable than during + the period of decadence, which began with the unsuccessful siege of + Vienna in 1683. Their rights and privileges were respected, the law was + enforced, commerce prospered, good roads were constructed, and the great + caravans of the Ragusan merchants traversed the country. Down to the end + of the 18th century there appears to have been only one serious attempt + at revolt—that occasioned by the advance of Prince Sigismund + Báthory into Walachia in 1595. A kind of guerilla warfare was, however, + maintained in the mountains by the <i>kaiduti</i>, or outlaws, whose + exploits, like those of the Greek <i>klepkts</i>, have been highly + idealized in the popular folk-lore. As the power of the sultans declined + anarchy spread through the Peninsula. In the earlier decades of the 18th + century the Bulgarians suffered terribly from the ravages of the Turkish + armies passing through the land during the wars with Austria. Towards its + close their condition became even worse owing to the horrors perpetrated + by the Krjalis, or troops of disbanded soldiers and desperadoes, who, in + defiance of the Turkish authorities, roamed through the country, + supporting themselves by plunder and committing every conceivable + atrocity. After the peace of Belgrade (1737), by which Austria lost her + conquests in the Peninsula, the Servians and Bulgarians began to look to + Russia for deliverance, their hopes being encouraged by the treaty of + Kuchuk Kaïnarji (1774), which foreshadowed the claim of Russia to protect + the Orthodox Christians in the Turkish empire. In 1794 Pasvanoglu, one of + the chiefs of the Krjalis, established himself as an independent + sovereign at Vidin, putting to flight three large Turkish armies which + were despatched against him. This adventurer possessed many remarkable + qualities. He adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained order, + levied taxes and issued a separate coinage. He died in 1807. The memoirs + of Sofronii, bishop of Vratza, present a vivid picture of the condition + of Bulgaria at this time. "My diocese," he writes, "was laid desolate; + the villages disappeared—they had been burnt by the Krjalis and + Pasvan's brigands; the inhabitants were scattered far and wide over + Walachia and other lands."</p> + + <p><i>The National Revival.</i>—At the beginning of the 19th + century the existence of the Bulgarian race was almost unknown in Europe, + even to students of Slavonic literature. Disheartened by ages of + oppression, isolated from Christendom by their geographical position, and + cowed by the proximity of Constantinople, the Bulgarians took no + collective part in the insurrectionary movement which resulted in the + liberation of Servia and Greece. The Russian invasions of 1810 and 1828 + only added to their sufferings, and great numbers of fugitives took + refuge in Bessarabia, annexed by Russia under the treaty of Bucharest. + But the long-dormant national spirit now began to awake under the + influence of a literary revival. The precursors of the movement were + Paisii, a monk of Mount Athos, who wrote a history of the Bulgarian tsars + and saints (1762), and Bishop Sofronii, whose memoirs have been already + mentioned. After 1824 several works written in modern Bulgarian began to + appear, but the most important step was the foundation, in 1835, of the + first Bulgarian school at Gabrovo. Within ten years at least 53 Bulgarian + schools came into existence, and five Bulgarian printing-presses were at + work. The literary movement led the way to a reaction against the + influence and authority of the Greek clergy. The spiritual domination of + the Greek patriarchate had tended more effectually than the temporal + power of the Turks to the effacement of Bulgarian nationality. After the + conquest of the Peninsula the Greek patriarch became the representative + at the Sublime Porte of the <i>Rûm-millet</i>, the Roman nation, in which + all the Christian nationalities were comprised. The independent + patriarchate of Trnovo was suppressed; that of Ochrida was subsequently + Hellenized. The Phanariot clergy—unscrupulous, rapacious and + corrupt—succeeded in monopolizing the higher ecclesiastical + appointments and filled the parishes with Greek priests, whose schools, + in which Greek was exclusively taught, were the only means of instruction + open to the population. By degrees Greek became the language of the upper + classes in all the Bulgarian towns, the Bulgarian language was written in + Greek characters, and the illiterate peasants, though speaking the + vernacular, called themselves Greeks. The Slavonic liturgy was suppressed + in favour of the Greek, and in many places the old Bulgarian manuscripts, + images, testaments and missals were committed to the flames. The patriots + of the literary movement, recognizing in the patriarchate the most + determined foe to a national revival, directed all their efforts to the + abolition of Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy and the restoration of the + Bulgarian autonomous church. Some of the leaders went so far as to open + negotiations with Rome, and an archbishop of the Uniate Bulgarian church + was nominated by the pope. The struggle was prosecuted with the utmost + tenacity for forty years. Incessant protests and memorials were addressed + to the Porte, and every effort was made to undermine the position of the + Greek bishops, some of whom were compelled to abandon their sees. At the + same time no pains were spared to diffuse education and to stimulate the + national sentiment. Various insurrectionary movements were attempted by + the patriots Rakovski, Panayot Khitoff, Haji Dimitr, Stephen Karaja and + others, but received little support from the mass of the people. The + recognition of Bulgarian nationality was won by the pen, not the sword. + The patriarchate at length found it necessary to offer some concessions, + but these appeared illusory to the Bulgarians, and long and acrimonious + discussions followed. Eventually the Turkish government intervened, and + on the 28th of February 1870 a firman was issued establishing the + Bulgarian exarchate, with jurisdiction over fifteen dioceses, including + Nish, Pirot and Veles; the other dioceses in dispute were to be added to + these in case two-thirds of the Christian population so desired. The + election of the first exarch was delayed till February 1872, owing to the + opposition of the patriarch, who immediately afterwards excommunicated + the new head of the Bulgarian church and all his followers. The official + recognition now acquired tended to consolidate the Bulgarian nation and + to prepare it for the political developments which were soon to follow. A + great educational activity at once displayed itself in all the districts + subjected to the new ecclesiastical power.</p> + + <p><i>The Revolt of 1876.</i>—Under the enlightened administration + of Midhat Pasha (1864-1868) Bulgaria enjoyed comparative prosperity, but + that remarkable man is not remembered with gratitude by the people owing + to the severity with which he repressed insurrectionary movements. In + 1861, 12,000 Crimean Tatars, and in 1864 a still larger number of + Circassians from the Caucasus, were settled by the Turkish government on + lands taken without compensation from the Bulgarian peasants. The + Circassians, a lawless race of mountaineers, proved a veritable scourge + to the population in their neighbourhood. In 1875 the insurrection in + Bosnia and Herzegovina produced immense excitement throughout the + Peninsula. The fanaticism of the Moslems was aroused, and the Bulgarians, + fearing a general massacre of Christians, endeavoured to anticipate the + blow by organizing a general revolt. The rising, which broke out + prematurely at Koprivshtitza and Panagurishté in May 1876, was mainly + confined to the sanjak of Philippopolis. Bands of bashi-bazouks were let + loose throughout the district by the Turkish authorities, the Pomaks, or + Moslem Bulgarians, and the Circassian colonists were called to arms, and + a succession of horrors followed to which a parallel can scarcely be + found in the history of the middle ages. The principal scenes of massacre + were Panagurishté, Perushtitza, Bratzigovo and Batak; at the last-named + town, according to an official British report, 5000 men, women and + children were put to the sword by the Pomaks under Achmet Aga, who was + decorated by the sultan for this exploit. Altogether some 15,000 persons + were massacred in the <!-- Page 782 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page782"></a>[v.04 p.0782]</span>district of Philippopolis, and + fifty-eight villages and five monasteries were destroyed. Isolated + risings which took place on the northern side of the Balkans were crushed + with similar barbarity. These atrocities, which were first made known by + an English journalist and an American consular official, were denounced + by Gladstone in a celebrated pamphlet which aroused the indignation of + Europe. The great powers remained inactive, but Servia declared war in + the following month, and her army was joined by 2000 Bulgarian + volunteers. A conference of the representatives of the powers, held at + Constantinople towards the end of the year, proposed, among other + reforms, the organization of the Bulgarian provinces, including the + greater part of Macedonia, in two vilayets under Christian governors, + with popular representation. These recommendations were practically set + aside by the Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war (see <span + class="sc">Russo-Turkish Wars</span>, and <span + class="sc">Plevna</span>). In the campaign which followed the Bulgarian + volunteer contingent in the Russian army played an honourable part; it + accompanied Gourko's advance over the Balkans, behaved with great bravery + at Stara Zagora, where it lost heavily, and rendered valuable services in + the defence of Shipka.</p> + + <p><i>Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin.</i>—The victorious + advance of the Russian army to Constantinople was followed by the treaty + of San Stefano (3rd March 1878), which realized almost to the full the + national aspirations of the Bulgarian race. All the provinces of European + Turkey in which the Bulgarian element predominated were now included in + an autonomous principality, which extended from the Black Sea to the + Albanian mountains, and from the Danube to the Aegean, enclosing Ochrida, + the ancient capital of the Shishmans, Dibra and Kastoria, as well as the + districts of Vranya and Pirot, and possessing a Mediterranean port at + Kavala. The Dobrudja, notwithstanding its Bulgarian population, was not + included in the new state, being reserved as compensation to Rumania for + the Russian annexation of Bessarabia; Adrianople, Salonica and the + Chalcidian peninsula were left to Turkey. The area thus delimited + constituted three-fifths of the Balkan Peninsula, with a population of + 4,000,000 inhabitants. The great powers, however, anticipating that this + extensive territory would become a Russian dependency, intervened; and on + the 13th of July of the same year was signed the treaty of Berlin, which + in effect divided the "Big Bulgaria" of the treaty of San Stefano into + three portions. The limits of the principality of Bulgaria, as then + defined, and the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia, have been + already described; the remaining portion, including almost the whole of + Macedonia and part of the vilayet of Adrianople, was left under Turkish + administration. No special organization was provided for the districts + thus abandoned; it was stipulated that laws similar to the organic law of + Crete should be introduced into the various parts of Turkey in Europe, + but this engagement was never carried out by the Porte. Vranya, Pirot and + Nish were given to Servia, and the transference of the Dobrudja to + Rumania was sanctioned. This artificial division of the Bulgarian nation + could scarcely be regarded as possessing elements of permanence. It was + provided that the prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the + population, and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the assent of the + powers, and that, before his election, an assembly of Bulgarian notables, + convoked at Trnovo, should draw up the organic law of the principality. + The drafting of a constitution for Eastern Rumelia was assigned to a + European commission.</p> + + <p><i>The Constitution of Trnovo.</i>—Pending the completion of + their political organization, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia were occupied + by Russian troops and administered by Russian officials. The assembly of + notables, which met at Trnovo in 1879, was mainly composed of + half-educated peasants, who from the first displayed an extremely + democratic spirit, in which they proceeded to manipulate the very liberal + constitution submitted to them by Prince Dondukov-Korsakov, the Russian + governor-general. The long period of Turkish domination had effectually + obliterated all social distinctions, and the radical element, which now + formed into a party under Tzankoff and Karaveloff, soon gave evidence of + its predominance. Manhood suffrage, a single chamber, payment of + deputies, the absence of property qualification for candidates, and the + prohibition of all titles and distinctions, formed salient features in + the constitution now elaborated. The organic statute of Eastern Rumelia + was largely modelled on the Belgian constitution. The governor-general, + nominated for five years by the sultan with the approbation of the + powers, was assisted by an assembly, partly representative, partly + composed of <i>ex-officio</i> members; a permanent committee was + entrusted with the preparation of legislative measures and the general + supervision of the administration, while a council of six "directors" + fulfilled the duties of a ministry.</p> + + <p><i>Prince Alexander.</i>—On the 29th of April 1879 the assembly + at Trnovo, on the proposal of Russia, elected as first sovereign of + Bulgaria Prince Alexander of Battenberg, a member of the grand ducal + house of Hesse and a nephew of the tsar Alexander II. Arriving in + Bulgaria on the 7th of July, Prince Alexander, then in his twenty-third + year, found all the authority, military and civil, in Russian hands. The + history of the earlier portion of his reign is marked by two principal + features—a strong Bulgarian reaction against Russian tutelage and a + vehement struggle against the autocratic institutions which the young + ruler, under Russian guidance, endeavoured to inaugurate. Both movements + were symptomatic of the determination of a strong-willed and egoistic + race, suddenly liberated from secular oppression, to enjoy to the full + the moral and material privileges of liberty. In the assembly at Trnovo + the popular party had adopted the watchword "Bulgaria for the + Bulgarians," and a considerable anti-Russian contingent was included in + its ranks. Young and inexperienced, Prince Alexander, at the suggestion + of the Russian consul-general, selected his first ministry from a small + group of "Conservative" politicians whose views were in conflict with + those of the parliamentary majority, but he was soon compelled to form a + "Liberal" administration under Tzankoff and Karaveloff. The Liberals, + once in power, initiated a violent campaign against foreigners in general + and the Russians in particular; they passed an alien law, and ejected + foreigners from every lucrative position. The Russians made a vigorous + resistance, and a state of chaos ensued. Eventually the prince, finding + good government impossible, obtained the consent of the tsar to a change + of the constitution, and assumed absolute authority on the 9th of May + 1881. The Russian general Ernroth was appointed sole minister, and + charged with the duty of holding elections for the Grand Sobranye, to + which the right of revising the constitution appertained. So successfully + did he discharge his mission that the national representatives, almost + without debate, suspended the constitution and invested the prince with + absolute powers for a term of seven years (July 1881). A period of + Russian government followed under Generals Skobelev and Kaulbars, who + were specially despatched from St Petersburg to enhance the authority of + the prince. Their administration, however, tended to a contrary result, + and the prince, finding himself reduced to impotence, opened negotiations + with the Bulgarian leaders and effected a coalition of all parties on the + basis of a restoration of the constitution. The generals, who had made an + unsuccessful attempt to remove the prince, withdrew; the constitution of + Trnovo was restored by proclamation (19th September 1883), and a + coalition ministry was formed under Tzankoff. Prince Alexander, whose + relations with the court of St Petersburg had become less cordial since + the death of his uncle, the tsar Alexander II., in 1881, now incurred the + serious displeasure of Russia, and the breach was soon widened by the + part which he played in encouraging the national aspirations of the + Bulgarians.</p> + + <p><i>Union with Eastern Rumelia.</i>—In Eastern Rumelia, where the + Bulgarian population never ceased to protest against the division of the + race, political life had developed on the same lines as in the + principality. Among the politicians two parties had come into + existence—the Conservatives or self-styled "Unionists," and the + Radicals, derisively called by their opponents <!-- Page 783 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page783"></a>[v.04 p.0783]</span>"Kazioni" or + treasury-seekers; both were equally desirous of bringing about the union + with the principality. Neither party, however, while in power would risk + the sweets of office by embarking in a hazardous adventure. It was + reserved for the Kazioni, under their famous leader Zakharia Stoyánoff, + who in early life had been a shepherd, to realize the national programme. + In 1885 the Unionists were in office, and their opponents lost no time in + organizing a conspiracy for the overthrow of the governor-general, + Krstovitch Pasha. Their designs were facilitated by the circumstance that + Turkey had abstained from sending troops into the province. Having + previously assured themselves of Prince Alexander's acquiescence, they + seized the governor-general and proclaimed the union with Bulgaria (18th + September). The revolution took place without bloodshed, and a few days + later Prince Alexander entered Philippopolis amid immense enthusiasm. His + position now became precarious. The powers were scandalized at the + infraction of the Berlin Treaty; Great Britain alone showed sympathy, + while Russia denounced the union and urged the Porte to reconquer the + revolted province—both powers thus reversing their respective + attitudes at the congress of Berlin.</p> + + <p><i>War with Servia.</i>—The Turkish troops were massed at the + frontier, and Servia, hoping to profit by the difficulties of her + neighbour, suddenly declared war (14th November). At the moment of danger + the Russian officers, who filled all the higher posts in the Bulgarian + army, were withdrawn by order of the tsar. In these critical + circumstances Prince Alexander displayed considerable ability and + resource, and the nation gave evidence of hitherto unsuspected qualities. + Contrary to general expectation, the Bulgarian army, imperfectly equipped + and led by subaltern officers, successfully resisted the Servian + invasion. After brilliant victories at Slivnitza (19th November) and + Tsaribrod, Prince Alexander crossed the frontier and captured Pirot (27th + November), but his farther progress was arrested by the intervention of + Austria (see <span class="sc">Servo-Bulgarian War</span>). The treaty of + Bucharest followed (3rd of March 1886), declaring, in a single clause, + the restoration of peace. Servia, notwithstanding her aggression, escaped + a war indemnity, but the union with Eastern Rumelia was practically + secured. By the convention of Top-Khané (5th April) Prince Alexander was + recognized by the sultan as governor-general of eastern Rumelia; a + personal union only was sanctioned, but in effect the organic statute + disappeared and the countries were administratively united. These + military and diplomatic successes, which invested the prince with the + attributes of a national hero, quickened the decision of Russia to effect + his removal. An instrument was found in the discontent of several of his + officers, who considered themselves slighted in the distribution of + rewards, and a conspiracy was formed in which Tzankoff, Karaveloff (the + prime minister), Archbishop Clement, and other prominent persons were + implicated. On the night of the 21st of August the prince was seized in + his palace by several officers and compelled, under menace of death, to + sign his abdication; he was then hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo and + transported to Russian soil at Reni. This violent act met with instant + disapproval on the part of the great majority of the nation. Stamboloff, + the president of the assembly, and Colonel Mutkuroff, commandant of the + troops at Philippopolis, initiated a counter-revolution; the provisional + government set up by the conspirators immediately fell, and a few days + later the prince, who had been liberated by the Russian authorities, + returned to the country amid every demonstration of popular sympathy and + affection. His arrival forestalled that of a Russian imperial + commissioner, who had been appointed to proceed to Bulgaria. He now + committed the error of addressing a telegram to the tsar in which he + offered to resign his crown into the hands of Russia. This unfortunate + step, by which he ignored the suzerainty of Turkey, and represented + Bulgaria as a Russian dependency, exposed him to a stern rebuff, and + fatally compromised his position. The national leaders, after obtaining a + promise from the Russian representative at Sofia that Russia would + abstain from interference in the internal affairs of the country, + consented to his departure; on the 8th of September he announced his + abdication, and on the following day he left Bulgaria.</p> + + <p><i>The Regency.</i>—A regency was now formed, in which the + prominent figure was Stamboloff, the most remarkable man whom modern + Bulgaria has produced. A series of attempts to throw the country into + anarchy were firmly dealt with, and the Grand Sobranye was summoned to + elect a new prince. The candidature of the prince of Mingrelia was now + set up by Russia, and General Kaulbars was despatched to Bulgaria to make + known to the people the wishes of the tsar. He vainly endeavoured to + postpone the convocation of the Grand Sobranye in order to gain time for + the restoration of Russian influence, and proceeded on an electoral tour + through the country. The failure of his mission was followed by the + withdrawal of the Russian representatives from Bulgaria. The Grand + Sobranye, which assembled at Trnovo, offered the crown to Prince Valdemar + of Denmark, brother-in-law of the tsar, but the honour was declined, and + an anxious period ensued, during which a deputation visited the principal + capitals of Europe with the twofold object of winning sympathy for the + cause of Bulgarian independence and discovering a suitable candidate for + the throne.</p> + + <p><i>Prince Ferdinand.</i>—On the 7th of July 1887, the Grand + Sobranye unanimously elected Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a + grandson, maternally, of King Louis Philippe. The new prince, who was + twenty-six years of age, was at this time a lieutenant in the Austrian + army. Undeterred by the difficulties of the international situation and + the distracted condition of the country, he accepted the crown, and took + over the government on the 14th of August at Trnovo. His arrival, which + was welcomed with enthusiasm, put an end to a long and critical + interregnum, but the dangers which menaced Bulgarian independence were + far from disappearing. Russia declared the newly-elected sovereign a + usurper; the other powers, in deference to her susceptibilities, declined + to recognize him, and the grand vizier informed him that his presence in + Bulgaria was illegal. Numerous efforts were made by the partisans of + Russia to disturb internal tranquillity, and Stamboloff, who became prime + minister on the 1st of September, found it necessary to govern with a + strong hand. A raid led by the Russian captain Nabokov was repulsed; + brigandage, maintained for political purposes, was exterminated; the + bishops of the Holy Synod, who, at the instigation of Clement, refused to + pay homage to the prince, were forcibly removed from Sofia; a military + conspiracy organized by Major Panitza was crushed, and its leader + executed. An attempt to murder the energetic prime minister resulted in + the death of his colleague, Beltcheff, and shortly afterwards Dr + Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian representative at Constantinople, was + assassinated. While contending with unscrupulous enemies at home, + Stamboloff pursued a successful policy abroad. Excellent relations were + established with Turkey and Rumania, valuable concessions were twice + extracted from the Porte in regard to the Bulgarian episcopate in + Macedonia, and loans were concluded with foreign financiers on + comparatively favourable terms. His overbearing character, however, + increased the number of his opponents, and alienated the goodwill of the + prince.</p> + + <p>In the spring of 1893 Prince Ferdinand married Princess Marie-Louise + of Bourbon-Parma, whose family insisted on the condition that the issue + of the marriage should be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith. In view + of the importance of establishing a dynasty, Stamboloff resolved on the + unpopular course of altering the clause of the constitution which + required that the heir to the throne should belong to the Orthodox + Church, and the Grand Sobranye, which was convoked at Trnovo in the + summer, gave effect to this decision. The death of Prince Alexander, + which took place in the autumn, and the birth of an heir, tended to + strengthen the position of Prince Ferdinand, who now assumed a less + compliant attitude towards the prime minister. In 1894 Stamboloff + resigned office; a ministry was formed under Dr Stoïloff, and Prince + Ferdinand inaugurated a policy of conciliation towards Russia with a view + to obtaining his recognition by the powers. A Russophil <!-- Page 784 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page784"></a>[v.04 + p.0784]</span>reaction followed, large numbers of political refugees + returned to Bulgaria, and Stamboloff, exposed to the vengeance of his + enemies, was assassinated in the streets of Sofia (15th July 1895).</p> + + <p>The prince's plans were favoured by the death of the tsar Alexander + III. in November 1894, and the reconciliation was practically effected by + the conversion of his eldest son, Prince Boris, to the Orthodox faith + (14th February 1896). The powers having signified their assent, he was + nominated by the sultan prince of Bulgaria and governor-general of + Eastern Rumelia (14th March). Russian influence now became predominant in + Bulgaria, but the cabinet of St Petersburg wisely abstained from + interfering in the internal affairs of the principality. In February 1896 + Russia proposed the reconciliation of the Greek and Bulgarian churches + and the removal of the exarch to Sofia. The project, which involved a + renunciation of the exarch's jurisdiction in Macedonia, excited strong + opposition in Bulgaria, and was eventually dropped. The death of Princess + Marie-Louise (30th January 1899), caused universal regret in the country. + In the same month the Stoïloff government, which had weakly tampered with + the Macedonian movement (see <span class="sc">Macedonia</span>) and had + thrown the finances into disorder, resigned, and a ministry under Grekoff + succeeded, which endeavoured to mend the economic situation by means of a + foreign loan. The loan, however, fell through, and in October a new + government was formed under Ivanchoff and Radoslavoff. This, in its turn, + was replaced by a <i>cabinet d'affaires</i> under General Petroff + (January 1901).</p> + + <p>In the following March Karaveloff for the third time became prime + minister. His efforts to improve the financial situation, which now + became alarming, proved abortive, and in January 1902 a Tzankovist + cabinet was formed under Daneff, who succeeded in obtaining a foreign + loan. Russian influence now became predominant, and in the autumn the + grand-duke Nicholas, General Ignatiev, and a great number of Russian + officers were present at the consecration of a Russian church and + monastery in the Shipka pass. But the appointment of Mgr. Firmilian, a + Servian prelate, to the important see of Uskub at the instance of Russia, + the suspected designs of that power on the ports of Varna and Burgas, and + her unsympathetic attitude in regard to the Macedonian Question, tended + to diminish her popularity and that of the government. A cabinet crisis + was brought about in May 1903, by the efforts of the Russian party to + obtain control of the army, and the Stambolovists returned to power under + General Petroff. A violent recrudescence of the Macedonian agitation took + place in the autumn of 1902; at the suggestion of Russia the leaders were + imprisoned, but the movement nevertheless gained force, and in August + 1903 a revolt broke out in the vilayet of Monastir, subsequently + spreading to the districts of northern Macedonia and Adrianople (see + <span class="sc">Macedonia</span>). The barbarities committed by the + Turks in repressing the insurrection caused great exasperation in the + principality; the reserves were partially mobilized, and the country was + brought to the brink of war. In pursuance of the policy of Stamboloff, + the Petroff government endeavoured to inaugurate friendly relations with + Turkey, and a Turco-Bulgarian convention was signed (8th April 1904) + which, however, proved of little practical value.</p> + + <p>The outrages committed by numerous Greek bands in Macedonia led to + reprisals on the Greek population in Bulgaria in the summer of 1906, and + the town of Anchialo was partially destroyed. On the 6th of November in + that year Petroff resigned, and Petkoff, the leader of the Stambolovist + party, formed a ministry. The prime minister, a statesman of undoubted + patriotism but of overbearing character, was assassinated on the 11th of + March 1907 by a youth who had been dismissed from a post in one of the + agricultural banks, and the cabinet was reconstituted under Gudeff, a + member of the same party.</p> + + <p><i>Declaration of Independence.</i>—During the thirty years of + its existence the principality had made rapid and striking progress. Its + inhabitants, among whom a strong sense of nationality had grown up, were + naturally anxious to escape from the restrictions imposed by the treaty + of Berlin. That Servia should be an independent state, while Bulgaria, + with its greater economic and military resources, remained tributary to + the Sultan, was an anomaly which all classes resented; and although the + Ottoman suzerainty was little more than a constitutional fiction, and the + tribute imposed in 1878 was never paid, the Bulgarians were almost + unanimous in their desire to end a system which made their country the + vassal of a Moslem state notorious for its maladministration and + corruption. This desire was strengthened by the favourable reception + accorded to Prince Ferdinand when he visited Vienna in February 1908, and + by the so-called "Geshoff incident," <i>i.e.</i> the exclusion of M. + Geshoff, the Bulgarian agent, from a dinner given by Tewfik Pasha, the + Ottoman minister for foreign affairs, to the ministers of all the + sovereign states represented at Constantinople (12th of September 1908). + This was interpreted as an insult to the Bulgarian nation, and as the + explanation offered by the grand vizier was unsatisfactory, M. Geshoff + was recalled to Sofia. At this time the bloodless revolution in Turkey + seemed likely to bring about a fundamental change in the settled policy + of Bulgaria. For many years past Bulgarians had hoped that their own + orderly and progressive government, which had contrasted so strongly with + the evils of Turkish rule, would entitle them to consideration, and + perhaps to an accession of territory, when the time arrived for a + definite settlement of the Macedonian Question. Now, however, the reforms + introduced or foreshadowed by the Young Turkish party threatened to + deprive Bulgaria of any pretext for future intervention; there was + nothing to be gained by further acquiescence in the conditions laid down + at Berlin. An opportunity for effective action occurred within a + fortnight of M. Geshoff's recall, when a strike broke out on those + sections of the Eastern Rumelian railways which were owned by Turkey and + leased to the Oriental Railways Company. The Bulgarians alleged that + during the strike Turkish troops were able to travel on the lines which + were closed to all other traffic, and that this fact constituted a danger + to their own autonomy. The government therefore seized the railway, in + defiance of European opinion, and in spite of the protests of the + suzerain power and the Oriental Railways Company. The bulk of the Turkish + army was then in Asia, and the new régime was not yet firmly established, + while the Bulgarian government were probably aware that Russia would not + intervene, and that Austria-Hungary intended to annex Bosnia and + Herzegovina, and thus incidentally to divert attention from their own + violation of the treaty of Berlin. On the 5th of October Prince Ferdinand + publicly proclaimed Bulgaria, united since the 6th of September 1885 + (<i>i.e.</i> including Eastern Rumelia), an independent kingdom. This + declaration was read aloud by the king in the church of the Forty Martyrs + at Trnovo, the ancient capital of the Bulgarian tsars. The Porte + immediately protested to the powers, but agreed to accept an indemnity. + In February 1909 the Russian government proposed to advance to Bulgaria + the difference between the £4,800,000 claimed by Turkey and the + £1,520,000 which Bulgaria undertook to pay. A preliminary Russo-Turkish + protocol was signed on the 16th of March, and in April, after the final + agreement had been concluded, the independence of Bulgaria was recognized + by the powers. Of the indemnity, £1,680,000 was paid on account of the + Eastern Rumelian railways; the allocation of this sum between Turkey and + the Oriental railways was submitted to arbitration. (See <span + class="sc">Turkey</span>: <i>History</i>.)</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Language and Literature</span></p> + + <p><i>Language.</i>—The Bulgarian is at once the most ancient and + the most modern of the languages which constitute the Slavonic group. In + its groundwork it presents the nearest approach to the old ecclesiastical + Slavonic, the liturgical language common to all the Orthodox Slavs, but + it has undergone more important modifications than any of the sister + dialects in the simplification of its grammatical forms; and the + analytical character of its development may be compared with that of the + neo-Latin and Germanic languages. The introduction of the definite + article, which appears in the form of a suffix, and the almost total + disappearance of the ancient declensions, for which the use of <!-- Page + 785 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page785"></a>[v.04 + p.0785]</span>prepositions has been substituted, distinguish the + Bulgarian from all the other members of the Slavonic family. + Notwithstanding these changes, which give the language an essentially + modern aspect, its close affinity with the ecclesiastical Slavonic, the + oldest written dialect, is regarded as established by several eminent + scholars, such as Šafařik, Schleicher, Leskien and Brugman, + and by many Russian philologists. These authorities agree in describing + the liturgical language as "Old Bulgarian." A different view, however, is + maintained by Miklosich, Kopitar and some others, who regard it as "Old + Slovene." According to the more generally accepted theory, the dialect + spoken by the Bulgarian population in the neighbourhood of Salonica, the + birthplace of SS. Cyril and Methodius, was employed by the Slavonic + apostles in their translations from the Greek, which formed the model for + subsequent ecclesiastical literature. This view receives support from the + fact that the two nasal vowels of the Church-Slavonic (the greater and + lesser <i>ûs</i>), which have been modified in all the cognate languages + except Polish, retain their original pronunciation locally in the + neighbourhood of Salonica and Castoria; in modern literary Bulgarian the + <i>rhinesmus</i> has disappeared, but the old nasal vowels preserve a + peculiar pronunciation, the greater <i>ûs</i> changing to <i>ŭ</i>, + as in English "but," the lesser to <i>ĕ</i>, as in "bet," while in + Servian, Russian and Slovene the greater <i>ûs</i> becomes <i>ū</i> + or <i>ō</i>, the lesser <i>e</i> or <i>ya</i>. The remnants of the + declensions still existing in Bulgarian (mainly in pronominal and + adverbial forms) show a close analogy to those of the old ecclesiastical + language.</p> + + <p>The Slavonic apostles wrote in the 9th century (St Cyril died in 869, + St Methodius in 885), but the original manuscripts have not been + preserved. The oldest existing copies, which date from the 10th century, + already betray the influence of the contemporary vernacular speech, but + as the alterations introduced by the copyists are neither constant nor + regular, it is possible to reconstruct the original language with + tolerable certainty. The "Old Bulgarian," or archaic Slavonic, was an + inflexional language of the synthetic type, containing few foreign + elements in its vocabulary. The Christian terminology was, of course, + mainly Greek; the Latin or German words which occasionally occur were + derived from Moravia and Pannonia, where the two saints pursued their + missionary labours. In course of time it underwent considerable + modifications, both phonetic and structural, in the various Slavonic + countries in which it became the liturgical language, and the various + MSS. are consequently classified as "Servian-Slavonic," + "Croatian-Slavonic," "Russian-Slavonic," &c., according to the + different recensions. The "Russian-Slavonic" is the liturgical language + now in general use among the Orthodox Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula owing + to the great number of ecclesiastical books introduced from Russia in the + 17th and 18th centuries; until comparatively recent times it was believed + to be the genuine language of the Slavonic apostles. Among the Bulgarians + the spoken language of the 9th century underwent important changes during + the next three hundred years. The influence of these changes gradually + asserts itself in the written language; in the period extending from the + 12th to the 15th century the writers still endeavoured to follow the + archaic model, but it is evident that the vernacular had already become + widely different from the speech of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The language + of the MSS. of this period is known as the "Middle Bulgarian"; it stands + midway between the old ecclesiastical Slavonic and the modern speech.</p> + + <p>In the first half of the 16th century the characteristic features of + the modern language became apparent in the literary monuments. These + features undoubtedly displayed themselves at a much earlier period in the + oral speech; but the progress of their development has not yet been + completely investigated. Much light may be thrown on this subject by the + examination of many hitherto little-known manuscripts and by the + scientific study of the folk-songs. In addition to the employment of the + article, the loss of the noun-declensions, and the modification of the + nasal vowels above alluded to, the disappearance in pronunciation of the + final vowels <i>yer-golêm</i> and <i>yer-malúk</i>, the loss of the + infinitive, and the increased variety of the conjugations, distinguish + the modern from the ancient language. The suffix-article, which is + derived from the demonstrative pronoun, is a feature peculiar to the + Bulgarian among Slavonic and to the Rumanian among Latin languages. This + and other points of resemblance between these remotely related members of + the Indo-European group are shared by the Albanian, probably the + representative of the old Illyrian language, and have consequently been + attributed to the influence of the aboriginal speech of the Peninsula. A + demonstrative suffix, however, is sometimes found in Russian and Polish, + and traces of the article in an embryonic state occur in the "Old + Bulgarian" MSS. of the 10th and 11th centuries. In some Bulgarian + dialects it assumes different forms according to the proximity or + remoteness of the object mentioned. Thus <i>zhena-ta</i> is "the woman"; + <i>zhena-va</i> or <i>zhena-sa</i>, "the woman close by"; + <i>zhena-na</i>, "the woman yonder." In the borderland between the + Servian and Bulgarian nationalities the local use of the article supplies + the means of drawing an ethnological frontier; it is nowhere more marked + than in the immediate neighbourhood of the Servian population, as, for + instance, at Dibra and Prilep. The modern Bulgarian has admitted many + foreign elements. It contains about 2000 Turkish and 1000 Greek words + dispersed in the various dialects; some Persian and Arabic words have + entered through the Turkish medium, and a few Rumanian and Albanian words + are found. Most of these are rejected by the purism of the literary + language, which, however, has been compelled to borrow the phraseology of + modern civilization from the Russian, French and other European + languages. The dialects spoken in the kingdom may be classed in two + groups—the eastern and the western. The main point of difference is + the pronunciation of the letter <i>yedvoïno</i>, which in the eastern has + frequently the sound of <i>ya</i>, in the western invariably that of + <i>e</i> in "pet." The literary language began in the western dialect + under the twofold influence of Servian literature and the Church + Slavonic. In a short time, however, the eastern dialect prevailed, and + the influence of Russian literature became predominant. An anti-Russian + reaction was initiated by Borgoroff (1818-1892), and has been maintained + by numerous writers educated in the German and Austrian universities. + Since the foundation of the university of Sofia the literary language has + taken a middle course between the ultra-Russian models of the past + generation and the dialectic Bulgarian. Little uniformity, however, has + yet been attained in regard to diction, orthography or pronunciation.</p> + + <p>The Bulgarians of pagan times are stated by the monk Khrabr, a + contemporary of Tsar Simeon, to have employed a peculiar writing, of + which inscriptions recently found near Kaspitchan may possibly be + specimens. The earliest manuscripts of the "Old Bulgarian" are written in + one or other of the two alphabets known as the glagolitic and Cyrillic + (see <span class="sc">Slavs</span>). The former was used by Bulgarian + writers concurrently with the Cyrillic down to the 12th century. Among + the orthodox Slavs the Cyrillic finally superseded the glagolitic; as + modified by Peter the Great it became the Russian alphabet, which, with + the revival of literature, was introduced into Servia and Bulgaria. Some + Russian letters which are superfluous in Bulgarian have been abandoned by + the native writers, and a few characters have been restored from the + ancient alphabet.</p> + + <p><i>Literature.</i>—The ancient Bulgarian literature, originating + in the works of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, consisted + for the most part of theological works translated from the Greek. From + the conversion of Boris down to the Turkish conquest the religious + character predominates, and the influence of Byzantine literature is + supreme. Translations of the gospels and epistles, lives of the saints, + collections of sermons, exegetic religious works, translations of Greek + chronicles, and miscellanies such as the <i>Sbornik</i> of St Sviatoslav, + formed the staple of the national literature. In the time of Tsar Simeon, + himself an author, considerable literary activity prevailed; among the + more remarkable works of this period was the <i>Shestodnev</i>, or + Hexameron, of John the exarch, an account of the creation. A little later + the heresy of the Bogomils gave an impulse to controversial writing. The + principal champions of orthodoxy were St Kosmâs and the monk Athanas of + Jerusalem; among the Bogomils the <i>Questions of St Ivan Bogosloff</i>, + a work containing a description of the beginning and the end of the + world, was held in high esteem. Contemporaneously with the spread of this + sect a number of apocryphal works, based on the Scripture narrative, but + embellished with Oriental legends of a highly imaginative character, + obtained great popularity. Together with these religious writings works + of fiction, also of Oriental origin, made their appearance, such as the + life of Alexander the Great, the story of Troy, the tales of <i>Stephanit + and Ichnilat</i> and <i>Barlaam and Josaphat</i>, the latter founded on + the biography of Buddha. These were for the most part reproductions or + variations of the fantastical romances which circulated through Europe in + the middle ages, and many of them have left traces in the national + legends and folk-songs. In the 13th century, under the Asên dynasty, + numerous historical works or chronicles (<i>lêtopisi</i>) were composed. + State records appear to have existed, but none of them have been + preserved. With the Ottoman conquest literature disappeared; the + manuscripts became the food of moths and worms, or fell a prey to the + fanaticism of the Phanariot clergy. The library of the patriarchs of + Trnovo was committed to the flames by the Greek metropolitan Hilarion in + 1825.</p> + + <p>The monk Païsii (born about 1720) and Bishop Sofronii (1739-1815) have + already been mentioned as the precursors of the literary <!-- Page 786 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page786"></a>[v.04 + p.0786]</span>revival. The <i>Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska</i> (1762) of + Païsii, written in the solitude of Mount Athos, was a work of little + historical value, but its influence upon the Bulgarian race was immense. + An ardent patriot, Païsii recalls the glories of the Bulgarian tsars and + saints, rebukes his fellow-countrymen for allowing themselves to be + called Greeks, and denounces the arbitrary proceedings of the Phanariot + prelates. The <i>Life and Sufferings of sinful Sofronii</i> (1804) + describes in simple and touching language the condition of Bulgaria at + the beginning of the 19th century. Both works were written in a modified + form of the church Slavonic. The first printed work in the vernacular + appears to have been the <i>Kyriakodromion</i>, a translation of sermons, + also by Sofronii, published in 1806. The Servian and Greek insurrections + quickened the patriotic sentiments of the Bulgarian refugees and + merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia and southern Russia, and Bucharest + became the centre of their political and literary activity. A modest + <i>bukvar</i>, or primer, published at Kronstadt by Berovitch in 1824, + was the first product of the new movement. Translations of the Gospels, + school reading-books, short histories and various elementary treatises + now appeared. With the multiplication of books came the movement for + establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the monk Neophyt Rilski + (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the author of the first + Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational works, and translated the + New Testament into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary + renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the + patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national zeal, + Liuben Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff + (1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend Haji + Dimitr, an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language, and + Petko Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical and + erotic, moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a great + influence over the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly governor-general + of eastern Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have + written historical works. Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of + revolutionary and satirical ballads; his friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d. + 1889), who began life as a shepherd, has left some interesting memoirs. + The most distinguished Bulgarian man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), + whose epic and lyric poems and prose works form the best specimens of the + modern literary language. His novel <i>Pod Igoto</i> (Under the Yoke) has + been translated into several European languages. The best dramatic work + is <i>Ivanko</i>, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote + some novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological + treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and Urumoff to + Velnovski's <i>Flora Bulgarica</i>, no original works on natural science + have as yet been produced; a like dearth is apparent in the fields of + philosophy, criticism and fine art, but it must be remembered that the + literature is still in its infancy. The ancient folk-songs have been + preserved in several valuable collections; though inferior to the Servian + in poetic merit, they deserve scientific attention. Several periodicals + and reviews have been founded in modern times. Of these the most + important are the <i>Perioditchesko Spisanie</i>, issued since 1869 by + the Bulgarian Literary Society, and the <i>Sbornik</i>, a literary and + scientific miscellany, formerly edited by Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the + Literary Society, and published by the government at irregular + intervals.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—C.J. Jireček, <i>Das + Furstenthum Bulgarien</i> (Prague, 1891), and <i>Cesty po Bulharsku</i> + (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works of the first + importance; Léon Lamouche, <i>La Bulgarie dans le passé et le présent</i> + (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, <i>Die + Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgarians</i> (Leipzig, 1891); F. + Kanitz, <i>Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan</i> (Leipzig, 1882); A.G. + Drander, <i>Événements politiques en Bulgarie</i> (Paris, 1896); and + <i>Le Prince Alexandre de Battenberg</i> (Paris, 1884); A. Strausz, + <i>Die Bulgaren</i> (Leipzig, 1898); A. Tuma, <i>Die östliche + Balkanhalbinsel</i> (Vienna, 1886); A. de Gubernatis, <i>La Bulgarie et + les Bulgares</i> (Florence, 1899); E. Blech, <i>Consular Report on + Bulgaria in 1889</i> (London, 1890); <i>La Bulgarie contemporaine</i> + (issued by the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), + (Brussels, 1905). Geology: F. Toula, <i>Reisen und geologische + Untersuchungen in Bulgarien</i> (Vienna, 1890); J. Cvijić, "Die + Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," in <i>C.R. IX. Cong. géol. intern. de + Vienne</i>, pp. 348-370, with map, 1904. History: C.J. Jireček, + <i>Geschichte der Bulgaren</i> (Prague, 1876); (a summary in <i>The + Balkans</i>, by William Miller, London, 1896); Sokolov, <i>Iz drevneì + istorii Bolgar</i> (Petersburg, 1879); Uspenski, <i>Obrazovanïe vtorago + Bolgarskago tsarstva</i> (Odessa, 1879); <i>Acta Bulgariae + ecclesiastica</i>, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887). + Language: F. Miklosich, <i>Vergleichende Grammatik</i> (Vienna, 1879); + and <i>Geschichte d. Lautbezeichnung im Bulgarischen</i> (Vienna, 1883); + A. Leskien, <i>Handbuch d. altbulgarischen Sprache</i> (with a glossary), + (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich, <i>Staroblgarska Gramatika</i> (Sofia, + 1896); <i>Das Ostbulgarische</i> (Vienna, 1903); Labrov, <i>Obzor + zvulkovikh i formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago yezika</i> (Moscow, + 1893); W.R. Morfill, <i>A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian Language</i> + (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, <i>Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache leicht + und schnell zu erlernen</i> (Vienna, 1888). Literature: L.A.H. Dozon, + <i>Chansons populaires bulgares inédites</i> (with French translations), + (Paris, 1875); A. Strausz, <i>Bulgarische Volksdichtungen</i> + (translations with a preface and notes), (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); + Lydia Shishmanov, <i>Légendes religieuses bulgares</i> (Paris, 1896); + Pypin and Spasovich, <i>History of the Slavonic Literature</i> (in + Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov + and Velitchkov, <i>Bulgarian Chrestomathy</i> (Philippopolis, 1884); + Teodorov, <i>Blgarska Literatura</i> (Philippopolis, 1896); Collections + of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov (Agram, + 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882), + Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveïkov + (Sofia, 1899). See also <i>The Shade of the Balkans</i>, by Pencho + Slaveïkov, H. Bernard and E.J. Dillon (London, 1904).</p> + + <p>(J. D. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BULGARIA, EASTERN,</b> formerly a powerful kingdom which existed + from the 5th to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present + territory of the provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and N. Astrakhan, + perhaps extending also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzañ, + surrounded by numerous graves in which most interesting archaeological + finds have been made, occupies the site of one of the + cities—perhaps the capital—of that extinct kingdom. The + history, <i>Tarikh Bulgar</i>, said to have been written in the 12th + century by an Arabian cadi of the city Bolgari, has not yet been + discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul + Hamid Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited + the kingdom, beginning with the 10th century, have left descriptions of + it. The Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have + assimilated Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the 5th century + they attacked the Russians in the Black Sea prairies, and afterwards made + raids upon the Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn + Foslan found them not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent + settlements and houses in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that + by Arabian architects. Ibn Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides + cattle breeding. Trade with Persia and India, as also with the Khazars + and the Russians, and undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, + their chief occupation, their main riches being furs, leather, wool, + nuts, wax and so on. After their conversion to Islam they began building + forts, several of which are mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief + town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod (Great Town) of the Russian annals, was + often raided by the Russians. In the 13th century it was conquered by the + Mongols, and became for a time the seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. + In the second half of the 15th century Bolgari became part of the Kazañ + kingdom, lost its commercial and political importance, and was annexed to + Russia after the fall of Kazañ.</p> + + <p>(P. A. K.)</p> + + <p><b>BULGARUS,</b> an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at + Bologna, sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the + name of a jurist of the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the + famous "Four Doctors" of the law school of that university, and was + regarded as the Chrysostom of the Gloss-writers, being frequently + designated by the title of the "Golden Mouth" (<i>os aureum</i>). He died + in 1166 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, at a very advanced age. Popular + tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo + de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius + (<i>q.v.</i>), but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of + time in accepting this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny + considers the general tradition inadmissible as regards the others. + Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at + Bologna, corresponding in many respects to the Proculians and Sabinians + of Imperial Rome, Martinus being at the head of a school which + accommodated the law to what his opponents styled the equity of "the + purse" (<i>aequitas bursalis</i>), whilst Bulgarus adhered more closely + to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus ultimately prevailed, + and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes Bassianus, Azo and + Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a commanding influence over + the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus took the leading part + amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in 1158, and was one of + the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. His most celebrated + work is his commentary <i>De Regulis Juris</i>, which was at one time + printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly + reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence + contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the + pen of Placentinus. This <!-- Page 787 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page787"></a>[v.04 p.0787]</span><i>Commentary</i>, which is the + earliest extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the + Gloss-writers, is, according to Savigny, a model specimen of the + excellence of the method introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example + of the brilliant results which had been obtained in a short space of time + by a constant and exclusive study of the sources of law.</p> + + <p><b>BULL, GEORGE</b> (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on + the 25th of March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He + entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in + consequence of his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the + Commonwealth. He was ordained privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His + first benefice held was that of St George's near Bristol, from which he + rose successively to be rector of Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), + prebendary of Gloucester (1678), archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in + 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on the 17th of February 1710. During + the time of the Commonwealth he adhered to the forms of the Church of + England, and under James II. preached strenuously against Roman + Catholicism. His works display great erudition and powerful thinking. The + <i>Harmonia Apostolica</i> (1670) is an attempt to show the fundamental + agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with regard to + justification. The <i>Defensio Fidei Nicenae</i> (1685), his greatest + work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the + ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a + thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church + literature. The <i>Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae</i> (1694) and + <i>Primitiva et Apostolica Traditio</i> (1710) won high praise from + Bossuet and other French divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of + the <i>Judicium</i>, Bull wrote a treatise on <i>The Corruptions of the + Church of Rome</i>, which became very popular.</p> + + <p>The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at + Oxford by the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in + 1827. This edition contains the <i>Life</i> by Robert Nelson. The + <i>Harmonia, Defensio</i> and <i>Judicium</i> are translated in the + Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (Oxford, 1842-1855).</p> + + <p><b>BULL, JOHN</b> (<i>c.</i> 1562-1628), English composer and + organist, was born in Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in + Hereford cathedral, he joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next + year became a Mus. Bac. of Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in + Queen Elizabeth's chapel in succession to Blitheman, from whom he had + received his musical education. In 1592 he received the degree of doctor + of music at Cambridge University; and in 1596 he was made music professor + at Gresham College, London. As he was unable to lecture in Latin + according to the foundation-rules of that college, the executors of Sir + Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his favour by permitting him to + lecture in English. He gave his first lecture on the 6th of October 1597. + In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and Germany, and was + everywhere received with the respect due to his talents. Anthony Wood + tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed the feat of + adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition already written + in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him by various + continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to England, where + he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in 1606. He + played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on the 16th of + July 1607, in the hall of the Company, and he seems to have been + appointed one of the king's organists in that year. In the same year he + resigned his Gresham professorship and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 + he again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post + as one of the organists in the arch-duke's chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he + was appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he + died in that city on the 12th or 13th of March 1628. Little of his music + has been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its + merits (see Dr Willibald Nagel's <i>Geschichte der Musik in England</i>, + ii. (1897), p. 155, &c.; and Dr Seiffert's <i>Geschichte der + Klaviermusik</i> (1899), p. 54, &c.). Contemporary writers speak in + the highest terms of Bull's skill as a performer on the organ and the + virginals, and there is no doubt that he contributed much to the + development of harpsichord music. Jan Swielinck (1562-1621), the great + organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on composition as complete + without placing in it a canon by John Bull, and the latter wrote a + fantasia upon a fugue of Swielinck. For the ascription to Bull of the + composition of the British national anthem, see <span class="sc">National + Anthems</span>. Good modern reprints, <i>e.g.</i> of the Fitzwilliam + <i>Virginal-Book</i>, "The King's Hunting Jig," and one or two other + pieces, are in the repertories of modern pianists from Rubinstein + onwards.</p> + + <p><b>BULL, OLE BORNEMANN</b> (1810-1880), Norwegian violinist, was born + in Bergen, Norway, on the 5th of February 1810. At first a pupil of the + violinist Paulsen, and subsequently self-taught, he was intended for the + church, but failed in his examinations in 1828 and became a musician, + directing the philharmonic and dramatic societies at Bergen. In 1829 he + went to Cassel, on a visit to Spohr, who gave him no encouragement. He + now began to study law, but on going to Paris he came under the influence + of Paganini, and definitely adopted the career of a violin virtuoso. He + made his first appearance in company with Ernst and Chopin at a concert + of his own in Paris in 1832. Successful tours in Italy and England + followed soon afterwards, and he was not long in obtaining European + celebrity by his brilliant playing of his own pieces and arrangements. + His first visit to the United States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his + return to Norway he formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse + theatre in Bergen; this became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in + consequence of harassing business complications he went again to America. + During this visit (1852-1857) he bought 125,000 acres in Potter county, + Pennsylvania, for a Norwegian colony, which was to have been called + Oleana after his name; but his title turned out to be fraudulent, and the + troubles he went through in connexion with the undertaking were enough to + affect his health very seriously, though not to hinder him for long from + the exercise of his profession. Another attempt to found an academy of + music in Christiania had no permanent result. In 1836 he had married + Alexandrine Félicie Villeminot, the grand-daughter of a lady to whom he + owed much at the beginning of his musical career in Paris; she died in + 1862. In 1870 he married Sara C. Thorpe of Wisconsin; henceforth he + confined himself to the career of a violinist. He died at Lysö, near + Bergen, on the 17th of August 1880. Ole Bull's "polacca guerriera" and + many of his other violin pieces, among them two concertos, are + interesting to the virtuoso, and his fame rests upon his prodigious + technique. The memoir published by his widow in 1886 contains many + illustrations of a career that was exceptionally brilliant; it gives a + picture of a strong individuality, which often found expression in a + somewhat boisterous form of practical humour.</p> + + <p>There is a fountain and portrait statue to his memory in the Ole Bulls + Plads in Bergen.</p> + + <p><b>BULL,</b> (1) The male of animals belonging to the section + <i>Bovina</i> of the family <i>Bovidae</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), particularly + the uncastrated male of the domestic ox (<i>Bos taurus</i>). (See <span + class="sc">Cattle</span>.) The word, which is found in M.E. as <i>bole, + bolle</i> (cf. Ger. <i>Bulle</i>, and Dutch <i>bul</i> or <i>bol</i>), is + also used of the males of other animals of large size, <i>e.g.</i> the + elephant, whale, &c. The O.E. diminutive form <i>bulluc</i>, meaning + originally a young bull, or bull calf, survives in bullock, now confined + to a young castrated male ox kept for slaughter for beef.</p> + + <p>On the London and New York stock exchanges "bull" and "bear" are + correlative technical slang terms. A "bull" is one who "buys for a rise," + <i>i.e.</i> he buys stocks or securities, grain or other commodities + (which, however, he never intends to take up), in the hope that before + the date on which he must take delivery he will be able to sell the + stocks, &c., at a higher price, taking as a profit the difference + between the buying and selling price. A "bear" is the reverse of a + "bull." He is one who "sells for a fall," <i>i.e.</i> he sells stock, + &c., which he does not actually possess, in the hope of buying it at + a lower price before the time at which he has contracted to deliver (see + <span class="sc">Account</span>; <span class="sc">Stock Exchange</span>). + The word "bull," according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, was used + in this sense as early as the beginning of the 18th century. The origin + of the use is not known, though it is tempting to connect it with the + fable of the frog and the bull.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 788 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page788"></a>[v.04 p.0788]</span></p> + + <p>The term "bull's eye" is applied to many circular objects, and + particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of a sheet of + blown glass. This when cut off was formerly used for windows in small + leaded panes. The French term <i>œil de bœuf</i> is used of a + circular window. Other circular objects to which the word is applied are + the centre of a target or a shot that hits the central division of the + target, a plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex + glass in it, a thick circular piece of glass let into the deck or side of + a ship, &c., for lighting the interior, a ring-shaped block grooved + round the outer edge, and with a hole through the centre through which a + rope can be passed, and also a small lurid cloud which in certain + latitudes presages a hurricane.</p> + + <p>(2) The use of the word "bull," for a verbal blunder, involving a + contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. In this sense it is used + with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Milton's <i>True + Religion</i>, "and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Roman + Catholick, it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope's Bulls, as if he + should say a universal particular, a Catholick schismatick." Probably + this use may be traced to a M.E. word <i>bul</i>, first found in the + <i>Cursor Mundi</i>, c. 1300, in the sense of falsehood, trickery, + deceit; the <i>New English Dictionary</i> compares an O.Fr. <i>boul</i>, + <i>boule</i> or <i>bole</i>, in the same sense. Although modern + associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, possibly owing + to the many famous "bulls" attributed to Sir Boyle Roche (<i>q.v.</i>), + the early quotations show that in the 17th century, when the meaning now + attached to the word begins, no special country was credited with + them.</p> + + <p>(3) <i>Bulla</i> (Lat for "bubble"), which gives us another "bull" in + English, was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as + those on doors, sword-belts, shields and boxes. It was applied, however, + more particularly to an ornament, generally of gold, a round or + heart-shaped box containing an amulet, worn suspended from the neck by + children of noble birth until they assumed the <i>toga virilis</i>, when + it was hung up and dedicated to the household gods. The custom of wearing + the bulla, which was regarded as a charm against sickness and the evil + eye, was of Etruscan origin. After the Second Punic War all children of + free birth were permitted to wear it; but those who did not belong to a + noble or wealthy family were satisfied with a bulla of leather. Its use + was only permitted to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrated + a triumph. Young girls (probably till the time of their marriage), and + even favourite animals, also wore it (see Ficoroni, <i>La Bolla d' + Oro</i>, 1732; Yates, <i>Archaeological Journal</i>, vi., 1849; viii., + 1851). In ecclesiastical and medieval Latin, <i>bulla</i> denotes the + seal of oval or circular form, bearing the name and generally the image + of its owner, which was attached to official documents. A metal was used + instead of wax in the warm countries of southern Europe. The best-known + instances are the papal <i>bullae</i>, which have given their name to the + documents (bulls) to which they are attached. (See <span + class="sc">Diplomatic</span>; <span class="sc">Seals</span>; <span + class="sc">Curia Romana</span>; <span class="sc">Golden Bull</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>BULLER, CHARLES</b> (1806-1848), English politician, son of Charles + Buller (d. 1848), a member of a well-known Cornish family (see below), + was born in Calcutta on the 6th of August 1806; his mother, a daughter of + General William Kirkpatrick, was an exceptionally talented woman. He was + educated at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and + afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a barrister in 1831. + Before this date, however, he had succeeded his father as member of + parliament for West Looe; after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 + and the consequent disenfranchisement of this borough, he was returned to + parliament by the voters of Liskeard. He retained this seat until he died + in London on the 29th of November 1848, leaving behind him, so Charles + Greville says, "a memory cherished for his delightful social qualities + and a vast credit for undeveloped powers." An eager reformer and a friend + of John Stuart Mill, Buller voted for the great Reform Bill, favoured + other progressive measures, and presided over the committee on the state + of the records and the one appointed to inquire into the state of + election law in Ireland in 1836. In 1838 he went to Canada with Lord + Durham as private secretary, and after rendering conspicuous service to + his chief, returned with him to England in the same year. After + practising as a barrister, Buller was made judge-advocate-general in + 1846, and became chief commissioner of the poor law about a year before + his death. For a long time it was believed that Buller wrote Lord + Durham's famous "Report on the affairs of British North America." + However, this is now denied by several authorities, among them being + Durham's biographer, Stuart J. Reid, who mentions that Buller described + this statement as a "groundless assertion" in an article which he wrote + for the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. Nevertheless it is quite possible that + the "Report" was largely drafted by Buller, and it almost certainly bears + traces of his influence. Buller was a very talented man, witty, popular + and generous, and is described by Carlyle as "the genialest radical I + have ever met." Among his intimate friends were Grote, Thackeray, + Monckton Milnes and Lady Ashburton. A bust of Buller is in Westminster + Abbey, and another was unveiled at Liskeard in 1905. He wrote "A Sketch + of Lord Durham's mission to Canada," which has not been printed.</p> + + <p>See T. Carlyle, <i>Reminiscences</i> (1881); and S.J. Reid, <i>Life + and Letters of the 1st earl of Durham</i> (1906).</p> + + <p><b>BULLER, SIR REDVERS HENRY</b> (1839-1908), British general, son of + James Wentworth Buller, M.P., of Crediton, Devonshire, and the descendant + of an old Cornish family, long established in Devonshire, tracing its + ancestry in the female line to Edward I., was born in 1839, and educated + at Eton. He entered the army in 1858, and served with the 60th (King's + Royal Rifles) in the China campaign of 1860. In 1870 he became captain, + and went on the Red River expedition, where he was first associated with + Colonel (afterwards Lord) Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter + in the Ashantee campaign as head of the Intelligence Department, and was + slightly wounded at the battle of Ordabai; he was mentioned in + despatches, made a C.B., and raised to the rank of major. In 1874 he + inherited the family estates. In the Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu + War of 1879 he was conspicuous as an intrepid and popular leader, and + acquired a reputation for courage and dogged determination. In particular + his conduct of the retreat at Inhlobane (March 28, 1879) drew attention + to these qualities, and on that occasion he earned the V.C.; he was also + created C.M.G. and made lieutenant-colonel and A.D.C. to the queen. In + the Boer War of 1881 he was Sir Evelyn Wood's chief of staff; and thus + added to his experience of South African conditions of warfare. In 1882 + he was head of the field intelligence department in the Egyptian + campaign, and was knighted for his services. Two years later he commanded + an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was at the + battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for + distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord + Wolseley's chief of staff, and he was given command of the desert column + when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his + conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu + Klea (February 16-17), and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to + Ireland to inquire into the "moonlighting" outrages, and for a short time + he acted as under-secretary for Ireland; but in 1887 he was appointed + quartermaster-general at the war office. From 1890 to 1897 he held the + office of adjutant-general, attaining the rank of lieutenant-general in + 1891. At the war office his energy and ability inspired the belief that + he was fitted for the highest command, and in 1895, when the duke of + Cambridge was about to retire, it was well known that Lord Rosebery's + cabinet intended to appoint Sir Redvers as chief of the staff under a + scheme of reorganization recommended by Lord Hartington's commission. On + the eve of this change, however, the government was defeated, and its + successors appointed Lord Wolseley to the command under the old title of + commander-in-chief. In 1896 he was made a full general.</p> + + <p>In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer + War broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African Field + Force (see <span class="sc">Transvaal</span>), and landed <!-- Page 789 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page789"></a>[v.04 p.0789]</span>at + Cape Town on the 31st of October. Owing to the Boer investment of + Ladysmith and the consequent gravity of the military situation in Natal, + he unexpectedly hurried thither in order to supervise personally the + operations, but on the 15th of December his first attempt to cross the + Tugela at Colenso (see <span class="sc">Ladysmith</span>) was repulsed. + The government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic tone of + Buller's messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the chief + command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal + force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (January 10-27) proved + another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (January 24) + causing consternation in England. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, February + 5-7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task + in the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter's Hill + and the relief of Ladysmith on the 27th of February. Sir Redvers Buller + remained in command of the Natal army till October 1900, when he returned + to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having in the meanwhile slowly done + a great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May + 15), forcing Lang's Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (September 6). + But though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his + reputation for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence + of his own men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and + difficult operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, + therefore, in 1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command + met with a vigorous press criticism, in which the detailed objections + taken to his conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly + to a message to Sir George White in which he seriously contemplated and + provided for the contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On + the 10th of October 1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller + made a speech in answer to these criticisms in terms which were held to + be a breach of discipline, and he was placed on half-pay a few days + later. For the remaining years of his life he played an active part as a + country gentleman, accepting in dignified silence the prolonged attacks + on his failures in South Africa; among the public generally, and + particularly in his own county, he never lost his popularity. He died on + the 2nd of June 1908. He had married in 1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the + 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him with one daughter.</p> + + <p>A <i>Memoir</i>, by Lewis Butler, was published in 1909.</p> + + <p><b>BULLET</b> (Fr. <i>boulet</i>, diminutive of <i>boule</i>, ball). + The original meaning (a "small ball") has, since the end of the 16th + century, been narrowed down to the special case of the projectile used + with small arms of all kinds, irrespective of its size or shape. (For + details see <span class="sc">Ammunition</span>; <span + class="sc">Gun</span>; <span class="sc">Rifle</span>, &c.)</p> + + <p><b>BULL-FIGHTING,</b> the national Spanish sport. The Spanish name is + <i>tauromaquia</i> (Gr. <span title="tauros" class="grk" + >ταῦρος</span>, bull, and <span + title="machê" class="grk">μαχή</span>, combat). + Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the + amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature + of worrying than fighting, like the bull-baiting formerly common in + England. The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it + is probable that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered + that province. It is certain that they held bull-fights in the + half-ruined Roman amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and + other places, and that these constituted the favourite sport of the + Moorish chieftains. Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid + himself as the original Spanish bull-fighter, it is probable that the + first Spaniard to kill a bull in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, + who about 1040, employing the lance, which remained for centuries the + chief weapon used in the sport, proved himself superior to the flower of + the Moorish knights. A spirited rivalry in the art between the Christian + and Moorish warriors resulted, in which even the kings of Castile and + other Spanish princes took an ardent interest. After the Moors were + driven from Spain by Ferdinand II., bull-fighting continued to be the + favourite sport of the aristocracy, the method of fighting being on + horseback with the lance. At the time of the accession of the house of + Austria it had become an indispensable accessory of every court function, + and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the people by killing a bull + with his own lance on the birthday of his son, Philip II. Philip IV. is + also known to have taken a personal part in bull-fights. During this + period the lance was discarded in favour of the short spear + (<i>rejoncillo</i>), and the leg armour still worn by the + <i>picadores</i> was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon + witnessed a radical transformation in the character of the bullfight, + which the aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the + combats professional subordinates who, by the end of the 17th century, + had become the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great + professional <i>espada</i> (<i>i.e.</i> swordsman, the chief + bull-fighter, who actually kills the bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda + in Andalusia (about 1700), who introduced the <i>estoque</i>, the sword + still used to kill the bull, and the <i>muleta</i>, the red flag carried + by the <i>espada</i> (see below), the spear falling into complete + disuse.</p> + + <p>For the past two centuries the art of bull-fighting has developed + gradually into the spectacle of to-day. Imitations of the Spanish + bull-fights have been repeatedly introduced into France and Italy, but + the cruelty of the sport has prevented its taking firm root. In Portugal + a kind of bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is + much hurt, the bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never + being killed. In Spain many vain attempts have been made to abolish the + sport, by Ferdinand II. himself, instigated by his wife Isabella, by + Charles III., by Ferdinand VI., and by Charles IV.; and several popes + placed its devotees under the ban of excommunication with no perceptible + effect upon its popularity. Before the introduction of railways there + were comparatively few bull-rings (<i>plazas de toros</i>) in Spain, but + these have largely multiplied in recent years, in both Spain and Spanish + America. At the present day nearly every larger town and city in Spain + has its <i>plaza de toros</i> (about 225 altogether), built in the form + of the Roman circuses with an oval open arena covered with sand, + surrounded by a stout fence about 6 ft. high. Between this and the seats + of the spectators is a narrow passage-way, where those bull-fighters who + are not at the moment engaged take their stations. The <i>plazas de + toros</i> are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds more than + 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two or three thousand. + Every bull-ring has its hospital for the wounded, and its chapel where + the <i>toreros</i> (bull-fighters) receive the Holy Eucharist.</p> + + <p>The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and + are reared in special establishments (<i>vacádas</i>), the most + celebrated of which is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When + quite young they are branded with the emblems of their owners, and later + are put to a test of their courage, only those that show a fighting + spirit being trained further. When full grown, the health, colour, + weight, character of horns, and action in attack are all objects of the + keenest observation and study. The best bulls are worth from £40 to £60. + About 1300 bulls are killed annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most + of whom are Andalusians, consist of <i>espadas</i> (or <i>matadores</i>), + <i>banderilleros</i> and <i>picadores</i>, in addition to whom there are + numbers of assistants (<i>chulos</i>), drivers and other servants. For + each bull-fight two or three <i>espadas</i> are engaged, each providing + his own quadrille (<i>cuadrilla</i>), composed of several + <i>banderilleros</i> and <i>picadores</i>. Six bulls are usually killed + during one <i>corrida</i> (bull-fight), the <i>espadas</i> engaged taking + them in turn. The <i>espada</i> must have passed through a trying + novitiate in the art at the royal school of bull-fighting, after which he + is given his <i>alternativa</i>, or licence.</p> + + <p>The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighters with + <i>alguaciles</i>, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head, + followed, in three rows, by the <i>espadas, banderilleros, picadores, + chulos</i> and the richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from + the arena the carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest + possible brilliance of costume and accoutrements is aimed at, and the + picture presented is one of dazzling colour. The <i>espadas</i> and + <i>banderilleros</i> wear short jackets and small-clothes of satin richly + embroidered in gold and silver, with <!-- Page 790 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page790"></a>[v.04 p.0790]</span>light silk + stockings and heelless shoes; the <i>picadores</i> (pikemen on horseback) + usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in steel armour covered + with leather as a protection against the horns of the bull.</p> + + <p>The fight is divided into three divisions (<i>suertes</i>). When the + opening procession has passed round the arena the president of the + <i>corrida</i>, usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the + <i>alguaciles</i> the key to the <i>toril</i>, or bull-cells. As soon as + the supernumeraries have left the ring, and the <i>picadores</i>, mounted + upon blindfolded horses in wretched condition, have taken their places + against the barrier, the door of the <i>toril</i> is opened, and the + bull, which has been goaded into fury by the affixing to his shoulder of + an iron pin with streamers of the colours of his breeder attached, enters + the ring. Then begins the <i>suerte de picar</i>, or division of lancing. + The bull at once attacks the mounted <i>picadores</i>, ripping up and + wounding the horses, often to the point of complete disembowelment. As + the bull attacks the horse, the <i>picador</i>, who is armed with a + short-pointed, stout pike (<i>garrocha</i>), thrusts this into the bull's + back with all his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its + attention to another <i>picador</i>. Not infrequently, however, the rush + of the bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to + overthrow both animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from + danger by the <i>chulos</i> and <i>banderilleros</i>, who, by means of + their red cloaks (<i>capas</i>), divert the bull from the fallen + <i>picador</i>, who either escapes from the ring or mounts a fresh horse. + The number of horses killed in this manner is one of the chief features + of the fight, a bull's prowess being reckoned accordingly. About 6000 + horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound of a trumpet the + <i>picadores</i> retire from the ring, the dead horses are dragged out, + and the second division of the fight, the <i>suerte de banderillear</i>, + or planting the darts, begins. The <i>banderillas</i> are barbed darts + about 18 in. long, ornamented with coloured paper, one being held in each + hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30 yds. from the bull, + draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull + charges, the <i>banderillero</i> steps towards him, dexterously plants + both darts in the beast's neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to + avoid its horns. Four pairs of <i>banderillas</i> are planted in this + way, rendering the bull mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove + of a cowardly nature and refuse to attack repeatedly, <i>banderillas de + fuego</i> (fire) are used. These are furnished with fulminating crackers, + which explode with terrific noise as the bull careers about the ring. + During this division numerous manœuvres are sometimes indulged in + for the purpose of tiring the bull out, such as leaping between his + horns, vaulting over his back with the <i>garrocha</i> as he charges, and + inviting his rushes by means of elaborate flauntings of the cloak + (<i>floréos</i>, flourishes).</p> + + <p>Another trumpet-call gives the signal for the final division of the + fight, the <i>suerte de matár</i> (killing). This is carried out by the + <i>espada</i>, alone, his assistants being present only in the case of + emergency or to get the bull back to the proper part of the ring, should + he bolt to a distance. The <i>espada</i>, taking his stand before the box + of the president, holds aloft in his left hand sword and <i>muleta</i> + and in his right his hat, and in set phrases formally dedicates + (<i>brinde</i>) the death of the bull to the president or some other + personage of rank, finishing by tossing his hat behind his back and + proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull. This is a process + accompanied by much formality. The <i>espada</i>, armed with the + <i>estoque</i>, a sword with a heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the + proper position by means of passes with the <i>muleta</i>, a small red + silk flag mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a + single thrust, delivered through the back of the neck close to the head + and downward into the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one, + requiring long practice as well as great natural dexterity, and very + frequently fails of its object, the killing of the bull often requiring + repeated thrusts. The stroke (<i>estocada</i>) is usually given <i>á + volapié</i> (half running), the <i>espada</i> delivering the thrust while + stepping forward, the bull usually standing still. Another method is + <i>recibiéndo</i> (receiving), the <i>espada</i> receiving the onset of + the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need a <i>coup de + grâce</i>, it is given by a <i>chulo</i>, called <i>puntilléro</i>, with + a dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged + out of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the <i>espada</i> makes a + tour of honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favourite, with the + most extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull + is introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such + as a coronation, a <i>corrida</i> in the ancient style is given by + amateurs, who are clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and + mounted upon steeds of good breed and condition. They are armed with + sharp lances, with which they essay to kill the bull while protecting + themselves and their steeds from his horns. As the bulls in these + encounters have not been weakened by many wounds and tired out by much + running, the performances of the gentlemen fighters are remarkable for + pluck and dexterity.</p> + + <p>See Moratin, <i>Origen y Progeso de las Fiestas de Toros</i>; Bedoya's + <i>Historia del Toreo</i>; J.S. Lozano, <i>Manual de Tauromaquia</i> + (Seville, 1882); A. Chapman and W.T. Buck, <i>Wild Spain</i> (London, + 1893).</p> + + <p><b>BULLFINCH</b> (<i>Pyrrhula vulgaris</i>), the ancient English name + given to a bird belonging to the family <i>Fringillidae</i> (see <span + class="sc">Finch</span>), of a bluish-grey and black colour above, and + generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female differing chiefly in + having its under-parts chocolate-brown. It is a shy bird, not associating + with other species, and frequents well-wooded districts, being very + rarely seen on moors or other waste lands. It builds a shallow nest + composed of twigs lined with fibrous roots, on low trees or thick + underwood, only a few feet from the ground, and lays four or five eggs of + a bluish-white colour speckled and streaked with purple. The young remain + with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring, not + building their nests, however, till May. In spring and summer they feed + on the buds of trees and bushes, choosing, it is said, such only as + contain the incipient blossom, and thus doing immense injury to orchards + and gardens. In autumn and winter they feed principally on wild fruits + and on seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and + pleasant, but so low as scarcely to be audible; it possesses, however, + great powers of imitation, and considerable memory, and can thus be + taught to whistle a variety of tunes. Bullfinches are very abundant in + the forests of Germany, and it is there that most of the piping + bullfinches are trained. They are taught continuously for nine months, + and the lesson is repeated throughout the first moulting, as during that + change the young birds are apt to forget all that they have previously + acquired. The bullfinch is a native of the northern countries of Europe, + occurring in Italy and other southern parts only as a winter visitor. + White and black varieties are occasionally met with; the latter are often + produced by feeding the bullfinch exclusively on hempseed, when its + plumage gradually changes to black. It rarely breeds in confinement, and + hybrids between it and the canary have been produced on but few + occasions.</p> + + <p><b>BULLI,</b> a town of Camden county, New South Wales, Australia, 59 + m. by rail S. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2500. It is the headquarters of the + Bulli Mining Company, whose coal-mine on the flank of the Illawarra + Mountains is worked by a tunnel, 2 m. long, driven into the heart of the + mountain. From this tunnel the coal is conveyed by rail for 1½ m. to a + pier, whence it is shipped to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane by a fleet + of steam colliers. The beautiful Bulli Pass, 1000 ft. above the sea, over + the Illawarra range, is one of the most attractive tourist resorts in + Australia.</p> + + <p><b>BULLINGER, HEINRICH</b> (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, son of Dean + Heinrich Bullinger by his wife Anna (Wiederkehr), was born at Bremgarten, + Aargau, on the 18th of July 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, + where the teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and + Chrysostom, to first-hand study of the Bible. Next the writings of + Luther and Melanchthon appealed to him. Appointed teacher (1522) in the + cloister school of Cappel, he lectured on Melanchthon's <i>Loci + Communes</i> (1521). He heard Zwingli at Zürich in 1527, and next year + accompanied him to the disputation at Berne. He was made pastor of + Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a nun, by whom he had + eleven children. After the battle <!-- Page 791 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page791"></a>[v.04 p.0791]</span>of Cappel (11th + of October 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten. On the 9th + of December 1531 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief pastor of + Zürich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially unifying + and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little sympathy. His + controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his correspondence + with Lelio Sozini (see <span class="sc">Socinus</span>), exhibit, in + different connexions, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. + With Calvin he concluded (1549) the <i>Consensus Tigurinus</i> on the + Lord's Supper. The (second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in + Switzerland, Hungary, Bohemia and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of + the <i>Zurich Letters</i>, published by the Parker Society, testify to + his influence on the English reformation in later stages. Many of his + sermons were translated into English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His + works, mainly expository and polemical, have not been collected. He died + at Zürich on the 17th of September 1575.</p> + + <p>See Carl Pestalozzi, <i>Leben</i> (1858); Raget Christoffel, <i>H. + Bullinger</i> (1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's <i>Realencyklopadie</i> + (1897).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">A. Go.*</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BULLION,</b> a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines + brought to a standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of + 1336 in the French form "puissent sauvement porter à les exchanges ou + bullion ... argent en plate, vessel d'argent, &c."; and apparently it + is connected with <i>bouillon</i>, the sense of "boiling" being + transferred in English to the melting of metal, so that <i>bullion</i> in + the passage quoted meant "melting-house" or "mint." The first recorded + instance of the use of the word for precious metal as such in the mass is + in an act of 1451. From the use of gold and silver as a medium of + exchange, it followed that they should approximate in all nations to a + common degree of fineness; and though this is not uniform even in coins, + yet the proportion of alloy in silver, and of carats alloy to carats fine + in gold, has been reduced to infinitesimal differences in the bullion of + commerce, and is a prime element of value even in gold and silver plate, + jewelry, and other articles of manufacture. Bullion, whether in the form + of coins, or of bars and ingots stamped, is subject, as a general rule of + the London market, not only to weight but to assay, and receives a + corresponding value.</p> + + <p><b>BULLOCK, WILLIAM</b> (<i>c.</i> 1657-<i>c.</i> 1740), English + actor, "of great glee and much comic vivacity," was the original Clincher + in Farquhar's <i>Constant Couple</i> (1699), Boniface in <i>The Beaux' + Stratagem</i> (1707), and Sir Francis Courtall in Pavener's <i>Artful + Wife</i> (1717). He played at all the London theatres of his time, and in + the summer at a booth at Bartholomew Fair. He had three sons, all actors, + of whom the eldest was Christopher Bullock (<i>c.</i> 1690-1724), who at + Drury Lane, the Haymarket and Lincoln's Inn Fields displayed "a + considerable versatility of talent." Christopher created a few original + parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or + adapter:—<i>A Woman's Revenge</i> (1715); <i>Slip</i>; + <i>Adventures of Half an Hour</i> (1716); <i>The Cobbler of Preston</i>; + <i>Woman's a Riddle</i>; <i>The Perjurer</i> (1717); and <i>The + Traitor</i> (1718).</p> + + <p><b>BULLROARER,</b> the English name for an instrument made of a small + flat slip of wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; + swung round rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as + a toy by Europeans, the bullroarer has had the highest mystic + significance and sanctity among primitive people. This is notably the + case in Australia, where it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is + regarded with the utmost awe by the "blackfellows." Their bullroarers, or + sacred "tunduns," are of two types, the "grandfather" or "man tundun," + distinguished by its deep tone, and the "woman tundun," which, being + smaller, gives forth a weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys + before initiation, are never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or + initiation ceremonies, the bullroarer's hum is believed to be the voice + of the "Great Spirit," and on hearing it the women hide in terror. A + Maori bullroarer is preserved in the British Museum, and travellers in + Africa state that it is known and held sacred there. Thus among the Egba + tribe of the Yoruba race the supposed "Voice of Oro," their god of + vengeance, is produced by a bullroarer, which is actually worshipped as + the god himself. The sanctity of the bullroarer has been shown to be very + widespread. There is no doubt that the rhombus <span title="rhombos" class="grk" + >ῥόμβος</span> which was whirled at + the Greek mysteries was one. Among North American Indians it was common. + At certain Moqui ceremonies the procession of dancers was led by a priest + who whirled a bullroarer. The instrument has been traced among the + Tusayan, Apache and Navaho Indians (J.G. Bourke, <i>Ninth Annual Report + of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol.</i>, 1892), among the Koskimo of British + Columbia (Fr. Boas, "Social Organization, &c., of the Kwakiutl + Indians," <i>Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895</i>), and in + Central Brazil. In New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres + Straits (where it is swung as a fishing-charm), in Ceylon (where it is + used as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals), + and in Sumatra (where it is used to induce the demons to carry off the + soul of a woman, and so drive her mad), the bullroarer is also found. + Sometimes, as among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal + bone of a man renowned for his bravery.</p> + + <p>See A. Lang, <i>Custom and Myth</i> (1884); J.D.E. Schmeltz, <i>Das + Schwirrholz</i> (Hamburg, 1896); A.C. Haddon, <i>The Study of Man</i>, + and in the <i>Journ. Anthrop. Instit.</i> xix., 1890; G.M.C. Theal, + <i>Kaffir Folk-Lore</i>; A.B. Ellis, <i>Yoruba-Speaking Peoples</i> + (1894); R.C. Codrington, <i>The Melanesians</i> (1891).</p> + + <p><b>BULL RUN,</b> a small stream of Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the + name to two famous battles in the American Civil War.</p> + + <p>(1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) + was fought on the 21st of July 1861 between the Union forces under + Brigadier-General Irvin McDowell and the Confederates under General + Joseph E. Johnston. Both armies were newly raised and almost untrained. + After a slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's Ford, the two armies + prepared for a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, + guarding all the passages from the Stone Bridge down to the railway + bridge. McDowell's forces rendezvoused around Centreville, and both + commanders, sensible of the temper of their troops, planned a battle for + the 21st. On his part McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to + attack the Stone Bridge, two to make a turning movement via Sudley + Springs, the remaining division (partly composed of regular troops) was + to be in reserve and to watch the lower fords. The local Confederate + commander, Brigadier-General P.G.T. Beauregard, had also intended to + advance, and General Johnston, who arrived by rail on the evening of the + 20th with the greater part of a fresh army, and now assumed command of + the whole force, approved an offensive movement against Centreville for + the 21st; but orders miscarried, and the Federal attack opened before the + movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then decided to fight a + defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the single brigade of + Evans which held the Stone Bridge. Thus there was no serious fighting at + the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/bull_run_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bull_run_1.png" + alt="Map of BULL RUN." title="Map of BULL RUN." /></a> + </div> + <p>The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions <!-- + Page 792 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page792"></a>[v.04 + p.0792]</span>engaged in the turning movement met with many unnecessary + checks. At 6 <span class="scac">A.M.</span>, when the troops told off for + the frontal attack appeared before the Stone Bridge, the turning movement + was by no means well advanced. Evans had time to change position so as to + command both the Stone Bridge and Sudley Springs, and he was promptly + supported by the brigades of Bee, Bartow and T.J. Jackson. About 9.30 the + leading Federal brigade from Sudley Springs came into action, and two + hours later Evans, Bee and Bartow had been driven off the Matthews hill + in considerable confusion. But on the Henry House hill Jackson's brigade + stood, as General Bee said to his men, "like a stone wall," and the + defenders rallied, though the Federals were continually reinforced. The + fighting on the Henry House hill was very severe, but McDowell, who dared + not halt to re-form his enthusiastic volunteers, continued to attack. + About 1.30 <span class="scac">P.M.</span> he brought up two regular + batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being + mistaken for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns + by close rifle fire, and from that time, though the hill was taken and + retaken several times, the Federal attack made no further headway. At + 2.45 more of Beauregard's troops had come up; Jackson's brigade charged + with the bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in + flank by the last brigades of Johnston's army, which arrived at the + critical moment from the railway. They gave way at once, tired out, and + conscious that the day was lost, and after one rally melted away slowly + to the rear, the handful of regulars alone keeping their order. But when, + at the defile of the Cub Run, they came under shell fire the retreat + became a panic flight to the Potomac. The victors were too much exhausted + to pursue, and the U.S. regulars of the reserve division formed a strong + and steady rearguard. The losses were—Federals, 2896 men out of + about 18,500 engaged; Confederates, 1982 men out of 18,000.</p> + + <p>(2) The operations of the last days of August 1862, which include the + second battle of Bull Run (second Manassas), are amongst the most + complicated of the war. At the outset the Confederate general Lee's army + (Longstreet's and Jackson's corps) lay on the Rappahannock, faced by the + Federal Army of Virginia under Major-General John Pope, which was to be + reinforced by troops from McClellan's army to a total strength of 150,000 + men as against Lee's 60,000. Want of supplies soon forced Lee to move, + though not to retreat, and his plan for attacking Pope was one of the + most daring in all military history. Jackson with half the army was + despatched on a wide turning movement which was to bring him via Salem + and Thoroughfare Gap to Manassas Junction in Pope's rear; when Jackson's + task was accomplished Lee and Longstreet were to follow him by the same + route. Early on the 25th of August Jackson began his march round the + right of Pope's army; on the 26th the column passed Thoroughfare Gap, and + Bristoe Station, directly in Pope's rear, was reached on the same + evening, while a detachment drove a Federal post from Manassas Junction. + On the 27th the immense magazines at the Junction were destroyed. On his + side Pope had soon discovered Jackson's departure, and had arranged for + an immediate attack on Longstreet. When, however, the direction of + Jackson's march on Thoroughfare Gap became clear, Pope fell back in order + to engage him, at the same time ordering his army to concentrate on + Warrenton, Greenwich and Gainesville. He was now largely reinforced. On + the evening of the 27th one of his divisions, marching to its point of + concentration, met a division of Jackson's corps, near Bristoe Station; + after a sharp fight the Confederate general, Ewell, retired on Manassas. + Pope now realized that he had Jackson's corps in front of him at the + Junction, and at once took steps to attack Manassas with all his forces. + He drew off even the corps at Gainesville for his intended battle of the + 28th; McDowell, however, its commander, on his own responsibility, left + Ricketts's division at Thoroughfare Gap. But Pope's blow was struck in + the air. When he arrived at Manassas on the 28th he found nothing but the + ruins of his magazines, and one of McDowell's divisions (King's) marching + from Gainesville on Manassas Junction met Jackson's infantry near + Groveton. The situation had again changed completely. Jackson had no + intention of awaiting Pope at Manassas, and after several feints made + with a view to misleading the Federal scouts he finally withdrew to a + hidden position between Groveton and Sudley Springs, to await the arrival + of Longstreet, who, taking the same route as Jackson had done, arrived on + the 28th at Thoroughfare Gap and, engaging Ricketts's division, finally + drove it back to Gainesville. On the evening of this day Jackson's corps + held the line Sudley Springs-Groveton, his right wing near Groveton + opposing King's division; and Longstreet held Thoroughfare Gap, facing + Ricketts at Gainesville. On Ricketts's right was King near Groveton, and + the line was continued thence by McDowell's remaining division and by + Sigel's corps to the Stone Bridge. At Centreville, 7 m. away, was Pope + with three divisions, a fourth was north-east of Manassas Junction, and + Porter's corps at Bristoe Station. Thus, while Ricketts continued at + Gainesville to mask Longstreet, Pope could concentrate a superior force + against Jackson, whom he now believed to be meditating a retreat to the + Gap. But a series of misunderstandings resulted in the withdrawal of + Ricketts and King, so that nothing now intervened between Longstreet and + Jackson; while Sigel and McDowell's other division alone remained to face + Jackson until such time as Pope could bring up the rest of his scattered + forces. Jackson now closed on his left and prepared for battle, and on + the morning of the 29th the Confederates, posted behind a high railway + embankment, repelled two sharp attacks made by Sigel. Pope arrived at + noon with the divisions from Centreville, which, led by the general + himself and by Reno and Hooker, two of the bravest officers in the Union + army, made a third and most desperate attack on Jackson's line. The + latter, repulsing it with difficulty, carried its counter-stroke too far + and was in turn repulsed by Grover's brigade of Hooker's division. Grover + then made a fourth assault, but was driven back with terrible loss. The + last assault, gallantly delivered by two divisions under Kearny and + Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; but a + Confederate counter-attack, led by the brave Jubal Early, dislodged the + assailants with the bayonet.</p> + + <p>In the meanwhile events had taken place near Groveton which were, for + twenty years after the war, the subject of controversy and recrimination + (see <span class="sc">Porter</span>, <span class="sc">Fitz-John</span>). + When Porter's and part of McDowell's corps, acting on various orders sent + by Pope, approached Gainesville from the south-east, Longstreet had + already reached that place, and the Federals thus encountered a force of + unknown strength at the moment when Sigel's guns to the northward showed + him to be closely engaged with Jackson. The two generals consulted, and + McDowell marched off to join Sigel, while Porter remained to hold the new + enemy in check. In this he succeeded; Longstreet, though far superior in + numbers, made no forward move, and his advanced guard alone came into + action. On the night of the 29th Lee reunited the wings of his army on + the field of battle. He had forced Pope back many miles from the + Rappahannock, and expecting that the Federals would retire to the line of + Bull Run before giving battle, he now decided to wait for the last + divisions of Longstreet's corps, which were still distant. But Pope, + still sanguine, ordered a "general pursuit" of Jackson for the 30th. + There was some ground for his suppositions, for Jackson had retired a + short distance and Longstreet's advanced guard had also fallen back. + McDowell, however, who was in general charge of the Federal right on the + 30th, soon saw that Jackson was not retreating and stopped the "pursuit," + and the attack on Jackson's right, which Pope had ordered Porter to make, + was repulsed by Longstreet's overwhelming forces. Then Lee's whole line, + 4 m. long, made its grand counter-stroke (4 <span + class="scac">P.M.</span>). There was now no hesitation in Longstreet's + attack; the Federal left was driven successively from every position it + took up, and Longstreet finally captured Bald Hill. Jackson, though + opposed by the greater part of Pope's forces, advanced to the Matthews + hill, and his artillery threatened the Stone Bridge. The Federals, driven + back to the banks of Bull Run, were only saved by the gallant defence of + the Henry House hill by the Pennsylvanian division of Reynolds and the + regulars <!-- Page 793 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page793"></a>[v.04 p.0793]</span>under Sykes. Pope withdrew under + cover of night to Centreville. Here he received fresh reinforcements, but + Jackson was already marching round his new right, and after the action of + Chantilly (1st of September) the whole Federal army fell back to + Washington. The Union forces present on the field on the 29th and 30th + numbered about 63,000, the strength of Lee's army being on the same dates + about 54,000. Besides their killed and wounded the Federals lost very + heavily in prisoners.</p> + + <p><b>BULLY</b> (of uncertain origin, but possibly connected with a + Teutonic word seen in many compounds, as the Low Ger. <i>bullerjaan</i>, + meaning "noisy"; the word has also, with less probability, been derived + from the Dutch <i>boel</i>, and Ger. <i>Buhle</i>, a lover), originally a + fine, swaggering fellow, as in "Bully Bottom" in <i>A Midsummer Night's + Dream</i>, later an overbearing ruffian, especially a coward who abuses + his strength by ill-treating the weak; more technically a + <i>souteneur</i>, a man who lives on the earnings of a prostitute. The + term in its early use of "fine" or "splendid" survives in American + slang.</p> + + <p><b>BÜLOW, BERNHARD ERNST VON</b> (1815-1879), Danish and German + statesman, was the son of Adolf von Bülow, a Danish official, and was + born at Cismar in Holstein on the 2nd of August 1815. He studied law at + the universities of Berlin, Göttingen and Kiel, and began his political + career in the service of Denmark, in the chancery of + Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen, and afterwards in the foreign + office. In 1842 he became councillor of legation, and in 1847 Danish + <i>chargé d'affaires</i> in the Hanse towns, where his intercourse with + the merchant princes led to his marriage in 1848 with a wealthy heiress, + Louise Victorine Rücker. When the insurrection broke out in the Elbe + duchies (1848) he left the Danish service, and offered his services to + the provisional government of Kiel, an offer that was not accepted. In + 1849, accordingly, he re-entered the service of Denmark, was appointed a + royal chamberlain and in 1850 sent to represent the duchies of Schleswig + and Holstein at the restored federal diet of Frankfort. Here he came into + intimate touch with Bismarck, who admired his statesmanlike handling of + the growing complications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. With the + radical "Eider-Dane" party he was utterly out of sympathy; and when, in + 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was recalled from Frankfort. + He now entered the service of the grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and + remained at the head of the grand-ducal government until 1867, when he + became plenipotentiary for the two Mecklenburg duchies in the council of + the German Confederation (Bundesrat), where he distinguished himself by + his successful defence of the medieval constitution of the duchies + against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck, who was in thorough sympathy + with his views, persuaded him to enter the service of Prussia as + secretary of state for foreign affairs, and from this time till his death + he was the chancellor's most faithful henchman. In 1875 he was appointed + Prussian plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became Bismarck's + lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the Empire; and in + 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian plenipotentiary at the + congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort on the 20th of October 1879, his + end being hastened by his exertions in connexion with the political + crisis of that year. Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard Heinrich Karl + (see below), became chancellor of the Empire.</p> + + <p>See the biography of H. von Petersdorff in <i>Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie</i>, Band 47, p. 350.</p> + + <p><b>BÜLOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN,</b> <span class="sc">Prince + von</span> (1849- ), German statesman, was born on the 3rd of May 1849, + at Klein-Flottbeck, in Holstein. The Bülow family is one very widely + extended in north Germany, and many members have attained distinction in + the civil and military service of Prussia, Denmark and Mecklenburg. + Prince Bülow's great-uncle, Heinrich von Bülow, who was distinguished for + his admiration of England and English institutions, was Prussian + ambassador in England from 1827 to 1840, and married a daughter of + Wilhelm von Humboldt (see the letters of Gabrielle von Bülow). His + father, Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, is separately noticed above.</p> + + <p>Prince Bülow must not be confused with his contemporary Otto v. Bülow + (1827-1901), an official in the Prussian foreign office, who in 1882 was + appointed German envoy at Bern, from 1892 to 1898 was Prussian envoy to + the Vatican, and died at Rome on the 22nd of November 1901.</p> + + <p>Bernhard von Bülow, after serving in the Franco-Prussian War, entered + the Prussian civil service, and was then transferred to the diplomatic + service. In 1876 he was appointed attaché to the German embassy in Paris, + and after returning for a while to the foreign office at Berlin, became + second secretary to the embassy in Paris in 1880. From 1884 he was first + secretary to the embassy at St Petersburg, and acted as <i>chargé + d'affaires</i>; in 1888 he was appointed envoy at Bucharest, and in 1893 + to the post of German ambassador at Rome. In 1897, on the retirement of + Baron Marshall von Bieberstein, he was appointed secretary of state for + foreign affairs (the same office which his father had held) under Prince + Hohenlohe, with a seat in the Prussian ministry. The appointment caused + much surprise at the time, as Bülow was little known outside diplomatic + circles. The explanations suggested were that he had made himself very + popular at Rome and that his appointment was therefore calculated to + strengthen the loosening bonds of the Triple Alliance, and also that his + early close association with Bismarck would ensure the maintenance of the + Bismarckian tradition. As foreign secretary Herr von Bülow was chiefly + responsible for carrying out the policy of colonial expansion with which + the emperor had identified himself, and in 1899, on bringing to a + successful conclusion the negotiations by which the Caroline Islands were + acquired by Germany, he was raised to the rank of count. On the + resignation of Hohenlohe in 1900 he was chosen to succeed him as + chancellor of the empire and president of the Prussian ministry.</p> + + <p>The <i>Berliner Neueste Nachrichten</i>, commenting on this + appointment, very aptly characterized the relations of the new chancellor + to the emperor, in contrast to the position occupied by Bismarck. "The + Germany of William II.," it said, "does not admit a Titan in the position + of the highest official of the Empire. A cautious and versatile + diplomatist like Bernhard von Bülow appears to be best adapted to the + personal and political necessities of the present situation." Count + Bülow, indeed, though, like Bismarck, a "realist," utilitarian and + opportunist in his policy, made no effort to emulate the masterful + independence of the great chancellor. He was accused, indeed, of being + little more than the complacent executor of the emperor's will, and + defended himself in the Reichstag against the charge. The substance of + the relations between the emperor and himself, he declared, rested on + mutual good-will, and added: "I must lay it down most emphatically that + the prerogative of the emperor's personal initiative must not be + curtailed, and will not be curtailed, by any chancellor.... As regards + the chancellor, however, I say that no imperial chancellor worthy of the + name ... would take up any position which in his conscience he did not + regard as justifiable." It is clear that the position of a chancellor + holding these views in relation to a ruler so masterful and so impulsive + as the emperor William II. could be no easy one; and Bülow's long + continuance in office is the best proof of his genius. His first + conspicuous act as chancellor was a masterly defence in the Reichstag of + German action in China, a defence which was, indeed, rendered easier by + the fact that Prince Hohenlohe had—to use his own words—"dug + a canal" for the flood of imperial ambition of which warning had been + given in the famous "mailed fist" speech. Such incidents as this, + however, though they served to exhibit consummate tact and diplomatic + skill, give little index to the fundamental character of his work as + chancellor. Of this it may be said, in general, that it carried on the + best traditions of the Prussian service in whole-hearted devotion to the + interests of the state. The accusation that he was an "agrarian" he + thought it necessary to rebut in a speech delivered on the 18th of + February 1906 to the German Handelstag. He was an agrarian, he declared, + in so far as he came of a land-owning family, and was interested in the + prosperity of agriculture; but as chancellor, whose function it is to + watch over the welfare <!-- Page 794 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page794"></a>[v.04 p.0794]</span>of all classes, he was equally + concerned with the interests of commerce and industry (<i>Kölnische + Zeitung</i>, Feb. 20, 1906). Some credit for the immense material + expansion of Germany under his chancellorship is certainly due to his + zeal and self-devotion. This was generously recognized by the emperor in + a letter publicly addressed to the chancellor on the 21st of May 1906, + immediately after the passage of the Finance Bill. "I am fully + conscious," it ran, "of the conspicuous share in the initiation and + realization of this work of reform... which must be ascribed to the + statesmanlike skill and self-sacrificing devotion with which you have + conducted and promoted those arduous labours." Rumours had from time to + time been rife of a "chancellor crisis" and Bülow's dismissal; in the + <i>Berliner Tageblatt</i> this letter was compared to the "Never!" with + which the emperor William I. had replied to Bismarck's proffered + resignation.</p> + + <p>On the 6th of June 1905 Count Bülow was raised to the rank of prince + (<i>Fürst</i>), on the occasion of the marriage of the crown prince. The + coincidence of this date with the fall of M. Delcassé, the French + minister for foreign affairs—a triumph for Germany and a + humiliation for France—was much commented on at the time (see + <i>The Times</i>, June 7, 1905); and the elevation of Bismarck to the + rank of prince in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles was recalled. + Whatever element of truth there may have been in this, however, the + significance of the incident was much exaggerated.</p> + + <p>On the 5th of April 1906, while attending a debate in the Reichstag, + Prince Bülow was seized with illness, the result of overwork and an + attack of influenza, and was carried unconscious from the hall. At first + it was thought that the attack would be fatal, and Lord Fitzmaurice in + the House of Lords compared the incident with that of the death of + Chatham, a compliment much appreciated in Germany. The illness, however, + quickly took a favourable turn, and after a month's rest the chancellor + was able to resume his duties. In 1907 Prince Bülow was made the subject + of a disgraceful libel, which received more attention than it deserved + because it coincided with the Harden-Moltke scandals; his character was, + however, completely vindicated, and the libeller, a journalist named + Brand, received a term of imprisonment.</p> + + <p>The parliamentary skill of Prince Bülow in holding together the + heterogeneous elements of which the government majority in the Reichstag + was composed, no less than the diplomatic tact with which he from time to + time "interpreted" the imperial indiscretions to the world, was put to a + rude test by the famous "interview" with the German emperor, published in + the London <i>Daily Telegraph</i> of the 28th of October 1908 (see <span + class="sc">William II.</span>, German emperor), which aroused universal + reprobation in Germany. Prince Bülow assumed the official responsibility, + and tendered his resignation to the emperor, which was not accepted; but + the chancellor's explanation in the Reichstag on the 10th of November + showed how keenly he felt his position. He declared his conviction that + the disastrous results of the interview would "induce the emperor in + future to observe that strict reserve, even in private conversations, + which is equally indispensable in the interest of a uniform policy and + for the authority of the crown," adding that, in the contrary case, + neither he nor any successor of his could assume the responsibility + (<i>The Times</i>, Nov. 11, 1908, p. 9). The attitude of the emperor + showed that he had taken the lesson to heart. It was not the imperial + indiscretions, but the effect of his budget proposals in breaking up the + Liberal-Conservative <i>bloc</i>, on whose support he depended in the + Reichstag, that eventually drove Prince Bülow from office (see <span + class="sc">Germany</span>: <i>History</i>). At the emperor's request he + remained to pilot the mutilated budget through the House; but on the 14th + of July 1909 the acceptance of his resignation was announced.</p> + + <p>Prince Bülow married, on the 9th of January 1886, Maria Anna Zoe + Rosalia Beccadelli di Bologna, Princess Camporeale, whose first marriage + with Count Karl von Dönhoff had been dissolved and declared null by the + Holy See in 1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil of + Liszt, was a step-daughter of the Italian statesman Minghetti.</p> + + <p>See J. Penzler, <i>Graf Bülows Reden nebst urkundlichen Beiträgen zu + seiner Politik</i> (Leipzig, 1903).</p> + + <p><b>BÜLOW, DIETRICH HEINRICH,</b> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> + (1757-1807), Prussian soldier and military writer, and brother of General + Count F.W. Bülow, entered the Prussian army in 1773. Routine work proved + distasteful to him, and he read with avidity the works of the chevalier + Folard and other theoretical writers on war, and of Rousseau. After + sixteen years' service he left Prussia, and endeavoured without success + to obtain a commission in the Austrian army. He then returned to Prussia, + and for some time managed a theatrical company. The failure of this + undertaking involved Bülow in heavy losses, and soon afterwards he went + to America, where he seems to have been converted to, and to have + preached, Swedenborgianism. On his return to Europe he persuaded his + brother to engage in a speculation for exporting glass to the United + States, which proved a complete failure. After this for some years he + made a precarious living in Berlin by literary work, but his debts + accumulated, and it was under great disadvantages that he produced his + <i>Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems</i> (Hamburg, 1799) and <i>Der Feldzug + 1800</i> (Berlin, 1801). His hopes of military employment were again + disappointed, and his brother, the future field marshal, who had stood by + him in all his troubles, finally left him. After wandering in France and + the smaller German states, he reappeared at Berlin in 1804, where he + wrote a revised edition of his <i>Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems</i> + (Hamburg, 1805), <i>Lehrsätze des Neueren Kriegs</i> (Berlin, 1805), + <i>Geschichte des Prinzen Heinrich von Preussen</i> (Berlin, 1805), + <i>Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein sollte</i> (Leipzig, 1805), and + <i>Der Feldzug 1805</i> (Leipzig, 1806). He also edited, with G.H. von + Behrenhorst (1733-1814) and others, <i>Annalen des Krieges</i> (Berlin, + 1806). These brilliant but unorthodox works, distinguished by an open + contempt of the Prussian system, cosmopolitanism hardly to be + distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a + disappointed man, brought upon Bülow the enmity of the official classes + and of the government. He was arrested as insane, but medical examination + proved him sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he + was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his + condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga + in 1807, probably as a result of ill-treatment.</p> + + <p>In Bülow's writings there is evident a distinct contrast between the + spirit of his strategical and that of his tactical ideas. As a strategist + (he claimed to be the first of strategists) he reduces to mathematical + rules the practice of the great generals of the 18th century, ignoring + "friction," and manœuvring his armies <i>in vacuo</i>. At the same + time he professes that his system provides working rules for the armies + of his own day, which in point of fact were "armed nations," infinitely + more affected by "friction" than the small dynastic and professional + armies of the preceding age. Bülow may therefore be considered as + anything but a reformer in the domain of strategy. With more justice he + has been styled the "father of modern tactics." He was the first to + recognize that the conditions of swift and decisive war brought about by + the French Revolution involved wholly new tactics, and much of his + teaching had a profound influence on European warfare of the 19th + century. His early training had shown him merely the pedantic + <i>minutiae</i> of Frederick's methods, and, in the absence of any troops + capable of illustrating the real linear tactics, he became an + enthusiastic supporter of the methods, which (more of necessity than from + judgment) the French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in + small columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were won by + skirmishers. "We must organize disorder," he said; indeed, every argument + of writers of the modern "extended order" school is to be found + <i>mutatis mutandis</i> in Bülow, whose system acquired great prominence + in view of the mechanical improvements in armament. But his tactics, like + his strategy, were vitiated by the absence of "friction," and their + dependence on the realization of an unattainable standard of bravery.</p> + + <p>See von Voss, <i>H. von Bülow</i> (Köln, 1806); P. von Bülow, + <i>Familienbuch der v. Bülow</i> (Berlin, 1859); Ed. von Bülow, <i>Aus + dem Leben Dietrichs v. Bülow</i>, also <i>Vermischte Schriften aus dem + Nachlass von Behrenhorst</i> (1845); Ed. von Bülow and von Rüstow, + <i>Militärische und vermischte Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. + Bülow</i> (Leipzig, 1853); Memoirs by Freiherr v. Meerheimb in + <i>Allgemeine deutsche <!-- Page 795 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page795"></a>[v.04 p.0795]</span>Biographie</i>, vol. 3 (Leipzig, + 1876), and "Behrenhorst und Bülow" (<i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, 1861, + vi.); Max Jähns, <i>Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften</i>, vol. iii. + pp. 2133-2145 (Munich, 1891); General von Cämmerer (transl. von Donat), + <i>Development of Strategical Science</i> (London, 1905), ch. i.</p> + + <p><b>BÜLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM,</b> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span>, + count of Dennewitz (1755-1816), Prussian general, was born on the 16th of + February 1755, at Falkenberg in the Altmark; he was the elder brother of + the foregoing. He received an excellent education, and entered the + Prussian army in 1768, becoming ensign in 1772, and second lieutenant in + 1775. He took part in the "Potato War" of 1778, and subsequently devoted + himself to the study of his profession and of the sciences and arts. He + was throughout his life devoted to music, his great musical ability + bringing him to the notice of Frederick William II., and about 1790 he + was conspicuous in the most fashionable circles of Berlin. He did not, + however, neglect his military studies, and in 1792 he was made military + instructor to the young prince Louis Ferdinand, becoming at the same time + full captain. He took part in the campaigns of 1792-93-94 on the Rhine, + and received for signal courage during the siege of Mainz the order + <i>pour le mérite</i> and promotion to the rank of major. After this he + went to garrison duty at Soldau. In 1802 he married the daughter of + Colonel v. Auer, and in the following year he became lieutenant-colonel, + remaining at Soldau with his corps. The vagaries and misfortunes of his + brother Dietrich affected his happiness as well as his fortune. The loss + of two of his children was followed in 1806 by the death of his wife, and + a further source of disappointment was the exclusion of his regiment from + the field army sent against Napoleon in 1806. The disasters of the + campaign aroused his energies. He did excellent service under Lestocq's + command in the latter part of the war, was wounded in action, and finally + designated for a brigade command in Blücher's force. In 1808 he married + the sister of his first wife, a girl of eighteen. He was made a + major-general in the same year, and henceforward he devoted himself + wholly to the regeneration of Prussia. The intensity of his patriotism + threw him into conflict even with Blücher and led to his temporary + retirement; in 1811, however, he was again employed. In the critical days + preceding the War of Liberation he kept his troops in hand without + committing himself to any irrevocable step until the decision was made. + On the 14th of March 1813 he was made a lieutenant-general. He fought + against Oudinot in defence of Berlin (see <span class="sc">Napoleonic + Campaigns</span>), and in the summer came under the command of + Bernadotte, crown prince of Sweden. At the head of an army corps Bülow + distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Gross Beeren, a + victory which was attributed almost entirely to his leadership. A little + later he won the great victory of Dennewitz, which for the third time + checked Napoleon's advance on Berlin. This inspired the greatest + enthusiasm in Prussia, as being won by purely Prussian forces, and + rendered Bülow's popularity almost equal to that of Blücher. Bülow's + corps played a conspicuous part in the final overthrow of Napoleon at + Leipzig, and he was then entrusted with the task of evicting the French + from Holland and Belgium. In an almost uniformly successful campaign he + won a signal victory at Hoogstraaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he + invaded France from the north-west, joined Blücher, and took part in the + brilliant victory of Laon in March. He was now made general of infantry + and received the title of Count Bülow von Dennewitz. In the short peace + of 1814-1815 he was at Konigsberg as commander-in-chief in Prussia + proper. He was soon called to the field again, and in the Waterloo + campaign commanded the IV. corps of Blücher's army. He was not present at + Ligny, but his corps headed the flank attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, + and bore the heaviest part in the fighting of the Prussian troops. He + took part in the invasion of France, but died suddenly on the 25th of + February 1816, a month after his return to the Königsberg command.</p> + + <p>See <i>General Graf Bülow von Dennewitz, 1813-1814</i> (Leipzig, + 1843); Varnhagen von Ense, <i>Leben des G. Grafen B. von D.</i> (Berlin, + 1854).</p> + + <p><b>BÜLOW, HANS GUIDO VON</b> (1830-1894), German pianist and + conductor, was born at Dresden, on the 8th of January 1830. At the age of + nine he began to study music under Friedrich Wieck as part of a genteel + education. It was only after an illness while studying law at Leipzig + University in 1848 that he determined upon music as a career. At this + time he was a pupil of Moritz Hauptmann. In 1849 revolutionary politics + took possession of him. In the Berlin <i>Abendpost</i>, a democratic + journal, the young aristocrat poured forth his opinions, which were + strongly coloured by Wagner's <i>Art and Revolution</i>. Wagner's + influence was musical no less than political, for a performance of + <i>Lohengrin</i> under Liszt at Weimar in 1850 completed von Bülow's + determination to abandon a legal career. From Weimar he went to Zürich, + where the exile Wagner instructed him in the elements of conducting. But + he soon returned to Weimar and Liszt; and in 1853 he made his first + concert tour, which extended from Vienna to Berlin. Next he became + principal professor of the piano at the Stern Academy, and married in his + <span class="correction" title="'twenty-eight' in original" + >twenty-eighth</span> year Liszt's daughter Cosima. For the following + nine years von Bülow laboured incessantly in Berlin as pianist, conductor + and writer of musical and political articles. Thence he removed to + Munich, where, thanks to Wagner, he had been appointed + <i>Hofkapellmeister</i> to Louis II., and chief of the Conservatorium. + There, too, he organized model performances of <i>Tristan</i> and <i>Die + Meistersinger</i>. In 1869 his marriage was dissolved, his wife + subsequently marrying Wagner, an incident which, while preventing Bülow + from revisiting Bayreuth, never dimmed his enthusiasm for Wagner's + dramas. After a temporary stay in Florence, Bülow set out on tour again + as a pianist, visiting most European countries as well as the United + States of America, before taking up the post of conductor at Hanover, + and, later, at Meiningen, where he raised the orchestra to a pitch of + excellence till then unparalleled. In 1885 he resigned the Meiningen + office, and conducted a number of concerts in Russia and Germany. At + Frankfort he held classes for the higher development of piano-playing. He + constantly visited England, for the last time in 1888, in which year he + went to live in Hamburg. Nevertheless he continued to conduct the Berlin + Philharmonic Concerts. He died at Cairo, on the 13th of February 1894. + Bülow was a pianist of the highest order of intellectual attainment, an + artist of remarkably catholic tastes, and a great conductor. A passionate + hater of humbug and affectation, he had a ready pen, and a biting, + sometimes almost rude wit, yet of his kindness and generosity countless + tales were told. His compositions are few and unimportant, but his + annotated editions of the classical masters are of great value. Bülow's + writings and letters (<i>Briefe und Schriften</i>), edited by his widow, + have been published in 8 vols. (Leipzig, 1895-1908).</p> + + <p><b>BULRUSH,</b> a name now generally given to <i>Typha latifolia</i>, + the reed-mace or club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges of rivers + and similar localities, with a creeping underground stem, narrow, nearly + flat leaves, 3 to 6 ft. long, arranged in opposite rows, and a tall stem + ending in a cylindrical spike, half to one foot long, of closely packed + male (above) and female (below) flowers. The familiar brown spike is a + dense mass of minute one-seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk + and covered with long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and + readily carried by the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied + to <i>Scirpus lacustris</i>, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae), + a common plant in wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless stems, + bearing a tuft of many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for + matting, &c. The bulrush of Scripture, associated with the hiding of + Moses, was the <i>Papyrus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), also a member of the order + Cyperaceae, which was abundant in the Nile.</p> + + <p><b>BULSTRODE, SIR RICHARD</b> (1610-1711), English author and soldier, + was a son of Edward Bulstrode (1588-1659), and was educated at Pembroke + College, Cambridge; after studying law in London he joined the army of + Charles I. on the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642. In 1673 he became a + resident agent of Charles II. at Brussels; in 1675 he was knighted; then + following James II. into exile he died at St Germain on the 3rd of + October 1711. Bulstrode is chiefly known by his <i>Memoirs and + Reflections upon the Reign and Government of King Charles I. and King + Charles II.</i>, published after his death in 1721. He also <!-- Page 796 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page796"></a>[v.04 p.0796]</span>wrote + <i>Life of James II.</i>, and <i>Original Letters written to the Earl of + Arlington</i> (1712). The latter consists principally of letters written + from Brussels giving an account of the important events which took place + in the Netherlands during 1674.</p> + + <p>His second son, <span class="sc">Whitelocke Bulstrode</span> + (1650-1724), remained in England after the flight of James II.; he held + some official positions, and in 1717 wrote a pamphlet in support of + George I. and the Hanoverian succession. He published <i>A Discourse of + Natural Philosophy</i>, and was a prominent Protestant controversialist. + He died in London on the 27th of November 1724.</p> + + <p><b>BULWARK</b> (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from + <i>bol</i> or <i>bole</i>, a tree-trunk, and <i>werk</i>, work, in Ger. + <i>Bollwerk</i>, which has also been derived from an old German + <i>bolen</i>, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles), a + barricade of beams, earth, &c., a work in 15th and 16th century + fortifications designed to mount artillery (see <span + class="sc">Boulevard</span>). On board ship the term is used of the + woodwork running round the ship above the level of the deck. Figuratively + it means anything serving as a defence.</p> + + <p><b>BUMBOAT,</b> a small boat which carries vegetables, provisions, + &c., to ships lying in port or off the shore. The word is probably + connected with the Dutch <i>bumboat</i> or <i>boomboot</i>, a broad Dutch + fishing-boat, the derivation of which is either from <i>boom</i>, cf. + Ger. <i>baum</i>, a tree, or from <i>bon</i>, a place in which fish is + kept alive, and <i>boot</i>, a boat. It appears first in English in the + Trinity House By-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging boats attending + ships lying in the Thames.</p> + + <p><b>BUMBULUM,</b> <span class="sc">Bombulum</span> or <span + class="sc">Bunibulum</span>, a fabulous musical instrument described in + an apocryphal letter of St Jerome to Dardanus,<a name="FnAnchor_021" + href="#Footnote_021"><sup>[1]</sup></a> and illustrated in a series of + illuminated MSS. of the 9th to the 11th century, together with other + instruments described in the same letter. These MSS. are the <i>Psalter + of Emmeran</i>, 9th century, described by Martin Gerbert,<a + name="FnAnchor_022" href="#Footnote_022"><sup>[2]</sup></a> who gives a + few illustrations from it; the Cotton MS. <i>Tiberius C. VI.</i> in the + British Museum, 11th century; the famous <i>Boulogne Psalter</i>, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1000; and the <i>Psalter of Angers</i>, 9th + century.<a name="FnAnchor_023" href="#Footnote_023"><sup>[3]</sup></a> In + the Cotton MS. the instrument consists of an angular frame, from which + depends by a chain a rectangular metal plate having twelve bent arms + attached in two rows of three on each side, one above the other. The arms + appear to terminate in small rectangular bells or plates, and it is + supposed that the standard frame was intended to be shaken like a sistrum + in order to set the bells jangling. Sebastian Virdung<a + name="FnAnchor_024" href="#Footnote_024"><sup>[4]</sup></a> gives + illustrations of these instruments of Jerome, and among them of the one + called bumbulum in the Cotton MS., which Virdung calls <i>Fistula + Hieronimi</i>. The general outline is the same, but instead of metal arms + there is the same number of bent pipes with conical bore. Virdung + explains, following the apocryphal letter, that the stand resembling the + draughtsman's square represents the Holy Cross, the rectangular object + dangling therefrom signifies Christ on the Cross, and the twelve pipes + are the twelve apostles. Virdung's illustration, probably copied from an + older work in manuscript, conforms more closely to the text of the letter + than does the instrument in the Cotton MS. There is no evidence whatever + of the actual existence of such an instrument during the middle ages, + with the exception of this series of fanciful pictures drawn to + illustrate an instrument known from description only. The word + <i>bombulum</i> was probably derived from the same root as the <span + title="bombaulios" class="grk" + >βομβαύλιος</span> + of Aristophanes (<i>Acharnians</i>, 866) (<span title="bombos" class="grk" + >βόμβος</span> and <span title="aulos" class="grk" + >αὐλός</span>), a comic compound for a + bag-pipe with a play on <span title="bombulios" class="grk" + >βομβυλιός</span>, + an insect that hums or buzzes (see <span class="sc">Bag-Pipe</span>). The + original described in the letter, also from hearsay, was probably an + early type of organ.</p> + + <p>(K. S.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_021" href="#FnAnchor_021">[1]</a> <i>Ad Dardanum, de + diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_022" href="#FnAnchor_022">[2]</a> <i>De Cantu et + Musica Sacra</i> (1774).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_023" href="#FnAnchor_023">[3]</a> For illustrations + see <i>Annales archéologiques</i>, iii. p. 82 et seq.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_024" href="#FnAnchor_024">[4]</a> <i>Musica + getutscht und aussgezogen</i> (Basle, 1511).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUN,</b> a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the + word is used for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north of + Ireland for a round loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word + has been much disputed. It has been affiliated to the old provincial + French <i>bugne</i>, "swelling," in the sense of a "fritter," but the + <i>New English Dictionary</i> doubts the usage of the word. It is quite + as probable that it has a far older and more interesting origin, as is + suggested by an inquiry into the origin of hot cross buns. These cakes, + which are now solely associated with the Christian Good Friday, are + traceable to the remotest period of pagan history. Cakes were offered by + ancient Egyptians to their moon-goddess; and these had imprinted on them + a pair of horns, symbolic of the ox at the sacrifice of which they were + offered on the altar, or of the horned moon-goddess, the equivalent of + Ishtar of the Assyro-Babylonians. The Greeks offered such sacred cakes to + Astarte and other divinities. This cake they called <i>bous</i> (ox), in + allusion to the ox-symbol marked on it, and from the accusative + <i>boun</i> it is suggested that the word "bun" is derived. Diogenes + Laertius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 200), speaking of the + offering made by Empedocles, says "He offered one of the sacred liba, + called a <i>bouse</i>, made of fine flour and honey." Hesychius + (<i>c.</i> 6th century) speaks of the <i>boun</i>, and describes it as a + kind of cake with a representation of two horns marked on it. In time the + Greeks marked these cakes with a cross, possibly an allusion to the four + quarters of the moon, or more probably to facilitate the distribution of + the sacred bread which was eaten by the worshippers. Like the Greeks, the + Romans eat cross-bread at public sacrifices, such bread being usually + purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them,—a + custom alluded to by St Paul in I Cor. x. 28. At Herculaneum two small + loaves about 5 in. in diameter, and plainly marked with a cross, were + found. In the Old Testament a reference is made in Jer. vii. 18-xliv. 19, + to such sacred bread being offered to the moon goddess. The cross-bread + was eaten by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eoster, their goddess of + light. The Mexicans and Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. + The custom, in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church + adroitly adopted the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist. The + <i>boun</i> with its Greek cross became akin to the Eucharistic bread or + cross-marked wafers mentioned in St Chrysostom's <i>Liturgy</i>. In the + medieval church, buns made from the dough for the consecrated Host were + distributed to the communicants after Mass on Easter Sunday. In France + and other Catholic countries, such blessed bread is still given in the + churches to communicants who have a long journey before they can break + their fast. The Holy Eucharist in the Greek church has a cross printed on + it. In England there seems to have early been a disposition on the part + of the bakers to imitate the church, and they did a good trade in buns + and cakes stamped with a cross, for as far back as 1252 the practice was + forbidden by royal proclamation; but this seems to have had little + effect. With the rise of Protestantism the cross bun lost its sacrosanct + nature, and became a mere eatable associated for no particular reason + with Good Friday. Cross-bread is not, however, reserved for that day; in + the north of England people usually crossmark their cakes with a knife + before putting them in the oven. Many superstitions cling round hot cross + buns. Thus it is still a common belief that one bun should be kept for + luck's sake to the following Good Friday. In Dorsetshire it is thought + that a cross-loaf baked on that day and hung over the chimneypiece + prevents the bread baked in the house during the year from "going + stringy."</p> + + <p><b>BUNBURY, HENRY WILLIAM</b> (1750-1811), English caricaturist, was + the second son of Sir William Bunbury, 5th baronet, of Mildenhall, + Suffolk, and came of an old Norman family. He was educated at Westminster + school and St Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for + drawing, and especially for humorous subjects. His more serious efforts + did not rise to a high level, but his caricatures are as famous as those + of his contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being his + "Country Club" (1788), "Barber's Shop" (1811) and "A Long Story" (1782.) + He was a popular character, and the friend of most of the notabilities of + his day, whom he never offended by attempting political satire; and his + easy circumstances and social position (he was colonel of the West + Suffolk Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787) + enabled him to exercise his talents in comfort.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 797 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page797"></a>[v.04 p.0797]</span></p> + + <p>His son Sir <span class="sc">Henry Edward Bunbury</span>, Bart. + (1778-1860), who succeeded to the family title on the death of his uncle, + was a distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general; he was + an active member of parliament, and the author of several historical + works of value; and the latter's second son, Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, + also a member of parliament, was well known as a geographer and + archaeologist, and author of a <i>History of Ancient Geography.</i></p> + + <p><b>BUNBURY,</b> a seaport and municipal town of Wellington county, + Western Australia, 112 m. by rail S. by W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2455. + The harbour, known as Koombanah Bay, is protected by a breakwater built + on a coral reef. Coal is worked on the Collie river, 30 m. distant, and + is shipped from this port, together with tin, timber, sandal-wood and + agricultural produce.</p> + + <p><b>BUNCOMBE,</b> or <span class="sc">Bunkum</span> (from Buncombe + county, North Carolina, United States), a term used for insincere + political action or speaking to gain support or the favour of a + constituency, and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase "to talk for (or + to) Buncombe" arose in 1820, during the debate on the Missouri Compromise + in Congress; the member for the district containing Buncombe county + confessed that his long and much interrupted speech was only made because + his electors expected it, and that he was "speaking for Buncombe."</p> + + <p><b>BUNCRANA,</b> a market-town and watering-place of Co. Donegal, + Ireland, in the north parliamentary division on the east shore of Lough + Swilly, on the Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny railway. + Pop. (1901) 1316. There is a trade in agricultural produce, a salmon + fishery, sea fisheries and a manufacture of linen. The town is + beautifully situated, being flanked on the east and south by hills + exceeding 1000 ft. The picturesque square keep of an ancient castle + remains, but the present Buncrana Castle is a residence erected in 1717. + The golf-links are well known.</p> + + <p><b>BUNDABERG,</b> a municipal town and river port of Cook county, + Queensland, Australia, 10 m. from the mouth of the river Burnett, and 217 + m. by rail N. by W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 5200. It lies on both sides + of the river, and connexion between the two ports is maintained by road + and railway bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and + distilleries in the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity, + notably at Millaquin, on the river below the town. There are wharves on + both sides of the river, and the staple exports are sugar, golden-syrup + and timber. The climate is remarkably healthy.</p> + + <p><b>BUNDELKHAND,</b> a tract of country in Central India, lying between + the United and the Central Provinces. Historically it includes the five + British districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Banda, which + now form part of the Allahabad division of the United Provinces, but + politically it is restricted to a collection of native states, under the + Bundelkhand agency. There are 9 states, 13 estates and the pargana of + Alampur belonging to Indore state, with a total area of 9851 sq. m. and a + total population (1901) of 1,308,326, showing a decrease of 13% in the + decade, due to the effects of famine. The most important of the states + are Orchha, Panna, Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Bijawar and + Ajaigarh. A branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway traverses the + north of the country. A garrison of all arms is stationed at Nowgong.</p> + + <p>The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the + north-east part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines scooped + out by torrents during the periodical rains. The plains of Bundelkhand + are intersected by three mountain ranges, the Bindhachal, Panna and + Bander chains, the highest elevation not exceeding 2000 ft. above + sea-level. Beyond these ranges the country is further diversified by + isolated hills rising abruptly from a common level, and presenting from + their steep and nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and + strongholds, whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently set + at defiance the most powerful of the native states of India. The general + slope of the country is towards the north-east, as indicated by the + course of the rivers which traverse or bound the territory, and finally + discharge themselves into the Jumna.</p> + + <p>The principal rivers are the Sind, Betwa, Ken, Baighin, Paisuni, Tons, + Pahuj, Dhasan, Berma, Urmal and Chandrawal. The Sind, rising near Sironj + in Malwa, marks the frontier line of Bundelkhand on the side of Gwalior. + Parallel to this river, but more to the eastward, is the course of the + Betwa. Still farther to the east flows the Ken, followed in succession by + the Baighin, Paisuni and Tons. The Jumna and the Ken are the only two + navigable rivers. Notwithstanding the large number of streams, the + depression of their channels and height of their banks render them for + the most part unsuitable for the purposes of irrigation,—which is + conducted by means of <i>jhils</i> and tanks. These artificial lakes are + usually formed by throwing embankments across the lower extremities of + valleys, and thus arresting and accumulating the waters flowing through + them. Some of the tanks are of great capacity; the Barwa Sagar, for + instance, is 2½ m. in diameter. Diamonds are found, particularly near the + town of Panna, in a range of hills called by the natives Band-Ahil.</p> + + <p>The mines of Maharajpur, Rajpur, Kimera and Gadasia have been famous + for magnificent diamonds; and a very large one dug from the last was kept + in the fort of Kalinjar among the treasures of Raja Himmat Bahadur. In + the reign of the emperor Akbar the mines of Panna produced diamonds to + the amount of £100,000 annually, and were a considerable source of + revenue, but for many years they have not been so profitable.</p> + + <p>The tree vegetation consists rather of jungle or copse than forest, + abounding in game which is preserved by the native chiefs. There are also + within these coverts several varieties of wild animals, such as the + tiger, leopard, hyena, wild boar, <i>nilgái</i> and jackal.</p> + + <p>The people represent various races. The Bundelas—the race who + gave the name to the country—still maintain their dignity as + chieftains, by disdaining to cultivate the soil, although by no means + conspicuous for lofty sentiments of honour or morality. An Indian proverb + avers that "one native of Bundelkhand commits as much fraud as a hundred + Dandis" (weighers of grain and notorious rogues). About Datia and Jhansi + the inhabitants are a stout and handsome race of men, well off and + contented. The prevailing religion in Bundelkhand is Hinduism.</p> + + <p>The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand were the + Garhwas, who were succeeded by the Parihars; but nothing is known of + either. About <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 800 the Parihars are said to + have been ousted by the Chandels, and Dangha Varma, chief of the Chandel + Rajputs, appears to have established the earliest paramount power in + Bundelkhand towards the close of the 10th century <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> Under his dynasty the country attained its + greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its raja, + whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the + head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with 640 elephants, to oppose the + invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown + by Prithwi Raj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country + remained in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the + Bundelas, a spurious offshoot of the Garhwa tribe of Rajputs, established + themselves on the right bank of the Jumna. One of these took possession + of Orchha by treacherously poisoning its chief. His successor succeeded + in further aggrandizing the Bundela state, but he is represented to have + been a notorious plunderer, and his character is further stained by the + assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and + historian of Akbar. Jajhar Singh, the third Bundela chief, unsuccessfully + revolted against the court of Delhi, and his country became incorporated + for a short time with the empire. The struggles of the Bundelas for + independence resulted in the withdrawal of the royal troops, and the + admission of several petty states as feudatories of the empire on + condition of military service. The Bundelas, under Champat Rai and his + son. Chhatar Sal, offered a successful resistance to the proselytizing + efforts of Aurangzeb. On the occasion of a Mahommedan invasion in 1732, + Chhatar Sal asked and obtained the assistance of the Mahratta Peshwa, + whom he adopted as his son, giving him a third of his dominions. The + Mahrattas gradually extended their influence over Bundelkhand, <!-- Page + 798 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page798"></a>[v.04 + p.0798]</span>and in 1792 the peshwa was acknowledged as the lord + paramount of the country. The Mahratta power was, however, on the + decline; the flight of the peshwa from his capital to Bassein before the + British arms changed the aspect of affairs, and by the treaty concluded + between the peshwa and the British government, the districts of Banda and + Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. Two chiefs then held the ceded + districts, Himmat Bahadur, the leader of the Sanyasis, who promoted the + views of the British, and Shamsher, who made common cause with the + Mahrattas. In September 1803, the united forces of the English and Himmat + Bahadur compelled Shamsher to retreat with his army. In 1809 Ajaigarh was + besieged by a British force, and again three years later Kalinjar was + besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In 1817, by the treaty of Poona, + the British government acquired from the peshwa all his rights, interests + and pretensions, feudal, territorial or pecuniary, in Bundelkhand. In + carrying out the provisions of the treaty, an assurance was given by the + British government that the rights of those interested in the transfer + should be scrupulously respected, and the host of petty native + principalities in the province is the best proof of the sincerity and + good faith with which this clause has been carried out. During the mutiny + of 1857, however, many of the chiefs rose against the British, the rani + of Jhansi being a notable example.</p> + + <p><b>BUNDI,</b> or <span class="sc">Boondee</span>, a native state of + India, in the Rajputana agency, lying on the north-east of the river + Chambal, in a hilly tract historically known as Haraoti, from the Hara + sept of the great clan of Chauhan Rajputs, to which the maharao raja of + Bundi belongs. It has an area of 2220 sq. m. Many parts of the state are + wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina population, formerly notorious + as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the Chambia and the Mej, water the + state; the former is navigable by boats. In 1901 the population was + 171,227, showing a decrease of 42% due to the effects of famine. The + estimated revenue is £46,000, the tribute £8000. There is no railway, but + the metalled road from Kotah to the British cantonment of Deoli passes + through the state. The town of Bundi had a population in 1901 of 19,313. + A school for the education of boys of high rank was opened in 1897.</p> + + <p>The state of Bundi was founded about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 1342 by the Hara chief Rao Dewa, or Deoraj, who captured the town from + the Minas. Its importance, however, dates from the time of Rao Surjan, + who succeeded to the chieftainship in 1554 and by throwing in his lot + with the Mahommedan emperors of Delhi (1569) received a considerable + accession of territory. From this time the rulers of Bundi bore the title + of rao raja. In the 17th century their power was curtailed by the + division of Haraoti into the two states of Kotah and Bundi; but they + continued to play a prominent part in Indian history, and the title of + maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played by him in + securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after the death of + Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja Bishan Singh gave valuable + assistance to Colonel Monson in his disastrous retreat before Holkar, in + revenge for which the Mahratas and Pindaris continually ravaged his state + up to 1817. On the 10th of February 1818, by a treaty concluded with + Bishan Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In 1821 Bishan + Singh was succeeded by his son Ram Singh, who ruled till 1889. He is + described as a grand specimen of the Rajput gentleman, and "the most + conservative prince in conservative Rajputana." His rule was popular and + beneficent; and though during the mutiny of 1857 his attitude was + equivocal, he continued to enjoy the favour of the British government, + being created G.C.S.I. and a counsellor of the empire in 1877 and C.I.E. + in 1878. He was succeeded by his son Raghubir Singh, who was made a + K.C.S.I. in 1897 and a G.C.I.E. in 1901.</p> + + <p><b>BUNER,</b> a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-West + Frontier Province of India. It is a small mountain valley, dotted with + villages and divided into seven sub-divisions. The Mora Hills and the + Ilam range divide it from Swat, the Sinawar range from Yusafzai, the Guru + mountains from the Chamla valley, and the Duma range from the Puran + Valley. It is inhabited by the Iliaszai and Malizai divisions of the + Pathan tribe of Yusafzais, who are called after their country the + Bunerwals. There is no finer race on the north-west frontier of India + than the Bunerwals. Simple and austere in their habits, religious and + truthful in their ways, hospitable to all who seek shelter amongst them, + free from secret assassinations, they are bright examples of the Pathan + character at its best. They are a powerful and warlike tribe, numbering + 8000 fighting men. The Umbeyla Expedition of 1863 under Sir Neville + Chamberlain was occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with the Hindostani + Fanatics, who had settled down at Malka in their territory. In the end + the Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9000 British troops, and Malka + was destroyed, but they made so fierce a resistance, in particular in + their attack upon the "Crag" picket, that the Indian medal with a clasp + for "Umbeyla" was granted in 1869 to the survivors of the expedition. The + government of India refrained from interfering with the tribe again until + the Buner campaign of 1897 under Sir Bindon Blood. Many Bunerwals took + part in the attack of the Swatis on the Malakand fort, and a force of + 3000 British troops was sent to punish them; but the tribe made only a + feeble resistance at the passes into their country, and speedily handed + in the arms demanded of them and made complete submission.</p> + + <p><b>BUNGALOW</b> (an Anglo-Indian word from the Hindustani + <i>banglā</i>, belonging to Bengal), a one-storeyed house with a + verandah and a projecting roof, the typical dwelling for Europeans in + India; the name is also used for similar buildings which have become + common for seaside and summer residences in America and Great Britain. + Dak or dawk bungalows (from <i>dak</i> or <i>dawk</i>, a post, a relay of + men for carrying the mails, &c.) are the government rest-houses + established at intervals for the use of travellers on the high roads of + India.</p> + + <p><b>BUNGAY,</b> a market-town in the Lowestoft parliamentary division + of Suffolk, England; 113 m. N.E. from London on a branch from Beccles of + the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 3314. It is picturesquely placed + in a deep bend of the river Waveney, the boundary with Norfolk. Of the + two parish churches that of St Mary has a fine Perpendicular tower, and + that of Holy Trinity a round tower of which the lower part is Norman. St + Mary's was attached to a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1160. The ruins + of the castle date from 1281. They are fragmentary though massive; and + there are traces of earth-works of much earlier date. The castle was a + stronghold of the powerful family of Bigod, being granted to Roger Bigod, + a Norman follower of the Conqueror, in 1075. A grammar school was founded + in 1592. There are large printing-works, and founding and malting are + prosecuted. There is a considerable carrying trade on the Waveney.</p> + + <p><b>BUNION</b> (a word usually derived from the Ital. <i>bugnone</i>, a + swelling, but, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, the late + and rare literary use of the word makes an Italian derivation unlikely; + there is an O. Eng. word "bunny," also meaning a swelling, and an O. Fr. + <i>buigne</i>, modern <i>bigne</i>, showing a probable common origin now + lost, cf. also "bunch"), an inflamed swelling of the <i>bursa mucosa</i>, + the sac containing synovial fluid on the metatarsal joint of the big toe, + or, more rarely, of the little toe. This may be accompanied by corns or + suppuration, leading to an ulcer or even gangrene. The cause is usually + pressure; removal of this, and general palliative treatment by dressings, + &c. are usually effective, but in severe and obstinate cases a + surgical operation may be necessary.</p> + + <p><b>BUNKER HILL,</b> the name of a small hill in Charlestown (Boston), + Massachusetts, U.S.A., famous as the scene of the first considerable + engagement in the American War of Independence (June 17, 1775). Bunker + Hill (110 ft.) was connected by a ridge with Breed's Hill (75 ft.), both + being on a narrow peninsula a short distance to the north of Boston, + joined by a causeway with the mainland. Since the affair of Lexington + (April 19, 1775) General Gage, who commanded the British forces, had + remained inactive at Boston awaiting reinforcements from England; the + headquarters of the Americans were at Cambridge, with advanced posts + occupying much of the 4 m. separating <!-- Page 799 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page799"></a>[v.04 p.0799]</span>Cambridge from + Bunker Hill. When Gage received his reinforcements at the end of May, he + determined to repair his strange neglect by which the hills on the + peninsula had been allowed to remain unoccupied and unfortified. As soon + as the Americans became aware of Gage's intention they determined to + frustrate it, and accordingly, on the night of the 16th of June, a force + of about 1200 men, under Colonel William Prescott and Major-General + Israel Putnam, with some engineers and a few field-guns, occupied Breed's + Hill—to which the name Bunker Hill is itself now popularly + applied—and when daylight disclosed their presence to the British + they had already strongly entrenched their position. Gage lost no time in + sending troops across from Boston with orders to assault. The British + force, between 2000 and 3000 strong, under (Sir) William Howe, supported + by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and floating batteries + stationed in the anchorage on either side of the peninsula, were fresh + and well disciplined. The American force consisted for the most part of + inexperienced volunteers, numbers of whom were already wearied by the + trench work of the night. As communication was kept up with their camp + the numbers engaged on the hill fluctuated during the day, but at no time + exceeded about 1500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which a galling + musketry fire was directed against the British, was by General Howe's + orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot during the attack. Instead of + attempting to cut off the Americans by occupying the neck to the rear of + their position, Gage ordered the advance to be made up the steep and + difficult ascent facing the works on the hill. Whether or not in + obedience—as tradition asserts—to an order to reserve fire + until they could see the whites of their assailants' eyes, the American + volunteers with admirable steadiness waited till the attack was on the + point of being driven home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and + deadly that the British line broke in disorder. A second assault, made + like the first, with the precision and discipline of the parade-ground + met the same fate, but Gage's troops had still spirit enough for a third + assault, and this time they carried the position with the bayonet, + capturing five pieces of ordnance and putting the enemy to flight. The + loss of the British was 1054 men killed and wounded, among whom were 89 + commissioned officers; while the American casualties amounted to 420 + killed and wounded, including General Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners. + (See <span class="sc">American War of Independence</span>.)</p> + + <p>The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however, to be + gauged by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in proportion to + the numbers engaged, nor by its purely military results, but by the moral + effect which it produced; and when it is considered from this standpoint + its far-reaching consequences can hardly be over-estimated. "It roused at + once the fierce instinct of combat in America ..., and dispelled ... the + almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering regular + troops with hastily levied volunteers ... No one questioned the + conspicuous gallantry with which the provincial troops had supported a + long fire from the ships and awaited the charge of the enemy, and British + soldiers had been twice driven back in disorder before their fire."<a + name="FnAnchor_031" href="#Footnote_031"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The pride + which Americans naturally felt in such an achievement, and the + self-confidence which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that + the small force on Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced, and that + their ammunition was running short before they were dislodged from their + position.<a name="FnAnchor_032" href="#Footnote_032"><sup>[2]</sup></a> + Had the character of the fighting on that day been other than it was; had + the American volunteers been easily, and at the first assault, driven + from their fortified position by the troops of George III., it is not + impossible that the resistance to the British government would have died + out in the North American colonies through lack of confidence in their + own power on the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it may have + to teach the student of war, taught the American colonists in 1775 that + the odds against them in the enterprise in which they had embarked were + not so overwhelming as to deny them all prospect of ultimate success.</p> + + <p>In 1843 a monument, 221 ft. high, in the form of an obelisk, of Quincy + granite, was completed on Breed's Hill (now Bunker Hill) to commemorate + the battle, when an address was delivered by Daniel Webster, who had also + delivered the famous dedicatory oration at the laying of the corner-stone + in 1825. Bunker Hill day is a state holiday.</p> + + <p>See R. Frothingham, <i>The Centennial: Battle of Bunker Hill</i> + (Boston, 1895), and <i>Life and Times of Joseph Warren</i> (Boston, + 1865); Boston City Council, <i>Celebration of Centen. Aniv. of Battle of + Bunker Hill</i> (Boston, 1875); G.E. Ellis, <i>Hist. of Battle of + Bunker's</i> (Breed's) <i>Hill</i> (Boston, 1875); S. Sweet, <i>Who was + the Commander at Bunker Hill?</i> (Boston, 1850); W.E.H. Lecky, + <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i>, vol. iii (London, + 1883); Sir George O. Trevelyan, <i>The American Revolution</i> (London, + 1899); Fortescue, <i>History of the British Army</i>, vol. iii. pp. 153 + seq. (London, 1902).</p> + + <p>(R. J. M.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_031" href="#FnAnchor_031">[1]</a> W.E.H. Lecky, + <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i>, iii. 428.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_032" href="#FnAnchor_032">[2]</a> General Gage's + despatch. <i>American Remembrancer</i>, 1776, part 11, p. 132.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUNN, ALFRED</b> (1796-1860), English theatrical manager, was + appointed stage-manager of Drury Lane theatre, London, in 1823. In 1826 + he was managing the Theatre Royal, Birmingham, and in 1833 he undertook + the joint management of Drury Lane and Covent Garden, London. In this + undertaking he met with vigorous opposition. A bill for the abolition of + the patent theatres was passed in the House of Commons, but on Bunn's + petition was thrown out by the House of Lords. He had difficulties first + with his company, then with the lord chamberlain, and had to face the + keen rivalry of the other theatres. A longstanding quarrel with Macready + resulted in the tragedian assaulting the manager. In 1840 Bunn was + declared a bankrupt, but he continued to manage Drury Lane till 1848. + Artistically his control of the two chief English theatres was highly + successful. Nearly every leading English actor played under his + management, and he made a courageous attempt to establish English opera, + producing the principal works of Balfe. He had some gift for writing, and + most of the libretti of these operas were translated by himself. In + <i>The Stage Before and Behind the Curtain</i> (3 vols., 1840) he gave a + full account of his managerial experiences. He died at Boulogne on the + 20th of December 1860.</p> + + <p><b>BUNNER, HENRY CUYLER</b> (1855-1896), American writer, was born in + Oswego, New York, on the 3rd of August 1855. He was educated in New York + City. From being a clerk in an importing house, he turned to journalism, + and after some work as a reporter, and on the staff of the + <i>Arcadian</i> (1873), he became in 1877 assistant editor of the comic + weekly <i>Puck</i>. He soon assumed the editorship, which he held until + his death in Nutley, N.J., on the 11th of May 1896. He developed + <i>Puck</i> from a new struggling periodical into a powerful social and + political organ. In 1886 he published a novel, <i>The Midge</i>, followed + in 1887 by <i>The Story of a New York House</i>. But his best efforts in + fiction were his short stories and sketches—<i>Short Sixes</i> + (1891), <i>More Short Sixes</i> (1894), <i>Made in France</i> (1893), + <i>Zadoc Pine and Other Stories</i> (1891), <i>Love in Old Cloathes and + Other Stories</i> (1896), and <i>Jersey Street and Jersey Lane</i> + (1896). His verses—<i>Airs from Arcady and Elsewhere</i> (1884), + containing the well-known poem, <i>The Way to Arcady; Rowen</i> (1892); + and <i>Poems</i> (1896), edited by his friend Brander + Matthews—display a light play of imagination and a delicate + workmanship. He also wrote clever <i>vers de société</i> and parodies. Of + his several plays (usually written in collaboration), the best was <i>The + Tower of Babel</i> (1883).</p> + + <p><b>BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS,</b> <span class="sc">Baron + von</span> (1791-1860), Prussian diplomatist and scholar, was born on the + 25th of August 1791 at Korbach, an old town in the little German + principality of Waldeck. His father was a farmer who was driven by + poverty to become a soldier. Having studied at the Korbach grammar school + and Marburg university, Bunsen went in his nineteenth year to Göttingen, + where he supported himself by teaching and later by acting as tutor to + W.B. Astor, the American merchant. He won the university prize essay of + the year 1812 by a treatise on the <i>Athenian Law of Inheritance</i>, + and a few months later the university of Jena granted him the honorary + degree of doctor of philosophy. During 1813 he travelled with Astor in + South Germany, and then turned to the study of the religion, laws, + language and literature of the Teutonic <!-- Page 800 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page800"></a>[v.04 p.0800]</span>races. He had + read Hebrew when a boy, and now worked at Arabic at Munich, Persian at + Leiden, and Norse at Copenhagen. At the close of 1815 he went to Berlin, + to lay before Niebuhr the plan of research which he had mapped out. + Niebuhr was so impressed with Bunsen's ability that, two years later, + when he became Prussian envoy to the papal court, he made the young + scholar his secretary. The intervening years Bunsen spent in assiduous + labour among the libraries and collections of Paris and Florence. In July + 1817 he married Frances Waddington, eldest daughter and co-heiress of B. + Waddington of Llanover, Monmouthshire.</p> + + <p>As secretary to Niebuhr, Bunsen was brought into contact with the + Vatican movement for the establishment of the papal church in the + Prussian dominions, to provide for the largely increased Catholic + population. He was among the first to realize the importance of this new + vitality on the part of the Vatican, and he made it his duty to provide + against its possible dangers by urging upon the Prussian court the wisdom + of fair and impartial treatment of its Catholic subjects. In this object + he was at first successful, and both from the Vatican and from Frederick + William III., who put him in charge of the legation on Niebuhr's + resignation, he received unqualified approbation. Owing partly to the + wise statesmanship of Count Spiegel, archbishop of Cologne, an + arrangement was made by which the thorny question of "mixed" marriages + (<i>i.e.</i> between Catholic and Protestant) would have been happily + solved; but the archbishop died in 1835, the arrangement was never + ratified, and the Prussian king was foolish enough to appoint as + Spiegel's successor the narrow-minded partisan Baron Droste. The pope + gladly accepted the appointment, and in two years the forward policy of + the Jesuits had brought about the strife which Bunsen and Spiegel had + tried to prevent. Bunsen rashly recommended that Droste should be seized, + but the <i>coup</i> was so clumsily attempted, that the incriminating + documents were, it is said, destroyed in advance. The government, in this + <i>impasse</i>, took the safest course, refused to support Bunsen, and + accepted his resignation in April 1838.</p> + + <p>After leaving Rome, where he had become intimate with all that was + most interesting in the cosmopolitan society of the papal capital, Bunsen + went to England, where, except for a short term as Prussian ambassador to + Switzerland (1830-1841), he was destined to pass the rest of his official + life. The accession to the throne of Prussia of Frederick William IV., on + June 7th, 1840, made a great change in Bunsen's career. Ever since their + first meeting in 1828 the two men had been close friends and had + exchanged ideas in an intimate correspondence, published under Ranke's + editorship in 1873. Enthusiasm for evangelical religion and admiration + for the Anglican Church they held in common, and Bunsen was the + instrument naturally selected for realizing the king's fantastic scheme + of setting up at Jerusalem a Prusso-Anglican bishopric as a sort of + advertisement of the unity and aggressive force of Protestantism. The + special mission of Bunsen to England, from June to November 1841, was + completely successful, in spite of the opposition of English high + churchmen and Lutheran extremists. The Jerusalem bishopric, with the + consent of the British government and the active encouragement of the + archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, was duly established, + endowed with Prussian and English money, and remained for some forty + years an isolated symbol of Protestant unity and a rock of stumbling to + Anglican Catholics.</p> + + <p>During his stay in England Bunsen had made himself very popular among + all classes of society, and he was selected by Queen Victoria, out of + three names proposed by the king of Prussia, as ambassador to the court + of St James's. In this post he remained for thirteen years. His tenure of + the office coincided with the critical period in Prussian and European + affairs which culminated in the revolutions of 1848. With the visionary + schemes of Frederick William, whether that of setting up a strict + episcopal organization in the Evangelical Church, or that of reviving the + defunct ideal of the medieval Empire, Bunsen found himself increasingly + out of sympathy. He realized the significance of the signs that heralded + the coming storm, and tried in vain to move the king to a policy which + would have placed him at the head of a Germany united and free. He felt + bitterly the humiliation of Prussia by Austria after the victory of the + reaction; and in 1852 he set his signature reluctantly to the treaty + which, in his view, surrendered the "constitutional rights of Schleswig + and Holstein." His whole influence was now directed to withdrawing + Prussia from the blighting influence of Austria and Russia, and + attempting to draw closer the ties that bound her to Great Britain. On + the outbreak of the Crimean War he urged Frederick William to throw in + his lot with the western powers, and create a diversion in the north-east + which would have forced Russia at once to terms. The rejection of his + advice, and the proclamation of Prussia's attitude of "benevolent + neutrality," led him in April 1854 to offer his resignation, which was + accepted.</p> + + <p>Bunsen's life as a public man was now practically at an end. He + retired first to a villa on the Neckar near Heidelberg and later to Bonn. + He refused to stand for a seat, in the Liberal interest, in the Lower + House of the Prussian diet, but continued to take an active interest in + politics, and in 1855 published in two volumes a work, <i>Die Zeichen der + Zeit: Briefe, &c.</i>, which exercised an immense influence in + reviving the Liberal movement which the failure of the revolution had + crushed. In September 1857 Bunsen attended, as the king's guest, a + meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at Berlin; and one of the last papers + signed by Frederick William, before his mind gave way in October, was + that which conferred upon him the title of baron and a peerage for life. + In 1858, at the special request of the regent (afterwards the emperor) + William, he took his seat in the Prussian Upper House, and, though + remaining silent, supported the new ministry, of which his political and + personal friends were members.</p> + + <p>Literary work was, however, his main preoccupation during all this + period. Two discoveries of ancient MSS. made during his stay in London, + the one containing a shorter text of the <i>Epistles of St Ignatius</i>, + and the other an unknown work <i>On all the Heresies</i>, by Bishop + Hippolytus, had already led him to write his <i>Hippolytus and his Age: + Doctrine and Practice of Rome under Commodus and Severus</i> (1852). He + now concentrated all his efforts upon a translation of the Bible with + commentaries. While this was in preparation he published his <i>God in + History</i>, in which he contends that the progress of mankind marches + parallel to the conception of God formed within each nation by the + highest exponents of its thought. At the same time he carried through the + press, assisted by Samuel Birch, the concluding volumes of his work + (published in English as well as in German) <i>Egypt's Place in Universal + History</i>—containing a reconstruction of Egyptian chronology, + together with an attempt to determine the relation in which the language + and the religion of that country stand to the development of each among + the more ancient non-Aryan and Aryan races. His ideas on this subject + were most fully developed in two volumes published in London before he + quitted England—<i>Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History + as applied to Language and Religion</i> (2 vols., 1854).</p> + + <p>In 1858 Bunsen's health began to fail; visits to Cannes in 1858 and + 1859 brought no improvement, and he died on November 28th, 1860. One of + his last requests having been that his wife would write down + recollections of their common life, she published his <i>Memoirs</i> in + 1868, which contain much of his private correspondence. The German + translation of these <i>Memoirs</i> has added extracts from unpublished + documents, throwing a new light upon the political events in which he + played a part. Baron Humboldt's letters to Bunsen were printed in + 1869.</p> + + <p>Bunsen's English connexion, both through his wife (d. 1876) and + through his own long residence in London, was further increased in his + family. He had ten children, including five sons, Henry (1818-1855), + Ernest (1810-1903), Karl (1821-1887), Georg (1824-1896) and Theodor + (1832-1892). Of these Karl (Charles) and Theodor had careers in the + German diplomatic service; and Georg, who for some time was an active + politician in Germany, eventually retired to live in London; Henry, who + was an English clergyman, became a naturalized Englishman, <!-- Page 801 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page801"></a>[v.04 p.0801]</span>and + Ernest, who in 1845 married an Englishwoman, Miss Gurney, subsequently + resided and died in London. The form of "de" Bunsen was adopted for the + surname in England. Ernest de Bunsen was a scholarly writer, who + published various works both in German and in English, notably on + Biblical chronology and other questions of comparative religion. His son, + Sir Maurice de Bunsen (b. 1852), entered the English diplomatic service + in 1877, and after a varied experience became minister at Lisbon in + 1905.</p> + + <p>See also L. von Ranke, <i>Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. + mit Bunsen</i> (Berlin, 1873). The biography in the 9th edition of this + encyclopaedia, which has been drawn upon above, was by Georg von + Bunsen.</p> + + <p><b>BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM VON</b> (1811-1899), German chemist, was + born at Göttingen on the 31st of March 1811, his father, Christian + Bunsen, being chief librarian and professor of modern philology at the + university. He himself entered the university in 1828, and in 1834 became + <i>Privat-docent</i>. In 1836 he became teacher of chemistry at the + Polytechnic School of Cassel, and in 1839 took up the appointment of + professor of chemistry at Marburg, where he remained till 1851. In 1852, + after a brief period in Breslau, he was appointed to the chair of + chemistry at Heidelberg, where he spent the rest of his life, in spite of + an urgent invitation to migrate to Berlin as successor to E. + Mitscherlich. He retired from active work in 1889, and died at Heidelberg + on the 16th of August 1899. The first research by which attention was + drawn to Bunsen's abilities was concerned with the cacodyl compounds (see + <span class="sc">Arsenic</span>), though he had already, in 1834, + discovered the virtues of freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide as + an antidote to arsenical poisoning. It was begun in 1837 at Cassel, and + during the six years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one + eye through an explosion, but nearly killed himself by arsenical + poisoning. It represents almost his only excursion into organic + chemistry, and apart from its accuracy and completeness it is of + historical interest in the development of that branch of the science as + being the forerunner of the fruitful investigations on the + organo-metallic compounds subsequently carried out by his English pupil, + Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his work on cacodyl, he was + studying the composition of the gases given off from blast furnaces. He + showed that in German furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by the fuel + was being allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he came to + England, and in conjunction with Lyon Playfair investigated the + conditions obtaining in English furnaces, he found the waste to amount to + over 80%. These researches marked a stage in the application of + scientific principles to the manufacture of iron, and they led also to + the elaboration of Bunsen's famous methods of measuring gaseous volumes, + &c., which form the subject of the only book he ever published + (<i>Gasometrische Methoden</i>, 1857). In 1841 he invented the + carbon-zinc electric cell which is known by his name, and which conducted + him to several important achievements. He first employed it to produce + the electric arc, and showed that from 44 cells a light equal to 1171.3 + candles could be obtained with the consumption of one pound of zinc per + hour. To measure this light he designed in 1844 another instrument, which + in various modifications has come into extensive use—the + grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began to carry out electrolytical + decompositions by the aid of the battery. By means of a very ingenious + arrangement he obtained magnesium for the first time in the metallic + state, and studied its chemical and physical properties, among other + things demonstrating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the + flame it gives when burnt in air. From 1855 to 1863 he published with + Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measurements, which W. + Ostwald has called the "classical example for all future researches in + physical chemistry." Perhaps the best known of the contrivances which the + world owes to him is the "Bunsen burner" which he devised in 1855 when a + simple means of burning ordinary coal gas with a hot smokeless flame was + required for the new laboratory at Heidelberg. Other appliances invented + by him were the ice-calorimeter (1870), the vapour calorimeter (1887), + and the filter pump (1868), which was worked out in the course of a + research on the separation of the platinum metals. Mention must also be + made of another piece of work of a rather different character. Travelling + was one of his favourite relaxations, and in 1846 he paid a visit to + Iceland. There he investigated the phenomena of the geysers, the + composition of the gases coming off from the fumaroles, their action on + the rocks with which they came into contact, &c., and on his + observations was founded a noteworthy contribution to geological theory. + But the most far-reaching of his achievements was the elaboration, about + 1859, jointly with G.R. Kirchhoff, of spectrum analysis, which has put a + new weapon of extraordinary power into the hands both of chemists and + astronomers. It led Bunsen himself almost immediately to the isolation of + two new elements of the alkali group, caesium and rubidium. Having + noticed some unknown lines in the spectra of certain salts he was + examining, he set to work to obtain the substance or substances to which + these were due. To this end he evaporated large quantities of the + Dürkheim mineral water, and it says much both for his perseverance and + powers of manipulation that he dealt with 40 tons of the water to get + about 17 grammes of the mixed chlorides of the two substances, and that + with about one-third of that quantity of caesium chloride was able to + prepare the most important compounds of the element and determine their + characteristics, even making goniometrical measurements of their + crystals.</p> + + <p>Bunsen founded no school of chemistry; that is to say, no body of + chemical doctrine is associated with his name. Indeed, he took little or + no part in discussions of points of theory, and, although he was + conversant with the trend of the chemical thought of his day, he + preferred to spend his energies in the collection of experimental data. + One fact, he used to say, properly proved is worth all the theories that + can be invented. But as a teacher of chemistry he was almost without + rival, and his success is sufficiently attested by the scores of pupils + who flocked from every part of the globe to study under him, and by the + number of those pupils who afterwards made their mark in the chemical + world. The secret of this success lay largely in the fact that he never + delegated his work to assistants, but was constantly present with his + pupils in the laboratory, assisting each with personal direction and + advice. He was also one of the first to appreciate the value of practical + work to the student, and he instituted a regular practical course at + Marburg so far back as 1840. Though alive to the importance of applied + science, he considered truth alone to be the end of scientific research, + and the example he set his pupils was one of single-hearted devotion to + the advancement of knowledge.</p> + + <p>See Sir Henry Roscoe's "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," <i>Trans. Chem. + Soc.</i>, 1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary + notices in an edition of Bunsen's collected works published by Ostwald + and Bodenstein in 3 vols. at Leipzig in 1904.</p> + + <p><b>BUNTER,</b> the name applied by English geologists to the lower + stage or subdivision of the Triassic rocks in the United Kingdom. The + name has been adapted from the German <i>Buntsandstein, Der bunte + Sandstein</i>, for it was in Germany that this continental type of + Triassic deposit was first carefully studied. In France, the Bunter is + known as the <i>Grès bigarré</i>. In northern and central Germany, in the + Harz, Thuringia and Hesse, the Bunter is usually conformable with the + underlying Permian formation; in the south-west and west, however, it + transgresses on to older rocks, on to Coal Measures near Saarbruck, and + upon the crystalline schists of Odenwald and the Black Forest.</p> + + <p>The German subdivisions of the Bunter are as follows:—(1) + <i>Upper Buntsandstein</i>, or <i>Röt</i>, mottled red and green marls + and clays with occasional beds of shale, sandstone, gypsum, rocksalt and + dolomite. In Hesse and Thuringia, a quartzitic sandstone prevails in the + lower part. The "Rhizocorallium Dolomite" (<i>R. Jenense</i>, probably a + sponge) of the latter district contains the only Bunter fauna of any + importance. In Lorraine and the Eifel and Saar districts there are + micaceous clays and sandstones with plant remains—the + <i>Voltzia</i> sandstone. The lower beds in the Black Forest, Vosges, + Odenwald and Lorraine very generally contain strings of dolomite and + carnelian—the so-called "Carneol bank." (2) <i>Middle + Buntsandstein-Hauptbuntsandstein</i> (900 ft.), the bulk <!-- Page 802 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page802"></a>[v.04 p.0802]</span>of + this subdivision is made up of weakly-cemented, coarse-grained + sandstones, oblique lamination is very prevalent, and occasional + conglomeratic beds make their appearance. The uppermost bed is usually + fine-grained and bears the footprints of <i>Cheirotherium</i>. In the + Vosges district, this subdivision of the Bunter is called the <i>Grès des + Vosges, </i>or the <i>Grès principal</i>, which comprises: (i.) red + micaceous and argillaceous sandstone; (ii.) the <i>conglomérat + principal</i>; and (iii.) <i>Grès bigarré principal</i> (=<i>grès des + Vosges</i>, properly so-called). (3) <i>Lower Buntsandstein</i>, + fine-grained clayey and micaceous sandstones, red-grey, yellow, white and + mottled. The cement of the sandstones is often felspathic; for this + reason they yield useful porcelain clays in the Thuringerwald. Clay galls + are common in the sandstones of some districts, and in the neighbourhood + of the Harz an oolitic calcareous sandstone, <i>Rogenstein</i>, occurs. + In eastern Hesse, the lowest beds are crumbly, shaly clays, + <i>Brockelschiefern</i>.</p> + + <p>The following are the subdivisions usually adopted in + England:—(1) Upper Mottled Sandstone, red variegated sandstones, + soft and generally free from pebbles. (2) Bunter Pebble Beds, harder red + and brown sandstones with quartzose pebbles, very abundant in some + places. (3) Lower Mottled Sandstone, very similar to the upper division. + The Bunter beds occupy a large area in the midland counties where they + form dry, healthy ground of moderate elevation (Cannock Chase, Trentham, + Sherwood Forest, Sutton Coldfield, &c.). Southward they may be + followed through west Somerset to the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in + Devon; while northward they pass through north Staffordshire, Cheshire + and Lancashire to the Vale of Eden and St Bees, reappearing in Elgin and + Arran. A deposit of these rocks lies in the Vale of Clwyd and probably + flanks the eastern side of the Pennine Hills, although here it is not so + readily differentiated from the Keuper beds. The English Bunter rests + with a slight unconformity upon the older formations. It is generally + absent in the south-eastern counties, but thickens rapidly in the + opposite direction, as is shown by the following table:—</p> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Thickness of English Bunter" title="Thickness of English Bunter"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Lancashire and<br />W. Cheshire.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Staffordshire.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Leicestershire and<br />Warwickshire.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>(1) 500 ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>50-200 ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Absent</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>(2) 500-750 ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>100-300 ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0-100 ft.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>(3) 200-500 ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0-100 ft.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Absent</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The material forming the Bunter beds of England came probably from the + north-west, but in Devonshire there are indications which point to an + additional source.</p> + + <p>In the Alpine region, most of the Trias differs markedly from that of + England and northern Germany, being of distinctly marine origin; here the + Bunter is represented by the <i>Werfen beds</i> (from Werfen in Salzburg) + in the northern Alps, a series of red and greenish-grey micaceous shales + with gypsum, rock salt and limestones in the upper part; while in the + southern Alps (S. Tirol) there is an upper series of red clays, the + <i>Campil beds</i>, and a lower series of thin sandstones, the <i>Seis + beds</i>. Mojsisovics von Mojsvar has pointed out that the Alpine Bunter + belongs to the single zone of <i>Natica costata</i> and <i>Tirolites + cassianus</i>.</p> + + <p>Fossils in the Bunter are very scarce; in addition to the footprints + of <i>Cheirotherium</i>, direct evidence of amphibians is found in such + forms as <i>Trematosaurus</i> and <i>Mastodonsaurus. Myophoria + costata</i> and <i>Gervillea Murchisoni</i> are characteristic fossils. + Plants are represented by <i>Voltzia</i> and by equisetums and ferns.</p> + + <p>In England, the Bunter sandstones frequently act as valuable + reservoirs of underground water; sometimes they are used for building + stone or for foundry sand. In Germany some of the harder beds have + yielded building stones, which were much used in the middle ages in the + construction of cathedrals and castles in southern Germany and on the + Rhine. In the northern Eifel region, at Mechernich and elsewhere, this + formation contains lead ore in the form of spots and patches + (<i>Knotenerz</i>) in the sandstone; some of the lead ore was worked by + the Romans.</p> + + <p>For a consideration of the relationship of the Bunter beds to + formations of the like age in other parts of the world, see <span + class="sc">Triassic System</span>.</p> + + <p>(J. A. H.)</p> + + <p><b>BUNTING, JABEZ</b> (1779-1858), English Wesleyan divine, was born + of humble parentage at Manchester on the 13th of May 1779. He was + educated at Manchester grammar school, and at the age of nineteen began + to preach, being received into full connexion in 1803. He continued to + minister for upwards of fifty-seven years in Manchester, Sheffield, + Leeds, Liverpool, London and elsewhere. In 1835 he was appointed + president of the first Wesleyan theological college (at Hoxton), and in + this position he succeeded in materially raising the standard of + education among Wesleyan ministers. He was four times chosen to be + president of the conference, was repeatedly secretary of the "Legal + Hundred," and for eighteen years was secretary to the Wesleyan Missionary + Society. Under him Methodism ceased to be a society based upon Anglican + foundation, and became a distinct church. He favoured the extension of + lay power in committees, and was particularly zealous in the cause of + foreign missions. Bunting was a popular preacher, and an effective + platform speaker; in 1818 he was given the degree of M.A. by Aberdeen + University, and in 1834 that of D.D. by Wesleyan University of + Middletown, Conn., U.S.A. He died on the 16th of June 1858. His eldest + son, William Maclardie Bunting (1805-1866), was also a distinguished + Wesleyan minister; and his grandson Sir Percy William Bunting (b. 1836), + son of T.P. Bunting, became prominent as a liberal nonconformist and + editor of the <i>Contemporary Review</i> from 1882, being knighted in + 1908.</p> + + <p>See <i>Lives</i> of Jabez Bunting (1859) and W.M. Bunting (1870) by + Thomas Percival Bunting.</p> + + <p><b>BUNTING,</b> properly the common English name of the bird called by + Linnaeus <i>Emberiza miliaria</i>, but now used in a general sense for + all members of the family <i>Emberizidae</i>, which are closely allied to + the finches (<i>Fringillidae</i>), though, in Professor W.K. Parker's + opinion, to be easily distinguished therefrom—the + <i>Emberizidae</i> possessing what none of the <i>Fringillidae</i> do, an + additional pair of palatal bones, "palato-maxillaries." It will probably + follow from this diagnosis that some forms of birds, particularly those + of the New World, which have hitherto been commonly assigned to the + latter, really belong to the former, and among them the genera + <i>Cardinalis</i> and <i>Phrygilus</i>. The additional palatal bones just + named are also found in several other peculiarly American families, + namely, <i>Tanagridae</i>, <i>Icteridae</i> and + <i>Mniotiltidae</i>—whence it may be perhaps inferred that the + <i>Emberizidae</i> are of Transatlantic origin. The buntings generally + may be also outwardly distinguished from the finches by their angular + gape, the posterior portion of which is greatly deflected; and most of + the Old-World forms, together with some of those of the New World, have a + bony knob on the palate—a swollen outgrowth of the dentary edges of + the bill. Correlated with this peculiarity the maxilla usually has the + tomia sinuated, and is generally concave, and smaller and narrower than + the mandible, which is also concave to receive the palatal knob. In most + other respects the buntings greatly resemble the finches, but their eggs + are generally distinguishable by the irregular hair-like markings on the + shell. In the British Islands by far the commonest species of bunting is + the yellow-hammer (<i>E. citrinella</i>), but the true bunting (or + corn-bunting, or bunting-lark, as it is called in some districts) is a + very well-known bird, while the reed-bunting (<i>E. schoeniclus</i>) + frequents marshy soils almost to the exclusion of the two former. In + certain localities in the south of England the cirl-bunting (<i>E. + cirlus</i>) is also a resident; and in winter vast flocks of the + snow-bunting (<i>Plectrophanes nivalis</i>), at once recognizable by its + pointed wings and elongated hind-claws, resort to our shores and open + grounds. This last is believed to breed sparingly on the highest + mountains of Scotland, but the majority of the examples which visit us + come from northern regions, for it is a species which in summer inhabits + the whole circumpolar area. The ortolan (<i>E. hortulana</i>), so highly + prized for its delicate flavour, occasionally appears in England, but the + British Islands seem to lie outside its proper range. On the continent of + Europe, in Africa and throughout Asia, many other species are found, + while in America the number belonging to the family cannot at present be + computed. The beautiful and melodious cardinal (<i>Cardinalis + virginianus</i>), commonly called the Virginian nightingale, must be + included in this family.</p> + + <p>(A. N.)</p> + + <p><b>BUNTING</b> (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with + <i>bunt</i>, to sift, or with the Ger. <i>bunt</i>, of varied colour), a + loosely woven woollen cloth for making flags; the term is also used of a + collection of flags, and particularly those of a ship.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 803 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page803"></a>[v.04 p.0803]</span></p> + + <p><b>BUNYAN, JOHN</b> (1628-1688), English religious writer, was born at + Elstow, about a mile from Bedford, in November 1628. His father, Thomas + Bunyan,<a name="FnAnchor_041" href="#Footnote_041"><sup>[1]</sup></a> was + a tinker, or, as he described himself, a "brasier." The tinkers then + formed a hereditary caste, which was held in no high estimation. Bunyan's + father had a fixed residence, and was able to send his son to a village + school where reading and writing were taught.</p> + + <p>The years of John's boyhood were those during which the Puritan spirit + was in the highest vigour all over England; and nowhere had that spirit + more influence than in Bedfordshire. It is not wonderful, therefore, that + a lad to whom nature had given a powerful imagination and sensibility + which amounted to a disease, should have been early haunted by religious + terrors. Before he was ten his sports were interrupted by fits of remorse + and despair; and his sleep was disturbed by dreams of fiends trying to + fly away with him. As he grew older his mental conflicts became still + more violent. The strong language in which he described them strangely + misled all his earlier biographers except Southey. It was long an + ordinary practice with pious writers to cite Bunyan as an instance of the + supernatural power of divine grace to rescue the human soul from the + lowest depths of wickedness. He is called in one book the most notorious + of profligates; in another, the brand plucked from the burning. Many + excellent persons, whose moral character from boyhood to old age has been + free from any stain discernible to their fellow-creatures, have, in their + autobiographies and diaries, applied to themselves, and doubtless with + sincerity, epithets as severe as could be applied to Titus Oates or Mrs + Brownrigg. It is quite certain that Bunyan was, at eighteen, what, in any + but the most austerely puritanical circles, would have been considered as + a young man of singular gravity and innocence. Indeed, it may be remarked + that he, like many other penitents who, in general terms, acknowledge + themselves to have been the worst of mankind, fired up, and stood + vigorously on his defence, whenever any particular charge was brought + against him by others. He declares, it is true, that he had let loose the + reins on the neck of his lusts, that he had delighted in all + transgressions against the divine law, and that he had been the + ringleader of the youth of Elstow in all manner of vice. But when those + who wished him ill accused him of licentious amours, he called on God and + the angels to attest his purity. No woman, he said, in heaven, earth or + hell, could charge him with having ever made any improper advances to + her. Not only had he been strictly faithful to his wife; but he had, even + before his marriage, been perfectly spotless. It does not appear from his + own confessions, or from the railings of his enemies, that he ever was + drunk in his life. One bad habit he contracted, that of using profane + language; but he tells us that a single reproof cured him so effectually + that he never offended again. The worst that can be laid to his charge is + that he had a great liking for some diversions, quite harmless in + themselves, but condemned by the rigid precisians among whom he lived, + and for whose opinion he had a great respect. The four chief sins of + which he was guilty were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church, + playing at tipcat and reading the history of Sir Bevis of Southampton. A + rector of the school of Laud would have held such a young man up to the + whole parish as a model. But Bunyan's notions of good and evil had been + learned in a very different school; and he was made miserable by the + conflict between his tastes and his scruples.</p> + + <p>When he was about seventeen the ordinary course of his life was + interrupted by an event which gave a lasting colour to his thoughts. He + enlisted in the Parliamentary army,<a name="FnAnchor_042" + href="#Footnote_042"><sup>[2]</sup></a> and served during the Decisive + campaign of 1645. All that we know of his military career is, that, at + the siege of some town,<a name="FnAnchor_043" + href="#Footnote_043"><sup>[3]</sup></a> one of his comrades, who had + marched with the besieging army instead of him, was killed by a shot. + Bunyan ever after considered himself as having been saved from death by + the special interference of Providence. It may be observed that his + imagination was strongly impressed by the glimpse which he had caught of + the pomp of war. To the last he loved to draw his illustrations of sacred + things from camps and fortresses, from guns, drums, trumpets, flags of + truce, and regiments arrayed each under its own banner. His Greatheart, + his Captain Boanerges and his Captain Credence are evidently portraits, + of which the originals were among those martial saints who fought and + expounded in Fairfax's army.</p> + + <p>In 1646 Bunyan returned home and married about two years later. His + wife had some pious relations, and brought him as her only portion some + pious books. His mind, excitable by nature, very imperfectly disciplined + by education, and exposed to the enthusiasm which was then epidemic in + England, began to be fearfully disordered. The story of the struggle is + told in Bunyan's <i>Grace Abounding</i>.</p> + + <p>In outward things he soon became a strict Pharisee. He was constant in + attendance at prayers and sermons. His favourite amusements were, one + after another, relinquished, though not without many painful struggles. + In the middle of a game at tipcat he paused, and stood staring wildly + upwards with his stick in his hand. He had heard a voice asking him + whether he would leave his sins and go to heaven, or keep his sins and go + to hell; and he had seen an awful countenance frowning on him from the + sky. The odious vice of bell-ringing he renounced; but he still for a + time ventured to go to the church tower and look on while others pulled + the ropes. But soon the thought struck him that, if he persisted in such + wickedness, the steeple would fall on his head; and he fled in terror + from the accursed place. To give up dancing on the village green was + still harder; and some months elapsed before he had the fortitude to part + with his darling sin. When this last sacrifice had been made, he was, + even when tried by the maxims of that austere time, faultless. All Elstow + talked of him as an eminently pious youth. But his own mind was more + unquiet than ever. Having nothing more to do in the way of visible + reformation, yet finding in religion no pleasures to supply the place of + the juvenile amusements which he had relinquished, he began to apprehend + that he lay under some special malediction; and he was tormented by a + succession of fantasies which seemed likely to drive him to suicide or to + Bedlam. At one time he took it into his head that all persons of + Israelite blood would be saved, and tried to make out that he partook of + that blood; but his hopes were speedily destroyed by his father, who + seems to have had no ambition to be regarded as a Jew. At another time + Bunyan was disturbed by a strange dilemma: "If I have not faith, I am + lost; if I have faith, I can work miracles." He was tempted to cry to the + puddles between Elstow and Bedford, "Be ye dry," and to stake his eternal + hopes on the event. Then he took up a notion that the day of grace for + Bedford and the neighbouring villages was past; that all who were to be + saved in that part of England were already converted; and that he had + begun to pray and strive some months too late. Then he was harassed by + doubts whether the Turks were not in the right and the Christians in the + wrong. Then he was troubled by a maniacal impulse which prompted him to + pray to the trees, to a broomstick, to the parish bull.</p> + + <p>As yet, however, he was only entering the valley of the shadow of + death. Soon the darkness grew thicker. Hideous forms floated before him. + Sounds of cursing and wailing were in his ears. His way ran through + stench and fire, close to the mouth of the bottomless pit. He began to be + haunted by a strange curiosity about the unpardonable sin, and by a + morbid longing to commit it. But the most frightful of all the forms + which <!-- Page 804 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page804"></a>[v.04 + p.0804]</span>his disease took was a propensity to utter blasphemy, and + especially to renounce his share in the benefits of the redemption. Night + and day, in bed, at table, at work, evil spirits, as he imagined, were + repeating close to his ear the words, "Sell him, sell him." He struck at + the hobgoblins; he pushed them from him; but still they were ever at his + side. He cried out in answer to them, hour after hour, "Never, never; not + for thousands of worlds; not for thousands." At length, worn out by this + long agony, he suffered the fatal words to escape him, "Let him go if he + will." Then his misery became more fearful than ever. He had done what + could not be forgiven. He had forfeited his part of the great sacrifice. + Like Esau, he had sold his birthright; and there was no longer any place + for repentance. "None," he afterwards wrote, "knows the terrors of those + days but myself." He has described his sufferings with singular energy, + simplicity and pathos. He envied the brutes; he envied the very stones on + the street, and the tiles on the houses. The sun seemed to withhold its + light and warmth from him. His body, though cast in a sturdy mould, and + though still in the highest vigour of youth, trembled whole days together + with the fear of death and judgment. He fancied that this trembling was + the sign set on the worst reprobates, the sign which God had put on Cain. + The unhappy man's emotion destroyed his power of digestion. He had such + pains that he expected to burst asunder like Judas, whom he regarded as + his prototype.</p> + + <p>Neither the books which Bunyan read, nor the advisers whom he + consulted, were likely to do much good in a case like his. His small + library had received a most unseasonable addition, the account of the + lamentable end of Francis Spira. One ancient man of high repute for + piety, whom the sufferer consulted, gave an opinion which might well have + produced fatal consequences. "I am afraid," said Bunyan, "that I have + committed the sin against the Holy Ghost." "Indeed," said the old + fanatic, "I am afraid that you have."</p> + + <p>At length the clouds broke; the light became clearer and clearer; and + the enthusiast who had imagined that he was branded with the mark of the + first murderer, and destined to the end of the arch-traitor, enjoyed + peace and a cheerful confidence in the mercy of God. Years elapsed, + however, before his nerves, which had been so perilously overstrained, + recovered their tone. When he had joined a Baptist society at Bedford, + and was for the first time admitted to partake of the eucharist, it was + with difficulty that he could refrain from imprecating destruction on his + brethren while the cup was passing from hand to hand. After he had been + some time a member of the congregation he began to preach; and his + sermons produced a powerful effect. He was indeed illiterate; but he + spoke to illiterate men. The severe training through which he had passed + had given him such an experimental knowledge of all the modes of + religious melancholy as he could never have gathered from books; and his + vigorous genius, animated by a fervent spirit of devotion, enabled him + not only to exercise a great influence over the vulgar, but even to + extort the half-contemptuous admiration of scholars. Yet it was long + before he ceased to be tormented by an impulse which urged him to utter + words of horrible impiety in the pulpit.<a name="FnAnchor_044" + href="#Footnote_044"><sup>[4]</sup></a> Bunyan was finally relieved from + the internal sufferings which had embittered his life by sharp + persecution from without. He had been five years a preacher when the + Restoration put it in the power of the Cavalier gentlemen and clergymen + all over the country to oppress the dissenters. In November 1660 he was + flung into Bedford gaol; and there he remained, with some intervals of + partial and precarious liberty, during twelve years. The authorities + tried to extort from him a promise that he would abstain from preaching; + but he was convinced that he was divinely set apart and commissioned to + be a teacher of righteousness, and he was fully determined to obey God + rather than man. He was brought before several tribunals, laughed at, + caressed, reviled, menaced, but in vain. He was facetiously told that he + was quite right in thinking that he ought not to hide his gift; but that + his real gift was skill in repairing old kettles. He was compared to + Alexander the coppersmith. He was told that if he would give up preaching + he should be instantly liberated. He was warned that if he persisted in + disobeying the law he would be liable to banishment, and that if he were + found in England after a certain time his neck would be stretched. His + answer was, "If you let me out to-day, I will preach again to-morrow." + Year after year he lay patiently in a dungeon, compared with which the + worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace.<a + name="FnAnchor_045" href="#Footnote_045"><sup>[5]</sup></a> His fortitude + is the more extraordinary because his domestic feelings were unusually + strong. Indeed, he was considered by his stern brethren as somewhat too + fond and indulgent a parent. He had four small children, and among them a + daughter who was blind, and whom he loved with peculiar tenderness. He + could not, he said, bear even to let the wind blow on her; and now she + must suffer cold and hunger; she must beg; she must be beaten; "yet," he + added, "I must, I must do it."</p> + + <p>His second wife, whom he had married just before his arrest, tried in + vain for his release; she even petitioned the House of Lords on his + behalf. While he lay in prison he could do nothing in the way of his old + trade for the support of his family. He determined, therefore, to take up + a new trade. He learned to make long-tagged thread laces; and many + thousands of these articles were furnished by him to the hawkers. While + his hands were thus busied he had other employments for his mind and his + lips. He gave religious instruction to his fellow-captives, and formed + from among them a little flock, of which he was himself the pastor. He + studied indefatigably the few books which he possessed. His two chief + companions were the Bible and Fox's <i>Book of Martyrs</i>. His knowledge + of the Bible was such that he might have been called a living + concordance; and on the margin of his copy of the <i>Book of Martyrs</i> + are still legible the ill-spelt lines of doggerel in which he expressed + his reverence for the brave sufferers, and his implacable enmity to the + mystical Babylon.</p> + + <p>Prison life gave him leisure to write, and during his first + imprisonment he wrote, in addition to several tracts and some verse, + <i>Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners</i>, the narrative of his own + religious experience. The book was published in 1666. A short period of + freedom was followed by a second offence and a further imprisonment. + Bunyan's works were coarse, indeed, but they showed a keen mother wit, a + great command of the homely mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the + English Bible, and a vast and dearly bought spiritual experience. They + therefore, when the corrector of the press had improved the syntax and + the spelling, were well received.</p> + + <p>Much of Bunyan's time was spent in controversy. He wrote sharply + against the Quakers, whom he seems always to have held in utter + abhorrence. He wrote against the liturgy of the Church of England. No two + things, according to him, had less affinity than the form of prayer and + the spirit of prayer. Those, he said with much point, who have most of + the spirit of prayer are all to be found in gaol; and those who have most + zeal for the form of prayer are all to be found at the alehouse. The + doctrinal Articles, on the other hand, he warmly praised and defended. + The most acrimonious of all his works is his <i>Defence of Justification + by Faith</i>, an answer to what Bunyan calls "the brutish and beastly + latitudinarianism" of Edward Fowler, afterwards bishop of Gloucester, an + excellent man, but not free from the taint of Pelagianism.</p> + + <p>Bunyan had also a dispute with some of the chiefs of the sect to which + he belonged. He doubtless held with perfect sincerity <!-- Page 805 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page805"></a>[v.04 p.0805]</span>the + distinguishing tenet of that sect, but he did not consider that tenet as + one of high importance, and willingly joined in communion with pious + Presbyterians and Independents. The sterner Baptists, therefore, loudly + pronounced him a false brother. A controversy arose which long survived + the original combatants. The cause which Bunyan had defended with rude + logic and rhetoric against Kiffin and Danvers has since been pleaded by + Robert Hall with an ingenuity and eloquence such as no polemical writer + has ever surpassed.</p> + + <p>During the years which immediately followed the Restoration, Bunyan's + confinement seems to have been strict. But as the passions of 1660 + cooled, as the hatred with which the Puritans had been regarded while + their reign was recent gave place to pity, he was less and less harshly + treated. The distress of his family, and his own patience, courage and + piety, softened the hearts of his judges. Like his own Christian in the + cage, he found protectors even among the crowd at Vanity Fair. The bishop + of the diocese, Dr Barlow, is said to have interceded for him. At length + the prisoner was suffered to pass most of his time beyond the walls of + the gaol, on condition, as it should seem, that he remained within the + town of Bedford.</p> + + <p>He owed his complete liberation to one of the worst acts of one of the + worst governments that England has ever seen. In 1671 the Cabal was in + power. Charles II. had concluded the treaty by which he bound himself to + set up the Roman Catholic religion in England. The first step which he + took towards that end was to annul, by an unconstitutional exercise of + his prerogative, all the penal statutes against the Roman Catholics; and + in order to disguise his real design, he annulled at the same time the + penal statutes against Protestant nonconformists. Bunyan was consequently + set at large.<a name="FnAnchor_046" + href="#Footnote_046"><sup>[6]</sup></a> In the first warmth of his + gratitude he published a tract, in which he compared Charles to that + humane and generous Persian king, who, though not himself blest with the + light of the true religion, favoured the chosen people, and permitted + them, after years of captivity, to rebuild their beloved temple.</p> + + <p>Before he left his prison he had begun the book which has made his + name immortal.<a name="FnAnchor_047" + href="#Footnote_047"><sup>[7]</sup></a> The history of that book is + remarkable. The author was, as he tells us, writing a treatise, in which + he had occasion to speak of the stages of the Christian progress. He + compared that progress, as many others had compared it, to a pilgrimage. + Soon his quick wit discovered innumerable points of similarity which had + escaped his predecessors. Images came crowding on his mind faster than he + could put them into words, quagmires and pits, steep hills, dark and + horrible glens, soft vales, sunny pastures, a gloomy castle, of which the + courtyard was strewn with the skulls and bones of murdered prisoners, a + town all bustle and splendour, like London on the Lord Mayor's Day, and + the narrow path, straight as a rule could make it, running on up hill and + down hill, through city and through wilderness, to the Black River and + the Shining Gate. He had found out, as most people would have said, by + accident, as he would doubtless have said, by the guidance of Providence, + where his powers lay. He had no suspicion, indeed, that he was producing + a masterpiece. He could not guess what place his allegory would occupy in + English literature; for of English literature he knew nothing. Those who + suppose him to have studied the <i>Faery Queen</i> might easily be + confuted, if this were the proper place for a detailed examination of the + passages in which the two allegories have been thought to resemble each + other. The only work of fiction, in all probability, with which he could + compare his <i>Pilgrim</i> was his old favourite, the legend of Sir Bevis + of Southampton. He would have thought it a sin to borrow any time from + the serious business of his life, from his expositions, his controversies + and his lace tags, for the purpose of amusing himself with what he + considered merely as a trifle. It was only, he assures us, at spare + moments that he returned to the House Beautiful, the Delectable Mountains + and the Enchanted Ground. He had no assistance. Nobody but himself saw a + line till the whole was complete. He then consulted his pious friends. + Some were pleased. Others were much scandalized. It was a vain story, a + mere romance, about giants, and lions, and goblins, and warriors, + sometimes fighting with monsters, and sometimes regaled by fair ladies in + stately palaces. The loose atheistical wits at Will's might write such + stuff to divert the painted Jezebels of the court; but did it become a + minister of the gospel to copy the evil fashions of the world? There had + been a time when the cant of such fools would have made Bunyan miserable. + But that time was past; and his mind was now in a firm and healthy state. + He saw that in employing fiction to make truth clear and goodness + attractive, he was only following the example which every Christian ought + to propose to himself; and he determined to print.</p> + + <p>The <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> was published in February 1678. Soon the + irresistible charm of a book which gratified the imagination of the + reader with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale, which exercised + his ingenuity by setting him to discover a multitude of curious + analogies, which interested his feelings for human beings, frail like + himself, and struggling with temptations from within and from without, + which every moment drew a smile from him by some stroke of quaint yet + simple pleasantry, and nevertheless left on his mind a sentiment of + reverence for God and of sympathy for man, began to produce its effect. + In puritanical circles, from which plays and novels were strictly + excluded, that effect was such as no work of genius, though it were + superior to the <i>Iliad</i>, to <i>Don Quixote</i> or to <i>Othello</i>, + can ever produce on a mind accustomed to indulge in literary luxury. A + second edition came out in the autumn with additions; and the demand + became immense. The eighth edition, which contains the last improvements + made by the author, was published in 1682, the ninth in 1684, the tenth + in 1685. The help of the engraver had early been called in; and tens of + thousands of children looked with terror and delight on execrable + copperplates, which represented Christian thrusting his sword into + Apollyon, or writhing in the grasp of Giant Despair. In Scotland, and in + some of the colonies, the <i>Pilgrim</i> was even more popular than in + his native country. Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable vanity, that + in New England his dream was the daily subject of the conversation of + thousands, and was thought worthy to appear in the most superb binding. + He had numerous admirers in Holland, and amongst the Huguenots of + France.</p> + + <p>He continued to work the gold-field which he had discovered, and to + draw from it new treasures, not indeed with quite such ease and in quite + such abundance as when the precious soil was still virgin, but yet with + success, which left all competition far behind. In 1680 appeared the + <i>Life and Death of Mr Badman</i>; in 1684 the second part of the + <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>. In 1682 appeared the <i>Holy War</i>, which if + the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> did not exist, would be the best allegory + that ever was written.</p> + + <p>Bunyan's place in society was now very different from what it had + been. There had been a time when many dissenting ministers, who could + talk Latin and read Greek, had affected to treat him with scorn. But his + fame and influence now far exceeded theirs. He had so great an authority + among the Baptists that he was popularly called Bishop Bunyan. His + episcopal visitations were annual. From Bedford he rode every year to + London, and preached there to large and attentive congregations. From + London he went his circuit through the country, animating the zeal of his + brethren, collecting and distributing alms and making up quarrels. The + magistrates seem in general to have given him little trouble. But there + is reason to believe that, in the year 1685, he was in some danger of + again occupying his old quarters in Bedford gaol. In that year the rash + and wicked enterprise of Monmouth gave the government a pretext for + prosecuting the nonconformists; and scarcely one eminent divine of the + Presbyterian. Independent <!-- Page 806 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page806"></a>[v.04 p.0806]</span>or Baptist persuasion remained + unmolested. Baxter was in prison: Howe was driven into exile: Henry was + arrested.</p> + + <p>Two eminent Baptists, with whom Bunyan had been engaged in + controversy, were in great peril and distress. Danvers was in danger of + being hanged; and Kiffin's grandsons were actually hanged. The tradition + is that, during those evil days, Bunyan was forced to disguise himself as + a wagoner, and that he preached to his congregation at Bedford in a + smock-frock, with a cart-whip in his hand. But soon a great change took + place. James II. was at open war with the church, and found it necessary + to court the dissenters. Some of the creatures of the government tried to + secure the aid of Bunyan. They probably knew that he had written in + praise of the indulgence of 1672, and therefore hoped that he might be + equally pleased with the indulgence of 1687. But fifteen years of + thought, observation and commerce with the world had made him wiser. Nor + were the cases exactly parallel. Charles was a professed Protestant; + James was a professed Papist. The object of Charles's indulgence was + disguised; the object of James's indulgence was patent. Bunyan was not + deceived. He exhorted his hearers to prepare themselves by fasting and + prayer for the danger which menaced their civil and religious liberties, + and refused even to speak to the courtier who came down to remodel the + corporation of Bedford, and who, as was supposed, had it in charge to + offer some municipal dignity to the bishop of the Baptists.</p> + + <p>Bunyan did not live to see the Revolution.<a name="FnAnchor_048" + href="#Footnote_048"><sup>[8]</sup></a> In the summer of 1688 he + undertook to plead the cause of a son with an angry father, and at length + prevailed on the old man not to disinherit the young one. This good work + cost the benevolent intercessor his life. He had to ride through heavy + rain. He came drenched to his lodgings on Snow Hill, was seized with a + violent fever, and died in a few days (August 31). He was buried in + Bunhill Fields; and many Puritans, to whom the respect paid by Roman + Catholics to the reliques and tombs of saints seemed childish or sinful, + are said to have begged with their dying breath that their coffins might + be placed as near as possible to the coffin of the author of the + <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>.</p> + + <p>The fame of Bunyan during his life, and during the century which + followed his death, was indeed great, but was almost entirely confined to + religious families of the middle and lower classes. Very seldom was he + during that time mentioned with respect by any writer of great literary + eminence. Young coupled his prose with the poetry of the wretched + D'Urfey. In the <i>Spiritual Quixote</i>, the adventures of Christian are + ranked with those of Jack the Giant-Killer and John Hickathrift. Cowper + ventured to praise the great allegorist, but did not venture to name him. + It is a significant circumstance that, for a long time all the numerous + editions of the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> were evidently meant for the + cottage and the servants' hall. The paper, the printing, the plates, were + all of the meanest description. In general, when the educated minority + and the common people differ about the merit of a book, the opinion of + the educated minority finally prevails. The <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> is + perhaps the only book about which the educated minority has come over to + the opinion of the common people.</p> + + <p>The attempts which have been made to improve and to imitate this book + are not to be numbered. It has been done into verse; it has been done + into modern English. The Pilgrimage of Tender Conscience, the Pilgrimage + of Good Intent, the Pilgrimage of Seek Truth, the Pilgrimage of + Theophilus, the Infant Pilgrim, the Hindoo Pilgrim, are among the many + feeble copies of the great original. But the peculiar glory of Bunyan is + that those who most hated his doctrines have tried to borrow the help of + his genius. A Catholic version of his parable may be seen with the head + of the virgin in the title-page. On the other hand, those Antinomians for + whom his Calvinism is not strong enough, may study the Pilgrimage of + Hephzibah, in which nothing will be found which can be construed into an + admission of free agency and universal redemption. But the most + extraordinary of all the acts of Vandalism by which a fine work of art + was ever defaced was committed in the year 1853. It was determined to + transform the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> into a Tractarian book. The task + was not easy; for it was necessary to make two sacraments the most + prominent objects in the allegory, and of all Christian theologians, + avowed Quakers excepted, Bunyan was the one in whose system the + sacraments held the least prominent place. However, the Wicket Gate + became a type of baptism, and the House Beautiful of the eucharist. The + effect of this change is such as assuredly the ingenious person who made + it never contemplated. For, as not a single pilgrim passes through the + Wicket Gate in infancy, and as Faithful hurries past the House Beautiful + without stopping, the lesson which the fable in its altered shape + teaches, is that none but adults ought to be baptized, and that the + eucharist may safely be neglected. Nobody would have discovered from the + original <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> that the author was not a + Paedobaptist. To turn his book into a book against Paedobaptism, was an + achievement reserved for an Anglo-Catholic divine. Such blunders must + necessarily be committed by every man who mutilates parts of a great + work, without taking a comprehensive view of the whole.</p> + + <p>(M.)</p> + + <p>The above article has been slightly corrected as to facts, as compared + with its form in the 9th edition. Bunyan's works were first partially + collected in a folio volume (1692) by his friend Charles Doe. A larger + edition (2 vols., 1736-1737) was edited by Samuel Wilson of the Barbican. + In 1853 a good edition (3 vols., Glasgow) was produced by George Offer. + Southey's edition (1830) of the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> contained his + <i>Life</i> of Bunyan. Since then various editions of the <i>Pilgrim's + Progress</i>, many illustrated (by Cruikshank, Byam Shaw, W. Strang and + others), have appeared. An interesting life by "the author of <i>Mark + Rutherford</i>" (W. Hale White) was published in 1904. Other lives are by + J.A. Froude (1880) in the "English Men of Letters" series, and E. + Venables (1888); but the standard work on the subject is <i>John Bunyan; + his Life, Times and Work</i> (1885), by the Rev. J. Brown of Bedford. A + bronze statue, by Boehm, was presented to the town by the duke of Bedford + in 1874.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_041" href="#FnAnchor_041">[1]</a> The name, in + various forms as Buignon, Buniun, Bonyon or Binyan, appears in the local + records of Elstow and the neighbouring parishes at intervals from as far + back as 1199. They were small freeholders, but all the property except + the cottage had been lost in the time of Bunyan's grandfather. Bunyan's + own account of his family as the "meanest and most despised of all the + families of the land" must be put down to his habitual self-depreciation. + Thomas Bunyan had a forge and workshop at Elstow.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_042" href="#FnAnchor_042">[2]</a> There is no direct + evidence to show on which side he fought, but the balance of probability + justifies this view.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_043" href="#FnAnchor_043">[3]</a> There is no means + of identifying the place besieged. It has been assumed to be Leicester, + which was captured by the Royalists in May 1645, and recovered by Fairfax + in the next month.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_044" href="#FnAnchor_044">[4]</a> Bunyan had joined, + in 1653, the nonconformist community which met under a certain Mr Gifford + at St John's church, Bedford. This congregation was not Baptist, properly + so called, as the question of baptism, with other doctrinal points, was + left open. When Bunyan removed to Bedford in 1655, he became a deacon of + this church, and two years later he was formally recognized as a + preacher, his fame soon spreading through the neighbouring counties. His + wife died soon after their removal to Bedford, and he also lost his + friend and pastor, Mr Gifford. His earliest work was directed against + Quaker mysticism and appeared in 1656. It was entitled <i>Some Gospel + Truths Opened</i>; it was followed in the same year by a second tract in + the same sense, <i>A Vindication of Gospel Truths</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_045" href="#FnAnchor_045">[5]</a> He was not, + however, as has often been stated, confined in the old gaol which stood + on the bridge over the Ouse, but in the county gaol.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_046" href="#FnAnchor_046">[6]</a> His formal pardon + is dated the 13th of September 1672; but five months earlier he had + received a royal licence to preach, and acted for the next three years as + pastor of the nonconformist body to which he belonged, in a barn on the + site of which stands the present Bunyan Meeting.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_047" href="#FnAnchor_047">[7]</a> It is now + generally supposed that Bunyan wrote his <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>, not + during his twelve years' imprisonment, but during a short period of + incarceration in 1675, probably in the old gaol on the bridge.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_048" href="#FnAnchor_048">[8]</a> He had resumed his + pastorate in Bedford after his imprisonment of 1675, and, although he + frequently preached in London to crowded congregations, and is said in + the last year of his life to have been, of course unofficially, chaplain + to Sir John Shorter, lord mayor of London, he remained faithful to his + own congregation.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUNZLAU,</b> a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, on the right + bank of the Bober, 27 m. from Liegnitz on the Berlin-Breslau railway, + which crosses the river by a great viaduct. Pop. (1900) 14,590. It has a + handsome market square, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and + monuments to the Russian field marshal Kutusov, who died here, and to the + poet Martin Opitz von Boberfeld. The Bunzlau pottery is famous; woollen + and linen cloth are manufactured, and there is a considerable trade in + grain and cattle. Bunzlau (Boleslavia) received its name in the 12th + century from Duke Boleslav, who separated it from the duchy of Glogau. + Its importance was increased by numerous privileges and the possession of + extensive mining works. It was frequently captured and recaptured in the + wars of the 17th century, and in 1739 was completely destroyed by fire. + On the 30th of August 1813 the French were here defeated on the retreat + from the Katzbach by the Silesian army of the allies.</p> + + <p><b>BUONAFEDE, APPIANO</b> (1716-1793), Italian philosopher, was born + at Comachio, in Ferrara, and died in Rome. He became professor of + theology at Naples in 1740, and, entering the religious body of the + Celestines, rose to be general of the order. His principal works, + generally published under the assumed name of "Agatopisto Cromazione," + are on the history of philosophy:—<i>Della Istoria e delle Indole + di ogni Filosofia</i>, 7 vols., 1772 seq.; and <i>Della Restaurazione di + ogni Filosofia ne' Secoli</i>, xvi., xvii., xviii., 3 vols., 1789 (German + trans. by C. Heydenreich). The latter gives a valuable account of + 16th-century Italian philosophy. His other works are <i>Istoria critica e + filosofica del suicidio</i> (1761); <i>Delle conquiste celebri esaminate + col naturale diritto delle genti</i> (1763); <i>Storia critica del + moderno diritto di natura e delle genti</i> (1789); and a few poems and + philosophic comedies.</p> + + <p><b>BUOY</b> (15th century "boye"; through O.Fr. or Dutch, from Lat. + <i>boia</i>, fetter; the word is now usually pronounced as "boy," and it + has been spelt in that form; but Hakluyt's <!-- Page 807 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page807"></a>[v.04 p.0807]</span><i>Voyages</i> + spells it "bwoy," and this seems to indicate a different pronunciation, + which is also given in some modern dictionaries), a floating body + employed to mark the navigable limits of channels, their fairways, sunken + dangers or isolated rocks, mined or torpedo grounds, telegraph cables, or + the position of a ship's anchor after letting go; buoys are also used for + securing a ship to instead of anchoring. They vary in size and + construction from a log of wood to steel mooring buoys for battleships or + a steel gas buoy.</p> + + <p>In 1882 a conference was held upon a proposal to establish a uniform + system of buoyage. It was under the presidency of the then duke of + Edinburgh, and consisted of representatives from the various bodies + interested. The questions of colour, visibility, shape and size were + considered, and any modifications necessary owing to locality. The + committee proposed the following uniform system of buoyage, and it is now + adopted by the general lighthouse authorities of the United + Kingdom:—</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3. Spherical buoy with triangle." title="Fig. 3. Spherical buoy with triangle." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2. Can buoy with staff and cage." title="Fig. 2. Can buoy with staff and cage." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1. Conical buoy with staff and globe." title="Fig. 1. Conical buoy with staff and globe." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1. + </div> + <p>(1) The mariner when approaching the coast must determine his position + on the chart, and note the direction of flood tide. (2) The term + "starboard-hand" shall denote that side which would be on the right hand + of the mariner either going with the main stream of the flood, or + entering a harbour, river or estuary from seaward; the term "port-hand" + shall denote the left hand of the mariner in the same circumstances. + (3)<a name="FnAnchor_051" href="#Footnote_051"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Buoys + showing the pointed top of a cone above water shall be called conical + (fig. 1) and shall always be starboard-hand buoys, as above defined. + (4)<a href="#Footnote_051"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Buoys showing a flat top + above water shall be called can (fig. 2) and shall always be port-hand + buoys, as above defined. (5) Buoys showing a domed top above water shall + be called spherical (fig. 3) and shall mark the ends of middle grounds. + (6) Buoys having a tall central structure on a broad face shall be called + pillar buoys (fig. 4), and like all other special buoys, such as bell + buoys, gas buoys, and automatic sounding buoys, shall be placed to mark + special positions either on the coast or in the approaches to harbours. + (7) Buoys showing only a mast above water shall be called spar-buoys + (fig. 5).<a name="FnAnchor_052" href="#Footnote_052"><sup>[2]</sup></a> + (8) Starboard-hand buoys shall always be painted in one colour only. (9) + Port-hand buoys shall be painted of another characteristic colour, either + single or parti-colour. (10) Spherical buoys (fig. 3) at the ends of + middle grounds shall always be distinguished by horizontal stripes of + white colour, (11) Surmounting beacons, such as staff and globe and + others,<a name="FnAnchor_053" href="#Footnote_053"><sup>[3]</sup></a> + shall always be painted of one dark colour. (12) Staff and globe (fig. 1) + shall only be used on starboard-hand buoys, staff and cage (fig. 2) on + port hand; diamonds (fig. 7) at the outer ends of middle grounds; and + triangles (fig. 3) at the inner ends. (13) Buoys on the same side of a + channel, estuary or tideway may be distinguished from each other by + names, numbers or letters, and where necessary by a staff surmounted with + the appropriate beacon. (14) Buoys intended for moorings (fig. 6) may be + of shape and colour according to the discretion of the authority within + whose jurisdiction they are laid, but for marking submarine telegraph + cables the colour shall be green with the word "Telegraph" painted + thereon in white letters.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_7.png" + alt="Fig. 7. Diamond marker." title="Fig. 7. Diamond marker." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6. Mooring buoy." title="Fig. 6. Mooring buoy." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:10%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5. Spar-buoy." title="Fig. 5. Spar-buoy." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:13%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4. Pillar buoy." title="Fig. 4. Pillar buoy." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4. + </div> + <p><i>Buoying and Marking of Wrecks.</i>—(15) Wreck buoys in the + open sea, or in the approaches to a harbour or estuary, shall be coloured + green, with the word "Wreck" painted in white letters on them. (16) When + possible, the buoy should be laid near to the side of the wreck next to + mid-channel. (17) When a wreck-marking vessel is used, it shall, if + possible, have its top sides coloured green, with the word "Wreck" in + white letters thereon, and shall exhibit by day, three balls on a yard 20 + ft. above the sea, two placed vertically at one end and one at the other, + the single ball being on the side nearer to the wreck; in fog a gong or + bell is rung in quick succession at intervals not exceeding one minute + (wherever practicable); by night, three white fixed lights are similarly + arranged as the balls in daytime, but the ordinary riding lights are not + shown. (18) In narrow waters or in rivers and harbours under the + jurisdiction of local authorities, the same rules may be adopted, or at + discretion, varied as follows:—When a wreck-marking vessel is used + she shall carry a cross-yard on a mast with two balls by day, placed + horizontally not less than 6 nor more than 12 ft. apart, and by night two + lights similarly placed. When a barge or open boat only is used, a flag + or ball may be shown in the daytime. (19) The position in which the + marking vessel is placed with reference to the wreck shall be at the + discretion of the local authority having jurisdiction. A uniform system + by shape has been adopted by the Mersey Dock and Harbour Board, to assist + a mariner by night, and, in addition, where practicable, a uniform + colour; the fairway buoys are specially marked by letter, shape and + colour.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:14%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_11.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_11.png" + alt="Fig. 11. Horizontal Stripes." title="Fig. 11. Horizontal Stripes." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:12%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_10.png" + alt="Fig. 10. Chequered." title="Fig. 10. Chequered." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:13%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_9.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_9.png" + alt="Fig. 9. Vertical Stripes." title="Fig. 9. Vertical Stripes." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:11%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_8.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_8.png" + alt="Fig. 8. Single Colour." title="Fig. 8. Single Colour." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8. + </div> + <p>British India has practically adopted the British system, United + States and Canada have the same uniform system; in the majority of + European maritime countries and China various uniform systems have been + adopted. In Norway and Russia the compass system is used, the shape, + colour and surmountings of the buoys indicating the compass bearing of + the danger from the buoy; this method is followed in the open sea by + Sweden. An international uniform system of buoyage, although desirable, + appears impracticable. Germany employs yellow buoys to mark boundaries of + quarantine stations. The question of shape versus colour, irrespective of + size, is a disputed one; the shape is a better guide at night and colour + in the daytime. All markings (figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11) should be + subordinate to the main colour of the buoy; the varying backgrounds and + atmospheric conditions render the question a complex one.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:19%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_14.png" + alt="Fig. 14. Gas buoy." title="Fig. 14. Gas buoy." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:14%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_13.png" + alt="Fig. 13. Courtenay whistling buoy." title="Fig. 13. Courtenay whistling buoy." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:17%;"> + <a href="images/buoys_12.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buoys_12.png" + alt="Fig. 12. Gas buoy." title="Fig. 12. Gas buoy." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12. + </div> + <p>London Trinity House buoys are divided into five classes, their use + depending on whether the spot to be marked is in the open sea or + otherwise exposed position, or in a sheltered harbour, or according to + the depth of water and weight of moorings, or the importance of the + danger. Buoys are moored with specially tested cables; the eye at the + base of the buoy is of wrought iron to prevent it becoming "reedy" and + the cable is secured to blocks (see <span class="sc">Anchor</span>) or + mushroom anchors according to the nature of the ground. London Trinity + House buoys are <!-- Page 808 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page808"></a>[v.04 p.0808]</span>built of steel, with bulkheads to + lessen the risk of their sinking by collision, and, with the exception of + bell buoys, do not contain water ballast. In 1878 gas buoys, with fixed + and occulting lights of 10-candle power, were introduced. In 1896 Mr T. + Matthews, engineer-in-chief in the London Trinity Corporation, developed + the present design (fig. 12). It is of steel, the lower plates being 5/8 + in. and the upper 7/16 in. in thickness, thus adding to the stability. + The buoy holds 380 cub. ft. of gas, and exhibits an occulting light for + 2533 hours. This light is placed 10 ft. above the sea, and, with an + intensity of 50 candles, is visible 8 m. It occults every ten seconds, + and there is seven seconds' visibility, with three seconds' obscuration. + The occultations are actuated by a double valve arrangement. In the body + of the apparatus there is a gas chamber having sufficient capacity, in + the case of an occulting light, for maintaining the flame in action for + seven seconds, and by means of a by-pass a jet remains alight in the + centre of the burner. During the period of three seconds' darkness the + gas chamber is re-charged, and at the end of that period is again opened + to the main burner by a tripping arrangement of the valve, and remains in + action seven seconds. The gas chamber of the buoy, charged to five + atmospheres, is replenished from a steamer fitted with a pump and + transport receivers carrying indicating valves, the receivers being + charged to ten atmospheres. Practically no inconvenience has resulted + from saline or other deposits, the glazing (glass) of the lantern being + thoroughly cleaned when re-charging the buoy. Acetylene, generated from + calcium carbide inside the buoy, is also used. Electric light is + exhibited from some buoys in the United States. In England an automatic + electric buoy has been suggested, worked by the motion of the waves, + which cause a stream of water to act on a turbine connected with a dynamo + generating electricity. Boat-shaped buoys are also used (river Humber) + for carrying a light and bell. The Courtenay whistling buoy (fig. 13) is + actuated by the undulating movement of the waves. A hollow cylinder + extends from the lower part of the buoy to still water below the movement + of the waves, ensuring that the water inside keeps at mean level, whilst + the buoy follows the movements of the waves. By a special apparatus the + compressed air is forced through the whistle at the top of the buoy, and + the air is replenished by two tubes at the upper part of the buoy. It is + fitted with a rudder and secured in the usual manner. Automatic buoys + cannot be relied on in calm days with a smooth sea. The nun buoy (fig. + 14) for indicating the position of an anchor after letting go, is secured + to the crown of the anchor by a buoy rope. It is usually made of + galvanized iron, and consists of two cones joined together at the base. + It is painted red for the port anchor and green for the starboard.</p> + + <p>Mooring buoys (fig. 6) for battleships are built of steel in four + watertight compartments, and have sufficient buoyancy to keep afloat + should a compartment be pierced; they are 13 ft. long with a diameter of + 6½ ft. The mooring cable (bridle) passes through a watertight 16-in. + trunk pipe, built vertically in the centre of the buoy, and is secured to + a "rocking shackle" on the upper surface of the buoy. Large mooring buoys + are usually protected by horizontal wooden battens and are fitted with + life chains.</p> + + <p>(J. W. D.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_051" href="#FnAnchor_051">[1]</a> In carrying out + the above system the Northern Lights Commissioners have adopted a red + colour for conical or starboard-hand buoys, and black colour for can or + port-hand buoys, and this system is applicable to the whole of + Scotland.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_052" href="#FnAnchor_052">[2]</a> Useful where + floating ice is encountered.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_053" href="#FnAnchor_053">[3]</a> St George and St + Andrew crosses are principally employed to surmount shore beacons.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUPALUS</b> <span class="scac">AND</span> <b>ATHENIS,</b> sons of + Archermus, and members of the celebrated school of sculpture in marble + which flourished in Chios in the 6th century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> They were contemporaries of the poet Hipponax + (about 540 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), whom they were said to have + caricatured. Their works consisted almost entirely of draped female + figures, Artemis, Fortune, the Graces, whence the Chian school has been + well called a school of Madonnas. Augustus brought many of the works of + Bupalus and Athenis to Rome, and placed them on the gable of the temple + of Apollo Palatinus.</p> + + <p><b>BUPHONIA,</b> in Greek antiquities, a sacrificial ceremony, forming + part of the Diipolia, a religious festival held on the 14th of the month + Skirophorion (June-July) at Athens, when a labouring ox was sacrificed to + Zeus Polieus as protector of the city in accordance with a very ancient + custom. The ox was driven forward to the altar, on which grain was + spread, by members of the family of the Kentriadae (from <span + title="kentron" class="grk" + >κέντρον</span>, a goad), on whom this + duty devolved hereditarily. When it began to eat, one of the family of + the Thaulonidae advanced with an axe, slew the ox, then immediately threw + away the axe and fled. The axe, as being polluted by murder, was now + carried before the court of the Prytaneum (which tried inanimate objects + for homicide) and there charged with having caused the death of the ox, + for which it was thrown into the sea. Apparently this is an early + instance analogous to deodand (<i>q.v.</i>). Although the slaughter of a + labouring ox was forbidden, it was considered excusable in the + exceptional circumstances; none the less it was regarded as a murder.</p> + + <p>Porphyrius, <i>De Abstinentia</i>, ii. 29; Aelian, <i>Var. Hist.</i> + viii. 3; Schol. Aristoph. <i>Nubes</i>, 485; Pausanias, i. 24, 28; see + also Band, <i>De Diipoliorum Sacro Atheniensium</i> (1873).</p> + + <p><b>BUR</b>, or <span class="sc">Burr</span> (apparently the same word + as Danish <i>borre</i>, burdock, cf. Swed. <i>kard-boore</i>), a prickly + fruit or head of fruits, as of the burdock. In the sense of a woody + outgrowth on the trunk of a tree, or "gnaur," the effect of a crowded + bud-development, the word is probably adapted from the Fr. <i>bourre</i>, + a vine-bud.</p> + + <p><b>BURANO,</b> a town of Venetia, in the province of Venice, on an + island in the lagoons, 6 m. N.E. of Venice by sea. Pop. (1901) 8169. It + is a fishing town, with a large royal school of lace-making employing + some 500 girls. It was founded, like all the towns in the lagoons, by + fugitives from the mainland cities at the time of the barbarian + invasions. Torcello is a part of the commune of Burano.</p> + + <p><b>BURAUEN,</b> a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, + Philippine Islands, on the Dagitan river, 21 m. S. by W. of Tacloban, the + capital. Pop. (1903) 18,197. Burauen is situated in a rich hemp-growing + region, and hemp is its only important product. The language is + Visayan.</p> + + <p><b>BURBAGE, JAMES</b> (d. 1597), English actor, is said to have been + born at Stratford-on-Avon. He was a member of the earl of Leicester's + players, probably for several years before he is first mentioned (1574) + as being at the head of the company. In 1576, having secured the lease of + land at Shoreditch, Burbage erected there the successful house which was + known for twenty years as <i>The</i> Theatre from the fact that it was + the first ever erected in London. He seems also to have been concerned in + the erection of a second theatre in the same locality, the Curtain, and + later, in spite of all difficulties and a great deal of local opposition, + he started what became the most celebrated home of the rising + drama,—the Blackfriars theatre, built in 1596 near the old + Dominican friary.</p> + + <p>His son <span class="sc">Richard Burbage</span> (<i>c.</i> 1567-1619), + more celebrated than his father, was the Garrick of the Elizabethan + stage, and acted all the great parts in Shakespeare's plays. He, too, is + said to have been born at Stratford-on-Avon, and made his first + appearance at an early age at one of his father's theatres. He had + established a reputation by the time he was twenty, and in the next dozen + years was the most popular English actor, the "Roscius" of his day. At + the time of his father's death, a lawsuit was in progress against the + lessor from whom James Burbage held the land on which The Theatre stood. + This suit was continued by Richard and his brother Cuthbert, and in 1569 + they pulled down the Shoreditch house and used the materials to erect the + Globe theatre, famous for its connexion with Shakespeare. They occupied + it as a summer playhouse, retaining the Blackfriars, which was roofed in, + for winter performances. In this venture Richard Burbage had Shakespeare + and others <!-- Page 809 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page809"></a>[v.04 p.0809]</span>as his partners, and it was in one + or the other of these houses that he gained his greatest triumphs, taking + the leading part in almost every new play. He was specially famous for + his impersonation of Richard III. and other Shakespearian characters, and + it was in tragedy that he especially excelled. Every playwright of his + day endeavoured to secure his services. He died on the 13th of March + 1619. Richard Burbage was a painter as well as an actor. The Felton + portrait of Shakespeare is attributed to him, and there is a portrait of + a woman, undoubtedly by him, preserved at Dulwich College.</p> + + <p><b>BURBOT,</b> or <span class="sc">Eel-Pout</span> (<i>Lota + vulgaris</i>), a fish of the family Gadidae, which differs from the ling + in the dorsal and anal fins reaching the caudal, and in the small size of + all the teeth. It exceeds a length of 3 ft. and is a freshwater fish, + although examples are exceptionally taken in British estuaries and in the + Baltic; some specimens are handsomely marbled with dark brown, with black + blotches on the back and dorsal fins. It is very locally distributed in + central and northern Europe, and an uncommon fish in England. Its flesh + is excellent. The American burbot (<i>Lota maculosa</i>) is coarser, and + not favoured for the table.</p> + + <p><b>BURCKHARDT, JAKOB</b> (1818-1897), Swiss writer on art, was born at + Basel on the 25th of May 1818; he was educated there and at Neuchâtel, + and till 1839 was intended to be a pastor. In 1838 he made his first + journey to Italy, and also published his first important articles + <i>Bemerkungen über schweizerische Kathedralen</i>. In 1839 he went to + the university of Berlin, where he studied till 1843, spending part of + 1841 at Bonn, where he was a pupil of Franz Kugler, the art historian, to + whom his first book, <i>Die Kunstwerke D. belgischen Städte</i> (1842), + was dedicated. He was professor of history at the university of Basel + (1845-1847, 1849-1855 and 1858-1893) and at the federal polytechnic + school at Zurich (1855-1858). In 1847 he brought out new editions of + Kugler's two great works, <i>Geschichte der Malerei</i> and + <i>Kunstgeschichte</i>, and in 1853 published his own work, <i>Die Zeit + Constantins des Grossen</i>. He spent the greater part of the years + 1853-1854 in Italy, where he collected the materials for one of his most + famous works, <i>Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung sum Genuss der Kunstwerke + Italiens</i>, which was dedicated to Kugler and appeared in 1855 (7th + German edition, 1899; English translation of the sections relating to + paintings, by Mrs A.H. Clough, London, 1873). This work, which includes + sculpture and architecture, as well as painting, has become indispensable + to the art traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition was + devoted to the art of the Renaissance, so that Burckhardt was naturally + led on to the preparation of his two other celebrated works, <i>Die + Cultur der Renaissance in Italien</i> (1860, 5th German edition 1896, and + English translation, by S.G.C. Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and + the <i>Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien</i> (1867, 3rd German + edition 1891). In 1867 he refused a professorship at Tübingen, and in + 1872 another (that left vacant by Ranke) at Berlin, remaining faithful to + Basel. He died in 1897.</p> + + <p>See Life by Hans Trog in the <i>Basler Jahrbuch</i> for 1898, pp. + 1-172.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS</b> [<span class="sc">Johann Ludwig</span>] + (1784-1817), Swiss traveller and orientalist, was born at Lausanne on the + 24th of November 1784. After studying at Leipzig and Göttingen he visited + England in the summer of 1806, carrying a letter of introduction from the + naturalist Blumenbach to Sir Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of + the African Association, accepted his offer to explore the interior of + Africa. After studying in London and Cambridge, and inuring himself to + all kinds of hardships and privations, Burckhardt left England in March + 1809 for Malta, whence he proceeded, in the following autumn, to Aleppo. + In order to obtain a better knowledge of oriental life he disguised + himself as a Mussulman, and took the name of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah. + After two years passed in the Levant he had thoroughly mastered Arabic, + and had acquired such accurate knowledge of the Koran, and of the + commentaries upon its religion and laws, that after a critical + examination the most learned Mussulmans entertained no doubt of his being + really what he professed to be, a learned doctor of their law. During his + residence in Syria he visited Palmyra, Damascus, Lebanon and thence + journeyed via Petra to Cairo with the intention of joining a caravan to + Fezzan, and of exploring from there the sources of the Niger. In 1812, + whilst waiting for the departure of the caravan, he travelled up the Nile + as far as Dar Mahass; and then, finding it impossible to penetrate + westward, he made a journey through the Nubian desert in the character of + a poor Syrian merchant, passing by Berber and Shendi to Suakin, on the + Red Sea, whence he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca by way of Jidda. At + Mecca he stayed three months and afterwards visited Medina. After + enduring privations and sufferings of the severest kind, he returned to + Cairo in June 1815 in a state of great exhaustion; but in the spring of + 1816 he travelled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned to Cairo in June, + and there again made preparations for his intended journey to Fezzan. + Several hindrances prevented his prosecuting this intention, and finally, + in April 1817, when the long-expected caravan prepared to depart, he was + seized with illness and died on the 15th of October. He had from time to + time carefully transmitted to England his journals and notes, and a very + copious series of letters, so that nothing which appeared to him to be + interesting in the various journeys he made has been lost. He bequeathed + his collection of 800 vols. of oriental MSS. to the library of Cambridge + University.</p> + + <p>His works were published by the African Association in the following + order:—<i>Travels in Nubia</i> (to which is prefixed a biographical + memoir) (1819); <i>Travels in Syria and the Holy Land</i> (1822); + <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (1829); <i>Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and + Customs of the Modern Egyptians</i> (1830); <i>Notes on the Bedouins and + Wahabys</i> (1831).</p> + + <p><b>BURDEAU, AUGUSTE LAURENT</b> (1851-1894), French politician, was + the son of a labourer at Lyons. Forced from childhood to earn his own + living, he was enabled to secure an education by bursarships at the Lycée + at Lyons and at the Lycée Louis Le Grand in Paris. In 1870 he was at the + École Normale Supérieure in Paris, but enlisted in the army, and was + wounded and made prisoner in 1871. In 1874 he became professor of + philosophy, and translated several works of Herbert Spencer and of + Schopenhauer into French. His extraordinary aptitude for work secured for + him the position of <i>chef de cabinet </i>under Paul Bert, the minister + of education, in 1881. In 1885 he was elected deputy for the department + of the Rhone, and distinguished himself in financial questions. He was + several times minister, and became minister of finance in the cabinet of + Casimir-Périer (from the 3rd of November 1893 to the 22nd of May 1894). + On the 5th of July 1894 he was elected president of the chamber of + deputies. He died on the 12th of December 1894, worn out with + overwork.</p> + + <p><b>BURDEN,</b> or <span class="sc">Burthen</span>, (1) (A.S. + <i>byrthen</i>, from <i>beran</i>, to bear), a load, both literally and + figuratively; especially the carrying capacity of a ship; in mining and + smelting, the tops or heads of stream-work which lie over the stream of + tin, and the proportion of ore and flux to fuel in the charge of a + blast-furnace. In Scots and English law the term is applied to an + encumbrance on real or personal property. (2) (From the Fr. + <i>bourdon</i>, a droning, humming sound) an accompaniment to a song, or + the refrain of a song; hence a chief or recurrent topic, as "the burden + of a speech."</p> + + <p><b>BURDER, GEORGE</b> (1752-1832), English Nonconformist divine, was + born in London on the 5th of June 1752. In early manhood he was an + engraver, but in 1776 he began preaching, and was minister of the + Independent church at Lancaster from 1778 to 1783. Subsequently he held + charges at Coventry (1784-1803) and at Fetter Lane, London (1803-1832). + He was one of the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the + Religious Tract Society, and the London Missionary Society, and was + secretary to the last-named for several years. As editor of the + <i>Evangelical Magazine</i> and author of <i>Village Sermons</i>, he + commanded a wide influence. He died on the 29th of May 1832, and a Life + (by H. Burder) appeared in 1833.</p> + + <p><b>BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS</b> (1770-1844), English politician, was the + son of Francis Burdett by his wife Eleanor, daughter of William Jones of + Ramsbury manor, Wiltshire, and grandson of <!-- Page 810 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page810"></a>[v.04 p.0810]</span>Sir Robert + Burdett, Bart. Born on the 25th of January 1770, he was educated at + Westminster school and Oxford, and afterwards travelled in France and + Switzerland. He was in Paris during the earlier days of the French + Revolution, a visit which doubtless influenced his political opinions. + Returning to England he married in 1793 Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts + the banker, and this lady brought him a large fortune. In 1796 he became + member of parliament for Boroughbridge, having purchased this seat from + the representatives of the 4th duke of Newcastle, and in 1797 succeeded + his grandfather as fifth baronet. In parliament he soon became prominent + as an opponent of Pitt, and as an advocate of popular rights. He + denounced the war with France, the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, + the proposed exclusion of John Horne Tooke from parliament, and quickly + became the idol of the people. He was instrumental in securing an inquiry + into the condition of Coldbath Fields prison, but as a result of this + step he was for a time prevented by the government from visiting any + prison in the kingdom. In 1797 he made the acquaintance of Horne Tooke, + whose pupil he became, not only in politics, but also in philology. At + the general election of 1802 Burdett was a candidate for the county of + Middlesex, but his return was declared void in 1804, and in the + subsequent contest he was defeated. In 1805 this return was amended in + his favour, but as this was again quickly reversed, Burdett, who had + spent an immense sum of money over the affair, declared he would not + stand for parliament again.</p> + + <p>At the general election of 1806 Burdett was a leading supporter of + James Paull, the reform candidate for the city of Westminster; but in the + following year a misunderstanding led to a duel between Burdett and Paull + in which both combatants were wounded. At the general election in 1807 + Burdett, in spite of his reluctance, was nominated for Westminster, and + amid great enthusiasm was returned at the top of the poll. He took up + again the congenial work of attacking abuses and agitating for reform, + and in 1810 came sharply into collision with the House of Commons. A + radical named John Gale Jones had been committed to prison by the House, + a proceeding which was denounced by Burdett, who questioned the power of + the House to take this step, and vainly attempted to secure the release + of Jones. He then issued a revised edition of his speech on this + occasion, and it was published by William Cobbett in the <i>Weekly + Register</i>. The House voted this action a breach of privilege, and the + speaker issued a warrant for Burdett's arrest. Barring himself in his + house, he defied the authorities, while the mob gathered in his defence. + At length his house was entered, and under an escort of soldiers he was + conveyed to the Tower. Released when parliament was prorogued, he caused + his supporters much disappointment by returning to Westminster by water, + and so avoiding a demonstration in his honour. He then brought actions + against the speaker and the serjeant-at-arms, but the courts upheld the + action of the House. In parliament Burdett denounced corporal punishment + in the army, and supported all attempts to check corruption, but his + principal efforts were directed towards procuring a reform of parliament, + and the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities. In 1809 he had proposed a + scheme of parliamentary reform, and returning to the subject in 1817 and + 1818 he anticipated the Chartist movement by suggesting universal male + suffrage, equal electoral districts, vote by ballot, and annual + parliaments; but his motions met with very little support. He succeeded, + however, in carrying a resolution in 1825 that the House should consider + the laws concerning Roman Catholics. This was followed by a bill + embodying his proposals, which passed the Commons but was rejected by the + Lords. In 1827 and 1828 he again proposed resolutions on this subject, + and saw his proposals become law in 1829. In 1820 Burdett had again come + into serious conflict with the government. Having severely censured its + action with reference to the "Manchester massacre," he was prosecuted at + Leicester assizes, fined £1000, and committed to prison for three months. + After the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 the ardour of the veteran + reformer was somewhat abated, and a number of his constituents soon took + umbrage at his changed attitude. Consequently he resigned his seat early + in 1837, but was re-elected. However, at the general election in the same + year he forsook Westminster and was elected member for North Wiltshire, + which seat he retained, acting in general with the Conservatives, until + his death on the 23rd of January 1844. He left a son, Robert, who + succeeded to the baronetcy, and five daughters, the youngest of whom + became the celebrated Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Impetuous and illogical, + Burdett did good work as an advocate of free speech, and an enemy of + corruption. He was exceedingly generous, and spent money lavishly in + furthering projects of reform.</p> + + <p>See A. Stephens, <i>Life of Horne Tooke</i> (London, 1813); Spencer + Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (London, 1878-1886); C. Abbot, Baron + Colchester, <i>Diary and Correspondence</i> (London, 1861).</p> + + <p>(A. W. H.*)</p> + + <p><b>BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA BURDETT-COUTTS,</b> <span + class="sc">Baroness</span> (1814-1906), English philanthropist, youngest + daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born on the 21st of April 1814. When + she was three-and-twenty, she inherited practically the whole of the + immense wealth of her grandfather Thomas Coutts (approaching two millions + sterling, a fabulous sum in those days), by the will of the duchess of St + Albans, who, as the actress Henrietta Mellon, had been his second wife + and had been left it on his death in 1821. Miss Burdett then took the + name of Coutts in addition to her own. "The faymale heiress, Miss Anjaley + Coutts," as the author of the <i>Ingoldsby Legends</i> called her in his + ballad on the queen's coronation in that year (1837), at once became a + notable subject of public curiosity and private cupidity; she received + numerous offers of marriage, but remained resolutely single, devoting + herself and her riches to philanthropic work, which made her famous for + well-applied generosity. In May 1871 she was created a peeress, as + Baroness Burdett-Coutts of Highgate and Brookfield, Middlesex. On the + 18th of July 1872 she was presented at the Guildhall with the freedom of + the city of London, the first case of a woman being admitted to that + fellowship. It was not till 1881 that, when sixty-seven years old, she + married William Lehman Ashmead-Bartlett, an American by birth, and + brother of Sir E.A. Ashmead-Bartlett, the Conservative member of + parliament; and he then took his wife's name, entering the House of + Commons as member for Westminster, 1885. Full of good works, and of + social interest and influence, the baroness lived to the great age of + ninety-two, dying at her house in Stratton Street, Piccadilly, on the + 30th of December 1906, of bronchitis. She was buried in Westminster + Abbey.</p> + + <p>The extent of her benefactions during her long and active life can + only be briefly indicated; but the baroness must remain a striking figure + in the social history of Victorian England, for the thoughtful and + conscientious care with which she "held her wealth in trust" for + innumerable good objects. It was her aim to benefit the working-classes + in ways involving no loss of independence or self-respect. She carefully + avoided taking any side in party politics, but she was actively + interested in phases of Imperial extension which were calculated to + improve the condition of the black races, as in Africa, or the education + and relief of the poor or suffering in any part of the world. Though she + made no special distinction of creed in her charities, she was a notable + benefactor of the Church of England, building and endowing churches and + church schools, endowing the bishoprics of Cape Town and of Adelaide + (1847), and founding the bishopric of British Columbia (1857). Among her + many educational endowments may be specified the St Stephen's Institute + in Vincent Square, Westminster (1846); she started sewing schools in + Spitalfields when the silk trade began to fail; helped to found the + shoe-black brigade; and placed hundreds of destitute boys in + training-ships for the navy and merchant service. She established + Columbia fish market (1869) in Bethnal Green, and presented it to the + city, but owing to commercial difficulties this effort, which cost her + over £200,000, proved abortive. She supported various schemes of + emigration to the colonies; and in Ireland helped to promote the fishing + industry by starting schools, and providing boats, besides <!-- Page 811 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page811"></a>[v.04 + p.0811]</span>advancing £250,000 in 1880 for supplying seed to the + impoverished tenants. She was devoted to the protection of animals and + prevention of cruelty, and took up with characteristic zeal the cause of + the costermongers' donkeys, building stables for them on her Columbia + market estate, and giving prizes for the best-kept animals. She helped to + inaugurate the society for the prevention of cruelty to children, and was + a keen supporter of the ragged school union. Missionary efforts of all + sorts; hospitals and nursing; industrial homes and refuges; relief funds, + &c., found in her a generous supporter. She was associated with + Louisa Twining and Florence Nightingale; and in 1877-1878 raised the + Turkish compassionate fund for the starving peasantry and fugitives in + the Russo-Turkish War (for which she obtained the order of the Medjidieh, + a solitary case of its conference on a woman). She relieved the + distressed in far-off lands as well as at home, her helping hand being + stretched out to the Dyaks of Borneo and the aborigines of Australia. She + was a liberal patroness of the stage, literature and the arts, and + delighted in knowing all the cultured people of the day. In short, her + position in England for half a century may well be summed up in words + attributed to King Edward VII., "after my mother (Queen Victoria) the + most remarkable woman in the kingdom."</p> + + <p><b>BURDON-SANDERSON, SIR JOHN SCOTT,</b> Bart. (1828-1905), English + physiologist, was born at West Jesmand, near Newcastle, on the 21st of + December 1828. A member of a well-known Northumbrian family, he received + his medical education at the university of Edinburgh and at Paris. + Settling in London, he became medical officer of health for Paddington in + 1856 and four years later physician to the Middlesex and the Brompton + Consumption hospitals. When diphtheria appeared in England in 1858 he was + sent to investigate the disease at the different points of outbreak, and + in subsequent years he carried out a number of similar inquiries, + <i>e.g.</i> into the cattle plague and into cholera in 1866. He became + first principal of the Brown Institution at Lambeth in 1871, and in 1874 + was appointed Jodrell professor of physiology at University College, + London, retaining that post till 1882. When the Waynflete chair of + physiology was established at Oxford in 1882, he was chosen to be its + first occupant, and immediately found himself the object of a furious + anti-vivisectionist agitation. The proposal that the university should + spend £10,000 in providing him with a suitable laboratory, lecture-rooms, + &c., in which to carry on his work, was strongly opposed, by some on + grounds of economy, but largely because he was an upholder of the + usefulness and necessity of experiments upon animals. It was, however, + eventually carried by a small majority (88 to 85), and in the same year + the Royal Society awarded him a royal medal in recognition of his + researches into the electrical phenomena exhibited by plants and the + relations of minute organisms to disease, and of the services he had + rendered to physiology and pathology. In 1885 the university of Oxford + was asked to vote £500 a year for three years for the purposes of the + laboratory, then approaching completion. This proposal was fought with + the utmost bitterness by Sanderson's opponents, the anti-vivisectionists + including E.A. Freeman, John Ruskin and Bishop Mackarness of Oxford. + Ultimately the money was granted by 412 to 244 votes. In 1895 Sanderson + was appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, resigning the post + in 1904; in 1899 he was created a baronet. His attainments, both in + biology and medicine, brought him many honours. He was Croonian lecturer + to the Royal Society in 1867 and 1877 and to the Royal College of + Physicians in 1891; gave the Harveian oration before the College of + Physicians in 1878; acted as president of the British Association at + Nottingham in 1893; and served on three royal commissions—Hospitals + (1883), Tuberculosis, Meat and Milk (1890), and University for London + (1892). He died at Oxford on the 23rd of November 1905.</p> + + <p><b>BURDWAN,</b> or <span class="sc">Bardwan</span>, a town of British + India, in Bengal, which gives its name to a district and to a division. + It has a station on the East Indian railway, 67 m. N.W. from Calcutta. + Pop. (1901) 35,022. The town consists really of numerous villages + scattered over an area of 9 sq. m., and is entirely rural in character. + It contains several interesting ancient tombs, and at Nawab Hat, some 2 + m. distant, is a group of 108 Siva <i>lingam</i> temples built in 1788. + The place was formerly very unhealthy, but this has been to a large + extent remedied by the establishment of water-works, a good supply of + water being derived from the river Banka. Within the town, the principal + objects of interest are the palaces and gardens of the maharaja. The + chief educational institution is the Burdwan Raj college, which is + entirely supported out of the maharaja's estate.</p> + + <p>The town owes its importance entirely to being the headquarters of the + maharaja of Burdwan, the premier nobleman of lower Bengal, whose + rent-roll is upwards of £300,000. The <i>raj</i> was founded in 1657 by + Abu Ra Kapur, of the Kapur Khatri family of Kotli in Lahore, Punjab, + whose descendants served in turn the Mogul emperors and the British + government. The great prosperity of the <i>raj</i> was due to the + excellent management of Maharaja Mahtab Chand (d. 1879), whose loyalty to + the government—especially during the Santal rebellion of 1855 and + the mutiny of 1857—was rewarded with the grant of a coat of arms in + 1868 and the right to a personal salute of 13 guns in 1877. Maharaja + Bijai Chand Mahtab (b. 1881), who succeeded his adoptive father in 1888, + earned great distinction by the courage with which he risked his life to + save that of Sir Andrew Fraser, the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, on the + occasion of the attempt to assassinate him made by Bengali malcontents on + the 7th of November 1908.</p> + + <p>The <span class="sc">District of Burdwan</span> lies along the right + bank of the river Bhagirathi or Hugli. It has an area of 2689 sq. m. It + is a flat plain, and its scenery is uninteresting. Chief rivers are the + Bhagirathi, Damodar, Ajai, Banka, Kunur and Khari, of which only the + Bhagirathi is navigable by country cargo boats throughout the year. The + district was acquired by the East India Company under the treaty with + Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760, and confirmed by the emperor Shah Alam in 1765. + The land revenue was fixed in perpetuity with the zemindar in 1793. In + 1901 the population was 1,532,475, showing an increase of 10% in the + decade. There are several indigo factories. The district suffered from + drought in 1896-1897. The Eden Canal, 20 m. long, has been constructed + for irrigation. The weaving of silk is the chief native industry. As + regards European industries, Burdwan takes the first place in Bengal. It + contains the great coal-field of Raniganj, first opened in 1874, with an + output of more than three million tons. The Barrakur ironworks produce + pig-iron, which is reported to be as good as that of Middlesbrough. Apart + from Burdwan town and Raniganj, the chief places are the river-marts of + Katwa and Kalna. The East Indian railway has several lines running + through the district.</p> + + <p>The <span class="sc">Division of Burdwan</span> comprises the six + districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli and Howrah, with + a total area of 13,949 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 8,240,076.</p> + + <p><b>BUREAU</b> (a Fr. word from <i>burel</i> or <i>bureau</i>, a coarse + cloth used for coverings), a writing-table or desk (<i>q.v.</i>), also in + America a low chest of drawers. From the meaning of "desk," the word is + applied to an office or place of business, and particularly a government + department; in the United States the term is used of certain subdivisions + of the executive departments, as the bureau of statistics, a division of + the treasury department. The term "bureaucracy" is often employed to + signify the concentration of administrative power in bureaux or + departments, and the undue interference by officials not only in the + details of government, but in matters outside the scope of state + interference. The word is also frequently used in the sense of + "red-tapism."</p> + + <p><b>BURFORD,</b> a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division + of Oxfordshire, England, 18 m. W.N.W. of Oxford. Pop. (1901) 1146. It is + pleasantly situated in the valley of the Windrush, the broad, picturesque + main street sloping upward from the stream, beside which stands the fine + church, to the summit of the ridge flanking the valley on the south, + along which runs the high road from Oxford. The church of St John the + Baptist has a nave and aisles, mainly Perpendicular in appearance owing + to alterations in that period, but actually of <!-- Page 812 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page812"></a>[v.04 p.0812]</span>earlier + construction, the south aisle flanked by two beautiful chapels and an + ornate porch; transepts and a central tower, and choir with flanking + chapels. The massive Norman tower contrasts strongly with the delicate + Perpendicular spire rising upon it. The church contains many interesting + memorials, and, in the nave, a Perpendicular shrine dedicated to St + Peter. Near the church is the half-ruined priory house, built in the 17th + century, and containing much fine plaster ornament characteristic of the + period; a curious chapel adjoins it. William Lenthall, speaker of the + Long Parliament, was granted this mansion, died here in 1662, and is + buried in the church. In the High Street nearly every house is of some + antiquity. The Tolsey or old town hall is noteworthy among them; and + under one of the houses is an Early English crypt. Burford is mentioned + as the scene of a synod in 705; in 752 Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, + fighting for independence, here defeated Æthelbald, king of Mercia; and + in 1649 the town and district were the scene of victorious operations by + Cromwell.</p> + + <p><b>BURG,</b> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the river Ihle, + and the railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 m. N.E. of the latter. Pop. + (1900) 22,432. It is noted for its cloth manufactures and boot-making, + which afford employment to a great part of its population. The town + belonged originally to the lordship of Querfurt, passed with this into + the possession of the archbishops of Magdeburg in 1496, and was ceded in + 1635 with other portions of the Magdeburg territories to Saxony; in 1687 + it was ceded to Brandenburg. It owes its prosperity to the large influx + of industrious French, Palatinate and Walloon refugees, which took place + about the end of the 17th century.</p> + + <p><b>BURGAGE</b> (from Lat. <i>burgus</i>, a borough), a form of tenure, + both in England and Scotland, applicable to the property connected with + the old municipal corporations and their privileges. In England, it was a + tenure whereby houses or tenements in an ancient borough were held of the + king or other person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less + practical importance in the English than in the Scottish system, where it + held an important place in the practice of conveyancing, real property + having been generally divided into feudal-holding and burgage-holding. + Since the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874, there is, however, not much + distinction between burgage tenure and free holding. It is usual to speak + of the English burgage-tenure as a relic of Saxon freedom resisting the + shock of the Norman conquest and its feudalism, but it is perhaps more + correct to consider it a local feature of that general exemption from + feudality enjoyed by the <i>municipia</i> as a relic of their ancient + Roman constitution. The reason for the system preserving for so long its + specifically distinct form in Scottish conveyancing was because + burgage-holding was an exception to the system of subinfeudation which + remained prevalent in Scotland when it was suppressed in England. While + other vassals might hold of a graduated hierarchy of overlords up to the + crown, the burgess always held directly of the sovereign. It is curious + that while in England the burgage-tenure was deemed a species of socage, + to distinguish it from the military holdings, in Scotland it was strictly + a military holding, by the service of watching and warding for the + defence of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed by burgesses, + freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies in burghs, were dependent + on the character of the burgage-tenure. Tenure by burgage was subject to + a variety of customs, the principal of which was Borough-English + (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p>See Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i> (1898).</p> + + <p><b>BURGAS</b> (sometimes written <i>Burghaz</i>, <i>Bourgas</i> or + <i>Borgas</i>, and, in the middle ages, <i>Pyrgos</i>), a seaport, and + capital of the department of Burgas, in Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), on + the gulf of Burgas, an inlet of the Black Sea, in 42° 27′ N. and + 27° 35′ E. Pop. (1906) 12,846. Burgas is built on a low foreland, + between the lagoons of Ludzha, on the north, and Kara-Yunus, on the west; + it faces towards the open sea on the east, and towards its own harbour on + the south. The principal approach is a broad isthmus on the north-west, + along which runs the railway to Philippopolis and Adrianople. Despite its + small population and the rivalry of Varna and the Turkish port of + Dedeagatch, Burgas has a considerable transit trade. Its fine harbour, + formally opened in 1904, has an average depth of five fathoms; large + vessels can load at the quays, and the outer waters of the gulf are well + lit by lighthouses on the islets of Hagios Anastasios and Megalo-Nisi. In + 1904, the port accommodated over 1400 ships, of about 700,000 tons. These + included upwards of 800 Bulgarian and Turkish sailing-vessels, engaged in + the coasting trade. Fuel, machinery and miscellaneous goods are imported, + chiefly from Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom; + the exports include grain, wool, tallow, cheese, butter, attar of roses, + &c. Pottery and pipes are manufactured from clay obtained in the + neighbourhood.</p> + + <p><b>BURGDORF</b> (Fr. <i>Berthoud</i>), an industrial town in the Swiss + canton of Bern. It is built on the left bank of the Emme and is 14 m. by + rail N.E. of Bern. The lower (or modern) town is connected by a curious + spiral street with the upper (or old) town. The latter is picturesquely + perched on a hill, at a height of 1942 ft. above sea-level (or 167 ft. + above the river); it is crowned by the ancient castle and by the + 15th-century parish church, in the former of which Pestalozzi set up his + educational establishment between 1798 and 1804. A large trade is carried + on at Burgdorf in the cheese of the Emmenthal, while among the industrial + establishments are railway works, and factories of cloth, white lead and + tinfoil. In 1900 the population was 8404, practically all Protestants and + German-speaking. A fine view of the Bernese Alps is obtained from the + castle, while a still finer one may be enjoyed from the Lueg hill (2917 + ft.), north-east of the town. The castle dates from the days of the dukes + of Zäringen (11th-12th centuries), the last of whom (Berchtold V.) built + walls round the town at its foot, and granted it a charter of liberties. + On the extinction (1218) of that dynasty both castle and town passed to + the counts of Kyburg, and from them, with the rest of their possessions, + in 1272 by marriage to the cadet line of the Habsburgs. By that line they + were sold in 1384, with Thun, to the town of Bern, whose bailiffs ruled + in the castle till 1798.</p> + + <p>(W. A. B. C.)</p> + + <p><b>BURGEE</b> (of unknown origin), a small three-cornered or + swallow-tailed flag or pennant used by yachts or merchant vessels; also a + kind of small coal burnt in engine furnaces.</p> + + <p><b>BÜRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST</b> (1748-1794), German poet, was born on + the 1st of January 1748 at Molmerswende near Halberstadt, of which + village his father was the Lutheran pastor. He was a backward child, and + at the age of twelve was practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, + Bauer, at Aschersleben, who sent him to the <i>Pädagogium</i> at Halle. + Hence in 1764 he passed to the university, as a student of theology, + which, however, he soon abandoned for the study of jurisprudence. Here he + fell under the influence of C.A. Klotz (1738-1771), who directed Bürger's + attention to literature, but encouraged rather than discouraged his + natural disposition to a wild and unregulated life. In consequence of his + dissipated habits, he was in 1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on + promising to reform was in 1768 allowed to enter the university of + Göttingen as a law student. As he continued his wild career, however, his + grandfather withdrew his support and he was left to his own devices. + Meanwhile he had made fair progress with his legal studies, and had the + good fortune to form a close friendship with a number of young men of + literary tastes. In the Göttingen <i>Musenalmanach</i>, edited by H. Boie + and F.W. Gotter, Bürger's first poems were published, and by 1771 he had + already become widely known as a poet. In 1772, through Boie's influence, + Bürger obtained the post of "<i>Amtmann</i>" or district magistrate at + Altengleichen near Göttingen. His grandfather was now reconciled to him, + paid his debts and established him in his new sphere of activity. + Meanwhile he kept in touch with his Göttingen friends, and when the + "Göttinger Bund" or "Hain" was formed, Bürger, though not himself a + member, kept in close touch with it. In 1773 the ballad <i>Lenore</i> was + published in the <i>Musenalmanach</i>. This poem, which in dramatic force + and in its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural remains + without a rival, made his name a household word in Germany. In 1774 + Bürger married Dorette Leonhart, the <!-- Page 813 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page813"></a>[v.04 p.0813]</span>daughter of a + Hanoverian official; but his passion for his wife's younger sister + Auguste (the "Molly" of his poems and elegies) rendered the union unhappy + and unsettled his life. In 1778 Bürger became editor of the + <i>Musenalmanach</i>, and in the same year published the first collection + of his poems. In 1780 he took a farm at Appenrode, but in three years + lost so much money that he had to abandon the venture. Pecuniary troubles + oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his official duties, and + feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official position and removed + in 1784 to Göttingen, where he established himself as + <i>Privat-docent</i>. Shortly before his removal thither his wife died + (30th of July 1784), and on the 29th of June in the next year he married + his sister-in-law "Molly." Her death on the 9th of January 1786 affected + him deeply. He appeared to lose at once all courage and all bodily and + mental vigour. He still continued to teach in Göttingen; at the jubilee + of the foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary + doctor of philosophy, and in 1789 was appointed extraordinary professor + in that faculty, though without a stipend. In the following year he + married a third time, his wife being a certain Elise Hahn, who, enchanted + with his poems, had offered him her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of + married life with his "Schwabenmädchen" sufficed to prove his mistake, + and after two and a half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded by + Schiller's criticism, in the 14th and 15th part of the <i>Allgemeine + Literaturzeitung</i> of 1791, of the 2nd edition of his poems, + disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Bürger eked out a precarious + existence as a teacher in Göttingen until his death there on the 8th of + June 1794.</p> + + <p>Bürger's character, in spite of his utter want of moral balance, was + not lacking in noble and lovable qualities. He was honest in purpose, + generous to a fault, tender-hearted and modest. His talent for popular + poetry was very considerable, and his ballads are among the finest in the + German language. Besides <i>Lenore, Das Lied vom braven Manne, Die Kuh, + Der Kaiser und der Abt</i> and <i>Der wilde Jäger</i> are famous. Among + his purely lyrical poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but + mention may be made of <i>Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Lied an den lieben + Mond</i>, and a few love songs. His sonnets, particularly the elegies, + are of great beauty.</p> + + <p>Editions of Bürger's <i>Samtliche Schriften</i> appeared at Göttingen, + 1817 (incomplete); 1829-1833 (8 vols.), and 1835 (one vol.); also a + selection by E. Grisebach (5th ed., 1894). The <i>Gedichte</i> have been + published in innumerable editions, the best being that by A. Sauer (2 + vols., 1884). <i>Briefe von und an Burger</i> were edited by A. + Strodtmann in 4 vols. (1874). On Bürger's life see the biography by H. + Prohle (1856), the introduction to Sauer's edition of the poems, and W. + von Wurzbach, <i>G.A. Burger</i> (1900).</p> + + <p><b>BURGERS, THOMAS FRANÇOIS</b> (1834-1881), president of the + Transvaal Republic, was born in Cape Colony on the 15th of April 1834, + and was educated at Utrecht, Holland, where he took the degree of doctor + of theology. On his return to South Africa he was ordained minister of + the Dutch Reformed Church, and stationed at Hanover in Cape Colony, where + he exercised his ministrations for eight years. In 1862 his preaching + attracted attention, and two years later an ecclesiastical tribunal + suspended him for heretical opinions. He appealed, however, to the + colonial government, which had appointed him, and obtained judgment in + his favour, which was confirmed by the privy council of England on appeal + in 1865. On the resignation of M.W. Pretorius and the refusal of + President Brand of the Orange Free State to accept the office, Burgers + was elected president of the Transvaal, taking the oath on the 1st of + July 1872. In 1873 he endeavoured to persuade Montsioa to agree to an + alteration in the boundary of the Barolong territory as fixed by the + Keate award, but failed (see <span class="sc">Bechuanaland</span>). In + 1875 Burgers, leaving the Transvaal in charge of Acting-President + Joubert, went to Europe mainly to promote a scheme for linking the + Transvaal to the coast by a railway from Delagoa Bay, which was that year + definitely assigned to Portugal by the MacMahon award. With the + Portuguese Burgers concluded a treaty, December 1875, providing for the + construction of the railway. After meeting with refusals of financial + help in London, Burgers managed to raise £90,000 in Holland, and bought a + quantity of railway plant, which on its arrival at Delagoa Bay was + mortgaged to pay freight, and this, so far as Burgers was concerned, was + the end of the matter. In June 1876 he induced the raad to declare war + against Sikukuni (Secocoeni), a powerful native chief in the eastern + Transvaal. The campaign was unsuccessful, and with its failure the + republic fell into a condition of lawlessness and insolvency, while a + Zulu host threatened invasion. Burgers in an address to the raad (3rd of + March 1877) declared "I would rather be a policeman under a strong + government than the president of such a state. It is you—-you + members of the raad and the Boers—who have lost the country, who + have sold your independence for a drink." Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who + had been sent to investigate the condition of affairs in the Transvaal, + issued on the 12th of April a proclamation annexing the Transvaal to + Great Britain. Burgers fully acquiesced in the necessity for annexation. + He accepted a pension from the British government, and settled down to + farming in Hanover, Cape Colony. He died at Richmond in that colony on + the 9th of December 1881, and in the following year a volume of short + stories, <i>Tooneelen uit ons dorp</i>, originally written by him for the + Cape <i>Volksblad</i>, was published at the Hague for the benefit of his + family. A patriot, a fluent speaker both in Dutch and in English, and + possessed of unbounded energy, the failure of Burgers was due to his + fondness for large visionary plans, which he attempted to carry out with + insufficient means (see <span class="sc">Transvaal</span>: + <i>History</i>).</p> + + <p>For the annexation period see John Martineau, <i>The Life of Sir + Bartle Frere</i>, vol. ii. chap, xviii. (London, 1895).</p> + + <p><b>BURGERSDYK,</b> or <span class="sc">Burgersdicius</span>, + <b>FRANCIS</b> (1590-1629), Dutch logician, was born at Lier, near Delft, + and died at Leiden. After a brilliant career at the university of Leiden, + he studied theology at Saumur, where while still very young he became + professor of philosophy. After five years he returned to Leiden, where he + accepted the chair of logic and moral philosophy, and afterwards that of + natural philosophy. His <i>Logic</i> was at one time widely used, and is + still valuable. He wrote also <i>Idea Philosophiae Moralis</i> + (1644).</p> + + <p><b>BURGES, GEORGE</b> (1786-1864), English classical scholar, was born + in India. He was educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity College, + Cambridge, taking his degree in 1807, and obtaining one of the members' + prizes both in 1808 and 1809. He stayed up at Cambridge and became a most + successful "coach." He had a great reputation as a Greek scholar, and was + a somewhat acrimonious critic of rival scholars, especially Bishop + Blomfield. Subsequently he fell into embarrassed circumstances through + injudicious speculation, and in 1841 a civil list pension of £100 per + annum was bestowed upon him. He died at Ramsgate, on the 11th of January + 1864. Burges was a man of great learning and industry, but too fond of + introducing arbitrary emendations into the text of classical authors. His + chief works are: Euripides' <i>Troades</i> (1807) and <i>Phoenissae</i> + (1809); Aeschylus' <i>Supplices</i> (1821), <i>Eumenides</i> (1822) and + <i>Prometheus</i> (1831); Sophocles' <i>Philoctetes</i> (1833); E.F. + Poppo's <i>Prolegomena to Thucydides</i> (1837), an abridged translation + with critical remarks; <i>Hermesianactis Fragmenta</i> (1839). He also + edited some of the dialogues of Plato with English notes, and translated + nearly the whole of that author and the Greek anthology for Bohn's + Classical library. He was a frequent contributor to the <i>Classical + Journal</i> and other periodicals, and dedicated to Byron a play called + <i>The Son of Erin</i>, or, <i>The Cause of the Greeks</i> (1823).</p> + + <p><b>BURGESS, DANIEL</b> (1645-1713), English Presbyterian divine, was + born at Staines, in Middlesex, where his father was minister. He was + educated under Busby at Westminster school, and in 1660 was sent to + Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but not being able conscientiously to subscribe + the necessary formulae he quitted the university without taking his + degree. In 1667, after taking orders, he was appointed by Roger Boyle, + first Lord Orrery, to the headmastership of a school recently established + by that nobleman at Charleville, Co. Cork, and soon after he became + private chaplain to Lady Mervin, near Dublin. There he was <!-- Page 814 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page814"></a>[v.04 + p.0814]</span>ordained by the local presbytery, and on returning to + England was imprisoned for preaching at Marlborough. He soon regained his + liberty, and went to London, where he speedily gathered a large and + influential congregation, as much by the somewhat excessive fervour of + his piety as by the vivacious illustrations which he frequently employed + in his sermons. He was a master of epigram, and theologically inclined to + Calvinism. The Sacheverell mob gutted his chapel in 1710, but the + government repaired the building. Besides preaching, he gave instruction + to private pupils, of whom the most distinguished was Henry St John, + afterwards Lord Bolingbroke. His son, Daniel Burgess (d. 1747), was + secretary to the princess of Wales, and in 1723 obtained a <i>regium + donum</i> or government grant of £500 half-yearly for dissenting + ministers.</p> + + <p><b>BURGESS, THOMAS</b> (1756-1837), English divine, was born at + Odiham, in Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester, and at Corpus + Christi College, Oxford. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of John + Burton's <i>Pentalogia</i>. In 1781 he brought out an annotated edition + of Richard Dawes's <i>Miscellanea Critica</i> (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). + In 1783 he became a fellow of his college, and in 1785 was appointed + chaplain to Shute Barrington, bishop of Salisbury, through whose + influence he obtained a prebendal stall, which he held till 1803. In 1788 + he published his <i>Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery</i>, in + which he advocated the principle of gradual emancipation. In 1791 he + accompanied Barrington to Durham, where he did evangelistic work among + the poorer classes. In 1803 he was appointed to the vacant bishopric of + St David's, which he held for twenty years with great success. He founded + the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in the diocese, and also St + David's College at Lampeter, which he liberally endowed. In 1820 he was + appointed first president of the recently founded Royal Society of + Literature; and three years later he was promoted to the see of + Salisbury, over which he presided for twelve years, prosecuting his + benevolent designs with unwearied industry. As at St David's, so at + Salisbury, he founded a Church Union Society for the assistance of infirm + and distressed clergymen. He strenuously opposed both Unitarianism and + Catholic emancipation. He died on the 19th of February 1837.</p> + + <p>A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his + biography by J.S. Harford (2nd ed., 1841). In addition to those already + referred to may be mentioned his <i>Essay on the Study of + Antiquities</i>, <i>The First Principles of Christian Knowledge</i>; + <i>Reflections on the Controversial Writings of Dr Priestley</i>, + <i>Emendationes in Suidam et Hesychium et alios Lexicographos + Graecos</i>; <i>The Bible, and nothing but the Bible, the Religion of the + Church of England</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BURGESS</b> (Med. Lat. <i>burgensis</i>, from <i>burgus</i>, a + borough, a town), a term, in its earliest sense, meaning an inhabitant of + a borough, one who occupied a tenement therein, but now applied solely to + a registered parliamentary, or more strictly, municipal voter. An early + use of the word was to denote a member elected to parliament by his + fellow citizens in a borough. In some of the American colonies + (<i>e.g.</i> Virginia), a "burgess" was a member of the legislative body, + which was termed the "House of Burgesses." Previously to the Municipal + Reform Act 1835, burgess was an official title in some English boroughs, + and in this sense is still used in some of the states of the United + States, as in Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. <i>The + Burgess-roll</i> is the register or official list of burgesses in a + borough.</p> + + <p><b>BURGH</b> [<span class="sc">Bourke, Burke</span>], the name of an + historic Irish house, associated with Connaught for more than seven + centuries. It was founded by William de Burgh, brother of Hubert de Burgh + (<i>q.v.</i>). Before the death of Henry II. (1189) he received a grant + of lands from John as lord of Ireland. At John's accession (1199) he was + installed in Thomond and was governor of Limerick. In 1199-1201 he was + supporting in turn Cathal Carrach and Cathal Crovderg for the native + throne, but he was expelled from Limerick in 1203, and, losing his + Connaught, though not his Munster estates, died in 1205. His son Richard, + in 1227, received the land of "Connok" [Connaught], as forfeited by its + king, whom he helped to fight. From 1228 to 1232 he held the high office + of justiciar of Ireland. In 1234 he sided with the crown against Richard, + earl marshal, who fell in battle against him. Dying in 1243, he was + succeeded as lord of Connaught by his son Richard, and then (1248) by his + younger son Walter, who carried on the family warfare against the native + chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining (c. 1255) + from Prince Edward a grant of "the county of Ulster," in consequence of + which he was styled later earl of Ulster. At his death in 1271, he was + succeeded by his son Richard as 2nd earl. In 1286 Richard ravaged and + subdued Connaught, and deposed Bryan O'Neill as chief native king, + substituting a nominee of his own. The native king of Connaught was also + attacked by him, in favour of that branch of the O'Conors whom his own + family supported. He led his forces from Ireland to support Edward I. in + his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315 + Richard marched against him, but he had given his daughter Elizabeth in + marriage to Robert Bruce, afterwards king of Scotland, about 1304. + Occasionally summoned to English parliaments, he spent most of his forty + years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of his day, + usually fighting the natives or his Anglo-Norman rivals. The patent roll + of 1290 shows that in addition to his lands in Ulster, Connaught and + Munster, he had held the Isle of Man, but had surrendered it to the + king.</p> + + <p>His grandson and successor William, the 3rd earl (1326-1333), was the + son of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare, sister and co-heir of + the last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314). He married a daughter of + Henry, earl of Lancaster, and was appointed lieutenant of Ireland in + 1331, but was murdered in his 21st year, leaving a daughter, the sole + heiress, not only of the de Burgh possessions, but of vast Clare estates. + She was married in childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III., who was + recognized in her right as earl of Ulster, and their direct + representative, the duke of York, ascended the throne in 1461 as Edward + IV., since when the earldom of Ulster has been only held by members of + the royal family.</p> + + <p>On the murder of the 3rd earl (1333), his male kinsmen, who had a + better right, by native Irish ideas, to the succession than his daughter, + adopted Irish names and customs, and becoming virtually native chieftains + succeeded in holding the bulk of the de Burgh territories. Their two main + branches were those of "MacWilliam Eighter" in southern Connaught, and + "MacWilliam Oughter" to the north of them, in what is now Mayo. The + former held the territory of Clanricarde, lying in the neighbourhood of + Galway, and in 1543 their chief, as Ulick "Bourck, <i>alias</i> + Makwilliam," surrendered it to Henry VIII., receiving it back to hold, by + English custom, as earl of Clanricarde and Lord Dunkellin. The 4th earl + (1601-1635) distinguished himself on the English side in O'Neill's + rebellion and afterwards, and obtained the English earldom of St Albans + in 1628, his son Ulick receiving further the Irish marquessate of + Clanricarde (1646). His cousin and heir, the 6th earl (1657-1666) was + uncle of the 8th and 9th earls (1687-1722), both of whom fought for James + II. and paid the penalty for doing so in 1691, but the 9th earl was + restored in 1702, and his great-grandson, the 12th earl, was created + marquess of Clanricarde in 1789. He left no son, but the marquessate was + again revived in 1825, for his nephew the 14th earl, whose heir is the + present marquess. The family, which changed its name from Bourke to de + Burgh in 1752, and added that of Canning in 1862, still own a vast estate + in County Galway.</p> + + <p>In 1603 "the MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke, similarly resigned + his territory in Mayo, and received it back to hold by English tenure. In + 1627 he was created Viscount Mayo. The 2nd and 3rd viscounts (1629-1663) + suffered at Cromwell's hands, but the 4th was restored to his estates + (some 50,000 acres) in 1666. The peerage became extinct or dormant on the + death of the 8th viscount in 1767. In 1781 John Bourke, a Mayo man, + believed to be descended from the line of "MacWilliam Oughter," was + created Viscount Mayo, and four years later earl of Mayo, a peerage still + extant. In 1872 the 6th earl was murdered in the Andaman Islands when + viceroy of India.</p> + + <p>The baronies of Bourke of Connell (1580) and Bourke of Brittas (1618), + both forfeited in 1691, were bestowed on branches <!-- Page 815 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page815"></a>[v.04 p.0815]</span>of the family + which has also still representatives in the baronetage and landed gentry + of Ireland.</p> + + <p>The lords Burgh or Borough of Gainsborough (1487-1599) were a + Lincolnshire family believed to be descended from a younger son of Hubert + de Burgh. The 5th baron was lord deputy of Ireland in 1597, and his + younger brother, Sir John (d. 1594), a distinguished soldier and + sailor.</p> + + <p>(J. H. R.)</p> + + <p><b>BURGH, HUBERT DE</b> (d. 1243), chief justiciar of England in the + reign of John and Henry III., entered the royal service in the reign of + Richard I. He traced his descent from Robert of Mortain, half brother of + the Conqueror and first earl of Cornwall; he married about 1200 the + daughter of William de Vernon, earl of Devon; and thus, from the + beginning of his career, he stood within the circle of the great ruling + families. But he owed his high advancement to exceptional ability as an + administrator and a soldier. Already in 1201 he was chamberlain to King + John, the sheriff of three shires, the constable of Dover and Windsor + castles, the warden of the Cinque Ports and of the Welsh Marches. He + served with John in the continental wars which led up to the loss of + Normandy. It was to his keeping that the king first entrusted the captive + Arthur of Brittany. Coggeshall is our authority for the tale, which + Shakespeare has immortalized, of Hubert's refusal to permit the + mutilation of his prisoner; but Hubert's loyalty was not shaken by the + crime to which Arthur subsequently fell a victim. In 1204 Hubert + distinguished himself by a long and obstinate defence of Chinon, at a + time when nearly the whole of Poitou had passed into French hands. In + 1213 he was appointed seneschal of Poitou, with a view to the invasion of + France which ended disastrously for John in the next year.</p> + + <p>Both before and after the issue of the Great Charter Hubert adhered + loyally to the king; he was rewarded, in June 1215, with the office of + chief justiciar. This office he retained after the death of John and the + election of William, the earl marshal, as regent. But, until the + expulsion of the French from England, Hubert was entirely engaged with + military affairs. He held Dover successfully through the darkest hour of + John's fortunes; he brought back Kent to the allegiance of Henry III.; he + completed the discomfiture of the French and their allies by the naval + victory which he gained over Eustace the Monk, the noted privateer and + admiral of Louis, in the Straits of Dover (Aug. 1217). The inferiority of + the English fleet has been much exaggerated, for the greater part of the + French vessels were transports carrying reinforcements and supplies. But + Hubert owed his success to the skill with which he manœuvred for + the weather-gage, and his victory was not less brilliant than momentous. + It compelled Louis to accept the treaty of Lambeth, under which he + renounced his claims to the crown and evacuated England. As the saviour + of the national cause the justiciar naturally assumed after the death of + William Marshal (1219) the leadership of the English loyalists. He was + opposed by the legate Pandulf (1218-1221), who claimed the guardianship + of the kingdom for the Holy See; by the Poitevin Peter des Roches, bishop + of Winchester, who was the young king's tutor; by the foreign mercenaries + of John, among whom Falkes de Bréauté took the lead; and by the feudal + party under the earls of Chester and Albemarle. On Pandulf's departure + the pope was induced to promise that no other legate should be appointed + in the lifetime of Archbishop Stephen Langton. Other opponents were + weakened by the audacious stroke of 1223, when the justiciar suddenly + announced the resumption of all the castles, sheriffdoms and other grants + which had been made since the king's accession. A plausible excuse was + found in the next year for issuing a sentence of confiscation and + banishment against Falkes de Bréauté. Finally in 1227, Hubert having + proclaimed the king of age, dismissed the bishop of Winchester from his + tutorship.</p> + + <p>Hubert now stood at the height of his power. His possessions had been + enlarged by four successive marriages, particularly by that which he + contracted in 1221 with Margaret, the sister of Alexander II. of + Scotland; in 1227 he received the earldom of Kent, which had been dormant + since the disgrace of Odo of Bayeux. But the favour of Henry III. was a + precarious foundation on which to build. The king chafed against the + objections with which his minister opposed wild plans of foreign conquest + and inconsiderate concessions to the papacy. They quarrelled violently in + 1229, at Portsmouth, when the king was with difficulty prevented from + stabbing Hubert, because a sufficient supply of ships was not forthcoming + for an expedition to France. In 1231 Henry lent an ear to those who + asserted that the justiciar had secretly encouraged armed attacks upon + the aliens to whom the pope had given English benefices. Hubert was + suddenly disgraced and required to render an account of his long + administration. The blow fell suddenly, a few weeks after his appointment + as justiciar of Ireland. It was precipitated by one of those fits of + passion to which the king was prone; but the influence of Hubert had been + for some time waning before that of Peter des Roches and his nephew Peter + des Rievaux. Some colour was given to their attacks by Hubert's + injudicious plea that he held a charter from King John which exempted him + from any liability to produce accounts. But the other charges, far less + plausible than that of embezzlement, which were heaped upon the head of + the fallen favourite, are evidence of an intention to crush him at all + costs. He was dragged from the sanctuary at Bury St Edmunds, in which he + had taken refuge, and was kept in strait confinement until Richard of + Cornwall, the king's brother, and three other earls offered to be his + sureties. Under their protection he remained in honourable detention at + Devizes Castle. On the outbreak of Richard Marshal's rebellion (1233), he + was carried off by the rebels to the Marshal stronghold of Striguil, in + the hope that his name would add popularity to their cause. In 1234 he + was admitted, along with the other supporters of the fallen Marshal, to + the benefit of a full pardon. He regained his earldom and held it till + his death, although he was once in serious danger from the avarice of the + king (1239), who was tempted by Hubert's enormous wealth to revive the + charge of treason.</p> + + <p>In his lifetime Hubert was a popular hero; Matthew Paris relates how, + at the time of his disgrace, a common smith refused with an oath to put + fetters on the man "who restored England to the English." Hubert's + ambition of founding a great family was not realized. His earldom died + with him, though he left two sons. In constitutional history he is + remembered as the last of the great justiciars. The office, as having + become too great for a subject, was now shorn of its most important + powers and became politically insignificant.</p> + + <p>See Roger of Wendover's <i>Flores Historiarum</i>, edited for the + English Historical Society by H.O. Coxe (4 vols., 1841-1844); the + <i>Chronica Majora</i> of Matthew Paris, edited by H.R. Luard for the + Rolls Series (7 vols., 1872-1883); the <i>Histoire des ducs de + Normandie</i>, edited by F. Michel for the Soc. de l'Hist. de France + (Paris, 1840); the <i>Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal</i>, edited by + Paul Meyer for the same society (3 vols., Paris, 1891, &c.); J.E. + Doyle's <i>Official Baronage of England</i>, ii. pp. 271-274; R. Pauli's + <i>Geschichte von England</i>, vol. iii.; W. Stubbs's <i>Constitutional + History of England</i>, vol. ii.</p> + + <p>(H. W. C. D.)</p> + + <p><b>BURGHERSH, HENRY</b> (1292-1340), English bishop and chancellor, + was a younger son of Robert, Baron Burghersh (d. 1305), and a nephew of + Bartholomew, Lord Badlesmere, and was educated in France. In 1320 owing + to Badlesmere's influence Pope John XXII. appointed him bishop of Lincoln + in spite of the fact that the chapter had already made an election to the + vacant bishopric, and he secured the position without delay. After the + execution of Badlesmere in 1322 Burghersh's lands were seized by Edward + II., and the pope was urged to deprive him; about 1326, however, his + possessions were restored, a proceeding which did not prevent him from + joining Edward's queen, Isabella, and taking part in the movement which + led to the deposition and murder of the king. Enjoying the favour of the + new king, Edward III., the bishop became chancellor of England in 1328; + but he failed to secure the archbishopric of Canterbury which became + vacant about the same time, and was deprived of his office of chancellor + and imprisoned when Isabella lost her power in 1330. But he was soon + released and again in a position of influence. He was treasurer of + England from 1334 to 1337, and high in the favour and often in the + company of Edward III.; he was sent on several important <!-- Page 816 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page816"></a>[v.04 + p.0816]</span>errands, and entrusted with important commissions. He died + at Ghent on the 4th of December 1340.</p> + + <p>The bishop's brother, Bartholomew Burghersh (d. 1355), became Baron + Burghersh on the death of his brother Stephen in 1310. He acted as + assistant to Badlesmere until the execution of the latter; and then, + trusted by Edward III., was constable of Dover Castle and warden of the + Cinque Ports. He filled other important positions, served Edward III. + both as a diplomatist and a soldier, being present at the battle of Crecy + in 1346; and retaining to the last the royal confidence, died in August + 1355. His son and successor, Bartholomew (d. 1369), was one of the first + knights of the order of the Garter, and earned a great reputation as a + soldier, specially distinguishing himself at the battle of Poitiers in + 1356.</p> + + <p><b>BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL,</b> <span class="sc">Baron</span> + (1521-1508), was born, according to his own statement, on the 13th of + September 1521 at the house of his mother's father at Bourne, + Lincolnshire. Pedigrees, elaborated by Cecil himself with the help of + Camden, the antiquary, associated him with the Cecils or Sitsyllts of + Altyrennes in Herefordshire, and traced his descent from an Owen of the + time of King Harold and a Sitsyllt of the reign of Rufus. The connexion + with the Herefordshire family is not so impossible as the descent from + Sitsyllt; but the earliest authentic ancestor of the lord treasurer is + his grandfather, David, who, according to Burghley's enemies, "kept the + best inn" in Stamford. David somehow secured the favour of Henry VII., to + whom he seems to have been yeoman of the guard. He was serjeant-at-arms + to Henry VIII. in 1526, sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1532, and a + justice of the peace for Rutland. His eldest son, Richard, yeoman of the + wardrobe (d. 1554), married Jane, daughter of William Heckington of + Bourne, and was father of three daughters and Lord Burghley.</p> + + <p>William, the only son, was put to school first at Grantham and then at + Stamford. In May 1535, at the age of fourteen, he went up to St John's + College, Cambridge, where he was brought into contact with the foremost + educationists of the time, Roger Ascham and John Cheke, and acquired an + unusual knowledge of Greek. He also acquired the affections of Cheke's + sister, Mary, and was in 1541 removed by his father to Gray's Inn, + without, after six years' residence at Cambridge, having taken a degree. + The precaution proved useless, and four months later Cecil committed one + of the rare rash acts of his life in marrying Mary Cheke. The only child + of this marriage, Thomas, the future earl of Exeter, was born in May + 1542, and in February 1543 Cecil's first wife died. Three years later he + married (21st of December 1546) Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, + who was ranked by Ascham with Lady Jane Grey as one of the two most + learned ladies in the kingdom, and whose sister, Anne, became the wife of + Sir Nicholas, and the mother of Sir Francis, Bacon.</p> + + <p>Cecil, meanwhile, had obtained the reversion to the office of + <i>custos rotulorum brevium</i>, and, according to his autobiographical + notes, sat in parliament in 1543; but his name does not occur in the + imperfect parliamentary returns until 1547, when he was elected for the + family borough of Stamford. Earlier in that year he had accompanied + Protector Somerset on his Pinkie campaign, being one of the two "judges + of the Marshalsea," <i>i.e.</i> in the courts-martial. The other was + William Patten, who states that both he and Cecil began to write + independent accounts of the campaign, and that Cecil generously + communicated his notes for Patten's narrative, which has been reprinted + more than once.</p> + + <p>In 1548 he is described as the protector's master of requests, which + apparently means that he was clerk or registrar of the court of requests + which the protector, possibly at Latimer's instigation, illegally set up + in Somerset House "to hear poor men's complaints." He also seems to have + acted as private secretary to the protector, and was in some danger at + the time of the protector's fall (October 1549). The lords opposed to + Somerset ordered his detention on the 10th of October, and in November he + was in the Tower. On the 25th of January 1550 he was bound over in + recognizances to the value of a thousand marks. However, he soon + ingratiated himself with Warwick, and on the 15th of September 1550 he + was sworn one of the king's two secretaries. He was knighted on the 11th + of October 1551, on the eve of Somerset's second fall, and was + congratulated on his success in escaping his benefactor's fate. In April + he became chancellor of the order of the Garter. But service under + Northumberland was no bed of roses, and in his diary Cecil recorded his + release in the phrase <i>ex misero aulico factus liber et mei juris</i>. + His responsibility for Edward's illegal "devise" of the crown has been + studiously minimized by Cecil himself and by his biographers. Years + afterwards, he pretended that he had only signed the "devise" as a + witness, but in his apology to Queen Mary he did not venture to allege so + flimsy an excuse; he preferred to lay stress on the extent to which he + succeeded in shifting the responsibility on to the shoulders of his + brother-in-law, Sir John Cheke, and other friends, and on his intrigues + to frustrate the queen to whom he had sworn allegiance. There is no doubt + that he saw which way the wind was blowing, and disliked Northumberland's + scheme; but he had not the courage to resist the duke to his face. As + soon, however, as the duke had set out to meet Mary, Cecil became the + most active intriguer against him, and to these efforts, of which he laid + a full account before Queen Mary, he mainly owed his immunity. He had, + moreover, had no part in the divorce of Catherine or in the humiliation + of Mary in Henry's reign, and he made no scruple about conforming to the + religious reaction. He went to mass, confessed, and out of sheer zeal and + in no official capacity went to meet Cardinal Pole on his pious mission + to England in December 1554, again accompanying him to Calais in May + 1555. It was rumoured in December 1554 that Cecil would succeed Sir + William Petre as secretary, an office which, with his chancellorship of + the Garter, he had lost on Mary's accession. Probably the queen had more + to do with the falsification of this rumour than Cecil, though he is said + to have opposed in the parliament of 1555—in which he represented + Lincolnshire—a bill for the confiscation of the estates of the + Protestant refugees. But the story, even as told by his biographer (Peck, + <i>Desiderata Curiosa</i>, i. 11), does not represent Cecil's conduct as + having been very courageous; and it is more to his credit that he found + no seat in the parliament of 1558, for which Mary had directed the return + of "discreet and good Catholic members."</p> + + <p>By that time Cecil had begun to trim his sails to a different breeze. + He was in secret communication with Elizabeth before Mary died, and from + the first the new queen relied on Cecil as she relied on no one else. Her + confidence was not misplaced; Cecil was exactly the kind of minister + England then required. Personal experience had ripened his rare natural + gift for avoiding dangers. It was no time for brilliant initiative or + adventurous politics; the need was to avoid Scylla and Charybdis, and a + <i>via media</i> had to be found in church and state, at home and abroad. + Cecil was not a political genius; no great ideas emanated from his brain. + But he was eminently a safe man, not an original thinker, but a + counsellor of unrivalled wisdom. Caution was his supreme characteristic; + he saw that above all things England required time. Like Fabius, he + restored the fortunes of his country by deliberation. He averted open + rupture until England was strong enough to stand the shock. There was + nothing heroic about Cecil or his policy; it involved a callous attitude + towards struggling Protestants abroad. Huguenots and Dutch Were aided + just enough to keep them going in the struggles which warded danger off + from England's shores. But Cecil never developed that passionate aversion + from decided measures which became a second nature to his mistress. His + intervention in Scotland in 1559-1560 showed that he could strike on + occasion; and his action over the execution of Mary, queen of Scots, + proved that he was willing to take responsibility from which Elizabeth + shrank. Generally he was in favour of more decided intervention on behalf + of continental Protestants than Elizabeth would admit, but it is not + always easy to ascertain the advice he gave. He has left endless + memoranda lucidly setting forth the pros and cons of every course of + action; but there are few indications of the line which he actually + recommended when it came to a decision. How far he was personally + responsible for the Anglican Settlement, the Poor Laws, and the foreign + policy of the reign, how far he was <!-- Page 817 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page817"></a>[v.04 p.0817]</span>thwarted by the + baleful influence of Leicester and the caprices of the queen, remains to + a large extent a matter of conjecture. His share in the settlement of + 1559 was considerable, and it coincided fairly with his own somewhat + indeterminate religious views. Like the mass of the nation, he grew more + Protestant as time wore on; he was readier to persecute Papists than + Puritans; he had no love for ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and he warmly + remonstrated with Whitgift over his persecuting Articles of 1583. The + finest encomium was passed on him by the queen herself, when she said, + "This judgment I have of you, that you will not be corrupted with any + manner of gifts, and that you will be faithful to the state."</p> + + <p>From 1558 for forty years the biography of Cecil is almost + indistinguishable from that of Elizabeth and from the history of England. + Of personal incident, apart from his mission to Scotland in 1560, there + is little. He represented Lincolnshire in the parliament of 1559, and + Northamptonshire in that of 1563, and he took an active part in the + proceedings of the House of Commons until his elevation to the peerage; + but there seems no good evidence for the story that he was proposed as + speaker in 1563. In January 1561 he was given the lucrative office of + master of the court of wards in succession to Sir Thomas Parry, and he + did something to reform that instrument of tyranny and abuse. In February + 1559 he was elected chancellor of Cambridge University in succession to + Cardinal Pole; he was created M.A. of that university on the occasion of + Elizabeth's visit in 1564, and M.A. of Oxford on a similar occasion in + 1566. On the 25th of February 1571 he was raised to the peerage as Baron + Burghley of Burghley<a name="FnAnchor_061" + href="#Footnote_061"><sup>[1]</sup></a> (or Burleigh); the fact that he + continued to act as secretary after his elevation illustrates the growing + importance of that office, which under his son became a secretaryship of + state. In 1572, however, the marquess of Winchester, who had been lord + high treasurer under Edward, Mary and Elizabeth, died, and Burghley + succeeded to his post. It was a signal triumph over Leicester; and, + although Burghley had still to reckon with cabals in the council and at + court, his hold over the queen strengthened with the lapse of years. + Before he died, Robert, his only surviving son by his second wife, was + ready to step into his shoes as the queen's principal adviser. Having + survived all his rivals, and all his children except Robert and the + worthless Thomas, Burghley died at his London house on the 4th of August + 1598, and was buried in St Martin's, Stamford.</p> + + <p>Burghley's private life was singularly virtuous; he was a faithful + husband, a careful father and a considerate master. A book-lover and + antiquary, he made a special hobby of heraldry and genealogy. It was the + conscious and unconscious aim of the age to reconstruct a new landed + aristocracy on the ruins of the old, and Burghley was a great builder and + planter. All the arts of architecture and horticulture were lavished on + Burghley House and Theobalds, which his son exchanged for Hatfield. His + public conduct does not present itself in quite so amiable a light. As + the marquess of Winchester said of himself, he was sprung from the willow + rather than the oak, and he was not the man to suffer for convictions. + The interest of the state was the supreme consideration, and to it he had + no hesitation in sacrificing individual consciences. He frankly + disbelieved in toleration; "that state," he said, "could never be in + safety where there was a toleration of two religions. For there is no + enmity so great as that for religion; and therefore they that differ in + the service of their God can never agree in the service of their + country." With a maxim such as this, it was easy for him to maintain that + Elizabeth's coercive measures were political and not religious. To say + that he was Machiavellian is meaningless, for every statesman is so more + or less; especially in the 16th century men preferred efficiency to + principle. On the other hand, principles are valueless without law and + order; and Burghley's craft and subtlety prepared a security in which + principles might find some scope.</p> + + <p>The sources and authorities for Burghley's life are endless. The most + important collection of documents is at Hatfield, where there are some + ten thousand papers covering the period down to Burghley's death; these + have been calendared in 8 volumes by the Hist. MSS. Comm. At least as + many others are in the Record Office and British Museum, the Lansdowne + MSS. especially containing a vast mass of his correspondence; see the + catalogues of Cotton, Harleian, Royal, Sloane, Egerton and Additional + MSS. in the British Museum, and the Calendars of Domestic, Foreign, + Spanish, Venetian, Scottish and Irish State Papers.</p> + + <p>Other official sources are the <i>Acts of the Privy Council</i> (vols. + i.-xxix.); Lords' and Commons' Journals, D'Ewes' Journals, Off. Ret. + M.P.'s; Rymer's <i>Foedera</i>; Collins's <i>Sydney State Papers</i>; + Nichols's <i>Progresses of Elizabeth</i>. See also Strype's Works (26 + vols.), Parker, Soc. Publ. (56 vols.); Camden's <i>Annales</i>; + Holinshed, Stow and Speed's <i>Chron.</i>; Hayward's <i>Annals</i>; + Machyn's <i>Diary</i>, Leycester Corr., Egerton Papers (Camden Soc.). For + Burghley's early life, see Cooper's <i>Athenae Cantab.</i>; Baker's <i>St + John's Coll., Camb.</i>, ed. Mayor; <i>Letters and. Papers of Henry + VIII.</i>; Tytler's <i>Edward VI.</i>; Nichols's <i>Lit. Remains of + Edward VI.</i>; Leadam's <i>Court of Requests, Chron. of Queen Jane</i> + (Camden Soc.) and throughout Froude's <i>Hist.</i> No satisfactory life + of Burghley has yet appeared; some valuable anonymous notes, probably by + Burghley's servant Francis Alford, were printed in Peck's <i>Desiderata + Curiosa</i> (1732), i. 1-66; other notes are in Naunton's <i>Fragmenta + Regalia</i>. Lives by Collins (1732), Charlton and Melvil (1738), were + followed by Nares's biography in three of the most ponderous volumes + (1828-1831) in the language; this provoked Macaulay's brilliant but + misleading essay. M.A.S. Hume's <i>Great Lord Burghley</i> (1898) is + largely a piecing together of the references to Burghley in the same + author's <i>Calendar of Simancas MSS.</i> The life by Dr Jessopp (1904) + is an expansion of his article in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>; it is + still only a sketch, though the volume contains a mass of genealogical + and other incidental information by other hands.</p> + + <p>(A. F. P.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_061" href="#FnAnchor_061">[1]</a> This was the form + always used by Cecil himself.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BURGKMAIR, HANS</b> or <span class="sc">John</span> (1473-? 1531), + German painter and engraver on wood, believed to have been a pupil of + Albrecht Dürer, was born at Augsburg. Professor Christ ascribes to him + about 700 woodcuts, most of them distinguished by that spirit and freedom + which we admire in the works of his supposed master. His principal work + is the series of 135 prints representing the triumphs of the emperor + Maximilian I. They are of large size, executed in chiaroscuro, from two + blocks, and convey a high idea of his powers. Burgkmair was also an + excellent painter in fresco and in distemper, specimens of which are in + the galleries of Munich and Vienna, carefully and solidly finished in the + style of the old German school.</p> + + <p><b>BURGLARY</b> (<i>burgi latrocinium</i>; in ancient English law, + <i>hamesucken</i><a name="FnAnchor_071" + href="#Footnote_071"><sup>[1]</sup></a>), at common law, the offence of + breaking and entering the dwelling-house of another with intent to commit + a felony. The offence and its punishment are regulated in England by the + Larceny Act 1861. The four important points to be considered in connexion + with the offence of burglary are (1) the time, (2) the place, (3) the + manner and (4) the intent. The <i>time</i>, which is now the essence of + the offence, was not considered originally to have been very material, + the gravity of the crime lying principally in the invasion of the + sanctity of a man's domicile. But at some period before the reign of + Edward VI. it had become settled that time was essential to the offence, + and it was not adjudged burglary unless committed by night. The day was + then accounted as beginning at sunrise, and ending immediately after + sunset, but it was afterwards decided that if there were left sufficient + daylight or twilight to discern the countenance of a person, it was no + burglary. This, again, was superseded by the Larceny Act 1861, for the + purpose of which night is deemed to commence at nine o'clock in the + evening of each day, and to conclude at six o'clock in the morning of the + next succeeding day.</p> + + <p>The <i>place</i> must, according to Sir E. Coke's definition, be a + mansion-house, <i>i.e.</i> a man's dwelling-house or private residence. + No building, although within the same curtilage as the dwelling-house, is + deemed to be a part of the dwelling-house for the purposes of burglary, + unless there is a communication between such building and dwelling-house + either immediate or by means of a covered and enclosed passage leading + from the one to the other. Chambers in a college or in an inn of court + are the dwelling-house of the owner; so also are rooms or lodgings in a + private house, provided the owner dwells elsewhere, or enters by a + different outer door from his lodger, otherwise the lodger is merely an + inmate and his apartment a parcel of the one dwelling-house.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 818 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page818"></a>[v.04 p.0818]</span></p> + + <p>As to the <i>manner</i>, there must be both a breaking and an entry. + Both must be at night, but not necessarily on the same night, provided + that in the breaking and in the entry there is an intent to commit a + felony. The breaking may be either an actual breaking of any external + part of a building; or opening or lifting any closed door, window, + shutter or lock; or entry by means of a threat, artifice or collusion + with persons inside; or by means of such a necessary opening as a + chimney. If an entry is obtained through an open window, it will not be + burglary, but if an inner door is afterwards opened, it immediately + becomes so. Entry includes the insertion through an open door or window, + or any aperture, of any part of the body or of any instrument in the hand + to draw out goods. The entry may be before the breaking, for the Larceny + Act 1861 has extended the definition of burglary to cases in which a + person enters another's dwelling with intent to commit felony, or being + in such house commits felony therein, and in either case <i>breaks + out</i> of such dwelling-house by night.</p> + + <p>Breaking and entry must be with the <i>intent</i> to commit a felony, + otherwise it is only trespass. The felony need not be a larceny, it may + be either murder or rape. The punishment is penal servitude for life, or + any term not less than three years, or imprisonment not exceeding two + years, with or without hard labour.</p> + + <p><i>Housebreaking</i> in English law is to be distinguished from + burglary, in that it is not essential that it should be committed at + night, nor in a dwelling-house. It may, according to the Larceny Act + 1861, be committed in a school-house, shop, warehouse or counting-house. + Every burglary involves housebreaking, but every housebreaking does not + amount to burglary. The punishment for housebreaking is penal servitude + for any term not exceeding fourteen years and not less than three years, + or imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years, with or without + hard labour.</p> + + <p>In the United States the common-law definition of burglary has been + modified by statute in many states, so as to cover what is defined in + England as housebreaking; the maximum punishment nowhere exceeds + imprisonment for twenty years.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Pollock and Maitland, + <i>History of English Law</i>; Stephen, <i>History of Criminal Law</i>; + Archbold, <i>Pleading and Evidence in Criminal Cases</i>; Russell, <i>On + Crimes and Misdemeanours</i>; Stephen, <i>Commentaries</i>.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_071" href="#FnAnchor_071">[1]</a> In Scots law, the + word <i>hamesucken</i> meant the feloniously beating or assaulting a man + in his own house.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM</b> (1813-1888), English divine, was born at + Smyrna on the 21st of August 1813, the son of a Turkey merchant, who was + a skilled numismatist and afterwards became an assistant in the + antiquities department of the British Museum. His mother was a Greek. + After a few years of business life, Burgon went to Worcester College, + Oxford, in 1841, gained the Newdigate prize, took his degree in 1845, and + won an Oriel fellowship in 1846. He was much influenced by his + brother-in-law, the scholar and theologian Henry John Rose (1800-1873), a + churchman of the old conservative type, with whom he used to spend his + long vacations. Burgon made Oxford his headquarters, while holding a + living at some distance. In 1863 he was made vicar of St Mary's, having + attracted attention by his vehement sermons against <i>Essays and + Reviews</i>. In 1867 he was appointed Gresham professor of divinity. In + 1871 he published a defence of the genuineness of the twelve last verses + of St Mark's Gospel. He now began an attack on the proposal for a new + lectionary for the Church of England, based largely upon his objections + to the principles for determining the authority of MS. readings adopted + by Westcott and Hort, which he assailed in a memorable article in the + <i>Quarterly Review</i> for 1881. This, with his other articles, was + reprinted in 1884 under the title of <i>The Revision Revised</i>. His + biographical essays on H.L. Mansel and others were also collected, and + published under the title of <i>Twelve Good Men</i> (1888). Protests + against the inclusion of Dr Vance Smith among the revisers, against the + nomination of Dean Stanley to be select preacher in the university of + Oxford, and against the address in favour of toleration in the matter of + ritual, followed in succession. In 1876 Burgon was made dean of + Chichester. He died on the 4th of August 1888. His life was written by + Dean E.M. Goulburn (1892). Vehement and almost passionate in his + convictions, Burgon nevertheless possessed a warm and kindly heart. He + may be described as a high churchman of the type prevalent before the + rise of the Tractarian school. His extensive collection of transcripts + from the Greek Fathers, illustrating the text of the New Testament, was + bequeathed to the British Museum.</p> + + <p><b>BURGONET,</b> or <span class="sc">Burganet</span> (from Fr. + <i>bourguignote</i>, Burgundian helmet), a form of light helmet or + head-piece, which was in vogue in the 16th and 17th centuries. In its + normal form the burgonet was a large roomy cap with a brim shading the + eyes, cheek-pieces or flaps, a comb, and a guard for the back of the + neck. In many cases a vizor, or other face protection, and a chin-piece + are found in addition, so that this piece of armour is sometimes mistaken + for an armet (<i>q.v.</i>), but it can always be distinguished by the + projecting brim in front. The morion and cabasset have no face, cheek or + neck protection. The typical head-piece of the 17th-century soldier in + England and elsewhere is a burgonet skull-cap with a straight brim, + neck-guard and often, in addition, a fixed vizor of three thin iron bars + which are screwed into, and hang down from, the brim in front of the + eyes.</p> + + <p><b>BURGOS,</b> a province of northern Spain; bounded on the N.E. by + Biscay and Álava, E. by Logroño, S.E. by Soria, S. by Segovia, S.W. by + Valladolid, W. by Palencia, and N.W. by Santander. Pop. (1900) 338,828; + area, 5480 sq. m. Burgos includes the isolated county of Treviño, which + is shut in on all sides by territory belonging to Álava. The northern and + north-eastern districts of the province are mountainous, and the central + and southern form part of the vast and elevated plateau of Old Castile. + The extreme northern region is traversed by part of the great Cantabrian + chain. Eastwards are the highest peaks of the province in the Sierra de + la Demanda (with the Cerro de San Millan, 6995 ft. high) and in the + Sierra de Neila. On the eastern frontier, midway between these highlands + and the Cantabrian chain, two comparatively low ranges, running east and + west of Pancorbo, kave a gap through which run the railway and roads + connecting Castile with the valley of the Ebro. This Pancorbo Pass has + often been called the "Iron Gates of Castile," as a handful of men could + hold it against an army. South and west of this spot begins the plateau, + generally covered with snow in winter, and swept by such cold winds that + Burgos is considered, with Soria and Segovia, one of the coldest regions + of the peninsula. The Ebro runs eastwards through the northern half of + the province, but is not navigable. The Douro, or Duero, crosses the + southern half, running west-north-west; it also is unnavigable in its + upper valley. The other important streams are the Pisuerga, flowing south + towards Palencia and Valladolid, and the Arlanzón, which flows through + Burgos for over 75m.</p> + + <p>The variations of temperature are great, as from 9° to 20° of frost + have frequently been recorded in winter, while the mean summer + temperature is 64° (Fahr.). As but little rain falls in summer, and the + soil is poor, agriculture thrives only in the valleys, especially that of + the Ebro. In live-stock, however, Burgos is one of the richest of Spanish + provinces. Horses, mules, asses, goats, cattle and pigs are bred in + considerable numbers, but the mainstay of the peasantry is sheep-farming. + Vast ranges of almost uninhabited upland are reserved as pasture for the + flocks, which at the beginning of the 20th century contained more than + 500,000 head of sheep. Coal, china-clay and salt are obtained in small + quantities, but, out of more than 150 mines registered, only 4 were + worked in 1903. The other industries of the province are likewise + undeveloped, although there are many small potteries, stone quarries, + tanneries and factories for the manufacture of linen and cotton of the + coarsest description. The ancient cloth and woollen industries, for which + Burgos was famous in the past, have almost disappeared. Trade is greatly + hindered by the lack of adequate railway communication, and even of good + roads. The Northern railways from Madrid to the French frontier cross the + province in the central districts; the Valladolid-Bilbao line traverses + the Cantabrian mountains, in the north; and the Valladolid-Saragossa line + skirts the Douro valley, in the south. The only <!-- Page 819 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page819"></a>[v.04 p.0819]</span>important town + in the province is Burgos, the capital (pop. 30,167). Few parts of Spain + are poorer; education makes little progress, and least of all in the + thinly peopled rural districts, with their widely scattered hamlets. The + peasantry have thus every inducement to migrate to the Basque Provinces, + Catalonia and other relatively prosperous regions; and consequently the + population does not increase, despite the excess of births over + deaths.</p> + + <p><b>BURGOS,</b> the capital formerly of Old Castile, and since 1833 of + the Spanish province of Burgos, on the river Arlanzón, and on the + Northern railways from Madrid to the French frontier. Pop. (1900) 30,167. + Burgos, in the form of an amphitheatre, occupies the lower slopes of a + hill crowned by the ruins of an ancient citadel. It faces the Arlanzón, a + broad and swift stream, with several islands in mid-channel. Three stone + bridges lead to the suburb of La Vega, on the opposite bank. On all + sides, except up the castle hill, fine avenues and public gardens are + laid out, notably the Paseo de la Isla, extending along the river to the + west. Burgos itself was originally surrounded by a wall, of which few + fragments remain; but although its streets and broad squares, such as the + central Plaza Mayór, or Plaza de la Constitucion, have often quite a + modern appearance, the city retains much of its picturesque character, + owing to the number and beauty of its churches, convents and palaces. + Unaffected by the industrial activity of the neighbouring Basque + Provinces, it has little trade apart from the sale of agricultural + produce and the manufacture of paper and leathern goods.</p> + + <p>But it is rich in architectural and antiquarian interest. The citadel + was founded in 884 by Diego Rodriguez Porcelos, count of Castile; in the + 10th century it was held against the kings of Leon by Count Fernan + Gonzalez, a mighty warrior; and even in 1812 it was successfully defended + by a French garrison against Lord Wellington and his British troops. + Within its walls the Spanish national hero, the Cid Campeador, was wedded + to Ximena of Oviedo in 1074; and Prince Edward of England (afterwards + King Edward I.) to Eleanor of Castile in 1254. Statues of Porcelos, + Gonzalez and the Cid, of Nuño Rasura and Lain Calvo, the first elected + magistrates of Burgos, during its brief period of republican rule in the + 10th century, and of the emperor Charles V., adorn the massive Arco de + Santa Maria, which was erected between 1536 and 1562, and commemorates + the return of the citizens to their allegiance, after the rebellion + against Charles V. had been crushed in 1522. The interior of this arch + serves as a museum. Tradition still points to the site of the Cid's + birthplace; and a reliquary preserved in the town hall contains his + bones, and those of Ximena, brought hither after many changes, including + a partial transference to Sigmaringen in Germany.</p> + + <p>Other noteworthy buildings in Burgos are the late 15th century Casa + del Cordón, occupied by the captain-general of Old Castile; the Casa de + Miranda, which worthily represents the best domestic architecture of + Spain in the 16th century; and the barracks, hospitals and schools. + Burgos is the see of an archbishop, whose province comprises the diocese + of Palencia, Pamplona, Santander and Tudela. The cathedral, founded in + 1221 by Ferdinand III. of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of + Burgos, is a fine example of florid Gothic, built of white limestone (see + <span class="sc">Architecture</span>, Plate II. fig. 65). It was not + completed until 1567, and the architects principally responsible for its + construction were a Frenchman in the 13th century and a German in the + 15th. Its cruciform design is almost hidden by the fifteen chapels added + at all angles to the aisles and transepts, by the beautiful 14th-century + cloister on the north-west and the archiepiscopal palace on the + south-west. Over the three central doorways of the main or western façade + rise two lofty and graceful towers. Many of the monuments within the + cathedral are of considerable artistic and historical interest. The + chapel of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid is said to have + filled with sand and subsequently pawned for a large sum to the credulous + Jews of Burgos. The legend adds that he redeemed his pledge. In the + aisleless Gothic church of Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadéa, tradition + relates that the Cid compelled Alphonso VI. of Leon, before his accession + to the throne of Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the + murder of Sancho his brother and predecessor on the throne. San Estéban, + completed between 1280 and 1350, and San Nicolás, dating from 1505, are + small Gothic churches, each with a fine sculptured doorway. Many of the + convents of Burgos have been destroyed, and those which survive lie + chiefly outside the city. At the end of the Paseo de la Isla stands the + nunnery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, originally a summer palace + (<i>huelga</i>, "pleasure-ground") of the kings of Castile. In 1187 it + was transformed into a Cistercian convent by Alphonso VIII., who invested + the abbess with almost royal prerogatives, including the power of life + and death, and absolute rule over more than fifty villages. Alphonso and + his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry II. of England, are buried here. The + Cartuja de Miraflores, a Carthusian convent, founded by John II. of + Castile (1406-1454), lies 2 m. south-east of Burgos. Its church contains + a monument of exceptional beauty, carved by Gil de Siloë in the 15th + century, for the tomb of John and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal. + The convent of San Pedro de Cardeña, 7 m. south-east of Burgos, was the + original burial-place of the Cid, in 1099, and of Ximena, in 1104. About + 50 m. from the city is the abbey of Silos, which appears to have been + founded under the Visigothic kings, as early as the 6th century. It was + restored in 919 by Fernan Gonzalez, and in the 11th century became + celebrated throughout Europe, under the rule of St Dominic or Domingo. It + was reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks.</p> + + <p>The known history of Burgos begins in 884 with the foundation of the + citadel. From that time forward it steadily increased in importance, + reaching the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, when, + alternately with Toledo, it was occupied as a royal residence, but + rapidly declining when the court was finally removed to Madrid in 1560. + Being on one of the principal military roads of the kingdom, it suffered + severely during the Peninsular War. In 1808 it was the scene of the + defeat of the Spanish army by the French under Marshal Soult. It was + unsuccessfully besieged by Wellington in 1812, but was surrendered to him + at the opening of the campaign of the following year.</p> + + <p>Of the extensive literature relating to Burgos, much remains unedited + and in manuscript. A general description of the city and its monuments is + given by A. Llacayo y Santa Maria in <i>Burgos, &c.</i> (Burgos, + 1889). See also <i>Architectural, Sculptural and Picturesque Studies in + Burgos and its Neighbourhood</i>, a valuable series of architectural + drawings in folio, by J.B. Waring (London, 1852). The following are + monographs on particular buildings:—<i>Historia de la Catedral de + Burgos, &c.</i>, by P. Orcajo (Burgos, 1856); <i>El Castillo de + Burgos</i>, by E. de Oliver-Copons (Barcelona, 1893); <i>La Real Cartuja + de Miraflores</i>, by F. Tarin y Juaneda (Burgos, 1896). For the history + of the city see <i>En Burgos</i>, by V. Balaguér (Burgos, 1895); + <i>Burgos en las comunidades de Castilla</i> and <i>Cosas de la vieja + Burgos</i>, both by A. Salvá (Burgos, 1895 and 1892). The following + relate both to the city and to the province of Burgos:—<i>Burgos, + &c.</i>, by R. Amador de los Ríos, in the series entitled + <i>España</i> (Barcelona, 1888); <i>Burgos y su provincia</i>, anon. + (Vitoria, 1898); <i>Intento de un diccionario biográfico y bibliográfico + de autores de la prov. de Burgos</i>, by M. Anibarro and M. Rives + (Madrid, 1890).</p> + + <p><b>BURGOYNE, JOHN</b> (1722-1792), English general and dramatist, + entered the army at an early age. In 1743 he made a runaway marriage with + a daughter of the earl of Derby, but soon had to sell his commission to + meet his debts, after which he lived abroad for seven years. By Lord + Derby's interest Burgoyne was then reinstated at the outbreak of the + Seven Years' War, and in 1758 he became captain and lieutenant-colonel in + the foot guards. In 1758-1759 he participated in expeditions made against + the French coast, and in the latter year he was instrumental in + introducing light cavalry into the British army. The two regiments then + formed were commanded by Eliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield) and + Burgoyne. In 1761 he sat in parliament for Midhurst, and in the following + year he served as brigadier-general in Portugal, winning particular + distinction by his capture of Valencia d'Alcantara and of Villa Velha. In + 1768 he became M.P. for Preston, and for the next few years he occupied + himself chiefly with his parliamentary duties, in which he was remarkable + for his general outspokenness <!-- Page 820 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page820"></a>[v.04 p.0820]</span>and, in particular, for his + attacks on Lord Clive. At the same time he devoted much attention to art + and drama (his first play, <i>The Maid of the Oaks</i>, being produced by + Garrick in 1775), and gambled recklessly. In the army he had by this time + become a major-general, and on the outbreak of the American War of + Independence he was appointed to a command. In 1777 he was at the head of + the British reinforcements designed for the invasion of the colonies from + Canada. In this disastrous expedition he gained possession of Ticonderoga + (for which he was made a lieutenant-general) and Fort Edward; but, + pushing on, was detached from his communications with Canada, and hemmed + in by a superior force at Saratoga (<i>q.v.</i>). On the 17th of October + his troops, about 3500 in number, laid down their arms. The success was + the greatest the colonists had yet gained, and it proved the + turning-point in the war. The indignation in England against Burgoyne was + great, but perhaps unjust. He returned at once, with the leave of the + American general, to defend his conduct, and demanded, but never + obtained, a trial. He was deprived of his regiment and a governorship + which he held. In 1782, however, when his political friends came into + office, he was restored to his rank, given a colonelcy, and made + commander-in-chief in Ireland and a privy councillor. After the fall of + the Rockingham government in 1783, Burgoyne withdrew more and more into + private life, his last public service being his participation in the + impeachment of Warren Hastings. In his latter years he was principally + occupied in literary and dramatic work. His comedy, <i>The Heiress</i>, + which appeared in 1786, ran through ten editions within a year, and was + translated into several foreign tongues. He died suddenly on the 4th of + June 1792. General Burgoyne, whose wife died in June 1776 during his + absence in Canada, had several natural children (born between 1782 and + 1788) by Susan Caulfield, an opera singer, one of whom became Field + Marshal Sir J.F. Burgoyne. His <i>Dramatic and Poetical Works</i> + appeared in two vols., 1808.</p> + + <p>See E.B. de Fonblanque, <i>Political and Military Episodes from the + Life and Correspondence of Right Hon. J. Burgoyne</i> (1876); and W.L. + Stone, <i>Campaign of Lieut.-Gen. J. Burgoyne, &c.</i> (Albany, N.Y., + 1877).</p> + + <p><b>BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN FOX,</b> Bart. (1782-1871), British field + marshal, was an illegitimate son of General John Burgoyne (<i>q.v.</i>). + He was educated at Eton and Woolwich, obtained his commission in 1798, + and served in 1800 in the Mediterranean. In 1805, when serving on the + staff of General Fox in Sicily, he was promoted second captain. He + accompanied the unfortunate Egyptian expedition of 1807, and was with Sir + John Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in Portugal in 1808-9. In the Corunna + campaign Burgoyne held the very responsible position of chief of + engineers with the rear-guard of the British army (see <span + class="sc">Peninsular War</span>). He was with Wellesley at the Douro in + 1809, and was promoted captain in the same year, after which he was + engaged in the construction of the lines of Torres Vedras in 1810. He + blew up Fort Concepcion on the river Turones, and was present at Busaco + and Torres Vedras. In 1811 he was employed in the unsuccessful siege of + Badajoz, and in 1812 he won successively the brevets of major and + lieutenant-colonel, for his skilful performance of engineer duties at the + historic sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. He was present in the same + year (1812) at the siege and battle of Salamanca, and after the battle of + Vittoria in 1813 he became commanding engineer on Lord Wellington's + staff. At the close of the war he received the C.B., a reward which, he + justly considered, was not commensurate with his services. In 1814-1815 + he served at New Orleans and Mobile. Burgoyne was largely employed, + during the long peace which followed Waterloo, in other public duties as + well as military work. He sat on numerous commissions, and served for + fifteen years as chairman of the Irish board of public works. He became a + major-general and K.C.B. in 1838, and inspector-general of fortifications + in 1845. In 1851 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and in the following + year received the G.C.B. When the Crimean War broke out he accompanied + Lord Raglan's headquarters to the East, superintended the disembarkation + at Old Fort, and was in effect the principal engineer adviser to the + English commander during the first part of the siege of Sevastopol. He + was recalled early in 1855, and though he was at first bitterly + criticized by the public for his part in the earlier and unsuccessful + operations against the fortress the wisdom of his advice was ultimately + recognized. In 1856 he was created a baronet, and promoted to the full + rank of general. In 1858 he was present at the second funeral of Napoleon + I. as Queen Victoria's representative, and in 1865 he was made constable + of the Tower of London. Three years later, on resigning his post as + inspector-general of fortifications, he was made a field marshal. + Parliament granted him, at the same time, a pension of £1500. He died on + the 7th of October 1871, a year after the tragic death of his only son, + Captain Hugh Talbot Burgoyne, V.C. (1833-1870), who was in command of + H.M.S. "Captain" when that vessel went down in the Bay of Biscay + (September 7, 1870).</p> + + <p>See <i>Life and Correspondence of F.M. Sir John Fox Burgoyne</i> + (edited by Lt.-Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, R.E., London, 1873); Sir Francis + Head, <i>A Sketch of the Life and Death of F.M. Sir John Burgoyne</i> + (London, 1872); <i>Military Opinions of General Sir John Burgoyne</i> + (ed. Wrottesley, London, 1859), a collection of the most important of + Burgoyne's contributions to military literature.</p> + + <p><b>BURGRAVE,</b> the Eng. form, derived through the Fr., of the Ger. + <i>Burggraf</i> and Flem. <i>burg</i> or <i>burch-graeve</i> (med. Lat. + <i>burcgravius</i> or <i>burgicomes</i>), <i>i.e.</i> count of a castle + or fortified town. The title is equivalent to that of castellan (Lat. + <i>castellanus</i>) or <i>châtelain</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). In Germany, owing + to the peculiar conditions of the Empire, though the office of burgrave + had become a sinecure by the end of the 13th century, the title, as borne + by feudal nobles having the status of princes of the Empire, obtained a + quasi-royal significance. It is still included among the subsidiary + titles of several sovereign princes; and the king of Prussia, whose + ancestors were burgraves of Nuremberg for over 200 years, is still styled + burgrave of Nuremberg.</p> + + <p><b>BURGRED,</b> king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 852, and in + 852 or 853 called upon Æthelwulf of Wessex to aid him in subduing the + North Welsh. The request was granted and the campaign proved successful, + the alliance being sealed by the marriage of Burgred to Æthelswith, + daughter of Æthelwulf. In 868 the Mercian king appealed to Æthelred and + Alfred for assistance against the Danes, who were in possession of + Nottingham. The armies of Wessex and Mercia did no serious fighting, and + the Danes were allowed to remain through the winter. In 874 the march of + the Danes from Lindsey to Repton drove Burgred from his kingdom. He + retired to Rome and died there.</p> + + <p>See <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (Earle and Plummer), years 852-853, 868, + 874.</p> + + <p><b>BURGUNDIO,</b> sometimes erroneously styled <span + class="sc">Burgundius</span>, an Italian jurist of the 12th century. He + was a professor at the university of Paris, and assisted at the Lateran + Council in 1179, dying at a very advanced age in 1194. He was a + distinguished Greek scholar, and is believed on the authority of + Odofredus to have translated into Latin, soon after the Pandects were + brought to Bologna, the various Greek fragments which occur in them, with + the exception of those in the 27th book, the translation of which has + been attributed to Modestinus. The Latin translations ascribed to + Burgundio were received at Bologna as an integral part of the text of the + Pandects, and form part of that known as <i>The Vulgate</i> in + distinction from the Florentine text.</p> + + <p><b>BURGUNDY.</b> The name of Burgundy (Fr. <i>Bourgogne</i>, Lat. + <i>Burgundia</i>) has denoted very diverse political and geographical + areas at different periods of history and as used by different writers. + The name is derived from the Burgundians (<i>Burgundi, Burgondiones</i>), + a people of Germanic origin, who at first settled between the Oder and + the Vistula. In consequence of wars against the Alamanni, in which the + latter had the advantage, the Burgundians, after having taken part in the + great invasion of Radagaisus in 407, were obliged in 411 to take refuge + in Gaul, under the leadership of their chief Gundicar. Under the title of + allies of the Romans, they established themselves in certain cantons of + the Sequani and of upper Germany, receiving a part of the lands, houses + and serfs that belonged to the inhabitants. Thus was founded the first + kingdom of Burgundy, the boundaries of which were widened at different + times by Gundicar and his son <!-- Page 821 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page821"></a>[v.04 p.0821]</span>Gunderic; its chief towns being + Vienne, Lyons, Besançon, Geneva, Autun and Mâcon. Gundibald (d. 516), + grandson of Gunderic, is famous for his codification of the Burgundian + law, known consequently as <i>Lex Gundobada, </i>in French <i>Loi + Gombette</i>. His son Sigismund, who was canonized by the church, founded + the abbey of St Maurice at Agaunum. But, incited thereto by Clotilda, the + daughter of Chilperic (a brother of Gundibald, and assassinated by him), + the Merovingian kings attacked Burgundy. An attempt made in 524 by + Clodomer was unsuccessful; but in 534 Clotaire (Chlothachar) and his + brothers possessed themselves of the lands of Gundimar, brother and + successor of Sigismund, and divided them between them. In 561 the kingdom + of Burgundy was reconstructed by Guntram, son of Clotaire I., and until + 613 it formed a separate state under the government of a prince of the + Merovingian family.</p> + + <p>After 613 Burgundy was one of the provinces of the Frankish kingdom, + but in the redistributions that followed the reign of Charlemagne the + various parts of the ancient kingdom had different fortunes. In 843, by + the treaty of Verdun, Autun, Chalon, Mâcon, Langres, &c., were + apportioned to Charles the Bald, and Lyons with the country beyond the + Saône to Lothair I. On the death of the latter the duchy of Lyons + (Lyonnais and Viennois) was given to Charles of Provence, and the diocese + of Besançon with the country beyond the Jura to Lothair, king of + Lorraine. In 879 Boso founded the kingdom of Provence, wrongly called the + kingdom of Cisjuran Burgundy, which extended to Lyons, and for a short + time as far as Mâcon (see <span class="sc">Provence</span>).</p> + + <p>In 888 the kingdom of Juran Burgundy was founded by Rudolph I., son of + Conrad, count of Auxerre, and the German king Arnulf could not succeed in + expelling the usurper, whose authority was recognized in the diocese of + Besançon, Basel, Lausanne, Geneva and Sion. For a short time his son and + successor Rudolph II. (912-937) disputed the crown of Italy with Hugh of + Provence, but finally abandoned his claims in exchange for the ancient + kingdom of Provence, <i>i.e.</i> the country bounded by the Rhône, the + Alps and the Mediterranean. His successor, Conrad the Peaceful (93 + 7-993), whose sister Adelaide married Otto the Great, was hardly more + than a vassal of the German kings. The last king of Burgundy, Rudolph + III. (993-1032), being deprived of all but a shadow of power by the + development of the secular and ecclesiastical + aristocracy—especially by that of the powerful feudal houses of the + counts of Burgundy (see <span class="sc">Franche-Comté</span>), Savoy and + Provence—died without issue, bequeathing his lands to the emperor + Conrad II. Such was the origin of the imperial rights over the kingdom + designated after the 13th century as the kingdom of Arles, which extended + over a part of what is now Switzerland (from the Jura to the Aar), and + included Franche-Comté, Lyonnais, Dauphiné, Savoy and Provence.</p> + + <p>The name of Burgundy now gradually became restricted to the countship + of that name, which included the district between the Jura and the Saône, + in later times called Franche-Comté, and to the <i>duchy</i> which had + been created by the Carolingian kings in the portion of Burgundy that had + remained French, with the object of resisting Boso. This duchy had been + granted to Boso's brother, Richard the Justiciary, count of Autun. It + comprised at first the countships of Autun, Mâcon, Chalon-sur-Saône, + Langres, Nevers, Auxerre and Sens, but its boundaries and designations + changed many times in the course of the 10th century. Duke Henry died in + 1002; and in 1015, after a war which lasted thirteen years, the French + king Robert II. reunited the duchy to his kingdom, despite the opposition + of Otto William, count of Burgundy, and gave it to his son Henry, + afterwards King Henry I. As king of France, the latter in 1032 bestowed + the duchy upon his brother Robert, from whom sprang that first ducal + house of Burgundy which flourished until 1361. A grandson of this Robert, + who went to Spain to fight the Arabs, became the founder of the kingdom + of Portugal; but in general the first Capet dukes of Burgundy were + pacific princes who took little part in the political events of their + time, or in that religious movement which was so marked in Burgundy, at + Cluny to begin with, afterwards among the disciples of William of St + Bénigne of Dijon, and later still among the monks of Cîteaux. In the 12th + and 13th centuries we may mention Duke Hugh III. (1162-1193), who played + an active part in the wars that marked the beginning of Philip Augustus's + reign; Odo (Eudes) III. (1193-1218), one of Philip Augustus's principal + supporters in his struggle with King John of England; Hugh IV. + (1218-1272), who acquired the countships of Châlon and Auxonne, Robert + II. (1272-1309), one of whose daughters, Margaret, married Louis X. of + France, and another, Jeanne, Philip of Valois; Odo (Eudes) IV. + (1315-1350), who gained the countship of Artois in right of his wife, + Jeanne of France, daughter of Philip V. the Tall and of Jeanne, countess + of Burgundy.</p> + + <p>In 1361, on the death of Duke Philip de Rouvres, son of Jeanne of + Auvergne and Boulogne, who had married the second time John II. of + France, surnamed the Good, the duchy of Burgundy returned to the crown of + France. In 1363 John gave it, with hereditary rights, to his son Philip, + surnamed the Bold, thus founding that second Capet house of Burgundy + which filled such an important place in the history of France during the + 14th and 15th centuries, acquiring as it did a territorial power which + proved redoubtable to the kingship itself. By his marriage with Margaret + of Flanders Philip added to his duchy, on the death of his father-in-law, + Louis of Male, in 1384, the countships of Burgundy and Flanders; and in + the same year he purchased the countship of Charolais from John, count of + Armagnac. On the death of Charles V. in 1380 Philip and his brothers, the + dukes of Anjou and Berry, had possessed themselves of the regency, and it + was he who led Charles VI. against the rebellious Flemings, over whom the + young king gained the victory of Roosebeke in 1382. Momentarily deprived + of power during the period of the "Marmousets'" government, he devoted + himself to the administration of his own dominions, establishing in 1386 + an audit-office (<i>chambre des comptes</i>) at Dijon and another at + Lille. In 1396 he refused to take part personally in the expedition + against the Turks which ended in the disaster of Nicopolis, and would + only send his son John, then count of Nevers. In 1392 the king's madness + caused Philip's recall to power along with the other princes of the + blood, and from this time dates that hostility between the party of + Burgundy and the party of Orleans which was to become so intense when in + May 1404 Duke Philip had been succeeded by his son, John the + Fearless.</p> + + <p>In 1407 the latter caused the assassination of his political rival, + Louis of Orleans, the king's brother. Forced to quit Paris for a time, he + soon returned, supported in particular by the gild of the butchers and by + the university. The monk Jean Petit pronounced an apology for the murder + (1408).</p> + + <p>The victory of Hasbain which John achieved on the 23rd of September + 1408 over the Liégeois, who had attacked his brother-in-law, John of + Bavaria, bishop of Liége, still further strengthened his power and + reputation, and during the following years the struggle between the + Burgundians and the partisans of the duke of Orleans—or Armagnacs, + as they were called—went on with varying results. In 1413 a + reaction took place in Paris; John the Fearless was once more expelled + from the capital, and only returned there in 1418, thanks to the treason + of Perrinet Leclerc, who yielded up the town to him. In 1419, just when + he was thinking of making advances towards the party of the dauphin + (Charles VII.), he was assassinated by members of that party, during an + interview between himself and the dauphin at the bridge of Montereau.</p> + + <p>This event inclined the new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, towards + an alliance with England. In 1420 he signed the treaty of Troyes, which + recognized Henry V. as the legitimate successor of Charles VI.; in 1423 + he gave his sister Anne in marriage to John, duke of Bedford; and during + the following years the Burgundian troops supported the English + pretender. But a dispute between him and the English concerning the + succession in Hainaut, their refusal to permit the town of Orleans to + place itself under his rule, and the defeats sustained by them, all + combined to embroil him with his allies, and in 1435 he concluded the + treaty of Arras with Charles VII. The king relieved the duke of all + homage for his estates during his lifetime, <!-- Page 822 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page822"></a>[v.04 p.0822]</span>and gave up to + him the countships of Mâcon, Auxerre, Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu; and, + reserving the right of redemption, the towns of the Somme (Roye, + Montdidier, Péronne, &c.). Besides this Philip had acquired Brabant + and Holland in 1433 as the inheritance of his mother. He gave an asylum + to the dauphin Louis when exiled from Charles VII.'s court, but refused + to assist him against his father, and henceforth rarely intervened in + French affairs. He busied himself particularly with the administration of + his state, founding the university of Dôle, having records made of + Burgundian customs, and seeking to develop the commerce and industries of + Flanders. A friend to letters and the arts, he was the protector of + writers like Olivier de la Marche, and of sculptors of the school of + Dijon. He also desired to revive ancient chivalry as he conceived it, and + in 1429 founded the order of the Golden Fleece; while during the last + years of his life he devoted himself to the preparation of a crusade + against the Turks. Neither these plans, however, nor his liberality, + prevented his leaving a well-filled treasury and enlarged dominions when + he died in 1467.</p> + + <p>Philip's successor was his son by his third wife, Isabel of Portugal, + Charles, surnamed the Bold, count of Charolois, born in 1433. To him his + father had practically abandoned his authority during his last years. + Charles had taken an active part in the so-called wars "for the public + weal," and in the coalitions of nobles against the king which were so + frequent during the first years of Louis XI.'s reign. His struggle + against the king is especially marked by the interview at Péronne in + 1468, when the king had to confirm the duke in his possession of the + towns of the Somme, and by a fruitless attempt which Charles the Bold + made on Beauvais in 1472. Charles sought above all to realize a scheme + already planned by his father. This was to annex territory which would + reunite Burgundy with the northern group of her possessions (Flanders, + Brabant, &c.), and to obtain the emperor's recognition of the kingdom + of "Belgian Gaul." In 1469 he bought the landgraviate of Alsace and the + countship of Ferrette from the archduke Sigismund of Austria, and in 1473 + the aged duke Arnold ceded the duchy of Gelderland to him. In the same + year he had an interview at Trier with the emperor Frederick III., when + he offered to give his daughter and heiress, Mary of Burgundy, in + marriage to the emperor's son Maximilian in exchange for the concession + of the royal title. But the emperor, uneasy at the ambition of the + "grand-duke of the West," did not pursue the negotiations.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile the tyranny of the duke's lieutenant Peter von Hagenbach, + who was established at Ferrette as governor (<i>grand bailli</i> or + <i>Landvogt</i>) of Upper Alsace, had brought about an insurrection. The + Swiss supported the cause of their allies, the inhabitants of the free + towns of Alsace, and Duke René II. of Lorraine also declared war against + Charles. In 1474 the Swiss invaded Franche-Comté and achieved the victory + of Hericourt. In 1475 Charles succeeded in conquering Lorraine, but an + expedition against the Swiss ended in the defeat of Grandson (February + 1476). In the same year the duke was again beaten at Morat, and the + Burgundian nobles had to abandon to the victors a considerable amount of + booty. Finally the duke of Lorraine returned to his dominions; Charles + advanced against him, but on the 6th of January 1477 he was defeated and + killed before Nancy.</p> + + <p>By his wife, Isabella of Bourbon, he only left a daughter, Mary, and + Louis XI. claimed possession of her inheritance as guardian to the young + princess. He succeeded in getting himself acknowledged in the duchy and + countship of Burgundy, which were occupied by French garrisons. But Mary, + alarmed by this annexation, and by the insurrection at Ghent (secretly + fomented by Louis), decided to marry the archduke Maximilian of Austria, + to whom she had already been promised (August 1477), and hostilities soon + broke out between the two princes. Mary died through a fall from her + horse in March 1482, and in the same year the treaty of Arras confirmed + Louis XI. in possession of the duchy. Franche-Comté and Artois were to + form the dowry of the little Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Mary and + Maximilian, who was promised in marriage to the dauphin. As to the lands + proceeding from the succession of Charles the Bold, which had returned to + the Empire (Brabant, Hainaut, Limburg, Namur, Gelderland, &c.), they + constituted the "Circle of Burgundy" from 1512 onward.</p> + + <p>We know that the title of duke of Burgundy was revived in 1682 for a + short time by Louis XIV. in favour of his grandson Louis, the pupil of + Fénelon. But from the 16th to the 18th century Burgundy constituted a + military government bounded on the north by Champagne, on the south by + Lyonnais, on the east by Franche-Comté, on the west by Bourbonnais and + Nivernais. It comprised Dijonnais, Autunois, Auxois, and the <i>pays de + la montagne</i> or Country of the Mountain (Châtillon-sur-Seine), with + the "counties" of Chalonnais, Mâconnais, Auxerrois and Bar-sur-Seine, + and, so far as administration went, the annexes of Bresse, Bugey, + Valromey and the country of Gex. Burgundy was a <i>pays d'états</i>. The + estates, whose privileges the dukes at first, and later Louis XI., had to + swear to maintain, had their assembly at Dijon, usually under the + presidency of the governor of the province, the bishop of Autun as + representing the clergy, and the mayor of Dijon representing the third + estate. In the judiciary point of view the greater part of Burgundy + depended on the parlement of Dijon; but Auxerrois and Mâconnais were + amenable to the parlement of Paris.</p> + + <p>See also U. Plancher, <i>Histoire générale et particulière de + Bourgogne</i> (Dijon, 1739—1781, 4 vols. 8vo); Courtépée, + <i>Description générale et particulière du duché de Bourgogne</i> (Dijon, + 1774-1785, 7 vols. 8vo); O. Jahn. <i>Geschichte der Burgundionen</i> + (Halle, 1874, 2 vols. 8vo); E. Petit de Vausse, <i>Histoire des dues de + Bourgogne de la race capétienne</i> (Paris, 1885-1905, 9 vols. 8vo); B. + de Barante, <i>Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois</i> + (Paris, 1833—1836, 13 vols. 8vo); the marquis Léon E.S.J. de + Laborde, <i>Les Ducs de Bourgogne: Études sur les lettres, les arts et + l'industrie pendant le XV siècle</i> (Paris, 1849-1851, 3 vols. 8vo).</p> + + <p>(R. <span class="sc">Po.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BURHANPUR,</b> a town of British India in the Nimar district of the + Central Provinces, situated on the north bank of the river Tapti, 310 m. + N.E. of Bombay, and 2 m. from the Great Indian Peninsula railway station + of Lalbagh. It was founded in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1400 by a + Mahommedan prince of the Farukhi dynasty of Khandesh, whose successors + held it for 200 years, when the Farukhi kingdom was annexed to the empire + of Akbar. It formed the chief seat of the government of the Deccan + provinces of the Mogul empire till Shah Jahan removed the capital to + Aurangabad in 1635. Burhanpur was plundered in 1685 by the Mahrattas, and + repeated battles were fought in its neighbourhood in the struggle between + that race and the Mussulmans for the supremacy of India. In 1739 the + Mahommedans finally yielded to the demand of the Mahrattas for a fourth + of the revenue, and in 1760 the Nizam of the Deccan ceded Burhanpur to + the peshwa, who in 1778 transferred it to Sindhia. In the Mahratta War + the army under General Wellesley, afterwards the duke of Wellington, took + Burhanpur (1803), but the treaty of the same year restored it to Sindhia. + It remained a portion of Sindhia's dominions till 1860-1861, when, in + consequence of certain territorial arrangements, the town and surrounding + estates were ceded to the British government. Under the Moguls the city + covered an area of about 5 sq. m., and was about 10½ m. in circumference. + In the <i>Ain-í-Akbari</i> it is described as a "large city, with many + gardens, inhabited by all nations, and abounding with handicraftsmen." + Sir Thomas Roe, who visited it in 1614, found that the houses in the town + were "only mud cottages, except the prince's house, the chan's and some + few others." In 1865-1866 the city contained 8000 houses, with a + population of 34,137, which had decreased to 33,343 in 1901. Burhanpur is + celebrated for its muslins, flowered silks, and brocades, which, + according to Tavernier, who visited it in 1668, were exported in great + quantities to Persia, Egypt, Turkey, Russia and Poland. The gold and + silver wires used in the manufacture of these fabrics are drawn with + considerable care and skill; and in order to secure the purity of the + metals employed for their composition, the wire-drawing under the native + rule was done under government inspection. The town of Burhanpur and its + manufactures were long on the decline, but during recent times have made + a slight recovery. The buildings of interest <!-- Page 823 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page823"></a>[v.04 p.0823]</span>in the town are + a palace, built by Akbar, called the Lal Kila or the Red Fort, and the + Jama Masjid or Great Mosque, built by Ali Khan, one of the Farukhi + dynasty, in 1588. A considerable number of Boras, a class of commercial + Mahommedans, reside here.</p> + + <p><b>BURI,</b> or <span class="sc">Bure</span>, in Norse mythology, the + grandfather of Odin. In the creation of the world he was born from the + rocks, licked by the cow Andhumla (darkness). He was the father of Bor, + and the latter, wedded to Bestla, the daughter of the giant Bolthorn + (evil), became the father of Odin, the Scandinavian Jove.</p> + + <p><b>BURIAL</b> and <b>BURIAL ACTS</b> (in O. Eng. <i>byrgels</i>, + whence <i>byriels</i>, wrongly taken as a plural, and so Mid. Eng. + <i>buryel</i>, from O. Eng. <i>byrgan</i>, properly to protect, cover, to + bury). The main lines of the law of burial in England may be stated very + shortly. Every person has the right to be buried in the churchyard or + burial ground of the parish where he dies, with the exception of executed + felons, who are buried in the precincts of the prison or in a place + appointed by the home office. At common law the person under whose roof a + death takes place has a duty to provide for the body being carried to the + grave decently covered; and the executors or legal representatives of the + deceased are bound to bury or dispose of the body in a manner becoming + the estate of the deceased, according to their discretion, and they are + not bound to fulfil the wishes he may have expressed in this respect. The + disposal must be such as will not expose the body to violation, or offend + the feelings or endanger the health of the living; and cremation under + proper restrictions is allowable. In the case of paupers dying in a + parish house, or shipwrecked persons whose bodies are cast ashore, the + overseers or guardians are responsible for their burial; and in the case + of suicides the coroner has a similar duty. The expenses of burial are + payable out of the deceased's estate in priority to all other debts. A + husband liable for the maintenance of his wife is liable for her funeral + expenses; the parents for those of their children, if they have the means + of paying. Legislation has principally affected (1) places of burial, (2) + mode of burial, (3) fees for burial, and (4) disinterment.</p> + + <p>1. The overcrowded state of churchyards and burial grounds gradually + led to the passing of a group of statutes known as the Burial Acts, + extending from 1852 up to 1900. By these acts a general system was set + up, the aim of which was to remedy the existing deficiencies of + accommodation by providing new burial grounds and closing old ones which + should be dangerous to health, and to establish a central authority, the + home office (now for most purposes the Local Government Board) to + superintend all burial grounds with a view to the protection of the + public health and the maintenance of public decency in burials. The Local + Government Board thus has the power to obtain by order in council the + closing of any burial ground it thinks fit, while its consent is + necessary to the opening of any new burial ground; and it also has power + to direct inspection of any burial ground or cemetery, and to regulate + burials in common graves in statutory cemeteries and to compel persons in + charge of vaults or places of burial to take steps necessary for + preventing their becoming dangerous or injurious to health. The vestry of + any parish, whether a common-law or ecclesiastical one, was thus + authorized to provide itself with a new burial ground, if its existing + one was no longer available; such ground might be wholly or partly + consecrated, and chapels might be provided for the performance of burial + service. The ground was put under the management of a burial board, + consisting of ratepayers elected by the vestry, and the consecrated + portion of it took the place of the churchyard in all respects. Disused + churchyards and burial grounds in the metropolis may be used as open + spaces for recreation, and only buildings for religious purposes can be + built on them (1881, 1884, 1887). The Local Government Act 1894 + introduced a change into the government of burial grounds (consequent on + the general change made in parochial government) by transferring, or + allowing to be transferred, the powers, duties, property and liabilities + of the burial boards in urban districts to the district councils, and in + rural parishes to the parish councils and parish meetings; and by + allowing rural parishes to adopt the Burials Acts, and provide and manage + new burial grounds by the parish council, or a burial board elected by + the parish meeting.</p> + + <p>2. The mode of burial is a matter of ecclesiastical cognizance; in the + case of churchyards and elsewhere it is in the discretion of the owners + of the burial ground. The Local Government Board now makes regulations + for burials in burial grounds provided under the Burial Acts; for + cemeteries provided under the Public Health Act 1879. Private cemeteries + and burial grounds make their own regulations. Burial may now take place + either with or without a religious service in consecrated ground. Before + 1880 no body could be buried in consecrated ground except with the + service of the Church, which the incumbent of the parish or a person + authorized by him was bound to perform; but the canons and prayer-book + refused the use of the office for excommunicated persons, <i>majori + excommunicatione</i>, for some grievous and notorious crime, and no + person able to testify of his repentance, unbaptized persons, and persons + against whom a verdict of <i>felo de se</i> had been found. But by the + Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880, the bodies of persons entitled to be + buried in parochial burial grounds, whether churchyards or graveyards, + may be buried there, on proper notice being given to the minister, + without the performance of the service of the Church of England, and + either without any religious service or with a Christian and orderly + religious service at the grave, which may be conducted by any person + invited to do so by the person in charge of the funeral. Clergymen of the + Church of England are also by the act allowed, but are not obliged, to + use the burial service in any unconsecrated burial ground or cemetery, or + building therein, in any case in which it could be used in consecrated + ground. In cases where it may not be so used, and where such is the wish + of those in charge of the service, the clergy may use a form of service + approved by the bishop without being liable to any ecclesiastical or + temporal penalty. Except as altered by this act, it is still the law that + "the Church knows no such indecency as putting a body into consecrated + ground without the service being at the same time performed"; and nothing + in the act authorizes the use of the service on the burial of a <i>felo + de se</i>, which, however, may take place in any way allowed by the act + of 1880. The proper performance of the burial office is provided for by + the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874. Statutory provision is made by + the criminal law in this act for the preservation of order in burial + grounds and protection of funeral services.</p> + + <p>3. Fees are now payable by custom or under statutory powers on all + burials. In a churchyard the parson must perform the office of burial for + parishioners, even if the customary fee is denied, and it is doubtful who + is liable to pay it. The custom must be immemorial and invariable. If not + disputed, its payment can be enforced in the ecclesiastical court; if + disputed, its validity must be tried by a temporal court. A special + contract for the payment of an annual fee in the case of a + non-parishioner can be enforced in the latter court. In the case of + paupers and shipwrecked persons the fees are payable by the parish. In + other parochial burial grounds and cemeteries the duties and rights to + fees of the incumbents, clerks and sextons of the parishes for which the + ground has been provided are the same as in burials in the churchyard. + Burial authorities may fix the fees payable in such grounds, subject to + the approval of the home secretary; but the fees for services rendered by + ministers of religion and sextons must be the same in the consecrated as + in the unconsecrated part of the burial ground, and no incumbent of a + parish or a clerk may receive any fee upon burials except for services + rendered by them (act of 1900). On burials under the act of 1880 the same + fees are payable as if the burial had taken place with the service of the + Church.</p> + + <p>4. A corpse is not the subject of property, nor capable of holding + property. If interred in consecrated ground, it is under the protection + of the ecclesiastical court; if in unconsecrated, it is under that of the + temporal court. In the former case it is an ecclesiastical offence, and + in either case it is a misdemeanour, to disinter or remove it without + proper authority, <!-- Page 824 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page824"></a>[v.04 p.0824]</span>whatever the motive for such an + act may be. Such proper authority is (1) a faculty from the ordinary, + where it is to be removed from one consecrated place of burial to + another, and this is often done on sanitary grounds or to meet the wishes + of relatives, and has been done for secular purposes, <i>e.g.</i> + widening a thoroughfare, by allowing part of the burial ground (disused) + to be thrown into it; but it has been refused where the object was to + cremate the remains, or to transfer them from a churchyard to a Roman + Catholic burial ground; (2) a licence from the home secretary, where it + is desired to transfer remains from one unconsecrated place of burial to + another; (3) by order of the coroner, in cases of suspected crime. There + has been considerable discussion as to the boundary line of jurisdiction + between (1) and (2), and whether the disinterment of a body from + consecrated ground for purposes of identification falls within, (1) only + or within both (1) and (2); and an attempt by the ecclesiastical court to + enforce a penalty for that purpose without a licence has been prohibited + by the temporal court.</p> + + <p>See also <span class="sc">Churchyard</span>; and, for methods of + disposal of the dead, <span class="sc">Cemetery</span>; <span + class="sc">Cremation</span>, and <span class="sc">Funeral + Rites</span>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Baker, <i>Law of + Burials</i> (6th ed. by Thomas, London, 1898); Phillimore, + <i>Ecclestastical Law</i> (2nd ed., London, 1895); Cripps, <i>Law of + Church and Clergy</i> (6th ed., London, 1886).</p> + + <p>(G. G. P.*)</p> + + <p><b>BURIAL SOCIETIES,</b> a form of friendly societies, existing mainly + in England, and constituted for the purpose of providing by voluntary + subscriptions, for insuring money to be paid on the death of a member, or + for the funeral expenses of the husband, wife or child of a member, or of + the widow of a deceased member. (See <span class="sc">Friendly + Societies</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>BURIATS,</b> a Mongolian race, who dwell in the vicinity of the + Baikal Lake, for the most part in the government of Irkutsk and the + Trans-Baikal Territory. They are divided into various tribes or clans, + which generally take their names from the locality they frequent. These + tribes are subdivided according to kinship. The Buriats are a + broad-shouldered race inclined to stoutness, with small slanting eyes, + thick lips, high cheekbones, broad and flat noses and scanty beards. The + men shave their heads and wear a pigtail like the Chinese. In summer they + dress in silk and cotton gowns, in winter in furs and sheepskins. Their + principal occupation is the rearing of cattle and horses. The Buriat + horse is famous for its power of endurance, and the attachment between + master and animal is very great. At death the horse should, according to + their religion, be sacrificed at its owner's grave; but the frugal Buriat + heir usually substitutes an old hack, or if he has to tie up the valuable + steed to the grave to starve he does so only with the thinnest of cords + so that the animal soon breaks his tether and gallops off to join the + other horses. In some districts the Buriats have learned agriculture from + the Russians, and in Irkutsk are really better farmers than the latter. + They are extraordinarily industrious at manuring and irrigation. They are + also clever at trapping and fishing. In religion the Buriats are mainly + Buddhists; and their head lama (Khambo Lama) lives at the Goose Lake + (Guisinoe Ozero). Others are Shamanists, and their most sacred spot is + the Shamanic stone at the mouth of the river Angar. Some thousands of + them around Lake Baikal are Christians. A knowledge of reading and + writing is common, especially among the Trans-Baikal Buriats, who possess + books of their own, chiefly translated from the Tibetan. Their own + language is Mongolian, and of three distinct dialects. It was in the 16th + century that the Russians first came in touch with the Buriats, who were + long known by the name of Bratskiye, "Brotherly," given them by the + Siberian colonists. In the town of Bratskiyostrog, which grew up around + the block-house built in 1631 at the confluence of the Angara and Oka to + bring them into subjection, this title is perpetuated. The Buriats made a + vigorous resistance to Russian aggression, but were finally subdued + towards the end of the 17th century, and are now among the most peaceful + of Russian peoples.</p> + + <p>See J.G. Gruelin, <i>Siberia</i>; Pierre Simon Pallas, <i>Sammlungen + historischer Nachrichten über die mongolischen Volkerschaften</i> (St + Petersburg, 1776-1802); M.A. Castrén, <i>Versuch einer buriatischen + Sprachlehre</i> (1857); Sir H.H. Howorth, <i>History of the Mongols</i> + (1876-1888).</p> + + <p><b>BURIDAN, JEAN</b> [<span class="sc">Joannes Buridanus</span>] (c. + 1297-c. 1358), French philosopher, was born at Béthune in Artois. He + studied in Paris under William of Occam. He was professor of philosophy + in the university of Paris, was rector in 1327, and in 1345 was deputed + to defend its interests before Philip of Valois and at Rome. He was more + than sixty years old in 1358, but the year of his death is not recorded. + The tradition that he was forced to flee from France along with other + nominalists, and founded the university of Vienna in 1356, is unsupported + and in contradiction to the fact that the university was founded by + Frederick II. in 1237. An ordinance of Louis XI., in 1473, directed + against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of his works. In + philosophy Buridan was a rationalist, and followed Occam in denying all + objective reality to universals, which he regarded as mere words. The aim + of his logic is represented as having been the devising of rules for the + discovery of syllogistic middle terms; this system for aiding slow-witted + persons became known as the <i>pons asinorum</i>. The parts of logic + which he treated with most minuteness are modal propositions and modal + syllogisms. In commenting on Aristotle's <i>Ethics</i> he dealt in a very + independent manner with the question of free will, his conclusions being + remarkably similar to those of John Locke. The only liberty which he + admits is a certain power of suspending the deliberative process and + determining the direction of the intellect. Otherwise the will is + entirely dependent on the view of the mind, the last result of + examination. The comparison of the will unable to act between two equally + balanced motives to an ass dying of hunger between two equal and + equidistant bundles of hay is not found in his works, and may have been + invented by his opponents to ridicule his determinism. That he was not + the originator of the theory known as "liberty of indifference" + (<i>liberum arbitrium indifferentiae</i>) is shown in G. Fonsegrive's + <i>Essai sur le libre arbitre</i>, pp. 119, 199 (1887).</p> + + <p>His works are:—<i>Summula de dialectica</i> (Paris, 1487); + <i>Compendium logicae</i> (Venice, 1489); <i>Quaestiones in viii. libros + physicorum</i> (Paris, 1516); <i>In Aristotelis Metaphysica</i> (1518); + <i>Quaestiones in x. libros ethicorum Aristotelis</i> (Paris, 1489; + Oxford, 1637); <i>Quaestiones in viii. libros politicorum Aristotelis</i> + (1500). See K. Prantl's <i>Geschichte der Logik</i>, bk. iv. 14-38; + Stöckl's <i>Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters</i>, ii. + 1023-1028; Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>, s.v. (1897).</p> + + <p><b>BURKE, EDMUND</b> (1729-1797), British statesman and political + writer. His is one of the greatest names in the history of political + literature. There have been many more important statesmen, for he was + never tried in a position of supreme responsibility. There have been many + more effective orators, for lack of imaginative suppleness prevented him + from penetrating to the inner mind of his hearers; defects in delivery + weakened the intrinsic persuasiveness of his reasoning; and he had not + that commanding authority of character and personality which has so often + been the secret of triumphant eloquence. There have been many subtler, + more original and more systematic thinkers about the conditions of the + social union. But no one that ever lived used the general ideas of the + thinker more successfully to judge the particular problems of the + statesman. No one has ever come so close to the details of practical + politics, and at the same time remembered that these can only be + understood and only dealt with by the aid of the broad conceptions of + political philosophy. And what is more than all for perpetuity of fame, + he was one of the great masters of the high and difficult art of + elaborate composition.</p> + + <p>A certain doubtfulness hangs over the circumstances of Burke's life + previous to the opening of his public career. The very date of his birth + is variously stated. The most probable opinion is that he was born at + Dublin on the 12th of January 1729, new style. Of his family we know + little more than his father was a Protestant attorney, practising in + Dublin, and that his mother was a Catholic, a member of the family of + Nagle. He had at least one sister, from whom descended the only existing + representatives of Burke's family; and he had at least two brothers, + Garret Burke and Richard Burke, the one older and the other younger than + Edmund. The sister, afterwards Mrs French, was brought up and remained + throughout life in the religious faith of her <!-- Page 825 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page825"></a>[v.04 p.0825]</span>mother; Edmund + and his brothers followed that of their father. In 1741 the three + brothers were sent to school at Ballitore in the county of Kildare, kept + by Abraham Shackleton, an Englishman, and a member of the Society of + Friends. He appears to have been an excellent teacher and a good and + pious man. Burke always looked back on his own connexion with the school + at Ballitore as among the most fortunate circumstances of his life. + Between himself and a son of his instructor there sprang up a close and + affectionate friendship, and, unlike so many of the exquisite attachments + of youth, this was not choked by the dust of life, nor parted by + divergence of pursuit. Richard Shackleton was endowed with a grave, pure + and tranquil nature, constant and austere, yet not without those gentle + elements that often redeem the drier qualities of his religious + persuasion. When Burke had become one of the most famous men in Europe, + no visitor to his house was more welcome than the friend with whom long + years before he had tried poetic flights, and exchanged all the sanguine + confidences of boyhood. And we are touched to think of the simple-minded + guest secretly praying, in the solitude of his room in the fine house at + Beaconsfield, that the way of his anxious and overburdened host might be + guided by a divine hand.</p> + + <p>In 1743 Burke became a student at Trinity College, Dublin, where + Oliver Goldsmith was also a student at the same time. But the serious + pupil of Abraham Shackleton would not be likely to see much of the wild + and squalid sizar. Henry Flood, who was two years younger than Burke, had + gone to complete his education at Oxford. Burke, like Goldsmith, achieved + no academic distinction. His character was never at any time of the + academic cast. The minor accuracies, the limitation of range, the + treading and re-treading of the same small patch of ground, the + concentration of interest in success before a board of examiners, were + all uncongenial to a nature of exuberant intellectual curiosity and of + strenuous and self-reliant originality. His knowledge of Greek and Latin + was never thorough, nor had he any turn for critical niceties. He could + quote Homer and Pindar, and he had read Aristotle. Like others who have + gone through the conventional course of instruction, he kept a place in + his memory for the various charms of Virgil and Horace, of Tacitus and + Ovid; but the master whose page by night and by day he turned with devout + hand, was the copious, energetic, flexible, diversified and brilliant + genius of the declamations for Archias the poet and for Milo, against + Catiline and against Antony, the author of the disputations at Tusculum + and the orations against Verres. Cicero was ever to him the mightiest of + the ancient names. In English literature Milton seems to have been more + familiar to him than Shakespeare, and Spenser was perhaps more of a + favourite with him than either.</p> + + <p>It is too often the case to be a mere accident that men who become + eminent for wide compass of understanding and penetrating comprehension, + are in their adolescence unsettled and desultory. Of this Burke is a + signal illustration. He left Trinity in 1748, with no great stock of + well-ordered knowledge. He neither derived the benefits nor suffered the + drawbacks of systematic intellectual discipline.</p> + + <p>After taking his degree at Dublin he went in the year 1750 to London + to keep terms at the Temple. The ten years that followed were passed in + obscure industry. Burke was always extremely reserved about his private + affairs. All that we know of Burke exhibits him as inspired by a resolute + pride, a certain stateliness and imperious elevation of mind. Such a + character, while free from any weak shame about the shabby necessities of + early struggles, yet is naturally unwilling to make them prominent in + after life. There is nothing dishonourable in such an inclination. "I was + not swaddled and rocked and dandled into a legislator," wrote Burke when + very near the end of his days: "<i>Nitor in adversum</i> is the motto for + a man like me. At every step of my progress in life (for in every step I + was traversed and opposed), and at every turnpike I met, I was obliged to + show my passport. Otherwise no rank, no toleration even, for me."</p> + + <p>All sorts of whispers have been circulated by idle or malicious gossip + about Burke's first manhood. He is said to have been one of the numerous + lovers of his fascinating countrywoman, Margaret Woffington. It is hinted + that he made a mysterious visit to the American colonies. He was for + years accused of having gone over to the Church of Rome, and afterwards + recanting. There is not a tittle of positive evidence for these or any of + the other statements to Burke's discredit. The common story that he was a + candidate for Adam Smith's chair of moral philosophy at Glasgow, when + Hume was rejected in favour of an obscure nobody (1751), can be shown to + be wholly false. Like a great many other youths with an eminent destiny + before them, Burke conceived a strong distaste for the profession of the + law. His father, who was an attorney of substance, had a distaste still + stronger for so vagrant a profession as letters were in that day. He + withdrew the annual allowance, and Burke set to work to win for himself + by indefatigable industry and capability in the public interest that + position of power or pre-eminence which his detractors acquired either by + accident of birth and connexions or else by the vile arts of political + intrigue. He began at the bottom of the ladder, mixing with the Bohemian + society that haunted the Temple, practising oratory in the free and easy + debating societies of Covent Garden and the Strand, and writing for the + booksellers.</p> + + <p>In 1756 he made his first mark by a satire upon Bolingbroke entitled + <i>A Vindication of Natural Society</i>. It purported to be a posthumous + work from the pen of Bolingbroke, and to present a view of the miseries + and evils arising to mankind from every species of artificial society. + The imitation of the fine style of that magnificent writer but bad + patriot is admirable. As a satire the piece is a failure, for the simple + reason that the substance of it might well pass for a perfectly true, no + less than a very eloquent statement of social blunders and calamities. + Such acute critics as Chesterfield and Warburton thought the performance + serious. Rousseau, whose famous discourse on the evils of civilization + had appeared six years before, would have read Burke's ironical + vindication of natural society without a suspicion of its irony. There + have indeed been found persons who insist that the <i>Vindication</i> was + a really serious expression of the writer's own opinions. This is + absolutely incredible, for various reasons. Burke felt now, as he did + thirty years later, that civil institutions cannot wisely or safely be + measured by the tests of pure reason. His sagacity discerned that the + rationalism by which Bolingbroke and the deistic school believed + themselves to have overthrown revealed religion, was equally calculated + to undermine the structure of political government. This was precisely + the actual course on which speculation was entering in France at that + moment. His <i>Vindication</i> is meant to be a reduction to an + absurdity. The rising revolutionary school in France, if they had read + it, would have taken it for a demonstration of the theorem to be proved. + The only interest of the piece for us lies in the proof which it + furnishes, that at the opening of his life Burke had the same scornful + antipathy to political rationalism which flamed out in such overwhelming + passion at its close.</p> + + <p>In the same year (1756) appeared the <i>Philosophical Inquiry into the + Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful</i>, a crude and narrow + performance in many respects, yet marked by an independent use of the + writer's mind, and not without fertile suggestion. It attracted the + attention of the rising aesthetic school in Germany. Lessing set about + the translation and annotation of it, and Moses Mendelssohn borrowed from + Burke's speculation at least one of the most fruitful and important ideas + of his own influential theories on the sentiments. In England the + <i>Inquiry</i> had considerable vogue, but it has left no permanent trace + in the development of aesthetic thought.</p> + + <p>Burke's literary industry in town was relieved by frequent excursions + to the western parts of England, in company with William Burke. There was + a lasting intimacy between the two namesakes, and they seem to have been + involved together in some important passages of their lives; but we have + Edmund Burke's authority for believing that they were probably not + kinsmen. The seclusion of these rural sojourns, originally dictated by + delicate health, was as wholesome to the mind as to <!-- Page 826 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page826"></a>[v.04 p.0826]</span>the + body. Few men, if any, have ever acquired a settled mental habit of + surveying human affairs broadly, of watching the play of passion, + interest, circumstance, in all its comprehensiveness, and of applying the + instruments of general conceptions and wide principles to its + interpretation with respectable constancy, unless they have at some early + period of their manhood resolved the greater problems of society in + independence and isolation. By 1756 the cast of Burke's opinions was + decisively fixed, and they underwent no radical change.</p> + + <p>He began a series of <i>Hints on the Drama</i>. He wrote a portion of + an <i>Abridgment of the History of England</i>, and brought it down as + far as the reign of John. It included, as was natural enough in a warm + admirer of Montesquieu, a fragment on law, of which he justly said that + it ought to be the leading science in every well-ordered commonwealth. + Burke's early interest in America was shown by an <i>Account of the + European Settlements</i> on that continent. Such works were evidently a + sign that his mind was turning away from abstract speculation to the + great political and economic fields, and to the more visible conditions + of social stability and the growth of nations. This interest in the + concrete phenomena of society inspired him with the idea of the <i>Annual + Register</i> (1759), which he designed to present a broad grouping of the + chief movements of each year. The execution was as excellent as the + conception, and if we reflect that it was begun in the midst of that + momentous war which raised England to her climax of territorial greatness + in East and West, we may easily realize how the task of describing these + portentous and far-reaching events would be likely to strengthen Burke's + habits of wide and laborious observation, as well as to give him firmness + and confidence in the exercise of his own judgment. Dodsley gave him £100 + for each annual volume, and the sum was welcome enough, for towards the + end of 1756 Burke had married. His wife was the daughter of a Dr Nugent, + a physician at Bath. She is always spoken of by his friends as a mild, + reasonable and obliging person, whose amiability and gentle sense did + much to soothe the too nervous and excitable temperament of her husband. + She had been brought up, there is good reason to believe, as a Catholic, + and she was probably a member of that communion at the time of her + marriage. Dr Nugent eventually took up his residence with his son-in-law + in London, and became a popular member of that famous group of men of + letters and artists whom Boswell has made so familiar and so dear to all + later generations. Burke, however, had no intention of being dependent. + His consciousness of his own powers animated him with a most justifiable + ambition, if ever there was one, to play a part in the conduct of + national affairs. Friends shared this ambition on his behalf; one of + these was Lord Charlemont. He introduced Burke to William Gerard Hamilton + (1759), now only remembered by the nickname "single-speech," derived from + the circumstance of his having made a single brilliant speech in the + House of Commons, which was followed by years of almost unbroken silence. + Hamilton was by no means devoid of sense and acuteness, but in character + he was one of the most despicable men then alive. There is not a word too + many nor too strong in the description of him by one of Burke's friends, + as "a sullen, vain, proud, selfish, cankered-hearted, envious reptile." + The reptile's connexion, however, was for a time of considerable use to + Burke. When he was made Irish secretary, Burke accompanied him to Dublin, + and there learnt Oxenstiern's eternal lesson, that awaits all who + penetrate behind the scenes of government, <i>quam parva sapientia mundus + regitur</i>.</p> + + <p>The penal laws against the Catholics, the iniquitous restrictions on + Irish trade and industry, the selfish factiousness of the parliament, the + jobbery and corruption of administration, the absenteeism of the + landlords, and all the other too familiar elements of that mischievous + and fatal system, were then in full force. As was shown afterwards, they + made an impression upon Burke that was never effaced. So much iniquity + and so much disorder may well have struck deep on one whose two chief + political sentiments were a passion for order and a passion for justice. + He may have anticipated with something of remorse the reflection of a + modern historian, that the absenteeism of her landlords has been less of + a curse to Ireland than the absenteeism of her men of genius. At least he + was never an absentee in heart. He always took the interest of an ardent + patriot in his unfortunate country; and, as we shall see, made more than + one weighty sacrifice on behalf of the principles which he deemed to be + bound up with her welfare.</p> + + <p>When Hamilton retired from his post, Burke accompanied him back to + London, with a pension of £300 a year on the Irish Establishment. This + modest allowance he hardly enjoyed for more than a single year. His + patron having discovered the value of so laborious and powerful a + subaltern, wished to bind Burke permanently to his service. Burke + declined to sell himself into final bondage of this kind. When Hamilton + continued to press his odious pretensions they quarrelled (1765), and + Burke threw up his pension. He soon received a more important piece of + preferment than any which he could ever have procured through + Hamilton.</p> + + <p>The accession of George III. to the throne in 1760 had been followed + by the disgrace of Pitt, the dismissal of Newcastle, and the rise of + Bute. These events marked the resolution of the court to change the + political system which had been created by the Revolution of 1688. That + system placed the government of the country in the hands of a territorial + oligarchy, composed of a few families of large possessions, fairly + enlightened principles, and shrewd political sense. It had been preserved + by the existence of a Pretender. The two first kings of the house of + Hanover could only keep the crown on their own heads by conciliating the + Revolution families and accepting Revolution principles. By 1760 all + peril to the dynasty was at an end. George III., or those about him, + insisted on substituting for the aristocratic division of political power + a substantial concentration of it in the hands of the sovereign. The + ministers were no longer to be the members of a great party, acting + together in pursuance of a common policy accepted by them all as a united + body; they were to become nominees of the court, each holding himself + answerable not to his colleagues but to the king, separately, + individually and by department. George III. had before his eyes the + government of his cousin the great Frederick; but not every one can bend + the bow of Ulysses, and, apart from difference of personal capacity and + historic tradition, he forgot that a territorial and commercial + aristocracy cannot be dealt with in the spirit of the barrack and the + drill-ground. But he made the attempt, and resistance to that attempt + supplies the keynote to the first twenty-five years of Burke's political + life.</p> + + <p>Along with the change in system went high-handed and absolutist + tendencies in policy. The first stage of the new experiment was very + short. Bute, in a panic at the storm of unpopularity that menaced him, + resigned in 1763. George Grenville and the less enlightened section of + the Whigs took his place. They proceeded to tax the American colonists, + to interpose vexatiously against their trade, to threaten the liberty of + the subject at home by general warrants, and to stifle the liberty of + public discussion by prosecutions of the press. Their arbitrary methods + disgusted the nation, and the personal arrogance of the ministers at last + disgusted the king. The system received a temporary check. Grenville + fell, and the king was forced to deliver himself into the hands of the + orthodox section of the Whigs. The marquess of Rockingham (July 10, 1765) + became prime minister, and he was induced to make Burke his private + secretary. Before Burke had begun his duties, an incident occurred which + illustrates the character of the two men. The old duke of Newcastle, + probably desiring a post for some nominee of his own, conveyed to the ear + of the new minister various absurd rumours prejudicial to + Burke,—that he was an Irish papist, that his real name was + O'Bourke, that he had been a Jesuit, that he was an emissary from St + Omer's. Lord Rockingham repeated these tales to Burke, who of course + denied them with indignation. His chief declared himself satisfied, but + Burke, from a feeling that the indispensable confidence between them was + impaired, at once expressed a strong desire to resign his post. Lord + Rockingham prevailed upon him to reconsider his resolve, and from that + day until Lord Rockingham's death in <!-- Page 827 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page827"></a>[v.04 p.0827]</span>1782, their + relations were those of the closest friendship and confidence.</p> + + <p>The first Rockingham administration only lasted a year and a few days, + ending in July 1766. The uprightness and good sense of its leaders did + not compensate for the weakness of their political connexions. They were + unable to stand against the coldness of the king, against the hostility + of the powerful and selfish faction of Bedford Whigs, and, above all, + against the towering predominance of William Pitt. That Pitt did not join + them is one of the many fatal miscarriages of history, as it is one of + the many serious reproaches to be made against that extraordinary man's + chequered and uneven course. An alliance between Pitt and the Rockingham + party was the surest guarantee of a wise and liberal policy towards the + colonies. He went further than they did, in holding, like Lord Camden, + the doctrine that taxation went with representation, and that therefore + parliament had no right to tax the unrepresented colonists. The ministry + asserted, what no competent jurist would now think of denying, that + parliament is sovereign; but they went heartily with Pitt in pronouncing + the exercise of the right of taxation in the case of the American + colonists to be thoroughly impolitic and inexpedient. No practical + difference, therefore, existed upon the important question of the hour. + But Pitt's prodigious egoism, stimulated by the mischievous counsels of + men of the stamp of Lord Shelburne, prevented the fusion of the only two + sections of the Whig party that were at once able, enlightened and + disinterested enough to carry on the government efficiently, to check the + arbitrary temper of the king, and to command the confidence of the + nation. Such an opportunity did not return.</p> + + <p>The ministerial policy towards the colonies was defended by Burke with + splendid and unanswerable eloquence. He had been returned to the House of + Commons for the pocket borough of Wendover, and his first speech (January + 27, 1766) was felt to be the rising of a new light. For the space of a + quarter of a century, from this time down to 1790, Burke was one of the + chief guides and inspirers of a revived Whig party. The "age of small + factions" was now succeeded by an age of great principles, and selfish + ties of mere families and persons were transformed into a union resting + on common conviction and patriotic aims. It was Burke who did more than + any one else to give to the Opposition, under the first half of the reign + of George III., this stamp of elevation and grandeur. Before leaving + office the Rockingham government repealed the Stamp Act; confirmed the + personal liberty of the subject by forcing on the House of Commons one + resolution against general warrants, and another against the seizure of + papers; and relieved private houses from the intrusion of officers of + excise, by repealing the cider tax. Nothing so good was done in an + English parliament for nearly twenty years to come. George Grenville, + whom the Rockinghams had displaced, and who was bitterly incensed at + their formal reversal of his policy, printed a pamphlet to demonstrate + his own wisdom and statesmanship. Burke replied in his <i>Observations on + a late Publication on the Present State of the Nation</i> (1769), in + which he showed for the first time that he had not only as much knowledge + of commerce and finance, and as firm a hand, in dealing with figures as + Grenville himself, but also a broad, general and luminous way of + conceiving and treating politics, in which neither then nor since has he + had any rival among English publicists.</p> + + <p>It is one of the perplexing points in Burke's private history to know + how he lived during these long years of parliamentary opposition. It is + certainly not altogether mere impertinence to ask of a public man how he + gets what he lives upon, for independence of spirit, which is so hard to + the man who lays his head on the debtor's pillow, is the prime virtue in + such men. Probity in money is assuredly one of the keys to character, + though we must be very careful in ascertaining and proportioning all the + circumstances. Now, in 1769, Burke bought an estate at Beaconsfield, in + the county of Buckingham. It was about 600 acres in extent, was worth + some £500 a year, and cost £22,000. People have been asking ever since + how the penniless man of letters was able to raise so large a sum in the + first instance, and how he was able to keep up a respectable + establishment afterwards. The suspicions of those who are never sorry to + disparage the great have been of various kinds. Burke was a gambler, they + hint, in Indian stock, like his kinsmen Richard and William, and like + Lord Verney, his political patron at Wendover. Perhaps again, his + activity on behalf of Indian princes, like the raja of Tanjore, was not + disinterested and did not go unrewarded. The answer to all these + calumnious innuendoes is to be found in documents and title-deeds of + decisive authority, and is simple enough. It is, in short, this. Burke + inherited a small property from his elder brother, which he realized. + Lord Rockingham advanced him a certain sum (£6000). The remainder, + amounting to no less than two-thirds of the purchase-money, was raised on + mortgage, and was never paid off during Burke's life. The rest of the + story is equally simple, but more painful. Burke made some sort of income + out of his 600 acres; he was for a short time agent for New York, with a + salary of £700; he continued to work at the <i>Annual Register</i> down + to 1788. But, when all is told, he never made as much as he spent; and in + spite of considerable assistance from Lord Rockingham, amounting it is + sometimes said to as much as £30,000, Burke, like the younger Pitt, got + every year deeper into debt. Pitt's debts were the result of a wasteful + indifference to his private affairs. Burke, on the contrary, was + assiduous and orderly, and had none of the vices of profusion. But he had + that quality which Aristotle places high among the virtues—the + noble mean of Magnificence, standing midway between the two extremes of + vulgar ostentation and narrow pettiness. He was indifferent to luxury, + and sought to make life, not commodious nor soft, but high and dignified + in a refined way. He loved art, filled his house with statues and + pictures, and extended a generous patronage to the painters. He was a + collector of books, and, as Crabbe and less conspicuous men discovered, a + helpful friend to their writers. Guests were ever welcome at his board; + the opulence of his mind and the fervid copiousness of his talk naturally + made the guests of such a man very numerous. <i>Non invideo equidem, + miror magis</i>, was Johnson's good-natured remark, when he was taken + over his friend's fine house and pleasant gardens. Johnson was of a very + different type. There was something in this external dignity which went + with Burke's imperious spirit, his spacious imagination, his turn for all + things stately and imposing. We may say, if we please, that Johnson had + the far truer and loftier dignity of the two; but we have to take such + men as Burke with the defects that belong to their qualities. And there + was no corruption in Burke's outlay. When the Pitt administration was + formed in 1766, he might have had office, and Lord Rockingham wished him + to accept it, but he honourably took his fate with the party. He may have + spent £3000 a year, where he would have been more prudent to spend only + £2000. But nobody was wronged; his creditors were all paid in time, and + his hands were at least clean of traffic in reversions, clerkships, + tellerships and all the rest of the rich sinecures which it was thought + no shame in those days for the aristocracy of the land and the robe to + wrangle for, and gorge themselves upon, with the fierce voracity of + famishing wolves. The most we can say is that Burke, like Pitt, was too + deeply absorbed in beneficent service in the affairs of his country, to + have for his own affairs the solicitude that would have been prudent.</p> + + <p>In the midst of intense political preoccupations, Burke always found + time to keep up his intimacy with the brilliant group of his earlier + friends. He was one of the commanding figures at the club at the Turk's + Head, with Reynolds and Garrick, Goldsmith and Johnson. The old sage who + held that the first Whig was the Devil, was yet compelled to forgive + Burke's politics for the sake of his magnificent gifts. "I would not talk + to him of the Rockingham party," he used to say, "but I love his + knowledge, his genius, his diffusion and affluence of conversation." And + everybody knows Johnson's vivid account of him: "Burke, Sir, is such a + man that if you met him for the first time in the street, where you were + stopped by a drove of oxen, and you and he stepped aside to take shelter + but for five minutes, he'd talk <!-- Page 828 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page828"></a>[v.04 p.0828]</span>to you in such a manner that when + you parted you would say, 'This is an extraordinary man.'" They all + grieved that public business should draw to party what was meant for + mankind. They deplored that the nice and difficult test of answering + Berkeley had not been undertaken, as was once intended, by Burke, and + sighed to think what an admirable display of subtlety and brilliance such + a contention would have afforded them, had not politics "turned him from + active philosophy aside." There was no jealousy in this. They did not + grudge Burke being the first man in the House of Commons, for they + admitted that he would have been the first man anywhere.</p> + + <p>With all his hatred for the book-man in politics, Burke owed much of + his own distinction to that generous richness and breadth of judgment + which had been ripened in him by literature and his practice in it. He + showed that books are a better preparation for statesmanship than early + training in the subordinate posts and among the permanent officials of a + public department. There is no copiousness of literary reference in his + work, such as over-abounded in the civil and ecclesiastical publicists of + the 17th century. Nor can we truly say that there is much, though there + is certainly some, of that tact which literature is alleged to confer on + those who approach it in a just spirit and with the true gift. The + influence of literature on Burke lay partly in the direction of + emancipation from the mechanical formulae of practical politics; partly + in the association which it engendered, in a powerful understanding like + his, between politics and the moral forces of the world, and between + political maxims and the old and great sentences of morals; partly in + drawing him, even when resting his case on prudence and expediency, to + appeal to the widest and highest sympathies; partly, and more than all, + in opening his thoughts to the many conditions, possibilities and + "varieties of untried being," in human character and situation, and so + giving an incomparable flexibility to his methods of political + approach.</p> + + <p>This flexibility is not to be found in his manner of composition. That + derives its immense power from other sources; from passion, intensity, + imagination, size, truth, cogency of logical reason. Those who insist on + charm, on winningness in style, on subtle harmonies and fine + exquisiteness of suggestion, are disappointed in Burke: they even find + him stiff and over-coloured. And there are blemishes of this kind. His + banter is nearly always ungainly, his wit blunt, as Johnson said, and + often unseasonable. As is usual with a man who has not true humour, Burke + is also without true pathos. The thought of wrong or misery moved him + less to pity for the victim than to anger against the cause. Again, there + are some gratuitous and unredeemed vulgarities; some images that make us + shudder. But only a literary fop can be detained by specks like + these.</p> + + <p>The varieties of Burke's literary or rhetorical method are very + striking. It is almost incredible that the superb imaginative + amplification of the description of Hyder Ali's descent upon the Carnatic + should be from the same pen as the grave, simple, unadorned <i>Address to + the King</i> (1777), where each sentence falls on the ear with the accent + of some golden-tongued oracle of the wise gods. His stride is the stride + of a giant, from the sentimental beauty of the picture of Marie + Antoinette at Versailles, or the red horror of the tale of Debi Sing in + Rungpore, to the learning, positiveness and cool judicial mastery of the + <i>Report on the Lords' Journals</i> (1794), which Philip Francis, no + mean judge, declared on the whole to be the "most eminent and + extraordinary" of all his productions. But even in the coolest and driest + of his pieces there is the mark of greatness, of grasp, of comprehension. + In all its varieties Burke's style is noble, earnest, deep-flowing, + because his sentiment was lofty and fervid, and went with sincerity and + ardent disciplined travail of judgment. He had the style of his subjects; + the amplitude, the weightiness, the laboriousness, the sense, the high + flight, the grandeur, proper to a man dealing with imperial themes, with + the fortunes of great societies, with the sacredness of law, the freedom + of nations, the justice of rulers. Burke will always be read with delight + and edification, because in the midst of discussions on the local and the + accidental, he scatters apophthegms that take us into the regions of + lasting wisdom. In the midst of the torrent of his most strenuous and + passionate deliverances, he suddenly rises aloof from his immediate + subject, and in all tranquillity reminds us of some permanent relation of + things, some enduring truth of human life or human society. We do not + hear the organ tones of Milton, for faith and freedom had other notes in + the 18th century. There is none of the complacent and wise-browed + sagacity of Bacon, for Burke's were days of personal strife and fire and + civil division. We are not exhilarated by the cheerfulness, the polish, + the fine manners of Bolingbroke, for Burke had an anxious conscience, and + was earnest and intent that the good should triumph. And yet Burke is + among the greatest of those who have wrought marvels in the prose of our + English tongue.</p> + + <p>Not all the transactions in which Burke was a combatant could furnish + an imperial theme. We need not tell over again the story of Wilkes and + the Middlesex election. The Rockingham ministry had been succeeded by a + composite government, of which it was intended that Pitt, now made Lord + Chatham and privy seal, should be the real chief. Chatham's health and + mind fell into disorder almost immediately after the ministry had been + formed. The duke of Grafton was its nominal head, but party ties had been + broken, the political connexions of the ministers were dissolved, and, in + truth, the king was now at last a king indeed, who not only reigned but + governed. The revival of high doctrines of prerogative in the crown was + accompanied by a revival of high doctrines of privilege in the House of + Commons, and the ministry was so smitten with weakness and confusion as + to be unable to resist the current of arbitrary policy, and not many of + them were even willing to resist it. The unconstitutional prosecution of + Wilkes was followed by the fatal recourse to new plans for raising taxes + in the American colonies. These two points made the rallying ground of + the new Whig opposition. Burke helped to smooth matters for a practical + union between the Rockingham party and the powerful triumvirate, composed + of Chatham, whose understanding had recovered from its late disorder, and + of his brothers-in-law, Lord Temple and George Grenville. He was active + in urging petitions from the freeholders of the counties, protesting + against the unconstitutional invasion of the right of election. And he + added a durable masterpiece to political literature in a pamphlet which + he called <i>Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents</i> (1770). + The immediate object of this excellent piece was to hold up the court + scheme of weak, divided and dependent administrations in the light of its + real purpose and design; to describe the distempers which had been + engendered in parliament by the growth of royal influence and the faction + of the king's friends; to show that the newly formed Whig party had + combined for truly public ends, and was no mere family knot like the + Grenvilles and the Bedfords; and, finally, to press for the hearty + concurrence both of public men and of the nation at large in combining + against "a faction ruling by the private instructions of a court against + the general sense of the people." The pamphlet was disliked by Chatham on + the one hand, on no reasonable grounds that we can discover; it was + denounced by the extreme popular party of the Bill of Rights, on the + other hand, for its moderation and conservatism. In truth, there is as + strong a vein of conservative feeling in the pamphlet of 1770 as in the + more resplendent pamphlet of 1790. "Our constitution," he said, "stands + on a nice equipoise, with steep precipices and deep waters upon all sides + of it. In removing it from a dangerous leaning towards one side, there + may be a risk of oversetting it on the other. Every project of a material + change in a government so complicated as ours is a matter full of + difficulties; in which a considerate man will not be too ready to decide, + a prudent man too ready to undertake, or an honest man too ready to + promise." Neither now nor ever had Burke any other real conception of a + polity for England than government by the territorial aristocracy in the + interests of the nation at large, and especially in the interests of + commerce, to the vital importance of which in our economy he was always + keenly and wisely alive. The policy of George III., and the support which + it found among <!-- Page 829 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page829"></a>[v.04 p.0829]</span>men who were weary of Whig + factions, disturbed this scheme, and therefore Burke denounced both the + court policy and the court party with all his heart and all his + strength.</p> + + <p>Eloquence and good sense, however, were impotent in the face of such + forces as were at this time arrayed against a government at once strong + and liberal. The court was confident that a union between Chatham and the + Rockinghams was impossible. The union was in fact hindered by the + waywardness and the absurd pretences of Chatham, and the want of force in + Lord Rockingham. In the nation at large, the late violent ferment had + been followed by as remarkable a deadness and vapidity, and Burke himself + had to admit a year or two later that any remarkable robbery at Hounslow + Heath would make more conversation than all the disturbances of America. + The duke of Grafton went out, and Lord North became the head of a + government, which lasted twelve years (1770-1782), and brought about more + than all the disasters that Burke had foretold as the inevitable issue of + the royal policy. For the first six years of this lamentable period Burke + was actively employed in stimulating, informing and guiding the patrician + chiefs of his party. "Indeed, Burke," said the duke of Richmond, "you + have more merit than any man in keeping us together." They were + well-meaning and patriotic men, but it was not always easy to get them to + prefer politics to fox-hunting. When he reached his lodgings at night + after a day in the city or a skirmish in the House of Commons, Burke used + to find a note from the duke of Richmond or the marquess of Rockingham, + praying him to draw a protest to be entered on the Journals of the Lords, + and in fact he drew all the principal protests of his party between 1767 + and 1782. The accession of Charles James Fox to the Whig party, which + took place at this time, and was so important an event in its history, + was mainly due to the teaching and influence of Burke. In the House of + Commons his industry was almost excessive. He was taxed with speaking too + often, and with being too forward. And he was mortified by a more serious + charge than murmurs about superfluity of zeal. Men said and said again + that he was Junius. His very proper unwillingness to stoop to deny an + accusation, that would have been so disgraceful if it had been true, made + ill-natured and silly people the more convinced that it was not wholly + false. But whatever the London world may have thought of him, Burke's + energy and devotion of character impressed the better minds in the + country. In 1774 he received the great distinction of being chosen as one + of its representatives by Bristol, then the second town in the + kingdom.</p> + + <p>In the events which ended in the emancipation of the American colonies + from the monarchy, Burke's political genius shone with an effulgence that + was worthy of the great affairs over which it shed so magnificent an + illumination. His speeches are almost the one monument of the struggle on + which a lover of English greatness can look back with pride and a sense + of worthiness, such as a churchman feels when he reads Bossuet, or an + Anglican when he turns over the pages of Taylor or of Hooker. Burke's + attitude in these high transactions is really more impressive than + Chatham's, because he was far less theatrical than Chatham; and while he + was no less nobly passionate for freedom and justice, in his passion was + fused the most strenuous political argumentation and sterling reason of + state. On the other hand he was wholly free from that quality which he + ascribed to Lord George Sackville, a man "apt to take a sort of + undecided, equivocal, narrow ground, that evades the substantial merits + of the question, and puts the whole upon some temporary, local, + accidental or personal consideration." He rose to the full height of that + great argument. Burke here and everywhere else displayed the rare art of + filling his subject with generalities, and yet never intruding + commonplaces. No publicist who deals as largely in general propositions + has ever been as free from truisms; no one has ever treated great themes + with so much elevation, and yet been so wholly secured against the + pitfalls of emptiness and the vague. And it is instructive to compare the + foundation of all his pleas for the colonists with that on which they + erected their own theoretic declaration of independence. The American + leaders were impregnated with the metaphysical ideas of rights which had + come to them from the rising revolutionary school in France. Burke no + more adopted the doctrines of Jefferson in 1776 than he adopted the + doctrines of Robespierre in 1793. He says nothing about men being born + free and equal, and on the other hand he never denies the position of the + court and the country at large, that the home legislature, being + sovereign, had the right to tax the colonies. What he does say is that + the exercise of such a right was not practicable; that if it were + practicable, it was inexpedient; and that, even if this had not been + inexpedient, yet, after the colonies had taken to arms, to crush their + resistance by military force would not be more disastrous to them than it + would be unfortunate for the ancient liberties of Great Britain. Into + abstract discussion he would not enter. "Show the thing you contend for + to be reason; show it to be common sense; show it to be the means of + attaining some useful end." "The question with me is not whether you have + a right to render your people miserable, but whether it is not your + interest to make them happy." There is no difference in social spirit and + doctrine between his protests against the maxims of the English common + people as to the colonists, and his protests against the maxims of the + French common people as to the court and the nobles; and it is impossible + to find a single principle either asserted or implied in the speeches on + the American revolution which was afterwards repudiated in the writings + on the revolution in France.</p> + + <p>It is one of the signs of Burke's singular and varied eminence that + hardly any two people agree precisely which of his works to mark as the + masterpiece. Every speech or tract that he composed on a great subject + becomes, as we read it, the rival of every other. But the <i>Speech on + Conciliation</i> (1775) has, perhaps, been more universally admired than + any of his other productions, partly because its maxims are of a simpler + and less disputable kind than those which adorn the pieces on France, and + partly because it is most strongly characterized by that deep ethical + quality which is the prime secret of Burke's great style and literary + mastery. In this speech, moreover, and in the only less powerful one of + the preceding year upon American taxation, as well as in the <i>Letter to + the Sheriffs of Bristol</i> in 1777, we see the all-important truth + conspicuously illustrated that half of his eloquence always comes of the + thoroughness with which he gets up his case. No eminent man has ever done + more than Burke to justify the definition of genius as the consummation + of the faculty of taking pains. Labour incessant and intense, if it was + not the source, was at least an inseparable condition of his power. And + magnificent rhetorician though he was, his labour was given less to his + diction than to the facts; his heart was less in the form than the + matter. It is true that his manuscripts were blotted and smeared, and + that he made so many alterations in the proofs that the printer found it + worth while to have the whole set up in type afresh. But there is no + polish in his style, as in that of Junius for example, though there is + something a thousand times better than polish. "Why will you not allow + yourself to be persuaded," said Francis after reading the + <i>Reflections</i>, "that polish is material to preservation?" Burke + always accepted the rebuke, and flung himself into vindication of the + sense, substance and veracity of what he had written. His writing is + magnificent, because he knew so much, thought so comprehensively, and + felt so strongly.</p> + + <p>The succession of failures in America, culminating in Cornwallis's + surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, wearied the nation, and at length + the persistent and powerful attacks of the opposition began to tell. "At + this time," wrote Burke, in words of manly self-assertion, thirteen years + afterwards, "having a momentary lead (1780-1782), so aided and so + encouraged, and as a feeble instrument in a mighty hand—I do not + say I saved my country—I am sure I did my country important + service. There were few indeed at that time that did not acknowledge it. + It was but one voice, that no man in the kingdom better deserved an + honourable provision should be made for him." In the spring of 1782 Lord + North resigned. It seemed as if the court system which Burke had been + denouncing <!-- Page 830 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page830"></a>[v.04 p.0830]</span>for a dozen years was now finally + broken, and as if the party which he had been the chief instrument in + instructing, directing and keeping together must now inevitably possess + power for many years to come. Yet in a few months the whole fabric had + fallen, and the Whigs were thrown into opposition for the rest of the + century. The story cannot be omitted in the most summary account of + Burke's life. Lord Rockingham came into office on the fall of North. + Burke was rewarded for services beyond price by being made paymaster of + the forces, with the rank of a privy councillor. He had lost his seat for + Bristol two years before, in consequence of his courageous advocacy of a + measure of tolerance for the Catholics, and his still more courageous + exposure of the enormities of the commercial policy of England towards + Ireland. He sat during the rest of his parliamentary life (to 1794) for + Malton, a pocket borough first of Lord Rockingham's, then of Lord + Fitzwilliam's. Burke's first tenure of office was very brief. He had + brought forward in 1780 a comprehensive scheme of economical reform, with + the design of limiting the resources of jobbery and corruption which the + crown was able to use to strengthen its own sinister influence in + parliament. Administrative reform was, next to peace with the colonies, + the part of the scheme of the new ministry to which the king most warmly + objected. It was carried out with greater moderation than had been + foreshadowed in opposition. But at any rate Burke's own office was not + spared. While Charles Fox's father was at the pay-office (1765-1778) he + realized as the interest of the cash balances which he was allowed to + retain in his hands, nearly a quarter of a million of money. When Burke + came to this post the salary was settled at £4000 a year. He did not + enjoy the income long. In July 1782 Lord Rockingham died; Lord Shelburne + took his place; Fox, who inherited from his father a belief in Lord + Shelburne's duplicity, which his own experience of him as a colleague + during the last three months had made stronger, declined to serve under + him. Burke, though he had not encouraged Fox to take this step, still + with his usual loyalty followed him out of office. This may have been a + proper thing to do if their distrust of Shelburne was incurable, but the + next step, coalition with Lord North against him, was not only a + political blunder, but a shock to party morality, which brought speedy + retribution. Either they had been wrong, and violently wrong, for a dozen + years, or else Lord North was the guiltiest political instrument since + Strafford. Burke attempted to defend the alliance on the ground of the + substantial agreement between Fox and North in public aims. The defence + is wholly untenable. The Rockingham Whigs were as substantially in + agreement on public affairs with the Shelburne Whigs as they were with + Lord North. The movement was one of the worst in the history of English + party. It served its immediate purpose, however, for Lord Shelburne found + himself (February 24, 1783) too weak to carry on the government, and was + succeeded by the members of the coalition, with the duke of Portland for + prime minister (April 2, 1783). Burke went back to his old post at the + pay-office and was soon engaged in framing and drawing the famous India + Bill. This was long supposed to be the work of Fox, who was politically + responsible for it. We may be sure that neither he nor Burke would have + devised any government for India which they did not honestly believe to + be for the advantage both of that country and of England. But it cannot + be disguised that Burke had thoroughly persuaded himself that it was + indispensable in the interests of English freedom to strengthen the party + hostile to the court. As we have already said, dread of the peril to the + constitution from the new aims of George III. was the main inspiration of + Burke's political action in home affairs for the best part of his + political life. The India Bill strengthened the anti-court party by + transferring the government of India to seven persons named in the bill, + and neither appointed nor removable by the crown. In other words, the + bill gave the government to a board chosen directly by the House of + Commons; and it had the incidental advantage of conferring on the + ministerial party patronage valued at £300,000 a year, which would remain + for a fixed term of years out of reach of the king. In a word, judging + the India Bill from a party point of view, we see that Burke was now + completing the aim of his project of economic reform. That measure had + weakened the influence of the crown by limiting its patronage. The + measure for India weakened the influence of the crown by giving a mass of + patronage to the party which the king hated. But this was not to be. The + India Bill was thrown out by means of a royal intrigue in the Lords, and + the ministers were instantly dismissed (December 18, 1783). Young William + Pitt, then only in his twenty-fifth year, had been chancellor of the + exchequer in Lord Shelburne's short ministry, and had refused to enter + the coalition government from an honourable repugnance to join Lord + North. He was now made prime minister. The country in the election of the + next year ratified the king's judgment against the Portland combination; + and the hopes which Burke had cherished for a political lifetime were + irretrievably ruined.</p> + + <p>The six years that followed the great rout of the orthodox Whigs were + years of repose for the country, but it was now that Burke engaged in the + most laborious and formidable enterprise of his life, the impeachment of + Warren Hastings for high crimes and misdemeanours in his government of + India. His interest in that country was of old date. It arose partly from + the fact of William Burke's residence there, partly from his friendship + with Philip Francis, but most of all, we suspect, from the effect which + he observed Indian influence to have in demoralizing the House of + Commons. "Take my advice for once in your life," Francis wrote to Shee; + "lay aside 40,000 rupees for a seat in parliament: in this country that + alone makes all the difference between somebody and nobody." The + relations, moreover, between the East India Company and the government + were of the most important kind, and occupied Burke's closest attention + from the beginning of the American war down to his own India Bill and + that of Pitt and Dundas. In February 1785 he delivered one of the most + famous of all his speeches, that on the nabob of Arcot's debts. The real + point of this superb declamation was Burke's conviction that ministers + supported the claims of the fraudulent creditors in order to secure the + corrupt advantages of a sinister parliamentary interest. His proceedings + against Hastings had a deeper spring. The story of Hastings's crimes, as + Macaulay says, made the blood of Burke boil in his veins. He had a native + abhorrence of cruelty, of injustice, of disorder, of oppression, of + tyranny, and all these things in all their degrees marked Hastings's + course in India. They were, moreover, concentrated in individual cases, + which exercised Burke's passionate imagination to its profoundest depths, + and raised it to such a glow of fiery intensity as has never been + rivalled in our history. For it endured for fourteen years, and was just + as burning and as terrible when Hastings was acquitted in 1795, as in the + select committee of 1781 when Hastings's enormities were first revealed. + "If I were to call for a reward," wrote Burke, "it would be for the + services in which for fourteen years, without intermission, I showed the + most industry and had the least success, I mean in the affairs of India; + they are those on which I value myself the most; most for the importance; + most for the labour; most for the judgment; most for constancy and + perseverance in the pursuit." Sheridan's speech in the House of Commons + upon the charge relative to the begums of Oude probably excelled anything + that Burke achieved, as a dazzling performance abounding in the most + surprising literary and rhetorical effects. But neither Sheridan nor Fox + was capable of that sustained and overflowing indignation at outraged + justice and oppressed humanity, that consuming moral fire, which burst + forth again and again from the chief manager of the impeachment, with + such scorching might as drove even the cool and intrepid Hastings beyond + all self-control, and made him cry out with protests and exclamations + like a criminal writhing under the scourge. Burke, no doubt, in the + course of that unparalleled trial showed some prejudice; made some minor + overstatements of his case; used many intemperances; and suffered himself + to be provoked into expressions of heat and impatience by the cabals of + the defendant and his party, and the intolerable incompetence of the + tribunal. It is one of the inscrutable perplexities of human affairs, + that in the logic of practical <!-- Page 831 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page831"></a>[v.04 p.0831]</span>life, in order to reach + conclusions that cover enough for truth, we are constantly driven to + premises that cover too much, and that in order to secure their right + weight to justice and reason good men are forced to fling the two-edged + sword of passion into the same scale. But these excuses were mere + trifles, and well deserve to be forgiven, when we think that though the + offender was in form acquitted, yet Burke succeeded in these fourteen + years of laborious effort in laying the foundations once for all of a + moral, just, philanthropic and responsible public opinion in England with + reference to India, and in doing so performed perhaps the most + magnificent service that any statesman has ever had it in his power to + render to humanity.</p> + + <p>Burke's first decisive step against Hastings was a motion for papers + in the spring of 1786; the thanks of the House of Commons to the managers + of the impeachment were voted in the summer of 1794. But in those eight + years some of the most astonishing events in history had changed the + political face of Europe. Burke was more than sixty years old when the + states-general met at Versailles in the spring of 1789. He had taken a + prominent part on the side of freedom in the revolution which stripped + England of her empire in the West. He had taken a prominent part on the + side of justice, humanity and order in dealing with the revolution which + had brought to England new empire in the East. The same vehement passion + for freedom, justice, humanity and order was roused in him at a very + early stage of the third great revolution in his history—the + revolution which overthrew the old monarchy in France. From the first + Burke looked on the events of 1789 with doubt and misgiving. He had been + in France in 1773, where he had not only the famous vision of Marie + Antoinette at Versailles, "glittering like the morning star, full of + life, and splendour and joy," but had also supped and discussed with some + of the destroyers, the encyclopaedists, "the sophisters, economists and + calculators." His first speech on his return to England was a warning + (March 17, 1773) that the props of good government were beginning to fail + under the systematic attacks of unbelievers, and that principles were + being propagated that would not leave to civil society any stability. The + apprehension never died out in his mind; and when he knew that the + principles and abstractions, the un-English dialect and destructive + dialectic, of his former acquaintances were predominant in the National + Assembly, his suspicion that the movement would end in disastrous + miscarriage waxed into certainty.</p> + + <p>The scene grew still more sinister in his eyes after the march of the + mob from Paris to Versailles in October, and the violent transport of the + king and queen from Versailles to Paris. The same hatred of lawlessness + and violence which fired him with a divine rage against the Indian + malefactors was aroused by the violence and lawlessness of the Parisian + insurgents. The same disgust for abstractions and naked doctrines of + right that had stirred him against the pretensions of the British + parliament in 1774 and 1776, was revived in as lively a degree by + political conceptions which he judged to be identical in the French + assembly of 1789. And this anger and disgust were exasperated by the + dread with which certain proceedings in England had inspired him, that + the aims, principles, methods and language which he so misdoubted or + abhorred in France were likely to infect the people of Great Britain.</p> + + <p>In November 1790 the town, which had long been eagerly expecting a + manifesto from Burke's pen, was electrified by the <i>Reflections on the + Revolution in France, and on the proceedings in certain societies in + London relative to that event</i>. The generous Windham made an entry in + his diary of his reception of the new book. "What shall be said," he + added, "of the state of things, when it is remembered that the writer is + a man decried, persecuted and proscribed; not being much valued even by + his own party, and by half the nation considered as little better than an + ingenious madman?" But the writer now ceased to be decried, persecuted + and proscribed, and his book was seized as the expression of that new + current of opinion in Europe which the more recent events of the + Revolution had slowly set flowing. Its vogue was instant and enormous. + Eleven editions were exhausted in little more than a year, and there is + probably not much exaggeration in the estimate that 30,000 copies were + sold before Burke's death seven years afterwards. George III. was + extravagantly delighted; Stanislaus of Poland sent Burke words of thanks + and high glorification and a gold medal. Catherine of Russia, the friend + of Voltaire and the benefactress of Diderot, sent her congratulations to + the man who denounced French philosophers as miscreants and wretches. + "One wonders," Romilly said, by and by, "that Burke is not ashamed at + such success." Mackintosh replied to him temperately in the <i>Vindiciae + Gallicae</i>, and Thomas Paine replied to him less temperately but far + more trenchantly and more shrewdly in the <i>Rights of Man</i>. Arthur + Young, with whom he had corresponded years before on the mysteries of + deep ploughing and fattening hogs, added a cogent polemical chapter to + that ever admirable work, in which he showed that he knew as much more + than Burke about the old system of France as he knew more than Burke + about soils and roots. Philip Francis, to whom he had shown the + proof-sheets, had tried to dissuade Burke from publishing his + performance. The passage about Marie Antoinette, which has since become a + stock piece in books of recitation, seemed to Francis a mere piece of + foppery; for was she not a Messalina and a jade? "I know nothing of your + story of Messalina," answered Burke; "am I obliged to prove judicially + the virtues of all those I shall see suffering every kind of wrong and + contumely and risk of life, before I endeavour to interest others in + their sufferings?... Are not high rank, great splendour of descent, great + personal elegance and outward accomplishments ingredients of moment in + forming the interest we take in the misfortunes of men?... I tell you + again that the recollection of the manner in which I saw the queen of + France in 1774, and the contrast between that brilliancy, splendour and + beauty, with the prostrate homage of a nation to her, and the abominable + scene of 1780 which I was describing, <i>did</i> draw tears from me and + wetted my paper. These tears came again into my eyes almost as often as I + looked at the description,—they may again. You do not believe this + fact, nor that these are my real feelings; but that the whole is + affected, or as you express it, downright foppery. My friend, I tell you + it is truth; and that it is true and will be truth when you and I are no + more; and will exist as long as men with their natural feelings shall + exist" (<i>Corr.</i> iii. 139).</p> + + <p>Burke's conservatism was, as such a passage as this may illustrate, + the result partly of strong imaginative associations clustering round the + more imposing symbols of social continuity, partly of a sort of + corresponding conviction in his reason that there are certain permanent + elements of human nature out of which the European order had risen and + which that order satisfied, and of whose immense merits, as of its mighty + strength, the revolutionary party in France were most fatally ignorant. + When Romilly saw Diderot in 1783, the great encyclopaedic chief assured + him that submission to kings and belief in God would be at an end all + over the world in a very few years. When Condorcet described the Tenth + Epoch in the long development of human progress, he was sure not only + that fulness of light and perfection of happiness would come to the sons + of men, but that they were coming with all speed. Only those who know the + incredible rashness of the revolutionary doctrine in the mouths of its + most powerful professors at that time; only those who know their + absorption in ends and their inconsiderateness about means, can feel how + profoundly right Burke was in all this part of his contention. Napoleon, + who had begun life as a disciple of Rousseau, confirmed the wisdom of the + philosophy of Burke when he came to make the Concordat. That measure was + in one sense the outcome of a mere sinister expediency, but that such a + measure was expedient at all sufficed to prove that Burke's view of the + present possibilities of social change was right, and the view of the + Rousseauites and too sanguine Perfectibilitarians wrong. As we have seen, + Burke's very first niece, the satire on Bolingbroke, sprang from his + conviction that merely rationalistic or destructive criticism, applied to + the vast complexities of man <!-- Page 832 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page832"></a>[v.04 p.0832]</span>in the social union, is either + mischievous or futile, and mischievous exactly in proportion as it is not + futile.</p> + + <p>To discuss Burke's writings on the Revolution would be to write first + a volume upon the abstract theory of society, and then a second volume on + the history of France. But we may make one or two further remarks. One of + the most common charges against Burke was that he allowed his imagination + and pity to be touched only by the sorrows of kings and queens, and + forgot the thousands of oppressed and famine-stricken toilers of the + land. "No tears are shed for nations," cried Francis, whose sympathy for + the Revolution was as passionate as Burke's execration of it. "When the + provinces are scourged to the bone by a mercenary and merciless military + power, and every drop of its blood and substance extorted from it by the + edicts of a royal council, the case seems very tolerable to those who are + not involved in it. When thousands after thousands are dragooned out of + their country for the sake of their religion, or sent to row in the + galleys for selling salt against law,—when the liberty of every + individual is at the mercy of every prostitute, pimp or parasite that has + access to power or any of its basest substitutes,—my mind, I own, + is not at once prepared to be satisfied with gentle palliatives for such + disorders" (<i>Francis to Burke</i>, November 3, 1790). This is a very + terse way of putting a crucial objection to Burke's whole view of French + affairs in 1789. His answer was tolerably simple. The Revolution, though + it had made an end of the Bastille, did not bring the only real practical + liberty, that is to say, the liberty which comes with settled courts of + justice, administering settled laws, undisturbed by popular fury, + independent of everything but law, and with a clear law for their + direction. The people, he contended, were no worse off under the old + monarchy than they will be in the long run under assemblies that are + bound by the necessity of feeding one part of the community at the + grievous charge of other parts, as necessitous as those who are so fed; + that are obliged to flatter those who have their lives at their disposal + by tolerating acts of doubtful influence on commerce and agriculture, and + for the sake of precarious relief to sow the seeds of lasting want; that + will be driven to be the instruments of the violence of others from a + sense of their own weakness, and, by want of authority to assess equal + and proportioned charges upon all, will be compelled to lay a strong hand + upon the possessions of a part. As against the moderate section of the + Constituent Assembly this was just.</p> + + <p>One secret of Burke's views of the Revolution was the contempt which + he had conceived for the popular leaders in the earlier stages of the + movement. In spite of much excellence of intention, much heroism, much + energy, it is hardly to be denied that the leaders whom that movement + brought to the surface were almost without exception men of the poorest + political capacity. Danton, no doubt, was abler than most of the others, + yet the timidity or temerity with which he allowed himself to be + vanquished by Robespierre showed that even he was not a man of commanding + quality. The spectacle of men so rash, and so incapable of controlling + the forces which they seemed to have presumptuously summoned, excited in + Burke both indignation and contempt. And the leaders of the Constituent + who came first on the stage, and hoped to make a revolution with + rose-water, and hardly realized any more than Burke did how rotten was + the structure which they had undertaken to build up, almost deserved his + contempt, even if, as is certainly true, they did not deserve his + indignation. It was only by revolutionary methods, which are in their + essence and for a time as arbitrary as despotic methods, that the knot + could be cut. Burke's vital error was his inability to see that a root + and branch revolution was, under the conditions, inevitable. His cardinal + position, from which he deduced so many important conclusions, namely, + that, the parts and organs of the old constitution of France were sound, + and only needed moderate invigoration, is absolutely mistaken and + untenable. There was not a single chamber in the old fabric that was not + crumbling and tottering. The court was frivolous, vacillating, stone deaf + and stone blind; the gentry were amiable, but distinctly bent to the very + last on holding to their privileges, and they were wholly devoid both of + the political experience that only comes of practical responsibility for + public affairs, and of the political sagacity that only comes of + political experience. The parliaments or tribunals were nests of faction + and of the deepest social incompetence. The very sword of the state broke + short in the king's hand. If the king or queen could either have had the + political genius of Frederick the Great, or could have had the good + fortune to find a minister with that genius, and the good sense and good + faith to trust and stand by him against mobs of aristocrats and mobs of + democrats; if the army had been sound and the states-general had been + convoked at Bourges or Tours instead of at Paris, then the type of French + monarchy and French society might have been modernized without + convulsion. But none of these conditions existed.</p> + + <p>When he dealt with the affairs of India Burke passed over the + circumstances of our acquisition of power in that continent. "There is a + sacred veil to be drawn over the beginnings of all government," he said. + "The first step to empire is revolution, by which power is conferred; the + next is good laws, good order, good institutions, to give that power + stability." Exactly on this broad principle of political force, + revolution was the first step to the assumption by the people of France + of their own government. Granted that the Revolution was inevitable and + indispensable, how was the nation to make the best of it? And how were + surrounding nations to make the best of it? This was the true point of + view. But Burke never placed himself at such a point. He never conceded + the postulate, because, though he knew France better than anybody in + England except Arthur Young, he did not know her condition well enough. + "Alas!" he said, "they little know how many a weary step is to be taken + before they can form themselves into a mass which has a true political + personality."</p> + + <p>Burke's view of French affairs, however consistent with all his former + political conceptions, put an end to more than one of his old political + friendships. He had never been popular in the House of Commons, and the + vehemence, sometimes amounting to fury, which he had shown in the debates + on the India Bill, on the regency, on the impeachment of Hastings, had + made him unpopular even among men on his own side. In May 1789—that + memorable month of May in which the states-general marched in impressive + array to hear a sermon at the church of Notre Dame at Versailles—a + vote of censure had actually been passed on him in the House of Commons + for a too severe expression used against Hastings. Fox, who led the + party, and Sheridan, who led Fox, were the intimates of the prince of + Wales; and Burke would have been as much out of place in that circle of + gamblers and profligates as Milton would have been out of place in the + court of the Restoration. The prince, as somebody said, was like his + father in having closets within cabinets and cupboards within closets. + When the debates on the regency were at their height we have Burke's word + that he was not admitted to the private counsels of the party. Though Fox + and he were on friendly terms in society, yet Burke admits that for a + considerable period before 1790 there had been between them "distance, + coolness and want of confidence, if not total alienation on his part." + The younger Whigs had begun to press for shorter parliaments, for the + ballot, for redistribution of political power. Burke had never looked + with any favour on these projects. His experience of the sentiment of the + populace in the two greatest concerns of his life,—American affairs + and Indian affairs,—had not been likely to prepossess him in favour + of the popular voice as the voice of superior political wisdom. He did + not absolutely object to some remedy in the state of representation + (<i>Corr.</i> ii. 387), still he vigorously resisted such proposals as + the duke of Richmond's in 1780 for manhood suffrage. The general ground + was this:—"The machine itself is well enough to answer any good + purpose, provided the materials were sound. But what signifies the + arrangement of rottenness?"</p> + + <p>Bad as the parliaments of George III. were, they contained their full + share of eminent and capable men; and, what is more, their very defects + were the exact counterparts of what we now look back upon as the + prevailing stupidity in the country. <!-- Page 833 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page833"></a>[v.04 p.0833]</span>What Burke + valued was good government. His <i>Report on the Causes of the Duration + of Mr Hastings's Trial</i> shows how wide and sound were his views of law + reform. His <i>Thoughts on Scarcity</i> attest his enlightenment on the + central necessities of trade and manufacture, and even furnished + arguments to Cobden fifty years afterwards. Pitt's parliaments were + competent to discuss, and willing to pass, all measures for which the + average political intelligence of the country was ripe. Burke did not + believe that altered machinery was at that time needed to improve the + quality of legislation. If wiser legislation followed the great reform of + 1832, Burke would have said this was because the political intelligence + of the country had improved.</p> + + <p>Though averse at all times to taking up parliamentary reform, he + thought all such projects downright crimes in the agitation of 1791-1792. + This was the view taken by Burke, but it was not the view of Fox, nor of + Sheridan, nor of Francis, nor of many others of his party, and difference + of opinion here was naturally followed by difference of opinion upon + affairs in France. Fox, Grey, Windham, Sheridan, Francis, Lord + Fitzwilliam, and most of the other Whig leaders, welcomed the Revolution + in France. And so did Pitt, too, for some time. "How much the greatest + event it is that ever happened in the world," cried Fox, with the + exaggeration of a man ready to dance the carmagnole, "and how much the + best!" The dissension between a man who felt so passionately as Burke, + and a man who spoke so impulsively as Charles Fox, lay in the very nature + of things. Between Sheridan and Burke there was an open breach in the + House of Commons upon the Revolution so early as February 1790, and + Sheridan's influence with Fox was strong. This divergence of opinion + destroyed all the elation that Burke might well have felt at his + compliments from kings, his gold medals, his twelve editions. But he was + too fiercely in earnest in his horror of Jacobinism to allow mere party + associations to guide him. In May 1791 the thundercloud burst, and a + public rupture between Burke and Fox took place in the House of + Commons.</p> + + <p>The scene is famous in English parliamentary annals. The minister had + introduced a measure for the division of the province of Canada and for + the establishment of a local legislature in each division. Fox in the + course of debate went out of his way to laud the Revolution, and to sneer + at some of the most effective passages in the <i>Reflections</i>. Burke + was not present, but he announced his determination to reply. On the day + when the Quebec Bill was to come on again, Fox called upon Burke, and the + pair walked together from Burke's house in Duke Street down to + Westminster. The Quebec Bill was recommitted, and Burke at once rose and + soon began to talk his usual language against the Revolution, the rights + of man, and Jacobinism whether English or French. There was a call to + order. Fox, who was as sharp and intolerant in the House as he was + amiable out of it, interposed with some words of contemptuous irony. + Pitt, Grey, Lord Sheffield, all plunged into confused and angry debate as + to whether the French Revolution was a good thing, and whether the French + Revolution, good or bad, had anything to do with the Quebec Bill. At + length Fox, in seconding a motion for confining the debate to its proper + subject, burst into the fatal question beyond the subject, taxing Burke + with inconsistency, and taunting him with having forgotten that + ever-admirable saying of his own about the insurgent colonists, that he + did not know how to draw an indictment against a whole nation. Burke + replied in tones of firm self-repression; complained of the attack that + had been made upon him; reviewed Fox's charges of inconsistency; + enumerated the points on which they had disagreed, and remarked that such + disagreements had never broken their friendship. But whatever the risk of + enmity, and however bitter the loss of friendship, he would never cease + from the warning to flee from the French constitution. "But there is no + loss of friends," said Fox in an eager undertone. "Yes," said Burke, + "there <i>is</i> a loss of friends. I know the penalty of toy conduct. I + have done my duty at the price of my friend—our friendship is at an + end." Fox rose, but was so overcome that for some moments he could not + speak. At length, his eyes streaming with tears, and in a broken voice, + he deplored the breach of a twenty years' friendship on a political + question. Burke was inexorable. To him the political question was so + vivid, so real, so intense, as to make all personal sentiment no more + than dust in the balance. Burke confronted Jacobinism with the + relentlessness of a Jacobin. The rupture was never healed, and Fox and he + had no relations with one another henceforth beyond such formal + interviews as took place in the manager's box in Westminster Hall in + connexion with the impeachment.</p> + + <p>A few months afterwards Burke published the <i>Appeal from the New to + the Old Whigs</i>, a grave, calm and most cogent vindication of the + perfect consistency of his criticisms upon the English Revolution of 1688 + and upon the French Revolution of 1789, with the doctrines of the great + Whigs who conducted and afterwards defended in Anne's reign the transfer + of the crown from James to William and Mary. The <i>Appeal</i> was justly + accepted as a satisfactory performance for the purpose with which it was + written. Events, however, were doing more than words could do, to confirm + the public opinion of Burke's sagacity and foresight. He had always + divined by the instinct of hatred that the French moderates must + gradually be swept away by the Jacobins, and now it was all coming true. + The humiliation of the king and queen after their capture at Varennes; + the compulsory acceptance of the constitution; the plain incompetence of + the new Legislative Assembly; the growing violence of the Parisian mob, + and the ascendency of the Jacobins at the Common Hall; the fierce day of + the 20th of June (1792), when the mob flooded the Tuileries, and the + bloodier day of the 10th of August, when the Swiss guard was massacred + and the royal family flung into prison; the murders in the prisons in + September; the trial and execution of the king in January (1793); the + proscription of the Girondins in June, the execution of the queen in + October—if we realize the impression likely to be made upon the + sober and homely English imagination by such a heightening of horror by + horror, we may easily understand how people came to listen to Burke's + voice as the voice of inspiration, and to look on his burning anger as + the holy fervour of a prophet of the Lord.</p> + + <p>Fox still held to his old opinions as stoutly as he could, and + condemned and opposed the war which England had declared against the + French republic. Burke, who was profoundly incapable of the meanness of + letting personal estrangement blind his eyes to what was best for the + commonwealth, kept hoping against hope that each new trait of excess in + France would at length bring the great Whig leader to a better mind. He + used to declaim by the hour in the conclaves at Burlington House upon the + necessity of securing Fox; upon the strength which his genius would lend + to the administration in its task of grappling with the sanguinary giant; + upon the impossibility, at least, of doing either with him or without + him. Fox's most important political friends who had long wavered, at + length, to Burke's great satisfaction, went over to the side of the + government. In July 1794 the duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, Windham + and Grenville took office under Pitt. Fox was left with a minority which + was satirically said not to have been more than enough to fill a hackney + coach. "That is a calumny," said one of the party, "we should have filled + two." The war was prosecuted with the aid of both the great parliamentary + parties of the country, and with the approval of the great bulk of the + nation. Perhaps the one man in England who in his heart approved of it + less than any other was William Pitt. The difference between Pitt and + Burke was nearly as great as that between Burke and Fox. Burke would be + content with nothing short of a crusade against France, and war to the + death with her rulers. "I cannot persuade myself," he said, "that this + war bears any the least resemblance to any that has ever existed in the + world. I cannot persuade myself that any examples or any reasonings drawn + from other wars and other politics are at all applicable to it" + (<i>Corr.</i> iv. 219). Pitt, on the other hand, as Lord Russell truly + says, treated Robespierre and Carnot as he would have treated any other + French rulers, whose ambition was to be resisted, and whose interference + in the affairs of other nations was to be checked. And he entered upon + the matter <!-- Page 834 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page834"></a>[v.04 p.0834]</span>in the spirit of a man of + business, by sending ships to seize some islands belonging to France in + the West Indies, so as to make certain of repayment of the expenses of + the war.</p> + + <p>In the summer of 1794 Burke was struck to the ground by a blow to his + deepest affection in life, and he never recovered from it. His whole soul + was wrapped up in his only son, of whose abilities he had the most + extravagant estimate and hope. All the evidence goes to show that Richard + Burke was one of the most presumptuous and empty-headed of human beings. + "He is the most impudent and opiniative fellow I ever knew," said Wolfe + Tone. Gilbert Elliot, a very different man, gives the same account. + "Burke," he says, describing a dinner party at Lord Fitzwilliam's in + 1793, "has now got such a train after him as would sink anybody but + himself: his son, who is quite <i>nauseated</i> by all mankind; his + brother, who is liked better than his son, but is rather oppressive with + animal spirits and brogue; and his cousin, William Burke, who is just + returned unexpectedly from India, as much ruined as when he went years + ago, and who is a fresh charge on any prospects of power Burke may ever + have. Mrs Burke has in her train Miss French [Burke's niece], the most + perfect <i>She Paddy</i> that ever was caught. Notwithstanding these + disadvantages Burke is in himself a sort of power in the state. It is not + too much to say that he is a sort of power in Europe, though totally + without any of those means or the smallest share in them which give or + maintain power in other men." Burke accepted the position of a power in + Europe seriously. Though no man was ever more free from anything like the + egoism of the intellectual coxcomb, yet he abounded in that active + self-confidence and self-assertion which is natural in men who are + conscious of great powers, and strenuous in promoting great causes. In + the summer of 1791 he despatched his son to Coblenz to give advice to the + royalist exiles, then under the direction of Calonne, and to report to + him at Beaconsfield their disposition and prospects. Richard Burke was + received with many compliments, but of course nothing came of his + mission, and the only impression that remains with the reader of his + prolix story is his tale of the two royal brothers, who afterwards became + Louis XVIII. and Charles X., meeting after some parting, and embracing + one another with many tears on board a boat in the middle of the Rhine, + while some of the courtiers raised a cry of "Long live the + king"—the king who had a few weeks before been carried back in + triumph to his capital with Mayor Pétion in his coach. When we think of + the pass to which things had come in Paris by this time, and of the + unappeasable ferment that boiled round the court, there is a certain + touch of the ludicrous in the notion of poor Richard Burke writing to + Louis XVI. a letter of wise advice how to comport himself.</p> + + <p>At the end of the same year, with the approval of his father he + started for Ireland as the adviser of the Catholic Association. He made a + wretched emissary, and there was no limit to his arrogance, noisiness and + indiscretion. The Irish agitators were glad to give him two thousand + guineas and to send him home. The mission is associated with a more + important thing, his father's <i>Letters to Sir Hercules Langrishe</i>, + advocating the admission of the Irish Catholics to the franchise. This + short piece abounds richly in maxims of moral and political prudence. And + Burke exhibited considerable courage in writing it; for many of its + maxims seem to involve a contradiction, first, to the principles on which + he withstood the movement in France, and second, to his attitude upon the + subject of parliamentary reform. The contradiction is in fact only + superficial. Burke was not the man to fall unawares into a trap of this + kind. His defence of Catholic relief—and it had been the conviction + of a lifetime—was very properly founded on propositions which were + true of Ireland, and were true neither of France nor of the quality of + parliamentary representation in England. Yet Burke threw such breadth and + generality over all he wrote that even these propositions, relative as + they were, form a short manual of statesmanship.</p> + + <p>At the close of the session of 1794 the impeachment of Hastings had + come to an end, and Burke bade farewell to parliament. Richard Burke was + elected in his father's place at Malton. The king was bent on making the + champion of the old order of Europe a peer. His title was to be Lord + Beaconsfield, and it was designed to annex to the title an income for + three lives. The patent was being made ready, when all was arrested by + the sudden death of the son who was to Burke more than life. The old + man's grief was agonizing and inconsolable. "The storm has gone over me," + he wrote in words which are well known, but which can hardly be repeated + too often for any who have an ear for the cadences of noble and pathetic + speech,—"The storm has gone over me, and I lie like one of those + old oaks which the late hurricane has scattered about me. I am stripped + of all my honours; I am torn up by the roots and lie prostrate on the + earth.... I am alone. I have none to meet my enemies in the gate.... I + live in an inverted order. They who ought to have succeeded me have gone + before me. They who should have been to me as posterity are in the place + of ancestors."</p> + + <p>A pension of £2500 was all that Burke could now be persuaded to + accept. The duke of Bedford and Lord Lauderdale made some remarks in + parliament upon this paltry reward to a man who, in conducting a great + trial on the public behalf, had worked harder for nearly ten years than + any minister in any cabinet of the reign. But it was not yet safe to kick + up heels in face of the dying lion. The vileness of such criticism was + punished, as it deserved to be, in the <i>Letter to a Noble Lord</i> + (1796), in which Burke showed the usual art of all his compositions in + shaking aside the insignificances of a subject. He turned mere personal + defence and retaliation into an occasion for a lofty enforcement of + constitutional principles, and this, too, with a relevancy and pertinence + of consummate skilfulness. There was to be one more great effort before + the end.</p> + + <p>In the spring of 1796 Pitt's constant anxiety for peace had become + more earnest than ever. He had found out the instability of the coalition + and the power of France. Like the thrifty steward he was, he saw with + growing concern the waste of the national resources and the strain upon + commerce, with a public debt swollen to what then seemed the desperate + sum of £400,000,000. Burke at the notion of negotiation flamed out in the + <i>Letters on a Regicide Peace</i>, in some respects the most splendid of + all his compositions. They glow with passion, and yet with all their + rapidity is such steadfastness, the fervour of imagination is so + skilfully tempered by close and plausible reasoning, and the whole is + wrought with such strength and fire, that we hardly know where else to + look either in Burke's own writings or elsewhere for such an exhibition + of the rhetorical resources of our language. We cannot wonder that the + whole nation was stirred to the very depths, or that they strengthened + the aversion of the king, of Windham and other important personages in + the government against the plans of Pitt. The prudence of their drift + must be settled by external considerations. Those who think that the + French were likely to show a moderation and practical reasonableness in + success, such as they had never shown in the hour of imminent ruin, will + find Burke's judgment full of error and mischief. Those, on the contrary, + who think that the nation which was on the very eve of surrendering + itself to the Napoleonic absolutism was not in a hopeful humour for peace + and the European order, will believe that Burke's protests were as + perspicacious as they were powerful, and that anything which chilled the + energy of the war was as fatal as he declared it to be.</p> + + <p>When the third and most impressive of these astonishing productions + came into the hands of the public, the writer was no more. Burke died on + the 8th of July 1797. Fox, who with all his faults was never wanting in a + fine and generous sensibility, proposed that there should be a public + funeral, and that the body should lie among the illustrious dead in + Westminster Abbey. Burke, however, had left strict injunctions that his + burial should be private; and he was laid in the little church at + Beaconsfield. It was the year of Campo Formio. So a black whirl and + torment of rapine, violence and fraud was encircling the Western world, + as a life went out which, notwithstanding some eccentricities <!-- Page + 835 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page835"></a>[v.04 + p.0835]</span>and some aberrations, had made great tides in human destiny + very luminous.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">J. Mo.</span>)</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Of the <i>Collected + Works</i>, there are two main editions—the quarto and the octavo. + (1) Quarto, in eight volumes, begun in 1792, under the editorship of Dr + F. Lawrence; vols. i.-iii. were published in 1792; vols. iv.-viii., + edited by Dr Walter King, sometime bishop of Rochester, were completed in + 1827. (2) Octavo in sixteen volumes. This was begun at Burke's death, + also by Drs Lawrence and King; vols. i.-viii. were published in 1803 and + reissued in 1808, when Dr Lawrence died; vols. ix.-xii. were published in + 1813 and the remaining four vols. in 1827. A new edition of vols. + i.-viii. was published in 1823 and the contents of vols. i.-xii. in 2 + vols. octavo in 1834. An edition in nine volumes was published in Boston, + Massachusetts, in 1839. This contains the whole of the English edition in + sixteen volumes, with a reprint of the <i>Account of the European + Settlements in America</i> which is not in the English edition.</p> + + <p>Among the numerous editions published later may be mentioned that in + <i>Bohn's British Classics</i>, published in 1853. This contains the + fifth edition of Sir James Prior's life; also an edition in twelve + volumes, octavo, published by J.C. Nimmo, 1898. There is an edition of + the <i>Select Works</i> of Burke with introduction and notes by E.J. + Payne in the Clarendon Press series, new edition, 3 vols., 1897. <i>The + Correspondence of Edmund Burke</i>, edited by Earl Fitzwilliam and Sir R. + Bourke, with appendix, detached papers and notes for speeches, was + published in 4 vols., 1844. <i>The Speeches of Edmund Burke, in the House + of Commons and Westminster Hall</i>, were published in 4 vols., 1816. + Other editions of the speeches are those <i>On Irish Affairs</i>, + collected and arranged by Matthew Arnold, with a preface (1881), <i>On + American Taxation, On Conciliation with America</i>, together with the + <i>Letter to the Sheriff of Bristol</i>, edited with introduction and + notes by F.G. Selby (1895).</p> + + <p>The standard life of Burke is that by Sir James Prior, <i>Memoir of + the Life and Character of Edmund Burke with Specimens of his Poetry and + Letters</i> (1824). The lives by C. MacCormick (1798) by R. Bisset (1798, + 1800) are of little value. Other lives are those by the Rev. George Croly + (2 vols., 1847), and by T. MacKnight (3 vols., 1898). Of critical + estimates of Burke's life the <i>Edmund Burke</i> of John Morley, + "English Men of Letters" series (1879), is an elaboration of the above + article; see also his <i>Burke, a Historical Study</i> (1867); "Three + Essays on Burke," by Sir James Fitzjames Stephen in <i>Horae + Sabbaticae</i>, series iii. (1892); and <i>Peptographia Dublinensis, + Memorial Discourses preached in the Chapel of Trinity College, + Dublin</i>, 1895-1902; <i>Edmund Burke</i>, by G. Chadwick, bishop of + Derry (1902).</p> + + <p><b>BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD</b> (1814-1892), British genealogist, was + born in London, on the 5th of January 1814, and was educated in London + and in France. His father, John Burke (1787-1848), was also a + genealogist, and in 1826 issued a <i>Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary + of the Peerage and Baronetage of the United Kingdom</i>. This work, + generally known as <i>Burke's Peerage</i>, has been issued annually since + 1847. While practising as a barrister Bernard Burke assisted his father + in his genealogical work, and in 1848 took control of his publications. + In 1853 he was appointed Ulster king-at-arms; in 1854 he was knighted; + and in 1855 he became keeper of the state papers in Ireland. After having + devoted his life to genealogical studies he died in Dublin on the 12th of + December 1892. In addition to editing <i>Burke's Peerage</i> from 1847 to + his death, Burke brought out several editions of a companion volume, + <i>Burke's Landed Gentry</i>, which was first published between 1833 and + 1838. In 1866 and 1883 he published editions of his father's + <i>Dictionary of the Peerages of England, Scotland and Ireland, extinct, + dormant and in abeyance</i> (earlier editions, 1831, 1840, 1846); in 1855 + and 1876 editions of his <i>Royal Families of England, Scotland and + Wales</i> (1st edition, 1847-1851); and in 1878 and 1883 enlarged + editions of his <i>Encyclopaedia of Heraldry, or General Armoury of + England, Scotland and Ireland</i>. Burke's own works include <i>The Roll + of Battle Abbey</i> (1848); <i>The Romance of the Aristocracy</i> (1855); + <i>Vicissitudes of Families</i> (1883 and several earlier editions); and + <i>The Rise of Great Families</i> (1882). He was succeeded as editor of + <i>Burke's Peerage</i> and <i>Landed Gentry</i> by his fourth son, + Ashworth Peter Burke.</p> + + <p><b>BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA</b> (1820-1861), Australian explorer, was born + at St Cleram, Co. Galway, Ireland, in 1820. Descended from a branch of + the family of Clanricarde, he was educated in Belgium, and at twenty + years of age entered the Austrian army, in which he attained the rank of + captain. In 1848 he left the Austrian service, and became a member of the + Royal Irish Constabulary. Five years later he emigrated to Tasmania, and + shortly afterwards crossed to Melbourne, where he became an inspector of + police. When the Crimean War broke out he went to England in the hope of + securing a commission in the army, but peace had meanwhile been signed, + and he returned to Victoria and resumed his police duties. At the end of + 1857 the Philosophical Institute of Victoria took up the question of the + exploration of the interior of the Australian continent, and appointed a + committee to inquire into and report upon the subject. In September 1858, + when it became known that John McDouall Stuart had succeeded in + penetrating as far as the centre of Australia, the sum of £1000 was + anonymously offered for the promotion of an expedition to cross the + continent from south to north, on condition that a further sum of £2000 + should be subscribed within a twelvemonth. The amount having been raised + within the time specified, the Victorian parliament supplemented it by a + vote of £6000, and an expedition was organized under the leadership of + Burke, with W.J. Wills as surveyor and astronomical observer. The story + of this expedition, which left Melbourne on the 21st of August 1860, + furnishes perhaps the most painful episode in Australian annals. Ten + Europeans and three Sepoys accompanied the expedition, which was soon + torn by internal dissensions. Near Menindie on the Darling, Landells, + Burke's second in command, became insubordinate and resigned, his example + being followed by the doctor—a German. On the 11th of November + Burke, with Wills and five assistants, fifteen horses and sixteen camels, + reached Cooper's Creek in Queensland, where a depot was formed near good + grass and abundance of water. Here Burke proposed waiting the arrival of + his third officer, Wright, whom he had sent back from Torowoto to + Menindie to fetch some camels and supplies. Wright, however, delayed his + departure until the 26th of January 1861. Meantime, weary of waiting, + Burke, with Wills, King and Gray as companions, determined on the 16th of + December to push on across the continent, leaving an assistant named + Brahe to take care of the depot until Wright's arrival. On the 4th of + February 1861 Burke and his party, worn down by famine, reached the + estuary of the Flinders river, not far from the present site of + Normantown on the Gulf of Carpentaria. On the 26th of February began + their return journey. The party suffered greatly from famine and + exposure, and but for the rainy season, thirst would have speedily ended + their miseries. In vain they looked for the relief which Wright was to + bring them. On the 16th of April Gray died, and the emaciated survivors + halted a day to bury his body. That day's delay, as it turned out, cost + Burke and Wills their lives; they arrived at Cooper's Creek to find the + depot deserted. But a few hours before Brahe, unrelieved by Wright, and + thinking that Burke had died or changed his plans, had taken his + departure for the Darling. With such assistance as they could get from + the natives, Burke, and his two companions struggled on, until death + overtook Burke and Wills at the end of June. King sought the natives, who + cared for him until his relief by a search party in September. No one can + deny the heroism of the men whose lives were sacrificed in this + ill-starred expedition. But it is admitted that the leaders were not + bushmen and had had no experience in exploration. Disunion and + disobedience to orders, from the highest to the lowest, brought about the + worst results, and all that now remains to tell the story of the failure + of this vast undertaking is a monument to the memory of the foolhardy + heroes, from the chisel of Charles Summers, erected on a prominent site + in Melbourne.</p> + + <p><b>BURKE, WILLIAM</b> (1792-1829), Irish criminal, was born in Ireland + in 1792. After trying his hand at a variety of trades there, he went to + Scotland about 1817 as a navvy, and in 1827 was living in a lodging-house + in Edinburgh kept by William Hare, another Irish labourer. Towards the + end of that year one of Hare's lodgers, an old army pensioner, died. This + was the period of the body-snatchers or Resurrectionists, and Hare and + Burke, aware that money could always be obtained for a corpse, sold the + body to Dr Robert Knox, a leading Edinburgh anatomist, for £7, 10s. The + price obtained and the simplicity of the transaction suggested to Hare an + easy method of making a <!-- Page 836 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page836"></a>[v.04 p.0836]</span>profitable livelihood, and Burke + at once fell in with the plan. The two men inveigled obscure travellers + to Hare's or some other lodging-house, made them drunk and then + suffocated them, taking care to leave no marks of violence. The bodies + were sold to Dr Knox for prices averaging from £8 to £14. At least + fifteen victims had been disposed of in this way when the suspicions of + the police were aroused, and Burke and Hare were arrested. The latter + turned king's evidence, and Burke was found guilty and hanged at + Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1829. Hare found it impossible, in view + of the strong popular feeling, to remain in Scotland. He is believed to + have died in England under an assumed name. From Burke's method of + killing his victims has come the verb "to burke," meaning to suffocate, + strangle or suppress secretly, or to kill with the object of selling the + body for the purposes of dissection.</p> + + <p>See George Macgregor, <i>History of Burke and Hare and of the + Resurrectionist Times</i> (Glasgow, 1884).</p> + + <p><b>BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES</b> (1694-1748), Swiss publicist, was born + at Geneva on the 24th of June 1694. At the age of twenty-five he was + designated honorary professor of ethics and the law of nature at the + university of Geneva. Before taking up the appointment he travelled + through France and England, and made the acquaintance of the most eminent + writers of the period. On his return he began his lectures, and soon + gained a wide reputation, from the simplicity of his style and the + precision of his views. He continued to lecture for fifteen years, when + he was compelled on account of ill-health to resign. His fellow-citizens + at once elected him a member of the council of state, and he gained as + high a reputation for his practical sagacity as he had for his + theoretical knowledge. He died at Geneva on the 3rd of April 1748. His + works were <i>Principes du droit naturel</i> (1747), and <i>Principes du + droit politique</i> (1751). These have passed through many editions, and + were very extensively used as text-books. Burlamaqui's style is simple + and clear, and his arrangement of the material good. His fundamental + principle may be described as rational utilitarianism, and in many ways + it resembles that of Cumberland.</p> + + <p><b>BURLESQUE</b> (Ital. <i>burlesco</i>, from <i>burla</i>, a joke, + fun, playful trick), a form of the comic in art, consisting broadly in an + imitation of a work of art with the object of exciting laughter, by + distortion or exaggeration, by turning, for example, the highly + rhetorical into bombast, the pathetic into the mock-sentimental, and + especially by a ludicrous contrast between the subject and the style, + making gods speak like common men and common men like gods. While parody + (<i>q.v.</i>), also based on imitation, relies for its effect more on the + close following of the style of its counterpart, burlesque depends on + broader and coarser effects. Burlesque may be applied to any form of art, + and unconsciously, no doubt, may be found even in architecture. In the + graphic arts it takes the form better known as "caricature" + (<i>q.v.</i>). Its particular sphere is, however, in literature, and + especially in drama. The <i>Batrachomachia</i>, or Battle of the Frogs + and Mice, is the earliest example in classical literature, being a + travesty of the Homeric epic. There are many true burlesque parts in the + comedies of Aristophanes, <i>e.g.</i> the appearance of Socrates in the + <i>Clouds</i>. The Italian word first appears in the <i>Opere + Burlesche</i> of Francesco Berni (1497-1535). In France during part of + the reign of Louis XIV., the burlesque attained to great popularity; + burlesque Aeneids, Iliads and Odysseys were composed, and even the most + sacred subjects were not left untravestied. Of the numerous writers of + these, P. Scarron is most prominent, and his <i>Virgile Travesti</i> + (1648-1653) was followed by numerous imitators. In English literature + Chaucer's <i>Rime of Sir Thopas</i> is a burlesque of the long-winded + medieval romances. Among the best-known true burlesques in English + dramatic literature may be mentioned the 2nd duke of Buckingham's <i>The + Rehearsal</i>, a burlesque of the heroic drama; Gay's <i>Beggar's + Opera</i>, of the Italian opera; and Sheridan's <i>The Critic</i>. In the + later 19th century the name "burlesque" was given to a form of musical + dramatic composition in which the true element of burlesque found little + or no place. These musical burlesques, with which the Gaiety theatre, + London, and the names of Edward Terry, Fred Leslie and Nellie Farren are + particularly connected, developed from the earlier extravaganzas of J.R. + Planché, written frequently round fairy tales. The Gaiety type of + burlesque has since given place to the "musical comedy," and its only + survival is to be found in the modern pantomime.</p> + + <p><b>BURLINGAME, ANSON</b> (1820-1870), American legislator and + diplomat, was born in New Berlin, Chenango county, New York, on the 14th + of November 1820. In 1823 his parents took him to Ohio, and about ten + years afterwards to Michigan. In 1838-1841 he studied in one of the + "branches" of the university of Michigan, and in 1846 graduated at the + Harvard law school. He practised law in Boston, and won a wide reputation + by his speeches for the Free Soil party in 1848. He was a member of the + Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853, of the state senate in + 1853-1854, and of the national House of Representatives from 1855 to + 1861, being elected for the first term as a "Know Nothing" and afterwards + as a member of the new Republican party, which he helped to organize in + Massachusetts. He was an effective debater in the House, and for his + impassioned denunciation (June 21, 1856) of Preston S. Brooks + (1819-1857), for his assault upon Senator Charles Sumner, was challenged + by Brooks. Burlingame accepted the challenge and specified rifles as the + weapons to be used; his second chose Navy Island, above the Niagara + Falls, and in Canada, as the place for the meeting. Brooks, however, + refused these conditions, saying that he could not reach the place + designated "without running the gauntlet of mobs and assassins, prisons + and penitentiaries, bailiffs and constables." To Burlingame's appointment + as minister to Austria (March 22, 1861) the Austrian authorities objected + because in Congress he had advocated the recognition of Sardinia as a + first-class power and had championed Hungarian independence. President + Lincoln thereupon appointed him (June 14, 1861) minister to China. This + office he held until November 1867, when he resigned and was immediately + appointed (November 26) envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary + to head a Chinese diplomatic mission to the United States and the + principal European nations. The embassy, which included two Chinese + ministers, an English and a French secretary, six students from the + Tung-wan Kwang at Peking, and a considerable retinue, arrived in the + United States in March 1868, and concluded at Washington (28th of July + 1868) a series of articles, supplementary to the Reed Treaty of 1858, and + later known as "The Burlingame Treaty." Ratifications of the treaty were + not exchanged at Peking until November 23, 1869. The "Burlingame Treaty" + recognizes China's right of eminent domain over all her territory, gives + China the right to appoint at ports in the United States consuls, "who + shall enjoy the same privileges and immunities as those enjoyed by the + consuls of Great Britain and Russia"; provides that "citizens of the + United States in China of every religious persuasion and Chinese subjects + in the United States shall enjoy entire liberty of conscience and shall + be exempt from all disability or persecution on account of their + religious faith or worship in either country"; and grants certain + privileges to citizens of either country residing in the other, the + privilege of naturalization, however, being specifically withheld. After + leaving the United States, the embassy visited several continental + capitals, but made no definite treaties. Burlingame's speeches did much + to awaken interest in, and a more intelligent appreciation of, China's + attitude toward the outside world. He died suddenly at St Petersburg, on + the 23rd of February 1870.</p> + + <p>His son Edward Livermore Burlingame (b. 1848) was educated at Harvard + and at Heidelberg, was a member of the editorial staff of the New York + <i>Tribune</i> in 1871-1872 and of the <i>American Cyclopaedia</i> in + 1872-1876, and in 1886 became the editor of <i>Scribner's + Magazine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BURLINGTON,</b> a city and the county-seat of Des Moines county, + Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. part of the state. + Pop. (1890) 22,565; (1900) 23,201; (1905, state census) 25,318 (4492 + foreign-born); (1910) 24,324. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington + & Quincy (which has extensive <!-- Page 837 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page837"></a>[v.04 p.0837]</span>construction + and repair shops here), the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the + Toledo, Peoria & Western (Pennsylvania system) railways; and has an + extensive river commerce. The river is spanned here by the Chicago, + Burlington & Quincy railway bridge. Many of the residences are on + bluffs commanding beautiful views of river scenery; and good building + material has been obtained from the Burlington limestone quarries. Crapo + Park, of 100 acres, along the river, is one of the attractions of the + city. Among the principal buildings are the county court house, the free + public library, the Tama building, the German-American savings bank + building and the post office. Burlington has three well-equipped + hospitals. Among the city's manufactures are lumber, furniture, baskets, + pearl buttons, cars, carriages and wagons, Corliss engines, waterworks + pumps, metallic burial cases, desks, boxes, crackers, flour, pickles and + beer. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $5,779,337, or 29.9% more + than in 1900. The first white man to visit the site of Burlington seems + to have been Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, who came in 1805 and recommended + the erection of a fort. The American Fur Company established a post here + in 1829 or earlier, but settlement really began in 1833, after the Black + Hawk War, and the place had a population of 1200 in 1838. It was laid out + as a town and named Flint Hills (a translation of the Indian name, + <i>Shokokon</i>) in 1834; but the name was soon changed to Burlington, + after the city of that name in Vermont. Burlington was incorporated as a + town in 1837, and was chartered as a city in 1838 by the territory of + Wisconsin, the city charter being amended by the territory of Iowa in + 1839 and 1841. The territorial legislature of Wisconsin met here from + 1836 to 1838 and that of Iowa from 1838 to 1840. In 1837 a newspaper, the + <i>Wisconsin Territorial Gazette</i>, now the Burlington <i>Evening + Gazette</i>, and in 1839 another, the Burlington <i>Hawk Eye</i>, were + founded; the latter became widely known in the years immediately + following 1872 from the humorous sketches contributed to it by Robert + Jones Burdette (b. 1844), an associate editor, known as the "Burlington + Hawk Eye Man," who in 1903 entered the Baptist ministry and became pastor + of the Temple Baptist church in Los Angeles, California, and among whose + publications are <i>Hawkeyetems</i> (1877), <i>Hawkeyes</i> (1879), and + <i>Smiles Yoked with Sighs</i> (1900).</p> + + <p><b>BURLINGTON,</b> a city of Burlington county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on + the E. bank of the Delaware river, 18 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop. + (1890) 7264; (1900) 7392, of whom 636 were foreign-born and 590 were of + negro descent; (1905) 8038; (1910) 8336. It is served by the Pennsylvania + railway, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Delaware + river, connecting with river and Atlantic coast ports. Burlington is a + pleasant residential city with a number of interesting old mansions long + antedating the War of Independence, some of them the summer homes of old + Philadelphia families. The Burlington Society library, established in + 1757 and still conducted under its original charter granted by George + II., is one of the oldest public libraries in America. At Burlington are + St Mary's Hall (1837; Protestant Episcopal), founded by Bishop G.W. + Doane, one of the first schools for girls to be established in the + country, Van Rensselaer Seminary and the New Jersey State Masonic home. + In the old St Mary's church (Protestant Episcopal), which was built in + 1703 and has been called St Anne's as well as St Mary's, Daniel Coxe + (1674-1739), first provincial grand master of the lodge of Masons in + America, was buried; a commemorative bronze tablet was erected in 1907. + Burlington College, founded by Bishop Doane in 1864, was closed as a + college in 1877, but continued as a church school until 1900; the + buildings subsequently passed into the hands of an iron manufacturer. + Burlington's principal industries are the manufacture of shoes and + cast-iron water and gas pipes. Burlington was settled in 1677 by a colony + of English Quakers. The settlement was first known as New Beverly, but + was soon renamed after Bridlington (Burlington), the Yorkshire home of + many of the settlers. In 1682 the assembly of West Jersey gave to + Burlington "Matinicunk Island," above the town, "for the maintaining of a + school for the education of youth"; revenues from a part of the island + are still used for the support of the public schools, and the trust fund + is one of the oldest for educational purposes in the United States. + Burlington was incorporated as a town in 1693 (re-incorporated, 1733), + and became the seat of government of West Jersey. On the union of East + and West Jersey in 1702, it became one of the two seats of government of + the new royal province, the meetings of the legislature generally + alternating between Burlington and Perth Amboy, under both the colonial + and the state government, until 1790. In 1777 the <i>New Jersey + Gazette</i>, the first newspaper in New Jersey, was established here; it + was published (here and later in Trenton) until 1786, and was an + influential paper, especially during the War of Independence. Burlington + was chartered as a city in 1784.</p> + + <p>See Henry Armitt Brown, <i>The Settlement of Burlington</i> + (Burlington, 1878); George M. Hills, <i>History of the Church in + Burlington</i> (Trenton, 1885); and Mrs A.M. Gummère, <i>Friends in + Burlington</i> (Philadelphia, 1884).</p> + + <p><b>BURLINGTON,</b> a city, port of entry and the county-seat of + Chittenden county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the E. shore of Lake Champlain, in + the N.W. part of the state, 90 m. S.E. of Montreal, and 300 m. N. of New + York. It is the largest city in the state. Pop. (1880) 11,365; (1890) + 14,590; (1900) 18,640, of whom 3726 were foreign-born; (1910, census) + 20,468. It is served by the Central Vermont and the Rutland railways, and + by lines of passenger and freight steamboats on Lake Champlain. The city + is attractively situated on an arm of Lake Champlain, being built on a + strip of land extending about 6 m. south from the mouth of the Winooski + river along the lake shore and gradually rising from the water's edge to + a height of 275 ft.; its situation and its cool and equable summer + climate have given it a wide reputation as a summer resort, and it is a + centre for yachting, canoeing and other aquatic sports. During the winter + months it has ice-boat regattas. Burlington is the seat of the university + of Vermont (1791; non-sectarian and co-educational), whose official title + in 1865 became "The University of Vermont and State Agricultural + College." The university is finely situated on a hill (280 ft. above the + lake) commanding a charming view of the city, lake, the Adirondacks and + the Green Mountains. It has departments of arts, sciences and medicine, + and a library of 74,800 volumes and 32,936 pamphlets housed in the + Billings Library, designed by H.H. Richardson. The university received + the Federal grants under the Morrill acts of 1862 and 1890, and in + connexion with it the Vermont agricultural experiment station is + maintained. At Burlington are also the Mt St Mary's academy (1889, Roman + Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Mercy; and two business colleges. + Among the principal buildings are the city hall, the Chittenden county + court house, the Federal and the Y.M.C.A. buildings, the Masonic temple, + the Roman Catholic cathedral and the Edmunds high school. Burlington's + charitable institutions include the Mary Fletcher hospital, the Adams + mission home, the Lousia Howard mission, the Providence orphan asylum, + and homes for aged women, friendless women and destitute children. The + Fletcher free public library (47,000 volumes in 1908) is housed in a + Carnegie building. In the city are two sanitariums. The city has two + parks (one, Ethan Allen Park, is on a bluff in the north-west part of the + city, and commands a fine view) and four cemeteries; in Green Mount + Cemetery, which overlooks the Winooski valley, is a monument over the + grave of Ethan Allen, who lived in Burlington from 1778 until his death. + Fort Ethan Allen, a United States military post, is about 3 m. east of + the city, with which it is connected by an electric line. Burlington is + the most important manufacturing centre in the state; among its + manufactures are sashes, doors and blinds, boxes, furniture and + wooden-ware, cotton and woollen goods, patent medicines, refrigerators, + house furnishings, paper and machinery. In 1905 the city's factory + products were valued at $6,355,754, three-tenths of which was the value + of lumber and planing mill products, including sashes, doors and blinds. + The Winooski river, which forms the boundary between Burlington and the + township of Colchester and which enters Lake Champlain N.W. of the city, + <!-- Page 838 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page838"></a>[v.04 + p.0838]</span>furnishes valuable water-power, but most of the + manufactories are operated by steam. Quantities of marble were formerly + taken from quarries in the vicinity. The city is a wholesale distributing + centre for all northern Vermont and New Hampshire, and is one of the + principal lumber markets in the east, most of the lumber being imported + from Canada. It is the port of entry for the Vermont customs district, + whose exports and imports were valued respectively in 1907 at $8,333,024 + and $5,721,034. A charter for a town to be founded here was granted by + the province of New Hampshire in 1763, but no settlement was made until + 1774. Burlington was chartered as a city in 1865.</p> + + <p><b>BURMA,</b> a province of British India, including the former + kingdom of independent Burma, as well as British Burma, acquired by the + British Indian government in the two wars of 1826 and 1852. It is divided + into Upper and Lower Burma, the former being the territory annexed on 1st + January 1886. The province lies to the east of the Bay of Bengal, and + covers a range of country extending from the Pakchan river in 9° + 55′ north latitude to the Naga and Chingpaw, or Kachin hills, lying + roughly between the 27th and 28th degrees of north latitude; and from the + Bay of Bengal on the west to the Mekong river, the boundary of the + dependent Shan States on the east, that is to say, roughly, between the + 92nd and 100th degrees of east longitude. The extreme length from north + to south is almost 1200 m., and the broadest part, which is in about + latitude 21° north, is 575 m. from east to west. On the N. it is bounded + by the dependent state of Manipur, by the Mishmi hills, and by portions + of Chinese territory; on the E. by the Chinese Shan States, portions of + the province of Yunnan, the French province of Indo-China, and the + Siamese Shan, or Lao States and Siam; on the S. by the Siamese Malay + States and the Bay of Bengal; and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal and + Chittagong. The coast-line from Taknaf, the mouth of the Naaf, in the + Akyab district on the north, to the estuary of the Pakchan at Maliwun on + the south, is about 1200 m. The total area of the province is estimated + at 238,738 sq.m., of which Burma proper occupies 168,573 sq.m., the Chin + hills 10,250 sq.m., and the Shan States, which comprise the whole of the + eastern portion of the province, some 59,915 sq.m.</p> + + <p><i>Natural Divisions.</i>—The province falls into three natural + divisions: Arakan with the Chin hills, the Irrawaddy basin, and the old + province of Tenasserim, together with the portion of the Shan and + Karen-ni states in the basin of the Salween, and part of Kengtung in the + western basin of the Mekong. Of these Arakan is a strip of country lying + on the seaward slopes of the range of hills known as the Arakan Yomas. It + stretches from Cape Negrais on the south to the Naaf estuary, which + divides it from the Chittagong division of Eastern Bengal and Assam on + the north, and includes the districts of Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, Akyab and + northern Arakan, an area of some 18,540 sq.m. The northern part of this + tract is barren hilly country, but in the west and south are rich + alluvial plains containing some of the most fertile lands of the + province. Northwards lie the Chin and some part of the Kachin hills. To + the east of the Arakan division, and separated from it by the Arakan + Yornas, lies the main body of Burma in the basin of the Irrawaddy. This + tract falls into four subdivisions. First, there is the highland tract + including the hilly country at the sources of the Chindwin and the upper + waters of the Irrawaddy, the Upper Chindwin, Katha, Bhamo, Myitkyina and + Ruby Mines districts, with the Kachin hills and a great part of the + Northern Shan states. In the Shan States there are a few open plateaus, + fertile and well populated, and Maymyo in the Mandalay district, the + hill-station to which in the hot weather the government of Burma + migrates, stands in the Pyin-u-lwin plateau, some 3500 ft. above the sea. + But the greater part of this country is a mass of rugged hills cut deep + with narrow gorges, within which even the biggest rivers are confined. + The second tract is that known as the dry zone of Burma, and includes the + whole of the lowlands lying between the Arakan Yomas and the western + fringe of the Southern Shan States. It stretches along both sides of the + Irrawaddy from the north of Mandalay to Thayetmyo, and embraces the Lower + Chindwin, Shwebo, Sagaing, Mandalay, Kyauksè, Meiktila, Yamèthin, + Myingyan, Magwe, Pakôkku and Minbu districts. This tract consists mostly + of undulating lowlands, but it is broken towards the south by the Pegu + Yomas, a considerable range of hills which divides the two remaining + tracts of the Irrawaddy basin. On the west, between the Pegu and the + Arakan Yomas, stretches the Irrawaddy delta, a vast expanse of level + plain 12,000 sq.m. in area falling in a gradual unbroken slope from its + apex not far south of Prome down to the sea. This delta, which includes + the districts of Bassein, Myaungmya, Thôngwa, Henzada, Hanthawaddy, + Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Rangoon town, consists almost entirely of a rich + alluvial deposit, and the whole area, which between Cape Negrais and + Elephant Point is 137 m. wide, is fertile in the highest degree. To the + east lies a tract of country which, though geographically a part of the + Irrawaddy basin, is cut off from it by the Yomas, and forms a separate + system draining into the Sittang river. The northern portion of this + tract, which on the east touches the basin of the Salween river, is + hilly; the remainder towards the confluence of the Salween, Gyaing and + Attaran rivers consists of broad fertile plains. The whole is comprised + in the districts of Toungoo and Thaton, part of the Karen-ni hills, with + the Salween hill tract and the northern parts of Amherst, which form the + northern portion of the Tenasserim administrative division. The third + natural division of Burma is the old province of Tenasserim, which, + constituted in 1826 with Moulmein as its capital, formed the nucleus from + which the British supremacy throughout Burma has grown. It is a narrow + strip of country lying between the Bay of Bengal and the high range of + hills which form the eastern boundary of the province towards Siam. It + comprises the districts of Mergui and Tavoy and a part of Amherst, and + includes also the Mergui Archipelago. The surface of this part of the + country is mountainous and much intersected with streams. Northward from + this lies the major portion of the Southern Shan States and Karen-ni and + a narrowing strip along the Salween of the Northern Shan States.</p> + + <p><i>Mountains.</i>—Burma proper is encircled on three sides by a + wall of mountain ranges. The Arakan Yomas starting from Cape Negrais + extend northwards more or less parallel with the coast till they join the + Chin and Naga hills. They then form part of a system of ranges which + curve north of the sources of the Chindwin river, and with the Kumon + range and the hills of the Jade and Amber mines, make up a highland tract + separated from the great Northern Shan plateau by the gorges of the + Irrawaddy river. On the east the Kachin, Shan and Karen hills, extending + from the valley of the Irrawaddy into China far beyond the Salween gorge, + form a continuous barrier and boundary, and tail off into a narrow range + which forms the eastern watershed of the Salween and separates Tenasserim + from Siam. The highest peak of the Arakan Yomas, Liklang, rises nearly + 10,000 ft. above the sea, and in the eastern Kachin hills, which run + northwards from the state of Möng Mit to join the high range dividing the + basins of the Irrawaddy and the Salween, are two peaks, Sabu and Worang, + which rise to a height of 11,200 ft. above the sea. The Kumon range + running down from the Hkamti country east of Assam to near Mogaung ends + in a peak known as Shwedaunggyi, which reaches some 5750 ft. There are + several peaks in the Ruby Mines district which rise beyond 7000 ft. and + Loi Ling in the Northern Shan States reaches 9000 ft. Compared with these + ranges the Pegu Yomas assume the proportions of mere hills. Popa, a + detached peak in the Myingyan district, belongs to this system and rises + to a height of nearly 5000 ft., but it is interesting mainly as an + extinct volcano, a landmark and an object of superstitious folklore, + throughout the whole of Central Burma. Mud volcanoes occur at Minbu, but + they are not in any sense mountains, resembling rather the hot springs + which are found in many parts of Burma. They are merely craters raised + above the level of the surrounding country by the gradual accretion of + the soft oily mud, which overflows at frequent intervals whenever a + discharge of gas occurs. Spurs of the Chin hills run down the whole + length of the Lower Chindwin district, almost to Sagaing, and one hill, + Powindaung, is particularly noted on account of its innumerable cave + temples, which are said to hold no fewer than 446,444 images of Buddha. + Huge caves, of which the most noted are the Farm Caves, occur in the + hills near Moulmein, and they too are full of relics of their ancient use + as temples, though now they are chiefly visited in connexion with the + bats, whose flight viewed from a distance, as they issue from the caves, + resembles a cloud of smoke.</p> + + <p><i>Rivers.</i>—Of the rivers of Burma the Irrawaddy is the most + important. It rises possibly beyond the confines of Burma in the + unexplored regions, where India, Tibet and China meet, and seems to be + formed by the junction of a number of considerable streams of no great + length. Two rivers, the Mali and the N'mai, meeting about latitude 25° + 45′ some 150 m. north of Bhamo, contribute chiefly to its volume, + and during the dry weather it is navigable for steamers up to their + confluence. Up to Bhamo, a distance of 900 m. from the sea, it is + navigable throughout the year, and its chief tributary in Burma, the + Chindwin, is also navigable for steamers for 300 m. from its junction + with the Irrawaddy at Pakôkku. The Chindwin, called in its upper reaches + the Tanai, rises in the hills south-west of Thama, and flows due north + till it enters the south-east corner of the Hukawng valley, where it + turns north-west and continues in that direction cutting the valley into + two almost equal parts until it reaches its north-west range, when it + turns almost due south and takes the name of the Chindwin. It is a swift + clear river, fed in its upper reaches by numerous mountain streams. The + Mogaung river, rising in the watershed which divides the Irrawaddy and + the Chindwin drainages, flows south and south-east for 180 m. before it + joins the Irrawaddy, and is navigable for steamers as far as Kamaing for + about four months in the year. South of Thayetmyo, where arms of the + Arakan Yomas approach the river and almost meet that spur of the Pegu + Yomas which formed till 1886 the <!-- Page 839 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page839"></a>[v.04 p.0839]</span>northern + boundary of British Burma, the valley of the Irrawaddy opens out again, + and at Yegin Mingyi near Myanaung the influence of the tide is first + felt, and the delta may be said to begin. The so-called rivers of the + delta, the Ngawun, Pyamalaw, Panmawaddy, Pyinzalu and Pantanaw, are + simply the larger mouths of the Irrawaddy, and the whole country towards + the sea is a close network of creeks where there are few or no roads and + boats take the place of carts for every purpose. There is, however, one + true river of some size, the Hlaing, which rises near Prome, flows + southwards and meets the Pegu river and the Pazundaung creek near + Rangoon, and thus forms the estuary which is known as the Rangoon river + and constitutes the harbour of Rangoon. East of the Rangoon river and + still within the deltaic area, though cut off from the main delta by the + southern end of the Pegu Yomas, lies the mouth of the Sittang. This + river, rising in the Sham-Karen hills, flows first due north and then + southward through the Kyauksè, Yamèthin and Toungoo districts, its line + being followed by the Mandalay-Rangoon railway as far south as + Nyaunglèbin in the Pegu district. At Toungoo it is narrow, but below + Shwegyin it widens, and at Sittang it is half a mile broad. It flows into + the Gulf of Martaban, and near its mouth its course is constantly + changing owing to erosion and corresponding accretions. The second river + in the province in point of size is the Salween, a huge river, believed + from the volume of its waters to rise in the Tibetan mountains to the + north of Lhasa. It is in all probability actually longer than the + Irrawaddy, but it is not to be compared to that river in importance. It + is, in fact, walled in on either side, with banks varying in British + territory from 3000 to 6000 ft. high and at present unnavigable owing to + serious rapids in Lower Burma and at one or two places in the Shan + States, but quite open to traffic for considerable reaches in its middle + course. The Gyaing and the Attaran rivers meet the Salween at its mouth, + and the three rivers form the harbour of Moulmein, the second seaport of + Burma.</p> + + <p><i>Lakes.</i>—The largest lake in the province is Indawgyi in + the Myitkyina district. It has an area of nearly 100 sq. m. and is + surrounded on three sides by ranges of hills, but is open to the north + where it has an outlet in the Indaw river. In the highlands of the Shan + hills there are the Inle lakes near Yawnghwe, and in the Katha district + also there is another Indaw which covers some 60 sq. m. Other lakes are + the Paunglin lake in Minbu district, the Inma lake in Prome, the Tu and + Duya in Henzada, the Shahkègyi and the Inyègyi in Bassein, the sacred + lake at Ye in Tenasserim, and the Nagamauk, Panzemyaung and Walonbyan in + Arakan. The Meiktila lake covers an area of some 5 sq. m., but it is to + some extent at least an artificial reservoir. In the heart of the delta + numerous large lakes or marshes abounding in fish are formed by the + overflow of the Irrawaddy river during the rainy season, but these either + assume very diminutive proportions or disappear altogether in the dry + season.</p> + + <p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of the delta is cooler and more + temperate than in Upper Burma, and this is shown in the fairer complexion + and stouter physique of the people of the lower province as compared with + the inhabitants of the drier and hotter upper districts as far as Bhamo, + where there is a great infusion of other types of the Tibeto-Burman + family. North of the apex of the delta and the boundary between the + deltaic and inland tracts, the rainfall gradually lessens as far as + Minbu, where what was formerly called the rainless zone commences and + extends as far as Katha. The rainfall in the coast districts varies from + about 200 in. in the Arakan and Tenasserim divisions to an average of 90 + in Rangoon and the adjoining portion of the Irrawaddy delta. In the + extreme north of Upper Burma the rainfall is rather less than in the + country adjoining Rangoon, and in the dry zone the annual average falls + as low as 20 and 30 in.</p> + + <p>The temperature varies almost as much as the rainfall. It is highest + in the central zone, the mean of the maximum readings in such districts + as Magwe, Myingyan, Kyauksè, Mandalay and Shwebo in the month of May + being close on 100° F., while in the littoral and sub-montane districts + it is nearly ten degrees less. The mean of the minimum readings in + December in the central zone districts is a few degrees under 60° F. and + in the littoral districts a few degrees over that figure. In the hilly + district of Mogôk (Ruby Mines) the December mean minimum is 36.8° and the + mean maximum 79°. The climate of the Chin and Kachin hills and also of + the Shan States is temperate. In the shade and off the ground the + thermometer rarely rises above 80° F. or falls below 25° F. In the hot + season and in the sun as much as 150° F. is registered, and on the grass + in the cold weather ten degrees of frost are not uncommon. Snow is seldom + seen either in the Chin or Shan hills, but there are snow-clad ranges in + the extreme north of the Kachin country. In the narrow valleys of the + Shan hills, and especially in the Salween valley, the shade maximum + reaches 100° F. regularly for several weeks in April. The rainfall in the + hills varies very considerably, but seems to range from about 60 in. in + the broader valleys to about 300 in. on the higher forest-clad + ranges.</p> + + <p><i>Geology.</i>—Geologically, British Burma consists of two + divisions, an eastern and a western. The dividing line runs from the + mouth of the Sittang river along the railway to Mandalay, and thence + continues northward, with the same general direction but curving slightly + towards the east. West of this line the rocks are chiefly Tertiary and + Quaternary; east of it they are mostly Palaeozoic or gneissic. In the + western mountain ranges the beds are thrown into a series of folds which + form a gentle curve running from south to north with its convexity facing + westward. There is an axial zone of Cretaceous and Lower Eocene, and this + is flanked on each side by the Upper Eocene and the Miocene, while the + valley of the Irrawaddy is occupied chiefly by the Pliocene. Along the + southern part of the Arakan coast the sea spreads over the western + Miocene zone. The Cretaceous beds have not yet been separated from the + overlying Eocene, and the identification of the system rests on the + discovery of a single Cenomanian ammonite. The Eocene beds are marine and + contain nummulites. The Miocene beds are also marine and are + characterized by an abundant molluscan fauna. The Pliocene, on the other + hand, is of freshwater origin, and contains silicified wood and numerous + remains of Mammalia. Flint chips, which appear to have been fashioned by + hand, are said to have been found in the Miocene beds, but to prove the + existence of man at so early a period would require stronger evidence + than has yet been brought forward.</p> + + <p>The older rocks of eastern Burma are very imperfectly known. Gneiss + and granite occur; Ordovician fossils have been found in the Upper Shan + States, and Carboniferous fossils in Tenasserim and near Moulmein. + Volcanic rocks are not common in any part of Burma, but about 50 m. + north-north-east of Yenangyaung the extinct volcano of Popa rises to a + height of 3000 ft. above the surrounding Pliocene plain. Intrusions of a + serpentine-like rock break through the Miocene strata north of Bhamo, and + similar intrusions occur in the western ranges. Whether the mud + "volcanoes" of the Irrawaddy valley have any connexion with volcanic + activity may be doubted. The petroleum of Burma occurs in the Miocene + beds, one of the best-known fields being that of Yenangyaung. Coal is + found in the Tertiary deposits in the valley of the Irrawaddy and in + Tenasserim. Tin is abundant in Tenasserim, and lead and silver have been + worked extensively in the Shan States. The famous ruby mines of Upper + Burma are in metamorphic rock, while the jadeite of the Bhamo + neighbourhood is associated with the Tertiary intrusions of + serpentine-like rock already noticed.<a name="FnAnchor_081" + href="#Footnote_081"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Population.</i>—The total population of Burma in 1901 was + 10,490,624 as against 7,722,053 in 1891; but a considerable portion of + this large increase was due to the inclusion of the Shan States and the + Chin hills in the census area. Even in Burma proper, however, there was + an increase during the decade of 1,530,822, or 19.8%. The density of + population per square mile is 44 as compared with 167 for the whole of + India and 552 for the Bengal Delta. England and Wales have a population + more than twelve times as dense as that of Burma, so there is still room + for expansion. The chief races of Burma are Burmese (6,508,682), + Arakanese (405,143), Karens (717,859), Shans (787,087), Chins (179,292), + Kachins (64,405) and Talaings (321,898); but these totals do not include + the Shan States and Chin hills. The Burmese in person have the Mongoloid + characteristics common to the Indo-Chinese races, the Tibetans and tribes + of the Eastern Himalaya. They may be generally described as of a stout, + active, well-proportioned form; of a brown but never of an intensely dark + complexion, with black, coarse, lank and abundant hair, and a little more + beard than is possessed by the Siamese. Owing to their gay and lively + disposition the Burmese have been called "the Irish of the East," and + like the Irish they are somewhat inclined to laziness. Since the advent + of the British power, the immigration of Hindus with a lower standard of + comfort and of Chinamen with a keener business instinct has threatened + the economic independence of the Burmese in their own country. As + compared with the Hindu, the Burmese wear silk instead of cotton, and eat + rice instead of the cheaper grains; they are of an altogether freer and + less servile, but also of a less practical character. The Burmese women + have a keener business instinct than the men, and serve in some degree to + redress the balance. The Burmese children are adored by their parents, + and are said to be the happiest and merriest children in the world.</p> + + <p><i>Language and Literature.</i>—The Burmese are supposed by + modern philologists to have come, as joint members of a vast Indo-Chinese + immigration swarm, from western China to the head waters of the Irrawaddy + and then separated, some to people Tibet and Assam, the others to press + southwards into the <!-- Page 840 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page840"></a>[v.04 p.0840]</span>plains of Burma. The indigenous + tongues of Burma are divided into the following groups:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Indigenous tongues of Burma" title="Indigenous tongues of Burma"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left" rowspan="3"> + <p>A. Indo-Chinese family</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(1) Tibet-Burman sub-family</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(<i>a</i>) The Burmese group.<br /> (<i>b</i>) The Kachin + group.<br /> (<i>c</i>) The Kuki-Chin + group.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(2) Siamese-Chinese sub-family</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(<i>d</i>) The Tai group.<br /> (<i>e</i>) The Karen + group.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(3) Môn-Annam sub-family</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(<i>f</i>) The Upper Middle Mekong<br /> or Wa Palaung group.<br + /> (<i>g</i>) The North Cambodian group.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>B. Malay family</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:left"> + <p>(<i>h</i>) The Selung language.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>Burmese, which was spoken by 7,006,495 people in the province in 1901, + is a monosyllabic language, with, according to some authorities, three + different tones; so that any given syllable may have three entirely + different meanings only distinguishable by the intonation when spoken, or + by accents or diacritical marks when written. There are, however, very + many weighty authorities who deny the existence of tones in the language. + The Burmese alphabet is borrowed from the Aryan Sanskrit through the + Pāli of Upper India. The language is written from left to right in + what appears to be an unbroken line. Thus Burma possesses two kinds of + literature, Pāli and Burmese. The Pāli is by far the more + ancient, including as it does the Buddhist scriptures that originally + found their way to Burma from Ceylon and southern India. The Burmese + literature is for the most part metrical, and consists of religious + romances, chronological histories and songs. The <i>Maha Yazawin</i> or + "Royal Chronicle," forms the great historical work of Burma. This is an + authorized history, in which everything unflattering to the Burmese + monarchs was rigidly suppressed. After the Second Burmese War no record + was ever made in the <i>Yazawin</i> that Pegu had been torn away from + Burma by the British. The folk songs are the truest and most interesting + national literature. The Burmese are fond of stage-plays in which great + licence of language is permitted, and great liberty to "gag" is left to + the wit or intelligence of the actors.</p> + + <p><i>Government.</i>—The province as a division of the Indian + empire is administered by a lieutenant-governor, first appointed 1st May + 1897, with a legislative council of nine members, five of whom are + officials. There are, besides, a chief secretary, revenue secretary, + secretary and two under-secretaries, a public works department secretary + with two assistants. The revenue administration of the province is + superintended by a financial commissioner, assisted by two secretaries, + and a director of land records and agriculture, with a land records + departmental staff. There is a chief court for the province with a chief + justice and three justices, established in May 1900. Other purely + judicial officers are the judicial commissioner for Upper Burma, and the + civil judges of Mandalay and Moulmein. There are four commissioners of + revenue and circuit, and nineteen deputy commissioners in Lower Burma, + and four commissioners and seventeen deputy commissioners in Upper Burma. + There are two superintendents of the Shan States, one for the northern + and one for the southern Shan States, and an assistant superintendent in + the latter; a superintendent of the Arakan hill tracts and of the Chin + hills, and a Chinese political adviser taken from the Chinese consular + service. The police are under the control of an inspector-general, with + deputy inspector-general for civil and military police, and for supply + and clothing. The education department is under a director of public + instruction, and there are three circles—eastern, western and Upper + Burma, each under an inspector of schools.</p> + + <p>The Burma forests are divided into three circles each under a + conservator, with twenty-one deputy conservators. There are also a deputy + postmaster-general, chief superintendent and four superintendents of + telegraphs, a chief collector of customs, three collectors and four port + officers, and an inspector-general of jails. At the principal towns + benches of honorary magistrates, exercising powers of various degrees, + have been constituted. There are forty-one municipal towns, fourteen of + which are in Upper Burma. The commissioners of division are <i>ex + officio</i> sessions judges in their several divisions, and also have + civil powers, and powers as revenue officers. They are responsible to the + lieutenant-governor, each in his own division, for the working of every + department of the public service, except the military department, and the + branches of the administration directly under the control of the supreme + government. The deputy commissioners perform the functions of district + magistrates, district judges, collectors and registrars, besides the + miscellaneous duties which fall to the principal district officer as + representative of government. Subordinate to the deputy commissioners are + assistant commissioners, extra-assistant commissioners and myoôks, who + are invested with various magisterial, civil and revenue powers, and hold + charge of the townships, as the units of regular civil and revenue + jurisdiction are called, and the sub-divisions of districts, into which + most of these townships are grouped. Among the salaried staff of + officials, the townships officers are the ultimate representatives of + government who come into most direct contact with the people. Finally, + there are the village headmen, assisted in Upper Burma by elders, + variously designated according to old custom. Similarly in the towns, + there are headmen of wards and elders of blocks. In Upper Burma these + headmen have always been revenue collectors. The system under which in + towns headmen of wards and elders of blocks are appointed is of + comparatively recent origin, and is modelled on the village system.</p> + + <p>The Shan States were declared to be a part of British India by + notification in 1886. The Shan States Act of 1888 vests the civil, <span + class="sidenote">The Shan States.</span> criminal and revenue + administration in the chief of the state, subject to the restrictions + specified in the <i>sanad</i> or patent granted to him. The law to be + administered in each state is the customary law of the state, so far as + it is in accordance with the justice, equity and good conscience, and not + opposed to the spirit of the law in the rest of British India. The + superintendents exercise general control over the administration of + criminal justice, and have power to call for cases, and to exercise wide + revisionary powers. Criminal jurisdiction in cases in which either the + complainant or the defendant is a European, or American, or a government + servant, or a British subject not a native of a Shan State, is withdrawn + from the chiefs and vested in the superintendents and assistant + superintendents. Neither the superintendents nor the assistant + superintendents have power to try civil suits, whether the parties are + Shans or not. In the Myelat division of the southern Shan States, + however, the criminal law is practically the same as the in force in + Upper Burma, and the ngwegunhmus, or petty chiefs, have been appointed + magistrates of the second class. The chiefs of the Shan States are of + three classes:—(1) sawbwas; (2) myosas; (3) ngwegunhmus. The last + are found only in the <i>Myelat</i>, or border country between the + southern Shan States and Burma. There are fifteen sawbwas, sixteen myosas + and thirteen ngwegunhmus in the Shan States proper. Two sawbwas are under + the supervision of the commissioner of the Mandalay division, and two + under the commissioner of the Sagaing division. The states vary + enormously in size, from the 12,000 sq. m. of the Trans-Salween State of + Kêng Tung, to the 3.95 sq. m. of Nam Hkôm in the Myelat. The latter + contained only 41 houses with 210 inhabitants in 1897 and has since been + merged in the adjoining state. There are five states, all sawbwaships, + under the supervision of the superintendent of the northern Shan States, + besides an indeterminate number of Wa States and communities of other + races beyond the Salween river. The superintendent of the southern Shan + States supervises thirty-nine, of which ten are sawbwaships. The + headquarters of the northern Shan States are at Lashio, of the southern + Shan States at Taung-gyi.</p> + + <p>The states included in eastern and western Karen-ni are not part of + British India, and are not subject to any of the laws in force in the + Shan States, but they are under the supervision of the superintendent of + the southern Shan States.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zburma_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/burma_1.png" + alt="Map of Burma." title="Map of Burma." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + </div> + <p>The northern portion of the Karen hills is at present dealt with on + the principle of political as distinguished from administrative control. + The tribes are not interfered with as long as they keep the peace. What + is specifically known as the Kachin hills, the country taken under + administration in the Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, is divided into + forty tracts. Beyond these tracts there are many Kachins in Katha, + Möng-Mit, and the northern Shan States, but though they are often the + preponderating, they are not the exclusive population. The country within + the forty tracts may be considered the Kachin hills proper, and it lies + between 23° 30′ and 26° 30′ N. lat. and 96° and 98° E. long. + Within this area the petty chiefs have appointment orders, the people are + disarmed, and the rate of tribute per household is fixed in each case. + Government is regulated by the <!-- Page 841 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page841"></a>[v.04 p.0841]</span>Kachin hills regulation. Since + 1894 the country has been practically undisturbed, and large numbers of + Kachins are enlisted, and ready to enlist in the military police, and + seem likely to form as good troops as the Gurkhas of Nepal.</p> + + <p>The Chin hills were not declared an integral part of Burma until 1895, + but they now form a scheduled district. The chiefs, however, are allowed + to administer their own affairs, as far as may be, in accordance with + their own customs, subject to the supervision of the superintendent of + the Chin hills.</p> + + <p><i>Religion.</i>—Buddhists make up more than 88.6%; Mussulmans + 3.28; spirit-worshippers 3.85; Hindus 2.76, and Christians 1.42 of the + total population of the province. The large nominal proportion of + Buddhists is deceptive. The Burmese are really as devoted to demonolatry + as the hill-tribes who are labelled plain spirit-worshippers. The actual + figures of the various religions, according to the census of 1901, are as + follows:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Religions in Burma, 1901" title="Religions in Burma, 1901"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Buddhists</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9,184,121</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Spirit-worshippers</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>399,390</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hindus</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>285,484</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mussulmans</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>339,446</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Christians</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>147,525</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sikhs</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6,596</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jews</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>685</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Parsees</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>245</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Others</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The chief religious principle of the Burmese is to acquire merit for + their next incarnation by good works done in this life. The bestowal of + alms, offerings of rice to priests, the founding of a monastery, erection + of pagodas, with which the country is crowded, the building of a bridge + or rest-house for the convenience of travellers are all works of + religious merit, prompted, not by love of one's fellow-creatures, but + simply and solely for one's own future advantage.</p> + + <p>An analysis shows that not quite two in every thousand Burmese profess + Christianity, and there are about the same number of Mahommedans among + them. It is admitted by the missionaries themselves that Christianity has + progressed very slowly among the Burmese in comparison with the rapid + progress made amongst the Karens. It is amongst the Sgaw Karens that the + greatest progress in Christianity has been made, and the number of + spirit-worshippers among them is very much smaller. The number of Burmese + Christians is considerably increased by the inclusion among them of the + Christian descendants of the Portuguese settlers of Syriam deported to + the old Burmese Tabayin, a village now included in the Ye-u subdivision + of Shwebo. These Christians returned themselves as Burmese. The forms of + Christianity which make most converts in Burma are the Baptist and Roman + Catholic faiths. Of recent years many conversions to Christianity have + been made by the American Baptist missionaries amongst the Lahu or Muhsö + hill tribesmen.</p> + + <p><i>Education.</i>—Compared with other Indian provinces, and even + with some of the countries of Europe, Burma takes a very high place in + the returns of those able to both read and write. Taking the sexes apart, + though women fall far behind men in the matter of education, still women + are better educated in Burma than in the rest of India. The average + number of each sex in Burma per thousand is:—literates, male 378; + female, 45; illiterates, male, 622; female, 955. The number of literates + per thousand in Bengal is:—male, 104; female, 5. The proportion was + greatly reduced in the 1901 census by the inclusion of the Shan States + and the Chin hills, which mostly consist of illiterates.</p> + + <p>The fact that in Upper Burma the proportion of literates is nearly as + high as, and the proportion of those under instruction even higher than, + that of the corresponding classes in Lower Burma, is a clear proof that + in primary education, at least, the credit for the superiority of the + Burman over the native of India is due to indigenous schools. In almost + every village in the province there is a monastery, where the most + regular occupation of one or more of the resident <i>pongyis</i>, or + Buddhist monks, is the instruction free of charge of the children of the + village. The standard of instruction, however, is very low, consisting + only of reading and writing, though this is gradually being improved in + very many monasteries. The absence of all prejudice in favour of the + seclusion of women also is one of the main reasons why in this province + the proportion who can read and write is higher than in any other part of + India, Cochin alone excepted. It was not till 1890 that the education + department took action in Upper Burma. It was then ascertained that there + were 684 public schools with 14,133 pupils, and 1664 private schools with + 8685 pupils. It is worthy of remark that of these schools 29 were + Mahommedan, and that there were 176 schools for girls in which upwards of + 2000 pupils were taught. There are three circles—Eastern, Central + and Upper Burma. For the special supervision and encouragement of + indigenous primary education in monastic and in lay schools, each circle + of inspection is divided into sub-circles corresponding with one or more + of the civil districts, and each sub-circle is placed under a + deputy-inspector or a sub-inspector of schools. There are nine standards + of instruction, and the classes in schools correspond with these + standards. In Upper Burma all educational grants are paid from imperial + funds; there is no cess as in Lower Burma. Grants-in-aid are given + according to results. There is only one college, at Rangoon, which is + affiliated to the Calcutta University. There are missionary schools + amongst the Chins, Kachins and Shans, and a school for the sons of Shan + chiefs at Taung-gyi in the southern Shan States. A <i>Patamabyan</i> + examination for marks in the Pāli language was first instituted in + 1896 and is held annually.</p> + + <p><i>Finance.</i>—The gross revenue of Lower Burma from all + sources in 1871-1872 was Rs.1,36,34,520, of which Rs.1,21,70,530 was from + imperial taxation, Rs.3,73,200 from provincial services, and Rs.10,90,790 + from local funds. The land revenue of the province was Rs.34,45,230. In + Burma the cultivators themselves continue to hold the land from + government, and the extent of their holdings averages about five acres. + The land tax is supplemented by a poll tax on the male population from 18 + to 60 years of age, with the exception of immigrants during the first + five years of their residence, religious teachers, schoolmasters, + government servants and those unable to obtain their own livelihood. In + 1890-1891 the revenue of Lower Burma has risen to Rs.2,08,38,872 from + imperial taxation, Rs.1,55,51,897 for provincial services, and + Rs.12,14,596 from incorporated local funds. The expenditure on the + administration of Lower Burma in 1870-1871 was Rs.49,70,020. In 1890-1891 + it was Rs.1,58,48,041. In Upper Burma the chief source of revenue is the + <i>thathameda</i>, a tithe or income tax which was instituted by King + Mindon, and was adopted by the British very much as they found it. For + the purpose of the assessment every district and town is classified + according to its general wealth and prosperity. As a rule the basis of + calculation was 100 rupees from every ten houses, with a 10% deduction + for those exempted by custom. When the total amount payable by the + village was thus determined, the village itself settled the amount to be + paid by each individual householder. This was done by <i>thamadis</i>, + assessors, usually appointed by the villagers themselves. Other important + sources of revenue are the rents from state lands, forests, and + miscellaneous items such as fishery, revenue and irrigation taxes. In + 1886-1887, the year after the annexation, the amount collected in Upper + Burma from all sources was twenty-two lakhs of rupees. In the following + year it had risen to fifty lakhs. Much of Upper Burma, however, remained + disturbed until 1890. The figures for 1890-1891, therefore, show the + first really regular collection. The amount then collected was + Rs.87,47,020.</p> + + <p>The total revenue of Burma in the year ending March 31, 1900 was + Rs.7,04,36,240 and in 1905, Rs.9,65,62,298. The total expenditure in the + same years respectively was Rs.4,30,81,000 and Rs.5,66,60,047. The + principal items of revenue in the budget are the land revenue, railways, + customs, forests and excise.</p> + + <p><i>Defence.</i>—Burma is garrisoned by a division of the Indian + army, consisting of two brigades, under a lieutenant-general. Of the + native regiments seven battalions are Burma regiments specially raised + for permanent service in Burma by transformation from military police. + These regiments, consisting of Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans, are + distributed throughout the Shan States and the northern part of Burma. In + addition to these there are about 13,500 civil police and 15,000 military + police. The military police are in reality a regular military force with + only two European officers in command of each battalion; and they are + recruited entirely from among the warlike races of northern India. A + small battalion of Karens enlisted as sappers and miners proved a failure + and had to be disbanded. Experiments have also been made with the Kachin + hillmen and with the Shans; but the Burmese character is so averse to + discipline and control in petty matters that it is impossible to get + really suitable men to enlist even in the civil police. The volunteer + forces consist of the Rangoon Port Defence Volunteers, comprising + artillery, naval, and engineer corps, the Moulmein artillery, the + Moulmein, Rangoon, Railway and Upper Burma rifles.</p> + + <p><i>Minerals and Mining.</i>—In its three chief mineral products, + earth-oil, coal and gold, Burma offers a fair field for enterprise and + nothing more. Without yielding fortunes for speculators, like South + Africa or Australia, it returns a fair percentage upon genuine hard work. + Coal is found in the Thayetmyo, Upper Chindwin and Shwebo districts, and + in the Shan States; it also occurs in Mergui, but the deposits which have + been so far discovered have been either of inferior quality or too far + from their market to be worked to advantage. The tin mines in Lower Burma + are worked by natives, but a company at one time worked mines in the + Maliwun township of Mergui by European methods. The chief mines and + minerals are in Upper Burma. The jade mines of Upper Burma are now + practically the only source of supply of that mineral, which is in great + demand over all China. The mines are situated beyond Kamaing, north of + Mogaung in the Myitkyina district. The miners are all Kachins, and the + right to collect the jade duty of 33⅓ is farmed out by government + to a lessee, who has hitherto always been a Chinaman. The amount obtained + has varied considerably. In 1887-1888 the rent was Rs.50,000. This + dwindled to Rs.36,000 in 1892-1893, but the system was then adopted of + letting for a term of three years and a higher rent was obtained. The + value varies enormously according to colour, which should be a particular + shade of dark green. Semi-transparency, brilliancy and hardness are, + however, also essentials. The old river mines produced the best quality. + The quarry mines on the top of the hill near Tawmaw produce enormous + quantities, but the quality is not so good.</p> + + <p>The most important ruby-bearing area is the Mogôk stone tract, in the + hills about 60 m. east of the Irrawaddy and 90 m. north-north-west of + Mandalay. The right to mine for rubies by European methods and to levy + royalties from persons working by native methods was leased to the Burma + Ruby Mines Company, Limited, in 1889, and the lease was renewed in 1896 + for 14 years at a rent of Rs.3,15,000 a year plus a share of the profits. + The rent was <!-- Page 842 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page842"></a>[v.04 p.0842]</span>reduced permanently in 1898 to + Rs.2,00,000 a year, but the share of the profits taken by government was + increased from 20 to 30%. There are other ruby mines at Nanyaseik in the + Myitkyina district and at Sagyin in the Mandalay district, where the + mining is by native methods under licence-fees of Rs.5 and Rs.10 a month. + They are, however, only moderately successful. Gold is found in most of + the rivers in Upper Burma, but the gold-washing industry is for the most + part spasmodic in the intervals of agriculture. There is a gold mine at + Kyaukpazat in the Mawnaing circle of the Kathra district, where the + quartz is crushed by machinery and treated by chemical processes. Work + was begun in 1895, and the yield of gold in that year was 274 oz., which + increased to 893 oz. in 1896-1897. This, however, proved to be merely a + pocket, and the mine is now shut down. Dredging for gold, however, seems + likely to prove very profitable and gold dust is found in practically + every river in the hills.</p> + + <p>The principal seats of the petroleum industry are Yenangyaung in the + Magwe, and Yenangyat in the Pakôkku districts. The wells have been worked + for a little over a century by the natives of the country. The Burma Oil + Company since 1889 has worked by drilled wells on the American or cable + system, and the amount produced is yearly becoming more and more + important.</p> + + <p>Amber is extracted by Kachins in the Hukawng valley beyond the + administrative border, but the quality of the fossil resin is not very + good. The amount exported varies considerably. Tourmaline or rubellite is + found on the borders of the Ruby Mines district and in the Shan State of + Möng Löng. Steatite is extracted from the Arakan hill quarries. Salt is + manufactured at various places in Upper Burma, notably in the lower + Chindwin, Sagaing, Shwebo, Myingyan and Yamethin districts, as well as at + Mawhkio in the Shan State of Thibaw. Iron is found in many parts of the + hills, and is worked by inhabitants of the country. A good deal is + extracted and manufactured into native implements at Pang Lông in the + Lēgya (Laihka) Shan State. Lead is extracted by a Chinese lessee + from the mines at Bawzaing (Maw-sōn) in the Myelat, southern Shan + States. The ore is rich in silver as well as in lead.</p> + + <p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The cultivation of the land is by far the + most important industry in Burma. Only 9.4% of the people were classed as + urban in the census of 1901, and a considerable proportion of this number + were natives of India and not Burmese. Nearly two-thirds of the total + population are directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture and kindred + occupations. Throughout most of the villages in the rural tracts men, + women and children all take part in the agricultural operations, although + in riverine villages whole families often support themselves from the + sale of petty commodities and eatables. The food of the people consists + as a rule of boiled rice with salted fresh or dried fish, salt, + sessamum-oil, chillies, onions, turmeric, boiled vegetables, and + occasionally meat of some sort from elephant flesh down to smaller + animals, fowls and almost everything except snakes, by way of + condiment.</p> + + <p>The staple crop of the province in both Upper and Lower Burma is rice. + In Lower Burma it is overwhelmingly the largest crop; in Upper Burma it + is grown wherever practicable. Throughout the whole of the moister parts + of the province the agricultural season is the wet period of the + south-west monsoon, lasting from the middle of May until November. In + some parts of Lower Burma and in the dry districts of Upper Burma a hot + season crop is also grown with the assistance of irrigation during the + spring months. Oxen are used for ploughing the higher lands with light + soil, and the heavier and stronger buffaloes for ploughing wet tracts and + marshy lands. As rice has to be transplanted as well as sown and + irrigated, it needs a considerable amount of labour expended on it; and + the Burman has the reputation of being a somewhat indolent cultivator. + The Karens and Shans who settle in the plains expend much more care in + ploughing and weeding their crops. Other crops which are grown in the + province, especially in Upper Burma, comprise maize, tilseed, sugar-cane, + cotton, tobacco, wheat, millet, other food grains including pulse, + condiments and spices, tea, barley, sago, linseed and other oil-seeds, + various fibres, indigo and other dye crops, besides orchards and garden + produce. At the time of the British annexation of Burma there were some + old irrigation systems in the Kyauksè and Minbu districts, which had been + allowed to fall into disrepair, and these have now been renewed and + extended. In addition to this the Mandalay Canal, 40 m. in length, with + fourteen distributaries was opened in 1902; the Shwebo canal, 27 m. long, + was opened in 1906, and a beginning had been made of two branches 29 and + 20 m. in length, and of the Môn canal, begun in 1904, 53 m. in length. In + all upwards of 300,000 acres are subject to irrigation under these + schemes. On the whole the people of Burma are prosperous and contented. + Taxes and land revenue are light; markets for the disposal of produce are + constant and prices good; while fresh land is still available in most + districts. Compared with the congested districts in the other provinces + of India, with the exception of Assam, the lot of the Burman is decidedly + enviable.</p> + + <p><i>Forests.</i>—-The forests of Burma are the finest in British + India and one of the chief assets of the wealth of the country; it is + from Burma that the world draws its main supply of teak for shipbuilding, + and indeed it was the demand for teak that largely led to the annexation + of Burma. At the close of the First Burmese War in 1826 Tenasserim was + annexed because it was supposed to contain large supplies of this + valuable timber; and it was trouble with a British forest company that + directly led to the Third Burmese War of 1885. Since the introduction of + iron ships teak has supplanted oak, because it contains an essential oil + which preserves iron and steel, instead of corroding them like the tannic + acid contained in oak. The forests of Burma, therefore, are now strictly + preserved by the government, and there is a regular forest department for + the conservation and cutting of timber, the planting of young trees for + future generations, the prevention of forest fires, and for generally + supervising their treatment by the natives. In the reserves the trees of + commercial value can only be cut under a licence returning a revenue to + the state, while unreserved trees can be cut by the natives for home + consumption. There are naturally very many trees in these forests besides + the teak. In Lower Burma alone the enumeration of the trees made by + Sulpiz Kurz in his <i>Forest Flora of British Burma</i> (1877) includes + some 1500 species, and the unknown species of Upper Burma and the Shan + States would probably increase this total very considerably. In addition + to teak, which provides the bulk of the revenue, the most valuable woods + are <i>sha</i> or cutch, india rubber, <i>pyingado</i>, or ironwood for + railway sleepers, and <i>padauk</i>. Outside these reserves enormous + tracts of forest and jungle still remain for clearance and cultivation, + reservation being mostly confined to forest land unsuitable for crops. In + 1870-1871 the state reserved forests covered only 133 sq.m., in all the + Rangoon division. The total receipts from the forests then amounted to + Rs.7,72,400. In 1889-1890 the total area of reserved forests in Lower + Burma was 5574 sq.m., and the gross revenue was Rs.31,34,720, and the + expenditure was Rs.13,31,930. The work of the forest department did not + begin in Upper Burma till 1891. At the end of 1892 the reserved forests + in Upper Burma amounted to 1059 sq.m. On 30th June 1896 the reserved area + amounted to 5438 sq.m. At the close of 1899 the area of the reserved + forests in the whole province amounted to 15,669 sq.m., and in 1903-1904 + to 20,038 sq.m. with a revenue of Rs.85,19,404 and expenditure amounting + to Rs.35,00,311. In 1905-1906 there were 20,545 sq.m. of reserved forest, + and it is probable that when the work of reservation is complete there + will be 25,000 sq.m. of preserves or 12% of the total area.</p> + + <p><i>Fisheries.</i>—Fisheries and fish-curing exist both along the + sea-coast of Burma and in inland tracts, and afforded employment to + 126,651 persons in 1907. The chief seat of the industry is in the Thongwa + and Bassein districts, where the income from the leased fisheries on + individual streams sometimes amounts to between £6000 and £7000 a year. + Net fisheries, worked by licence-holders in the principal rivers and + along the sea-shore, are not nearly so profitable as the closed + fisheries—called <i>In</i>—which are from time to time sold + by auction for fixed periods of years. Salted fish forms, along with + boiled rice, one of the chief articles of food among the Burmese; and as + the price of salted fish is gradually rising along with the prosperity + and purchasing power of the population, this industry is on a very sound + basis. There are in addition some pearling grounds in the Mergui + Archipelago, which have a very recent history; they were practically + unknown before 1890; in the early 'nineties they were worked by + Australian adventurers, most of whom have since departed; and now they + are leased in blocks to a syndicate of Chinamen, who grant sub-leases to + individual adventurers at the rate of £25 a pump for the pearling year. + The chief harvest is of mother of pearl, which suffices to pay the + working expenses; and there is over and above the chance of finding a + pearl of price. Some pearls worth £1000 and upwards have recently been + discovered.</p> + + <p><i>Manufactures and Art.</i>—The staple industry of Burma is + agriculture, but many cultivators are also artisans in the by-season. In + addition to rice-growing and the felling and extraction of timber, and + the fisheries, the chief occupations are rice-husking, silk-weaving and + dyeing. The introduction of cheap cottons and silk fabrics has dealt a + blow to hand-weaving, while aniline dyes are driving out the native + vegetable product; but both industries still linger in the rural tracts. + The best silk-weavers are to be found at Amarapura. There large numbers + of people follow this occupation as their sole means of livelihood, + whereas silk and cotton weaving throughout the province generally is + carried on by girls and women while unoccupied by other domestic duties. + The Burmese are fond of bright colours, and pink and yellow harmonize + well with their dark olive complexion, but even here the influence of + western civilization is being felt, and in the towns the tendency now is + towards maroon, brown, olive and dark green for the women's skirts. The + total number of persons engaged in the production of textile fabrics in + Burma according to the census of 1901 was 419,007. The chief dye-product + of Burma is cutch, a brown dye obtained from the wood <!-- Page 843 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page843"></a>[v.04 p.0843]</span>of the + <i>sha</i> tree. Cutch-boiling forms the chief means of livelihood of a + large number of the poorer classes in the Prome and Thayetmyo districts + of Lower Burma, and a subsidiary means of subsistence elsewhere. Cheroot + making and smoking is universal among both sexes. The chief arts of Burma + are wood-carving and silver work. The floral wood-carving is remarkable + for its freedom and spontaneity. The carving is done in teak wood when it + is meant for fixtures, but teak has a coarse grain, and otherwise + <i>yamane</i> clogwood, said to be a species of gmelina, is preferred. + The tools employed are chisel, gouge and mallet. The design is traced on + the wood with charcoal, gouged out in the rough, and finished with sharp + fine tools, using the mallet for every stroke. The great bulk of the + silver work is in the form of bowls of different sizes, in shape + something like the lower half of a barrel, only more convex, of betel + boxes, cups and small boxes for lime. Both in the wood-carving and silver + work the Burmese character displays itself, giving boldness, breadth and + freedom of design, but a general want of careful finish. Unfortunately + the national art is losing its distinctive type through contact with + western civilization.</p> + + <p><i>Commerce.</i>—The chief articles of export from Burma are + rice and timber. In 1805 the quantity of rice exported in the foreign and + coastal trade amounted to 1,419,173 tons valued at Rs.9,77,66,132, and in + 1905 the figures were 2,187,764 tons, value Rs.15,67,28,288. England + takes by far the greatest share of Burma's rice, though large quantities + are also consumed in Germany, while France, Italy, Belgium and Holland + also consume a considerable amount. The regular course of trade is apt to + be deflected by famines in India or Japan. In 1900 over one million tons + of rice were shipped to India during the famine there. The rice-mills, + almost all situated at the various seaports, secure the harvest from the + cultivator through middlemen. The value of teak exported in 1895 was + Rs.1,34,64,303, and in 1905, Rs.1,31,03,401. Subordinate products for + exports include cutch dye, caoutchouc or india-rubber, cotton, petroleum + and jade. By far the largest of the imports are cotton, silk and woollen + piece-goods, while subordinate imports include hardware, gunny bags, + sugar, tobacco and liquors.</p> + + <p>The following table shows the progressive value of the trade of Burma + since 1871-1872:—</p> + + +<table class="allb" summary=" 1871-1905" title=" 1871-1905"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Year.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Imports.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Exports.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Total.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Rs.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Rs.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Rs.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1871-1872</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3,15,79,860</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3,78,02,170</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6,93,82,030</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1881-1882</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6,38,49,840</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8,05,71,410</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14,44,21,250</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1801-1892</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10,50,06,247</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12,67,21,878</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23,17,28,125</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1901-1902</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12,78,46,636</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18,74,47,200</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31,52,93,836</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1904-1905</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17,06,20,796</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23,94,69,114</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>41,00,89,910</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Internal Communications.</i>—In 1871-1872 there were 814 m. + of road in Lower Burma, but the chief means of internal communication was + by water. Steamers plied on the Irrawaddy as far as Thayetmyo. The + vessels of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company now ply to Bassein and to all + points on the Irrawaddy as far north as Bhamo, and in the dry weather to + Myitkyina, and also on the Chindwin as far north as Kindat, and to + Homalin during the rains. The Arakan Flotilla Company has also helped to + open up the Arakan division. The length of roads has not greatly + increased in Lower Burma, but there has been a great deal of road <span + class="correction" title="'constuction' in original">construction</span> + in Upper Burma. At the end of the year 1904-1905 there were in the whole + province 7486 m. of road, 1516 m. of which were metalled and 3170 + unmetalled, with 2799 m. of other tracks. But the chief advance in + communications has been in railway construction. The first railway from + Rangoon to Prome, 161 m., was opened in 1877, and that from Rangoon to + Toungoo, 166 m., was opened in 1884. Since the annexation of Upper Burma + this has been extended to Mandalay, and the Mu Valley railway has been + constructed from Sagaing to Myitkyina, a distance of 752 m. from Rangoon. + The Mandalay-Lashio railway has been completed, and trains run from + Mandalay to Lashio, a distance of 178 m. The Sagaing-Mônywa-Alôn branch + and the Meiktila-Myingyan branch were opened to traffic during 1900. In + 1902 a railway from Henzada to Bassein was formed and a connecting link + with the Prome line from Henzada to Letpadan was opened in 1903. Railways + were also constructed from Pegu to Martaban, 121 m. in length, and from + Henzada to Kyang-in, 66 m. in length; and construction was contemplated + of a railway from Thazi towards Taung-gyi, the headquarters of the + southern Shan States. The total length of lines open in 1904-1905 was + 1340 m., but railway communication in Burma is still very incomplete. + Five of the eight commissionerships and Lashio, the capital of the + northern Shan States, have communication with each other by railway, but + Taung-gyi and the southern Shan States can still only be reached by a + hill-road through difficult country for cart traffic, and the + headquarters of three commissionerships, Moulmein, Akyab and Minbu, have + no railway communication with Rangoon. Arakan is in the worst position of + all, for it is connected with Burma by neither railway nor river, nor + even by a metalled road, and the only way to reach Akyab from Rangoon is + once a week by sea.</p> + + <p><i>Law.</i>—The British government has administered the law in + Burma on principles identical with those which have been adopted + elsewhere in the British dominions in India. That portion of the law + which is usually described as Anglo-Indian law (see <span + class="sc">Indian Law</span>) is generally applicable to Burma, though + there are certain districts inhabited by tribes in a backward state of + civilization which are excepted from its operation. Acts of the British + parliament relating to India generally would be applicable to Burma, + whether passed before or after its annexation, these acts being + considered applicable to all the dominions of the crown in India. As + regards the acts of the governor-general in council passed for India + generally—they, too, were from the first applicable to Lower Burma; + and they have all been declared applicable to Upper Burma also by the + Burma Laws Act of 1898. That portion of the English law which has been + introduced into India without legislation, and all the rules of law + resting upon the authority of the courts, are made applicable to Burma by + the same act. But consistently with the practice which has always + prevailed in India, there is a large field of law in Burma which the + British government has not attempted to disturb. It is expressly directed + by the act of 1898 above referred to, that in regard to succession, + inheritance, marriage, caste or any religious usage or institution, the + law to be administered in Burma is (<i>a</i>) the Buddhist law in cases + where the parties are Buddhists, (<i>b</i>) the Mahommedan law in cases + where the parties are Mahommedans, (<i>c</i>) the Hindu law in cases + where the parties are Hindus, except so far as the same may have been + modified by the legislature. The reservation thus made in favour of the + native laws is precisely analogous to the similar reservation made in + India (see <span class="sc">Indian Law</span>, where the Hindu law and + the Mahommedan Law are described). The Buddhist law is contained in + certain sacred books called <i>Dhammathats</i>. The laws themselves are + derived from one of the collections which Hindus attribute to Manu, but + in some respects they now widely differ from the ancient Hindu law so far + as it is known to us. There is no certainty as to the date or method of + their introduction. The whole of the law administered now in Burma rests + ultimately upon statutory authority; and all the Indian acts relating to + Burma, whether of the governor-general or the lieutenant-governor of + Burma in council, will be found in the Burma Code (Calcutta, 1899), and + in the supplements to that volume which are published from time to time + at Rangoon. There is no complete translation of the <i>Dhammathats</i>, + but a good many of them have been translated. An account of these + translations will be found in <i>The Principles of Buddhist Law</i> by + Chan Toon (Rangoon, 1894), which is the first attempt to present those + principles in something approaching to a systematic form.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—It is probable that Burma is the <i>Chryse + Regio</i> of Ptolemy, a name parallel in meaning to <i>Sonaparanta</i>, + the classic Pāli title assigned to the country round the capital in + Burmese documents. The royal history traces the lineage of the kings to + the ancient Buddhist monarchs of India. This no doubt is fabulous, but it + is hard to say how early communication with Gangetic India began. From + the 11th to the 13th century the old Burman empire was at the height of + its power, and to this period belong the splendid remains of architecture + at Pagan. The city and the dynasty were destroyed by a Chinese (or rather + Mongol) invasion (1284 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>) in the reign of + Kublai Khan. After that the empire fell to a low ebb, and Central Burma + was often subject to Shan dynasties. In the early part of the 16th + century the Burmese princes of Toungoo, in the north-east of Pegu, began + to rise to power, and established a dynasty which at one time held + possession of Pegu, Ava and Arakan. They made their capital at Pegu, and + to this dynasty belong the gorgeous <!-- Page 844 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page844"></a>[v.04 p.0844]</span>descriptions of + some of the travellers of the 16th century. Their wars exhausted the + country, and before the end of the century it was in the greatest decay. + A new dynasty arose in Ava, which subdued Pegu, and maintained their + supremacy throughout the 17th and during the first forty years of the + 18th century. The Peguans or Talaings then revolted, and having taken the + capital Ava, and made the king prisoner, reduced the whole country to + submission. Alompra, left by the conqueror in charge of the village of + Môtshobo, planned the deliverance of his country. He attacked the Peguans + at first with small detachments; but when his forces increased, he + suddenly advanced, and took possession of the capital in the autumn of + 1753.</p> + + <p>In 1754 the Peguans sent an armament of war-boats against Ava, but + they were totally defeated by Alompra; while in the districts of Prome, + Donubyu, &c., the Burmans revolted, and expelled all the Pegu + garrisons in their towns. In 1754 Prome was besieged by the king of Pegu, + who was again defeated by Alompra, and the war was transferred from the + upper provinces to the mouths of the navigable rivers, and the numerous + creeks and canals which intersect the lower country. In 1755 the yuva + raja, the king of Pegu's brother, was equally unsuccessful, after which + the Peguans were driven from Bassein and the adjacent country, and were + forced to withdraw to the fortress of Syriam, distant 12 m. from Rangoon. + Here they enjoyed a brief repose, Alompra being called away to quell an + insurrection of his own subjects, and to repel an invasion of the + Siamese; but returning victorious, he laid siege to the fortress of + Syriam and took it by surprise. In these wars the French sided with the + Peguans, the English with the Burmans. Dupleix, the governor of + Pondicherry, had sent two ships to the aid of the former; but the master + of the first was decoyed up the river by Alompra, where he was massacred + along with his whole crew. The other escaped to Pondicherry. Alompra was + now master of all the navigable rivers; and the Peguans, shut out from + foreign aid, were finally subdued. In 1757 the conqueror laid siege to + the city of Pegu, which capitulated, on condition that their own king + should govern the country, but that he should do homage for his kingdom, + and should also surrender his daughter to the victorious monarch. Alompra + never contemplated the fulfilment of the condition; and having obtained + possession of the town, abandoned it to the fury of his soldiers. In the + following year the Peguans vainly endeavoured to throw off the yoke. + Alompra afterwards reduced the town and district of Tavoy, and finally + undertook the conquest of the Siamese. His army advanced to Mergui and + Tenasserim, both of which towns were taken; and he was besieging the + capital of Siam when he was taken ill. He immediately ordered his army to + retreat, in hopes of reaching his capital alive; but he expired on the + way, in 1760, in the fiftieth year of his age, after he had reigned eight + years. In the previous year he had massacred the English of the + establishment of Negrais, whom he suspected of assisting the Peguans. He + was succeeded by his eldest son Noungdaugyi, whose reign was disturbed by + the rebellion of his brother Sin-byu-shin, and afterwards by one of his + father's generals. He died in little more than three years, leaving one + son in his infancy; and on his decease the throne was seized by his + brother Sin-byu-shin. The new king was intent, like his predecessors, on + the conquest of the adjacent states, and accordingly made war in 1765 on + the Manipur kingdom, and also on the Siamese, with partial success. In + the following year he defeated the Siamese, and, after a long blockade, + obtained possession of their capital. But while the Burmans were + extending their conquests in this quarter, they were invaded by a Chinese + army of 50,000 men from the province of Yunnan. This army was hemmed in + by the skill of the Burmans; and, being reduced by the want of + provisions, it was afterwards attacked and totally destroyed, with the + exception of 2500 men, who were sent in fetters to work in the Burmese + capital at their several trades. In the meantime the Siamese revolted, + and while the Burman army was marching against them, the Peguan soldiers + who had been incorporated in it rose against their companions, and + commencing an indiscriminate massacre, pursued the Burman army to the + gates of Rangoon, which they besieged, but were unable to capture. In + 1774 Sin-byu-shin was engaged in reducing the marauding tribes. He took + the district and fort of Martaban from the revolted Peguans; and in the + following year he sailed down the Irrawaddy with an army of 50,000 men, + and, arriving at Rangoon, put to death the aged monarch of Pegu, along + with many of his nobles, who had shared with him in the offence of + rebellion. He died in 1776, after a reign of twelve years, during which + he had extended the Burmese dominions on every side. He was succeeded by + his son, a youth of eighteen, called Singumin (Chenguza of Symes), who + proved himself a bloodthirsty despot, and was put to death by his uncle, + Bodawpaya or Mentaragyi, in 1781, who ascended the vacant throne. In 1783 + the new king effected the conquest of Arakan. In the same year he removed + his residence from Ava, which, with brief interruptions, had been the + capital for four centuries, to the new city of Amarapura, "the City of + the Immortals."</p> + + <p>The Siamese who had revolted in 1771 were never afterwards subdued by + the Burmans; but the latter retained their dominion over the sea-coast as + far as Mergui. In the year 1785 they attacked the island of Junkseylon + with a fleet of boats and an army, but were ultimately driven back with + loss; and a second attempt by the Burman monarch, who in 1786 invaded + Siam with an army of 30,000 men, was attended with no better success. In + 1793 peace was concluded between these two powers, the Siamese yielding + to the Burmans the entire possession of the coast of Tenasserim on the + Indian Ocean, and the two important seaports of Mergui and Tavoy.</p> + + <p>In 1795 the Burmese were involved in a dispute with the British in + India, in consequence of their troops, to the amount of 5000 men, + entering the district of Chittagong in pursuit of three robbers who had + fled from justice across the frontier. Explanations being made and terms + of accommodation offered by General Erskine, the commanding officer, the + Burmese commander retired from the British territories, when the + fugitives were restored, and all differences for the time amicably + arranged.</p> + + <p>But it was evident that the gradual extension of the British and + Burmese territories would in time bring the two powers into close contact + along a more extended line of frontier, and in all probability lead to a + war between them. It happened, accordingly, that the Burmese, carrying + their arms into Assam and Manipur, penetrated to the British border near + Sylhet, on the north-east frontier of Bengal, beyond which were the + possessions of the chiefs of Cachar, under the protection of the British + government. The Burmese leaders, arrested in their career of conquest, + were impatient to measure their strength with their new neighbours. It + appears from the evidence of Europeans who resided in Ava, that they were + entirely unacquainted with the discipline and resources of the Europeans. + They imagined that, like other nations, they would fall before their + superior tactics and valour; and their cupidity was inflamed by the + prospect of marching to Calcutta and plundering the country. At length + their chiefs ventured on the open violation of the British territories. + They attacked a party of sepoys within the frontier, and seized and + carried off British subjects, while at all points their troops, moving in + large bodies, assumed the most menacing positions. In the south + encroachments were made upon the British frontier of Chittagong. The + island of Shahpura, at the mouth of the Naaf river, had been occupied by + a small guard of British troops. These were attacked on the 23rd of + September 1823 by the Burmese, and driven from their post with the loss + of several lives; and to the repeated demands of the British for redress + no answer was returned. Other outrages ensued; and at length, on March + 5th, 1824, war was declared by the British government. The military + operations, which will be found described under <span class="sc">Burmese + Wars</span>, ended in the treaty of Yandaboo on the 24th of February + 1826, which conceded the British terms and enabled their army to be + withdrawn.</p> + + <p>For some years the relations of peace continued undisturbed. Probably + the feeling of amity on the part of the Burmese government was not very + strong; but so long as the prince by whom the treaty was concluded + continued in power, no attempt was <!-- Page 845 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page845"></a>[v.04 p.0845]</span>made to depart + from its main stipulations. That monarch, Ba-ggi-daw, however, was + obliged in 1837 to yield the throne to a usurper who appeared in the + person of his brother, Tharrawaddi (Tharawadi). The latter, at an early + period, manifested not only that hatred of British connexion which was + almost universal at the Burmese court, but also the extremest contempt. + For several years it had become apparent that the period was approaching + when war between the British and the Burmese governments would again + become inevitable. The British resident, Major Burney, who had been + appointed in 1830, finding his presence at Ava agreeable neither to the + king nor to himself, removed in 1837 to Rangoon, and shortly afterwards + retired from the country. Ultimately it became necessary to forego even + the pretence of maintaining relations of friendship, and the British + functionary at that time, Captain Macleod, was withdrawn in 1840 + altogether from a country where his continuance would have been but a + mockery. The state of sullen dislike which followed was after a while + succeeded by more active evidences of hostility. Acts of violence were + committed on British ships and British seamen. Remonstrance was + consequently made by the British government, and its envoys were + supported by a small naval force. The officers on whom devolved the duty + of representing the wrongs of their fellow-countrymen and demanding + redress, proceeded to Rangoon, the governor of which place had been a + chief actor in the outrages complained of; but so far were they from + meeting with any signs of regret, that they were treated with indignity + and contempt, and compelled to retire without accomplishing anything + beyond blockading the ports. A series of negotiations followed; nothing + was demanded of the Burmese beyond a very moderate compensation for the + injuries inflicted on the masters of two British vessels, an apology for + the insults offered by the governor of Rangoon to the representatives of + the British government, and the re-establishment of at least the + appearance of friendly relations by the reception of a British agent by + the Burmese government. But the obduracy of King Pagan, who had succeeded + his father in 1846, led to the refusal alike of atonement for past + wrongs, of any expression of regret for the display of gratuitous + insolence, and of any indication of a desire to maintain friendship for + the future. Another Burmese war was the result, the first shot being + fired in January 1852. As in the former, though success was varying, the + British finally triumphed, and the chief towns in the lower part of the + Burmese kingdom fell to them in succession. The city of Pegu, the capital + of that portion which, after having been captured, had again passed into + the hands of the enemy, was recaptured and retained, and the whole + province of Pegu was, by proclamation of the governor-general, Lord + Dalhousie, declared to be annexed to the British dominions on the 20th of + December 1852. No treaty was obtained or insisted upon,—the British + government being content with the tacit acquiescence of the king of Burma + without such documents; but its resolution was declared, that any active + demonstration of hostility by him would be followed by retribution.</p> + + <p>About the same time a revolution broke out which resulted in King + Pagan's dethronement. His tyrannical and barbarous conduct had made him + obnoxious at home as well as abroad, and indeed many of his actions + recall the worst passages of the history of the later Roman emperors. The + Mindôn prince, who had become apprehensive for his own safety, made him + prisoner in February 1853, and was himself crowned king of Burma towards + the end of the year. The new monarch, known as King Mindôn, showed + himself sufficiently arrogant in his dealings with the European powers, + but was wise enough to keep free from any approach towards hostility. The + loss of Pegu was long a matter of bitter regret, and he absolutely + refused to acknowledge it by a formal treaty. In the beginning of 1855 he + sent a mission of compliment to Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general; and + in the summer of the same year Major (afterwards Sir Arthur) Phayre, + <i>de facto</i> governor of the new province of Pegu, was appointed envoy + to the Burmese court. He was accompanied by Captain (afterwards Sir + Henry) Yule as secretary, and Mr Oldham as geologist, and his mission + added largely to our knowledge of the state of the country; but in its + main object of obtaining a treaty it was unsuccessful. It was not till + 1862 that the king at length yielded, and his relations with Britain were + placed on a definite diplomatic basis.</p> + + <p>In that year the province of British Burma, the present Lower Burma, + was formed, with Sir Arthur Phayre as chief commissioner. In 1867 a + treaty was concluded at Mandalay providing for the free intercourse of + trade and the establishment of regular diplomatic relations. King Mindôn + died in 1878, and was succeeded by his son King Thibaw. Early in 1879 he + excited much horror by executing a number of the members of the Burmese + royal family, and relations became much strained. The British resident + was withdrawn in October 1879. The government of the country rapidly + became bad. Control over many of the outlying districts was lost, and the + elements of disorder on the British frontier were a standing menace to + the peace of the country. The Burmese court, in contravention of the + express terms of the treaty of 1869, created monopolies to the detriment + of the trade of both England and Burma; and while the Indian government + was unrepresented at Mandalay, representatives of Italy and France were + welcomed, and two separate embassies were sent to Europe for the purpose + of contracting new and, if possible, close alliances with sundry European + powers. Matters were brought to a crisis towards the close of 1885, when + the Burmese government imposed a fine of £230,000 on the Bombay-Burma + Trading Corporation, and refused to comply with a suggestion of the + Indian government that the cause of complaint should be investigated by + an impartial arbitrator. An ultimatum was therefore despatched on the + 22nd of October 1885. On the 9th of November a reply was received in + Rangoon amounting to an unconditional refusal. The king on the 7th of + November issued a proclamation calling upon his subjects to drive the + British into the sea. On the 14th of November 1885 the British field + force crossed the frontier, and advanced to Mandalay without incurring + any serious resistance (see <span class="sc">Burmese Wars</span>). It + reached Ava on the 26th of November, and an envoy from the king signified + his submission. On the 28th of November the British occupied Mandalay, + and next day King Thibaw was sent down the river to Rangoon, whence he + was afterwards transferred to Ratnagiri on the Bombay coast. Upper Burma + was formally annexed on the 1st of January 1886, and the work of + restoring the country to order and introducing settled government + commenced. This was a more serious task than the overthrow of the Burmese + government, and occupied four years. This was in part due to the + character of the country, which was characterized as one vast military + obstacle, and in part to the disorganization which had been steadily + growing during the six years of King Thibaw's reign. By the close of 1889 + all the larger bands of marauders were broken up, and since 1890 the + country has enjoyed greater freedom from violent crime than the province + formerly known as British Burma. By the Upper Burma Village Regulations + and the Lower Burma Village Act, the villagers themselves were made + responsible for maintaining order in every village, and the system has + worked with the greatest success. During the decade 1891-1901 the + population increased by 19.8% and cultivation by 53%. With good harvests + and good markets the standard of living in Burma has much improved. Large + areas of cultivable waste have been brought under cultivation, and the + general result has been a contented people. The boundary with Siam was + demarcated in 1893, and that with China was completed in 1900.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Official</i>: Col. + Horace Spearman, <i>British Burma Gazetteer</i> (2 vols., Rangoon, 1879); + Sir J. George Scott, <i>Upper Burma Gazetteer</i> (5 vols., Rangoon, + 1900-1901). <i>Non-official</i>: Right Rev. Bishop Bigandet, <i>Life or + Legend of Gautama</i> (3rd ed., London, 1881); G.W. Bird, <i>Wanderings + in Burma</i> (London, 1897); E.D. Cuming, <i>In the Shadow of the + Pagoda</i> (London, 1893), <i>With the Jungle Folk</i> (Condon, 1897); + Max and Bertha Ferrars, <i>Burma</i> (London, 1900); H. Fielding, <i>The + Soul of a People (Buddhism in Burma)</i> (London, 1898), <i>Thibaw's + Queen</i> (London, 1899), <i>A People at School</i> (1906); Capt. C.J. + Forbes, F.S., <i>Burma</i> (London, 1878), <i>Comparative Grammar of the + Languages of Farther India</i> (London, 1881), <i>Legendary History of + Burma and Arakan</i> (Rangoon, 1882); J. Gordon, <i>Burma and its + Inhabitants</i> (London, 1876); Mrs E. Hart, <!-- Page 846 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page846"></a>[v.04 p.0846]</span><i>Picturesque + Burma</i> (London, 1897); Gen. R. Macmahon, <i>Far Cathay and Farther + India</i> (London, 1892); Rev. F. Mason, D.D., <i>Burma</i> (Rangoon, + 1860); E.H. Parker, <i>Burma</i> (Rangoon, 1892); Sir Arthur Phayre, + <i>History of Burma</i> (London, 1883); G.C. Rigby, <i>History of the + Operations in Northern Arakan and the Yawdwin Chin Hills</i> (Rangoon, + 1897), Sir J. George Scott, <i>Burma, As it is, As it was, and As it will + be</i> (London, 1886); Shway Yoe, <i>The Burman, His Life and Notions</i> + (2nd ed., London, 1896); D.M. Smeaton, <i>The Karens of Burma</i> + (London, 1887); Sir Henry Yule, <i>A Mission to Ava</i> (London, 1858); + J. Nisbet, <i>Burma under British Rule and Before</i> (London, 1901); + V.D. Scott O'Connor, <i>The Silken East</i> (London, 1904); Talbot Kelly, + <i>Burma</i> (London, 1905); an exhaustive account of the administration + is contained in Dr Alleyne Ireland's <i>The Province of Burma</i>, Report + prepared on behalf of the university of Chicago (Boston, U.S.A., 2 vols., + 1907).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">J. G. Sc.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_081" href="#FnAnchor_081">[1]</a> See also, for + geology, W. Theobald, "On the Geology of Pegu," <i>Mem. Geol. Surv. + India</i>, vol. x. pt. ii. (1874); F. Noetling, "The Development and + Subdivision of the Tertiary System in Burma," <i>Rec. Geol. Sun. + India</i>, vol. xxviii. (1895), pp. 59-86, pl. ii.; F. Noetling, "The + Occurrence of Petroleum in Burma, and its Technical Exploitation," + <i>Mem. Geol. Surv. India</i>, vol. xxvii. pt. ii. (1898).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BURMANN, PIETER</b> (1668-1741), Dutch classical scholar, known as + "the Elder," to distinguish him from his nephew, was born at Utrecht. At + the age of thirteen he entered the university where he studied under + Graevius and Gronovius. He devoted himself particularly to the study of + the classical languages, and became unusually proficient in Latin + composition. As he was intended for the legal profession, he spent some + years in attendance on the law classes. For about a year he studied at + Leiden, paying special attention to philosophy and Greek. On his return + to Utrecht he took the degree of doctor of laws (March 1688), and after + travelling through Switzerland and part of Germany, settled down to the + practice of law, without, however, abandoning his classical studies. In + December 1691 he was appointed receiver of the tithes which were + originally paid to the bishop of Utrecht, and five years later was + nominated to the professorship of eloquence and history. To this chair + was soon added that of Greek and politics. In 1714 he paid a short visit + to Paris and ransacked the libraries. In the following year he was + appointed successor to the celebrated Perizonius, who had held the chair + of history, Greek language and eloquence at Leiden. He was subsequently + appointed professor of history for the United Provinces and chief + librarian. His numerous editorial and critical works spread his fame as a + scholar throughout Europe, and engaged him in many of the stormy disputes + which were then so common among men of letters. Burmann was rather a + compiler than a critic; his commentaries show immense learning and + accuracy, but are wanting in taste and judgment. He died on the 31st of + March 1741.</p> + + <p>Burmann edited the following classical authors:—Phaedrus (1698); + Horace (1699); Valerius Flaccus (1702); Petronius Arbiter (1709); + Velleius Paterculus (1719); Quintilian (1720); Justin (1722); Ovid + (1727); <i>Poetae Latini minores</i> (1731); Suetonius (1736); Lucan + (1740). He also published an edition of Buchanan's works, continued + Graevius's great work, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historiarum + Italiae</i>, and wrote a treatise <i>De Vectigalibus populi Romani</i> + (1694) and a short manual of Roman antiquities, <i>Antiquitatum Romanarum + Brevis Descriptio</i> (1711). His <i>Sylloge epistolarum a viris + illustribus scriptarum</i> (1725) is of importance for the history of + learned men. The list of his works occupies five pages in Saxe's + <i>Onomasticon</i>. His poems and orations were published after his + death. There is an account of his life in the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> + for April (1742) by Dr Samuel Johnson.</p> + + <p><b>BURMANN, PIETER</b> (1714-1778), called by himself "the Younger" + (Secundus), Dutch philologist, nephew of the above, was born at Amsterdam + on the 13th of October 1714. He was brought up by his uncle in Leiden, + and afterwards studied law and philology under C.A. Duker and Arnold von + Drakenborch at Utrecht. In 1735 he was appointed professor of eloquence + and history at Franeker, with which the chair of poetry was combined in + 1741. In the following year he left Franeker for Amsterdam to become + professor of history and philology at the Athenaeum. He was subsequently + professor of poetry (1744), general librarian (1752), and inspector of + the gymnasium (1753). In 1777 he retired, and died on the 24th of June + 1778 at Sandhorst, near Amsterdam. He resembled his more famous uncle in + the manner and direction of his studies, and in his violent disposition, + which involved him in quarrels with contemporaries, notably Saxe and + Klotz. He was a man of extensive learning, and had a great talent for + Latin poetry. His most valuable works are: <i>Anthologia Veterum + Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum</i> (1759-1773); <i>Aristophanis + Comoediae Novem</i> (1760); <i>Rhetorica ad Herennium</i> (1761). He + completed the editions of Virgil (1746) and Claudian (1760), which had + been left unfinished by his uncle, and commenced an edition of + Propertius, one of his best works, which was only half printed at the + time of his death. It was completed by L. van Santen and published in + 1780.</p> + + <p><b>BURMESE WARS</b>. Three wars were fought between Burma and the + British during the 19th century (see <span class="sc">Burma</span>: + <i>History</i>), which resulted in the gradual extinction of Burmese + independence.</p> + + <p><i>First Burmese War, 1823-26.</i>—On the 23rd of September 1823 + an armed party of Burmese attacked a British guard on Shapura, an island + close to the Chittagong side, killing and wounding six of the guard. Two + Burmese armies, one from Manipur and another from Assam, also entered + Cachar, which was under British protection, in January 1824. War with + Burma was formally declared on the 5th of March 1824. On the 17th of May + a Burmese force invaded Chittagong and drove a mixed sepoy and police + detachment from its position at Ramu, but did not follow up its success. + The British rulers in India, however, had resolved to carry the war into + the enemy's country; an armament, under Commodore Charles Grant and Sir + Archibald Campbell, entered the Rangoon river, and anchored off the town + on the 10th of May 1824. After a feeble resistance the place, then little + more than a large stockaded village, was surrendered, and the troops were + landed. The place was entirely deserted by its inhabitants, the + provisions were carried off or destroyed, and the invading force took + possession of a complete solitude. On the 28th of May Sir A. Campbell + ordered an attack on some of the nearest posts, which were all carried + after a steadily weakening defence. Another attack was made on the 10th + of June on the stockades at the village of Kemmendine. Some of these were + battered by artillery from the war vessels in the river, and the shot and + shells had such effect on the Burmese that they evacuated them, after a + very unequal resistance. It soon, however, became apparent that the + expedition had been undertaken with very imperfect knowledge of the + country, and without adequate provision. The devastation of the country, + which was part of the defensive system of the Burmese, was carried out + with unrelenting rigour, and the invaders were soon reduced to great + difficulties. The health of the men declined, and their ranks were + fearfully thinned. The monarch of Ava sent large reinforcements to his + dispirited and beaten army; and early in June an attack was commenced on + the British line, but proved unsuccessful. On the 8th the British + assaulted. The enemy were beaten at all points; and their strongest + stockaded works, battered to pieces by a powerful artillery, were in + general abandoned. With the exception of an attack by the prince of + Tharrawaddy in the end of August, the enemy allowed the British to remain + unmolested during the months of July and August. This interval was + employed by Sir A. Campbell in subduing the Burmese provinces of Tavoy + and Mergui, and the whole coast of Tenasserim. This was an important + conquest, as the country was salubrious and afforded convalescent + stations to the sick, who were now so numerous in the British army that + there were scarcely 3000 soldiers fit for duty. An expedition was about + this time sent against the old Portuguese fort and factory of Syriam, at + the mouth of the Pegu river, which was taken; and in October the province + of Martaban was reduced under the authority of the British.</p> + + <p>The rainy season terminated about the end of October; and the court of + Ava, alarmed by the discomfiture of its armies, recalled the veteran + legions which were employed in Arakan, under their renowned leader Maha + Bandula. Bandula hastened by forced marches to the defence of his + country; and by the end of November an army of 60,000 men had surrounded + the British position at Rangoon and Kemmendine, for the defence of which + Sir Archibald Campbell had only 5000 efficient troops. The enemy in great + force made repeated attacks on Kemmendine without success, and on the 7th + of December Bandula was defeated in a counter attack made by Sir A. + Campbell. The fugitives retired to a strong position on the river, which + they again entrenched; and here they were attacked by the British on the + 15th, and driven in complete confusion from the field.</p> + + <p>Sir Archibald Campbell now resolved to advance on Prome, <!-- Page 847 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page847"></a>[v.04 p.0847]</span>about + 100 m. higher up the Irrawaddy river. He moved with his force on the 13th + of February 1825 in two divisions, one proceeding by land, and the other, + under General Willoughby Cotton, destined for the reduction of Danubyu, + being embarked on the flotilla. Taking the command of the land force, he + continued his advance till the 11th of March, when intelligence reached + him of the failure of the attack upon Danubyu. He instantly commenced a + retrograde march; on the 27th he effected a junction with General + Cotton's force, and on the 2nd of April entered the entrenchments at + Danubyu without resistance, Bandula having been killed by the explosion + of a bomb. The English general entered Prome on the 25th, and remained + there during the rainy season. On the 17th of September an armistice was + concluded for one month. In the course of the summer General Joseph + Morrison had conquered the province of Arakan; in the north the Burmese + were expelled from Assam; and the British had made some progress in + Cachar, though their advance was finally impeded by the thick forests and + jungle.</p> + + <p>The armistice having expired on the 3rd of November, the army of Ava, + amounting to 60,000 men, advanced in three divisions against the British + position at Prome, which was defended by 3000 Europeans and 2000 native + troops. But the British still triumphed, and after several actions, in + which the Burmese were the assailants and were partially successful, Sir + A. Campbell, on the 1st of December, attacked the different divisions of + their army, and successively drove them from all their positions, and + dispersed them in every direction. The Burmese retired on Malun, along + the course of the Irrawaddy, where they occupied, with 10,000 or 12,000 + men, a series of strongly fortified heights and a formidable stockade. On + the 26th they sent a flag of truce to the British camp; and negotiations + having commenced, peace was proposed to them on the following + conditions:—(1) The cession of Arakan, together with the provinces + of Mergui, Tavoy and Ye; (2) the renunciation by the Burmese sovereign of + all claims upon Assam and the contiguous petty states; (3) the Company to + be paid a crore of rupees as an indemnification for the expenses of the + war; (4) residents from each court to be allowed, with an escort of fifty + men; while it was also stipulated that British ships should no longer be + obliged to unship their rudders and land their guns as formerly in the + Burmese ports. This treaty was agreed to and signed, but the ratification + of the king was still wanting; and it was soon apparent that the Burmese + had no intention to sign it, but were preparing to renew the contest. On + the 19th of January, accordingly, Sir A. Campbell attacked and carried + the enemy's position at Malun. Another offer of peace was here made by + the Burmese, but it was found to be insincere; and the fugitive army made + at the ancient city of Pagan a final stand in defence of the capital. + They were attacked and overthrown on the 9th of February 1826; and the + invading force being now within four days' march of Ava, Dr Price, an + American missionary, who with other Europeans had been thrown into prison + when the war commenced, was sent to the British camp with the treaty + (known as the treaty of Yandaboo) ratified, the prisoners of war + released, and an instalment of 25 lakhs of rupees. The war was thus + brought to a successful termination, and the British army evacuated the + country.</p> + + <p><i>Second Burmese War, 1852.</i>—On the 15th of March 1852 Lord + Dalhousie sent an ultimatum to King Pagan, announcing that hostile + operations would be commenced if all his demands were not agreed to by + the ist of April. Meanwhile a force consisting of 8100 troops had been + despatched to Rangoon under the command of General H.T. Godwin, C.B., + while Commodore Lambert commanded the naval contingent. No reply being + given to this letter, the first blow of the Second Burmese War was struck + by the British on the 5th of April 1852, when Martaban was taken. Rangoon + town was occupied on the 12th, and the Shwe Dagôn pagoda on the 14th, + after heavy fighting, when the Burmese army retired northwards. Bassein + was seized on the 19th of May, and Pegu was taken on the 3rd of June, + after some sharp fighting round the Shwe-maw-daw pagoda. During the rainy + season the approval of the East India Company's court of directors and of + the British government was obtained to the annexation of the lower + portion of the Irrawaddy Valley, including Prome. Lord Dalhousie visited + Rangoon in July and August, and discussed the whole situation with the + civil, military and naval authorities. In consequence General Godwin + occupied Prome on the 9th of October after but slight resistance. Early + in December Lord Dalhousie informed King Pagan that the province of Pegu + would henceforth form part of the British dominions, and that if his + troops resisted the measure his whole kingdom would be destroyed. The + proclamation of annexation was issued on the 20th of January 1853, and + thus the Second Burmese War was brought to an end without any treaty + being signed.</p> + + <p><i>Third Burmese War, 1885-86.</i>—The imposition of an + impossible fine on the Bombay-Burma Trading Company, coupled with the + threat of confiscation of all their rights and property in case of + non-payment, led to the British ultimatum of the 22nd of October 1885; + and by the 9th of November a practical refusal of the terms having been + received at Rangoon, the occupation of Mandalay and the dethronement of + King Thibaw were determined upon. At this time, beyond the fact that the + country was one of dense jungle, and therefore most unfavourable for + military operations, little was known of the interior of Upper Burma; but + British steamers had for years been running on the great river highway of + the Irrawaddy, from Rangoon to Mandalay, and it was obvious that the + quickest and most satisfactory method of carrying out the British + campaign was an advance by water direct on the capital. Fortunately a + large number of light-draught river steamers and barges (or "flats"), + belonging to the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company, were available at Rangoon, + and the local knowledge of the company's officers of the difficult river + navigation was at the disposal of the government. Major-General, + afterwards Sir, H.N.D. Prendergast, V.C., K.C.B., R.E., was placed in + command of the expedition. As was only to be expected in an enterprise of + this description, the navy as well as the army was called in requisition; + and as usual the services rendered by the seamen and guns were most + important. The total effective of the force was 9034 fighting men, 2810 + native followers and 67 guns, and for river service, 24 machine guns. The + river fleet which conveyed the troops and stores was composed of a total + of no less than 55 steamers, barges, launches, &c.</p> + + <p>Thayetmyo was the British post on the river nearest to the frontier, + and here, by 14th November, five days after Thibaw's answer had been + received, practically the whole expedition was assembled. On the same day + General Prendergast received instructions to commence operations. The + Burmese king and his country were taken completely by surprise by the + unexampled rapidity of the advance. There had been no time for them to + collect and organize the stubborn resistance of which the river and its + defences were capable. They had not even been able to block the river by + sinking steamers, &c., across it, for, on the very day of the receipt + of orders to advance, the armed steamers, the "Irrawaddy" and "Kathleen," + engaged the nearest Burmese batteries, and brought out from under their + guns the king's steamer and some barges which were lying in readiness for + this very purpose. On the 16th the batteries themselves on both banks + were taken by a land attack, the enemy being evidently unprepared and + making no resistance. On the 17th of November, however, at Minhla, on the + right bank of the river, the Burmans in considerable force held + successively a barricade, a pagoda and the redoubt of Minhla. The attack + was pressed home by a brigade of native infantry on shore, covered by a + bombardment from the river, and the enemy were defeated with a loss of + 170 killed and 276 prisoners, besides many more drowned in the attempt to + escape by the river. The advance was continued next day and the following + days, the naval brigade and heavy artillery leading and silencing in + succession the enemy's river defences at Nyaungu, Pakôkku and Myingyan. + On the 26th of November, when the flotilla was approaching the ancient + capital of Ava, envoys from King Thibaw met General Prendergast with + offers of surrender; and on the 27th, when the ships <!-- Page 848 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page848"></a>[v.04 p.0848]</span>were + lying off that city and ready to commence hostilities, the order of the + king to his troops to lay down their arms was received. There were three + strong forts here, full at that moment with thousands of armed Burmans, + and though a large number of these filed past and laid down their arms by + the king's command, still many more were allowed to disperse with their + weapons; and these, in the time that followed, broke up into dacoit or + guerrilla bands, which became the scourge of the country and prolonged + the war for years. Meanwhile, however, the surrender of the king of Burma + was complete; and on the 28th of November, in less than a fortnight from + the declaration of war, Mandalay had fallen, and the king himself was a + prisoner, while every strong fort and town on the river, and all the + king's ordnance (1861 pieces), and thousands of rifles, muskets and arms + had been taken. Much valuable and curious "loot" and property was found + in the palace and city of Mandalay, which, when sold, realized about 9 + lakhs of rupees (£60,000).</p> + + <p>From Mandalay, General Prendergast seized Bhamo on the 28th of + December. This was a very important move, as it forestalled the Chinese, + who were preparing to claim the place. But unfortunately, although the + king was dethroned and deported, and the capital and the whole of the + river in the hands of the British, the bands of armed soldiery, + unaccustomed to conditions other than those of anarchy, rapine and + murder, took advantage of the impenetrable cover of their jungles to + continue a desultory armed resistance. Reinforcements had to be poured + into the country, and it was in this phase of the campaign, lasting + several years, that the most difficult and most arduous work fell to the + lot of the troops. It was in this jungle warfare that the losses from + battle, sickness and privation steadily mounted up; and the troops, both + British and native, proved once again their fortitude and courage.</p> + + <p>Various expeditions followed one another in rapid succession, + penetrating to the remotest corners of the land, and bringing peace and + protection to the inhabitants, who, it must be mentioned, suffered at + least as much from the dacoits as did the troops. The final, and now + completely successful, pacification of the country, under the direction + of Sir Frederick (afterwards Earl) Roberts, was only brought about by an + extensive system of small protective posts scattered all over the + country, and small lightly equipped columns moving out to disperse the + enemy whenever a gathering came to a head, or a pretended prince or king + appeared.</p> + + <p>No account of the Third Burmese War would be complete without a + reference to the first, and perhaps for this reason most notable, land + advance into the enemy's country. This was carried out in November 1885 + from Toungoo, the British frontier post in the east of the country, by a + small column of all arms under Colonel W.P. Dicken, 3rd Madras Light + Infantry, the first objective being Ningyan. The operations were + completely successful, in spite of a good deal of scattered resistance, + and the force afterwards moved forward to Yamethin and Hlaingdet. As + inland operations developed, the want of mounted troops was badly felt, + and several regiments of cavalry were brought over from India, while + mounted infantry was raised locally. It was found that without these most + useful arms it was generally impossible to follow up and punish the + active enemy.</p> + + <p><b>BURN, RICHARD</b> (1700-1785), English legal writer, was born at + Winton, Westmorland, in 1709. Educated at Queen's College, Oxford, he + entered the Church, and in 1736 became vicar of Orton in Westmorland. He + was a justice of the peace for the counties of Westmorland and + Cumberland, and devoted himself to the study of law. He was appointed + chancellor of the diocese of Carlisle in 1765, an office which he held + till his death at Orton on the 12th of November 1785. Burn's <i>Justice + of the Peace and Parish Officer</i>, first published in 1755, was for + many years the standard authority on the law relating to justices of the + peace. It has passed through innumerable editions. His <i>Ecclesiastical + Law</i> (1760), a work of much research, was the foundation upon which + were built many modern commentaries on ecclesiastical law. The best + edition is that by R. Phillimore (4 vols., 1842). Burn also wrote + <i>Digest of the Militia Laws</i> (1760), and <i>A New Law Dictionary</i> + (2 vols., 1792).</p> + + <p><b>BURNABY, FREDERICK GUSTAVUS</b> (1842-1885), English traveller and + soldier, was born on the 3rd of March 1842, at Bedford, the son of a + clergyman. Educated at Harrow and in Germany, he entered the Royal Horse + Guards in 1859. Finding no chance for active service, his spirit of + adventure sought outlets in balloon-ascents and in travels through Spain + and Russia. In the summer of 1874 he accompanied the Carlist forces as + correspondent of <i>The Times</i>, but before the end of the war he was + transferred to Africa to report on Gordon's expedition to the Sudan. This + took Burnaby as far as Khartum. Returning to England in March 1875, he + matured his plans for a journey on horseback to Khiva through Russian + Asia, which had just been closed to travellers. His accomplishment of + this task, in the winter of 1875-1876, described in his book <i>A Ride to + Khiva</i>, brought him immediate fame. His next leave of absence was + spent in another adventurous journey on horseback, through Asia Minor, + from Scutari to Erzerum, with the object of observing the Russian + frontier, an account of which he afterwards published. In the + Russo-Turkish War of 1877, Burnaby (who soon afterwards became + lieut.-colonel) acted as travelling agent to the Stafford House (Red + Cross) Committee, but had to return to England before the campaign was + over. At this point began his active interest in politics, and in 1880 he + unsuccessfully contested a seat at Birmingham in the Tory-Democrat + interest. In 1882 he crossed the Channel in a balloon. Having been + disappointed in his hope of seeing active service in the Egyptian + campaign of 1882, he participated in the Suakin campaign of 1884 without + official leave, and was wounded at El Teb when acting as an intelligence + officer under General Valentine Baker. This did not deter him from a + similar course when a fresh expedition started up the Nile. He was given + a post by Lord Wolseley, and met his death in the hand-to-hand fighting + of the battle of Abu Klea (17th January 1885).</p> + + <p><b>BURNAND, SIR FRANCIS COWLEY</b> (1836- ), English humorist, was + born in London on the 29th of November 1836. His father was a London + stockbroker, of French-Swiss origin; his mother Emma Cowley, a direct + descendant of Hannah Cowley (1743-1809), the English poet and dramatist. + He was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and originally studied first for + the Anglican, then for the Roman Catholic Church; but eventually took to + the law and was called to the bar. From his earliest days, however, the + stage had attracted him—he founded the Amateur Dramatic Club at + Cambridge,—and finally he abandoned the church and the law, first + for the stage and subsequently for dramatic authorship. His first great + dramatic success was made with the burlesque <i>Black-Eyed Susan</i>, and + he wrote a large number of other burlesques, comedies and farces. One of + his early burlesques came under the favourable notice of Mark Lemon, then + editor of <i>Punch</i>, and Burnand, who was already writing for the + comic paper <i>Fun</i>, became in 1862 a regular contributor to + <i>Punch</i>. In 1880 he was appointed editor of <i>Punch</i>, and only + retired from that position in 1906. In 1902 he was knighted. His literary + reputation as a humorist depends, apart from his long association with + <i>Punch</i>, on his well-known book <i>Happy Thoughts</i>, originally + published in <i>Punch</i> in 1863-1864 and frequently reprinted.</p> + + <p>See <i>Recollections and Reminiscences</i>, by Sir F.C. Burnand + (London, 1904).</p> + + <p><b>BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD BURNE,</b> Bart. (1833-1898), English + painter and designer, was born on the 28th of August 1833 at Birmingham. + His father was a Welsh descent, and the idealism of his nature and art + has been attributed to this Celtic strain. An only son, he was educated + at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and destined for the Church. He + retained through life an interest in classical studies, but it was the + mythology of the classics which fascinated him. He went into residence as + a scholar at Exeter College, Oxford, in January 1853. On the same day + William Morris entered the same college, having also the intention of + taking orders. The two were thrown together, and grew close friends. + Their similar tastes and enthusiasms were <!-- Page 849 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page849"></a>[v.04 p.0849]</span>mutually + stimulated. Burne-Jones resumed his early love of drawing and designing. + With Morris he read <i>Modern Painters</i> and the <i>Morte d'Arthur</i>. + He studied the Italian pictures in the University galleries, and Dürer's + engravings; but his keenest enthusiasm was kindled by the sight of two + works by a living man, Rossetti. One of these was a woodcut in + Allingham's poems, "The Maids of Elfinmere"; the other was the + water-colour "Dante drawing an Angel," then belonging to Mr Coombe, of + the Clarendon Press, and now in the University collection. Having found + his true vocation, Burne-Jones, like his friend Morris, determined to + relinquish his thoughts of the Church and to become an artist. Rossetti, + although not yet seen by him, was his chosen master; and early in 1856 he + had the happiness, in London, of meeting him. At Easter he left college + without taking a degree. This was his own decision, not due (as often + stated) to Rossetti's persuasion; but on settling in London, where Morris + soon joined him at 17 Red Lion Square, he began to work under Rossetti's + friendly instruction and encouraging guidance.</p> + + <p>As Burne-Jones once said, he "found himself at five-and-twenty what he + ought to have been at fifteen." He had had no regular training as a + draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. But his extraordinary + faculty of invention as a designer was already ripening; his mind, rich + in knowledge of classical story and medieval romance, teemed with + pictorial subjects; and he set himself to complete his equipment by + resolute labour, witnessed by innumerable drawings. The works of this + first period are all more or less tinged by the influence of Rossetti; + but they are already differentiated from the elder master's style by + their more facile though less intensely felt elaboration of imaginative + detail. Many are pen-and-ink drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of + which the "Waxen Image" is one of the earliest and best examples; it is + dated 1856. Although subject, medium and manner derive from Rossetti's + inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but of a potential + master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself, who before long avowed + that he had nothing more to teach him. Burne-Jones's first sketch in oils + dates from this same year, 1856; and during 1857 he made for Bradfield + College the first of what was to be an immense series of cartoons for + stained glass. In 1858 he decorated a cabinet with the "Prioress's Tale" + from Chaucer, his first direct illustration of the work of a poet whom he + especially loved and who inspired him with endless subjects. Thus early, + therefore, we see the artist busy in all the various fields in which he + was to labour.</p> + + <p>In the autumn of 1857 Burne-Jones joined in Rossetti's ill-fated + scheme to decorate theh walls of the Oxford Union. None of the painters + had mastered the technique of fresco, and their pictures had begun to + peel from the walls before they were completed. In 1859 Burne-Jones made + his first journey to Italy. He saw Florence, Pisa, Siena, Venice and + other places, and appears to have found the gentle and romantic Sienese + more attractive than any other school. Rossetti's influence still + persisted; and its impress is visible, more strongly perhaps than ever + before, in the two water-colours "Sidonia von Bork" and "Clara von Bork," + painted in 1860. These little masterpieces have a directness of execution + rare with the artist. In powerful characterization, combined with a + decorative motive, they rival Rossetti at his best. In June of this year + Burne-Jones was married to Miss Georgiana Macdonald, two of whose sisters + were the wives of Sir E. Poynter and Mr J.L. Kipling, and they settled in + Bloomsbury. Five years later he moved to Kensington Square, and shortly + afterwards to the Grange, Fulham, an old house with a garden, where he + resided till his death. In 1862 the artist and his wife accompanied + Ruskin to Italy, visiting Milan and Venice.</p> + + <p>In 1864 he was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in + Water-Colours, and exhibited, among other works, "The Merciful Knight," + the first picture which fully revealed his ripened personality as an + artist. The next six years saw a series of fine water-colours at the same + gallery; but in 1870, owing to a misunderstanding, Burne-Jones resigned + his membership of the society. He was re-elected in 1886. During the next + seven years, 1870-1877, only two works of the painter's were exhibited. + These were two water-colours, shown at the Dudley Gallery in 1873, one of + them being the beautiful "Love among the Ruins," destroyed twenty years + later by a cleaner who supposed it to be an oil painting, but afterwards + reproduced in oils by the painter. This silent period was, however, one + of unremitting production. Hitherto Burne-Jones had worked almost + entirely in water-colours. He now began a number of large pictures in + oils, working at them in turn, and having always several on hand. The + "Briar Rose" series, "Laus Veneris," the "Golden Stairs," the "Pygmalion" + series, and "The Mirror of Venus" are among the works planned and + completed, or carried far towards completion, during these years. At + last, in May 1877, the day of recognition came, with the opening of the + first exhibition of the Grosvenor Gallery, when the "Days of Creation," + the "Beguiling of Merlin," and the "Mirror of Venus" were all shown. + Burne-Jones followed up the signal success of these pictures with "Laus + Veneris," the "Chant d'Amour," "Pan and Psyche," and other works, + exhibited in 1878. Most of these pictures are painted in gay and + brilliant colours. A change is noticeable next year, 1879, in the + "Annunciation" and in the four pictures called "Pygmalion and the Image"; + the former of these, one of the simplest and most perfect of the artist's + works, is subdued and sober; in the latter a scheme of soft and delicate + tints was attempted, not with entire success. A similar temperance of + colours marks the "Golden Stairs," first exhibited in 1880. In 1884, + following the almost sombre "Wheel of Fortune" of the preceding year, + appeared "King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid," in which Burne-Jones once + more indulged his love of gorgeous colour, refined by the period of + self-restraint. This masterpiece is now in the National collection. He + next turned to two important sets of pictures, "The Briar Rose" and "The + Story of Perseus," though these were not completed for some years to + come. In 1886, having been elected A.R.A. the previous year, he exhibited + (for the only time) at the Royal Academy "The Depths of the Sea," a + mermaid carrying down with her a youth whom she has unconsciously drowned + in the impetuosity of her love. This picture adds to the habitual + haunting charm a tragic irony of conception and a felicity of execution + which give it a place apart among Burne-Jones's works. He resigned his + Associateship in 1893. One of the "Perseus" series was exhibited in 1887, + two more in 1888, with "The Brazen Tower," inspired by the same legend. + In 1890 the four pictures of "The Briar Rose" were exhibited by + themselves, and won the widest admiration. The huge tempera picture, "The + Star of Bethlehem," painted for the corporation of Birmingham, was + exhibited in 1891. A long illness for some time checked the painter's + activity, which, when resumed, was much occupied with decorative schemes. + An exhibition of his work was held at the New Gallery in the winter of + 1892-1893. To this period belong several of his comparatively few + portraits. In 1894 Burne-Jones was made a baronet. Ill-health again + interrupted the progress of his works, chief among which was the vast + "Arthur in Avalon." In 1898 he had an attack of influenza, and had + apparently recovered, when he was again taken suddenly ill, and died on + the 17th of June. In the following winter a second exhibition of his + works was held at the New Gallery, and an exhibition of his drawings + (including some of the charmingly humorous sketches made for children) at + the Burlington Fine Arts Club.</p> + + <p>His son and successor in the baronetcy, Sir Philip Burne-Jones (b. + 1861), also became well known as an artist. The only daughter, Margaret, + married Mr J.W. Mackail.</p> + + <p>Burne-Jones's influence has been exercised far less in painting than + in the wide field of decorative design. Here it has been enormous. His + first designs for stained glass, 1857-1861, were made for Messrs Powell, + but after 1861 he worked exclusively for Morris & Co. Windows + executed from his cartoons are to be found all over England; others exist + in churches abroad. For the American Church in Rome he designed a number + of mosaics. Reliefs in metal, tiles, gesso-work, decorations for <!-- + Page 850 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page850"></a>[v.04 + p.0850]</span>pianos and organs, and cartoons for tapestry represent his + manifold activity. In all works, however, which were only designed and + not carried out by him, a decided loss of delicacy is to be noted. The + colouring of the tapestries (of which the "Adoration of the Magi" at + Exeter College is the best-known) is more brilliant than successful. The + range and fertility of Burne-Jones as a decorative inventor can be + perhaps most conveniently studied in the sketch-book, 1885-1895, which he + bequeathed to the British Museum. The artist's influence on + book-illustration must also be recorded. In early years he made a few + drawings on wood for Dalziel's Bible and for <i>Good Words</i>; but his + later work for the Kelmscott Press, founded by Morris in 1891, is that by + which he is best remembered. Besides several illustrations to other + Kelmscott books, he made eighty-seven designs for the <i>Chaucer</i> of + 1897.</p> + + <p>Burne-Jones's aim in art is best given in some of his own words, + written to a friend: "I mean by a picture a beautiful, romantic dream of + something that never was, never will be—in a light better than any + light that ever shone—in a land no one can define or remember, only + desire—and the forms divinely beautiful—and then I wake up, + with the waking of Brynhild." No artist was ever more true to his aim. + Ideals resolutely pursued are apt to provoke the resentment of the world, + and Burne-Jones encountered, endured and conquered an extraordinary + amount of, angry criticism. In so far as this was directed against the + lack of realism in his pictures, it was beside the point. The earth, the + sky, the rocks, the trees, the men and women of Burne-Jones are not those + of this world; but they are themselves a world, consistent with itself, + and having therefore its own reality. Charged with the beauty and with + the strangeness of dreams, it has nothing of a dream's incoherence. Yet + it is a dreamer always whose nature penetrates these works, a nature out + of sympathy with struggle and strenuous action. Burne-Jones's men and + women are dreamers too. It was this which, more than anything else, + estranged him from the age into which he was born. But he had an inbred + "revolt from fact" which would have estranged him from the actualities of + any age. That criticism seems to be more justified which has found in him + a lack of such victorious energy and mastery over his materials as would + have enabled him to carry out his conceptions in their original + intensity. Representing the same kind of tendency as distinguished his + French contemporary, Puvis de Chavannes, he was far less in the main + current of art, and his position suffers accordingly. Often compared with + Botticelli, he had nothing of the fire and vehemence of the Florentine. + Yet, if aloof from strenuous action, Burne-Jones was singularly strenuous + in production. His industry was inexhaustible, and needed to be, if it + was to keep pace with the constant pressure of his ideas. Invention, a + very rare excellence, was his pre-eminent gift. Whatever faults his + paintings may have, they have always the fundamental virtue of design; + they are always pictures. His fame might rest on his purely decorative + work. But his designs were informed with a mind of romantic temper, apt + in the discovery of beautiful subjects, and impassioned with a delight in + pure and variegated colour. These splendid gifts were directed in a + critical and fortunate moment by the genius of Rossetti. Hence a career + which shows little waste or misdirection of power, and, granted the aim + proposed, a rare level of real success.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—In 1904 was published + <i>Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones</i>, by his widow, two volumes of + extreme interest and charm. <i>The Work of Burne-Jones</i>, a collection + of ninety-one photogravures, appeared in 1900.</p> + + <p>See also <i>Catalogue to Burlington Club Exhibition of Drawings by + Burne-Jones</i>, with Introduction by Cosmo Monkhouse (1899); <i>Sir E. + Burne-Jones: a Record and a Review</i>, by Malcolm Belt (1898); <i>Sir E. + Burne-Jones, his Life and Work</i>, by Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady) (1894); + <i>The Life of William Morris</i>, by J.W. Mackail (1899).</p> + + <p>(L. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE</b> (1840-1882), English Sanskrit scholar, was + born at St Briavels, Gloucestershire, in 1840. His father was an official + of the East India Company, and in 1860 he himself went out to Madras as a + member of the Indian civil service. Here he utilized every available + opportunity to acquire or copy Sanskrit manuscripts. In 1870 he presented + his collection of 350 MSS. to the India library. In 1874 he published a + <i>Handbook of South Indian Palaeography</i>, characterized by Max Müller + as "indispensable to every student of Indian literature," and in 1880 + issued for the Madras government his greatest work, the <i>Classified + Index to the Sanskrit MSS. in the Palace at Tanjore</i>. He was also the + author of a large number of translations from, and commentaries on, + various other Sanskrit manuscripts, being particularly successful in + grouping and elucidating the essential principles of Hindu law. In + addition to his exhaustive acquaintance with Sanskrit, and the southern + India vernaculars, he had some knowledge of Tibetan, Arabic, Kawi, + Javanese and Coptic. Burnell originated with Sir Henry Yule the + well-known dictionary of Anglo-Indian words and phrases, + <i>Hobson-Jobson</i>. His constitution, never strong, broke down + prematurely through the combined influence of overwork and the Madras + climate, and he died at West Stratton, Hampshire, on the 12th of October + 1882. A further collection of Sanskrit manuscripts was purchased from his + heirs by the India library after his death.</p> + + <p><b>BURNELL, ROBERT</b> (d. 1292), English bishop and chancellor, was + born at Acton Burnell in Shropshire, and began his public life probably + as a clerk in the royal chancery. He was soon in the service of Edward, + the eldest son of King Henry III., and was constantly in attendance on + the prince, whose complete confidence he appears to have enjoyed. Having + received some ecclesiastical preferments, he acted as one of the regents + of the kingdom from the death of Henry III. in November 1272 until August + 1274, when the new king, Edward I., returned from Palestine and made him + his chancellor. In 1275 Burnell was elected bishop of Bath and Wells, and + three years later Edward repeated the attempt which he had made in 1270 + to secure the archbishopric of Canterbury for his favourite. The bishop's + second failure to obtain this dignity was due, doubtless, to his + irregular and unclerical manner of life, a fact which also accounts, in + part at least, for the hostility which existed between his victorious + rival, Archbishop Peckham, and himself. As the chief adviser of Edward I. + during the earlier part of his reign, and moreover as a trained and able + lawyer, the bishop took a prominent part in the legislative acts of the + "English Justinian," whose activity in this direction coincides + practically with Burnell's tenure of the office of chancellor. The bishop + also influenced the king's policy with regard to France, Scotland and + Wales; was frequently employed on business of the highest moment; and was + the royal mouthpiece on several important occasions. In 1283 a council, + or, as it is sometimes called, a parliament, met in his house at Acton + Burnell, and he was responsible for the settlement of the court of + chancery in London. In spite of his numerous engagements, Burnell found + time to aggrandize his bishopric, to provide liberally for his nephews + and other kinsmen, and to pursue his cherished but futile aim of founding + a great family. Licentious and avaricious, he amassed great wealth; and + when he died on the 25th of October 1292 he left numerous estates in + Shropshire, Worcestershire, Somerset, Kent, Surrey and elsewhere. He was, + however, genial and kind-hearted, a great lawyer and a faithful + minister.</p> + + <p>See R.W. Eyton, <i>Antiquities of Shropshire</i> (London, 1854-1860); + and E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i>, vol. iii. (London, + 1848-1864).</p> + + <p><b>BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER</b> (1805-1841), British traveller and + explorer, was born at Montrose, Scotland, in 1805. While serving in + India, in the army of the East India Company, which he had joined in his + seventeenth year, he made himself acquainted with Hindustani and Persian, + and thus obtained an appointment as interpreter at Surat in 1822. + Transferred to Cutch in 1826 as assistant to the political agent, he + turned his attention more particularly to the history and geography of + north-western India and the adjacent countries, at that time very + imperfectly known. His proposal in 1829 to undertake a journey of + exploration through the valley of the Indus was not carried out owing to + political apprehensions; but in 1831 he was sent to Lahore with a present + of horses from King William IV. to Maharaja Ranjit Singh and took + advantage of the opportunity for extensive investigations. In the + following years his travels were extended through Afghanistan across the + Hindu Kush to <!-- Page 851 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page851"></a>[v.04 p.0851]</span>Bokhara and Persia. The narrative + which he published on his visit to England in 1834 added immensely to + contemporary knowledge of the countries traversed, and was one of the + most popular books of the time. The first edition brought the author the + sum of £800, and his services were recognized not only by the Royal + Geographical Society of London, but also by that of Paris. Soon after his + return to India in 1835 he was appointed to the court of Sind to secure a + treaty for the navigation of the Indus; and in 1836 he undertook a + political mission to Dost Mahommed at Kabul. He advised Lord Auckland to + support Dost Mahommed on the throne of Kabul, but the viceroy preferred + to follow the opinion of Sir William Macnaghten and reinstated Shah + Shuja, thus leading up to the disasters of the first Afghan War. On the + restoration of Shah Shuja in 1839, he became regular political agent at + Kabul, and remained there till his assassination in 1841 (on the 2nd of + November), during the heat of an insurrection. The calmness with which he + continued at his post, long after the imminence of his danger was + apparent, gives an heroic colouring to the close of an honourable and + devoted life. It came to light in 1861 that some of Burnes' despatches + from Kabul in 1839 had been altered, so as to convey opinions opposite to + his, but Lord Palmerston refused after such a lapse of time to grant the + inquiry demanded in the House of Commons. A narrative of his later + labours was published in 1842 under the title of <i>Cabool</i>.</p> + + <p>See Sir J.W. Kaye, <i>Lives of Indian Officers</i> (1889).</p> + + <p><b>BURNET, GILBERT</b> (1643-1715), English bishop and historian, was + born in Edinburgh on the 18th of September 1643, of an ancient and + distinguished Scottish house. He was the youngest son of Robert Burnet + (1592-1661), who at the Restoration became a lord of session with the + title of Lord Crimond. Robert Burnet had refused to sign the Scottish + Covenant, although the document was drawn up by his brother-in-law, + Archibald Johnstone, Lord Warristoun. He therefore found it necessary to + retire from his profession, and twice went into exile. He disapproved of + the rising of the Scots, but was none the less a severe critic of the + government of Charles I. and of the action of the Scottish bishops. This + moderate attitude he impressed on his son Gilbert, whose early education + he directed. The boy entered Marischal College at the age of nine, and + five years later graduated M.A. He then spent a year in the study of + feudal and civil law before he resolved to devote himself to theology. He + became a probationer for the Scottish ministry in 1661 just before + episcopal government was re-established in Scotland. His decision to + accept episcopal orders led to difficulties with his family, especially + with his mother, who held rigid Presbyterian views. From this time dates + his friendship with Robert Leighton (1611-1684), who greatly influenced + his religious opinions. Leighton had, during a stay in the Spanish + Netherlands, assimilated something of the ascetic and pietistic spirit of + Jansenism, and was devoted to the interests of peace in the church. + Burnet wisely refused to accept a benefice in the disturbed state of + church affairs, but he wrote an audacious letter to Archbishop Sharp + asking him to take measures to restore peace. Sharp sent for Burnet, and + dismissed his advice without apparent resentment. He had already made + valuable acquaintances in Edinburgh, and he now visited London, Oxford + and Cambridge, and, after a short visit to Edinburgh in 1663, when he + sought to secure a reprieve for his uncle Warristoun, he proceeded to + travel in France and Holland. At Cambridge he was strongly influenced by + the philosophical views of Ralph Cudworth and Henry More, who proposed an + unusual degree of toleration within the boundaries of the church and the + limitations imposed by its liturgy and episcopal government; and his + intercourse in Holland with foreign divines of different Protestant sects + further encouraged his tendency to latitudinarianism.</p> + + <p>When he returned to England in 1664 he established intimate relations + with Sir Robert Moray and with John Maitland, earl and afterwards first + duke of Lauderdale, both of whom at that time advocated a tolerant policy + towards the Scottish covenanters. Burnet became a member of the Royal + Society, of which Moray was the first president. On his father's death he + had been offered a living by a relative, Sir Alexander Burnet, and in + 1663 the living of Saltoun, East Lothian, had been kept open for him by + one of his father's friends. He was not formally inducted at Saltoun + until June 1665, although he had served there since October 1664. For the + next five years he devoted himself to his parish, where he won the + respect of all parties. In 1666 he alienated the Scottish bishops by a + bold memorial (printed in vol. ii. of the <i>Miscellanies</i> of the + Scottish Historical Society), in which he pointed out that they were + departing from the custom of the primitive church by their excessive + pretensions, and yet his attitude was far too moderate to please the + Presbyterians. In 1669 he resigned his parish to become professor of + divinity in the university of Glasgow, and in the same year he published + an exposition of his ecclesiastical views in his <i>Modest and Free + Conference between a Conformist and a Nonconformist</i> (by "a lover of + peace"). He was Leighton's right hand in the efforts at a compromise + between the episcopal and the presbyterian principle. Meanwhile he had + begun to differ from Lauderdale, whose policy after the failure of the + scheme of "Accommodation" moved in the direction of absolutism and + repression, and during Lauderdale's visit to Scotland in 1672 the + divergence rapidly developed into opposition. He warily refused the offer + of a Scottish bishopric, and published in 1673 his four "conferences," + entitled <i>Vindication of the Authority, Constitution and Laws of the + Church and State of Scotland</i>, in which he insisted on the duty of + passive obedience. It was partly through the influence of Anne (d. 1716), + duchess of Hamilton in her own right, that he had been appointed at + Glasgow, and he made common cause with the Hamiltons against Lauderdale. + The duchess had made over to him the papers of her father and uncle, from + which he compiled the <i>Memoirs of the Lives and Actions of James and + William, dukes of Hamilton and Castleherald. In which an Account is given + of the Rise and Progress of the Civil Wars of Scotland ... together with + many letters ... written by King Charles I.</i> (London, 1677; Univ. + Press, Oxford, 1852), a book which was published as the second volume of + a <i>History of the Church of Scotland</i>, Spottiswoode's <i>History</i> + forming the first. This work established his reputation as an historian. + Meanwhile he had clandestinely married in 1671 a cousin of Lauderdale, + Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of John Kennedy, 6th earl of Cassilis, a + lady who had already taken an active part in affairs in Scotland, and was + eighteen years older than Burnet. The marriage was kept secret for three + years, and Burnet renounced all claim to his wife's fortune.</p> + + <p>Lauderdale's ascendancy in Scotland and the failure of the attempts at + compromise in Scottish church affairs eventually led Burnet to settle in + England. He was favourably received by Charles II. in 1673, when he went + up to London to arrange for the publication of the Hamilton + <i>Memoirs</i>, and he was treated with confidence by the duke of York. + On his return to Scotland Lauderdale refused to receive him, and + denounced him to Charles II. as one of the chief centres of Scottish + discontent. Burnet found it wiser to retire to England on the plea of + fulfilling his duties as royal chaplain. Once in London he resigned his + professorship (September 1674) at Glasgow; but, although James remained + his friend, Charles struck him off the roll of court chaplains in 1674, + and it was in opposition to court influence that he was made chaplain to + the Rolls Chapel by the master, Sir Harbottle Grimston, and appointed + lecturer at St Clement's. He was summoned in April 1675 before a + committee of the House of Commons to give evidence against Lauderdale, + and disclosed, without reluctance according to his enemies, confidences + which had passed between him and the minister. He himself confesses in + his autobiography that "it was a great error in me to appear in this + matter," and his conduct cost him the patronage of the duke of York. In + ecclesiastical matters he threw in his lot with Thomas Tillotson and John + Tenison, and at the time of the Revolution had written some eighteen + polemics against encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. At the + suggestion of Sir William Jones, the attorney-general, he began his + <i>History of the Reformation in England</i>, based on original + documents. <!-- Page 852 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page852"></a>[v.04 p.0852]</span>In the necessary research he + received some pecuniary help from Robert Boyle, but he was hindered in + the preparation of the first part (1679) through being refused access to + the Cotton library, possibly by the influence of Lauderdale. For this + volume he received the thanks of parliament, and the second and third + volumes appeared in 1681 and 1715. In this work he undertook to refute + the statements of Nicholas Sanders, whose <i>De Origine et progressu + schismatis Anglicani libri tres</i> (Cologne, 1585) was still, in the + French translation of Maucroix, the commonly accepted account of the + English reformation. Burnet's contradictions of Sanders must not, + however, be accepted without independent investigation. At the time of + the Popish Plot in 1678 he displayed some moderation, refusing to believe + the charges made against the duke of York, though he chose this time to + publish some anti-Roman pamphlets. He tried, at some risk to himself, to + save the life of one of the victims, William Staly, and visited William + Howard, Viscount Stafford, in the Tower. To the Exclusion Bill he opposed + a suggestion of compromise, and it is said that Charles offered him the + bishopric of Chichester, "if he would come entirely into his interests." + Burnet's reconciliation with the court was short-lived. In January 1680 + he addressed to the king a long letter on the subject of his sins; he was + known to have received the dangerous confidence of Wilmot, earl of + Rochester, in his last illness; and he was even suspected, unjustly, in + 1683, of having composed the paper drawn up on the eve of death by + William Russell, Lord Russell, whom he attended to the scaffold. On the + 5th of November 1684 he preached, at the express wish of his patron + Grimston, and against his own desire, the usual anti-Catholic sermon. He + was consequently deprived of his appointments by order of the court, and + on the accession of James II. retired to Paris. He had already begun the + writing of his memoirs, which were to develop into the <i>History of His + Own Time</i>.</p> + + <p>Burnet now travelled in Italy, Germany and Switzerland, finally + settling in Holland at the Hague, where he won from the princess of + Orange a confidence which proved enduring. He rendered a signal service + to William by inducing the princess to offer to leave the whole political + power in her husband's hands in the event of their succession to the + English crown. A prosecution against him for high treason was now set on + foot both in England and in Scotland, and he took the precaution of + naturalizing himself as a Dutch subject. Lady Margaret Burnet was dying + when he left England, and n Holland he married a Dutch heiress of + Scottish descent, Mary Scott. He returned to England with William and + Mary, and drew up the English text of their declaration. His earlier + views on the doctrine of non-resistance had been sensibly modified by + what he saw in France after the revocation of the edict of Nantes and by + the course of affairs at home, and in 1688 he published an <i>Inquiry + into the Measures of Submission to the Supreme Authority</i> in defence + of the revolution. He was consecrated to the see of Salisbury on the 31st + of March 1689 by a commission of bishops to whom Archbishop Sancroft had + delegated his authority, declining personally to perform the office. In + his pastoral letter to his clergy urging them to take the oath of + allegiance, Burnet grounded the claim of William and Mary on the right of + conquest, a view which gave such offence that the pamphlet was burnt by + the common hangman three years later. As bishop he proved an excellent + administrator, and gave the closest attention to his pastoral duties. He + discouraged plurality of livings, and consequent non-residence, + established a school of divinity as Salisbury, and spent much time + himself in preparing candidates for confirmation, and in the examination + of those who wished to enter the priesthood. Four discourses delivered to + the clergy of his diocese were printed in 1694. During Queen Mary's + lifetime ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands, but after her + death William III. appointed an ecclesiastical commission on which Burnet + was a prominent member, for the disposal of vacant benefices. In 1696 and + 1697 he presented memorials to the king suggesting that the first-fruits + and tenths raised by the clergy should be devoted to the augmentation of + the poorer livings, and though his suggestions were not immediately + accepted, they were carried into effect under Queen Anne by the provision + known as Queen Anne's Bounty. His second wife died of smallpox in 1698, + and in 1700 Burnet married again, his third wife being Elizabeth + (1661-1709), widow of Robert Berkeley and daughter of Sir Richard Blake, + a rich and charitable woman, known by her <i>Method of Devotion</i>, + posthumously published in 1710. In 1699 he was appointed tutor to the + royal duke of Gloucester, son of the Princess Anne, an appointment which + he accepted somewhat against his will. His influence at court had + declined after the death of Queen Mary; William resented his often + officious advice, placed little confidence in his discretion, and soon + after his accession is even said to have described him as <i>ein rechter + Tartuffe</i>. Burnet made a weighty speech against the bill (1702-1703) + directed against the practice of occasional conformity, and was a + consistent exponent of Broad Church principles. He devoted five years' + labour to his <i>Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles</i> (1699; ed. + J.R. Page, 1837), which was severely criticized by the High Church + clergy. But his hopes for a comprehensive scheme which might include + nonconformists in the English Church were necessarily destroyed on the + accession of Queen Anne. He died on the 17th of March 1715, and was + buried in the parish of St James's, Clerkenwell.</p> + + <p>Burnet directed in his will that his most important work, the + <i>History of His Own Time</i>, should appear six years after his death. + It was published (2 vols., 1724-1734) by his sons, Gilbert and Thomas, + and then not without omissions. It was attacked in 1724 by John Cockburn + in <i>A Specimen of some free and impartial Remarks</i>. Burnet's book + naturally aroused much opposition, and there were persistent rumours that + the MS. had been unduly tampered with. He has been freely charged with + gross misrepresentation, an accusation to which he laid himself open, for + instance, in the account of the birth of James, the Old Pretender. His + later intimacy with the Marlboroughs made him very lenient where the duke + was concerned. The greatest value of his work naturally lies in his + account of transactions of which he had personal knowledge, notably in + his relation of the church history of Scotland, of the Popish Plot, of + the proceedings at the Hague previous to the expedition of William and + Mary, and of the personal relations between the joint sovereigns.</p> + + <p>Of his children by his second wife, William (d. 1729) became a + colonial governor in America; Gilbert (d. 1726) became prebendary of + Salisbury in 1715, and chaplain to George I. in 1718; and Sir Thomas + (1694-1753), his literary executor and biographer, became in 1741 judge + in the court of common pleas.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The chief authorities for + Bishop Burnet's life are the autobiography "Rough Draft of my own Life" + (ed. H.C. Foxcroft, Oxford, 1902, in the <i>Supplement to Burnet's + History</i>), the Life by Sir Thomas Burnet in the <i>History of His Own + Time</i> (Oxford, 1823, vol. vi.), and the <i>History</i> itself. A + rather severe but detailed and useful criticism is given in L. v. Ranke's + <i>History of England</i> (Eng. ed., Oxford, 1875), vol. vi. pp. 45-101. + Burnet's letters to his friend, George Savile, marquess of Halifax, were + published by the Royal Historical Society (<i>Camden Miscellany</i>, vol. + xi.). The <i>History of His Own Time</i> (2 vols. fol., 1724-1734) ran + through many editions before it was reprinted at the Clarendon Press (6 + vols., 1823, and supplementary volume, 1833) with the suppressed passages + of the first volume and notes by the earls of Dartmouth and Hardwicke, + with the remarks of Swift. This edition, under the direction of M.J. + Routh, was enlarged in a second Oxford edition of 1833. A new edition, + based on this, but making use of the Bodleian MS., which differs very + considerably from the printed version, was edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, + 1897, &c.). In 1902 (Clarendon Press, Oxford) Miss H.C. Foxcroft + edited <i>A Supplement to Burnet's History of His Own Time</i>, to which + is prefixed an account of the relation between the different versions of + the History—the Bodleian MS., the fragmentary Harleian MS. in the + British Museum and Sir Thomas Burnet's edition; the book contains the + remaining fragments of Burnet's original memoirs, his autobiography, his + letters to Admiral Herbert and his private meditations. The chief + differences between Burnet's original draft as represented by the + Bodleian MS. and the printed history consist in a more lenient view + generally of individuals, a modification of the censure levelled at the + Anglican clergy, changes obviously dictated by a general variation in his + point of view, and a more cautious account of personal matters such as + his early relations with Lauderdale. He also cut out much minor detail, + and information relating to himself and to members of his family. His + <!-- Page 853 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page853"></a>[v.04 + p.0853]</span><i>History of the Reformation of the Church of England</i> + was edited (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 7 vols., 1865) by N. Pocock.</p> + + <p>Besides the works mentioned above may be noticed: <i>Some Passages of + the Life and Death of John, Earl of Rochester</i> (Lond., 1680; facsimile + reprint, with introduction by Lord Ronald Gower, 1875); <i>The Life and + Death of Sir Matthew Hale, Kt., sometime Lord Chief-Justice of his + Majesties Court of Kings Bench</i> (Lond., 1682), which is included in C. + Wordsworth's <i>Ecclesiastical Biography</i> (vol. vi., 1818); <i>The + History of the Rights of Princes in disposing of Ecclesiastical Benefices + and Church Lands</i> (Lond., 1682, 8vo); <i>The Life of William Bedell, + D.D., Bishop of Kilmore in Ireland</i> (1685), containing the + correspondence between Bedell and James Waddesdon of the Holy Inquisition + on the subject of the Roman obedience; <i>Reflections on Mr Varillas's + "History of the Revolutions that have happened in Europe in matters of + Religion," and more particularly on his Ninth Book, that relates to + England</i> (Amst., 1686), appended to the account of his travels + entitled <i>Some Letters</i>, which was originally published at Rotterdam + (1686); <i>A Discourse of the Pastoral Care</i> (1692, 14th ed., 1821); + <i>An Essay on the Memory of the late Queen</i> (1695); <i>A Collection + of various Tracts and Discourses written in the Years 1677 to 1704</i> (3 + vols., 1704); and <i>A Collection of Speeches, Prefaces, Letters, with a + Description of Geneva and Holland</i> (1713). Of his shorter religious + and polemical works a catalogue is given in vol. vi. of the Clarendon + Press edition of his <i>History</i>, and in Lowndes's <i>Bibliographer's + Manual</i>. The following translations deserve to be + mentioned:—<i>Utopia, written in Latin by Sir Thomas More, + Chancellor of England: translated into English</i> (1685); <i>A Relation + of the Death of the Primitive Persecutors, written originally in Latin, + by L.C.F. Lactantius: Englished by Gilbert Burnet, D.D., to which he hath + made a large preface concerning Persecution</i> (Amst., 1687).</p> + + <p>See also <i>A Life of Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury</i> (1907), + by T.E.S. Clarke and H.C. Foxcroft, with an introduction by C.H. Firth, + which contains a chronological list of Burnet's published works. Of + Burnet's personal character there are well-known descriptions in chapter + vii. of Macaulay's <i>History of England</i>, and in W.E.H. Lecky's + <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i>, vol. i. pp. 80 + seq.</p> + + <p><b>BURNET, THOMAS</b> (1635-1715), English divine, was born at Croft + in Yorkshire about the year 1635. He was educated at Northallerton, and + at Clare Hall, Cambridge. In 1657 he was made fellow of Christ's, and in + 1667 senior proctor of the university. By the interest of James, duke of + Ormonde, he was chosen master of the Charterhouse in 1685, and took the + degree of D.D. As master he made a noble stand against the illegal + attempts to admit Andrew Popham as a pensioner of the house, strenuously + opposing an order of the 26th of December 1686, addressed by James II. to + the governors dispensing with the statutes for the occasion.</p> + + <p>Burnet published his famous <i>Telluris Theoria Sacra</i>, or + <i>Sacred Theory of the Earth</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_091" + href="#Footnote_091"><sup>[1]</sup></a> at London in 1681. This work, + containing a fanciful theory of the earth's structure,<a + name="FnAnchor_092" href="#Footnote_092"><sup>[2]</sup></a> attracted + much attention, and he was afterwards encouraged to issue an English + translation, which was printed in folio, 1684-1689. Addison commended the + author in a Latin ode, but his theory was attacked by John Keill, William + Whiston and Erasmus Warren, to all of whom he returned answers. His + reputation obtained for him an introduction at court by Archbishop + Tillotson, whom he succeeded as clerk of the closet to King William. But + he suddenly marred his prospects by the publication, in 1692, of a work + entitled <i>Archaeologiae Philosophicae: sive Doctrina antiqua de Rerum + Originibus</i>, in which he treated the Mosaic account of the fall of man + as an allegory. This excited a great clamour against him; and the king + was obliged to remove him from his office at court. Of this book an + English translation was published in 1729. Burnet published several other + minor works before his death, which took place at the Charterhouse on the + 27th September 1715. Two posthumous works appeared several years after + his death—<i>De Fide et Officiis Christianorum</i> (1723), and + <i>De Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium Tractatus</i> (1723); in which he + maintained the doctrine of a middle state, the millennium, and the + limited duration of future punishment. A <i>Life of Dr Burnet</i>, by + Heathcote, appeared in 1759.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_091" href="#FnAnchor_091">[1]</a> "Which," says + Samuel Johnson, "the critick ought to read for its elegance, the + philosopher for its arguments, and the saint for its piety" (<i>Lives of + English Poets</i>, vol. i. p. 303).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_092" href="#FnAnchor_092">[2]</a> Burnet held that + at the deluge the earth was crushed like an egg, the internal waters + rushing out, and the fragments of shell becoming the mountains.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BURNET,</b> known botanically as <i>Poterium</i>, a member of the + rose family. The plants are perennial herbs with pinnate leaves and small + flowers arranged in dense long-stalked heads. Great burnet (<i>Poterium + officinale</i>) is found in damp meadows; salad burnet (<i>P. + Sanguisorba</i>) is a smaller plant with much smaller flower-heads + growing in dry pastures.</p> + + <p><b>BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON</b> (1849- ), Anglo-American + novelist, whose maiden name was Hodgson, was born in Manchester, England, + on the 24th of November 1849; she went to America with her parents, who + settled in Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1865. Miss Hodgson soon began to + write stories for magazines. In 1873 she married Dr L.M. Burnett of + Washington, whom she afterwards (1898) divorced. Her reputation as a + novelist was made by her remarkable tale of Lancashire life, <i>That Lass + o' Lowrie's</i> (1877), and a number of other volumes followed, of which + the best were <i>Through one Administration</i> (1883) and <i>A Lady of + Quality</i> (1896). In 1886 she attained a new popularity by her charming + story of <i>Little Lord Fauntleroy</i>, and this led to other stories of + child-life. <i>Little Lord Fauntleroy</i> was dramatized (see <span + class="sc">Copyright</span> for the legal questions involved) and had a + great success on the stage; and other dramas by her were also produced. + In 1900 she married a second time, her husband being Mr Stephen + Townesend, a surgeon, who (as Will Dennis) had taken to the stage and had + collaborated with her in some of her plays.</p> + + <p><b>BURNEY, CHARLES</b> (1726-1814), English musical historian, was + born at Shrewsbury on the 12th of April 1726. He received his earlier + education at the free school of that city, and was afterwards sent to the + public school at Chester. His first music master was Edmund Baker, + organist of Chester cathedral, and a pupil of Dr John Blow. Returning to + Shrewsbury when about fifteen years old, he continued his musical studies + for three years under his half-brother, James Burney, organist of St + Mary's church, and was then sent to London as a pupil of the celebrated + Dr Arne, with whom he remained three years. Burney wrote some music for + Thomson's <i>Alfred</i>, which was produced at Drury Lane theatre on the + 30th of March 1745. In 1749 he was appointed organist of St + Dionis-Backchurch, Fenchurch Street, with a salary of £30 a year; and he + was also engaged to take the harpsichord in the "New Concerts" then + recently established at the King's Arms, Cornhill. In that year he + married Miss Esther Sleepe, who died in 1761; in 1769 he married Mrs + Stephen Allen of Lynn. Being threatened with a pulmonary affection he + went in 1751 to Lynn in Norfolk, where he was elected organist, with an + annual salary of £100, and there he resided for the next nine years. + During that time he began to entertain the idea of writing a general + history of music. His <i>Ode for St Cecilia's Day</i> was performed at + Ranelagh Gardens in 1759; and in 1760 he returned to London in good + health and with a young family; the eldest child, a girl of eight years + of age, surprised the public by her attainments as a harpsichord player. + The concertos for the harpsichord which Burney published soon after his + return to London were regarded with much admiration. In 1766 he produced, + at Drury Lane, a free English version and adaptation of J.J. Rousseau's + operetta <i>Le Devin du village</i>, under the title of <i>The Cunning + Man</i>. The university of Oxford conferred upon him, on the 23rd of June + 1769, the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music, on which occasion he + presided at the performance of his exercise for these degrees. This + consisted of an anthem, with an overture, solos, recitatives and + choruses, accompanied by instruments, besides a vocal anthem in eight + parts, which was not performed. In 1769 he published <i>An Essay towards + a History of Comets</i>.</p> + + <p>Amidst his various professional avocations, Burney never lost sight of + his favorite object—his <i>History of Music</i>—and therefore + resolved to travel abroad for the purpose of collecting materials that + could not be found in Great Britain. Accordingly, he left London in June + 1770, furnished with numerous letters of introduction, and proceeded to + Paris, and thence to Geneva, Turin, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna, + Florence, Rome and Naples. The results of his observations he published + in <i>The Present State of Music in France and Italy</i> (1771). Dr + Johnson <!-- Page 854 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page854"></a>[v.04 p.0854]</span>thought so well of this work that, + alluding to his own <i>Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland</i>, he + said, "I had that clever dog Burney's Musical Tour in my eye." In July + 1772 Burney again visited the continent, to collect further materials, + and, after his return to London, published his tour under the title of + <i>The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and United + Provinces</i> (1773). In 1773 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal + Society. In 1776 appeared the first volume (in 4to) of his long-projected + <i>History of Music</i>. In 1782 Burney published his second volume; and + in 1789 the third and fourth. Though severely criticized by Forkel in + Germany and by the Spanish ex-Jesuit, Requeno, who, in his Italian work + <i><span class="correction" title="'Saggj' in original">Saggi</span> sul + Ristabilimento dell' Arte Armonica de' Greci e Romani Cantori</i> (Parma, + 1798), attacks Burney's account of the ancient Greek music, and calls him + <i>lo scompigliato Burney</i>, the <i>History of Music</i> was generally + recognized as possessing great merit. The least satisfactory volume is + the fourth, the treatment of Handel and Bach being quite inadequate. + Burney's first tour was translated into German by Ebeling, and printed at + Hamburg in 1772; and his second tour, translated into German by Bode, was + published at Hamburg in 1773. A Dutch translation of his second tour, + with notes by J.W. Lustig, organist at Groningen, was published there in + 1786. The Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients, in the first volume + of Burney's <i>History</i>, was translated into German by J.J. + Eschenburg, and printed at Leipzig, 1781. Burney derived much aid from + the first two volumes of Padre Martini's very learned <i>Storia della + Musica</i> (Bologna, 1757-1770). One cannot but admire his persevering + industry, and his sacrifices of time, money and personal comfort, in + collecting and preparing materials for his <i>History</i>, and few will + be disposed to condemn severely errors and oversights in a work of such + extent and difficulty.</p> + + <p>In 1774 he had written <i>A Plan for a Music School</i>. In 1779 he + wrote for the Royal Society an account of the infant Crotch, whose + remarkable musical talent excited so much attention at that time. In 1784 + he published, with an Italian title-page, the music annually performed in + the pope's chapel at Rome during Passion Week. In 1785 he published, for + the benefit of the Musical Fund, an account of the first commemoration of + Handel in Westminster Abbey in the preceding year, with an excellent life + of Handel. In 1796 he published <i>Memoirs and Letters of Metastasio</i>. + Towards the close of his life Burney was paid £1000 for contributing to + Rees's <i>Cyclopaedia</i> all the musical articles not belonging to the + department of natural philosophy and mathematics. In 1783, through the + treasury influence of his friend Edmund Burke, he was appointed organist + to the chapel of Chelsea Hospital, and he moved his residence from St + Martin's Street, Leicester Square, to live in the hospital for the + remainder of his life. He was made a member of the Institute of France, + and nominated a correspondent in the class of the fine arts, in the year + 1810. From 1806 until his death he enjoyed a pension of £300 granted by + Fox. He died at Chelsea College on the 12th of April 1814, and was + interred in the burying-ground of the college. A tablet was erected to + his memory in Westminster Abbey.</p> + + <p>Burney's portrait was painted by Reynolds, and his bust was cut by + Nollekens in 1805. He had a wide circle of acquaintance among the + distinguished artists and literary men of his day. At one time he thought + of writing a life of his friend Dr Samuel Johnson, but he retired before + the crowd of biographers who rushed into that field. His character in + private as well as in public life appears to have been very amiable and + exemplary. Dr Burney's eldest son, James, was a distinguished officer in + the royal navy, who died a rear-admiral in 1821; his second son was the + Rev. Charles Burney, D.D. (1757-1817), a well-known classical scholar, + whose splendid collection of rare books, and MSS. was ultimately bought + by the nation for the British Museum; and his second daughter was Frances + (Madame D'Arblay, <i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p>The <i>Diary and Letters</i> of Madame D'Arblay contain many minute + and interesting particulars of her father's public and private life, and + of his friends and contemporaries. A life of Burney by Madame D'Arblay + appeared in 1832.</p> + + <p>Besides the operatic music above mentioned, Burney's known + compositions consist of:—(1) <i>Six Sonatas for the + harpsichord</i>; (2) <i>Two Sonatas for the harp or piano, with + accompaniments for violin and violoncello</i>; (3) <i>Sonatas for two + violins and a bass: two sets</i>; (4) <i>Six Lessons for the + harpsichord</i>; (5) <i>Six Duets for two German flutes</i>; (6) <i>Three + Concertos for the harpsichord</i>; (7) <i>Six concert pieces with an + introduction and fugue for the organ</i>; (8) <i>Six Concertos for the + violin, &c., in eight parts</i>; (9) <i>Two Sonatas for pianoforte, + violin and violoncello</i>; (10) <i>A Cantata, &c.</i>; (11) + <i>Anthems, &c.</i>; (12) <i>XII. Canzonetti a due voci in Canone, + poesia dell' Abate Metastasio</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BURNHAM BEECHES,</b> a wooded tract of 375 acres in + Buckinghamshire, England, acquired in 1879 by the Corporation of the city + of London, and preserved for public use. This tract, the remnant of an + ancient forest, the more beautiful because of the undulating character of + the land, lies west of the road between Slough and Beaconsfield, and 2 m. + north of Burnham Beeches station on the Great Western railway. The poet + Thomas Gray, who stayed frequently at Stoke Poges in the vicinity, is + enthusiastic concerning the beauty of the Beeches ina letter to Horace + Walpole in 1737. Near the township of Burnham are slight Early English + remains of an abbey founded in 1265. Burnham is an urban district with a + population (1901) of 3245.</p> + + <p><b>BURNHAM-ON-CROUCH,</b> an urban district in the southeastern + parliamentary division of Essex, England, 43 m. E. by N. from London on a + branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2919. The church of St + Mary is principally late Perpendicular, a good example; it has Decorated + portions and a Norman font. There are extensive oyster beds in the Crouch + estuary. Burnham lies 6 m. from the North Sea; below it the Crouch is + joined on the south side by the Roch, which branches into numerous + creeks, and, together with the main estuary, forms Foulness, Wallasea, + Potton and other low, flat islands, embanked and protected from + incursions of the sea. Burnham is in some repute as a watering-place, and + is a favourite yachting station. There is considerable trade in corn and + coal, and boat-building is carried on.</p> + + <p><b>BURNING TO DEATH.</b> As a legal punishment for various crimes + burning alive was formerly very wide-spread. It was common among the + Romans, being given in the XII. Tables as the special penalty for arson. + Under the Gothic codes adulterers were so punished, and throughout the + middle ages it was the civil penalty for certain heinous crimes, + <i>e.g.</i> poisoning, heresy, witchcraft, arson, bestiality and sodomy, + and so continued in some cases, nominally at least, till the beginning of + the 19th century. In England, under the common law, women condemned for + high treason or petty treason (murder of husband, murder of master or + mistress, certain offences against the coin, &c.) were burned, this + being considered more "decent" than hanging and exposure on a gibbet. In + practice the convict was strangled before being burnt. The last woman + burnt in England suffered in 1789, the punishment being abolished in + 1790.</p> + + <p>Burning was not included among the penalties for heresy under the + Roman imperial codes; but the burning of heretics by orthodox mobs had + long been sanctioned by custom before the edicts of the emperor Frederick + II. (1222, 1223) made it the civil-law punishment for heresy. His example + was followed in France by Louis IX. in the Establishments of 1270. In + England, where the civil law was never recognized, the common law took no + cognizance of ecclesiastical offences, and the church courts had no power + to condemn to death. There were, indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries + isolated instances of the burning of heretics. William of Newburgh + describes the burning of certain foreign sectaries in 1169, and early in + the 13th century a deacon was burnt by order of the council of Oxford + (Foxe ii. 374; cf. Bracton, <i>de Corona</i>, ii. 300), but by what legal + sanction is not obvious. The right of the crown to issue writs <i>de + haeretico comburendo</i>, claimed for it by later jurists, was based on + that issued by Henry IV. in 1400 for the burning of William Sawtre; but + Sir James Stephen (<i>Hist. Crim. Law</i>) points out that this was + issued "with the assent of the lords temporal," which seems to prove that + the crown had no right under the common law to issue such writs. The + burning of heretics was actually made legal in England by the statute + <i>de haeretico comburendo</i> (1400), passed ten days after the issue of + the above writ. This was repealed in 1533, but the Six Articles Act of + 1539 revived burning as a penalty <!-- Page 855 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page855"></a>[v.04 p.0855]</span>for denying + transubstantiation. Under Queen Mary the acts of Henry IV. and Henry V. + were revived; they were finally abolished in 1558 on the accession of + Elizabeth. Edward VI., Elizabeth and James I., however, burned heretics + (illegally as it would appear) under their supposed right of issuing + writs for this purpose. The last heretics burnt in England were two + Arians, Bartholomew Legate at Smithfield, and Edward Wightman at + Lichfield, both in 1610. As for witches, countless numbers were burned in + most European countries, though not in England, where they were hanged. + In Scotland in Charles II.'s day the law still was that witches were to + be "worried at the stake and then burnt"; and a witch was burnt at + Dornoch so late as 1708.</p> + + <p><b>BURNLEY,</b> a market town and municipal, county and parliamentary + borough of Lancashire, England, at the junction of the rivers Brun and + Calder, 213 m. N.N.W. of London and 29 m. N. of Manchester, on the + Lancashire & Yorkshire railway and the Leeds & Liverpool Canal. + Pop. (1891) 87,016; (1901) 97,043. The church of St Peter dates from the + 14th century, but is largely modernized; among a series of memorials of + the Towneley family is one to Charles Towneley (d. 1805), who collected + the series of antique marbles, terra-cottas, bronzes, coins and gems + which are named after him and preserved in the British Museum. In 1902 + Towneley Hall and Park were acquired by the corporation, the mansion + being adapted to use as a museum and art gallery, and in 1903 a summer + exhibition was held here. There are a large number of modern churches and + chapels, a handsome town-hall, market hall, museum and art gallery, + school of science, municipal technical school, various benevolent + institutions, and pleasant public parks and recreation grounds. The + principal industries are cotton-weaving, worsted-making, iron-founding, + coal-mining, quarrying, brick-burning and the making of sanitary wares. + It has been suggested that Burnley may coincide with Brunanburh, the + battlefield on which the Saxons conquered the Dano-Celtic force in 937. + During the cotton famine consequent upon the American war of 1861-65 it + suffered severely, and the operatives were employed on relief works + embracing an extensive system of improvements. The parliamentary borough + (1867), which returns one member, falls within the Clitheroe division of + the county. The county borough was created in 1888. The town was + incorporated in 1861. The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen + and 36 councillors. By act of parliament in 1890 Burnley was created a + suffragan bishopric of the diocese of Manchester. Area of the municipal + borough, 4005 acres.</p> + + <p><b>BURNOUF, EUGÈNE</b> (1801-1852), French orientalist, was born in + Paris on the 8th of April 1801. His father, Prof. Jean Louis Burnouf + (1775-1844), was a classical scholar of high reputation, and the author, + among other works, of an excellent translation of Tacitus (6 vols., + 1827-1833). Eugene Burnouf published in 1826 an <i>Essai sur le Pâli + ...</i>, written in collaboration with Christian Lassen; and in the + following year <i>Observations grammaticales sur quelques passages de + l'essai sur le Pâli</i>. The next great work he undertook was the + deciphering of the Zend manuscripts brought to France by Anquetil du + Perron. By his labours a knowledge of the Zend language was first brought + into the scientific world of Europe. He caused the <i>Vendidad Sade</i>, + part of one of the books bearing the name of Zoroaster, to be + lithographed with the utmost care from the Zend MS. in the Bibliothèque + Nationale, and published it in folio parts, 1829-1843. From 1833 to 1835 + he published his <i>Commentaire sur le Yaçna, l'un des livres liturgiques + des Parses</i>; he also published the Sanskrit text and French + translation of the <i>Bhâgavata Purâna ou histoire poétique de + Krichna</i> in three folio volumes (1840-1847). His last works were + <i>Introduction à l'histoire du Bouddhisme indien</i> (1844), and a + translation of <i>Le lotus de la bonne loi</i> (1852). Burnouf died on + the 28th of May 1852. He had been for twenty years a member of the + Académie des Inscriptions and professor of Sanskrit in the Collège de + France.</p> + + <p>See a notice of Burnouf's works by Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, prefixed + to the second edition (1876) of the <i>Introd. à l'histoire du Bouddhisme + indien</i>; also Naudet, "Notice historique sur M.M. Burnouf, père et + fils," in <i>Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions</i>, xx. A list of his + valuable contributions to the <i>Journal asiatique</i>, and of his MS. + writings, is given in the appendix to the <i>Choix de lettres d'Eugène + Burnouf</i> (1891).</p> + + <p><b>BURNOUS</b> (from the Arab. <i>burnus</i>), a long cloak of coarse + woollen stuff with a hood, usually white in colour, worn by the Arabs and + Berbers throughout North Africa.</p> + + <p><b>BURNS, SIR GEORGE,</b> Bart. (1795-1890), English shipowner, was + born in Glasgow on the 10th of December 1795, the son of the Rev. John + Burns. In partnership with a brother, James, he began as a Glasgow + general merchant about 1818, and in 1824 in conjunction with a Liverpool + partner, Hugh Matthie, started a line of small sailing ships which ran + between Glasgow and Liverpool. As business increased the vessels were + also sailed to Belfast, and steamers afterwards replaced the sailing + ships. In 1830 a partnership was entered into with the McIvers of + Liverpool, in which George Burns devoted himself specially to the + management of the ships. In 1838 with Samuel Cunard, Robert Napier and + other capitalists, the partners (McIver and Burns) started the "Cunard" + Atlantic line of steamships. They secured the British government's + contract for the carrying of the mails to North America. The sailings + were begun with four steamers of about 1000 tons each, which made the + passage in 15 days at some 8½ knots per hour. George Burns retired from + the Glasgow management of the line in 1860. He was made a baronet in + 1889, but died on the 2nd of June 1890 at Castle Wemyss, where he had + spent the latter years of his life.</p> + + <p>John Burns (1829-1901), his eldest son, who succeeded him in the + baronetcy, and became head of the Cunard Company, was created a peer, + under the title of Baron Inverclyde, in 1897; he was the first to suggest + to the government the use of merchant vessels for war purposes. George + Arbuthnot Burns (1861-1905) succeeded his father in the peerage, as 2nd + baron Inverclyde, and became chairman of the Cunard Company in 1902. He + conducted the negotiations which resulted in the refusal of the Cunard + Company to enter the shipping combination, the International Mercantile + Marine Company, formed by Messrs J.P. Morgan & Co., and took a + leading part in the application of turbine engines to ocean liners.</p> + + <p><b>BURNS, JOHN</b> (1858- ), English politician, was born at Vauxhall, + London, in October 1858, the second son of Alexander Burns, an engineer, + of Ayrshire extraction. He attended a national school in Battersea until + he was ten years old, when he was sent to work in Price's candle factory. + He worked for a short time as a page-boy, then in some engine works, and + at fourteen was apprenticed for seven years to a Millbank engineer. He + continued his education at the night-schools, and read extensively, + especially the works of Robert Owen, J.S. Mill, Paine and Cobbett. He + ascribed his conversion to the principles of socialism to his sense of + the insufficiency of the arguments advanced against it by J.S. Mill, but + he had learnt socialistic doctrine from a French fellow-workman, Victor + Delahaye, who had witnessed the Commune. After working at his trade in + various parts of England, and on board ship, he went for a year to the + West African coast at the mouth of the Niger as a foreman engineer. His + earnings from this undertaking were expended on a six months' tour in + France, Germany and Austria for the study of political and economic + conditions. He had early begun the practice of outdoor speaking, and his + exceptional physical strength and strong voice were invaluable + qualifications for a popular agitator. In 1878 he was arrested and locked + up for the night for addressing an open-air demonstration on Clapham + Common. Two years later he married Charlotte Gale, the daughter of a + Battersea shipwright. He was again arrested in 1886 for his share in the + West End riots when the windows of the Carlton and other London clubs + were broken, but cleared himself at the Old Bailey of the charge of + inciting the mob to violence. In November of the next year, however, he + was again arrested for resisting the police in their attempt to break up + the meeting in Trafalgar Square, and was condemned to six weeks' + imprisonment. A speech delivered by him at the Industrial Remuneration + Conference of 1884 had attracted considerable attention, and in that year + he became a member of the Social Democratic Federation, which put him + forward <!-- Page 856 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page856"></a>[v.04 p.0856]</span>unsuccessfully in the next year as + parliamentary candidate for West Nottingham. His connexion with the + Social Democratic Federation was short-lived; but he was an active member + of the executive of the Amalgamated Engineers' trade union, and was + connected with the trades union congresses until 1895, when, through his + influence, a resolution excluding all except wage labourers was passed. + He was still working at his trade in Hoe's printing machine works when he + became a Progressive member of the first London County Council, being + supported by an allowance of £2 a week subscribed by his constituents, + the Battersea working men. He introduced in 1892 a motion that all + contracts for the County Council should be paid at trade union rates and + carried out under trade union conditions, and devoted his efforts in + general to a war against monopolies, except those of the state or the + municipality. In the same year (1889) in which he became a member of the + County Council, he acted with Mr Ben Tillett as the chief leader and + organizer of the London dock strike. He entered the House of Commons as + member for Battersea in 1892, and was re-elected in 1895, 1900 and 1906. + In parliament he became well known as an independent Radical, and he was + included in the Liberal cabinet by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman in + December 1905 as president of the Local Government Board. During the next + two years, though much out of favour with his former socialist allies, he + earned golden opinions for his administrative policy, and for his refusal + to adopt the visionary proposals put forward by the more extreme members + of the Labour party for dealing with the "unemployed" question; and in + 1908 he retained his office in Mr Asquith's cabinet.</p> + + <p><b>BURNS, ROBERT</b> (1759-1796), Scottish poet, was born on the 25th + of January 1759 in a cottage about 2 m. from Ayr. He was the eldest son + of a small farmer, William Burness, of Kincardineshire stock, who wrought + hard, practised integrity, wished to bring up his children in the fear of + God, but had to fight all his days against the winds and tides of + adversity. "The poet," said Thomas Carlyle, "was fortunate in his + father—a man of thoughtful intense character, as the best of our + peasants are, valuing knowledge, possessing some and open-minded for + more, of keen insight and devout heart, friendly and fearless: a fully + unfolded man seldom found in any rank in society, and worth descending + far in society to seek. ... Had he been ever so little richer, the whole + might have issued otherwise. But poverty sunk the whole family even below + the reach of our cheap school system, and Burns remained a hard-worked + plough-boy."</p> + + <p>Through a series of migrations from one unfortunate farm to another; + from Alloway (where he was taught to read) to Mt. Oliphant, and then + (1777) to Lochlea in Tarbolton (where he learnt the rudiments of + geometry), the poet remained in the same condition of straitened + circumstances. At the age of thirteen he thrashed the corn with his own + hands, at fifteen he was the principal labourer. The family kept no + servant, and for several years butchers' meat was a thing unknown in the + house. "This kind of life," he writes, "the cheerless gloom of a hermit + and the unceasing toil of a galley-slave, brought me to my sixteenth + year." His naturally robust frame was overtasked, and his nervous + constitution received a fatal strain. His shoulders were bowed, he became + liable to headaches, palpitations and fits of depressing melancholy. From + these hard tasks and his fiery temperament, craving in vain for sympathy + in a frigid air, grew the strong temptations on which Burns was largely + wrecked,—the thirst for stimulants and the revolt against restraint + which soon made headway and passed all bars. In the earlier portions of + his career a buoyant humour bore him up; and amid thick-coming shapes of + ill he bated no jot of heart or hope. He was cheered by vague stirrings + of ambition, which he pathetically compares to the "blind groping of + Homer's Cyclops round the walls of his cave." Sent to school at + Kirkoswald, he became, for his scant leisure, a great reader—eating + at meal-times with a spoon in one hand and a book in the other,—and + carrying a few small volumes in his pocket to study in spare moments in + the fields. "The collection of songs" he tells us, "was my <i>vade + mecum</i>. I pored over them driving my cart or walking to labour, song + by song, verse by verse, carefully noting the true, tender, sublime or + fustian." He lingered over the ballads in his cold room by night; by day, + whilst whistling at the plough, he invented new forms and was inspired by + fresh ideas, "gathering round him the memories and the traditions of his + country till they became a mantle and a crown." It was among the furrows + of his father's fields that he was inspired with the perpetually quoted + wish—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"That I for poor auld Scotland's sake</p> + <p>Some useful plan or book could make,</p> + <p class="i2">Or sing a sang at least."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>An equally striking illustration of the same feeling is to be found in + his summer Sunday's ramble to the Leglen wood,—the fabled haunt of + Wallace,—which the poet confesses to have visited "with as much + devout enthusiasm as ever pilgrim did the shrine of Loretto." In another + reference to the same period he refers to the intense susceptibility to + the homeliest aspects of Nature which throughout characterized his + genius. "Scarcely any object gave me more—I do not know if I should + call it pleasure—but something which exalts and enraptures + me—than to walk in the sheltered side of a wood or high plantation + in a cloudy winter day and hear the stormy wind howling among the trees + and raving over the plain. I listened to the birds, and frequently turned + out of my path lest I should disturb their little songs or frighten them + to another station." Auroral visions were gilding his horizon as he + walked in glory, if not in joy, "behind his plough upon the mountain + sides."; but the swarm of his many-coloured fancies was again made grey + by the <i>atra cura</i> of unsuccessful toils.</p> + + <p>Burns had written his first verses of note, "Behind yon hills where + Stinchar (afterwards Lugar) flows," when in 1781 he went to Irvine to + learn the trade of a flax-dresser. "It was," he says, "an unlucky affair. + As we were giving a welcome carousal to the New Year, the shop took fire + and burned to ashes; and I was left, like a true poet, without a + sixpence." His own heart, too, had unfortunately taken fire. He was + poring over mathematics till, in his own phraseology,—still + affected in its prose by the classical pedantries caught from Pope by + Ramsay,—"the sun entered Virgo, when a charming <i>fillette</i>, + who lived next door, overset my trigonometry, and set me off at a tangent + from the scene of my studies." We need not detail the story, nor the + incessant repetitions of it, which marked and sometimes marred his + career. The poet was jilted, went through the usual despairs, and + resorted to the not unusual sources of consolation. He had found that he + was "no enemy to social life," and his mates had discovered that he was + the best of boon companions in the lyric feasts, where his eloquence shed + a lustre over wild ways of life, and where he was beginning to be + distinguished as a champion of the New Lights and a satirist of the + Calvinism whose waters he found like those of Marah.</p> + + <p>In Robert's 25th year his father died, full of sorrows and + apprehensions for the gifted son who wrote for his tomb in Alloway + kirkyard, the fine epitaph ending with the characteristic line—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"For even his failings leaned to virtue's side."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>For some time longer the poet, with his brother Gilbert, lingered at + Lochlea, reading agricultural books, miscalculating crops, attending + markets, and in a mood of reformation resolving, "in spite of the world, + the flesh and the devil, to be a wise man." Affairs, however, went no + better with the family; and in 1784 they migrated to Mossgiel, where he + lived and wrought, during four years, for a return scarce equal to the + wage of the commonest labourer in our day. Meanwhile he had become + intimate with his future wife, Jean Armour; but the father, a master + mason, discountenanced the match, and the girl being disposed to "sigh as + a lover," as a daughter to obey, Burns, in 1786, gave up his suit, + resolved to seek refuge in exile, and having accepted a situation as + book-keeper to a slave estate in Jamaica, had taken his passage in a ship + for the West Indies. His old associations seemed to be breaking up, men + and fortune scowled, and "hungry ruin had him in the wind," when he wrote + the lines ending—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 857 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page857"></a>[v.04 p.0857]</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Adieu, my native banks of Ayr,"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and addressed to the most famous of the loves, in which he was as + prolific as Catullus or Tibullus, the proposal—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Will ye go to the Indies, my Mary."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>He was withheld from his project and, happily or unhappily, the + current of his life was turned by the success of his first volume, which + was published at Kilmarnock in June 1786. It contained some of his most + justly celebrated poems, the results of his scanty leisure at Lochlea and + Mossgiel; among others "The Twa Dogs,"—a graphic idealization of + Aesop,—"The Author's Prayer," the "Address to the Deil," "The + Vision" and "The Dream," "Halloween," "The Cottar's Saturday Night," the + lines "To a Mouse" and "To a Daisy," "Scotch Drink," "Man was made to + Mourn," the "Epistle to Davie," and some of his most popular songs. This + epitome of a genius so marvellous and so varied took his audience by + storm. "The country murmured of him from sea to sea." "With his poems," + says Robert Heron, "old and young, grave and gay, learned and ignorant, + were alike transported. I was at that time resident in Galloway, and I + can well remember how even plough-boys and maid-servants would have + gladly bestowed the wages they earned the most hardly, and which they + wanted to purchase necessary clothing, if they might but procure the + works of Burns." This first edition only brought the author £20 direct + return, but it introduced him to the <i>literati</i> of Edinburgh, + whither he was invited, and where he was welcomed, feasted, admired and + patronized. He appeared as a portent among the scholars of the northern + capital and its university, and manifested, according to Mr Lockhart, "in + the whole strain of his bearing, his belief that in the society of the + most eminent men of his nation he was where he was entitled to be, hardly + deigning to flatter them by exhibiting a symptom of being flattered."</p> + + <p>Sir Walter Scott bears a similar testimony to the dignified simplicity + and almost exaggerated independence of the poet, during this <i>annus + mirabilis</i> of his success. "As for Burns, <i>Virgilium vidi + tantum</i>, I was a lad of fifteen when he came to Edinburgh, but had + sense enough to be interested in his poetry, and would have given the + world to know him. I saw him one day with several gentlemen of literary + reputation, among whom I remember the celebrated Dugald Stewart. Of + course we youngsters sat silent, looked, and listened.... I remember ... + his shedding tears over a print representing a soldier lying dead in the + snow, his dog sitting in misery on one side, on the other his widow with + a child in her arms. His person was robust, his manners rustic, not + clownish. ... His countenance was more massive than it looks in any of + the portraits. There was a strong expression of shrewdness in his + lineaments; the eye alone indicated the poetic character and temperament. + It was large and of a dark cast, and literally glowed when he spoke with + feeling or interest. I never saw such another eye in a human head. His + conversation expressed perfect self-confidence, without the least + intrusive forwardness. I thought his acquaintance with English poetry was + rather limited; and having twenty times the abilities of Allan Ramsay and + of Fergusson he talked of them with too much humility as his models. He + was much caressed in Edinburgh, but the efforts made for his relief were + extremely trifling." <i>Laudatur et alget.</i> Burns went from those + meetings, where he had been posing professors (no hard task), and turning + the heads of duchesses, to share a bed in the garret of a writer's + apprentice,—they paid together 3s. a week for the room. It was in + the house of Mr Carfrae, Baxter's Close, Lawnmarket, "first scale stair + on the left hand in going down, first door in the stair." During Burns's + life it was reserved for William Pitt to recognize his place as a great + poet; the more cautious critics of the North were satisfied to endorse + him as a rustic prodigy, and brought upon themselves a share of his + satire. Some of the friendships contracted during this period—as + for Lord Glencairn and Mrs Dunlop—are among the most pleasing and + permanent in literature; for genuine kindness was never wasted on one + who, whatever his faults, has never been accused of ingratitude. But in + the bard's city life there was an unnatural element. He stooped to beg + for neither smiles nor favour, but the gnarled country oak is cut up into + cabinets in artificial prose and verse. In the letters to Mr Graham, the + prologue to Mr Wood, and the epistles to Clarinda, he is dancing minuets + with hob-nailed shoes. When, in 1787, the second edition of the + <i>Poems</i> came out, the proceeds of their sale realized for the author + £400. On the strength of this sum he gave himself two long rambles, full + of poetic material—one through the border towns into England as far + as Newcastle, returning by Dumfries to Mauchline, and another a grand + tour through the East Highlands, as far as Inverness, returning by + Edinburgh, and so home to Ayrshire.</p> + + <p>In 1788 Burns took a new farm at Ellisland on the Nith, settled there, + married, lost his little money, and wrote, among other pieces, "Auld Lang + Syne" and "Tam o' Shanter." In 1789 he obtained, through the good office + of Mr Graham of Fintry, an appointment as excise-officer of the district, + worth £50 per annum. In 1791 he removed to a similar post at Dumfries + worth £70. In the course of the following year he was asked to contribute + to George Thomson's <i>Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs with + Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte and Violin: the poetry + by Robert Burns</i>. To this work he contributed about one hundred songs, + the best of which are now ringing in the ear of every Scotsman from New + Zealand to San Francisco. For these, original and adapted, he received a + shawl for his wife, a picture by David Allan representing the "Cottar's + Saturday Night," and £5! The poet wrote an indignant letter and never + afterwards composed for money. Unfortunately the "Rock of Independence" + to which he had proudly retired was but a castle of air, over which the + meteors of French political enthusiasm cast a lurid gleam. In the last + years of his life, exiled from polite society on account of his + revolutionary opinions, he became sourer in temper and plunged more + deeply into the dissipations of the lower ranks, among whom he found his + only companionship and sole, though shallow, sympathy.</p> + + <p>Burns began to feel himself prematurely old. Walking with a friend who + proposed to him to join a county ball, he shook his head, saying "that's + all over now," and adding a verse of Lady Grizel Baillie's + ballad—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"O were we young as we ance hae been,</p> + <p>We sud hae been galloping down on yon green,</p> + <p>And linking it ower the lily-white lea,</p> + <p>But were na my heart light I wad dee."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>His hand shook; his pulse and appetite failed; his spirits sunk into a + uniform gloom. In April 1796 he wrote—"I fear it will be some time + before I tune my lyre again. By Babel's streams I have sat and wept. I + have only known existence by the pressure of sickness and counted time by + the repercussions of pain. I close my eyes in misery and open them + without hope. I look on the vernal day and say with poor + Fergusson—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Say wherefore has an all-indulgent heaven</p> + <p>Life to the comfortless and wretched given."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>On the 4th of July he was seen to be dying. On the 12th he wrote to + his cousin for the loan of £10 to save him from passing his last days in + jail. On the 21st he was no more. On the 25th, when his last son came + into the world, he was buried with local honours, the volunteers of the + company to which he belonged firing three volleys over his grave.</p> + + <p>It has been said that "Lowland Scotland as a distinct nationality came + in with two warriors and went out with two bards. It came in with William + Wallace and Robert Bruce and went out with Robert Burns and Walter Scott. + The first two made the history, the last two told the story and sung the + song." But what in the minstrel's lay was mainly a requiem was in the + people's poet also a prophecy. The position of Burns in the progress of + British literature may be shortly defined; he was a link between two + eras, like Chaucer, the last of the old and the first of the + new—the inheritor of the traditions and the music of the past, in + some respects the herald of the future.</p> + + <p>The volumes of our lyrist owe part of their popularity to the fact of + their being an epitome of melodies, moods and memories that had belonged + for centuries to the national life, the best <!-- Page 858 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page858"></a>[v.04 p.0858]</span>inspirations of + which have passed into them. But in gathering from his ancestors Burns + has exalted their work by asserting a new dignity for their simplest + themes. He is the heir of Barbour, distilling the spirit of the old + poet's epic into a battle chant, and of Dunbar, reproducing the various + humours of a half-sceptical, half-religious philosophy of life. He is the + pupil of Ramsay, but he leaves his master, to make a social protest and + to lead a literary revolt. <i>The Gentle Shepherd</i>, still largely a + court pastoral, in which "a man's a man" if born a gentleman, may be + contrasted with "The Jolly Beggars"—the one is like a minuet of the + ladies of Versailles on the sward of the Swiss village near the Trianon, + the other like the march of the maenads with Theroigne de Mericourt. + Ramsay adds to the rough tunes and words of the ballads the refinement of + the wits who in the "Easy" and "Johnstone" clubs talked over their cups + of Prior and Pope, Addison and Gay. Burns inspires them with a fervour + that thrills the most wooden of his race. We may clench the contrast by a + representative example. This is from Ramsay's version of perhaps the + best-known of Scottish songs,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Methinks around us on each bough</p> + <p class="i2">A thousand Cupids play;</p> + <p>Whilst through the groves I walk with you,</p> + <p class="i2">Each object makes me gay.</p> + <p>Since your return—the sun and moon</p> + <p class="i2">With brighter beams do shine,</p> + <p>Streams murmur soft notes while they run</p> + <p class="i2">As they did lang syne."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Compare the verses in Burns—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"We twa hae run about the braes</p> + <p class="i2">And pu'd the gowans fine;</p> + <p>But we've wandered mony a weary foot</p> + <p class="i2">Sin auld lang syne.</p> + <p>We twa hae paidl'd in the burn,</p> + <p class="i2">Frae morning sun till dine:</p> + <p>But seas between us braid hae roar'd</p> + <p class="i2">Sin auld lang syne."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Burns as a poet of the inanimate world doubtless derived hints from + Thomson of <i>The Seasons</i>, but in his power of tuning its + manifestation to the moods of the mind he is more properly ranked as a + forerunner of Wordsworth. He never follows the fashions of his century, + except in his failures—in his efforts at set panegyric or fine + letter-writing. His highest work knows nothing of "Damon" or "Musidora." + He leaves the atmosphere of drawing-rooms for the ingle or the ale-house + or the mountain breeze.</p> + + <p>The affectations of his style are insignificant and rare. His + prevailing characteristic is an absolute sincerity. A love for the lower + forms of social life was his besetting sin; Nature was his healing power. + Burns compares himself to an Aeolian harp, strung to every wind of + heaven. His genius flows over all living and lifeless things with a + sympathy that finds nothing mean or insignificant. An uprooted daisy + becomes in his pages an enduring emblem of the fate of artless maid and + simple bard. He disturbs a mouse's nest and finds in the "tim'rous + beastie" a fellow-mortal doomed like himself to "thole the winter's + sleety dribble," and draws his oft-repeated moral. He walks abroad and, + in a verse that glints with the light of its own rising sun before the + fierce sarcasm of "The Holy Fair," describes the melodies of a "simmer + Sunday morn." He loiters by Afton Water and "murmurs by the running brook + a music sweeter than its own." He stands by a roofless tower, where "the + howlet mourns in her dewy bower," and "sets the wild echoes flying," and + adds to a perfect picture of the scene his famous vision of "Libertie." + In a single stanza he concentrates the sentiment of many Night + Thoughts—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"The pale moon is setting beyond the white wave,</p> + <p>And Time is setting wi' me, O."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>For other examples of the same graphic power we may refer to the + course of his stream—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Whiles ow'r a linn the burnie plays</p> + <p>As through the glen it wimpled," &c.,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>or to "The Birks of Aberfeldy" or the "spate" in the dialogue of "The + Brigs of Ayr." The poet is as much at home in the presence of this flood + as by his "trottin' burn's meander." Familiar with all the seasons he + represents the phases of a northern winter with a frequency + characteristic of his clime and of his fortunes; her tempests became + anthems in his verse, and the sounding woods "raise his thoughts to Him + that walketh on the wings of the wind"; full of pity for the shelterless + poor, the "ourie cattle," the "silly sheep," and the "helpless birds," he + yet reflects that the bitter blast is not "so unkind as man's + ingratitude." This constant tendency to ascend above the fair or wild + features of outward things, or to penetrate beneath them, to make them + symbols, to endow them with a voice to speak for humanity, distinguishes + Burns as a descriptive poet from the rest of his countrymen. As a painter + he is rivalled by Dunbar and James I., more rarely by Thomson and Ramsay. + The "lilt" of Tannahill's finest verse is even more charming. But these + writers rest in their art; their main care is for their own genius. The + same is true in a minor degree of some of his great English successors. + Keats has a palette of richer colours, but he seldom condescends to + "human nature's daily food." Shelley floats in a thin air to stars and + mountain tops, and vanishes from our gaze like his skylark. Byron, in the + midst of his revolutionary fervour, never forgets that he himself belongs + to the "caste of Vere de Vere." Wordsworth's placid affection and + magnanimity stretch beyond mankind, and, as in "Hart-leap-well" and the + "Cuckoo," extend to bird and beast; he moralizes grandly on the + vicissitudes of common life, but he does not enter into, because by right + of superior virtue he places himself above them. "From the Lyrical + Ballads," it has been said, "it does not appear that men eat or drink, + marry or are given in marriage." We revere the monitor who, consciously + good and great, gives us the dry light of truth, but we love the bard, + <i>nostrae deliciae</i>, who is all fire—fire from heaven and + Ayrshire earth mingling in the outburst of passion and of power, which is + his poetry and the inheritance of his race. He had certainly neither + culture nor philosophy enough to have written the "Ode on the + Recollections of Childhood," but to appreciate that ode requires an + education. The sympathies of Burns, as broad as Wordsworth's, are more + intense; in turning his pages we feel ourselves more decidedly in the + presence of one who joys with those who rejoice and mourns with those who + mourn. He is never shallow, ever plain, and the expression of his feeling + is so terse that it is always memorable. Of the people he speaks more + directly for the people than any of our more considerable poets. Chaucer + has a perfect hold of the homeliest phases of life, but he wants the + lyric element, and the charm of his language has largely faded from + untutored ears. Shakespeare, indeed, has at once a loftier vision and a + wider grasp; for he sings of "Thebes and Pelops line," of Agincourt and + Philippi, as of Falstaff, and Snug the joiner, and the "meanest flower + that blows." But not even Shakespeare has put more thought into poetry + which the most prosaic must appreciate than Burns has done. The latter + moves in a narrower sphere and wants the strictly dramatic faculty, but + its place is partly supplied by the vividness of his narrative. His + realization of incident and character is manifested in the sketches in + which the manners and prevailing fancies of his countrymen are + immortalized in connexion with local scenery. Among those almost every + variety of disposition finds its favourite. The quiet households of the + kingdom have received a sort of apotheosis in the "Cottar's Saturday + Night." It has been objected that the subject does not afford scope for + the more daring forms of the author's genius; but had he written no other + poem, this heartful rendering of a good week's close in a God-fearing + home, sincerely devout, and yet relieved from all suspicion of + sermonizing by its humorous touches, would have secured a permanent place + in literature. It transcends Thomson and Beattie at their best, and will + smell sweet like the actions of the just for generations to come.</p> + + <p>Lovers of rustic festivity may hold that the poet's greatest + performance is his narrative of "Halloween," which for easy vigour, + fulness of rollicking life, blended truth and fancy, is unsurpassed in + its kind. Campbell, Wilson, Hazlitt, Montgomery, Burns himself, and the + majority of his critics, have <!-- Page 859 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page859"></a>[v.04 p.0859]</span>recorded their preference for "Tam + o' Shanter," where the weird superstitious element that has played so + great a part in the imaginative work of this part of our island is + brought more prominently forward. Few passages of description are finer + than that of the roaring Doon and Alloway Kirk glimmering through the + groaning trees; but the unique excellence of the piece consists in its + variety, and a perfectly original combination of the terrible and the + ludicrous. Like Goethe's <i>Walpurgis Nacht</i>, brought into closer + contact with real life, it stretches from the drunken humours of + Christopher Sly to a world of fantasies almost as brilliant as those of + the <i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, half solemnized by the severer + atmosphere of a sterner clime. The contrast between the lines "Kings may + be blest," &c., and those which follow, beginning "But pleasures are + like poppies spread," is typical of the perpetual antithesis of the + author's thought and life, in which, at the back of every revelry, he + sees the shadow of a warning hand, and reads on the wall the writing, + <i>Omnia mutantur</i>. With equal or greater confidence other judges have + pronounced Burns's masterpiece to be "The Jolly Beggars." Certainly no + other single production so illustrates his power of exalting what is + insignificant, glorifying what is mean, and elevating the lowest details + by the force of his genius. "The form of the piece," says Carlyle, "is a + mere cantata, the theme the half-drunken snatches of a joyous band of + vagabonds, while the grey leaves are floating on the gusts of the wind in + the autumn of the year. But the whole is compacted, refined and poured + forth in one flood of liquid harmony. It is light, airy and soft of + movement, yet sharp and precise in its details; every face is a portrait, + and the whole a group in clear photography. The blanket of the night is + drawn aside; in full ruddy gleaming light these rough tatterdemalions are + seen at their boisterous revel wringing from Fate another hour of wassail + and good cheer." Over the whole is flung a half-humorous, half-savage + satire—aimed, like a two-edged sword, at the laws and the + law-breakers, in the acme of which the graceless crew are raised above + the level of ordinary gipsies, footpads and rogues, and are made to sit + "on the hills like gods together, careless of mankind," and to launch + their Titan thunders of rebellion against the world.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"A fig for those by law protected;</p> + <p class="i2">Liberty's a glorious feast;</p> + <p>Courts for cowards were erected,</p> + <p class="i2">Churches built to please the priest."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>A similar mixture of drollery and defiance appears in the justly + celebrated "Address to the Deil," which, mainly whimsical, is relieved by + touches oan in the conception of such a being straying in lonely places + and loitering among trees, or in the familiarity with which the poet + lectures so awful a personage,"—we may add, than in the inimitable + outbreak at the close—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"O would you tak a thought an' men'."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Carlyle, in reference to this passage, cannot resist the suggestion of + a parallel from Sterne. "He is the father of curses and lies, said Dr + Slop, and is cursed and damned already. I am sorry for it, quoth my Uncle + Toby."</p> + + <p>Burns fared ill at the hands of those who were not sorry for it, and + who repeated with glib complacency every terrible belief of the system in + which they had been trained. The most scathing of his <i>Satires</i>, + under which head fall many of his minor and frequent passages in his + major pieces, are directed against the false pride of birth, and what he + conceived to be the false pretences of religion. The apologue of "Death + and Dr Hornbook," "The Ordination," the song "No churchman am I for to + rail and to write," the "Address to the Unco Guid," "Holy Willie," and + above all "The Holy Fair," with its savage caricature of an ignorant + ranter of the time called Moodie, and others of like stamp, not + unnaturally provoked offence. As regards the poet's attitude towards some + phases of Calvinism prevalent during his life, it has to be remarked that + from the days of Dunbar there has been a degree of antagonism between + Scottish verse and the more rigid forms of Scottish theology.</p> + + <p>It must be admitted that in protesting against hypocrisy he has + occasionally been led beyond the limits prescribed by good taste. He is + at times abusive of those who differ from him. This, with other offences + against decorum, which here and there disfigure his pages, can only be + condoned by an appeal to the general tone of his writing, which is + reverential. Burns had a firm faith in a Supreme Being, not as a vague + mysterious Power; but as the Arbiter of human life. Amid the vicissitudes + of his career he responds to the cottar's summons, "Let us worship + God."</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"An atheist's laugh's a poor exchange</p> + <p class="i2">For Deity offended"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>is the moral of all his verse, which treats seriously of religious + matters. His prayers in rhyme give him a high place among secular + Psalmists.</p> + + <p>Like Chaucer, Burns was a great moralist, though a rough one. In the + moments of his most intense revolt against conventional prejudice and + sanctimonious affectation, he is faithful to the great laws which + underlie change, loyal in his veneration for the cardinal + virtues—Truth, Justice and Charity,—and consistent in the + warnings, to which his experience gives an unhappy force, against + transgressions of Temperance. In the "Epistle to a Young Friend," the + shrewdest advice is blended with exhortations appealing to the highest + motive, that which transcends the calculation of consequences, and bids + us walk in the straight path from the feeling of personal honour, and + "for the glorious privilege of being independent." Burns, like Dante, + "loved well because he hated, hated wickedness that hinders loving," and + this feeling, as in the lines—"Dweller in yon dungeon dark," + sometimes breaks bounds; but his calmer moods are better represented by + the well-known passages in the "Epistle to Davie," in which he preaches + acquiescence in our lot, and a cheerful acceptance of our duties in the + sphere where we are placed. This <i>philosophie douce</i>, never better + sung by Horace, is the prevailing refrain of our author's <i>Songs</i>. + On these there are few words to add to the acclaim of a century. They + have passed into the air we breathe; they are so real that they seem + things rather than words, or, nearer still, living beings. They have + taken all hearts, because they are the breath of his own; not polished + cadences, but utterances as direct as laughter or tears. Since Sappho + loved and sang, there has been no such national lyrist as Burns. Fine + ballads, mostly anonymous, existed in Scotland previous to his time; and + shortly before a few authors had produced a few songs equal to some of + his best. Such are Alexander Ross's "Wooed and Married," Lowe's "Mary's + Dream," "Auld Robin Gray," "The Land o' the Leal" and the two versions of + "The Flowers o' the Forest." From these and many of the older pieces in + Ramsay's collection, Burns admits to have derived copious suggestions and + impulses. He fed on the past literature of his country as Chaucer on the + old fields of English thought, and—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Still the elements o' sang,</p> + <p>In formless jumble, right and wrang,</p> + <p>Went floating in his brain."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>But he gave more than he received; he brought forth an hundredfold; he + summed up the stray material of the past, and added so much of his own + that one of the most conspicuous features of his lyrical genius is its + variety in new paths. Between the first of war songs, composed in a storm + on a moor, and the pathos of "Mary in Heaven," he has made every chord in + our northern life to vibrate. The distance from "Duncan Gray" to "Auld + Lang Syne" is nearly as great as that from Falstaff to Ariel. There is + the vehemence of battle, the wail of woe, the march of veterans + "red-wat-shod," the smiles of meeting, the tears of parting friends, the + gurgle of brown burns, the roar of the wind through pines, the rustle of + barley rigs, the thunder on the hill—all Scotland is in his verse. + Let who will make her laws, Burns has made the songs, which her emigrants + recall "by the long wash of Australasian seas," in which maidens are + wooed, by which mothers lull their infants, which return "through open + casements unto dying ears"—they are the links, the watchwords, the + masonic symbols of the Scots race.</p> + + <p>(J. N.) <!-- Page 860 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page860"></a>[v.04 p.0860]</span></p> + + <p>The greater part of Burns's verse was posthumously published, and, as + he himself took no care to collect the scattered pieces of occasional + verse, different editors have from time to time printed, as his, verses + that must be regarded as spurious. <i>Poems chiefly in the Scottish + Dialect</i>, by Robert Burns (Kilmarnock, 1786), was followed by an + enlarged edition printed in Edinburgh in the next year. Other editions of + this book were printed—in London (1787), an enlarged edition at + Edinburgh (2 vols., 1793) and a reprint of this in 1794. Of a 1790 + edition mentioned by Robert Chambers no traces can be found. Poems by + Burns appeared originally in <i>The Caledonian Mercury, The Edinburgh + Evening Courant, The Edinburgh Herald, The Edinburgh Advertiser</i>; the + London papers, <i>Stuart's Star and Evening Advertiser</i> (subsequently + known as <i>The Morning Star</i>), <i>The Morning Chronicle</i>; and in + the <i>Edinburgh Magazine</i> and <i>The Scots Magazine</i>. Many poems, + most of which had first appeared elsewhere, were printed in a series of + penny chap-books, <i>Poetry Original and Select</i> (Brash and Reid, + Glasgow), and some appeared separately as broadsides. A series of tracts + issued by Stewart and Meikle (Glasgow, 1796-1799) includes some Burns's + numbers, <i>The Jolly Beggars, Holy Willie's Prayer</i> and other poems + making their first appearance in this way. The seven numbers of this + publication were reissued in January 1800 as <i>The Poetical + Miscellany</i>. This was followed by Thomas Stewart's <i>Poems ascribed + to Robert Burns</i> (Glasgow, 1801). Burns's songs appeared chiefly in + James Johnson's <i>Scots Musical Museum</i> (6 vols., 1787-1803), which + he appears after the first volume to have virtually edited, though the + two last volumes were published only after his death; and in George + Thomson's <i>Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs</i> (6 vols., + 1793-1841). Only five of the songs done for Thomson appeared during the + poet's lifetime, and Thomson's text cannot be regarded with confidence. + The Hastie MSS. in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 22,307) include 162 + songs, many of them in Burns's handwriting; and the Dalhousie MS., at + Brechin Castle, contains Burns's correspondence with Thomson. For a full + account of the songs see James C. Dick, <i>The Songs of Robert Burns now + first printed with the Melodies for which they were written</i> (2 vols., + 1903).</p> + + <p>The items in Mr W. Craibe Angus's <i>Printed Works of Robert Burns</i> + (1899) number nine hundred and thirty. Only the more important collected + editions can be here noticed. Dr Currie was the anonymous editor of the + <i>Works of Robert Burns; with an Account of his Life, and a Criticism on + his Writings ...</i> (Liverpool, 1800). This was undertaken for the + benefit of Burns's family at the desire of his friends, Alexander + Cunningham and John Syme. A second and amended edition appeared in 1801, + and was followed by others, but Currie's text is neither accurate nor + complete. Additional matter appeared in <i>Reliques of Robert Burns</i> + ... by R.H. Cromek (London, 1808). In <i>The Works of Robert Burns, With + his Life by Allan Cunningham</i> (8 vols., London, 1834) there are many + additions and much biographical material. <i>The Works of Robert + Burns</i>, edited by James Hogg and William Motherwell (5 vols., + 1834-1836, Glasgow and Edinburgh), contains a life of the poet by Hogg, + and some useful notes by Motherwell attempting to trace the sources of + Burns's songs. <i>The Correspondence between Burns and Clarinda</i> was + edited by W.C. M<sup>c</sup>Lehose (Edinburgh, 1843). An improved text of + the poems was provided in the second "Aldine Edition" of the <i>Poetical + Works</i> (3 vols., 1839), for which Sir H. Nicolas, the editor, made use + of many original MSS. In the <i>Life and Works of Robert Burns</i>, + edited by Robert Chambers (Edinburgh, 4 vols., 1851-1852; library + edition, 1856-1857; new edition, revised by William Wallace, 1896), the + poet's works are given in chronological order, interwoven with letters + and biography. The text was bowdlerized by Chambers, but the book + contained much new and valuable information. Other well-known editions + are those of George Gilfillan (2 vols., 1864); of Alexander Smith (Golden + Treasury Series, London, 2 vols., 1865); of P. Hately Waddell (Glasgow, + 1867); one published by Messrs Blackie & Son, with Dr Currie's memoir + and an essay by Prof. Wilson (1843-1844); of W. Scott Douglas (the + Kilmarnock edition, 1876, and the "library" edition, 1877-1879), and of + Andrew Lang, assisted by W.A. Craigie (London, 1896). The complete + correspondence between Burns and Mrs Dunlop was printed in 1898.</p> + + <p>A critical edition of the <i>Poetry of Robert Burns</i>, which may be + regarded as definitive, and is provided with full notes and variant + readings, was prepared by W.E. Henley and T.F. Henderson (4 vols., + Edinburgh, 1896-1897; reprinted, 1901), and is generally known as the + "Centenary Burns." In vol. iii. the extent of Burns's indebtedness to + Scottish folk-song and his methods of adaptation are minutely discussed; + vol. iv. contains an essay on "Robert Burns. Life, Genius, Achievement," + by W.E. Henley.</p> + + <p>The chief original authority for Burns's life is his own letters. The + principal "lives" are to be found in the editions just mentioned. His + biography has also been written by J. Gibson Lockhart (<i>Life of + Burns</i>, Edinburgh, 1828); for the "English Men of Letters" series in + 1879 by Prof. J. Campbell Shairp; and by Sir Leslie Stephen in the + <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> (vol. viii., 1886). Among the + more important essays on Burns are those by Thomas Carlyle (<i>Edinburgh + Review</i>, December 1828); by John Nichol, the writer of the above + article (W. Scott Douglas's edition of Burns); by R.L. Stevenson + (<i>Familiar Studies of Men and Books</i>); by Auguste Angellier + (<i>Robert Burns. La vie et les œuvres</i>, 2 vols., Paris, 1893); + by Lord Rosebery (<i>Robert Burns: Two Addresses in Edinburgh</i>, 1896); + by J. Logie Robertson (in <i>In Scottish Fields</i>, Edin., 1890, and + <i>Furth in Field</i>, Edin., 1894); and T.F. Henderson (<i>Robert + Burns</i>, 1904). There is a selected bibliography in chronological order + in W.A. Craigie's <i>Primer of Burns</i> (1896).</p> + + <p><b>BURNS AND SCALDS.</b> A burn is the effect of dry heat applied to + some part of the human body, a scald being the result of moist heat. + Clinically there is no distinction between the two, and their + classification and treatment are identical. In Dupuytren's + classification, now most generally accepted, burns are divided into six + classes according to the severest part of the lesion. Burns of the first + degree are characterized by severe pain, redness of the skin, a certain + amount of swelling that soon passes, and later exfoliation of the skin. + Burns of the second degree show vesicles (small blisters) scattered over + the inflamed area, and containing a clear, yellowish fluid. Beneath the + vesicle the highly sensitive papillae of the skin are exposed. Burns of + this degree leave no scar, but often produce a permanent discoloration. + In burns of the third degree, there is a partial destruction of the true + skin, leaving sloughs of a yellowish or black colour. The pain is at + first intense, but passes off on about the second day to return again at + the end of a week, when the sloughs separate, exposing the sensitive + nerve filaments of the underlying skin. This results in a slightly + depressed cicatrix, which happily, however, shows but slight tendency to + contraction. Burns of the fourth degree, which follow the prolonged + application of any form of intense heat, involve the total destruction of + the true skin. The pain is much less severe than in the preceding class, + since the nerve endings have been totally destroyed. The results, + however, are far more serious, and the healing process takes place only + very slowly on account of the destruction of the skin glands. As a + result, deep puckered scars are formed, which show great tendency to + contract, and where these are situated on face, neck or joints the + resulting deformity and loss of function may be extremely serious. In + burns of the fifth degree the underlying muscles are more or less + destroyed, and in those of the sixth the bones are also charred. Examples + of the last two classes are mainly provided by epileptics who fall into a + fire during a fit.</p> + + <p>The clinical history of a severe burn can be divided into three + periods. The first period lasts from 36 to 48 hours, during which time + the patient lies in a condition of profound shock, and consequently feels + little or no pain. If death results from shock, coma first supervenes, + which deepens steadily until the end comes. The second period begins when + the effects of shock pass, and continues until the slough separates, this + usually taking from seven to fourteen days. Considerable fever is + present, and the tendency to every kind of complication is very great. + Bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy, meningitis, intestinal catarrh, and even + ulceration of the duodenum, have all been recorded. Hence both nursing + and medical attendance must be very close during this time. It is + probable that these complications are all the result of septic infection + and absorption, and since the modern antiseptic treatment of burns they + have become much less common. The third period is prolonged until + recovery takes place. Death may result from septic absorption, or from + the wound becoming infected with some organism, as tetanus, erysipelas, + &c. The prognosis depends chiefly on the extent of skin involved, + death almost invariably resulting when one-third of the total area of the + body is affected, however superficially. Of secondary but still grave + importance is the position of the burn, that over a serous cavity making + the future more doubtful than one on a limb. Also it must be remembered + that children very easily succumb to shock.</p> + + <p>In treating a patient the condition of shock must be attended to + first, since from it arises the primary danger. The sufferer must be + wrapped immediately in hot blankets, and brandy given by the mouth or in + an enema, while ether can be injected hypodermically. If the pulse is + very bad a saline infusion must be administered. The clothes can then be + removed and the burnt surfaces thoroughly cleansed with a very mild + antiseptic, a weak solution of lysol acting very well. If there are + blisters these must be opened and the contained effusion allowed to <!-- + Page 861 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page861"></a>[v.04 + p.0861]</span>escape. Some surgeons leave them at this stage, but others + prefer to remove the raised epithelium. When thoroughly cleansed, the + wound is irrigated with sterilized saline solution and a dressing + subsequently applied. For the more superficial lesions by far the best + results are obtained from the application of gauze soaked in picric acid + solution and lightly wrung out, being covered with a large antiseptic + wool pad and kept in position by a bandage. Picric acid 1½ drams, + absolute alcohol 3 oz., and distilled water 40 oz., make a good lotion. + All being well, this need only be changed about twice a week. The various + kinds of oil once so greatly advocated in treating burns are now largely + abandoned since they have no antiseptic properties. The deeper burns can + only be attended to by a surgeon, whose aim will be first to bring septic + absorption to a minimum, and later to hasten the healing process. Skin + grafting has great value after extensive burns, not because it hastens + healing, which it probably does not do, but because it has a marked + influence in lessening cicatricial contraction. When a limb is hopelessly + charred, amputation is the only course.</p> + + <p><b>BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT</b> (1824-1881), American soldier, was + born at Liberty, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1824, of Scottish pedigree, + his American ancestors settling first in South Carolina, and next in the + north-west wilderness, where his parents lived in a rude log cabin. He + was appointed to the United States military academy through casual + favour, and graduated in 1847, when war with Mexico was nearly over. In + 1853 he resigned his commission, and from 1853 to 1858 was engaged in the + manufacture of firearms at Bristol, R.I. In 1856 he invented a + breech-loading rifle. He was employed by the Illinois Central railroad + until the Civil War broke out. Then he took command of a Rhode Island + regiment of three months militia, on the summons of Governor Sprague, + took part in the relief of the national capital, and commanded a brigade + in the first battle of Bull Run. On the 6th of August 1861 he was + commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers, and placed in charge of the + expeditionary force which sailed in January 1862 under sealed orders for + the North Carolina coast. The victories of Roanoke Island, Newbern and + Fort Macon (February—April) were the chief incidents of a campaign + which was favourably contrasted by the people with the work of the main + army on the Atlantic coast. He was promoted major-general U.S.V. soon + afterwards, and early in July, with his North Carolina troops (IX. army + corps), he was transferred to the Virginian theatre of war. Part of his + forces fought in the last battles of Pope's campaign in Virginia, and + Burnside himself was engaged in the battles of South Mountain and + Antietam. At the latter he was in command of McClellan's left wing, but + the want of vigour in his attack was unfavourably criticized. His + patriotic spirit, modesty and amiable manners, made him highly popular, + and upon McClellan's final removal (Nov. 7) from the Army of the Potomac, + President Lincoln chose him as successor. The choice was unfortunate. + Much as he was liked, no one had ever looked upon him as the equal of + McClellan, and it was only with the greatest reluctance that he himself + accepted the responsibility, which he had on two previous occasions + declined. He sustained a crushing defeat at the battle of Fredericksburg + (13 Dec. 1862), and (Jan. 27) gave way to Gen. Hooker, after a tenure of + less than three months. Transferred to Cincinnati in March 1863, he + caused the arrest and court-martial of Clement L. Vallandigham, lately an + opposition member of Congress, for an alleged disloyal speech, and later + in the year his measures for the suppression of press criticism aroused + much opposition; he helped to crush Morgan's Ohio raid in July; then, + moving to relieve the loyalists in East Tennessee, in September entered + Knoxville, to which the Confederate general James Longstreet + unsuccessfully laid siege. In 1864 Burnside led his old IX. corps under + Grant in the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. After bearing his part + well in the many bloody battles of that time, he was overtaken once more + by disaster. The failure of the "Burnside mine" at Petersburg brought + about his resignation. A year later he left the service, and in 1866 he + became governor of Rhode Island, serving for three terms (1866-1869). + From 1875 till his death he was a Republican member of the United States + Congress. He was present with the German headquarters at the siege of + Paris in 1870-71. He died at Bristol, Rhode Island, on the 13th of + September 1881.</p> + + <p>See B.P. Poore, <i>Life and Public Services of Ambrose E. Burnside</i> + (Providence, 1882); A. Woodbury, <i>Major-General Burnside and the Ninth + Army Corps</i> (Providence, 1867).</p> + + <p><b>BURNTISLAND,</b> a royal, municipal and police burgh of Fife, + Scotland, on the shore of the Firth of Forth, 5¾ m. S.W. of Kirkcaldy by + the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 4993; (1901) 4846. It is protected + from the north wind by the Binn (632 ft.), and in consequence of its + excellent situation, its links and sandy beach, it enjoys considerable + repute as a summer resort. The chief industries are distilling, + fisheries, shipbuilding and shipping, especially the export of coal and + iron. Until the opening of the Forth bridge, its commodious harbour was + the northern station of the ferry across the firth from Granton, 5 m. + south. The parish church, dating from 1594, is a plain structure, with a + squat tower rising in two tiers from the centre of the roof. The public + buildings include two hospitals, a town-hall, music hall, library and + reading room and science institute. On the rocks forming the western end + of the harbour stands Rossend Castle, where the amorous French poet + Chastelard repeated the insult to Queen Mary which led to his execution. + In 1667 it was ineffectually bombarded by the Dutch. The burgh was + originally called Parva Kinghorn and later Wester Kinghorn. The origin + and meaning of the present name of the town have always been a matter of + conjecture. There seems reason to believe that it refers to the time when + the site, or a portion of it, formed an island, as sea-sand is the + subsoil even of the oldest quarters. Another derivation is from Gaelic + words meaning "the island beyond the bend." With Dysart, Kinghorn and + Kirkcaldy, it unites in returning one member to parliament.</p> + + <p><b>BURR, AARON</b> (1756-1836), American political leader, was born at + Newark, New Jersey, on the 6th of February 1756. His father, the Rev. + Aaron Burr (1715-1757), was the second president (1748-1757) of the + College of New Jersey, now Princeton University; his mother was the + daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the well-known Calvinist theologian. The + son graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1772, and two years later + began the study of law in the celebrated law school conducted by his + brother-in-law, Tappan Reeve, at Litchfield, Connecticut. Soon after the + outbreak of the War of Independence, in 1775, he joined Washington's army + in Cambridge, Mass. He accompanied Arnold's expedition into Canada in + 1775, and on arriving before Quebec he disguised himself as a Catholic + priest and made a dangerous journey of 120 m. through the British lines + to notify Montgomery, at Montreal, of Arnold's arrival. He served for a + time on the staffs of Washington and Putnam in 1776-77, and by his + vigilance in the retreat from Long Island he saved an entire brigade from + capture. On becoming lieutenant-colonel in July 1777, he assumed the + command of a regiment, and during the winter at Valley Forge guarded the + "Gulf," a pass commanding the approach to the camp, and necessarily the + first point that would be attacked. In the engagement at Monmouth, on the + 28th of June 1778, he commanded one of the brigades in Lord Stirling's + division. In January 1779 Burr was assigned to the command of the "lines" + of Westchester county, a region between the British post at Kingsbridge + and that of the Americans about 15 m. to the north. In this district + there was much turbulence and plundering by the lawless elements of both + Whigs and Tories and by bands of ill-disciplined soldiers from both + armies. Burr established a thorough patrol system, rigorously enforced + martial law, and quickly restored order.</p> + + <p>He resigned from the army in March 1779, on account of ill-health, + renewed the study of law, was admitted to the bar at Albany in 1782, and + began to practise in New York city after its evacuation by the British in + the following year. In 1782 he married Theodosia Prevost (d. 1794), the + widow of a British army officer who had died in the West Indies during + the War of Independence. They had one child, a daughter, Theodosia, born + in 1783, who became widely known for her beauty and accomplishments, + married Joseph Alston of South Carolina <!-- Page 862 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page862"></a>[v.04 p.0862]</span>in 1801, and + was lost at sea in 1813. Burr was a member of the state assembly + (1784-1785), attorney-general of the state (1789-1791), United States + senator (1791-1797), and again a member of the assembly (1798-1799 and + 1800-1801). As national parties became clearly defined, he associated + himself with the Democratic-Republicans. Although he was not the founder + of Tammany Hall, he began the construction of the political machine upon + which the power of that organization is based. In the election of 1800 he + was placed on the Democratic-Republican presidential ticket with Thomas + Jefferson, and each received the same number of electoral votes. It was + well understood that the party intended that Jefferson should be + president and Burr vice-president, but owing to a defect (later remedied) + in the Constitution the responsibility for the final choice was thrown + upon the House of Representatives. The attempts of a powerful faction + among the Federalists to secure the election of Burr failed, partly + because of the opposition of Alexander Hamilton and partly, it would + seem, because Burr himself would make no efforts to obtain votes in his + own favour. On Jefferson's election, Burr of course became + vice-president. His fair and judicial manner as president of the Senate, + recognized even by his bitterest enemies, helped to foster traditions in + regard to that position quite different from those which have become + associated with the speakership of the House of Representatives.</p> + + <p>Hamilton had opposed Burr's aspirations for the vice-presidency in + 1792, and had exerted influence through Washington to prevent his + appointment as brigadier-general in 1798, at the time of the threatened + war between the United States and France. It was also in a measure his + efforts which led to Burr's lack of success in the New York gubernatorial + campaign of 1804; moreover the two had long been rivals at the bar. + Smarting under defeat and angered by Hamilton's criticisms, Burr sent the + challenge which resulted in the famous duel at Weehawken, N.J., on the + 11th of July 1804, and the death of Hamilton (<i>q.v.</i>) on the + following day. After the expiration of his term as vice-president (March + 4, 1805), broken in fortune and virtually an exile from New York, where, + as in New Jersey, he had been indicted for murder after the duel with + Hamilton, Burr visited the South-west and became involved in the + so-called conspiracy which has so puzzled the students of that period. + The traditional view that he planned a separation of the West from the + Union is now discredited. Apart from the question of political morality + he could not, as a shrewd politician, have failed to see that the people + of that section were too loyal to sanction such a scheme. The objects of + his treasonable correspondence with Merry and Yrujo, the British and + Spanish ministers at Washington, were, it would seem, to secure money and + to conceal his real designs, which were probably to overthrow Spanish + power in the Southwest, and perhaps to found an imperial dynasty in + Mexico. He was arrested in 1807 on the charge of treason, was brought to + trial before the United States circuit court at Richmond, Virginia, + Chief-Justice Marshall presiding, and he was acquitted, in spite of the + fact that the political influence of the national administration was + thrown against him. Immediately afterward he was tried on a charge of + misdemeanour, and on a technicality was again acquitted. He lived abroad + from 1808 to 1812, passing most of his time in England, Scotland, + Denmark, Sweden and France; trying to secure aid in the prosecution of + his filibustering schemes but meeting with numerous rebuffs, being + ordered out of England and Napoleon refusing to receive him. In 1812 he + returned to New York and spent the remainder of his life in the practice + of law. Burr was unscrupulous, insincere and notoriously immoral, but he + was pleasing in his manners, generous to a fault, and was intensely + devoted to his wife and daughter. In 1833 he married Eliza B. Jumel + (1769-1865), a rich New York widow; the two soon separated, however, + owing to Burr's having lost much of her fortune in speculation. He died + at Port Richmond, Staten Island, New York, on the 14th of September + 1836.</p> + + <p>The standard biography is James Parton's <i>The Life and Times of + Aaron Burr</i> (first edition, 1857; enlarged edition, 2 vols., Boston + and New York, 1898). W.F. McCaleb's <i>The Aaron Burr Conspiracy</i> (New + York, 1903) is a scholarly defence of the West and incidentally of Burr + against the charge of treason, and is the best account of the subject; + see also I. Jenkinson, <i>Aaron Burr</i> (Richmond, Ind., 1902). For the + traditional view of Burr's conspiracy, see Henry Adams's <i>History of + the United States</i>, vol. iii. (New York, 1890).</p> + + <p><b>BURRIANA,</b> a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of + Castellón de la Plana; on the estuary of the river Séco, which flows into + the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 12,962. The harbour of Burriana on the + open sea is annually visited by about three hundred small + coasting-vessels. Its exports consist chiefly of oranges grown in the + surrounding fertile plain, which is irrigated with water from the river + Mijares, on the north, and also produces large quantities of grain, oil, + wine and melons. Burriana is connected by a light railway with the + neighbouring towns of Onda (6595), Almazóra (7070), Villarreal (16,068) + and Castellón de la Plana (29,904). Its nearest station on the + Barcelona-Valencia coast railway is Villarreal.</p> + + <p><b>BURRITT, ELIHU</b> (1810-1879), American philanthropist, known as + "the learned blacksmith," was born in New Britain, Conn., on the 8th of + December 1810. His father (a farmer and shoemaker), and his grandfather, + both of the same name, had served in the Revolutionary army. An elder + brother, Elijah, who afterwards published <i>The Geography of the + Heavens</i> and other text-books, went out into the world while Elihu was + still a boy, and after editing a paper in Georgia came back to New + Britain and started a school. Elihu, however, had to pick up what + knowledge he could get from books at home, where his father's long + illness, ending in death, made his services necessary. At sixteen he was + apprenticed to a blacksmith, and he made this his trade both there and at + Worcester, Mass., where he removed in 1837. He had a passion for reading; + from the village library he borrowed book after book, which he studied at + his forge or in his spare hours; and he managed to find time for + attending his brother's school for a while, and even for pursuing his + search for culture among the advantages to be found at New Haven. He + mastered Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and German, and by the + age of thirty could read nearly fifty languages. His extraordinary + aptitude gradually made him famous. He took to lecturing, and then to an + ardent crusade on behalf of universal peace and human brotherhood, which + made him travel persistently to various parts of the United States and + Europe. In 1848 he organized the Brussels congress of Friends of Peace, + which was followed by annual congresses in Paris, Frankfort, London, + Manchester and Edinburgh. He wrote and published voluminously, leaflets, + pamphlets and volumes, and started the <i>Christian Citizen</i> at + Worcester to advocate his humanitarian views. Cheap trans-oceanic postage + was an ideal for which he agitated wherever he went. His vigorous + philanthropy keeps the name of Elihu Burritt green in the history of the + peace movement, apart from the fame of his learning. His countrymen, at + universities such as Yale and elsewhere, delighted to do him honour; and + he was U.S. consul at Birmingham from 1865 to 1870. He returned to + America and died at New Britain on the 9th of March 1879.</p> + + <p>See <i>Life</i>, by Charles Northend, in the memorial volume (1879); + and an article by Ellen Strong Bartlett in the <i>New England + Magazine</i> (June, 1897).</p> + + <p><b>BURROUGHS, GEORGE</b> (c. 1650-1692), American congregational + pastor, graduated at Harvard in 1670, and became the minister of Salem + Village (now Danvers) in 1680, a charge which he held till 1683. He lived + at Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) until the Indians destroyed it in 1690, + when he removed to Wells. In May 1692 during the witchcraft delusion, on + the accusation of some personal enemies in his former congregation who + had sued him for debt, Burroughs was arrested and charged, among other + offences, with "extraordinary Lifting and such feats of strength as could + not be done without Diabolicall Assistance." Though the jury found no + witch-marks on his body he was convicted and executed on Gallows Hill, + Salem, on the 19th of August, the only minister who suffered this extreme + fate.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 863 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page863"></a>[v.04 p.0863]</span></p> + + <p><b>BURROUGHS, JOHN</b> (1837- ), American poet and writer on natural + history, was born in Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 3rd of + April 1837. In his earlier years he engaged in various pursuits, + teaching, journalism, farming and fruit-raising, and for nine years was a + clerk in the treasury department at Washington. After publishing in 1867 + a volume of <i>Notes on Walt Whitman as poet and person</i> (a subject to + which he returned in 1896 with his <i>Whitman: a Study</i>), he began in + 1871, with <i>Wake-Robin</i>, a series of books on birds, flowers and + rural scenes which has made him the successor of Thoreau as a popular + essayist en the plants and animals environing human life. His later + writings showed a more philosophic mood and a greater disposition towards + literary or meditative allusion than their predecessors, but the general + theme and method remained the same. His chief books, in addition to + <i>Wake-Robin</i>, are <i>Birds and Poets</i> (1877), <i>Locusts and Wild + Honey</i> (1879), <i>Signs and Seasons</i> (1886), and <i>Ways of + Nature</i> (1905); these are in prose, but he wrote much also in verse, a + volume of poems, <i>Bird and Bough</i>, being published in 1906. + <i>Winter Sunshine</i> (1875) and <i>Fresh Fields</i> (1884) are sketches + of travel in England and France.</p> + + <p>A biographical sketch of Burroughs is prefixed to his <i>Year in the + Fields</i> (new ed., 1901). A complete uniform edition of his works was + issued in 1895, &c. (Riverside edition, Cambridge, Mass.).</p> + + <p><b>BURSAR</b> (Med. Lat. <i>bursarius</i>), literally a keeper of the + <i>bursa</i> or purse. The word is now chiefly used of the official, + usually one of the fellows, who administers the finances of a college at + a university, or of the treasurer of a school or other institution. The + term is also applied to the holder of "a bursary," an exhibition at + Scottish schools or universities, and also in England a scholarship or + exhibition enabling a pupil of an elementary school to continue his + education at a secondary school. The term "burse" (Lat. <i>bursa</i>, Gr. + <span title="borsa" class="grk">βόρσα</span>, + bag of skin) is particularly used of the embroidered purse which is one + of the insignia of office of the lord high chancellor of England, and of + the pouch which in the Roman Church contains the "corporal" in the + service of the Mass. The "bursa" is a square case opening at one side + only and covered and lined with silk or linen; one side should be of the + colour of the vestments of the day.</p> + + <p><b>BURSCHENSCHAFT,</b> an association of students at the German + universities. It was formed as a result of the German national sentiment + awakened by the War of Liberation, its object being to foster patriotism + and Christian conduct, as opposed to the particularism and low moral + standard of the old <i>Landsmannschaften</i>. It originated at Jena, + under the patronage of the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, and rapidly spread, + the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Burschenschaft</i> being established in 1818. + The loud political idealism of the <i>Burschen</i> excited the fears of + the reactionary powers, which culminated after the murder of Kotzebue + (<i>q.v.</i>) by Karl Sand in 1819, a crime inspired by a secret society + among the <i>Burschen</i> known as the Blacks (<i>Schwarzen</i>). The + repressive policy embodied in the Carlsbad Decrees (<i>q.v.</i>) was + therefore directed mainly against the <i>Burschenschaft</i>, which none + the less survived to take part in the revolutions of 1830. After the + <i>émeute</i> at Frankfort in 1833, the association was again suppressed, + but it lived on until, in 1848, all laws against it were abrogated. The + <i>Burschenschaften</i> are now purely social and non-political + societies. The <i>Reformburschenschaften</i>, formed since 1883 on the + principle of excluding duelling, are united in the <i>Allgemeiner + deutscher Burschenbund</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BURSIAN, CONRAD</b> (1830-1883), German philologist and + archaeologist, was born at Mutzschen in Saxony, on the 14th of November + 1830. On the removal of his parents to Leipzig, he received his early + education at the Thomas school, and entered the university in 1847. Here + he studied under Moritz Haupt and Otto Jahn until 1851, spent six months + in Berlin (chiefly to attend Böckh's lectures), and completed his + university studies at Leipzig (1852). The next three years were devoted + to travelling in Belgium, France, Italy and Greece. In 1856 he became a + <i>Privat-docent</i>, and in 1858 extraordinary professor at Leipzig; in + 1861 professor of philology and archaeology at Tübingen; in 1864 + professor of classical antiquities at Zurich; in 1869 at Jena, where he + was also director of the archaeological museum; in 1874 at Munich, where + he remained until his death on the 21st of September 1883. His most + important works are: <i>Geographie von Griechenland</i> (1862-1872); + <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der klassischen Studien im Mittelalter</i> + (1873); <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> + (1883); editions of Julius Firmicus Maternus' <i>De Errore Profanarum + Religionum</i> (1856) and of Seneca's <i>Suasoriae</i> (1857). The + article on Greek Art in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopaedia is by him. + Probably the work in connexion with which he is best known is the + <i>Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der klassischen + Altertumswissenschaft</i> (1873, &c.), of which he was the founder + and editor; from 1879 a <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde</i> + was published by way of supplement, an obituary notice of Bursian, with a + complete list of his writings, being in the volume for 1884.</p> + + <p><b>BURSLEM,</b> a market town of Staffordshire, England, in the + Potteries district, 150 m. N.W. from London, on the North Staffordshire + railway and the Grand Trunk Canal. Pop. (1891) 31,999; (1901) 38,766. In + the 17th century the town was already famous for its manufacture of + pottery. Here Josiah Wedgwood was born in 1730, his family having + practised the manufacture in this locality for several generations, while + he himself began work independently at the Ivy House pottery in 1759. He + is commemorated by the Wedgwood Institute, founded in 1863. It comprises + a school of art, free library, museum, picture-gallery and the free + school founded in 1794. The exterior is richly and peculiarly ornamented, + to show the progress of fictile art. The neighbouring towns of Stoke, + Hanley and Longton are connected with Burslem by tramways. Burslem is + mentioned in Domesday. Previously to 1885 it formed part of the + parliamentary borough of Stoke, but it is now included in that of Hanley. + It was included in the municipal borough of Stoke-on-Trent under an act + of 1908.</p> + + <p><b>BURTON, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM</b> (1816-1900), British painter and + art connoisseur, the third son of Samuel Burton of Mungret, Co. Limerick, + was born in Ireland in 1816. He was educated in Dublin, where his + artistic studies were carried on with marked success under the direction + of Mr Brocas, an able teacher, who foretold for the lad a distinguished + career. That this estimate was not exaggerated was proved by Burton's + immediate success in his profession. He was elected an associate of the + Royal Hibernian Academy at the age of twenty-one and an academician two + years later; and in 1842 he began to exhibit at the Royal Academy. A + visit to Germany and Bavaria in 1851 was the first of a long series of + wanderings in various parts of Europe, which gave him a profound and + intimate knowledge of the works of the Old Masters, and prepared him + admirably for the duties that he undertook in 1874 when he was appointed + director of the British National Gallery in succession to Sir W. Boxall, + R.A. During the twenty years that he held this post he was responsible + for many important purchases, among them Leonardo da Vinci's "Virgin of + the Rocks," Raphael's "Ansidei Madonna," Holbein's "Ambassadors," Van + Dyck's equestrian portrait of Charles I., and the "Admiral Pulido + Pareja," by Velasquez; and he added largely to the noted series of Early + Italian pictures in the gallery. The number of acquisitions made to the + collection during his period of office amounts to not fewer than 500. His + own painting, most of which was in water-colour, had more attraction for + experts than for the general public. He was elected an associate of the + Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours in 1855, and a full member in + the following year. He resigned in 1870, and was re-elected as an + honorary member in 1886. A knighthood was conferred on him in 1884, and + the degree of LL.D. of Dublin in 1889. In his youth he had strong + sympathy with the "Young Ireland Party," and was a close associate with + some of its members. He died in Kensington on the 16th of March 1900.</p> + + <p><b>BURTON, JOHN HILL</b> (1809-1881), Scottish historical writer, the + son of an officer in the army, was born at Aberdeen on the 22nd of August + 1809. After studying at the university of his native city, he removed to + Edinburgh, where he qualified for <!-- Page 864 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page864"></a>[v.04 p.0864]</span>the Scottish + bar and practised as an advocate; but his progress was slow, and he eked + out his narrow means by miscellaneous literary work. His <i>Manual of the + Law of Scotland</i> (1839) brought him into notice; he joined Sir John + Bowring in editing the works of Jeremy Bentham, and for a short time was + editor of the <i>Scotsman</i>, which he committed to the cause of free + trade. In 1846 he achieved high reputation by his <i>Life of David + Hume</i>, based upon extensive and unused MS. material. In 1847 he wrote + his biographies of Simon, Lord Lovat, and of Duncan Forbes, and in 1849 + prepared for Chambers's Series manuals of political and social economy + and of emigration. In the same year he lost his wife, whom he had married + in 1844, and never again mixed freely with society, though in 1855 he + married again. He devoted himself mainly to literature, contributing + largely to the <i>Scotsman</i> and <i>Blackwood</i>, writing + <i>Narratives from Criminal Trials in Scotland</i> (1852), <i>Treatise on + the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland</i> (1853), and publishing in the + latter year the first volume of his <i>History of Scotland</i>, which was + completed in 1870. A new and improved edition of the work appeared in + 1873. Some of the more important of his contributions to <i>Blackwood</i> + were embodied in two delightful volumes, <i>The Book Hunter</i> (1862) + and <i>The Scot Abroad</i> (1864). He had in 1854 been appointed + secretary to the prison board, an office which gave him entire pecuniary + independence, and the duties of which he discharged most assiduously, + notwithstanding his literary pursuits and the pressure of another + important task assigned to him after the completion of his history, the + editorship of the <i>National Scottish Registers</i>. Two volumes were + published under his supervision. His last work, <i>The History of the + Reign of Queen Anne</i> (1880), is very inferior to his <i>History of + Scotland</i>. He died on the 10th of August 1881. Burton was + pre-eminently a jurist and economist, and may be said to have been guided + by accident into the path which led him to celebrity. It was his great + good fortune to find abundant unused material for his <i>Life of + Hume</i>, and to be the first to introduce the principles of historical + research into the history of Scotland. All previous attempts had been far + below the modern standard in these particulars, and Burton's history will + always be memorable as marking an epoch. His chief defects as a historian + are want of imagination and an undignified familiarity of style, which, + however, at least preserves his history from the dulness by which lack of + imagination is usually accompanied. His dryness is associated with a fund + of dry humour exceedingly effective in its proper place, as in <i>The + Book Hunter</i>. As a man he was loyal, affectionate, philanthropic and + entirely estimable.</p> + + <p>A memoir of Hill Burton by his wife was prefaced to an edition of + <i>The Book Hunter</i>, which like his other works was published at + Edinburgh (1882).</p> + + <p>(R. G.)</p> + + <p><b>BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS</b> (1821-1890), British consul, + explorer and Orientalist, was born at Barham House, Hertfordshire, on the + 19th of March 1821. He came of the Westmorland Burtons of Shap, but his + grandfather, the Rev. Edward Burton, settled in Ireland as rector of + Tuam, and his father, Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton, of + the 36th Regiment, was an Irishman by birth and character. His mother was + descended from the MacGregors, and he was proud of a remote drop of + Bourbon blood piously believed to be derived from a morganatic union of + the Grand Monarque. There were even those, including some of the Romany + themselves, who saw gipsy written in his peculiar eyes as in his + character, wild and resentful, essentially vagabond, intolerant of + convention and restraint. His irregular education strengthened the + inherited bias. A childhood spent in France and Italy, under scarcely any + control, fostered the love of untrammelled wandering and a marvellous + fluency in continental vernaculars. Such an education so little prepared + him for academic proprieties, that when he entered Trinity College, + Oxford, in October 1840, a criticism of his military moustache by a + fellow-undergraduate was resented by a challenge to a duel, and Burton in + various ways distinguished himself by such eccentric behaviour that + rustication inevitably ensued. Nor was he much more in his element as a + subaltern in the 18th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry, which he joined + at Baroda in October 1842. Discipline of any sort he abhorred, and the + one recommendation of the East India Company's service in his eyes was + that it offered opportunities for studying Oriental life and languages. + He had begun Arabic without a master at Oxford, and worked in London at + Hindustani under Forbes before he went out; in India he laboured + indefatigably at the vernaculars, and his reward was an astonishingly + rapid proficiency in Gujarati, Marathi, Hindustani, as well as Persian + and Arabic. His appointment as an assistant in the Sind survey enabled + him to mix with the people, and he frequently passed as a native in the + bazaars and deceived his own <i>munshi</i>, to say nothing of his colonel + and messmates. His wanderings in Sind were the apprenticeship for the + pilgrimage to Mecca, and his seven years in India laid the foundations of + his unparalleled familiarity with Eastern life and customs, especially + among the lower classes. Besides government reports and contributions to + the Asiatic Society, his Indian period produced four books, published + after his return home: <i>Scinde, or the Unhappy Valley</i> (1851), + <i>Sindh and the Races that Inhabit the Valley of the Indus</i> (1851), + <i>Goa and the Blue Mountains</i> (1851), and <i>Falconry in the Valley + of the Indus</i> (1852). None of these achieved popularity, but the + account of Sind is remarkably vivid and faithful.</p> + + <p>The pilgrimage to Mecca in 1853 made Burton famous. He had planned it + whilst mixing disguised among the Muslims of Sind, and had laboriously + prepared for the ordeal by study and practice. No doubt the primary + motive was the love of adventure, which was his strongest passion; but + along with the wanderer's restlessness marched the zest of exploration, + and whilst wandering was in any case a necessity of his existence, he + preferred to roam in untrodden ways where mere adventure might be + dignified by geographical service. There was a "huge white blot" on the + maps of central Arabia where no European had ever been, and Burton's + scheme, approved by the Royal Geographical Society, was to extend his + pilgrimage to this "empty abode," and remove a discreditable blank from + the map. War among the tribes curtailed the design, and his journey went + no farther than Medina and Mecca. The exploit of accompanying the Muslim + hajj to the holy cities was not unique, nor so dangerous as has been + imagined. Several Europeans have accomplished it before and since + Burton's visit without serious mishap. Passing himself off as an Indian + Pathan covered any peculiarities or defects of speech. The pilgrimage, + however, demands an intimate proficiency in a complicated ritual, and a + familiarity with the minutiae of Eastern manners and etiquette; and in + the case of a stumble, presence of mind and cool courage may be called + into request. There are legends that Burton had to defend his life by + taking others'; but he carried no arms, and confessed, rather + shamefastly, that he had never killed anybody at any time. The actual + journey was less remarkable than the book in which it was recorded, + <i>The Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah</i> (1855). Its vivid + descriptions, pungent style, and intensely personal "note" distinguish it + from books of its class; its insight into Semitic modes of thought and + its picture of Arab manners give it the value of an historical document; + its grim humour, keen observation and reckless insobriety of opinion, + expressed in peculiar, uncouth but vigorous language make it a curiosity + of literature.</p> + + <p>Burton's next journey was more hazardous than the pilgrimage, but + created no parallel sensation. In 1854 the Indian government accepted his + proposal to explore the interior of the Somali country, which formed a + subject of official anxiety in its relation to the Red Sea trade. He was + assisted by Capt. J.H. Speke and two other young officers, but + accomplished the most difficult part of the enterprise alone. This was + the journey to Harrar, the Somali capital, which no white man had + entered. Burton vanished into the desert, and was not heard of for four + months. When he reappeared he had not only been to Harrar, but had talked + with the king, stayed ten days there in deadly peril, and ridden back + across the desert, almost without food and water, running the gauntlet of + the Somali spears all the way. Undeterred by this experience he set out + again, but was checked <!-- Page 865 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page865"></a>[v.04 p.0865]</span>by a skirmish with the tribes, in + which one of his young officers was killed, Captain Speke was wounded in + eleven places, and Burton himself had a javelin thrust through his jaws. + His <i>First Footsteps in East Africa</i> (1856), describing these + adventures, is one of his most exciting and most characteristic books, + full of learning, observation and humour.</p> + + <p>After serving on the staff of Beatson's Bashi-bazouks at the + Dardanelles, but never getting to the front in the Crimea, Burton + returned to Africa in 1856. The foreign office, moved by the Royal + Geographical Society, commissioned him to search for the sources of the + Nile, and, again accompanied by Speke, he explored the lake regions of + equatorial Africa. They discovered Lake Tanganyika in February 1858, and + Speke, pushing on during Burton's illness and acting on indications + supplied by him, lighted upon Victoria Nyanza. The separate discovery led + to a bitter dispute, but Burton's expedition, with its discovery of the + two lakes, was the incentive to the later explorations of Speke and + Grant, Baker, Livingstone and Stanley; and his report in volume xxxiii. + of the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society</i>, and his + <i>Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa</i> (1860), are the true parents of + the multitudinous literature of "darkest Africa." Burton was the first + Englishman to enter Mecca, the first to explore Somaliland, the first to + discover the great lakes of Central Africa. His East African pioneering + coincides with areas which have since become peculiarly interesting to + the British Empire; and three years later he was exploring on the + opposite side of Africa, at Dahomey, Benin and the Gold Coast, regions + which have also entered among the imperial "questions" of the day. Before + middle age Burton had compressed into his life, as Lord Derby said, "more + of study, more of hardship, and more of successful enterprise and + adventure, than would have sufficed to fill up the existence of half a + dozen ordinary men." <i>The City of the Saints</i> (1861) was the fruit + of a flying visit to the United States in 1860.</p> + + <p>Since 1849 his connexion with the Indian army had been practically + severed; in 1861 he definitely entered the service of the foreign office + as consul at Fernando Po, whence he was shifted successively to Santos in + Brazil (1865), Damascus (1869), and Trieste (1871), holding the last post + till his death on the 20th of October 1890. Each of these posts produced + its corresponding books: Fernando Po led to the publishing of + <i>Wanderings in West Africa</i> (1863), <i>Abeokuta and the + Cameroons</i> (1863), <i>A Mission to Gelele, king of Dahomé</i> (1864), + and <i>Wit and Wisdom from West Africa</i> (1865). The <i>Highlands of + the Brazil</i> (1869) was the result of four years' residence and + travelling; and <i>Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay</i> (1870) + relate to a journey across South America to Peru. Damascus suggested + <i>Unexplored Syria</i> (1872), and might have led to much better work, + since no consulate in either hemisphere was more congenial to Burton's + taste and linguistic studies; but he mismanaged his opportunities, got + into trouble with the foreign office, and was removed to Trieste, where + his Oriental prepossessions and prejudices could do no harm, but where, + unfortunately, his Oriental learning was thrown away. He did not, + however, abandon his Eastern studies or his Eastern travels. Various + fresh journeys or revisitings of familiar scenes are recorded in his + later books, such as <i>Zanzibar</i> (1872), <i>Ultima Thule</i> (1875), + <i>Etruscan Bologna</i> (1876), <i>Sind Revisited</i> (1877), <i>The Land + of Midian</i> (1879) and <i>To the Gold Coast for Gold</i> (1883). None + of these had more than a passing interest. Burton had not the charm of + style or imagination which gives immortality to a book of travel. He + wrote too fast, and took too little pains about the form. His blunt, + disconnected sentences and ill-constructed chapters were full of + information and learning, and contained not a few thrusts for the benefit + of government or other people, but they were not "readable." There was + something ponderous about his very humour, and his criticism was personal + and savage. By far the most celebrated of all his books is the + translation of the "Arabian Nights" (<i>The Thousand Nights and a + Night</i>, 16 vols., privately printed, 1885-1888), which occupied the + greater part of his leisure at Trieste. As a monument of his Arabic + learning and his encyclopaedic knowledge of Eastern life this translation + was his greatest achievement. It is open to criticism in many ways; it is + not so exact in scholarship, nor so faithful to its avowed text, as might + be expected from his reputation; but it reveals a profound acquaintance + with the vocabulary and customs of the Muslims, with their classical + idiom as well as their vulgarest "Billingsgate," with their philosophy + and modes of thought as well as their most secret and most disgusting + habits. Burton's "anthropological notes," embracing a wide field of + pornography, apart from questions of taste, abound in valuable + observations based upon long study of the manners and the writings of the + Arabs. The translation itself is often marked by extraordinary resource + and felicity in the exact reproduction of the sense of the original; + Burton's vocabulary was marvellously extensive, and he had a genius for + hitting upon the right word; but his fancy for archaic words and phrases, + his habit of coining words, and the harsh and rugged style he affected, + detract from the literary quality of the work without in any degree + enhancing its fidelity. With grave defects, but sometimes brilliant + merits, the translation holds a mirror to its author. He was, as has been + well said, an Elizabethan born out of time; in the days of Drake his very + faults might have counted to his credit. Of his other works, <i>Vikram + and the Vampire, Hindu Tales</i> (1870), and a history of his favourite + arm, <i>The Book of the Sword</i>, vol. i. (1884), unfinished, may be + mentioned. His translation of <i>The Lusiads of Camoens</i> (1880) was + followed (1881) by a sketch of the poet's life. Burton had a + fellow-feeling for the poet adventurer, and his translation is an + extraordinarily happy reproduction of its original. A manuscript + translation of the "Scented Garden," from the Arabic, was burnt by his + widow, acting in what she believed to be the interests of her husband's + reputation. Burton married Isabel Arundell in 1861, and owed much to her + courage, sympathy and passionate devotion. Her romantic and exaggerated + biography of her husband, with all its faults, is one of the most + pathetic monuments which the unselfish love of a woman has ever raised to + the memory of her hero. Another monument is the Arab tent of stone and + marble which she built for his tomb at Mortlake.</p> + + <p>Besides Lady Burton's <i>Life of Sir Richard F. Burton</i> (2 vols., + 1893, 2nd edition, condensed, edited, with a preface, by W.H. Wilkins, + 1898), there are <i>A Sketch of the Career of R.F. Burton</i>, by A.B. + Richards, Andrew Wilson, and St Clair Baddeley (1886); <i>The True Life + of Captain Sir Richard F. Burton</i>, by his niece, G.M. Stisted (1896); + and a brief sketch by the present writer prefixed to Bohn's edition of + the <i>Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah</i> (1898), from which some + sentences have here been by permission reproduced. In 1906 appeared the + <i>Life of Sir Richard Burton</i>, by Thomas Wright of Olney, in two + volumes, an industrious and rather critical work, interesting in + particular for the doubts it casts on Burton's originality as an Arabic + translator, and emphasizing his indebtedness to Payne's translation + (1881) of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>.</p> + + <p>(S. L.-P.)</p> + + <p><b>BURTON, ROBERT</b> (1577-1640), English writer, author of <i>The + Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, son of a country gentleman, Ralph Burton, was + born at Lindley in Leicestershire on the 8th of February 1576-7. He was + educated at the free school of Sutton Coldfield and at Nuneaton grammar + school; became in 1593 a commoner of Brasenose College, and in 1599 was + elected student at Christ Church, where he continued to reside for the + rest of his life. The dean and chapter of Christ Church appointed him, in + November 1616, vicar of St Thomas in the west suburbs, and about 1630 his + patron, Lord Berkeley, presented him to the rectory of Segrave in + Leicestershire. He held the two livings "with much ado to his dying day" + (says Antony à Wood, the Oxford historian, somewhat mysteriously); and he + was buried in the north aisle of Christ Church cathedral, where his elder + brother William Burton, author of a <i>History of Leicestershire</i>, + raised to his memory a monument, with his bust in colour. The epitaph + that he had written for himself was carved beneath the bust: <i>Paucis + notus, paucioribus ignotus, hic jacet Democritus Junior, cui vitam dedit + et mortem Melancholia</i>. Some years before his death he had predicted, + by the calculation of his nativity, that the approach of his climacteric + year (sixty-three) would prove fatal; and the prediction came true, for + he died on the 25th of January 1639-40 (some gossips surmising that he + had "sent up his soul to heaven through a noose about his neck" to avoid + the chagrin of seeing his calculations falsified). His <!-- Page 866 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page866"></a>[v.04 + p.0866]</span>portrait in Brasenose College shows the face of a scholar, + shrewd, contemplative, humorous.</p> + + <p>A Latin comedy, <i>Philosophaster</i>, originally written by Robert + Burton in 1606 and acted at Christ Church in 1617, was long supposed to + be lost; but in 1862 it was printed for the Roxburghe Club from a + manuscript belonging to the Rev. W.E. Buckley, who edited it with + elaborate care and appended a collection of the academical exercises that + Burton had contributed to various Oxford miscellanies ("Natalia," + "Parentalia," &c.). <i>Philosophaster</i> is a vivacious exposure of + charlatanism. Desiderius, duke of Osuna, invites learned men from all + parts of Europe to repair to the university which he has re-established; + and a crowd of shifty adventurers avail themselves of the invitation. + There are points of resemblance to <i>Philosophaster</i> in Ben Jonson's + <i>Alchemist</i> and Tomkis's <i>Albumazar</i>, but in the prologue + Burton is careful to state that his was the earlier play. (Another + manuscript of <i>Philosophaster</i>, a presentation copy to William + Burton from the author, has since been found in the library of Lord + Mostyn.)</p> + + <p>In 1621 was issued at Oxford the first edition, a quarto, of <i>The + Anatomy of Melancholy ... by Democritus Junior</i>. Later editions, in + folio, were published in 1624, 1628, 1632, 1638, 1651, 1652, 1660, 1676. + Burton was for ever engaged in revising his treatise. In the third + edition (where first appeared the engraved emblematical title-page by C. + Le Blond) he declared that he would make no further alterations. But the + fourth edition again bore marks of revision; the fifth differed from the + fourth; and the sixth edition was posthumously printed from a copy + containing his latest corrections.</p> + + <p>Not the least interesting part of the <i>Anatomy</i> is the long + preface, "Democritus to the Reader," in which Burton sets out his reasons + for writing the treatise and for assuming the name of Democritus Junior. + He had been elected a student of "the most flourishing college of Europe" + and he designed to show his gratitude by writing something that should be + worthy of that noble society. He had read much; he was neither rich nor + poor; living in studious seclusion, he had been a critically observant + spectator of the world's affairs. The philosopher Democritus, who was by + nature very melancholy, "averse from company in his latter days and much + given to solitariness," spent his closing years in the suburbs of Abdera. + There Hippocrates once found him studying in his garden, the subject of + his study being the causes and cure of "this <i>atra bilis</i> or + melancholy." Burton would not compare himself with so famous a + philosopher, but he aimed at carrying out the design which Democritus had + planned and Hippocrates had commended. It is stated that he actually set + himself to reproduce the old philosopher's reputed eccentricities of + conduct. When he was attacked by a fit of melancholy he would go to the + bridge foot at Oxford and shake his sides with laughter to hear the + bargemen swearing at one another, just as Democritus used to walk down to + the haven at Abdera and pick matter for mirth out of the humours of + waterside life.</p> + + <p>Burton anticipates the objections of captious critics. He allows that + he has "collected this cento out of divers authors" and has borrowed from + innumerable books, but he claims that "the composition and method is ours + only, and shows a scholar." It had been his original intention to write + in Latin, but no publisher would take the risk of issuing in Latin so + voluminous a treatise. He humorously apologizes for faults of style on + the ground that he had to work single-handed (unlike Origen who was + allowed by Ambrosius six or seven amanuenses) and digest his notes as + best he might. If any object to his choice of subject, urging that he + would be better employed in writing on divinity, his defence is that far + too many commentaries, expositions, sermons, &c., are already in + existence. Besides, divinity and medicine are closely allied; and, + melancholy being both a spiritual and bodily infirmity, the divine and + the physician must unite to cure it.</p> + + <p>The preface is followed by a tabular synopsis of the First Partition + with its several Sections, Members and Subsections. After various + preliminary digressions Burton sets himself to define what Melancholy is + and what are its species and kinds. Then he discusses the Causes, + supernatural and natural, of the disorder, and afterwards proceeds to set + down the Symptoms (which cannot be briefly summarized, "for the Tower of + Babel never yielded such confusion of tongues as the Chaos of Melancholy + doth of Symptoms"). The Second Partition is devoted to the Cure of + Melancholy. As it is of great importance that we should live in good air, + a chapter deals with "Air Rectified. With a Digression of the Air." + Burton never travelled, but the study of cosmography had been his + constant delight; and over sea and land, north, east, west, + south—in this enchanting chapter—he sends his vagrant fancy + flying. In the disquisition on "Exercise rectified of body and mind" he + dwells gleefully on the pleasures of country life, and on the content + that scholars find in the pursuit of their favourite studies. + Love-Melancholy is the subject of the first Three Sections of the Third + Partition, and many are the merry tales with which these pages are + seasoned. The Fourth (and concluding) Section treats, in graver mood, of + Religious Melancholy; and to the "Cure of Despair" he devotes his deepest + meditations.</p> + + <p><i>The Anatomy</i>, widely read in the 17th century, for a time lapsed + into obscurity, though even "the wits of Queen Anne's reign and the + beginning of George I. were not a little beholden to Robert Burton" + (Archbishop Herring). Dr Johnson deeply admired the work; and Sterne laid + it heavily under contribution. But the noble and impassioned devotion of + Charles Lamb has been the most powerful help towards keeping alive the + memory of the "fantastic great old man." Burton's odd turns and quirks of + expression, his whimsical and affectate fancies, his kindly sarcasm, his + far-fetched conceits, his deep-lying pathos, descended by inheritance of + genius to Lamb. The enthusiasm of Burton's admirers will not be chilled + by the disparagement of unsympathetic critics (Macaulay and Hallam among + them) who have consulted his pages in vain; but through good and evil + report he will remain, their well-loved companion to the end.</p> + + <p>The best of the modern editions of Burton was published in 1896, 3 + vols. 8vo (Bell and Sons), under the editorship of A.R. Shilleto, who + identified a large number of the classical quotations and many passages + from post-classical authors. Prof. Bensley, of the university of + Adelaide, has since contributed to the ninth and tenth series of <i>Notes + and Queries</i> many valuable notes on the <i>Anatomy</i>. Dr Aldis + Wright has long been engaged on the preparation of a definitive + edition.</p> + + <p>(A. H. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BURTON, WILLIAM EVANS</b> (1804-1860), English actor and + playwright, born in London in September 1804, was the son of William + George Burton (1774-1825), a printer and author of <i>Research into the + religions of the Eastern nations as illustrative of the scriptures</i> + (1805). He was educated for the Church, but, having entered his father's + business, his success as an amateur actor led him to go upon the stage. + After several years in the provinces, he made his first London appearance + in 1831. In 1834 he went to America, where he appeared in Philadelphia as + Dr Ollapod in <i>The Poor Gentleman</i>. He took a prominent place, both + as actor and manager, in New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the + theatre which he leased in New York being renamed Burton's theatre. He + had much popular success as Captain Cuttle in John Brougham's + dramatization of <i>Dombey and Son</i>, and in other low comedy parts in + plays from Dickens's novels. Burton was the author of a large number of + plays, one of which, <i>Ellen Wareham</i> (1833), was produced + simultaneously at five London theatres. In Philadelphia he established + the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some + time the editor. He was himself the editor of the <i>Cambridge + Quarterly</i> and the <i>Souvenir</i>, and the author of several books, + including a <i>Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour</i> (1857). He collected a + library of over 100,000 volumes, especially rich in Shakespeariana, which + was dispersed after his death at New York City on the 9th of February + 1860.</p> + + <p><b>BURTON-UPON-TRENT,</b> a market town and municipal and county + borough in the Burton parliamentary division of Staffordshire and the + Southern parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England; lying mainly upon + the left bank of the Trent, in Staffordshire. Pop. (1891) 46,047; (1901) + 50,386. It is 127 m <!-- Page 867 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page867"></a>[v.04 p.0867]</span>north-west from London by the + London & North-Western and the Midland railways, and is also served + by the Great Northern and North Staffordshire railways. The Trent is + navigable from a point near the town downward. The neighbouring country + is pleasant enough, particularly along the river, but the town itself is + purely industrial, and contains no pre-eminent buildings. The church of + St Mary and St Modwen is classic in style, of the 18th century, but + embodies some remains of an ancient Gothic building. Of a Benedictine + abbey dedicated to the same saints there remain a gatehouse and lodge, + and a fine doorway. The former abbot's house at Seyney Park is a + half-timbered building of the 15th century. The free grammar school was + founded in 1525. A fine bridge over the Trent, and the municipal + buildings, were provided by Lord Burton. There are pleasant recreation + grounds on the Derbyshire side of the river.</p> + + <p>Burton is the seat of an enormous brewing trade, representing nearly + one-tenth of the total amount of this trade in the United Kingdom. It is + divided between some twenty firms. The premises of Bass's brewery extend + over 500 acres, while Allsopp's stand next; upwards of 5000 hands are + employed in all, and many miles of railways owned by the firms cross the + streets in all directions on the level, and connect with the lines of the + railway companies. The superiority which is claimed for Burton ales is + attributed to the use of well-water impregnated with sulphate of lime + derived from the gypseous deposits of the district. Burton is governed by + a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 4202 acres.</p> + + <p>Burton-upon-Trent (Burhton) is first mentioned towards the close of + the 9th century, when St Modwen, an Irish virgin, is said to have + established a convent on the Isle of Andressey opposite Burton. In 1002 + Wulfric, earl of Mercia, founded here a Benedictine abbey, and by charter + of 1004 granted to it the town with other large endowments. Burton was + evidently a mesne borough under the abbot, who held the court of the + manor and received the profits of the borough according to the charter of + Henry I. granting sac and soc and other privileges and right in the town. + Later charters were given by Henry II., by John in 1204 (who also granted + an annual fair of three days' duration, 29th of October, at the feast of + St Modwen, and a weekly market on Thursday), by Henry III. in 1227, by + Henry VII. in 1488 (Henry VII. granted a fair at the feast of St Luke, + 18th of October), and by Henry VIII. in 1509. At the dissolution Henry + VIII. founded on the site of the abbey a collegiate church dissolved + before 1545, when its lands, with all the privileges formerly vested in + the abbot, were conferred on Sir William Paget, ancestor of the marquess + of Anglesey, now holder of the manor. In 1878 it was incorporated under a + mayor, 8 aldermen, 24 councillors. Burton was the scene of several + engagements in the Civil War, when its large trade in clothing and + alabaster was practically ruined. Although the abbey ale was mentioned as + early as 1295, the brewing industry is comparatively of recent + development, having begun about 1708. Forty years later it had a market + at St Petersburg and the Baltic ports, and in 1796 there were nine + brewing firms in the town.</p> + + <p>See William Molyneux, <i>History of Burton-on-Trent</i> (1869); + <i>Victoria County History, Staffordshire</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BURU</b> (<i>Buro</i>, Dutch <i>Boeroe</i> or <i>Boeloe</i>), an + island of the Dutch East Indies, one of the Molucca Islands belonging to + the residency of Amboyna, between 3° 4′ and 3° 50′ S. and + 125° 58′ and 127° 15′ E. Its extreme measurements are 87 m. + by 50 m., and its area is 3400 sq. m. Its surface is for the most part + mountainous, though the seaboard district is frequently alluvial and + marshy from the deposits of the numerous rivers. Of these the largest, + the Kajeli, discharging eastward, is in part navigable. The greatest + elevations occur in the west, where the mountain Tomahu reaches 8530 ft. + In the middle of the western part of the island lies the large lake of + Wakolo, at an altitude of 2200 ft., with a circumference of 37 m. and a + depth of about 100 ft. It has been considered a crater lake; but this is + not the case. It is situated at the junction of the sandstone and slate, + where the water, having worn away the former, has accumulated on the + latter. The lake has no affluents and only one outlet, the Wai Nibe to + the north. The chief geological formations of Buru are crystalline slate + near the north coast, and more to the south Mesozoic sandstone and chalk, + deposits of rare occurrence in the archipelago. By far the larger part of + the country is covered with natural forest and prairie land, but such + portions as have been brought into cultivation are highly fertile. + Coffee, rice and a variety of fruits, such as the lemon, orange, banana, + pine-apple and coco-nut are readily grown, as well as sago, red-pepper, + tobacco and cotton. The only important exports, however, are cajeput oil, + a sudorific distilled from the leaves of the <i>Melaleuca Cajuputi</i> or + white-wood tree; and timber. The native flora is rich, and teak, ebony + and canari trees are especially abundant; the fauna, which is similarly + varied, includes the babirusa, which occurs in this island only of the + Moluccas. The population is about 15,000. The villages on the sea-coast + are inhabited by a Malayan population, and the northern and western + portions of the island are occupied by a light-coloured Malay folk akin + to the natives of the eastern Celebes. In the interior is found a + peculiar race which is held by some to be Papuan. They are described, + however, as singularly un-Papuan in physique, being only 5 ft. 2 in. in + average height, of a yellow-brown colour, of feeble build, and without + the characteristic frizzly hair and prominent nose of the true Papuan. + They are completely pagan, live in scattered hamlets, and have come very + little in contact with any civilization. Among the maritime population a + small number of Chinese, Arabs and other races are also found. The island + is divided by the Dutch into two districts. The chief settlement is + Kajeli on the east coast. A number of Mahommedan natives here are + descended from tribes compelled in 1657 to gather together from the + different parts of the island, while all the clove-trees were + exterminated in an attempt by the Dutch to centralize the clove trade. + Before the arrival of the Dutch the islanders were under the dominion of + the sultan of Ternate; and it was their rebellion against him that gave + the Europeans the opportunity of effecting their subjugation.</p> + + <p><b>BURUJIRD,</b> a province of Persia, bounded W. by Luristan, N. by + Nehavend and Malayir, E. by Irak and S. by Isfahan. It is divided into + the following administrative divisions:—(1) town of Burujird with + villages in immediate neighbourhood; (2) Silakhor (upper and lower); (3) + Japalak (with Sarlek and Burbarud); (4) nomad Bakhtiari. It has a + population of about 250,000 or 300,000, and pays a yearly revenue of + about £16,000. It is very fertile and produces much wheat, barley, rice + and opium. With improved means of transport, which would allow the + growers to export, the produce of cereals could easily be trebled. The + province is sometimes joined with that of Luristan.</p> + + <p>The town Burujird, the capital of the province, is situated in the + fertile Silakhor plain on the river Tahīj, a tributary of the + Dizful river (Ab i Diz), 70 m. by road from Hamadan and 212 m. from + Isfahan, in 33° 55′ N. and 48° 55′ E., and at an elevation of + 5315 ft. Pop. about 25,000. It manufactures various cotton stuffs (coarse + prints, carpet covers) and felts (principally hats and caps for Lurs and + Bakhtiaris). It has post and telegraph offices.</p> + + <p><b>BURY, JOHN BAGNELL</b> (1861- ), British historian, was born on the + 16th of October 1861, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where + he was elected to a fellowship in 1885. A fine Greek scholar, he edited + Pindar's <i>Nemean</i> and <i>Isthmian Odes</i>; but he devoted himself + chiefly to the study of history, and was chosen professor of modern + history at Dublin in 1893, becoming regius professor of Greek in 1898. He + resigned both positions in 1902, when he was elected regius professor of + modern history in the university of Cambridge. His historical work was + mainly concerned with the later Roman empire, and his edition of Gibbon's + <i>Decline and Fall</i>, with a masterly introduction and valuable notes + (1896-1900), is the standard text of this history. He also wrote a + <i>History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great</i> (1900); + <i>History of the Later Roman Empire, 395-800</i> (1889); <i>History of + the Roman Empire 27 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>-180 <span + class="scac">A.D.</span></i> (1893); <i>Life of St Patrick and his Place + in History</i> (1905), &c. He was elected a fellow of King's College, + Cambridge, and received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, + Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Durham.</p> + + <p><b>BURY,</b> a market-town and municipal, county and parliamentary + borough of Lancashire, England, on the river Irwell, <!-- Page 868 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page868"></a>[v.04 p.0868]</span>195 m. + N.W. by W. from London, and 10½ N. by W. from Manchester, on the + Lancashire & Yorkshire railway and the Manchester & Bolton canal. + Pop. (1891) 57,212; (1901) 58,029. The church of St Mary is of early + foundation, but was rebuilt in 1876. Besides numerous other places of + worship, there are a handsome town hall, athenaeum and museum, art + gallery and public library, various assembly rooms, and several + recreation grounds. Kay's free grammar school was founded in 1726; there + are also municipal technical schools. The cotton manufacture is the + principal industry; there are also calico printing, dyeing and bleaching + works, machinery and iron works, woollen manufactures, and coal mines and + quarries in the vicinity. Sir Robert Peel was born at Chamber Hall in the + neighbourhood, and his father did much for the prosperity of the town by + the establishment of extensive print-works. A monument to the statesman + stands in the market-place. The parliamentary borough returns one member + (since 1832). The county borough was created in 1888. The corporation + consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 5836 + acres.</p> + + <p>Bury, of which the name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>burhg</i>, + <i>birig</i> or <i>byrig</i> (town, castle or fortified place), was the + site of a Saxon station, and an old English castle stood in Castle Croft + close to the town. It was a member of the Honour of Clitheroe and a fee + of the royal manor of Tottington, which soon after the Conquest was held + by the Lacys. The local family of Bury held lands here during the 13th + century, and at least for a short time the manor itself, but before 1347 + it passed by marriage to the Pilkingtons of Pilkington, with whom it + remained till 1485, when on the attainder of Sir Thomas Pilkington it was + granted to the first earl of Derby, whose descendants have since held it. + Under a grant made by Edward IV. to Sir Thomas Pilkington, fairs are + still held on March 5, May 3, and September 18, and a market was formerly + held under the same grant on Thursday, which has, however, been long + replaced by a customary market on Saturday. The woollen trade was + established here through the agency of Flemish immigrants in Edward + III.'s reign, and in Elizabeth's time this industry was of such + importance that an aulneger was appointed to measure and stamp the + woollen cloth. But although the woollen manufacture is still carried on, + the cotton trade has been gradually superseding it since the early part + of the 18th century. The family of the Kays, the inventors, belonged to + this place, and Robert Peel's print-works were established here in 1770. + The cognate trades of bleaching, dyeing and machine-making have been long + carried on. A court-leet and view of frank pledge used to be held + half-yearly at Easter and Michaelmas, and a court-baron in May. Until + 1846 three constables were chosen annually at the court-leet to govern + the place, but in that year the inhabitants obtained authority from + parliament to appoint twenty-seven commissioners to undertake the local + government. A charter of incorporation was granted in 1876. The + well-known Bury Cooperative Society was established in 1856. There was a + church here at the time of the Domesday Survey, and the earliest mention + of a rector is found in the year 1331-1332. One-half of the town is glebe + belonging to the rectory.</p> + + <p><b>BURY ST EDMUNDS,</b> a market town and municipal and parliamentary + borough of Suffolk, England, on the Lark, an affluent of the Great Ouse; + 87 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) + 16,255. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a fertile and + richly cultivated district. The tower or church-gate, one of the finest + specimens of early Norman architecture in England, and the western gate, + a beautiful structure of rich Decorated work, together with ruined walls + of considerable extent, are all that remains of the great abbey. St + Mary's church, with a beautifully carved roof, was erected in the earlier + part of the 15th century, and contains the tomb of Mary Tudor, queen of + Louis XII. of France. St James's church is also a fine Perpendicular + building, with a modern chancel, and without a tower. All these splendid + structures, fronting one of the main streets in succession, form, even + without the abbey church, a remarkable memorial of the wealth of the + foundation. Behind them lie picturesque gardens which contain the ruins, + the plan of which is difficult to trace, though the outlines of some + portions, as the chapter-house, have been made clear by excavation. There + is a handsome Roman Catholic church of St Edmund. The so-called Moyses + Hall (perhaps a Jew's House, of which there is a parallel example at + Lincoln) retains transitional Norman work. The free grammar school, + founded by Edward VI., has two scholarships at Cambridge, and six + exhibitions to each university, and occupies modern buildings. The Church + Schools Company has a school. There are large agricultural implement + works, and the agricultural trade is important, cattle and corn markets + being held. In the vicinity is Ickworth, the seat of the marquess of + Bristol, a great mansion of the end of the 18th century. The + parliamentary borough, which returns one member, is coextensive with the + municipal borough. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 + councillors. Area, 2947 acres.</p> + + <p>Bury St Edmunds (Beodricesworth, St Edmund's Bury), supposed by some + to have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans, was one of the royal towns + of the Saxons. Sigebert, king of the East Angles, founded a monastery + here about 633, which in 903 became the burial place of King Edmund, who + was slain by the Danes about 870, and owed most of its early celebrity to + the reputed miracles performed at the shrine of the martyr king. By 925 + the fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town + was changed to St Edmund's Bury. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the + older monastery and ejected the secular priests, built a Benedictine + abbey on its site. In 942 or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and + convent jurisdiction over the whole town, free from all secular services, + and Canute in 1020 freed it from episcopal control. Edward the Confessor + made the abbot lord of the franchise. By various grants from the abbots, + the town gradually attained the rank of a borough. Henry III. in 1235 + granted to the abbot two annual fairs, one in December (which still + survives), the other the great St Matthew's fair, which was abolished by + the Fairs Act of 1871. Another fair was granted by Henry IV. in 1405. + Elizabeth in 1562 confirmed the charters which former kings had granted + to the abbots, and James I. in 1606 granted a charter of incorporation + with an annual fair in Easter week and a market. Further charters were + granted by him in 1608 and 1614, and by Charles II. in 1668 and 1684. The + reversion of the fairs and two markets on Wednesday and Saturday were + granted by James I. in fee farm to the corporation. Parliaments were held + here in 1272, 1296 and 1446, but the borough was not represented until + 1608, when James I. conferred the privilege of sending two members. The + Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the representation to one. There was + formerly a large woollen trade.</p> + + <p>See Richard Yates, <i>Hist. and Antiqs. of the Abbey of St Edmund's + Bury</i> (2nd ed., 1843); H.R. Barker, <i>History of Bury St + Edmunds</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BUSBECQ, OGIER GHISLAIN DE</b> [<span class="sc">Augerius + Gislenius</span>] (1522-1592), Flemish writer and traveller, was born at + Comines, and educated at the university of Louvain and elsewhere. Having + served the emperor Charles V. and his son, Philip II. of Spain, he + entered the service of the emperor Ferdinand I., who sent him as + ambassador to the sultan Suleiman I. the Magnificent. He returned to + Vienna in 1562 to become tutor to the sons of Maximilian II., afterwards + emperor, subsequently taking the position of master of the household of + Elizabeth, widow of Charles IX., king of France, and daughter of + Maximilian. Busbecq was an excellent scholar, a graceful writer and a + clever diplomatist. He collected valuable manuscripts, rare coins and + curious inscriptions, and introduced various plants into Germany. He died + at the castle of Maillot near Rouen on the 28th of October 1592. Busbecq + wrote <i>Itinera Constantinopolitanum et Amasianum</i> (Antwerp, 1581), a + work showing considerable insight into Turkish politics. This was + published in Paris in 1589 as <i>A.G. Busbequii legationis Turcicae + epistolae iv.</i>, and has been translated into several languages. He was + a frequent visitor to France, and wrote <i>Epistolae ad Rudolphum II. + Imperatorem e Gallia scriptae</i> (Louvain, 1630), an interesting account + of affairs at the French court. His works were published <!-- Page 869 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page869"></a>[v.04 p.0869]</span>at + Leiden in 1633 and at Basel in 1740. An English translation of the + <i>Itinera</i> was published in 1744.</p> + + <p>See C.T. Forster and F.H.B. Daniel, <i>Life and Letters of Ogier + Ghiselin de Busbecq</i> (London, 1881); Viertel, <i>Busbecks Erlebnisse + in der Turkei</i> (Gottingen, 1902).</p> + + <p><b>BUSBY, RICHARD</b> (1606-1695), English clergyman, and head master + of Westminster school, was born at Lutton in Lincolnshire in 1606. He was + educated at the school which he afterwards superintended for so long a + period, and first signalized himself by gaining a king's scholarship. + From Westminster Busby proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, where he + graduated in 1628. In his thirty-third year he had already become + renowned for the obstinate zeal with which he supported the falling + dynasty of the Stuarts, and was rewarded for his services with the + prebend and rectory of Cudworth, with the chapel of Knowle annexed, in + Somersetshire. Next year he became head master of Westminster, where his + reputation as a teacher soon became great. He himself once boasted that + sixteen of the bishops who then occupied the bench had been birched with + his "little rod". No school in England has on the whole produced so many + eminent men as Westminster did under the régime of Busby. Among the more + illustrious of his pupils may be mentioned South, Dryden, Locke, Prior + and Bishop Atterbury. He wrote and edited many works for the use of his + scholars. His original treatises (the best of which are his Greek and + Latin grammars), as well as those which he edited, have, however, long + since fallen into disuse. Busby died in 1695, in his ninetieth year, and + was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his effigy is still to be + seen.</p> + + <p><b>BUSBY,</b> the English name for a military head-dress of fur. + Possibly the original sense of a "busby wig" came from association with + Dr Busby of Westminster; but it is also derived from "buzz", in the + phrase "buzz wig". In its first Hungarian form the military busby was a + cylindrical fur cap, having a "bag" of coloured cloth hanging from the + top; the end of this bag was attached to the right shoulder as a defence + against sword-cuts. In Great Britain "busbies" are of two kinds: + (<i>a</i>) the hussar busby, cylindrical in shape, with a bag; this is + worn by hussars and the Royal Horse Artillery; (<i>b</i>) the rifle + busby, a folding cap of astrachan, in shape somewhat resembling a + "Glengarry" but taller. Both have straight plumes in the front of the + headdress. The word "busby" is also used colloquially to denote the tall + bear-and-raccoon-skin "caps" worn by foot-guards and fusiliers, and the + full dress feather bonnet of Highland infantry. Cylindrical busbies were + formerly worn by the artillery engineers and rifles, but these are now + obsolete in the regular army, though still worn by some territorial and + colonial troops of these arms.</p> + + <p><b>BUSCH, JULIUS HERMANN MORITZ</b> (1821-1899), German publicist, was + born at Dresden on the 13th of February 1821. He entered the university + of Leipzig in 1841 as a student of theology, but graduated as doctor + philosophiae, and from 1847 devoted himself entirely to journalism and + literature. In 1851 he went to America, but soon returned disillusioned + to Germany, and published an account of his travels. During the next + years he travelled extensively in the East and wrote books on Egypt, + Greece and Palestine. From 1856 he was employed at Leipzig on the + <i>Grenzboten</i>, one of the most influential German periodicals, which, + under the editorship of Gustav Freytag, had become the organ of the + Nationalist party. In 1864 he became closely connected with the + Augustenburg party in Schleswig-Holstein, but after 1866 he transferred + his services to the Prussian government, and was employed in a + semi-official capacity in the newly conquered province of Hanover. From + 1870 onwards he was one of Bismarck's press agents, and was at the + chancellor's side in this capacity during the whole of the campaign of + 1870-71. In 1878 he published the first of his works on Bismarck—a + book entitled <i>Bismarck und seine Leute, während des Krieges mit + Frankreich</i>, in which, under the form of extracts from his diary, he + gave an account of the chancellor's life during the war. The vividness of + the descriptions and the cleverness with which the conversations were + reported ensured a success, and the work was translated into several + languages. This was followed in 1885 by another book, <i>Unser + Reichskanzler</i>, chiefly dealing with the work in the foreign office in + Berlin. Immediately after Bismarck's death Busch published the + chancellor's famous petition to the emperor William II. dated the 18th of + March 1890, requesting to be relieved of office. This was followed by a + pamphlet <i>Bismarck und sein Werk</i>; and in 1898 in London and in + English, by the famous memoirs entitled <i>Bismarck: some Secret Pages of + his History</i> (German by Grunow, under title <i>Tagebuchblätter</i>), + in which were reprinted the whole of the earlier works, but which + contains in addition a considerable amount of new matter, passages from + the earlier works which had been omitted because of the attacks they + contained on people in high position, records of later conversations, and + some important letters and documents which had been entrusted to him by + Bismarck. Many passages were of such a nature that it could not be safely + published in Germany; but in 1899 a far better and more complete German + edition was published at Leipzig in three volumes and consisting of three + sections. Busch died at Leipzig on the 16th of November 1899.</p> + + <p>See Ernst Goetz, in <i>Biog. Jahrbuch</i> (1900).</p> + + <p><b>BUSCH, WILHELM</b> (1832-1908), German caricaturist, was born at + Wiedensahl in Hanover. After studying at the academies of Düsseldorf, + Antwerp and Munich, he joined in 1859 the staff of <i>Fliegende + Blätter</i>, the leading German comic paper, and was, together with + Oberländer, the founder of modern German caricature. His humorous + drawings and caricatures are remarkable for the extreme simplicity and + expressiveness of his pen-and-ink line, which record with a few rapid + scrawls the most complicated contortions of the body and the most + transitory movement. His humorous illustrated poems, such as <i>Max und + Moritz, Der heilige Antonius von Padua, Die Fromme Helene, Hans + Huckebein</i> and <i>Die Erlebnisse Knopps des Junggesellen</i>, play, in + the German nursery, the same part that Edward Lear's nonsense verses do + in England. The types created by him have become household words in his + country. He invented the series of comic sketches illustrating a story in + scenes without words, which have inspired Caran d'Ache and other leading + caricaturists.</p> + + <p><b>BÜSCHING, ANTON FRIEDRICH</b> (1724-1793), German theologian and + geographer, was born at Stadthagen in Schaumburg-Lippe, on the 27th of + September 1724. In 1748 he was appointed tutor in the family of the count + de Lynars, who was then going as ambassador to St Petersburg. On this + journey he resolved to devote his life to the improvement of geographical + science. Leaving the count's family, he went to reside at Copenhagen, and + devoted himself entirely to this new pursuit. In 1752 he published his + <i>Description of the Counties of Schleswig and Holstein</i>. In 1754 he + removed to Göttingen, where in 1757 he was appointed professor of + philosophy; but in 1761 he accepted an invitation to the German + congregation at St Petersburg. There he organized a school which, under + him, soon became one of the most flourishing in the north of Europe, but + a disagreement with Marshal Münich led him, in spite of the empress's + offers of high advancement, to return to central Europe in 1765. He first + went to live at Altona; but next year he was called to superintend the + famous "Greyfriars Gymnasium" (<i>Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster</i>), + which had been formed at Berlin by Frederick the Great. He died of dropsy + on the 28th of May 1793, having by writing and example given a new + impulse to education throughout Prussia. While at Göttingen he married + the poetess, Christiana Dilthey.</p> + + <p>Büsching's works (on geography, history, education and religion) + amount to more than a hundred. The first class comprehends those upon + which his fame chiefly rests; for although he did not possess the genius + of D'Anville, he may be regarded as the creator of modern Statistical + Geography. His <i>magnum opus</i> is the <i>Erdebeschreibung</i>, in + seven parts, of which the first four, comprehending Europe, were + published in 1754-1761, and have been translated into several languages + (<i>e.g.</i> into English with a preface by Murdoch, in six volumes, + London, 1762). In 1768 the fifth part was published, being the first + volume upon Asia, containing Asiatic Turkey and Arabia. It displays an + immense extent of research, and is generally considered as his <!-- Page + 870 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page870"></a>[v.04 + p.0870]</span>masterpiece. Büsching was also the editor of a valuable + collection entitled <i>Magazin für d. neue Historie und Geographie</i> + (23 vols. 4to, 1767-1793); also of <i>Wochentl. Nachrichten von neuen + Landkarten</i> (Berlin, 1773-1787). His works on education enjoyed great + repute. In biography he wrote a number of articles for the + above-mentioned <i>Magazin</i>, and a valuable collection of <i>Beiträge + zur Lebensgeschichte merkwürdiger Personen</i> (6 vols., 1783-1789), + including an elaborate life of Frederick the Great.</p> + + <p><b>BUSENBAUM</b> (or <span class="sc">Busembaum</span>), + <b>HERMANN</b> (1600-1668), Jesuit theologian, was born at Nottelen in + Westphalia. He attained fame as a master of casuistry, and out of his + lectures to students at Cologne grew his celebrated book <i>Medulla + theologiae moralis, facili ac perspicua methodo resolvens casus + conscientiae</i> (1645). The manual obtained a wide popularity and passed + through over two hundred editions before 1776. Pierre Lacroix added + considerably to its bulk, and editions in two folio volumes appeared in + both Germany (1710-1714) and France (1729). In these sections on murder + and especially on regicide were much amplified, and in connexion with + Damien's attempt on the life of Louis XV. the book was severely handled + by the parlement of Paris. At Toulouse in 1757, though the offending + sections were repudiated by the heads of the Jesuit colleges, the + <i>Medulla</i> was publicly burned, and the episode undoubtedly led the + way to the duc de Choiseul's attack on the society. Busenbaum also wrote + a book on the ascetic life, <i>Lilium inter spinas</i>. He became rector + of the Jesuit college at Hildesheim and then at Münster, where he died on + the 31st of January 1668, being at the time father-confessor to Bishop + Bernard of Galen.</p> + + <p><b>BUSH.</b> (1) (A word common to many European languages, meaning "a + wood", cf. the Ger. <i>Busch</i>, Fr. <i>bois</i>, Ital. <i>bosco</i> and + the med. Lat. <i>boscus</i>), a shrub or group of shrubs, especially of + those plants whose branches grow low and thick. Collectively "the bush" + is used in British colonies, particularly in Australasia and South + Africa, for the tract of country covered with brushwood not yet cleared + for cultivation. From the custom of hanging a bush as a sign outside a + tavern comes the proverb "Good wine needs no bush." (2) (From a Teutonic + word meaning "a box", cf. the Ger. <i>Rad-büchse</i>, a wheel box, and + the termination of "blunderbuss" and "arquebus"; the derivation from the + Fr. <i>bouche</i>, a mouth, is not correct), a lining frequently inserted + in the bearings of machinery. When a shaft and the bearing in which it + rotates are made of the same metal, the two surfaces are in certain cases + apt to "seize" and abrade each other. To prevent this, bushes of some + dissimilar metal are employed; thus a shaft of mild steel or wrought iron + may be made to run in hard cast steel, cast iron, bronze or Babbitt + metal. The last, having a low melting point, may be cast about the shaft + for which it is to form a bearing.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/bushbuck_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/bushbuck_1.png" + alt="Female Bushbuck." title="Female Bushbuck." /></a> + Female Bushbuck. + </div> + <p><b>BUSHBUCK</b> (<i>Boschbok</i>,) the South African name of a + medium-sized red antelope (<i>q.v.</i>), marked with white lines and + spots, belonging to a local race of a widely spread species, + <i>Tragelaphus scriptus</i>. The males alone have rather small, spirally + twisted horns. There are several allied species, sometimes known as + harnessed antelopes, which are of a larger size. Some of these such as + the situtunga (<i>T. spekei</i>) have the hoofs elongated for walking on + swampy ground, and hence have been separated as <i>Limnotragus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BUSHEL</b> (from the O. Fr. <i>boissiel</i>, cf. med. L. + <i>bustellus, busellus</i>, a little box), a dry measure of capacity, + containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It has been in use for measuring corn, + potatoes, &c., from a very early date; the value varying locally and + with the article measured. The "imperial bushel", legally established in + Great Britain in 1826, contains 2218.192 cub.in., or 80 lb of distilled + water, determined at 62° F., with the barometer at 30 in. Previously, the + standard bushel used was known as the "Winchester bushel", so named from + the standard being kept in the town hall at Winchester; it contained + 2150.42 cub. in. This standard is the basis of the bushel used in the + United States and Canada; but other "bushels" for use in connexion with + certain commodities have been legalized in different states.</p> + + <p><b>BUSHIDO</b> (Japanese for "military-knight-ways"), the unwritten + code of laws governing the lives of the nobles of Japan, equivalent to + the European chivalry. Its maxims have been orally handed down, together + with a vast accumulation of traditional etiquette, the result of + centuries of feudalism. Its inception is associated with the uprise of + feudal institutions under Yoritomo, the first of the Shoguns, late in the + 12th century, but bushido in an undeveloped form existed before then. The + samurai or nobles of Japan entertained the highest respect for truth. "A + <i>bushi</i> has no second word" was one of their mottoes. And their + sense of honour was so high as to dictate suicide where it was + offended.</p> + + <p>See Inazo Nitobe, <i>Bushido: The Soul of Japan</i> (1905); also <span + class="sc">Japan</span>: <i>Army</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BUSHIRE,</b> or <span class="sc">Bander Bushire</span>, a town of + Persia, on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, in 28° 59′ N., + 50° 49′ E. The name is pronounced Boosheer, and not Bew-shire, or + Bus-hire; modern Persians write it Bushehr and, yet more incorrectly, + Abushehr, and translate it as "father of the city," but it is most + probably a contraction of Bokht-ardashir, the name given to the place by + the first Sassanian monarch in the 3rd century. In a similar way + Riv-ardashir, a few miles south of Bushire, has become Rishire + (Reesheer). In the first half of the 18th century, when Bushire was an + unimportant fishing village, it was selected by Nadir Shah as the + southern port of Persia and dockyard of the navy which he aspired to + create in the Persian Gulf, and the British commercial factory of the + East India Company, established at Gombrun, the modern Bander Abbasi, was + transferred to it in 1759. At the beginning of the 19th century it had a + population of 6000 to 8000, and it is now the most important port in the + Persian Gulf, with a population of about 25,000. It used to be under the + government of Fars, but is (since about 1892) the seat of the governor of + the Persian Gulf ports, who is responsible to the central government, and + has under his jurisdiction the principal ports of the Gulf and their + dependencies. The town, which is of a triangular form, occupies the + northern extremity of a peninsula 11 m. long and 4 broad, and is + encircled by the sea on all sides except the south. It is fortified on + the land side by a wall with 12 round towers. The houses being mostly + built of a white conglomerate stone of shells and coral which forms the + peninsula, gives the city when viewed from a distance a clean and + handsome appearance, but on closer inspection the streets are found to be + very narrow, irregular, ill-paved and filthy. Almost the only decent + buildings are the governor's palace, the British residency and the houses + of some well-to-do merchants. The sea immediately east of the town has a + considerable depth, but its navigation is impeded by sand-banks and a bar + north and west of the town, which can be passed only by vessels drawing + not more than 9 ft. of water, except at spring tides, when there is a + rise of from 8 to 10 ft. Vessels drawing more than 9 ft. must anchor in + the roads miles away to the west. The climate is very hot in the summer + months and unhealthy. The water is very bad, and that fit for drinking + requires to be brought from wells distant 1½ to 3 m. from the city + wall.</p> + + <p>Bushire carries on a considerable trade, particularly with India, Java + and Arabia. Its principal imports are cotton and woollen goods, yarn, + metals, sugar, coffee, tea, spices, cashmere shawls, &c., and its + principal exports opium, wool, carpets, horses, grain, dyes and gums, + tobacco, rosewater, &c. The importance of Bushire has much increased + since about 1862. It is now not only the headquarters of the English + naval squadron in the Persian Gulf, and the land terminus of the + Indo-European telegraph, but it also forms the chief station in the Gulf + of the British Indian Steam Navigation Company, which runs its vessels + weekly between Bombay and Basra. Consulates of Great Britain, Germany, + France, Russia and Turkey and several European mercantile houses are + established at Bushire, and <!-- Page 871 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page871"></a>[v.04 p.0871]</span>notwithstanding the drawbacks of + bad roads to the interior, insufficient and precarious means of + transport, and want of security, the annual value of the Bushire trade + since 1890 averaged about £1,500,000 (one-third being for exports, + two-thirds for imports), and over two-thirds of this was British. Of the + 278,000 tons of shipping which entered the port in 1905, 244,000 were + British.</p> + + <p>During the war with Persia (1856-57) Bushire surrendered to a British + force and remained in British occupation for some months. At Rishire, + some miles south of Bushire and near the summer quarters of the British + resident and the British telegraph buildings, there are extensive ruins + among which bricks with cuneiform inscriptions have been found, showing + that the place was a very old Elamite settlement.</p> + + <p>(A. H.-S.)</p> + + <p><b>BUSHMEN,</b> or <span class="sc">Bosjesmans</span>, a people of + South Africa, so named by the British and Dutch colonists of the Cape. + They often call themselves <i>Saan</i> [Sing. <i>Sá</i>], but this + appears to be the Hottentot name. If they have a national name it is + <i>Khuai</i>, probably "small man," the title of one group. This + <i>Khuai</i> has, however, been translated as the Bushman word for + <i>tablier égyptien</i> (see below), adopted as the racial name because + that malformation is one of their physical characteristics. The Kaffirs + call them Abatwa, the Bechuana Masarwa (Maseroa). There is little reason + to doubt that they constitute the aboriginal element of the population of + South Africa, and indications of their former presence have been found as + far north at least as the Nyasa and Tanganyika basins. "It would seem," + writes Sir H.H. Johnston (<i>British Central Africa</i>, p. 52), "as if + the earliest known race of man inhabiting what is now British Central + Africa was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot type of negro. Rounded stones + with a hole through the centre, similar to those which are used by the + Bushmen in the south for weighting their digging-sticks (the <i>graaf + stock</i> of the Boers), have been found at the south end of Lake + Tanganyika." The dirty yellow colour of the Bushmen, their slightly + slanting eyes and prominent cheek-bones had induced early anthropologists + to dwell on their resemblance to the Mongolian races. This similarity has + been now recognized as quite superficial. More recently a connexion has + been traced between the Bushmen and the Pygmy peoples inhabiting the + forests of Central Africa. Though the matter cannot be regarded as + definitely settled, the latest researches rather tend to discredit this + view. In fact it would appear that the two peoples have little in common + save diminutive proportions and a nomadic and predatory form of + existence. Owing to the discovery of steatopygous figurines in Egyptian + graves, a theory has been advanced that the Egyptians of the early + dynasties were of the same primitive pygmy negroid stock as the Bushmen. + But this is highly speculative. The physical characteristics of Egyptian + skulls have nothing of the Bushman in them. Of the primitive pygmy + negroid stock the Hottentots (<i>q.v.</i>), once considered the parent + family, are now regarded as an offshoot of mixed Bantu-Bushman blood from + the main Bushman race.</p> + + <p>It seems probable that the Bushmen must be regarded as having extended + considerably to the north of the area occupied by them within the memory + of white men. Evidence has been produced of the presence of a belated + Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group as far north as the district between + Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza. They were probably driven south by the + Bantu tribes, who eventually outflanked them and confined them to the + less fertile tracts of country. Before the arrival of Europeans in South + Africa the Bushman race appears to have been, what it so essentially is + to-day, a nomadic race living in widely scattered groups. The area in + which the Bushmen are now found sporadically may be defined as extending + from the inner ranges of the mountains of Cape Colony, through the + central Kalahari desert to near Lake Ngami, and thence north-westward to + the districts about the Ovambo river north of Damaraland. In short, they + have been driven by European and Kaffir encroachments into the most + barren regions of South Africa. A few remain in the more inaccessible + parts of the Drakensberg range about the sources of the Vaal. Only in one + or two districts are they found in large numbers, chiefly in Great + Bushman Land towards the Orange river. A regularly planned and wholesale + destruction of the Bushmen on the borders of Cape Colony in the earlier + years of European occupation reduced their numbers to a great extent; but + this cruel hunting of the Bushmen has ceased. In retaliation the Bushmen + were long the scourge of the farms on the outer borders of the colony, + making raids on the cattle and driving them off in large numbers. On the + western side of the deserts they are generally at enmity with the Koranna + Hottentots, but on the eastern border of the Kalahari they have to some + extent fraternized with the earliest Bechuana migrants. Their language, + which exists in several dialects, has in common with Hottentot, but to a + greater degree, the peculiar sounds known as "clicks." The Hottentot + language is more agglutinative, the Bushman more monosyllabic; the former + recognizes a gender in names, the latter does not; the Hottentots form + the plural by a suffix, the Bushmen by repetition of the name; the former + count up to twenty, the latter can only number two, all above that being + "many." F.C.Selous records that Koranna Hottentots were able to converse + fluently with the Bushmen of Bechuanaland.</p> + + <p>The most striking feature of the Bushman's physique is shortness of + stature. Gustav Fritsch in 1863-1866 found the average height of six + grown men to be 4 ft. 9 in. Earlier, but less trustworthy, measurements + make them still shorter. Among 150 measured by Sir John Barrow during the + first British occupation of Cape Colony the tallest man was 4 ft. 9 in., + the tallest woman 4 ft. 4 in. The Bushmen living in Bechuanaland measured + by Selous in the last quarter of the 19th century were, however, found to + be of nearly average height. Few persons were below 5 ft.; 5 ft. 4 in. + was common, and individuals of even 6 ft. were not unknown. No great + difference in height appears to exist between men and women. Fritsch's + average from five Bushman women was one-sixth of an inch more than for + the men. The Bushmen, as already stated, are of a dirty yellow colour, + and of generally unattractive countenance. The skull is long and low, the + cheek-bones large and prominent. The eyes are deeply set and crafty in + expression. The nose is small and depressed, the mouth wide with + moderately everted lips, and the jaws project. The teeth are not like + badly cut ivory, as in Bantu, but regular and of a mother-of-pearl + appearance. In general build the Bushman is slim and lean almost to + emaciation. Even the children show little of the round outlines of youth. + The amount of fat under the skin in both sexes is remarkably small; hence + the skin is as dry as leather and falls into strong folds around the + stomach and at the joints. The fetor of the skin, so characteristic of + the negro, is not found in the Bushman. The hair is weak in growth, in + age it becomes grey, but baldness is rare. Bushmen have little body-hair + and that of a weak stubbly nature, and none of the fine down usual on + most skins. On the face there is usually only a scanty moustache. A + hollowed back and protruding stomach are frequent characteristics of + their figure, but many of them are well proportioned, all being active + and capable of enduring great privations and fatigue. Considerable + steatopygy often exists among the women, who share with the Hottentot + women the extraordinary prolongation of the nymphae which is often called + "the Hottentot apron" or <i>tablier</i>. Northward the Bushmen appear to + improve both in general condition and in stature, probably owing to a + tinge of Bantu blood. The Bushman's clothing is scanty: a triangular + piece of skin, passed between the legs and fastened round the waist with + a string, is often all that is worn. Many men, however, and nearly all + the women, wear the <i>kaross</i>, a kind of pelisse of skins sewn + together, which is used at night as a wrap. The bodies of both sexes are + smeared with a native ointment, <i>buchu</i>, which, aided by accretions + of dust and dirt, soon forms a coating like a rind. Men and women often + wear sandals of hide or plaited bast. They are fond of ornament, and + decorate the arms, neck and legs with beads, iron or copper rings, teeth, + hoofs, horns and shells, while they stick feathers or hares' tails in the + hair. The women sometimes stain their faces with red pigment. They carry + tobacco in goats' horns or in the shell of a land tortoise, while boxes + of ointment <!-- Page 872 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page872"></a>[v.04 p.0872]</span>or amulets are hung round neck or + waist. A jackal's tail mounted on a stick serves the double purpose of + fan and handkerchief. For dwellings in the plains they have low huts + formed of reed mats, or occupy a hole in the earth; in the mountain + districts they make a shelter among the rocks by hanging mats on the + windward side. Of household utensils they have none, except ostrich eggs, + in which they carry water, and occasionally rough pots. For cooking his + food the Bushman needs nothing but fire, which he obtains by rubbing hard + and soft wood together.</p> + + <p>Bushmen do not possess cattle, and have no domestic animals except a + few half-wild dogs, nor have they the smallest rudiments of agriculture. + Living by hunting, they are thoroughly acquainted with the habits and + movements of every kind of wild animal, following the antelope herds in + their migrations. Their weapon is a bow made of a stout bough bent into a + sharp curve. It is strung with twisted sinew. The arrow, which is neatly + made of a reed, the thickness of a finger, is bound with thread to + prevent splitting, and notched at the end for the string. At the point is + a head of bone, or stone with a quill barb; iron arrow-blades obtained + from the Bantu are also found. The arrow is usually 2 to 3 ft. long. The + distance at which the Bushman can be sure of hitting is not great, about + twenty paces. The arrows are always coated with a gummy poisonous + compound which kills even the largest animal in a few hours. The + preparation is something of a mystery, but its main ingredients appear to + be the milky juice of the <i>Amaryllis toxicaria</i>, which is abundant + in South Africa, or of the <i>Euphorbia arborescens</i>, generally mixed + with the venom of snakes or of a large black spider of the genus + <i>Mygale</i>; or the entrails of a very deadly caterpillar, called N'gwa + or 'Kaa, are used alone. One authority states that the Bushmen of the + western Kalahari use the juice of a chrysalis which they scrape out of + the ground. From their use of these poisons the Bushmen are held in great + dread by the neighbouring races. They carry, too, a club some 20 in. long + with a knob as big as a man's fist. Assegais and knives are rare. No + Bushman tribe south of Lake Ngami is said to carry spears. A rude + implement, called by the Boers <i>graaf stock</i> or digging stick, + consisting of a sharpened spike of hard wood over which a stone, ground + to a circular form and perforated, is passed and secured by a wedge, + forms part of the Bushman equipment. This is used by the women for + uprooting the succulent tuberous roots of the several species of creeping + plants of the desert, and in digging pitfalls. These perforated stones + have a special interest in indicating the former extension of the + Bushmen, since they are found, as has been said, far beyond the area now + occupied by them. The Bushmen are famous as hunters, and actually run + down many kinds of game. Living a life of periodical starvation, they + spend days at a time in search of food, upon which when found they feed + so gluttonously that it is said five of them will eat a whole zebra in a + few hours. They eat practically anything. The meat is but half cooked, + and game is often not completely drawn. The Bushman eats raw such insects + as lice and ants, the eggs of the latter being regarded as a great + delicacy. In hard times they eat lizards, snakes, frogs, worms and + caterpillars. Honey they relish, and for vegetables devour bulbs and + roots. Like the Hottentot, the Bushman is a great smoker.</p> + + <p>The disposition of the Bushman has been much maligned; the cruelty + which has been attributed to him is the natural result of equal + brutalities practiced upon him by the other natives and the early + European settlers. He is a passionate lover of freedom, and, like many + other primitive people, lives only for the moment. Unlike the Hottentot + he has never willingly become a slave, and will fight to the last for his + personal liberty. He has been described as the "anarchist of South + Africa." Still, when he becomes a servant, he is usually trustworthy. His + courage is remarkable, and Fritsch was told by residents who were well + qualified to speak that supported by a dozen Bushmen they would not be + afraid of a hundred Kaffirs. The terror inspired by the Bushmen has + indeed had an effect in the deforestation of parts of Cape Colony, for + the colonists, to guard against stealthy attacks, cut down all the bush + far round their holdings. Mission-work among the Bushmen has been + singularly unsuccessful. But in spite of his savage nature, the Bushman + is intelligent. He is quick-witted, and has the gift of imitating + extraordinarily well the cries of bird and beast. He is musical, too, and + makes a rough instrument out of a gourd and one or more strings. He is + fond of dancing; besides the ordinary dances are the special dances at + certain stages of the moon, &c. One of the most interesting facts + about the Bushman is his possession of a remarkable delight in graphic + illustration; the rocks of the mountains of Cape Colony and of the + Drakensberg and the walls of caves anciently inhabited by them have many + examples of Bushman drawings of men, women, children and animals + characteristically sketched. Their designs are partly painted on rock, + with four colours, white, black, red and yellow ochre, partly engraved in + soft sandstone, partly chiselled in hard stone. Rings, crosses and other + signs drawn in blue pigment on some of the rocks, and believed to be one + or two centuries old, have given rise to the erroneous speculation that + these may be remains of a hieroglyphic writing. A discovery of drawings + of men and women with antelope heads was made in the recesses of the + Drakensberg in 1873 (J.M. Orpen in <i>Cape Monthly Magazine</i>, July + 1874). A few years later Selous discovered similar rock-paintings in + Mashonaland and Manicaland.</p> + + <p>Little is known of the family life of the Bushmen. Marriage is a + matter merely of offer and acceptance ratified by a feast. Among some + tribes the youth must prove himself an expert hunter. Nothing is known of + the laws of inheritance. The avoidance of parents-in-law, so marked among + Kaffirs, is found among Bushmen. Murder, adultery, rape and robbery are + offences against their code of morals. As among other African tribes the + social position of the women is low. They are beasts of burden, carrying + the children and the family property on the journeys, and doing all the + work at the halting-place. It is their duty also to keep the encampment + supplied with water, no matter how far it has to be carried. The Bushman + mother is devoted to her children, who, though suckled for a long time, + yet are fed within the first few days after birth upon chewed roots and + meat, and taught to chew tobacco at a very early age. The child's head is + often protected from the sun by a plaited shade of ostrich feathers. + There is practically no tribal organization. Individual families at times + join together and appoint a chief, but the arrangement is never more than + temporary. The Bushmen have no concrete idea of a God, but believe in + evil spirits and supernatural interference with man's life. All Bushmen + carry amulets, and there are indications of totemism in their refusal to + eat certain foods. Thus one group will not eat goat's flesh, though the + animal is the commonest in their district. Others reverence antelopes or + even the caterpillar N'gwa. The Bushman cuts off the joints of the + fingers as a sign of mourning and sometimes, it seems, as an act of + repentance. Traces of a belief in continued existence after death are + seen in the cairns of stone thrown on the graves of chiefs. Evil spirits + are supposed to hide beneath these sepulchral mounds, and the Bushman + thinks that if he does not throw his stone on the mounds the spirits will + twist his neck. The whole family deserts the place where any one has + died, after raising a pile of stones. The corpse's head is anointed, then + it is smoke-dried and laid in the grave at full length, stones or earth + being piled on it. There is a Bushman belief that the sun will rise later + if the dead are not buried with their faces to the east. Weapons and + other Bushman treasures are buried with the dead, and the hut materials + are burnt in the grave.</p> + + <p>The Bushmen have many animal myths, and a rich store of beast legends. + The most prominent of the animal mythological figures is that of the + mantis, around which a great cycle of myths has been formed. He and his + wife have many names. Their adopted daughter is the porcupine. In the + family history an ichneumon, an elephant, a monkey and an eland all + figure. The Bushmen have also solar and lunar myths, and observe and name + the stars. Canopus alone has five names. Some of the constellations have + figurative names. Thus they call Orion's Belt "three she-tortoises + hanging on a stick," and Castor and <!-- Page 873 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page873"></a>[v.04 p.0873]</span>Pollux "the + cow-elands." The planets, too, have their names and myths, and some idea + of the astonishing wealth of this Bushman folklore and oral literature + may be formed from the fact that the materials collected by Bleek and + preserved in Sir George Grey's library at Cape Town form eighty-four + stout MS. volumes of 3600 pages. They comprise myths, fables, legends and + even poetry, with tales about the sun and moon, the stars, the crocodile + and other animals; legends of peoples who dwelt in the land before the + Bushmen arrived from the north; songs, charms, and even prayers, or at + least incantations; histories, adventures of men and animals; tribal + customs, traditions, superstitions and genealogies. A most curious + feature in Bushman folklore is the occurrence of the speeches of various + animals, into which the relater of the legend introduces particular + "clicks," supposed to be characteristic of the animals in whose mouths + they are placed.</p> + + <p>See G.W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i> (London, 1905); + Mark Hutchinson, "Bushman Drawings," in <i>Jour. Anthrop. Instit.</i>, + 1882, p. 464; Sir H.H. Johnston, <i>Jour. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1883, p. + 463; Dr H. Welcker, <i>Archiv f. Anthrop.</i> xvi.; G. Bertin, "The + Bushmen and their Language," <i>Jour. R. Asial. Soc.</i> xviii. part i.; + Gustav Fritsch, <i>Die Eingeborenen Südafrikas</i> (Breslau, 1872); + W.H.I. Bleek, <i>Bushman Folklore</i> (1875); J.L.P. Erasmus, <i>The Wild + Bushman</i>, MS. note (1899); F.C. Selous, <i>African Nature Notes and + Reminiscences</i> (1908), chap. xx.; S. Passarge, <i>Die Buschmanner der + Kalahari</i> (Berlin, 1907).</p> + + <p><b>BUSHNELL, HORACE</b> (1802-1876), American theologian, was born in + the village of Bantam, township of Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 14th + of April 1802. He graduated at Yale in 1827, was associate editor of the + New York <i>Journal of Commerce</i> in 1828-1829, and in 1829 became a + tutor at Yale. Here he at first took up the study of law, but in 1831 he + entered the theological department of Yale College, and in 1833 was + ordained pastor of the North Congregational church in Hartford, Conn., + where he remained until 1859, when on account of long-continued + ill-health he resigned his pastorate. Thereafter he had no settled + charge, but, until his death at Hartford on the 17th of February 1876, he + occasionally preached and was diligently employed as an author. While in + California in 1856, for the restoration of his health, he took an active + interest in the organization, at Oakland, of the college of California + (chartered in 1855 and merged in the university of California in 1869), + the presidency of which he declined. As a preacher, Dr Bushnell was a man + of remarkable power. Not a dramatic orator, he was in high degree + original, thoughtful and impressive in the pulpit. His theological + position may be said to have been one of qualified revolt against the + Calvinistic orthodoxy of his day. He criticized prevailing conceptions of + the Trinity, the atonement, conversion, and the relations of the natural + and the supernatural. Above all, he broke with the prevalent view which + regarded theology as essentially intellectual in its appeal and + demonstrable by processes of exact logical deduction. To his thinking its + proper basis is to be found in the feelings and intuitions of man's + spiritual nature. He had a vast influence upon theology in America, an + influence not so much, possibly, in the direction of the modification of + specific doctrines as in "the impulse and tendency and general spirit + which he imparted to theological thought." Dr Munger's estimate may be + accepted, with reservations, as the true one: "He was a theologian as + Copernicus was an astronomer; he changed the point of view, and thus not + only changed everything, but pointed the way toward unity in theological + thought. He was not exact, but he put God and man and the world into a + relation that thought can accept while it goes on to state it more fully + with ever growing knowledge. Other thinkers were moving in the same + direction; he led the movement in New England, and wrought out a great + deliverance. It was a work of superb courage. Hardly a theologian in his + denomination stood by him, and nearly all pronounced against him." Four + of his books were of particular importance: <i>Christian Nurture</i> + (1847), in which he virtually opposed revivalism and "effectively turned + the current of Christian thought toward the young"; <i>Nature and the + Supernatural</i> (1858), in which he discussed miracles and endeavoured + to "lift the natural into the supernatural" by emphasizing the + super-naturalness of man; <i>The Vicarious Sacrifice</i> (1866), in which + he contended for what has come to be known as the "moral view" of the + atonement in distinction from the "governmental" and the "penal" or + "satisfaction" theories; and <i>God in Christ</i> (1849) (with an + introductory "Dissertation on Language as related to Thought"), in which + he expressed, it was charged, heretical views as to the Trinity, holding, + among other things, that the Godhead is "instrumentally three—three + simply as related to our finite apprehension, and the communication of + God's incommunicable nature." Attempts, indeed, were made to bring him to + trial, but they were unsuccessful, and in 1852 his church unanimously + withdrew from the local "consociation," thus removing any possibility of + further action against him. To his critics Bushnell formally replied by + writing <i>Christ in Theology</i> (1851), in which he employs the + important argument that spiritual facts can be expressed only in + approximate and poetical language, and concludes that an adequate + dogmatic theology cannot exist. That he did not deny the divinity of + Christ he proved in <i>The Character of Jesus, forbidding his possible + Classification with Men</i> (1861). He also published <i>Sermons for the + New Life</i> (1858); <i>Christ and his Salvation</i> (1864); <i>Work and + Play</i> (1864); <i>Moral Uses of Dark Things</i> (1868); <i>Women's + Suffrage, the Reform against Nature</i> (1869); <i>Sermons on Living + Subjects</i> (1872); and <i>Forgiveness and Law</i> (1874). Dr Bushnell + was greatly interested in the civic interests of Hartford, and was the + chief agent in procuring the establishment of the public park named in + his honour by that city.</p> + + <p>An edition of his works, in eleven volumes, appeared in 1876-1881; and + a further volume, gathered from his unpublished papers, as <i>The Spirit + in Man: Sermons and Selections</i>, in 1903. New editions of his + <i>Nature and the Supernatural, Sermons for the New Life</i>, and <i>Work + and Play</i>, were published the same year. A full bibliography, by Henry + Barrett Learned, is appended to his <i>Spirit in Man</i>. Consult Mrs + M.B. Cheneys <i>Life and Letters of Horace Bushnell</i> (New York, 1880; + new edition, 1903), and Dr Theodore T. Mungers <i>Horace Bushnell, + Preacher and Theologian</i> (Boston, 1899); also a series of papers in + the <i>Minutes of the General Association of Connecticut</i> (<i>Bushnell + Centenary</i>) (Hartford, 1902).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">W. Wr.</span>)</p> + + <p><span class="special" + title="BUSIRI"><b>BŪṢĪRĪ</b></span> [Abū + 'Abdallāh Muhammad ibn Sa'īd <span class="special" + title="ul-Busiri">ul-Būṣīrī</span>] (1211-1294), + Arabian poet, lived in Egypt, where he wrote under the patronage of Ibn + Hinna, the vizier. His poems seem to have been wholly on religious + subjects. The most famous of these is the so-called "Poem of the Mantle." + It is entirely in praise of Mahomet, who cured the poet of paralysis by + appearing to him in a dream and wrapping him in a mantle. The poem has + little literary value, being an imitation of Ka'b ibn Zuhair's poem in + praise of Mahomet, but its history has been unique (cf. I. Goldziher in + <i>Revue de l'histoire des religions</i>, vol. xxxi. pp. 304 ff.). Even + in the poet's lifetime it was regarded as sacred. Up to the present time + its verses are used as amulets; it is employed in the lamentations for + the dead; it has been frequently edited and made the basis for other + poems, and new poems have been made by interpolating four or six lines + after each line of the original. It has been published with English + translation by Faizullabhai (Bombay, 1893), with French translation by R. + Basset (Paris, 1894), with German translation by C.A. Ralfs (Vienna, + 1860), and in other languages elsewhere.</p> + + <p>For long list of commentaries, &c., cf. C. Brockelmann's <i>Gesch. + der Arab. Litteratur</i> (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 264-267.</p> + + <p>(G. W. T.)</p> + + <p><b>BUSIRIS,</b> in a Greek legend preserved in a fragment of + Pherecydes, an Egyptian king, son of Poseidon and Lyssianassa. After + Egypt has been afflicted for nine years with famine, Phrasius, a seer of + Cyprus, arrived in Egypt and announced that the cessation of the famine + would not take place until a foreigner was yearly sacrificed to Zeus or + Jupiter. Busiris commenced by sacrificing the prophet, and continued the + custom by offering a foreigner on the altar of the god. It is here that + Busiris enters into the circle of the myths and <i>parerga</i> of + Heracles, who had arrived in Egypt from Libya, and was seized and bound + ready to be killed and offered at the altar of Zeus in Memphis. Heracles + burst the bonds which bound him, and, seizing his club, slew Busiris with + his son Amphidamas and his herald Chalbes. <!-- Page 874 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page874"></a>[v.04 p.0874]</span>This exploit is + often represented on vase paintings from the 6th century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> and onwards, the Egyptian monarch and his + companions being represented as negroes, and the legend is referred to by + Herodotus and later writers. Although some of the Greek writers made + Busiris an Egyptian king and a successor of Menes, about the sixtieth of + the series, and the builder of Thebes, those better informed by the + Egyptians rejected him altogether. Various esoterical explanations were + given of the myth, and the name not found as a king was recognized as + that of the tomb of Osiris. Busiris is here probably an earlier and less + accurate Graecism than Osiris for the name of the Egyptian god Usiri, + like Bubastis, Buto, for the goddesses Ubasti and Uto. Busiris, Bubastis, + Buto, more strictly represent Pusiri, Pubasti, Puto, cities sacred to + these divinities. All three were situated in the Delta, and would be + amongst the first known to the Greeks. All shrines of Osiris were called + <i>P-usiri</i>, but the principal city of the name was in the centre of + the Delta, capital of the 9th (Busirite) nome of Lower Egypt; another one + near Memphis (now Abusir) may have helped the formation of the legend in + that quarter. The name Busiris in this legend may have been caught up + merely at random by the early Greeks, or they may have vaguely connected + their legend with the Egyptian myth of the slaying of Osiris (as king of + Egypt) by his mighty brother Seth, who was in certain aspects a patron of + foreigners. Phrasius, Chalbes and Epaphus (for the grandfather of + Busiris) are all explicable as Graecized Egyptian names, but other names + in the legend are purely Greek. The sacrifice of foreign prisoners before + a god, a regular scene on temple walls, is perhaps only symbolical, at + any rate for the later days of Egyptian history, but foreign intruders + must often have suffered rude treatment at the hands of the Egyptians, in + spite of the generally mild character of the latter.</p> + + <p>See H. v. Gartringen, in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, for + the evidence from the side of classical archaeology.</p> + + <p>(F. <span class="sc">Ll.</span> G.)</p> + + <p><b>BUSK, GEORGE</b> (1807-1886), British surgeon, zoologist and + palaeontologist, son of Robert Busk, merchant of St Petersburg, was born + in that city on the 12th of August 1807. He studied surgery in London, at + both St Thomas's and St Bartholomew's hospitals, and was an excellent + operator. He was appointed assistant-surgeon to the Greenwich hospital in + 1832, and served as naval surgeon first in the <i>Grampus</i>, and + afterwards for many years in the <i>Dreadnought</i>; during this period + he made important observations on cholera and on scurvy. In 1855 he + retired from service and settled in London, where he devoted himself + mainly to the study of zoology and palaeontology. As early as 1842 he had + assisted in editing the <i>Microscopical Journal</i>; and later he edited + the <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science</i> (1853-1868) and the + <i>Natural History Review</i> (1861-1865). From 1856 to 1859 he was + Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology in the Royal + College of Surgeons, and he became president of the college in 1871. He + was elected F.R.S. in 1850, and was an active member of the Linnean, + Geological and other societies, and president of the Anthropological + Institute (1873-1874); he received the Royal Society's Royal medal and + the Geological Society's Wollaston and Lyell medals. Early in life he + became the leading authority on the Polyzoa; and later the vertebrate + remains from caverns and river-deposits occupied his attention. He was a + patient and cautious investigator, full of knowledge, and unaffectedly + simple in character. He died in London on the 10th of August 1886.</p> + + <p><b>BUSKEN-HUET, CONRAD</b> (1826-1886), Dutch literary critic, was + born at the Hague on the 28th of December 1826. He was trained for the + Church, and, after studying at Geneva and Lausanne, was appointed pastor + of the Walloon chapel in Haarlem in 1851. In 1863 conscientious scruples + obliged him to resign his charge, and Busken-Huet, after attempting + journalism, went out to Java in 1868 as the editor of a newspaper. Before + this time, however, he had begun his career as a polemical man of + letters, although it was not until 1872 that he was made famous by the + first series of his <i>Literary Fantasies</i>, a title under which he + gradually gathered in successive volumes all that was most durable in his + work as a critic. His one novel, <i>Lidewijde</i>, was written under + strong French influences. Returning from the East Indies, Busken-Huet + settled for the remainder of his life in Paris, where he died in April + 1886. For the last quarter of a century he had been the acknowledged + dictator in all questions of Dutch literary taste. Perfectly honest, + desirous to be sympathetic, widely read, and devoid of all sectarian + obstinacy, Busken-Huet introduced into Holland the light and air of + Europe. He made it his business to break down the narrow prejudices and + the still narrower self-satisfaction of his countrymen, without + endangering his influence by a mere effusion of paradox. He was a + brilliant writer, who would have been admired in any language, but whose + appearance in a literature so stiff and dead as that of Holland in the + 'fifties was dazzling enough to produce a sort of awe and stupefaction. + The posthumous correspondence of Busken-Huet has been published, and adds + to our impression of the vitality and versatility of his mind.</p> + + <p>(E. G.)</p> + + <p><b>BUSKIN</b> (a word of uncertain origin, existing in many European + languages, as Fr. <i>brousequin</i>, Ital. <i>borzacchino</i>, Dutch + <i>brozeken</i>, and Span, <i>borceguí</i>), a half-boot or high shoe + strapped under the ankle, and protecting the shins; especially the + thick-soled boot or <i>cothurnus</i> in the ancient Athenian tragedy, + used to increase the stature of the actors, as opposed to the + <i>soccus</i>, "sock," the light shoe of comedy. The term is thus often + used figuratively of a tragic style.</p> + + <p><b>BUSLAEV, FEDOR IVANOVICH</b> (1818-1898), Russian author and + philologist, was born on the 13th of April 1818 at Kerensk, where his + father was secretary of the district tribunal. He was educated at Penza + and Moscow University. At the end of his academical course, 1838, he + accompanied the family of Count S.G. Strogonov on a tour through Italy, + Germany and France, occupying himself principally with the study of + classical antiquities. On his return he was appointed assistant professor + of Russian literature at the university of Moscow. A study of Jacob + Grimm's great dictionary had already directed the attention of the young + professor to the historical development of the Russian language, and the + fruit of his studies was the book <i>On the Teaching of the National + Language</i> (Moscow, 1844 and 1867), which even now has its value. In + 1848 he produced his work <i>On the Influence of Christianity on the + Slavonic Language</i>, which, though subsequently superseded by Franz von + Miklosich's <i>Christliche Terminologie</i>, is still one of the most + striking dissertations on the development of the Slavonic languages. In + this work Buslaev proves that long before the age of Cyril and Methodius + the Slavonic languages had been subject to Christian influences. In 1855 + he published <i>Palaeographical and Philological Materials for the + History of the Slavonic Alphabets</i>, and in 1858 <i>Essay towards an + Historical Grammar of the Russian Tongue</i>, which, despite some trivial + defects, is still a standard work, abounding with rich material for + students, carefully collected from an immense quantity of ancient records + and monuments. In close connexion with this work in his <i>Historical + Chrestomathy of the Church-Slavonic and Old Russian Tongues</i> (Moscow, + 1861). Buslaev also interested himself in Russian popular poetry and old + Russian art, and the result of his labours is enshrined in <i>Historical + Sketches of Russian Popular Literature and Art</i> (St Petersburg, 1861), + a very valuable collection of articles and monographs, in which the + author shows himself a worthy and faithful disciple of Grimm. His + <i>Popular Poetry</i> (St Petersburg, 1887) is a valuable supplement to + the <i>Sketches</i>. In 1881 he was appointed professor of Russian + literature at Moscow, and three years later published his <i>Annotated + Apocalypse</i> with an atlas of 400 plates, illustrative of ancient + Russian art.</p> + + <p>See S.D. Sheremetev, <i>Memoir of F.I. Buslaev</i> (Moscow, 1899).</p> + + <p>(R. N. B.)</p> + + <p><b>BUSS, FRANCES MARY</b> (1827-1894), English schoolmistress, was + born in London in 1827, the daughter of the painter-etcher R.W. Buss, one + of the original illustrators of <i>Pickwick</i>. She was educated at a + school in Camden Town, and continued there as a teacher, but soon joined + her mother in keeping a school in Kentish Town. In 1848 she was one of + the original attendants at lectures at the new Queen's College for + Ladies. In 1830 her <!-- Page 875 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page875"></a>[v.04 p.0875]</span>school was moved to Camden Street, + and under its new name of the North London Collegiate School for Ladies + it rapidly increased in numbers and reputation. In 1864 Miss Buss gave + evidence before the Schools Inquiry Commission, and in its report her + school was singled out for exceptional commendation. Indeed, under her + influence, what was then pioneer work of the highest importance had been + done to put the education of girls on a proper intellectual footing. + Shortly afterwards the Brewers' Company and the Clothworkers' Company + provided funds by which the existing North London Collegiate School was + rehoused and a Camden School for Girls founded, and both were endowed + under a new scheme, Miss Buss continuing to be principal of the former. + She and Miss Beale of Cheltenham became famous as the chief leaders in + this branch of the reformed educational movement; she played an active + part in promoting the success of the Girls' Public Day School Company, + encouraging the connexion of the girls' schools with the university + standard by examinations, working for the establishment of women's + colleges, and improving the training of teachers; and her energetic + personality was a potent force among her pupils and colleagues. She died + in London on the 24th of December 1894.</p> + + <p><b>BUSSA,</b> a town in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, + on the west bank of the Niger, in 10° 9′ N., 4° 40′ E. It is + situated just above the rapids which mark the limit of navigability of + the Niger by steamer from the sea. Here in 1806 Mungo Park, in his second + expedition to trace the course of the Niger, was attacked by the + inhabitants, and drowned while endeavouring to escape. During 1894-1898 + its possession was disputed by Great Britain and France, the last-named + country acknowledging by the convention of June 1898 the British claim, + which carried with it the control of the lower Niger. It is now the + capital of northern Borgu (see <span class="sc">Nigeria</span>, and <span + class="sc">Borgu</span>).</p> + + <p><b>BUSSACO</b> (or <span class="sc">Busaco</span>), <b>SERRA DE</b>, a + mountain range on the frontiers of the Aveiro, Coimbra, and Vizeu + districts of Portugal, formerly included in the province of Beira. The + highest point in the range is the Ponta de Bussaco (1795 ft.), which + commands a magnificent view over the Serra da Estrella, the Mondego + valley and the Atlantic Ocean. Luso (pop. 1661), a village celebrated for + its hot mineral springs, is the nearest railway station, on the + Guarda-Figueira da Foz line, which skirts the northern slopes of the + Serra. Towards the close of the 19th century the Serra de Bussaco became + one of the regular halting-places for foreign, and especially for + British, tourists, on the overland route between Lisbon and Oporto. Its + hotel, built in the Manoellian style—a blend of Moorish and + Gothic—encloses the buildings of a secularized Carmelite monastery, + founded in 1268. The convent woods, now a royal domain, have long been + famous for their cypress, plane, evergreen oak, cork and other forest + trees, many of which have stood for centuries and attained an immense + size. A bull of Pope Gregory XV. (1623), anathematizing trespassers and + forbidding women to approach, is inscribed on a tablet at the main + entrance; another bull, of Urban VIII. (1643), threatens with + excommunication any person harming the trees. In 1873 a monument was + erected, on the southern slopes of the Serra, to commemorate the battle + of Bussaco, in which the French, under Marshal Masséna, were defeated by + the British and Portuguese, under Lord Wellington, on the 27th of + September 1810.</p> + + <p><b>BUSSY, ROGER DE RABUTIN,</b> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> + (1618-1693), commonly known as <span class="sc">Bussy-Rabutin</span>, + French memoir-writer, was born on the 13th of April 1618 at Epiry, near + Autun. He represented a family of distinction in Burgundy (see <span + class="sc">Sévigné, Madame de</span>), and his father, Léonor de Rabutin, + was lieutenant-general of the province of Nivernais. Roger was the third + son, but by the death of his elder brothers became the representative of + the family. He entered the army when he was only sixteen and fought + through several campaigns, succeeding his father in the office of + <i>mestre de camp</i>. He tells us himself that his two ambitions were to + become "honnête homme" and to distinguish himself in arms, but the luck + was against him. In 1641 he was sent to the Bastille by Richelieu for + some months as a punishment for neglect of his duties in his pursuit of + gallantry. In 1643 he married a cousin, Gabrielle de Toulongeon, and for + a short time he left the army. But in 1645 he succeeded to his father's + position in the Nivernais, and served under Condé in Catalonia. His wife + died in 1646, and he became more notorious than ever by an attempt to + abduct Madame de Miramion, a rich widow. This affair was with some + difficulty settled by a considerable payment on Bussy's part, and he + afterwards married Louise de Rouville. When Condé joined the party of the + Fronde, Bussy joined him, but a fancied slight on the part of the prince + finally decided him for the royal side. He fought with some distinction + both in the civil war and on foreign service, and buying the commission + of <i>mestre de camp</i> in 1655, he went to serve under Turenne in + Flanders. He served there for several campaigns and distinguished himself + at the battle of the Dunes and elsewhere; but he did not get on well with + his general, and his quarrelsome disposition, his overweening vanity and + his habit of composing libellous <i>chansons</i> made him eventually the + enemy of most persons of position both in the army and at court. In the + year 1659 he fell into disgrace for having taken part in an orgy at + Roissy near Paris during Holy Week, which caused great scandal. Bussy was + ordered to retire to his estates, and beguiled his enforced leisure by + composing, for the amusement of his mistress, Madame de Montglas, his + famous <i>Histoire amoureuse des Gaules</i>. This book, a series of + sketches of the intrigues of the chief ladies of the court, witty enough, + but still more ill-natured, circulated freely in manuscript, and had + numerous spurious sequels. It was said that Bussy had not spared the + reputation of Madame, and the king, angry at the report, was not appeased + when Bussy sent him a copy of the book to disprove the scandal. He was + sent to the Bastille on the 17th of April 1665, where he remained for + more than a year, and he was only liberated on condition of retiring to + his estates, where he lived in exile for seventeen years. Bussy felt the + disgrace keenly, but still bitterer was the enforced close of his + military career. In 1682 he was allowed to revisit the court, but the + coldness of his reception there made his provincial exile seem + preferable, and he returned to Burgundy, where he died on the 9th of + April 1693.</p> + + <p>The <i>Histoire amoureuse</i> is in its most striking passages adapted + from Petronius, and, except in a few portraits, its attractions are + chiefly those of the scandalous chronicle. But his <i>Mémoires</i>, + published after his death, are extremely lively and characteristic, and + have all the charm of a historical romance of the adventurous type. His + voluminous correspondence yields in variety and interest to few + collections of the kind, except that of Madame de Sévigné, who indeed is + represented in it to a great extent, and whose letters first appeared in + it. The literary and historical student, therefore, owes Bussy some + thanks.</p> + + <p>The best edition of the <i>Histoire amoureuse des Gaules</i> is that + of Paul Boiteau in the Bibliothèque Elzévirienne (3 vols., Paris, + 1856-1859). The <i>Mémoires</i> (2 vols., 1857) and <i>Correspondance</i> + (6 vols., 1858-1859) were edited by Ludovic Lalanne. Bussy wrote other + things, of which the most important, his <i>Genealogy of the Rabutin + Family</i>, remained in MS. till 1867, while his <i>Considérations sur la + guerre</i> was first published in Dresden in 1746. He also wrote, for the + use of his children, a series of biographies, in which his own life + serves a moral purpose.</p> + + <p><b>BUSTARD</b> (corrupted from the Lat. <i>Avis tarda</i>, though the + application of the epithet<a name="FnAnchor_101" + href="#Footnote_101"><sup>[1]</sup></a> is not easily understood), the + largest British land-fowl, and the <i>Otis tarda</i> of Linnaeus, which + formerly frequented the champaign parts of Great Britain from East + Lothian to Dorsetshire, but of which the native race is now extirpated. + Its existence in the northern locality just named rests upon Sir Robert + Sibbald's authority (<i>circa</i> 1684), and though Hector Boethius + (1526) unmistakably described it as an inhabitant of the Merse, no later + writer than the former has adduced any evidence in favour of its Scottish + domicile. The last examples of the native race were probably two killed + in 1838 near Swaffham, in Norfolk, a district in which for some years + previously a few hen-birds of the species, the remnant of a plentiful + stock, had maintained their existence, though no cock-bird had latterly + been known to bear them company. In Suffolk, where the neighbourhood of + Icklingham formed its chief haunt, an <!-- Page 876 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page876"></a>[v.04 p.0876]</span>end came to the + race in 1832; on the wolds of Yorkshire about 1826, or perhaps a little + later; and on those of Lincolnshire about the same time. Of Wiltshire, + George Montagu, author of an <i>Ornithological Dictionary</i>, writing in + 1813, says that none had been seen in their favourite haunts on Salisbury + Plain for the last two or three years. In Dorsetshire there is no + evidence of an indigenous example having occurred since that date, nor in + Hampshire nor Sussex since the opening of the 19th century. From other + English counties, as Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire and Berkshire, it + disappeared without note being taken of the event, and the direct cause + or causes of its extermination can only be inferred from what, on + testimony cited by Henry Stevenson (<i>Birds of Norfolk</i>, ii. pp. + 1-42), is known to have led to the same result in Norfolk and Suffolk. In + the latter the extension of plantations rendered the country unfitted for + a bird whose shy nature could not brook the growth of covert that might + shelter a foe, and in the former the introduction of improved + agricultural implements, notably the corn-drill and the horse-hoe, led to + the discovery and generally the destruction of every nest, for the bird's + chosen breeding-place was in wide fields—"brecks," as they are + locally called—of winter-corn. Since the extirpation of the native + race the bustard is known to Great Britain only by occasional wanderers, + straying most likely from the open country of Champagne or Saxony, and + occurring in one part or another of the United Kingdom some two or three + times every three or four years, and chiefly in midwinter.</p> + + <p>An adult male will measure nearly 4 ft. from the tip of the bill to + the end of the tail, and its wings have an expanse of 8 ft. or + more,—its weight varying (possibly through age) from 22 to 32 lb. + This last was that of one which was recorded by the younger Naumann, the + best biographer of the bird (<i>Vögel Deutschlands</i>, vii. p. 12), who, + however, stated in 1834 that he was assured of the former existence of + examples which had attained the weight of 35 or 38 lb. The female is + considerably smaller. Compared with most other birds frequenting open + places, the bustard has disproportionately short legs, yet the bulk of + its body renders it a conspicuous and stately object, and when on the + wing, to which it readily takes, its flight is powerful and sustained. + The bill is of moderate length, but, owing to the exceedingly flat head + of the bird, appears longer than it really is. The neck, especially of + the male in the breeding-season, is thick, and the tail, in the same sex + at that time of year, is generally carried in an upright position, being, + however, in the paroxysms of courtship turned forwards, while the head + and neck are simultaneously reverted along the back, the wings are + lowered, and their shorter feathers erected. In this posture, which has + been admirably portrayed by Joseph Wolf (<i>Zool. Sketches</i>, pl. 45), + the bird presents a very strange appearance, for the tail, head and neck + are almost buried amid the upstanding feathers before named, and the + breast is protruded to a remarkable extent. The bustard is of a pale grey + on the neck and white beneath, but the back is beautifully barred with + russet and black, while in the male a band of deep tawny-brown—in + some examples approaching a claret-colour—descends from either + shoulder and forms a broad gorget on the breast. The secondaries and + greater wing-coverts are white, contrasting vividly, as the bird flies, + with the black primaries. Both sexes have the ear-coverts somewhat + elongated—whence doubtless is derived the name <i>Otis</i> (Gr. + <span title="ôtis" class="grk" + >ὠτίς</span>)—and the male is adorned with + a tuft of long, white, bristly plumes, springing from each side of the + base of the mandible. The food of the bustard consists of almost any of + the plants natural to the open country it loves, but in winter it will + readily forage on those which are grown by man, and especially coleseed + and similar green crops. To this vegetable diet much animal matter is + added when occasion offers, and from an earthworm to a field-mouse little + that lives and moves seems to come amiss to its appetite.</p> + + <p>Though not many birds have had more written about them than the + bustard, much is unsettled with regard to its economy. A moot point, + which will most likely always remain undecided, is whether the British + race was migratory or not, though that such is the habit of the species + in most parts of the European continent is beyond dispute. Equally + uncertain as yet is the question whether it is polygamous or + not—the evidence being perhaps in favour of its having that nature. + But one of the most singular properties of the bird is the presence in + some of the fully-grown males of a pouch or gular sac, opening under the + tongue. This extraordinary feature, first discovered by James Douglas, a + Scottish physician, and made known by Eleazar Albin in 1740, though its + existence was hinted by Sir Thomas Browne sixty years before, if not by + the emperor Frederick II, has been found wanting in examples that, from + the exhibition of all the outward marks of virility, were believed to be + thoroughly mature; and as to its function and mode of development + judgment had best be suspended, with the understanding that the old + supposition of its serving as a receptacle whence the bird might supply + itself or its companions with water in dry places must be deemed to be + wholly untenable. The structure of this pouch—the existence of + which in some examples has been well established—is, however, + variable; and though there is reason to believe that in one form or + another it is more or less common to several exotic species of the family + <i>Otididae</i>, it would seem to be as inconstant in its occurrence as + in its capacity. As might be expected, this remarkable feature has + attracted a good deal of attention (<i>Journ. für Ornith.</i>, 1861, p. + 153; <i>Ibis</i>, 1862, p. 107; 1865, p. 143; <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, + 1865, p. 747; 1868, p. 741; 1869, p. 140; 1874, p. 471), and the later + researches of A.H. Garrod show that in an example of the Australian + bustard (<i>Otis australis</i>) examined by him there was, instead of a + pouch or sac, simply a highly dilated oesophagus—the distension of + which, at the bird's will, produced much the same appearance and effect + as that of the undoubted sac found at times in the <i>O. tarda</i>.</p> + + <p>The distribution of the bustards is confined to the Old + World—the bird so called in the fur-countries of North America, and + thus giving its name to a lake, river and cape, being the Canada goose + (<i>Bernicla canadensis</i>). In the Palaearctic region we have the <i>O. + tarda</i> already mentioned, extending from Spain to Mesopotamia at + least, and from Scania to Morocco, as well as a smaller species, <i>O. + tetrax</i>, which often occurs as a straggler in, but was never an + inhabitant of, the British Islands. Two species, known indifferently by + the name of houbara (derived from the Arabic), frequent the more southern + portions of the region, and one of them, <i>O. macqueeni</i>, though + having the more eastern range and reaching India, has several times + occurred in north-western Europe, and once even in England. In the east + of Siberia the place of <i>O. tarda</i> is taken by the nearly-allied, + but apparently distinct, <i>O. dybovskii</i>, which would seem to occur + also in northern China. Africa is the chief stronghold of the family, + nearly a score of well-marked species being peculiar to that continent, + all of which have been by later systematists separated from the genus + <i>Otis</i>. India, too, has three peculiar species, the smaller of which + are there known as floricans, and, like some of their African and one of + their European cousins, are remarkable for the ornamental plumage they + assume at the breeding-season. Neither in Madagascar nor in the Malay + Archipelago is there any form of this family, but Australia possesses one + large species already named. From Xenophon's days (<i>Anab.</i> i. 5) to + our own the flesh of bustards has been esteemed as of the highest + flavour. The bustard has long been protected by the game-laws in Great + Britain, but, as will have been seen, to little purpose. A few attempts + have been made to reinstate it as a denizen of this country, but none on + any scale that would ensure success. Many of the older authors considered + the bustards allied to the ostrich, a most mistaken view, their affinity + pointing apparently towards the cranes in one direction and the plovers + in another.</p> + + <p>(A. N.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_101" href="#FnAnchor_101">[1]</a> It may be open to + doubt whether <i>tarda</i> is here an adjective. Several of the medieval + naturalists used it as a substantive.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUSTO ARSIZIO,</b> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of + Milan, 21 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Milan. Pop. (1901) 19,673. It + contains a fine domed church, S. Maria di Piazza, built in 1517 after the + designs of Bramante: the picture over the high altar is one of Gaudenzio + Ferrari's best works. The church of S. Giovanni Battista is a good + baroque edifice of 1617; by it stands a fine 13th-century campanile. + Busto Arsizio is an active manufacturing town, the cotton factories being + <!-- Page 877 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page877"></a>[v.04 + p.0877]</span>especially important. It is a railway junction for Novara + and Seregno.</p> + + <p><b>BUTADES,</b> of Sicyon, wrongly called <span + class="sc">Dibutades</span>, the first Greek modeller in clay. The story + is that his daughter, smitten with love for a youth at Corinth where they + lived, drew upon the wall the outline of his shadow, and that upon this + outline her father modelled a face of the youth in clay, and baked the + model along with the clay tiles which it was his trade to make. This + model was preserved in Corinth till Mummius sacked that town. This + incident led Butades to ornament the ends of roof-tiles with human faces, + a practice which is attested by numerous existing examples. He is also + said to have invented a mixture of clay and ruddle, or to have introduced + the use of a special kind of red clay (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxv. + 12[43]). The period at which he flourished is unknown, but has been put + at about 600 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>BUTCHER,</b> one who slaughters animals, and dresses and prepares + the carcass for purposes of food. The word also is applied to one who + combines this trade with that of selling the meat, and to one who only + sells the meat. The O.Fr. <i>bochier</i> or <i>bouchier</i>, modern + <i>boucher</i>, from which "butcher" is derived, meant originally a + killer of goats and a seller of goats' flesh, from the O.Fr. <i>boc</i>, + a he-goat; cf. Ital. <i>beccaio</i>, from <i>becco</i>, a goat.</p> + + <p><b>BUTE, JOHN STUART,</b> <span class="sc">3rd Earl of</span> + (1713-1792), English prime minister, son of James, 2nd earl, and of Lady + Jane Campbell, daughter of the 1st duke of Argyll, was born on the 25th + of May 1713; he was educated at Eton and succeeded to the earldom (in the + peerage of Scotland; created for his grandfather Sir James Stuart in + 1703) on his father's death in 1723. He was elected a representative peer + for Scotland in 1737 but not in the following parliaments, and appears + not to have spoken in debate. In 1738 he was made a knight of the + Thistle, and for several years lived in retirement in Bute, engaged in + agricultural and botanical pursuits. From the quiet obscurity for which + his talents and character entirely fitted him Bute was forced by a mere + accident. He had resided in England since the rebellion of 1745, and in + 1747, a downpour of rain having prevented the departure of Frederick, + prince of Wales, from the Egham races, Bute was summoned to his tent to + make up a whist party; he immediately gained the favour of the prince and + princess, became the leading personage at their court, and in 1750 was + appointed by Frederick a lord of his bedchamber. After the latter's death + in 1751 his influence in the household increased. To his close intimacy + with the princess a guilty character was commonly assigned by + contemporary opinion, and their relations formed the subject of numerous + popular lampoons, but the scandal was never founded on anything but + conjecture and the malice of faction. With the young prince, the future + king, Bute's intimacy was equally marked; he became his constant + companion and confidant, and used his influence to inspire him with + animosity against the Whigs and with the high notions of the sovereign's + powers and duties found in Bolingbroke's <i>Patriot King</i> and + Blackstone's <i>Commentaries</i>. In 1775 he took part in the + negotiations between Leicester House and Pitt, directed against the duke + of Newcastle, and in 1757 in the conferences between the two ministers + which led to their taking office together. In 1756, by the special desire + of the young prince, he was appointed groom of the stole at Leicester + House, in spite of the king's pronounced aversion to him.</p> + + <p>On the accession of George III. in 1760, Bute became at once a person + of power and importance. He was appointed a privy councillor, groom of + the stole and first gentleman of the bedchamber, and though merely an + irresponsible confidant, without a seat in parliament or in the cabinet, + he was in reality prime minister, and the only person trusted with the + king's wishes and confidence. George III. and Bute immediately proceeded + to accomplish their long-projected plans, the conclusion of the peace + with France, the break-up of the Whig monopoly of power, and the + supremacy of the monarchy over parliament and parties. Their policy was + carried out with consummate skill and caution. Great care was shown not + to alienate the Whig leaders in a body, which would have raised up under + Pitt's leadership a formidable party of resistance, but advantage was + taken of disagreements between the ministers concerning the war, of + personal jealousies, and of the strong reluctance of the old statesmen + who had served the crown for generations to identify themselves with + active opposition to the king's wishes. They were all discarded singly, + and isolated, after violent disagreements, from the rest of the + ministers. On the 25th of March 1761 Bute succeeded Lord Holderness as + secretary of state for the northern department, and Pitt resigned in + October on the refusal of the government to declare war against + Spain.</p> + + <p>On the 3rd of November Bute appeared in his new capacity as prime + minister in the House of Lords, where he had not been seen for twenty + years. Though he had succeeded in disarming all organized opposition in + parliament, the hostility displayed against him in the nation, arising + from his Scottish nationality, his character as favourite, his peace + policy and the resignation of the popular hero Pitt, was overwhelming. He + was the object of numerous attacks and lampoons. He dared not show + himself in the streets without the protection of prize-fighters, while + the jack-boot (a pun upon his name) and the petticoat, by which the + princess was represented, were continually being burnt by the mob or + hanged upon the gallows. On the 9th of November, while proceeding to the + Guildhall, he narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the populace, + who smashed his coach, and he was treated with studied coldness at the + banquet. In January 1762 Bute was compelled to declare war against Spain, + though now without the advantages which the earlier decision urged by + Pitt could have secured, and he supported the war, but with no zeal and + no definite aim beyond the obtaining of a peace at any price and as soon + as possible. In May he succeeded the duke of Newcastle as first lord of + the treasury, and he was created K.G. after resigning the order of the + Thistle. In his blind eagerness for peace he conducted on his own + responsibility secret negotiations for peace with France through Viri, + the Sardinian minister, and the preliminary treaty was signed on the 3rd + of November at Fontainebleau. The king of Prussia had some reason to + complain of the sudden desertion of his ally, but there is no evidence + whatever to substantiate his accusation that Bute had endeavoured to + divert the tsar later from his alliance with Prussia, or that he had + treacherously in his negotiations with Vienna held out to that court + hopes of territorial compensation in Silesia as the price of the + abandonment of France; while the charge brought against Bute in 1765 of + having taken bribes to conclude the peace, subsequently after + investigation pronounced frivolous by parliament, may safely be ignored. + A parliamentary majority was now secured for the minister's policy by + bribery and threats, and with the aid of Henry Fox, who deserted his + party to become leader of the Commons. The definitive peace of Paris was + signed on the 10th of February 1763, and a wholesale proscription of the + Whigs was begun, the most insignificant adherents of the fallen party, + including widows, menial servants and schoolboys, incurring the + minister's mean vengeance. Later, Bute roused further hostility by his + cider tax, an ill-advised measure producing only £75,000 a year, imposing + special burdens upon the farmers and landed interest in the cider + counties, and extremely unpopular because extending the detested system + of taxation by excise, regarded as an infringement of the popular + liberties. At length, unable to contend any longer against the general + and inveterate animosity displayed against him, fearing for the + consequences to the monarchy, alarmed at the virulent attacks of the + <i>North Briton</i>, and suffering from ill-health, Bute resigned office + on the 8th of April. "Fifty pounds a year," he declared, "and bread and + water were luxury compared with what I suffer." He had, however, before + retiring achieved the objects for which he had been entrusted with + power.</p> + + <p>He still for a short time retained influence with the king, and + intended to employ George Grenville (whom he recommended as his + successor) as his agent; but the latter insisted on possessing the king's + whole confidence, and on the failure of Bute in August 1763 to procure + his dismissal and to substitute a ministry led by Pitt and the duke of + Bedford, Grenville demanded and obtained Bute's withdrawal from the + court. He resigned accordingly the office of privy purse, and took leave + of George III. <!-- Page 878 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page878"></a>[v.04 p.0878]</span>on the 28th of September. He still + corresponded with the king, and returned again to London next year, but + in May 1765, after the duke of Cumberland's failure to form an + administration, Grenville exacted the promise from the king, which + appears to have been kept faithfully, that Bute should have no share and + should give no advice whatever in public business, and obtained the + dismissal of Bute's brother from his post of lord privy seal in Scotland. + Bute continued to visit the princess of Wales, but on the king's arrival + always retired by a back staircase.</p> + + <p>The remainder of Bute's life has little public interest. He spoke + against the government on the American question in February 1766, and in + March against the repeal of the Stamp Act. In 1768 and 1774 he was again + elected a representative peer for Scotland, but took no further part in + politics, and in 1778 refused to have anything to do with the abortive + attempt to effect an alliance between himself and Chatham. He travelled + in Italy, complained of the malice of his opponents and of the + ingratitude of the king, and determined "to retire from the world before + it retires from me." He died on the 10th of March 1792 and was buried at + Rothesay in Bute.</p> + + <p>Though one of the worst of ministers, Bute was by no means the worst + of men or the despicable and detestable person represented by the popular + imagination. His abilities were inconsiderable, his character weak, and + he was qualified neither for the ordinary administration, of public + business nor for the higher sphere of statesmanship, and was entirely + destitute of that experience which sometimes fills the place of natural + aptitude. His short administration was one of the most disgraceful and + incompetent in English history, originating in an accident, supported + only by the will of the sovereign, by gross corruption and intimidation, + the precursor of the disintegration of political life and of a whole + series of national disasters. Yet Bute had good principles and + intentions, was inspired by feelings of sincere affection and loyalty for + his sovereign, and his character remains untarnished by the grosser + accusations raised by faction. In the circle of his family and intimate + friends, away from the great world in which he made so poor a figure, he + was greatly esteemed. Samuel Johnson, Lord Mansfield, Lady Hervey, Bishop + Warburton join in his praise. For the former, a strong opponent of his + administration, he procured a pension of £300 a year. He was + exceptionally well read, with a refined taste for books and art, and + purchased the famous <i>Thomason Tracts</i> now in the British Museum. He + was learned in the science of botany, and formed a magnificent collection + and a botanic garden at Luton Hoo, where Robert Adam built for him a + splendid residence. He engraved privately about 1785 at enormous expense + <i>Botanical Tables containing the Different Familys of British + Plants</i>, while <i>The Tabular Distribution of British Plants</i> + (1787) is also attributed to him. Bute filled the offices of ranger of + Richmond Forest, governor of the Charterhouse, chancellor of Marischal + College, Aberdeen (1761), trustee of the British Museum (1765), president + of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (1780) and commissioner of + Chelsea hospital.</p> + + <p>By his marriage with Mary, daughter of Edward Wortley Montagu of + Wortley, Yorkshire, who in 1761 was created Baroness Mount Stuart of + Wortley, and through whom he became possessed of the enormous Wortley + property, he had, besides six daughters, five sons, the eldest of whom, + John, Lord Cardiff (1744-1814), succeeded him as 4th earl and was created + a marquess in 1796. John, Lord Mount Stuart (1767-1794), the son and heir + of the 1st marquess, died before his father, and consequently in 1814 the + Bute titles and estates came to his son John (1793-1848) as 2nd marquess. + The latter was succeeded by his only son John Patrick (1847-1900), whose + son John (b. 1881) inherited the title in 1900.</p> + + <p><b>BUTE,</b> the most important, though not the largest, of the + islands constituting the county of the same name, in the Firth of Clyde, + Scotland, about 18 m. S.W. of Greenock and 40 m., by water, from Glasgow. + It is bounded on the N. and W. by the lovely Kyles of Bute, the narrow + winding strait which separates it from Argyllshire, on the E. by the + Firth of Clyde, and on the S. and S.W. by the Sound of Bute, about 6 m. + wide, which divides it from Arran. Its area is about 49 sq. m., or 31,161 + acres. It lies in a N.W. to S.E. direction, and its greatest length from + Buttock Point on the Kyles to Garroch Head on the Firth of Clyde is 15½ + m. Owing to indentations its width varies from 1⅓ m. to 4½ m. + There are piers at Kilchattan, Craigmore, Port Bannatyne and Rothesay, + but Rothesay is practically the harbour for the whole island. Here there + is regular communication by railway steamers from Craigendoran, Prince's + Pier (Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay, and by frequent vessels from the + Broomielaw Bridge in Glasgow and other points on the Clyde. Pop. (1891) + 11,735; (1901) 12,162.</p> + + <p>The principal hills are in the north, where the chief are Kames Hill + (911 ft.) and Kilbride Hill (836 ft.). The streams are mostly burns, and + there are six lochs. Loch Fad, about 1 m. S. of Rothesay, 2½ m. long by + ⅓ m. wide, was the source of the power used in the Rothesay + cotton-spinning mill, which was the first establishment of the kind + erected in Scotland. In 1827 on its western shore Edmund Kean built a + cottage afterwards occupied by Sheridan Knowles. It now belongs to the + marquess of Bute. From Loch Ascog, fully 1 m. long, Rothesay derives its + water supply. The other lakes are Loch Quien, Loch Greenan, Dhu Loch and + Loch Bull. Glen More in the north and Glen Callum in the south are the + only glens of any size. The climate is mild and healthful, fuchsias and + other plants flowering even in winter, and neither snow nor frost being + of long continuance, and less rain falling than in many parts of the + western coast. Some two-thirds of the area, mostly in the centre and + south, are arable, yielding excellent crops of potatoes for the Glasgow + market, oats and turnips; the rest consists of hill pastures and + plantations. The fisheries are of considerable value. There is no lack of + sandstone, slate and whinstone. Some coal exists, but it is of inferior + quality and doubtful quantity. At Kilchattan a superior clay for bricks + and tiles is found, and grey granite susceptible of high polish.</p> + + <p>The island is divided geologically into two areas by a fault running + from Rothesay Bay in a south-south-west direction by Loch Fad to Scalpsie + Bay, which, throughout its course, coincides with a well-marked + depression. The tract lying to the north-west of this dislocation is + composed of the metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands. The Dunoon + phyllites form a narrow belt about a mile and a half broad crossing the + island between Kames Bay and Etterick Bay, while the area to the north is + occupied by grits and schists which may be the western prolongations of + the Beinn Bheula group. Near Rothesay and along the hill slopes west of + Loch Fad there are parallel strips of grits and phyllites. That part of + the island lying to the east of this dislocation consists chiefly of + Upper Old Red Sandstone strata, dipping generally in a westerly or + south-westerly direction. At the extreme south end, between Kilchattan + and Garroch Head, these conglomerates and sandstones are overlaid by a + thick cornstone or dolomitic limestone marking the upper limit of the + formation, which is surmounted by the cement-stones and contemporaneous + lavas of Lower Carboniferous age. The bedded volcanic rocks which form a + series of ridges trending north-west comprise porphyritic basalts, + andesite, and, near Port Luchdach, brownish trachyte. Near the base of + the volcanic series intrusive igneous rocks of Carboniferous age appear + in the form of sills and bosses, as, for instance, the oval mass of + olivine-basalt on Suidhe Hill. Remnants of raised beaches are conspicuous + in Bute. One of the well-known localities for arctic shelly clays occurs + at Kilchattan brick-works, where the dark red clay rests on tough + boulder-clay and may be regarded as of late glacial age.</p> + + <p>As to the origin of the name of Bute, there is some doubt. It has been + held to come from <i>both</i> (Irish for "a cell"), in allusion to the + cell which St Brendan erected in the island in the 6th century; others + contend that it is derived from the British words <i>ey budh</i> (Gaelic, + <i>ey bhiod</i>), "the island of corn" (<i>i.e.</i> food), in reference + to its fertility, notable in contrast with the barrenness of the Western + Isles and Highlands. Bute was probably first colonized by the vanguard of + Scots who came over from Ireland, and at intervals the Norsemen also + secured a footing for longer or shorter periods. In those days the + Butemen were also called Brandanes, after the Saint. Attesting the + antiquity of the island, "Druidical" monuments, barrows, cairns and cists + are numerous, as well as the remains of ancient chapels. In virtue of a + charter granted by James IV. in 1506, the numerous small proprietors took + the title of "baron," which became hereditary in their families. Now the + title is practically extinct, the lands conferring it having with very + few exceptions passed <!-- Page 879 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page879"></a>[v.04 p.0879]</span>by purchase into the possession of + the marquess of Bute, the proprietor of nearly the whole island. His + seat, Mount Stuart, about 4½ m. from Rothesay by the shore road, is + finely situated on the eastern coast. Port Bannatyne (pop. 1165), 2 m. + north by west of Rothesay, is a flourishing watering-place, named after + Lord Bannatyne (1743-1833), a judge of the court of session, one of the + founders of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1784. Near to it is + Kames Castle, where John Sterling, famous for Carlyle's biography, was + born in 1806. Kilchattan, in the south-east of the island, is a favourite + summer resort. Another object of interest is St Blane's Chapel, + picturesquely situated about ½ m. from Dunagoil Bay. Off the western + shore of Bute, ¾ m. from St Ninian's Point, lies the island of + Inchmarnock, 2 m. in length and about ¾ m. in width.</p> + + <p>See J. Wilson, <i>Account of Rothesay and Bute</i> (Rothesay, 1848); + and J.K. Hewison, <i>History of Bute</i> (1894-1895).</p> + + <p><b>BUTE,</b> or <span class="sc">Buteshire</span>, an insular county + in the S.W. of Scotland, consisting of the islands of Bute, from which + the county takes its name, Inchmarnock, Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae, + Arran, Holy Island and Pladda, all lying in the Firth of Clyde, between + Ayrshire on the E. and Argyllshire on the W. and N. The area of the + county is 140,307 acres, or rather more than 219 sq. m. Pop. (1891) + 18,404; (1901) 18,787 (or 86 to the sq. m.). In 1901 the number of + persons who spoke Gaelic alone was 20, of those speaking Gaelic and + English 2764. Before the Reform Bill of 1832, Buteshire, alternately with + Caithness-shire, sent one member to parliament—Rothesay at the same + time sharing a representative with Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and + Irvine. Rothesay was then merged in the county, which since then has had + a member to itself. Buteshire and Renfrewshire form one sheriffdom, with + a sheriff-substitute resident in Rothesay who also sits periodically at + Brodick and Millport. The circuit courts are held at Inveraray. The + county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there is a secondary + school at Rothesay. The county council subsidizes technical education in + agriculture at Glasgow and Kilmarnock. The staple crops are oats and + potatoes, and cattle, sheep and horses are reared. Seed-growing is an + extensive industry, and the fisheries are considerable. The Rothesay + fishery district includes all the creeks in Buteshire and a few in Argyll + and Dumbarton shires, the Cumbraes being grouped with the Greenock + district. The herring fishery begins in June, and white fishing is + followed at one or other point all the year round. During the season many + of the fishermen are employed on the Clyde yachts, Rothesay being a + prominent yachting centre. The exports comprise agricultural produce and + fish, trade being actively carried on between the county ports of + Rothesay, Millport, Brodick and Lamlash and the mainland ports of + Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Ardrossan and Wemyss Bay, with all of which + there is regular steamer communication throughout the year.</p> + + <p><b>BUTHROTUM.</b> (1) An ancient seaport of Illyria, corresponding + with the modern Butrinto (<i>q.v.</i>). (2) A town in Attica, mentioned + by Pliny the Elder (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> iv. 37).</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER,</b> the name of a family famous in the history of Ireland. + The great house of the Butlers, alone among the families of the + conquerors, rivalled the Geraldines, their neighbours, kinsfolk and + mortal foes. Theobald Walter, their ancestor, was not among the first of + the invaders. He was the grandson of one Hervey Walter who, in the time + of Henry I., held Witheton or Weeton in Amounderness, a small fee of the + honour of Lancaster, the manor of Newton in Suffolk, and certain lands in + Norfolk. In the great inquest of Lancaster lands that followed a writ of + 1212, this Hervey, named as the father of Hervey Walter, is said to have + given lands in his fee of Weeton to Orm, son of Magnus, with his daughter + Alice in marriage. Hervey Walter, son of this Hervey, advanced his family + by matching with Maude, daughter of Theobald de Valognes, lord of Parham, + whose sister Bertha was wife of Ranulf de Glanville, the great justiciar, + "the eye of the king." When Ranulf had founded the Austin Canons priory + of Butley, Hervey Walter, his wife's brother-in-law, gave to the house + lands in Wingfield for the soul's health of himself and his wife Maude, + of Ranulf de Glanville and Bertha his wife, the charter, still preserved + in the Harleian collection, being witnessed by Hervey's younger sons, + Hubert Walter, Roger and Hamon. Another son, Bartholomew, witnessed a + charter of his brother Hubert, 1190-1193. That these nephews of the + justiciar profited early by their kinship is seen in Hubert Walter's + foundation charter of the abbey of West Dereham, wherein he speaks of + "dominus Ranulphus de Glanvilla et domina Bertha uxor eius, qui nos + nutrierunt." Hubert, indeed, becoming one of his uncle's clerks, was so + much in his confidence that Gervase of Canterbury speaks of the two as + ruling the kingdom together. King Richard, whom he accompanied to the + Holy Land, made him bishop of Salisbury and (1193) archbishop of + Canterbury. "Wary of counsel, subtle of wit," he was the champion of + Canterbury and of England, and the news of his death drew the cry from + King John that "now, for the first time, am I king in truth."</p> + + <p>Between these two great statesmen Theobald Walter, the eldest brother + of the archbishop, rose and flourished. Theobald is found in the <i>Liber + Niger</i> (<i>c.</i> 1166) as holding Amounderness by the service of one + knight. In 1185 he went over sea to Waterford with John the king's son, + the freight of the harness sent after him being charged in the Pipe Roll. + Clad in that harness he led the men of Cork when Dermot MacCarthy, prince + of Desmond, was put to the sword, John rewarding his services with lands + in Limerick and with the important fief of Arklow in the vale of Avoca, + where he made his Irish seat and founded an abbey. Returning to England + he accompanied his uncle Randulf to France, both witnessing a charter + delivered by the king at Chinon when near to death. Soon afterwards, + Theobald Walter was given by John that hereditary office of butler to the + lord of Ireland, which makes a surname for his descendants, styling + himself <i>pincerna</i> when he attests John's charter to Dublin on the + 15th of May 1192. J. Horace Round has pointed out that he also took a + fresh seal, the inscription of which calls him Theobald Walter, Butler of + Ireland, and henceforward he is sometimes surnamed Butler (<i>le + Botiller</i>). When John went abroad in 1192, Theobald was given the + charge of Lancaster castle, but in 1194 he was forced to surrender to his + brother Hubert, who summoned it in King Richard's name. Making his peace + through Hubert's influence, he was sheriff of Lancashire for King + Richard, who regranted to him all Amounderness. His fortunes turned with + the king's death. The new sovereign, treating his surrender of the castle + as treachery, took the shrievalty from him, disseised him of Amounderness + and sold his cantreds of Limerick land to William de Braose. But the + great archbishop soon found means to bring his brother back to favour, + and on the 2nd of January 1201-2 Amounderness, by writ of the king, is to + be restored to Theobald Walter, <i>dilecto et fideli nostra</i>, Within a + year or two Theobald left England to end his days upon his Arklow fief, + busying himself with religious foundations at Wotheney in Limerick, at + Arklow and at Nenagh. At Wotheney he is said to have been buried shortly + before the 12th of February 1205-6, when an entry in the Close Roll is + concerned with his widow. This widow, Maude, daughter of Robert le + Vavasor of Denton, was given up to her father, who, buying the right of + marrying her at a price of 1200 marks and two palfreys, gave her to Fulk + fitz-Warine. Theobald, the son and heir of Theobald and Maude, a child of + six years old, was likewise taken into the keeping of his grandfather + Robert, but letters from the king, dated the 2nd of March 1205-6, told + Robert, "as he loved his body," to surrender the heir at once to Gilbert + fitz-Reinfrid, the baron of Kendal.</p> + + <p>Adding to its possessions by marriages the house advanced itself among + the nobility of Ireland. On the 1st of September 1315, its chief, Edmund + Walter <i>alias</i> Edmund the Butler, for services against the Scottish + raiders and Ulster rebels, had a charter of the castle and manors of + Carrick, Macgriffyn and Roscrea to hold to him and his heirs <i>sub + nomine et honore comitis de Karryk</i>. This charter, however, while + apparently creating an earldom, failed, as Mr Round has explained, to + make his issue earls of Carrick. But James, the son and heir of Edmund, + having married in 1327 Eleanor de Bohun, daughter of Humfrey, <!-- Page + 880 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page880"></a>[v.04 + p.0880]</span>earl of Hereford and Essex, high constable of England, by a + daughter of Edward I., was created an Irish earl on the 2nd of November + 1328, with the title of Ormonde.</p> + + <p>From the early years of the 14th century the Ormonde earls, generation + by generation, were called to the chief government of Ireland as + lords-keeper, lords-lieutenant, deputies or lords-justices, and unlike + their hereditary enemies the Geraldines they kept a tradition of loyalty + to the English crown and to English custom. Their history is full of + warring with the native Irish, and as the sun stood still upon Gibeon, + even so, we are told, it rested over the red bog of Athy while James the + White Earl was staying the wild O'Mores. More than one of the earls of + Ormonde had the name of a scholar, while of the 6th earl, master of every + European tongue and ambassador to many courts, Edward IV. is said to have + declared that were good breeding and liberal qualities lost to the world + they might be found again in John, earl of Ormonde. The earls were often + absent from Ireland on errands of war or peace. James, the 5th earl, had + the English earldom of Wiltshire given him in 1449 for his Lancastrian + zeal. He fought at St Albans in 1455, casting his harness into a ditch as + he fled the field, and he led a wing at Wakefield. His stall plate as a + knight of the Garter is still in St George's chapel. Defeated with the + earl of Pembroke at Mortimer's Cross and taken prisoner after Towton, his + fate is uncertain, but rumour said that he was beheaded at Newcastle, and + a letter addressed to John Paston about May 1461 sends tidings that "the + Erle of Wylchir is hed is sette on London Brigge."</p> + + <p>To his time belongs a document illustrating a curious tradition of the + Butlers. His petition to parliament when he was conveying Buckinghamshire + lands to the hospital of St Thomas of Acres in London, recites that he + does so "in worship of that glorious martyr St Thomas, sometime + archbishop of Canterbury, of whose blood the said earl of Wiltshire, his + father and many of his ancestors are lineally descended." But the + pedigrees in which genealogists have sought to make this descent definite + will not bear investigation. The Wiltshire earldom died with him and the + Irish earldom was for a time forfeited, his two brothers, John and + Thomas, sharing his attainder. John was restored in blood by Edward IV.; + and Thomas, the 7th earl, summoned to the English parliament in 1495 as + Lord Rochford, a title taken from a Bohun manor in Essex, saw the statute + of attainder annulled by Henry VII.'s first parliament. He died without + male issue in 1515. Of his two daughters and co-heirs Anne was married to + Sir James St. Leger, and Margaret to Sir William Boleyn of Blickling, by + whom she was mother of Sir James and Sir Thomas Boleyn. The latter, the + father of Anne Boleyn, was created earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde in + 1529.</p> + + <p>In Ireland the heir male of the Ormonde earls, Sir Piers + Butler—"red Piers"—assumed the earldom of Ormonde in 1515 and + seized upon the Irish estates. Being a good ally against the rebel Irish, + the government temporized with his claim. He was an Irishman born, allied + to the wild Irish chieftains by his mother, a daughter of the MacMorrogh + Kavanagh; the earldom had been long in the male line; all Irish sentiment + was against the feudal custom which would take it out of the family, and + the two co-heirs were widows of English knights. In 1522, styled "Sir + Piers Butler pretending himself to be earl of Ormonde," he was made chief + governor of Ireland as lord deputy, and on the 23rd of February 1527/8, + following an agreement with the co-heirs of the 7th earl, whereby the + earldom of Ormonde was declared to be at the king's disposal, he was + created earl of Ossory. But the Irish estates, declared forfeit to the + crown in 1536 under the Act of Absentees, were granted to him as "earl of + Ossory and Ormonde." Although the Boleyn earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire + was still alive, there can be no doubt that Piers Butler had a patent of + the Ormonde earldom about the 22nd of February 1537/8, from which date + his successors must reckon their peerage. His son and heir, James the + Lame, who had been created Viscount Thurles on the 2nd of January 1535/6, + obtained an act of parliament in 1543/4 which, confirming the grant to + his father of the earldom, gave him the old "pre-eminence" of the ancient + earldom of 1328.</p> + + <p>Earl James was poisoned at a supper in Ely House in 1546, and Thomas + the Black Earl, his son and heir, was brought up at the English court, + professing the reformed religion. His sympathies were with the Irish, + although he stood staunchly for law and order, and for the great part of + his life he was wrestling with rebellion. His lands having been harried + by hit hereditary enemies the Desmond Geraldines, Elizabeth gave him his + revenge by appointing him in 1580 military governor of Munster, with a + commission to "banish and vanquish these cankered Desmonds," then in open + rebellion. In three months, by his own account, he had put to the sword + 46 captains, 800 notorious traitors and 4000 others, and, after four + years' fighting, Gerald, earl of Desmond, a price on his head, was taken + and killed. Dying in 1614 without lawful issue, Thomas was succeeded by + his nephew Walter of Kilcash, who had fought beside him against the + Burkes and O'Mores. But Sir Robert Preston, afterwards created earl of + Desmond, claimed a great part of the Ormonde lands in right of his wife, + the Black Earl's daughter and heir. In spite of the loyal services of + Earl Walter, King James supported the claimant, and the earl, refusing to + submit to a royal award, was thrown into gaol, where he lay for eight + years in great poverty, his rents being cut off. Although liberated in + 1625 he was not acknowledged heir to his uncle's estates until 1630. His + son, Viscount Thurles, being drowned on a passage to England, a grandson + succeeded him.</p> + + <p>This grandson, James Butler, is perhaps the most famous of the long + line of Ormondes. By his marriage with his cousin Elizabeth Preston, the + Ormonde titles were once more united with all the Ormonde estates. A + loyal soldier and statesman, he commanded for the king in Ireland, where + he was between the two fires of Catholic rebels and Protestant + parliamentarians. In Ireland he stayed long enough to proclaim Charles + II. in 1649, but defeated at Rathmines, his garrisons broken by Cromwell, + he quitted the country at the end of 1650. At the Restoration he was + appointed lord-lieutenant, his estates having been restored to him with + the addition of the county palatine of Tipperary, taken by James I. from + his grandfather. In 1632 he had been created a marquess. The English + earldom of Brecknock was added in 1660 and an Irish dukedom of Ormonde in + the following year. In 1682 he had a patent for an English dukedom with + the same title. Buckingham's intrigues deprived him for seven years of + his lord-lieutenancy, and a desperate attempt was made upon his life in + 1670, when a company of ruffians dragged him from his coach in St James's + Street and sought to hurry him to the gallows at Tyburn. His son's threat + that, if harm befell his father he would pistol Buckingham, even if he + were behind the king's chair, may have saved him from assassination. At + the accession of James II. he was once more taken from active employment, + and "Barzillai, crowned with honour and with years" died at his + Dorsetshire house in 1688. He had seen his great-great-uncle the Black + Earl, who was born in 1532, and a great-grandson was playing beside him a + few hours before his death. His brave son Ossory, "the eldest hope with + every grace adorned," died eight years before him, and he was succeeded + by a grandson James, the second duke of Ormonde, who, a recognized leader + of the London Jacobites, was attainted in 1715, his honours and estates + being forfeited. The duke lived thirty years in exile, chiefly at + Avignon, and died in the rebellion year of 1745 without surviving issue. + His younger brother Charles, whom King William had created Lord Butler of + Weston in the English peerage and earl of Arran in the Irish, was allowed + to purchase the Ormonde estates. On the earl's death without issue in + 1758 the estates were enjoyed by a sister, passing in 1760, by settlement + of the earl of Arran, to John Butler of Kilcash, descendant of a younger + brother of the first duke. John dying six years later was succeeded by + Walter Butler, a first cousin, whose son John, heir-male of the line of + Ormonde, became earl of Ormonde and Ossory and Viscount Thurles in 1791, + the Irish parliament reversing the attainder of 1715. Walter, son and + heir of the restored earl, was given an English peerage as Lord Butler of + Llanthony (1801) and an Irish marquessate of Ormonde (1816), titles that + died with him. This Lord Ormonde in 1810 <!-- Page 881 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page881"></a>[v.04 p.0881]</span>sold to the + crown for the great sum of £216,000 his ancestral right to the prisage of + wines in Ireland. For his brother and heir, created Lord Ormonde of + Llahthony at the coronation of George IV., the Irish marquessate was + revived in 1825 and descended in the direct line.</p> + + <p>The earls of Carrick (Ireland 1748), Viscounts Ikerrin (Ireland 1629), + claim descent from a brother of the first Ormonde earl, while the + viscounts Mountgarret (Ireland 1550) spring from a younger son of Piers, + the Red Earl of Ossory. The barony of Caher (Ireland 1543), created for + Sir Thomas Butler of Chaier or Caher-down-Eske, a descendant in an + illegitimate branch of the Butlers, fell into abeyance among heirs + general on the death of the 2nd baron in 1560. It was again created, + after the surrender of their rights by the heirs general, in 1583 for Sir + Theobald Butler (d. 1596), and became extinct in 1858 on the death of + Richard Butler, 13th baron and 2nd viscount Caher, and second earl of + Glengall. Buttler von Clonebough, <i>genannt</i> Haimhausen, count of the + Holy Roman Empire, descends from the 3rd earl of Ormonde, the imperial + title having been revived in 1681 in memory of the services of a kinsman, + Walter, Count Butler (d. 1634), the dragoon officer who carried out the + murder of Wallenstein.</p> + + <p>See Lancashire Inquests, 1205-1307; Lancashire and Cheshire Record + Society, xlviii.; Chronicles of Matthew Paris, Roger of Hoveden, Giraldus + Cambrensis, &c.; <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; G.E.C.'s + <i>Complete Peerage</i>; Carte's Ormonde papers; Paston Letters; Rolls of + parliament; fine rolls, liberate rolls, pipe rolls, &c.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">O. Ba.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, ALBAN</b> (1710-1773), English Roman Catholic priest and + hagiologist, was born in Northampton on the 24th of October 1710. He was + educated at the English college, Douai, where on his ordination to the + priesthood he held successively the chairs of philosophy and divinity. He + laboured for some time as a missionary priest in Staffordshire, held + several positions as tutor to young Roman Catholic noblemen, and was + finally appointed president of the English seminary at St Omer, where he + remained till his death on the 15th of May 1773. Butler's great work, + <i>The Lives of the Saints</i>, the result of thirty years' study (4 + vols., London, 1756-1759), has passed through many editions and + translations (best edition, including valuable notes, Dublin, 12 vols. + 1779-1780). It is a popular and compendious reproduction of the <i>Acta + Sanctorum</i>, exhibiting great industry and research, and is in all + respects the best work of its kind in English literature.</p> + + <p>See <i>An Account of the Life of A.B. by C.B.</i>, <i>i.e.</i> by his + nephew Charles Butler (London, 1799); and Joseph Gillow's + <i>Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics</i>, vol. i.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN</b> (1818-1893), American lawyer, soldier + and politician, was born in Deerfield, New Hampshire, on the 5th of + November 1818. He graduated at Waterville (now Colby) College in 1838, + was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1840, began practice at Lowell, + Massachusetts, and early attained distinction as a lawyer, particularly + in criminal cases. Entering politics as a Democrat, he first attracted + general attention by his violent campaign in Lowell in advocacy of the + passage of a law establishing a ten-hour day for labourers; he was a + member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1853, and of the + state senate in 1859, and was a delegate to the Democratic national + conventions from 1848 to 1860. In that of 1860 at Charleston he advocated + the nomination of Jefferson Davis and opposed Stephen A. Douglas, and in + the ensuing campaign he supported Breckinridge.</p> + + <p>After the Baltimore riot at the opening of the Civil War, Butler, as a + brigadier-general in the state militia, was sent by Governor John A. + Andrew, with a force of Massachusetts troops, to reopen communication + between the Union states and the Federal capital. By his energetic and + careful work Butler achieved his purpose without fighting, and he was + soon afterwards made major-general, U.S.V. Whilst in command at Fortress + Monroe, he declined to return to their owners fugitive slaves who had + come within his lines, on the ground that, as labourers for + fortifications, &c., they were contraband of war, thus originating + the phrase "contraband" as applied to the negroes. In the conduct of + tactical operations Butler was almost uniformly unsuccessful, and his + first action at Big Bethel, Va., was a humiliating defeat for the + National arms. Later in 1861 he commanded an expeditionary force, which, + in conjunction with the navy, took Forts Hatteras and Clark, N.C. In 1862 + he commanded the force which occupied New Orleans. In the administration + of that city he showed great firmness and severity. New Orleans was + unusually healthy and orderly during the Butler régime. Many of his acts, + however, gave great offence, particularly the seizure of $800,000 which + had been deposited in the office of the Dutch consul, and an order, + issued after some provocation, on May 15th, that if any woman should + "insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the United States, + she shall be regarded and shall be held liable to be treated as a woman + of the town plying her avocation." This order provoked protests both in + the North and the South, and also abroad, particularly in England and + France, and it was doubtless the cause of his removal in December 1862. + On the 1st of June he had executed one W.B. Mumford, who had torn down a + United States flag placed by Farragut on the United States mint; and for + this execution he was denounced (Dec. 1862) by President Davis as "a + felon deserving capital punishment," who if captured should be reserved + for execution. In the campaign of 1864 he was placed at the head of the + Army of the James, which he commanded creditably in several battles. But + his mismanagement of the expedition against Fort Fisher, N.C., led to his + recall by General Grant in December.</p> + + <p>He was a Republican representative in Congress from 1867 to 1879, + except in 1875-1877. In Congress he was conspicuous as a Radical + Republican in Reconstruction legislation, and was one of the managers + selected by the House to conduct the impeachment, before the Senate, of + President Johnson, opening the case and taking the most prominent part in + it on his side; he exercised a marked influence over President Grant and + was regarded as his spokesman in the House, and he was one of the + foremost advocates of the payment in "greenbacks" of the government + bonds. In 1871 he was a defeated candidate for governor of Massachusetts, + and also in 1879 when he ran on the Democratic and Greenback tickets, but + in 1882 he was elected by the Democrats who got no other state offices. + In 1883 he was defeated on renomination. As presidential nominee of the + Greenback and Anti-Monopolist parties, he polled 175,370 votes in 1884, + when he had bitterly opposed the nomination by the Democratic party of + Grover Cleveland, to defeat whom he tried to "throw" his own votes in + Massachusetts and New York to the Republican candidate. His professional + income as a lawyer was estimated at $100,000 per annum shortly before his + death at Washington, D.C., on the 11th of January 1893. He was an able + but erratic administrator and soldier, and a brilliant lawyer. As a + politician he excited bitter opposition, and was charged, apparently with + justice, with corruption and venality in conniving at and sharing the + profits of illicit trade with the Confederates carried on by his brother + at New Orleans and by his brother-in-law in the department of Virginia + and North Carolina, while General Butler was in command.</p> + + <p>See James Parton, <i>Butler in New Orleans</i> (New York, 1863), + which, however, deals inadequately with the charges brought against + Butler; and <i>The Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of + Major-General B.F. Butler: Butler's Book</i> (New York, 1893), to be used + with caution as regards facts.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, CHARLES</b> (1750-1832), British lawyer and miscellaneous + writer, was born in London on the 14th of August 1750. He was educated at + Douai, and in 1775 entered at Lincoln's Inn. He had considerable practice + as a conveyancer, and after the passing of the Roman Catholic Relief Act + 1791 was called to the bar. In 1832 he took silk, and was made a bencher + of Lincoln's Inn. He died on the 2nd of June in the same year. His + literary activity was enormous, and the number of his published works + comprises about fifty volumes. The most important of them are the + <i>Reminiscences</i> (1821-1827); <i>Horae Biblicae</i> (1797), which has + passed through several editions; <i>Horae Juridicae Subsecivae</i> + (1804); <i>Book of the Roman Catholic Church</i> (1825), which was + directed against Southey and excited <!-- Page 882 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page882"></a>[v.04 p.0882]</span>some + controversy; lives of Erasmus, Grotius, Bossuet, Fénelon. He also edited + and completed the <i>Lives of the Saints</i> of his uncle, Alban Butler, + Fearne's <i>Essay on Contingent Remainders</i> and Hargrave's edition of + <i>Coke upon Littleton's Laws of England</i> (1775).</p> + + <p>A complete list of Butler's works is contained in Joseph Gillow's + <i>Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics</i>, vol. i. pp. + 357-364.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, GEORGE</b> (1774-1853), English schoolmaster and divine, + was born in London and educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, + where he afterwards became fellow, in the capacity first of mathematical + lecturer, and afterwards of classical tutor. He was elected a public + examiner of the university in 1804, and in the following year was one of + the select preachers. As head master of Harrow (1805-1829) his all-round + knowledge, his tact and his skill as an athlete rendered his + administration successful and popular. On his retirement he settled down + at Gayton, Northamptonshire, a living which had been presented to him by + his college in 1814. In 1836 he became chancellor of the diocese of + Peterborough, and in 1842 was appointed dean of Peterborough. His few + publications include some notes of Harrow, entitled <i>Harrow, a + Selection of Lists of the School between 1770 and 1828</i> (Peterborough, + 1849).</p> + + <p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">George Butler</span> (1819-1890), was + principal of Liverpool College (1866-1882) and canon of Winchester. In + 1852 he married Josephine Elizabeth, daughter of John Grey of Dilston. + She died on the 30th of December 1906 (see her <i>Autobiography</i>, + 1909). Mrs Josephine Butler, as she was commonly called afterwards, was a + woman of intense moral and spiritual force, who devoted herself to rescue + work, and specially to resisting the "state regulation of vice" whether + by the C.D. Acts in India or by any system analogous to that of the + continent in England.</p> + + <p>His youngest son, the Rev. Dr <span class="sc">Henry Montagu + Butler</span>, became one of the best-known scholars of his day. Born in + 1833, and educated at Harrow and Trinity, Cambridge, he was senior + classic in 1855 and was elected a fellow of his college. In 1859 he + became head master of Harrow, as his father had been, and only resigned + on being made dean of Gloucester in 1885. In 1886 he was elected master + of Trinity, Cambridge. His publications include various volumes of + sermons, but his reputation rests on his wide scholarship, his remarkable + gifts as a public speaker, and his great practical influence both as a + headmaster and at Cambridge. He married first (1861), Georgina Elliot, + and secondly (1888) Agneta Frances Ramsay (who in 1887 was senior classic + at Cambridge), and had five sons and two daughters.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, JOSEPH</b> (1692-1752), English divine and philosopher, + bishop of Durham, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, on the 18th of May + 1692. His father, a linen-draper of that town, was a Presbyterian, and it + was his wish that young Butler should be educated for the ministry in + that church. The boy was placed under the care of the Rev. Philip Barton, + master of the grammar school at Wantage, and remained there for some + years. He was then sent to Samuel Jones's dissenting academy at + Gloucester, and afterwards at Tewkesbury, where his most intimate friend + was Thomas Seeker, who became archbishop of Canterbury.</p> + + <p>While at this academy Butler became dissatisfied with the principles + of Presbyterianism, and after much deliberation resolved to join the + Church of England. About the same time he began to study with care Samuel + Clarke's celebrated <i>Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of + God</i>, which had been published as the Boyle Lectures a few years + previously. With great modesty and secrecy Butler, then in his + twenty-second year, wrote to the author propounding certain difficulties + with regard to the proofs of the unity and omnipresence of the Divine + Being. Clarke answered his unknown opponent with a gravity and care that + showed his high opinion of the metaphysical acuteness displayed in the + objections, and published the correspondence in later editions of the + <i>Demonstration</i>. Butler acknowledged that Clarke's reply satisfied + him on one of the points, and he subsequently gave his adhesion to the + other. In one of his letters we already find the germ of his famous + dictum that "probability is the guide of life."</p> + + <p>In March 1715 he entered at Oriel College, Oxford, but for some time + found it uncongenial and thought of migrating to Cambridge. But he made a + close friend in one of the resident fellows, Edward Talbot, son of + William Talbot, then bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Salisbury and + Durham. In 1718 he took his degree, was ordained deacon and priest, and + on the recommendation of Talbot and Clarke was nominated preacher at the + chapel of the Rolls, where he continued till 1726. It was here that he + preached his famous <i>Fifteen Sermons</i> (1726), including the + well-known discourses on human nature. In 1721 he had been given a + prebend at Salisbury by Bishop Talbot, who on his translation to Durham + gave Butler the living of Houghton-le-Skerne in that county, and in 1725 + presented him to the wealthy rectory of Stanhope. In 1726 he resigned his + preachership at the Rolls.</p> + + <p>For ten years Butler remained in perfect seclusion at Stanhope. He was + only remembered in the neighbourhood as a man much loved and respected, + who used to ride a black pony very fast, and whose known benevolence was + much practised upon by beggars. Archbishop Blackburne, when asked by + Queen Caroline whether he was still alive, answered, "He is not dead, + madam, but buried." In 1733 he was made chaplain to Lord Chancellor + Talbot, elder brother of his dead friend Edward, and in 1736 prebendary + of Rochester. In the same year he was appointed clerk of the closet to + the queen, and had to take part in the metaphysical conversation parties + which she loved to gather round her. He met Berkeley frequently, but in + his writings does not refer to him. In 1736 also appeared his great work, + <i>The Analogy of Religion</i>.</p> + + <p>In 1737 Queen Caroline died; on her deathbed she recommended Butler to + the favour of her husband. George seemed to think his obligation + sufficiently discharged by appointing Butler in 1738 to the bishopric of + Bristol, the poorest see in the kingdom. The severe but dignified letter + to Walpole, in which Butler accepted the preferment, showed that the + slight was felt and resented. Two years later, however, the bishop was + presented to the rich deanery of St Paul's, and in 1746 was made clerk of + the closet to the king. In 1747 the primacy was offered to Butler, who, + it is said, declined it, on the ground that "it was too late for him to + try to support a falling church." The story has not the best authority, + and though the desponding tone of some of Butler's writings may give it + colour, it is not in harmony with the rest of his life, for in 1750 he + accepted the see of Durham, vacant by the death of Edward Chandler. His + charge to the clergy of the diocese, the only charge of his known to us, + is a weighty and valuable address on the importance of external forms in + religion. This, together with the fact that over the altar of his private + chapel at Bristol he had a cross of white marble, gave rise to an absurd + rumour that the bishop had too great a leaning towards Romanism. At + Durham he was very charitable, and expended large sums in building and + decorating his church and residence. His private expenses were + exceedingly small. Shortly after his translation his constitution began + to break up, and he died on the 16th of June 1752, at Bath, whither he + had removed for his health. He was buried in the cathedral of Bristol, + and over his grave a monument was erected in 1834, with an epitaph by + Southey. According to his express orders, all his MSS. were burned after + his death. Bishop Butler was never married. His personal appearance has + been sketched in a few lines by Hutchinson:—"He was of a most + reverend aspect; his face thin and pale; but there was a divine + placidness which inspired veneration, and expressed the most benevolent + mind. His white hair hung gracefully on his shoulders, and his whole + figure was patriarchal."</p> + + <p>Butler was an earnest and deep-thinking Christian, melancholy by + temperament, and grieved by what seemed to him the hopelessly irreligious + condition of his age. In his view not only the religious life of the + nation, but (what he regarded as synonymous) the church itself, was in an + almost hopeless state of decay, as we see from his first and only charge + to the diocese of Durham and <!-- Page 883 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page883"></a>[v.04 p.0883]</span>from many passages in the + <i>Analogy</i>. And though there was a complete remedy just coming into + notice, in the Evangelical revival, it was not of a kind that commended + itself to Butler, whose type of mind was opposed to everything that + savoured of enthusiasm. He even asked John Wesley, in 1739, to desist + from preaching in his diocese of Bristol, and in a memorable interview + with the great preacher remarked that any claim to the extraordinary + gifts of the Holy Spirit was "a horrid thing, a very horrid thing, sir." + Yet Butler was keenly interested in those very miners of Kingswood among + whom Wesley preached, and left £500 towards building a church for them. + It is a great mistake to suppose that because he took no great part in + politics he had no interest in the practical questions of his time, or + that he was so immersed in metaphysics as to live in the clouds. His + intellect was profound and comprehensive, thoroughly qualified to grapple + with the deepest problems of metaphysics, but by natural preference + occupying itself mainly with the practical and moral. Man's conduct in + life, not his theory of the universe, was what interested him. The + <i>Analogy</i> was written to counteract the practical mischief which he + considered wrought by deists and other freethinkers, and the + <i>Sermons</i> lay a good deal of stress on everyday Christian duties. + His style has frequently been blamed for its obscurity and difficulty, + but this is due to two causes: his habit of compressing his arguments + into narrow compass, and of always writing with the opposite side of the + case in view, so that it has been said of the <i>Analogy</i> that it + raises more doubts than it solves. One is also often tempted away from + the main course of the argument by the care and precision with which + Butler formulates small points of detail.</p> + + <p>His great work, <i>The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to + the Course and Constitution of Nature</i>, cannot be adequately + appreciated unless taken in connexion with the circumstances of the + period at which it appeared. It was intended as a defence against the + great tide of deistical speculation (see <span class="sc">Deism</span>), + which in the apprehension of many good men seemed likely to sweep away + the restraints of religion and make way for a general reign of licence. + Butler did not enter the lists in the ordinary way. Most of the + literature evoked by the controversy on either side was devoted to + rebutting the attack of some individual opponent. Thus it was Bentley + versus Collins, Sherlock versus Woolston, Law versus Tindal. The + <i>Analogy</i>, on the contrary, did not directly refer to the deists at + all, and yet it worked more havoc with their position than all the other + books put together, and remains practically the one surviving landmark of + the whole dispute. Its central motive is to prove that all the objections + raised against revealed or supernatural religion apply with equal force + to the whole constitution of nature, and that the general analogy between + the principles of divine government, as set forth by the biblical + revelation, and those observable in the course of nature, leads us to the + warrantable conclusion that there is one Author of both. Without + altogether eschewing Samuel Clarke's <i>a priori</i> system, Butler + relies mainly on the inductive method, not professing to give an absolute + demonstration so much as a probable proof. And everything is brought into + closest relation with "that which is the foundation of all our hopes and + of all our fears; all our hopes and fears which are of any consideration; + I mean a Future Life."</p> + + <p>Butler is a typical instance of the English philosophical mind. He + will admit no speculative theory of things. To him the universe is no + realization of intelligence, which is to be deciphered by human thought; + it is a constitution or system, made up of individual facts, through + which we thread our way slowly and inductively. Complete knowledge is + impossible; nay, what we call knowledge of any part of the system is + inherently imperfect. "We cannot have a thorough knowledge of any part + without knowing the whole." So far as experience goes, "to us probability + is the very guide of life." Reason is certainly to be accepted; it is pur + natural light, and the only faculty whereby we can judge of things. But + it gives no completed system of knowledge and in matters of fact affords + only probable conclusions. In this emphatic declaration, that knowledge + of the course of nature is merely probable, Butler is at one with Hume, + who was a most diligent student of the bishop's works. What can come + nearer Hume's celebrated maxim—"Anything may be the cause of + anything else," than Butler's conclusion, "so that any one thing whatever + may, for aught we know to the contrary, be a necessary condition to any + other"?</p> + + <p>It is this strong grasp or the imperfect character of our knowledge of + nature and of the grounds for its limitation that makes Butler so + formidable an opponent to his deistical contemporaries. He will permit no + anticipations of nature, no <i>a priori</i> construction of experience. + "The constitution of nature is as it is," and no system of abstract + principles can be allowed to take its place. He is willing with Hume to + take the course of experience as the basis of his reasoning, seeing that + it is common ground for himself and his antagonists. In one essential + respect, however, he goes beyond Hume. The course of nature is for him an + unmeaning expression unless it be referred to some author; and he + therefore makes extensive use of the teleological method. This position + is assumed throughout the treatise, and as against the deists with + justice, for their whole argument rested upon the presupposition of the + existence of God, the perfect Ruler of the world.</p> + + <p>The premises, then, with which Butler starts are the existence of God, + the known course of nature, and the necessary limitation of our + knowledge. What does he wish to prove? It is not his intention <i>to + prove God's perfect moral government over the world or the truth of + religion</i>. His work is in no sense a philosophy of religion. His + purpose is entirely defensive; he wishes to answer objections that have + been brought against religion, and to examine certain difficulties that + have been alleged as insuperable. And this is to be effected in the first + place by showing that from the obscurities and inexplicabilities we meet + with in nature we may reasonably expect to find similar difficulties in + the scheme of religion. If difficulties be found in the course and + constitution of nature, whose author is admitted to be God, surely the + existence of similar difficulties in the plan of religion can be no valid + objection against its truth and divine origin. That this is at least in + great part Butler's object is plain from the slightest inspection of his + work. It has seemed to many to be an unsatisfactory mode of arguing and + but a poor defence of religion; and so much the author is willing to + allow. But in the general course of his argument a somewhat wider issue + appears. He seeks to show not only that the difficulties in the systems + of natural and revealed religion have counterparts in nature, but also + that the facts of nature, far from being adverse to the principles of + religion, are a distinct ground for inferring their probable truth. He + endeavours to show that the balance of probability is entirely in favour + of the scheme of religion, that this probability is the natural + conclusion from an inspection of nature, and that, as religion is a + matter of practice, we are bound to adopt the course of action which is + even probably the right one. If, we may imagine him saying, the precepts + of religion are entirely analogous in their partial obscurity and + apparent difficulty to the ordinary course of nature disclosed to us by + experience, then it is credible that these precepts are true; not only + can no objections be drawn against them from experience, but the balance + of probability is in their favour. This mode of reasoning from what is + known of nature to the probable truth of what is contained in religion is + the celebrated method of analogy.</p> + + <p>Although Butler's work is peculiarly one of those which ought not to + be exhibited in outline, for its strength lies in the organic + completeness with which the details are wrought into the whole argument, + yet a summary of his results will throw more light on the method than any + description can.</p> + + <p>Keeping clearly in view his premises—the existence of God and + the limited nature of knowledge—Butler begins by inquiring into the + fundamental pre-requisite of all natural religion—the immortality + of the soul. Evidently the stress of the whole question is here. Were man + not immortal, religion would be of little value. Now, Butler does not + attempt to prove the truth of the doctrine; that proof comes from another + quarter. The only questions he asks are—Does experience forbid us + to admit immortality as a possibility? Does experience furnish any + probable reason for inferring that immortality is a fact? To the first of + these a negative, to the second an affirmative answer is returned. All + the analogies of our life here lead us to conclude that we shall continue + to live after death; and neither from experience nor from the reason of + the thing can any argument against the possibility of this be drawn. + Immortality, then, is not unreasonable; it is probable. If, he continues, + we are to live after death, it is of importance for us to consider on + what our future state may depend; for we may be either happy or + miserable. Now, whatever speculation may say as to God's purpose being + necessarily universal benevolence, experience plainly shows us that our + present happiness and misery depend upon our conduct, and are not + distributed indiscriminately. Therefore no argument can be brought from + experience against the possibility of our future happiness and misery + likewise depending upon conduct. The whole analogy of nature is in favour + of such a dispensation; it is therefore reasonable or probable. Further, + we are not only under a government in which actions considered simply as + such are rewarded and punished, but it is known from experience that + virtue and vice are followed by their natural consequents—happiness + and misery. And though the distribution of these rewards is not perfect, + all hindrances are plainly temporary or accidental. It may therefore be + concluded that the balance of probability is in favour of God's + government in general being a moral scheme, where virtue and vice are + respectively rewarded and punished. It need not be objected to the + justice of <!-- Page 884 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page884"></a>[v.04 p.0884]</span>this arrangement that men are + sorely tempted, and may very easily be brought to neglect that on which + their future welfare depends, for the very same holds good in nature. + Experience shows man to be in a state of trial so far as regards the + present; it cannot, therefore, be unreasonable to suppose that we are in + a similar state as regards the future. Finally, it can surely never be + advanced as an argument against the truth of religion that there are many + things in it which we do not comprehend, when experience exhibits to us + such a copious stock of incomprehensibilities in the ordinary course and + constitution of nature.</p> + + <p>It cannot have escaped observation, that in the foregoing course of + argument the conclusion is invariably from experience of the present + order of things to the reasonableness or probability of some other + system—of a future state. The inference in all cases passes beyond + the field of experience; that it does so may be and has been advanced as + a conclusive objection against it. See for example a passage in Hume, + <i>Works</i> (ed. 1854), iv. 161-162, cf. p. 160, which says, in short, + that no argument from experience can ever carry us beyond experience + itself. However well grounded this reasoning may be, it altogether misses + the point at which Butler aimed, and is indeed a misconception of the + nature of analogical argument. Butler never attempts to <i>prove</i> that + a future life regulated according to the requirements of ethical law is a + reality; he only desires to show that the conception of such a life is + not irreconcilable with what we know of the course of nature, and that + consequently it is <i>not unreasonable</i> to suppose that there is such + a life. Hume readily grants this much, though he hints at a formidable + difficulty which the plan of the <i>Analogy</i> prevented Butler from + facing, the proof of the existence of God. Butler seems willing to rest + satisfied with his opponents' admission that the being of God is proved + by reason, but it would be hard to discover how, upon his own conception + of the nature and limits of reason, such a proof could ever be given. It + has been said that it is no flaw in Butler's argument that he has left + atheism as a possible mode of viewing the universe, because his work was + not directed against the atheists. It is, however, in some degree a + defect; for his defence of religion against the deists rests on a view of + reason which would for ever preclude a demonstrative proof of God's + existence.</p> + + <p>If, however, his premises be granted, and the narrow issue kept in + view, the argument may be admitted as perfectly satisfactory. From what + we know of the present order of things, it is not unreasonable to suppose + that there will be a future state of rewards and punishments, distributed + according to ethical law. When the argument from analogy seems to go + beyond this, a peculiar difficulty starts up. Let it be granted that our + happiness and misery in this life depend upon our conduct—are, in + fact, the rewards and punishments attached by God to certain modes of + action, the natural conclusion from analogy would seem to be that our + future happiness or the reverse will probably depend upon our actions in + the future state. Butler, on the other hand, seeks to show that analogy + leads us to believe that our future state will depend upon our present + conduct. His argument, that the punishment of an imprudent act often + follows after a long interval may be admitted, but does not advance a + single step towards the conclusion that imprudent acts will be punished + hereafter. So, too, with the attempt to show that from the analogy of the + present life we may not unreasonably infer that virtue and vice will + receive their respective rewards and punishments hereafter; it may be + admitted that virtuous and vicious acts are naturally looked upon as + objects of reward or punishment, and treated accordingly, but we may + refuse to allow the argument to go further, and to infer a perfect + distribution of justice dependent upon our conduct here. Butler could + strengthen his argument only by bringing forward prominently the absolute + requirements of the ethical consciousness, in which case he would have + approximated to Kant's position with regard to this very problem. That he + did not do so is, perhaps, due to his strong desire to use only such + premises as his adversaries the deists were willing to allow.</p> + + <p>As against the deists, however, he may be allowed to have made out his + point, that the substantial doctrines of natural religion are not opposed + to reason and experience, and may be looked upon as credible. The + positive proof of them is to be found in revealed religion, which has + disclosed to us not only these truths, but also a further scheme not + discoverable by the natural light. Here, again, Butler joins issue with + his opponents. Revealed religion had been declared to be nothing but a + republication of the truths of natural religion (Matthew Tindal, + <i>Christianity as Old as the Creation</i>), and all revelation had been + objected to as impossible. To show that such objections are invalid, and + that a revelation is at least not impossible, Butler makes use mainly of + his doctrine of human ignorance. Revelation had been rejected because it + lay altogether beyond the sphere of reason and could not therefore be + grasped by human intelligence. But the same is true of nature; there are + in the ordinary course of things inexplicabilities; indeed we may be said + with truth to know nothing, for there is no medium between perfect and + completed comprehension of the whole system of things, which we + manifestly have not, and mere faith grounded on probability. Is it + unreasonable to suppose that in a revealed system there should be the + same superiority to our intelligence? If we cannot explain or foretell by + reason what the exact course of events in nature will be, is it to be + expected that we can do so with regard to the wider scheme of God's + revealed providence? Is it not probable that there will be many things + not explicable by us? From our experience of the course of nature it + would appear that no argument can be brought against the possibility of a + revelation. Further, though it is the province of reason to test this + revealed system, and though it be granted that, should it contain + anything immoral, it must be rejected, yet a careful examination of the + particulars will show that there is no incomprehensibility or difficulty + in them which has not a counterpart in nature. The whole scheme of + revealed principles is, therefore, not unreasonable, and the analogy of + nature and natural religion would lead us to infer its truth. If, + finally, it be asked, how a system professing to be revealed can + substantiate its claim, the answer is, by means of the historical + evidences, such as miracles and fulfilment of prophecy.</p> + + <p>It would be unfair to Butler's argument to demand from it answers to + problems which had not in his time arisen, and to which, even if they had + then existed, the plan of his work would not have extended. Yet it is at + least important to ask how far, and in what sense, the <i>Analogy</i> can + be regarded as a positive and valuable contribution to theology. What + that work has done is to prove to the consistent deist that no objections + can be drawn from reason or experience against natural or revealed + religion, and, consequently, that the things objected to are not + incredible and may be proved by external evidence. But the deism of the + 17th century is a phase of thought that has no living reality now, and + the whole aspect of the religious problem has been completely changed. To + a generation that has been moulded by the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, + by the historical criticism of modern theology, and by all that has been + done in the field of comparative religion, the argument of the + <i>Analogy</i> cannot but appear to lie quite outside the field of + controversy. To Butler the Christian religion, and by that he meant the + orthodox Church of England system, was a moral scheme revealed by a + special act of the divine providence, the truth of which was to be judged + by the ordinary canons of evidence. The whole stood or fell on historical + grounds. A speculative construction of religion was abhorrent to him, a + thing of which he seems to have thought the human mind naturally + incapable. The religious consciousness does not receive from him the + slightest consideration. The <i>Analogy</i>, in fact, has and can have + but little influence on the present state of theology; it was not a book + for all time, but was limited to the problems of the period at which it + appeared.</p> + + <p>Throughout the whole of the <i>Analogy</i> it is <span + class="correction" title="'manfest' in original">manifest</span> that the + interest which lay closest to Butler's heart was the ethical. His whole + cast of thinking was practical. The moral nature of man, his conduct in + life, is that on account of which alone an inquiry into religion is of + importance. The systematic account of this moral nature is to be found in + the famous <i>Sermons preached at the Chapel of the Rolls</i>, especially + in the first three. In these sermons Butler has made substantial + contributions to ethical science, and it may be said with confidence, + that in their own department nothing superior in value appeared during + the long interval between Aristotle and Kant. To both of these great + thinkers he has certain analogies. He resembles the first in his method + of investigating the end which human nature is intended to realize; he + reminds of the other by the consistency with which he upholds the + absolute supremacy of moral law.</p> + + <p>In his ethics, as in his theology, Butler had constantly in view a + certain class of adversaries, consisting partly of the philosophic few, + partly of the fashionably educated many, who all participated in one + common mode of thinking. The keynote of this tendency had been struck by + Hobbes, in whose philosophy man was regarded as a mere selfish sensitive + machine, moved solely by pleasures and pains. Cudworth and Clarke had + tried to place ethics on a nobler footing, but their speculations were + too abstract for Butler and not sufficiently "applicable to the several + particular relations and circumstances of life."</p> + + <p>His inquiry is based on teleological principles. "Every work, both of + nature and art, is a system; and as every particular thing both natural + and artificial is for some use or purpose out of or beyond itself, one + may add to what has been already brought into the idea of a system its + conduciveness to this one or more ends." Ultimately this view of nature, + as the sphere of the realization of final causes, rests on a theological + basis; but Butler does not introduce prominently into his ethics the + specifically theological groundwork, and may be thought willing to ground + his principle on experience. The ethical question then is, as with + Aristotle, what is the <span title="telos" class="grk" + >τέλος</span> of man? The answer to this + question is to be obtained by an analysis of the facts of human nature, + whence, Butler thinks, "it will as fully appear that this our nature, + <i>i.e.</i> constitution, is adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a + watch it appears that its nature, <i>i.e.</i> constitution or system, is + adapted to measure time." Such analysis had been already attempted by + Hobbes, and the result he came to was that man naturally is adapted only + for a life of selfishness,—his end is the procuring of pleasure and + the avoidance of pain. A closer examination, however, shows that this at + least is false. The truth of the counter propositions, that man is <span + title="phusei politikos" class="grk">φύσει + πολιτικός</span>, + that the full development of his being is impossible apart from society, + becomes manifest on examination of the facts. For while self-love plays a + most important part in the human economy, there is no less evidently a + natural principle of benevolence. Moreover, among the particular <!-- + Page 885 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page885"></a>[v.04 + p.0885]</span>passions, appetites and desires there are some whose + tendency is as clearly towards the general good as that of others is + towards the satisfaction of the self. Finally, that principle in man + which reflects upon actions and the springs of actions, unmistakably sets + the stamp of its approbation upon conduct that tends towards the general + good. It is clear, therefore, that from this point of view the sum of + practical morals might be given in Butler's own words—"that mankind + is a community, that we all stand in a relation to each other, that there + is a public end and interest of society, which each particular is obliged + to promote." But deeper questions remain.</p> + + <p>The threefold division into passions and affections, self-love and + benevolence, and conscience, is Butler's celebrated analysis of human + nature as found in his first sermon. But by regarding benevolence less as + a definite desire for the general good as such than as kind affection for + particular individuals, he practically eliminates it as a regulative + principle and reduces the authorities in the polity of the soul to + two—conscience and self-love.</p> + + <p>But the idea of human nature is not completely expressed by saying + that it consists of reason and the several passions. "Whoever thinks it + worth while to consider this matter thoroughly should begin by stating to + himself exactly the idea of a system, economy or constitution of any + particular nature; and he will, I suppose, find that it is one or a + whole, made up of several parts, but yet that the several parts, even + considered as a whole, do not complete the idea, unless in the notion of + a whole you include the relations and respects which these parts have to + each other." This fruitful conception of man's ethical nature as an + organic unity Butler owes directly to Shaftesbury and indirectly to + Aristotle; it is the strength and clearness with which he has grasped it + that gives peculiar value to his system.</p> + + <p>The special relation among the parts of our nature to which Butler + alludes is the subordination of the particular passions to the universal + principle of reflection or conscience. This relation is the peculiarity, + the <i>cross</i>, of man; and when it is said that virtue consists in + following nature, we mean that it consists in pursuing the course of + conduct dictated by this superior faculty. Man's function is not + fulfilled by obeying the passions, or even cool self-love, but by obeying + conscience. That conscience has a natural supremacy, that it is superior + in kind, is evident from the part it plays in the moral constitution. We + judge a man to have acted wrongly, <i>i.e.</i> unnaturally, when he + allows the gratification of a passion to injure his happiness, + <i>i.e.</i> when he acts in accordance with passion and against + self-love. It would be impossible to pass this judgment if self-love were + not regarded as superior in kind to the passions, and this superiority + results from the fact that it is the peculiar province of self-love to + take a view of the several passions and decide as to their relative + importance. But there is in man a faculty which takes into consideration + all the springs of action, including self-love, and passes judgment upon + them, approving some and condemning others. From its very nature this + faculty is supreme in authority, if not in power; it reflects upon all + the other active powers, and pronounces absolutely upon their moral + quality. Superintendency and authority are constituent parts of its very + idea. We are under obligation to obey the law revealed in the judgments + of this faculty, for it is the law of our nature. And to this a religious + sanction may be added, for "consciousness of a rule or guide of action, + in creatures capable of considering it as given them by their Maker, not + only raises immediately a sense of duty, but also a sense of security in + following it, and a sense of danger in deviating from it." Virtue then + consists in following the true law of our nature, that is, conscience. + Butler, however, is by no means very explicit in his analysis of the + functions to be ascribed to conscience. He calls it the Principle of + Reflection, the Reflex Principle of Approbation, and assigns to it as its + province the motives or propensions to action. It takes a view of these, + approves or disapproves, impels to or restrains from action. But at times + he uses language that almost compels one to attribute to him the popular + view of conscience as passing its judgments with unerring certainty on + individual acts. Indeed his theory is weakest exactly at the point where + the real difficulty begins. We get from him no satisfactory answer to the + inquiry, What course of action is approved by conscience? Every one, he + seems to think, knows what virtue is, and a philosophy of ethics is + complete if it can be shown that such a course of action harmonizes with + human nature. When pressed still further, he points to justice, veracity + and the common good as comprehensive ethical ends. His whole view of the + moral government led him to look upon human nature and virtue as + connected by a sort of pre-established harmony. His ethical principle has + in it no possibility of development into a system of actual duties; it + has no content. Even on the formal side it is a little difficult to see + what part conscience plays. It seems merely to set the stamp of its + approbation on certain courses of action to which we are led by the + various passions and affections; it has in itself no originating power. + How or why it approves of some and not of others is left unexplained. + Butler's moral theory, like those of his English contemporaries and + successors, is defective from not perceiving that the notion of duty can + have real significance only when connected with the will or practical + reason, and that only in reason which wills itself have we a principle + capable of development into an ethical system. It has received very small + consideration at the hands of German historians of ethics.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See T. Bartlett, <i>Memoirs + of Butler</i> (1839). The standard edition of Butler's works is that in 2 + vols. (Oxford, 1844). Editions of the <i>Analogy</i> are very numerous; + that by Bishop William Fitzgerald (1849) contains a valuable Life and + Notes. W. Whewell published an edition of the <i>Three Sermons</i>, with + Introduction. Modern editions of the <i>Works</i> are those by W.E. + Gladstone (2 vols. with a 3rd vol. of <i>Studies Subsidiary</i>, 1896), + and J.H. Bernard, (2 vols. in the English Theological Library, 1900). For + the history of the religious works contemporary with the <i>Analogy</i>, + see Lechler, <i>Gesch. d. Engl. Deismus</i>; M. Pattison, in <i>Essays + and Reviews</i>; W. Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i>, vols., ii. + and iii.; L. Stephen, <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i>; J.H. + Overton and F. Relton, <i>The English Church from the Accession of George + I. to the End of the 18th Century</i>.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">R. Ad.; A. J. G.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY</b> (1862- ), American educator, was born + at Elizabeth, New Jersey, on the 2nd of April 1862. He graduated at + Columbia College in 1882, was a graduate fellow in philosophy there from + 1882 to 1884, when he took the degree of Ph.D., and then studied for a + year in Paris and Berlin. He was an assistant in philosophy at Columbia + in 1885-1886, tutor in 1886-1889, adjunct professor of philosophy, ethics + and psychology in 1889-1890, becoming full professor in 1890, and dean of + the faculty of philosophy in 1890-1902. From 1887 until 1891 he was the + first president of the New York college for the training of teachers + (later the Teachers' College of Columbia University), which he had + personally planned and organized. In 1891 he founded and afterwards + edited the <i>Educational Review</i>, an influential educational + magazine. He soon came to be looked upon as one of the foremost + authorities on educational matters in America, and in 1894 was elected + president of the National Educational Association. He was also a member + of the New Jersey state board of education from 1887 to 1895, and was + president of the Paterson (N.J.) board of education in 1892-1893. In 1901 + he succeeded Seth Low as president of Columbia University. Besides + editing several series of books, including "The Great Educators" and "The + Teachers' Professional Library," he published <i>The Meaning of + Education</i> (1898), a collection of essays; and two series of + addresses, <i>True and False Democracy</i> (1907), and <i>The American as + he is</i> (1908).</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER</b> (or <span class="sc">Boteler</span>), <b>SAMUEL</b> + (1612-1680), English poet, author of <i>Hudibras</i>, son of Samuel + Butler, a small farmer, was baptized at Strensham, Worcestershire, on the + 8th of February 1612. He was educated at the King's school, Worcester, + under Henry Bright, the record of whose zeal as a teacher is preserved by + Fuller (<i>Worthies</i>, Worcestershire). After leaving school he served + a Mr Jeffereys of Earl's Croome, Worcestershire, in the capacity of + justice's clerk, and is supposed to have thus gained his knowledge of law + and law terms. He also employed himself at Earl's Croome in general + study, and particularly in painting, which he is said to have thought of + adopting as a profession. It is probable, however, that art has not lost + by his change of mind, for, according to one of his editors, in 1774 his + pictures "served to stop windows and save the tax; indeed they were not + fit for much else." He was then recommended to Elizabeth, countess of + Kent. At her home at Wrest, Bedfordshire, he had access to a good + library, and there too he met Selden, who sometimes employed him as his + secretary. But his third sojourn, with Sir Samuel Luke at Cople Hoo, + Bedfordshire, was not only apparently the longest, but also much the most + important in its effects on his career and works. We are nowhere informed + in what capacity Butler served Sir Samuel Luke, or how he came to reside + in the house of a noted Puritan and Parliament man. In the family of this + "valiant Mamaluke," who, whether he was or was not the original of + Hudibras, was certainly a rigid Presbyterian, "a colonel in the army of + the Parliament, scoutmaster-general for Bedfordshire and governor of + Newport Pagnell," Butler must have had the most abundant opportunities of + studying from the life those who were to be the victims of his satire; he + is supposed to have taken some hints for his caricature from Sir Henry + Rosewell of Ford Abbey, Devonshire. But we know nothing positive of him + until the Restoration, when he was appointed secretary to Richard + Vaughan, 2nd earl of Carbery, lord president of the principality of + Wales, who made him steward of Ludlow Castle, an office which he held + from January 1661 <!-- Page 886 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page886"></a>[v.04 p.0886]</span>to January 1662. About this time + he married a rich lady, variously described as a Miss Herbert and as a + widow named Morgan. His wife's fortune was afterwards, however, lost.</p> + + <p>Early in 1663 <i>Hudibras: The First Part: written in the Time of the + Late Wars</i>, was published, but this, the first genuine edition, had + been preceded in 1662 by an unauthorized one. On the 26th of December + Pepys bought it, and though neither then nor afterwards could he see the + wit of "so silly an abuse of the Presbyter knight going to the wars," he + repeatedly testifies to its extraordinary popularity. A spurious second + part appeared within the year. This determined the poet to bring out the + second part (licensed on the 7th of November 1663, printed 1664), which + if possible exceeded the first in popularity. From this time till 1678, + the date of the publication of the third part, we hear nothing certain of + Butler. On the publication of <i>Hudibras</i> he was sent for by Lord + Chancellor Hyde (Clarendon), says Aubrey, and received many promises, + none of which was fulfilled. He is said to have received a gift of £300 + from Charles II., and to have been secretary to George Villiers, 2nd duke + of Buckingham, when the latter was chancellor of the university of + Cambridge. Most of his biographers, in their eagerness to prove the + ill-treatment which Butler is supposed to have received, disbelieve both + these stories, perhaps without sufficient reason. Butler's satire on + Buckingham in his <i>Characters</i> (<i>Remains</i>, 1759) shows such an + intimate knowledge that it is probable the second story is true. Two + years after the publication of the third part of <i>Hudibras</i> he died, + on the 25th of September 1680, and was buried by his friend Longueville, + a bencher of the Middle Temple, in the churchyard of St Paul's, Covent + Garden. He was, we are told, "of a leonine-coloured hair, sanguine, + choleric, middle-sized, strong." A portrait by Lely at Oxford and others + elsewhere represent him as somewhat hard-featured.</p> + + <p>Of the neglect of Butler by the court something must be said. It must + be remembered that the complaints on the subject supposed to have been + uttered by the poet all occur in the spurious posthumous works, that men + of letters have been at all times but too prone to complain of lack of + patronage, that Butler's actual service was rendered when the day was + already won, and that the pathetic stories of the poet starving and dying + in want are contradicted by the best authority—Charles Longueville, + son of the poet's friend—who asserted that Butler, though often + disappointed, was never reduced to anything like want or beggary and did + not die in any person's debt. But the most significant notes on the + subject are Aubrey's,<a name="FnAnchor_111" + href="#Footnote_111"><sup>[1]</sup></a> that "he might have had + preferments at first, but would not accept any but very good, so at last + he had none at all, and died in want"; and the memorandum of the same + author, that "satirical wits disoblige whom they converse with, &c., + consequently make to themselves many enemies and few friends, and this + was his manner and case."</p> + + <p>Three monuments have been erected to the poet's memory—the first + in Westminster Abbey in 1721, by John Barber, mayor of London, who is + spitefully referred to by Pope for daring to connect his name with + Butler's. In 1786 a tablet was placed in St Paul's, Covent Garden, by + residents of the parish. This was destroyed in 1845. Later, another was + set up at Strensham by John Taylor of that place. Perhaps the happiest + epitaph on him is one by John Dennis, which calls Butler "a whole species + of poets in one."</p> + + <p><i>Hudibras</i> itself, though probably quoted as often as ever, has + dropped into the class of books which are more quoted than read. In + reading it, it is of the utmost importance to comprehend clearly and to + bear constantly in mind the purpose of the author in writing it. This + purpose is evidently not artistic but polemic, to show in the most + unmistakable characters the vileness and folly of the anti-royalist + party. Anything like a regular plot—the absence of which has often + been deplored or excused—would have been for this end not merely a + superfluity but a mistake, as likely to divert the attention and perhaps + even enlist some sympathy for the heroes. Anything like regular + character-drawing would have been equally unnecessary and + dangerous—for to represent anything but monsters, some alleviating + strokes must have been introduced. The problem, therefore, was to produce + characters just sufficiently unlike lay-figures to excite and maintain a + moderate interest, and to set them in motion by dint of a few incidents + not absolutely unconnected,—meanwhile to subject the principles and + manners of which these characters were the incarnation to ceaseless + satire and raillery. The triumphant solution of the problem is + undeniable, when it has once been enunciated and understood. Upon a + canvas thus prepared and outlined, Butler has embroidered a collection of + flowers of wit, which only the utmost fertility or imagination could + devise, and the utmost patience of industry elaborate. In the union of + these two qualities he is certainly without a parallel, and their + combination has produced a work which is unique. The poem is of + considerable length, extending to more than ten thousand verses, yet + Hazlitt hardly exaggerates when he says that "half the lines are got by + heart"; indeed a diligent student of later English literature has read + great part of <i>Hudibras</i> though he may never have opened its pages. + The tableaux or situations, though few and simple in construction, are + ludicrous enough. The knight and squire setting forth on their journey; + the routing of the bear-baiters; the disastrous renewal of the contest; + Hudibras and Ralph in the stocks; the lady's release and conditional + acceptance of the unlucky knight; the latter's deliberations on the means + of eluding his vow; the Skimmington; the visit to Sidrophel, the + astrologer; the attempt to cajole the lady, with its woeful consequences; + the consultation with the lawyer, and the immortal pair of letters to + which this gives rise, complete the argument of the whole poem. But the + story is as nothing; throughout we have little really kept before us but + the sordid vices of the sectaries, their hypocrisy, their churlish + ungraciousness, their greed of money and authority, their fast and loose + morality, their inordinate pride. The extraordinary felicity of the means + taken to place all these things in the most ridiculous light has never + been questioned. The doggerel metre, never heavy or coarse, but framed as + to be the very voice of mocking laughter, the astounding similes and + disparates, the rhymes which seem to chuckle and to sneer of themselves, + the wonderful learning with which the abuse of learning is rebuked, the + subtlety with which subtle casuistry is set at nought can never be + missed. Keys like those of L'Estrange are therefore of little use. It + signifies nothing whether Hudibras was Sir Samuel Luke of Bedfordshire or + Sir Henry Rosewell of Devonshire, still less whether Ralph's name in the + flesh was Robinson or Pendle, least of all that Orsin was perhaps Mr + Gosling, or Trulla possibly Miss Spencer. Butler was probably as little + indebted to mere copying for his characters as for his ideas and style. + These latter are in the highest degree original. The first notion of the + book, and only the first notion, Butler undoubtedly received from <i>Don + Quixote</i>. His obligations to the <i>Satyre Ménippée</i> have been + noticed by Voltaire, and though English writers have sometimes ignored or + questioned them, are not to be doubted. The art, perhaps the most + terrible of all the weapons of satire, of making characters without any + great violation of probability represent themselves in the most atrocious + and despicable light, was never perhaps possessed in perfection except by + Pithou and his colleagues and by Butler. Against these great merits some + defects must certainly be set. As a whole, the poem is no doubt tedious, + if only on account of the very blaze of wit, which at length almost + wearies us by its ceaseless demands on our attention. It should, however, + be remembered that it was originally issued in parts, and therefore, it + may be supposed, intended to be read in parts, for there can be little + doubt that the second part was written before the first was published. A + more real defect, but one which Butler shares with all his + contemporaries, is the tendency to delineate humours instead of + characters, and to draw from the outside rather than from within.</p> + + <p>Attempts have been made to trace the manner and versification of + <i>Hudibras</i> to earlier writers, especially in Cleveland's satires and + in the <i>Musarum Deliciae</i> of Sir John Mennis (Pepys's Minnes) and Dr + James Smith (1605-1667). But if it had few <!-- Page 887 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page887"></a>[v.04 p.0887]</span>ancestors it + had an abundant offspring. A list of twenty-seven direct imitations of + <i>Hudibras</i> in the course of a century may be found in the Aldine + edition (1893). Complete translations of considerable excellence have + been made into French (London, 1757 and 1819) by John Townley + (1697-1782), a member of the Irish Brigade; and into German by D.W. + Soltau (Riga, 1787); specimens of both may be found in R. Bell's edition. + Voltaire tried his hand at a compressed version, but not with happy + results.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Butler's works published + during his life include, besides <i>Hudibras</i>: <i>To the Memory of the + most renowned Du Vall: A Pindaric Ode</i> (1671); and a prose pamphlet + against the Puritans, <i>Two Letters, one from J. Audland ... to W. + Prynne, the other Prynne's Answer</i> (1672). In 1715-1717 three volumes, + entitled <i>Posthumous Works in Prose and Verse ... with a key to + Hudibras by Sir Roger l'Estrange ...</i> were published with great + success. Most of the contents, however, are generally rejected as + spurious. The poet's papers, now in the British Museum (Addit. MSS. + 32,625-6), remained in the hands of his friend William Longueville, and + after his death were left untouched until 1759, when Robert Thyer, keeper + of the public library at Manchester, edited two volumes of verse and + prose under the title of <i>Genuine Remains in Verse and Prose of Mr + Samuel Butler</i>. This collection contained <i>The Elephant in the + Moon</i>, a satire on the Royal Society; a series of sketches in prose, + <i>Characters</i>; and some satirical poems and prose pamphlets. Another + edition, <i>Poetical Remains</i>, was issued by Thyer in 1827. In 1726 + Hogarth executed some illustrations to <i>Hudibras</i>, which are among + his earliest but not, perhaps, happiest productions. In 1744 Dr Zachary + Grey published an edition of <i>Hudibras</i>, with copious and learned + annotations; and an additional volume of <i>Critical and Historical and + Explanatory Notes</i> in 1752. Grey's has formed the basis of all + subsequent editions.</p> + + <p>Other pieces published separately and ascribed to Butler are: <i>A + Letter from Mercurius Civicus to Mercurius Rusticus, or London's + Confession but not repentance ...</i> (1643), represented in vol. iv. of + Somers's tracts; <i>Mola Asinarum, on the unreasonable and insupportable + burthen now pressed ... upon this groaning nation ...</i> (1659), + included in his posthumous works, which is supposed to have been written + by John Prynne, though Wood ascribes it to Butler; <i>The Acts and + monuments of our late parliament ...</i> (1659, printed 1710), of which a + continuation appeared in 1659; a "character" of Charles I. (1671); <i>A + New Ballad of King Edward and Jane Shore ...</i> (1671); <i>A + Congratulatory poem ... to Sir Joseph Sheldon ...</i> (1675); <i>The + Geneva Ballad, or the occasional conformist display'd</i> (1674); <i>The + Secret history of the Calves head club, compleat ...</i> (4th edition, + 1707); <i>The Morning's Salutation, or a friendly conference between a + puritan preacher and a family of his flock ...</i> (reprinted, Dublin, + 1714). Two tracts of his appear in Somers's <i>Tracts</i>, vol. vii.; he + contributed to <i>Ovid's Epistles translated by several hands</i> (1680); + and works by him are included in <i>Miscellaneous works, written by ... + George Duke of Buckingham ... also State Poems ... (by various hands)</i> + (1704); and in <i>The Grove ...</i> (1721), a poetic miscellany, is a + "Satyr against Marriage," not found in his works.</p> + + <p>The life of Butler was written by an anonymous author, said by William + Oldys to be Sir James Astrey, and prefixed to the edition of 1704. The + writer professes to supplement and correct the notice given by Anthony à + Wood in <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>. Dr Threadneedle Russel Nash, a + Worcestershire antiquarian, supplied some additional facts in an edition + of 1793. See the Aldine edition of the <i>Poetical Works of Samuel + Butler</i> (1893), edited by Reginald Brimley Johnson, with complete + bibliographical information. There is a good reprint of <i>Hudibras</i> + (edited by Mr A.R. Waller, 1905) in the <i>Cambridge Classics</i>.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_111" href="#FnAnchor_111">[1]</a> <i>Letters written + by Eminent Persons ... and Lives of Eminent Men</i>, by John Aubrey, Esq. + (2 vols., 1813).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BUTLER, SAMUEL</b> (1774-1839), English classical scholar and + schoolmaster, and bishop of Lichfield, was born at Kenilworth on the 30th + of January 1774. He was educated at Rugby, and in 1792 went to St John's + College, Cambridge. Butler's classical career was a brilliant one. He + obtained three of Sir William Browne's medals, for the Latin (1792) and + Greek (1793, 1794) odes, the medal for the Greek ode in 1792 being won by + Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In 1793 Butler was elected to the Craven + scholarship, amongst the competitors being John Keate, afterwards + headmaster of Eton, and Coleridge. In 1796 he was fourth senior op time + and senior chancellor's classical medallist. In 1797 and 1798 he obtained + the members' prize for Latin essay. He took the degree of B.A. in 1796, + M.A. 1799, and D.D. 1811. In 1797 he was elected a fellow of St John's, + and in 1798 became headmaster of Shrewsbury school. In 1802 he was + presented to the living of Kenilworth, in 1807 to a prebendal stall in + Lichfield cathedral, and in 1822 to the archdeaconry of Derby; all these + appointments he held with his headmastership, but in 1836 he was promoted + to the bishopric of Lichfield (and Coventry, which was separated from his + diocese in the same year). He died on the 4th of December 1839. It is in + connexion with Shrewsbury school that Butler will be chiefly remembered. + During his headmastership its reputation greatly increased, and in the + standard of its scholarship it stood as high as any other public school + in England. His edition of Aeschylus, with the text and notes of Stanley, + appeared 1809-1816, and was somewhat severely criticized in the + <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, but Butler was prevented by his elevation to the + episcopate from, revising it. He also wrote a <i>Sketch of Modern and + Ancient Geography</i> (1813, frequently reprinted) for use in schools, + and brought out atlases of ancient and modern geography. His large + library included a fine collection of Aldine editions and Greek and Latin + MSS.; the Aldines were sold by auction, the MSS. purchased by the British + Museum.</p> + + <p>Butler's life has been written by his grandson, Samuel Butler, author + of <i>Erewhon</i> (<i>Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Butler</i>, 1896); + see also Baker's <i>History of St John's College, Cambridge</i> (ed. + J.E.B. Mayor, 1869); Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> (ed. 1908), vol. + iii. p. 398.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, SAMUEL</b> (1835-1902), English author, son of the Rev. + Thomas Butler, and grandson of the foregoing, was born at Langar, near + Bingham, Nottinghamshire, on the 4th of December 1835. He was educated at + Shrewsbury school, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He took a high + place in the classical tripos of 1858, and was intended for the Church. + His opinions, however, prevented his carrying out this intention, and he + sailed to New Zealand in the autumn of 1859. He owned a sheep run in the + Upper Rangitata district of the province of Canterbury, and in less than + five years was able to return home with a moderate competence, most of + which was afterwards lost in unlucky investments. The Rangitata district + supplied the setting for his romance of <i>Erewhon, or Over the Range</i> + (1872), satirizing the Darwinian theory and conventional religion. + <i>Erewhon</i> had a sequel thirty years later (1901) in <i>Erewhon + Revisited</i>, in which the narrator of the earlier romance, who had + escaped from Erewhon in a balloon, finds himself, on revisiting the + country after a considerable interval, the object of a topsy-turvy cult, + to which he gave the name of "Sunchildism." In 1873 he had published a + book of similar tendency, <i>The Fair Haven</i>, which purported to be a + "work in defence of the miraculous element in our Lord's ministry upon + earth" by a fictitious J.P. Owen, of whom he wrote a memoir. Butler was a + man of great versatility, who pursued his investigations in classical + scholarship, in Shakespearian criticism, biology and art with equal + independence and originality. On his return from New Zealand he had + established himself at Clifford's Inn, and studied painting, exhibiting + regularly in the Academy between 1868 and 1876. But with the publication + of <i>Life and Habit</i> (1877) he began to recognize literature as his + life work. The book was followed by three others, attacking + Darwinism—<i>Evolution Old and New, or the Theories of Buffon, Dr + Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck as compared with that of Mr C. Darwin</i> + (1879); <i>Unconscious Memory</i> (1880), a comparison between the theory + of Dr E. Hering and the <i>Philosophy of the Unconscious</i> of Dr E. von + Hartmann; and <i>Luck or Cunning</i> (1886). He had a thorough knowledge + of northern Italy and its art. In <i>Ex Voto</i> (1888) he introduced + many English readers to the art of Tabachetti and Gaudenzio Ferrari at + Varallo. He learnt nearly the whole of the <i>Iliad</i> and the + <i>Odyssey</i> by heart, and translated both poems (1898 and 1900) into + colloquial English prose. In his <i>Authoress of the Odyssey</i> (1897) + he propounded two theories: that the poem was the work of a woman, who + drew her own portrait in Nausicaa; and that it was written at Trapani, in + Sicily, a proposition which he supported by elaborate investigations on + the spot. In another book on the <i>Shakespeare Sonnets</i> (1899) he + aimed at destroying the explanations of the orthodox commentators.</p> + + <p>Butler was also a musician, or, as he called himself, a Handelian, and + in imitation of the style of Handel he wrote in collaboration with H. + Festing Jones a secular oratorio, <i>Narcissus</i> (1888), and had + completed his share of another, <i>Ulysses</i>, at the time of his death + on the 18th of June 1902. His other works include: <i>Life and + Letters</i> (1896) of Dr Samuel Butler, his <!-- Page 888 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page888"></a>[v.04 p.0888]</span>grandfather, + headmaster of Shrewsbury school and afterwards bishop of Lichfield; + <i>Alps and Sanctuaries</i> (1881); and two posthumous works edited by + R.A. Streatfeild, <i>The Way of All Flesh</i> (1903), a novel; and + <i>Essays on Life, Art and Science</i> (1904).</p> + + <p>See <i>Samuel Butler, Records and Memorials</i> (1903), by R.A. + Streatfeild, a collection printed for private circulation, the most + important article included being one by H. Festing Jones originally + published in <i>The Eagle</i> (Cambridge, December 1902).</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER</b> (1814-1848), Irish historian of + philosophy, was born at Annerville, near Clonmel in Ireland, probably in + 1814. His father was a Protestant, his mother a Roman Catholic, and he + was brought up as a Catholic. As a boy he was imaginative and poetical, + and some of his early verses were remarkable. While yet at Clonmel school + he became a Protestant. Later he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where + he had a brilliant career. He specially devoted himself to literature and + metaphysics, and was noted for the beauty of his style. In 1834 he gained + the ethical moderatorship, newly instituted by Provost Lloyd, and + continued in residence at college. In 1837 he decided to enter the + Church, and in the same year he was elected to the professorship of moral + philosophy, specially founded for him through Lloyd's exertions. About + the same time he was presented to the prebend of Clondahorky, Donegal, + and resided there when not called by his professorial duties to Dublin. + In 1842 he was promoted to the rectory of Raymochy. He died on the 5th of + July 1848. His <i>Sermons</i> (2 vols., 1849) were remarkably brilliant + and forceful. The <i>Lectures on the History of Ancient Philosophy</i>, + edited by W. Hepworth Thompson (2 vols., 1856; 2nd ed., 1 vol. 1875), + take a high place among the few British works on the history of + philosophy. The introductory lectures, and those on the early Greek + thinkers, though they evidence wide reading, do not show the complete + mastery that is found in Schwegler or Zeller; but the lectures on Plato + are of considerable value. Among his other writings were papers in the + <i>Dublin University Magazine</i> (1834-1837); and "Letters on + Development" (in the <i>Irish Ecclesiastical Journal</i>, 1845), a reply + to Newman's famous <i>Essay on the Development of Christian + Doctrine</i>.</p> + + <p>See <i>Memoir of W.A. Butler</i>, prefixed by Rev. J. Woodward to + first series of <i>Sermons</i>.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS</b> (1838- ), British soldier, entered + the army as an ensign in 1858, becoming captain in 1872 and major in + 1874. He took part with distinction in the Red River expedition (1870-71) + and the Ashanti operations of 1873-74 under Wolseley, and received the + C.B. in 1874. He served with the same general in the Zulu War (brevet + lieut.-colonel), the campaign of Tel-el-Kebir, after which he was made an + aide-de-camp to the queen, and the Sudan 1884-85, being employed as + colonel on the staff 1885, and brigadier-general 1885-1886. In the latter + year he was made a K.C.B. He was colonel on the staff in Egypt 1890-1892, + and brigadier-general there until 1892, when he was promoted + major-general and stationed at Aldershot, after which he commanded the + southeastern district. In 1898 he succeeded General Goodenough as + commander-in-chief in South Africa, with the local rank of + lieutenant-general. For a short period (Dec. 1898-Feb. 1899), during the + absence of Sir Alfred Milner in England, he acted as high commissioner, + and as such and subsequently in his military capacity he expressed views + on the subject of the probabilities of war which were not approved by the + home government; he was consequently ordered home to command the western + district, and held this post until 1905. He also held the Aldershot + command for a brief period in 1900-1901. Sir William Butler was promoted + lieutenant-general in 1900. He had long been known as a descriptive + writer, since his publication of <i>The Great Lone Land</i> (1872) and + other works, and he was the biographer (1899) of Sir George Colley. He + married in 1877 Miss Elizabeth Thompson, an accomplished painter of + battle-scenes, notably "The Roll Call" (1874), "Quatre Bras" (1875), + "Rorke's Drift" (1881), "The Camel Corps" (1891), and "The Dawn of + Waterloo" (1895).</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER,</b> a borough and the county-seat of Butler county, + Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Conoquenessing Creek, about 30 m. N. of + Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 8734; (1900) 10,853, of whom 928 were + foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,728. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the + Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg, and the + Bessemer & Lake Erie railways, and is connected with Pittsburg by two + electric lines. It is built on a small hill about 1010 ft. above + sea-level, and commands extensive views of the surrounding valley. The + Butler County hospital (1899) is located here. A fair is held in Butler + annually. Oil, natural gas, clay, coal and iron abound in the vicinity, + and the borough has various manufactures, including lumber, railway cars + (especially of steel), paint, silk, bricks, plate-glass, bottles and + oil-well tools. The value of the city's factory products increased from + $1,403,026 in 1900 to $6,832,007 in 1905, or 386.9%, this being much the + greatest rate of increase shown by any city in the state having in 1900 a + population of 8000 or more. Butler was selected as the site for the + county-seat of the newly-formed county in 1802, was laid out in 1803, and + was incorporated in the same year. The county and the borough were named + in honour of General Richard Butler, a soldier in the War of Independence + and leader of the right wing of General St Clair's army, which was sent + against the Indians in 1791 and on the 4th of November was defeated, + Butler being killed in the engagement.</p> + + <p><b>BUTLER</b> (through the O. Fr. <i>bouteillier</i>, from the Late + Lat. <i>buticularius</i>, <i>buticula</i>, a bottle), a domestic servant + who superintends the wine-cellar and acts as the chief male servant of a + household; among his other duties are the conduct of the service of the + table and the custody of the plate. The butler of a royal household was + an official of high rank, whose duties, though primarily connected with + the supply of wine for the royal table, varied in the different courts in + which the office appears. In England, as superintendent of the + importation of wine, a duty was payable to him (see <span + class="sc">Butlerage and Prisage</span>); the butlership of Ireland, + <i>Pincerna Hiberniae</i>, was given by John, king of England, to + Theobald Walter, who added the name of Butler to his own; it then became + the surname of his descendants, the earls, dukes and marquesses of + Ormonde (see <span class="sc">Butler</span>, family, above).</p> + + <p><b>BUTLERAGE AND PRISAGE.</b> In England there was an ancient right of + the crown to purveyance or pre-emption, <i>i.e.</i> the right of buying + up provisions and other necessities for the royal household, at a + valuation, even without the consent of the owner. Out of this right + originated probably that of taking customs, in return for the protection + and maintenance of the ports and harbours. One such customs due was that + of "prisage," the right of taking one tun of wine from every ship + importing from ten to twenty tuns, and two tuns from every ship importing + more than twenty tuns. This right of prisage was commuted, by a charter + of Edward I. (1302), into a duty of two shillings on every tun imported + by merchant strangers, and termed "butlerage," because paid to the king's + butler. Butlerage ceased to be levied in 1809, by the Customs + Consolidation Act of that year.</p> + + <p><b>BUTO,</b> the Greek name of the Egyptian goddess Uto (hierogl. + <i>W'zy·t</i>), confused with the name of her city Buto (see <span + class="sc">Busiris</span>). She was a cobra-goddess of the marshes, + worshipped especially in the city of Buto in the north-west of the Delta, + and at another Buto (Hdt. ii. 75) in the north-east of the Delta, now + Tell Nebesheh. The former city is placed by Petrie at Tell Ferain, a + large and important site, but as yet yielding no inscriptions. This + western Buto was the capital of the kingdom of Northern Egypt in + prehistoric times before the two kingdoms were united; hence the goddess + Buto was goddess of Lower Egypt and the North. To correspond to the + vulture goddess (Nekhbi) of the south she sometimes is given the form of + a vulture; she is also figured in human form. As a serpent she is + commonly twined round a papyrus stem, which latter spells her name; and + generally she wears the crown of Lower Egypt. The Greeks identified her + with Leto; this may be accounted for partly by the resemblance of name, + partly by the myth of her having brought up Horus in a floating island, + resembling the story of Leto and Apollo on Delos. Perhaps the two myths + influenced each other. Herodotus describes the temple and other sacred + <!-- Page 889 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page889"></a>[v.04 + p.0889]</span>places of (the western) Buto, and refers to its festival, + and to its oracle, which must have been important though nothing definite + is known about it. It is strange that a city whose leading in the most + ancient times was fully recognized throughout Egyptian history does not + appear in the early lists of nome-capitals. Like Thebes, however (which + lay in the 4th nome of Upper Egypt, its early capital being Hermonthis), + it eventually became, at a very late date, the capital of a nome, in this + case called Phtheneto, "the land of (the goddess) Buto." The second Buto + (hierogl. <i>'Im·t</i>) was capital from early times of the 19th nome of + Lower Egypt.</p> + + <p>See Herodotus ii. 155; <i>Zeitschr. f. ägyptische Sprache</i> (1871), + I; K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, <i>s.v.</i> + "Buto"; D.G. Hogarth, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xxiv. I; W.M.F. + Petrie, <i>Ehnasya</i>, p. 36; <i>Nebesheh and Defenneh</i>.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">F. Ll. G.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>BUTRINTO,</b> a seaport and fortified town of southern Albania, + Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina; directly opposite the island of Corfu + (Corcyra), and on a small stream which issues from Lake Vatzindro or + Vivari, into the Bay of Butrinto, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. + Pop.(1900) about 2000. The town, which is situated about 2 m. inland, has + a small harbour, and was formerly the seat of an Orthodox bishop. In the + neighbourhood are the ruins of the ancient <i>Buthrotum</i>, from which + the modern town derives its name. The ruins consist of a Roman wall, + about a mile in circumference, and some remains of both later and + Hellenic work. The legendary founder of the city was Helenus, son of + Priam, and Virgil (<i>Aen.</i> iii. 291 sq.) tells how Helenus here + established a new Trojan kingdom. Hence the names <i>New Troy</i> and + <i>New Pergamum</i>, applied to Buthrotum, and those of <i>Xanthus</i> + and <i>Simoïs</i>, given to two small streams in the neighbourhood. In + the 1st century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Buthrotum became a Roman + colony, and derived some importance from its position near Corcyra, and + on the main highway between Dyrrachium and Ambracia. Under the Empire, + however, it was overshadowed by the development of Dyrrachium and + Apollonia. The modern city belonged to the Venetians from the 14th + century until 1797. It was then seized by the French, who in 1799 had to + yield to the Russians and Turks.</p> + + <p><b>BUTT, ISAAC</b> (1813-1879), Irish lawyer and Nationalist leader, + was born at Glenfin, Donegal, in 1813, his father being the Episcopalian + rector of Stranorlar. Having won high honours at Trinity, Dublin, he was + appointed professor of political economy in 1836. In 1838 he was called + to the bar, and not only soon obtained a good practice, but became known + as a politician on the Protestant Conservative side, and an opponent of + O'Connell. In 1844 he was made a Q.C. He figured in nearly all the + important Irish law cases for many years, and was engaged in the defence + of Smith O'Brien in 1848, and of the Fenians between 1865 and 1869. In + 1852 he was returned to parliament by Youghal as a Liberal-Conservative, + and retained this seat till 1865; but his views gradually became more + liberal, and he drifted away from his earlier opinions. His career in + parliament was marred by his irregular habits, which resulted in + pecuniary embarrassment, and between 1865 and 1870 he returned again to + his work at the law courts. The result, however, of the disestablishment + of the Irish Church was to drive Butt and other Irish Protestants into + union with the Nationalists, who had always repudiated the English + connexion; and on 19th May 1870, at a large meeting in Dublin, Butt + inaugurated the Home Rule movement in a speech demanding an Irish + parliament for local affairs. On this platform he was elected in 1871 for + Limerick, and found himself at the head of an Irish Home Rule party of + fifty-seven members. But it was an ill-assorted union, and Butt soon + found that he had little or no control over his more aggressive + followers. He had no liking for violent methods or for "obstruction" in + parliament; and his leadership gradually became a nullity. His false + position undoubtedly assisted in breaking down his health, and he died in + Dublin on the 5th of May 1879.</p> + + <p><b>BUTT.</b> (1) (From the Fr. <i>botte</i>, <i>boute</i>; Med. Lat. + <i>butta</i>, a wine vessel), a cask for ale or wine, with a capacity of + about two hogsheads. (2) (A word common in Teutonic languages, meaning + short, or a stump), the thick end of anything, as of a fishing-rod, a + gun, a whip, also the stump of a tree. (3) (From the Fr. <i>but</i>, a + goal or mark, and <i>butte</i>, a target, a rising piece of ground, + &c.), a mark for shooting, as in archery, or, in its modern use, a + mound or bank in front of which are placed the targets in artillery or + musketry practice. This is sometimes called a "stop-butt," its purpose + being to secure the ground behind the targets from stray shots. The word + is used figuratively of a person or object at which derision or abuse are + levelled.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTE,</b> the largest city of Montana, U.S.A., and the county-seat + of Silver Bow county. It is situated in the valley of Deer Lodge river, + near its head, at an altitude of about 5700 ft. Pop. (1880) 3363; (1890) + 10,723; (1900) 30,470, of whom 10,210 were foreign-born, including 2474 + Irish, 1518 English-Canadians, and 1505 English; (1910 census) 39,165. It + is served by the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, + Milwaukee & Puget Sound, the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific, and the + Oregon Short Line railways. Popularly the name "Butte" is applied to an + area which embraces the city, Centerville, Walkerville, East Butte, South + Butte and Williamsburg. These together form one large and more or less + compact city. Butte lies in the centre of the greatest copper-mining + district in the world; the surrounding hills are honey-combed with mines, + and some mines are in the very heart of the city itself. The best known + of the copper mines is the Anaconda. The annual output of copper from the + Butte district almost equals that from all the rest of the country + together; the annual value of copper, gold and silver aggregates more + than $60,000,000. Although mining and its allied industries of quartz + crushing and smelting dominate all other industries in the place, there + are also foundries and machine shops, iron-works, tile factories, + breweries and extensive planing mills. Electricity, used in the mines + particularly, is brought to Butte from Cañon Ferry, 75 m. to the N.; from + the plant, also on the Missouri river, of the Helena Power Transmission + Company, which has a great steel dam 85 ft. high and 630 ft. long across + the river, and a 6000-h.p. substation in Butte; and from the plant of the + Madison River Power Company, on Madison river 7½ m. S.E. of Norris, + whence power is also transmitted to Bozeman and Belgrade, Gallatin + county, to Ruby, Madison county, and to the Greene-Campbell mine near + Whitehall, Jefferson county. In 1910 Butte had only one large smelter, + and the smoke nuisance was thus abated. The city is the seat of the + Montana School of Mines (1900), and has a state industrial school, a high + school and a public library (rebuilt in 1906 after a fire) with more than + 32,000 volumes. The city hall, Federal building and Silver Bow county + court house are among the principal buildings. Butte was first settled as + a placer mining camp in 1864. It was platted in 1866; its population in + 1870 was only 241, and for many years its growth was slow. Prosperity + came, however, with the introduction of quartz mining in 1875, and in + 1879 a city charter was granted. In the decade from 1890 to 1900 Butte's + increase in population was 184.2%.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTE</b> (O. Fr. <i>butte</i>, a hillock or rising ground), a word + used in the western states of North America for a flat-topped hill + surrounded by a steep escarpment from which a slope descends to the + plain. It is sometimes used for "an elevation higher than a hill but not + high enough for a mountain." The butte capped by a horizontal platform of + hard rock is characteristic of the arid plateau region of the west of + North America.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/buttercup_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/buttercup_1.png" + alt="Plant of Ranunculus bulbosus." title="Plant of Ranunculus bulbosus." /></a> + <p class="poem">Plant of <i>Ranunculus bulbosus</i>, showing + determinate inflorescence.</p> + </div> + <p><b>BUTTER</b> (Lat. <i>butyrum</i>, Gr. <span title="bouturon" class="grk" + >βούτυρον</span>, + apparently connected with <span title="bous" class="grk" + >βοῦς</span>, cow, and <span title="turos" class="grk" + >τυρός</span>, cheese, but, according to + the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, perhaps of Scythian origin), the fatty + portion of the milk of mammalian animals. The milk of all mammals + contains such fatty constituents, and butter from the milk of goats, + sheep and other animals has been and may be used; but that yielded by + cow's milk is the most savoury, and it alone really constitutes the + butter of commerce. The milk of the various breeds of cattle varies + widely in the proportion of fatty matter it contains; its richness in + this respect being greatly influenced by season, nature of food, state of + the animals' health and other considerations. Usually the cream is + skimmed off the surface of the milk for making butter, but by some the + churning is performed on the milk itself without waiting for the <!-- + Page 890 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page890"></a>[v.04 + p.0890]</span>separation of the cream. The operation of churning causes + the rupture of the oil sacs, and by the coalescence of the fat so + liberated butter is formed. Details regarding churning and the + preparation of butter generally will be found under <span + class="sc">Dairy and Dairy Farming</span>.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTERCUP,</b> a name applied to several species of the genus + <i>Ranunculus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), characterized by their deeply-cut leaves + and yellow, broadly cup-shaped flowers. <i>Ranunculus acris</i> and <i>R. + bulbosus</i> are erect, hairy meadow plants, the latter having the stem + swollen at the base, and distinguished also by the furrowed flower-stalks + and the often smaller flowers with reflexed, not spreading, sepals. <i>R. + repens</i>, common on waste ground, produces long runners by means of + which it rapidly covers the ground. The plants are native in the north + temperate to arctic zones of the Old World, and have been introduced in + America.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL</b> (1831-1901), American soldier, was born in + Utica, New York. He graduated at Union College in 1849, and when the + Civil War broke out he became colonel of the 12th New York militia + regiment. On the 14th of May 1861 he was transferred to the regular army + as a lieutenant-colonel, and in September he was made a brigadier-general + U.S.V. He served in Virginia in 1861 and in the Peninsular campaign of + 1862, and was wounded at Games' Mill. He took part in the campaign of + second Bull Run (August 1862), and in November became major-general + U.S.V. and in July 1863 colonel U.S.A. At Fredericksburg he commanded the + V. corps, in which he had served since its formation. After General + Hooker succeeded Burnside, Butterfield was appointed chief of staff, Army + of the Potomac, and in this capacity he served in the Chancellorsville + and Gettysburg campaigns. Not being on good terms with General Meade he + left the staff, and was soon afterwards sent as chief of staff to Hooker, + with the XI. and XII. corps (later combined as the XX.) to Tennessee, and + took part in the battle of Chattanooga (1863), and the Atlanta campaign + of the following year, when he commanded a division of the XX. corps. His + services were recognized by the brevets of brigadier-general and + major-general in the regular army. He resigned in 1870, and for the rest + of his life was engaged in civil and commercial pursuits. In 1862 he + wrote a manual of <i>Camp and Outpost Duty</i> (New York, 1862). General + Butterfield died at Cold Spring, N.Y., on the 17th of July 1901.</p> + + <p>A <i>Biographical Memorial</i>, by his widow, was published in + 1904.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM</b> (1814-1900), English architect, was born + in London, and educated for his profession at Worcester, where he laid + the foundations of his knowledge of Gothic architecture. He settled in + London and became prominent in connexion with the Cambridge Camden + Society, and its work in the improvement of church furniture and art. His + first important building was St Augustine's, Canterbury (1845), and his + reputation was made by All Saints', Margaret Street, London (1859), + followed by St Alban's, Holborn (1863), the new part of Merton College, + Oxford (1864), Keble College, Oxford (1875), and many houses and + ecclesiastical buildings. He also did much work as a restorer, which has + been adversely criticized. He was a keen churchman and intimately + associated with the English church revival. He had somewhat original + views as to colour in architecture, which led to rather garish results, + his view being that any combination of the natural colours of the + materials was permissible. His private life was retiring, and he died + unmarried on the 23rd of February 1900.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTERFLY</b> <span class="scac">AND</span> <b>MOTH</b> (the former + from "butter" and "fly," an old term of uncertain origin, possibly from + the nature of the excrement, or the yellow colour of some particular + species; the latter akin to O. Eng. <i>mod</i>, an earth-worm), the + common English names applied respectively to the two groups of insects + forming the scientific order Lepidoptera (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p><b>BUTTER-NUT,</b> the product of <i>Caryocar nuciferum</i>, a native + of tropical South America. The large nuts, known also as saowari or + suwarow nuts, are the hard stone of the fruit and contain an oily + nutritious seed. The genus <i>Caryocar</i> contains ten species, in + tropical South America, some of which form large trees affording a very + durable wood, useful for shipbuilding.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/butterwort_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/butterwort_1.png" + alt="Leaf of Butterwort." title="Leaf of Butterwort." /></a> + <p class="poem">A, leaf of Butterwort (<i>Pinguicula vulgaris</i>) with + left margin inflected over a row of small flies. (After Darwin.) B, + glands from surface of leaf by which the sticky liquid is secreted and + by means of which the products of digestion are absorbed.</p> + </div> + <p><b>BUTTERWORT,</b> the popular name of a small insectivorous plant, + <i>Pinguicula vulgaris</i>, which grows in wet, boggy land. It is a herb + with a rosette of fleshy, oblong leaves, 1 to 3 in. long, appressed to + the ground, of a pale colour and with a sticky surface. Small insects + settle on the leaves and are caught in the viscid excretion. This, like + the excretion of the sundew and other insectivorous plants, contains a + digestive ferment (or enzyme) which renders the nitrogenous substances of + the body of the insect soluble, and capable of absorption by the leaf. In + this way the plant obtains nitrogenous food by means of its leaves. The + leaves bear two sets of glands, the larger borne on usually unicellular + pedicels, the smaller almost sessile (fig. B). When a fly is captured, + the viscid excretion becomes strongly acid and the naturally incurved + margins of the leaf curve still further inwards, rendering contact + between the insect and the leaf-surface more complete. The plant is + widely distributed in the north temperate zone, extending into the arctic + zone.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTERY</b> (from O. Fr. <i>boterie</i>, Late Lat. <i>botaria</i>, + a place where liquor is stored, from <i>butta</i>, a cask), a place for + storing wine; later, with a confusion with "butter," a pantry or + storeroom for food; especially, at colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, the + place where food other than meat, especially bread and butter, ale and + wines, &c., are kept.</p> + + <p><b>BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL</b> (1764-1829), German philologist, was + born at Frankfort-On-Main in 1764. He was educated in his native town and + at the university of Göttingen. In 1789 he obtained an appointment in the + library at Berlin, and for some years he edited <i>Speners Journal</i>. + In 1796 he became professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, a + post which he held for twelve years. In 1806 he was admitted to the + Academy of Sciences, and in 1811 was made secretary of the + Historico-Philological Section. He died in 1829. Buttmann's writings gave + a great impetus to the scientific study of the Greek language. His + <i>Griechische Grammatik</i> (1792) went through many editions, and was + translated into English. His <i>Lexilogus</i>, a valuable study on some + words of difficulty occurring principally in the poems of Homer and + Hesiod, was published in 1818-1825, and was translated into English. + Buttmann's other works were <i>Ausführliche griechische Sprachlehre</i> + (2 vols., 1819-1827); <i>Mythologus</i>, a collection of essays + (1828-1829); and editions of some classical authors, the most important + being <i>Demosthenes in Midiam</i> (1823) and the continuation of + Spalding's <i>Quintilian</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 891 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page891"></a>[v.04 p.0891]</span></p> + + <p><b>BUTTON</b> (Fr. <i>bouton</i>, O. Fr. <i>boton</i>, apparently from + the same root as <i>bouter</i>, to push), a small piece of metal or other + material which, pushed through a loop or button-hole, serves as a catch + between different parts of a garment, &c. The word is also used of + other objects which have a projecting knob-like character, <i>e.g.</i> + button-mushrooms, the button of an electric bell-push, or the guard at + the tip of a fencing foil; or which resemble a button in size and shape, + as the button of metal obtained in assaying operations. At first buttons + were apparently used for purposes of ornamentation; in <i>Piers + Plowman</i> (1377) mention is made of a knife with "botones ouergylte," + and in Lord Berner's translation of <i>Froissart's Chronicles</i> (1525) + of a book covered with crimson velvet with "ten botons of syluer and + gylte." While this use has continued, especially in connexion with + women's dress, they began to be employed as fastenings at least as early + as the 15th century. As a term of comparison for something trivial or + worthless, the word is found in the 14th century. Buttons of distinctive + colour or pattern, or bearing a portrait or motto, are often worn, + especially in the United States, as a decoration, or sign of membership + of a society or of adherence to a political party; among the most + honoured of such buttons are those worn by members of the military order + of the Loyal Legion of the United States, organized in 1865 by officers + who had fought in the Civil War. Chinese officials wear a button or knob + on their hats as a mark of rank, the grade being denoted by its colour + and material (see <span class="sc">Mandarin</span>).</p> + + <p>Many varieties of buttons are used on clothing, but they may be + divided into two main classes according to the arrangement by which they + are attached to the garment; in one class they are provided with a shank + which may consist of a metal loop or of a tuft of cloth or similar + material, while in the other they are pierced with holes through which + are passed threads. To these two classes roughly correspond two broad + differences in the method of manufacture, according as the buttons are + composite and made up of two or more pieces, or are simply shaped disks + of a single material; some composite buttons, however, are provided with + holes, and simple metal buttons sometimes have metal shanks soldered or + riveted on them. From an early period buttons of the former kind were + made by needlework with the aid of a mould or former, but about 1807 B. + Sanders, a Dane who had been ruined by the bombardment of Copenhagen, + introduced an improved method of manufacturing them at Birmingham. His + buttons were formed of two disks of metal locked together by having their + edges turned back on each other and enclosing a filling of cloth or + pasteboard; and by methods of this kind, carried out by elaborate + automatic machinery, buttons are readily produced, presenting faces of + silk, mohair, brocade or other material required to harmonize with the + fabric on which they are used. Sanders's buttons at first had metal + shanks, but about 1825 his son invented flexible shanks of canvas or + other substance through which the needle could pass freely in any + direction. The mechanical manufacture of covered buttons was started in + the United States in 1827 by Samuel Williston, of Easthampton, Mass., who + in 1834 joined forces with Joel and Josiah Hayden, of Haydenville.</p> + + <p>The number of materials that have been used for making buttons is very + large—metals such as brass and iron for the cheaper kinds, and for + more expensive ones, gold and silver, sometimes ornamented with jewels, + filigree work, &c.; ivory, horn, bone and mother-of-pearl or other + nacreous products of shell-fish; vegetable ivory and wood; glass, + porcelain, paper, celluloid and artificial compositions; and even the + casein of milk, and blood. Brass buttons were made at Birmingham in 1689, + and in the following century the metal button industry underwent + considerable development in that city. Matthew Boulton the elder, about + 1745, introduced great improvements in the processes of manufacture, and + when his son started the Soho works in 1767 one of the departments was + devoted to the production of steel buttons with facets, some of which + sold for 140 guineas a gross. Gilt buttons also came into fashion about + the same period. In this "Augustan age" of the Birmingham button + industry, when there was a large export trade, the profits of + manufacturers who worked on only a modest scale amounted to £3000 and + £4000 a year, and workmen earned from £2 to £4 a week. At one time the + buttons had each to be fashioned separately by skilled artisans, but + gradually the cost of production was lessened by the adoption of + mechanical processes, and instead of being turned out singly and engraved + or otherwise ornamented by hand, they came to be stamped out in dies + which at once shape them and impress them with the desired pattern. Ivory + buttons are among the oldest of all. Horn buttons were made at Birmingham + at least by 1777; towards the middle of the igth century Emile Bassot + invented a widely-used process for producing them from the hoofs of + cattle, which were softened by boiling. Pearl buttons are made from pearl + oyster shells obtained from various parts of the world, and after being + cut out by tubular drills are shaped and polished by machinery. Buttons + of vegetable ivory can be readily dyed. Glass buttons are especially made + in Bohemia, as also are those of porcelain, which were invented about + 1840 by an Englishman, R. Prosser of Birmingham. In the United States few + buttons were made until the beginning of the 19th century, when the + manufacture of metal buttons was started at Waterbury, Conn., which is + now the centre of that industry. In 1812 Aaron Benedict began to make + ivory and horn buttons at the same place. Buttons of vegetable ivory, now + one of the most important branches of the American button industry, were + first made at Leeds, Mass., in 1859 by an Englishman, A.W. Critchlow, and + in 1875 commercial success was attained in the production of composition + buttons at Springfield, Mass. Pearl buttons were made on a small scale in + 1855, but their manufacture received an enormous impetus in the last + decade of the 19th century, when J.F. Boepple began, at Muscatine, Iowa, + to utilize the unio or "niggerhead" shells found along the Mississippi. + By 1905 the annual output of these "fresh-water pearl" buttons had + reached 11,405,723 gross, worth $3,359,167, or 36.6% of the total value + of the buttons produced in the United States. In the same year the + mother-of-pearl buttons ("ocean pearl buttons") numbered 1,737,830 gross, + worth $1,511,107, and the two kinds together constituted 44% of the + number, and 53.9% of the value, of the button manufactures of the United + States. (See <i>U.S.A. Census Reports, 1900, Manufactures</i>, part iii. + pp. 315-327.)</p> + + <p><b>BUTTRESS</b> (from the O. Fr. <i>bouteret</i>, that which bears a + thrust, from <i>bouter</i>, to push, cf. Eng. "butt" and "abutment"), + masonry projecting from a wall, provided to give additional strength to + the same, and also to resist the thrust of the roof or wall, especially + when concentrated at any one point. In Roman architecture the plans of + the building, where the vaults were of considerable span and the thrust + therefore very great, were so arranged as to provide cross-walls, + dividing the aisles, as in the case of the Basilica of Maxentius, and, in + the Thermae of Rome, the subdivisions of the less important halls, so + that there were no visible buttresses. In the baths of Diocletian, + however, these cross-walls rose to the height of the great vaulted hall, + the tepidarium, and their upper portions were decorated with niches and + pilasters. In a palace at Shuka in Syria, attributed to the end of the + 2nd century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, where, in consequence of the + absence of timber, it was necessary to cover over the building with slabs + of stones, these latter were carried on arches thrown across the great + hall, and this necessitated two precautions, viz. the provision of an + abutment inside the building, and of buttresses outside, the earliest + example in which the feature was frankly accepted. In Byzantine work + there were no external buttresses, the plans being arranged to include + them in cross-walls or interior abutments. The buttresses of the early + Romanesque churches were only pilaster strips employed to break up the + wall surface and decorate the exterior. At a slightly later period a + greater depth was given to the lower portion of the buttresses, which was + then capped with a deep sloping weathering. The introduction of ribbed + vaulting, extended to the nave in the 12th century, and the concentration + of thrusts on definite points of the structure, rendered the buttress an + absolute necessity, and from the first this would seem to have been + recognized, and the architectural treatment already given to the + Romanesque buttress received <!-- Page 892 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page892"></a>[v.04 p.0892]</span>a remarkable development. The + buttresses of the early English period have considerable projection with + two or three sets-off sloped at an acute angle dividing the stages and + crowned by triangular heads; and slender columns ("buttress shafts") are + used at the angle. In later work pinnacles and niches are usually + employed to decorate the summits of the buttresses, and in the still + later Perpendicular work the vertical faces are all richly decorated with + panelling.</p> + + <p><b>BUTYL ALCOHOLS,</b> C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>9</sub>OH. Four isomeric + alcohols of this formula are known; two of these are primary, one + secondary, and one tertiary (see <span class="sc">Alcohols</span>). + Normal butyl alcohol, + CH<sub>3</sub>·(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·CH<sub>2</sub>OH, is a + colourless liquid, boiling at 116.8°, and formed by reducing normal butyl + aldehyde with sodium, or by a peculiar fermentation of glycerin, brought + about by a schizomycete. Isobutyl alcohol, + (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CH·CH<sub>2</sub>OH, the butyl alcohol of + fermentation, is a primary alcohol derived from isobutane. It may be + prepared by the general methods, and occurs in fusel oil, especially in + potato spirit. It is a liquid, smelling like fusel oil and boiling at + 108.4° C. Methyl ethyl carbinol, + CH<sub>3</sub>·C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>·CHOH, is the secondary alcohol + derived from n-butane. It is a strongly smelling liquid, boiling at 99°. + Trimethyl carbinol or tertiary butyl alcohol, + (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·COH, is the simplest tertiary alcohol, and + was obtained by A. Butlerow in 1864 by acting with zinc methyl on acetyl + chloride (see <span class="sc">Alcohols</span>). It forms rhombic prisms + or plates which melt at 25° and boil at 83°, and has a spiritous smell, + resembling that of camphor.</p> + + <p><b>BUTYRIC ACID</b>, C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Two + acids are known corresponding to this formula, <i>normal butyric + acid</i>, CH<sub>3</sub>·CH<sub>2</sub>·CH<sub>2</sub>·COOH, and + <i>isobutyric acid</i>, (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·CH·COOH. Normal + butyric acid or fermentation butyric acid is found in butter, as an hexyl + ester in the oil of <i>Heracleum giganteum</i> and as an octyl ester in + parsnip (<i>Pastinaca sativa</i>); it has also been noticed in the fluids + of the flesh and in perspiration. It may be prepared by the hydrolysis of + ethyl acetoacetate, or by passing carbon monoxide over a mixture of + sodium acetate and sodium ethylate at 205° C. (A. Geuther, <i>Ann.</i>, + 1880, 202, p.306), C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>ONa + CH<sub>3</sub>COONa + + CO = H·CO<sub>2</sub>Na + + CH<sub>3</sub>·CH<sub>2</sub>·CH<sub>2</sub>·COONa. It is ordinarily + prepared by the fermentation of sugar or starch, brought about by the + addition of putrefying cheese, calcium carbonate being added to + neutralize the acids formed in the process. A. Fitz (<i>Ber.</i>, 1878, + 11 p. 52) found that the butyric fermentation of starch is aided by the + direct addition of <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>. The acid is an oily liquid + of unpleasant smell, and solidifies at -19° C.; it boils at 162.3° C., + and has a specific gravity of 0.9746 (0° C.). It is easily soluble in + water and alcohol, and is thrown out of its aqueous solution by the + addition of calcium chloride. Potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid + oxidize it to carbon dioxide and acetic acid, while alkaline potassium + permanganate oxidizes it to carbon dioxide. The calcium salt, + Ca(C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, + is less soluble in hot water than in cold.</p> + + <p><i>Isobutyric acid</i> is found in the free state in carobs + (<i>Ceratonia siliqua</i>) and in the root of <i>Arnica dulcis</i>, and + as an ethyl ester in croton oil. It may be artificially prepared by the + hydrolysis of isopropylcyanide with alkalies, by the oxidation of + isopropyl alcohol with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid (I. Pierre + and E. Puchot, <i>Ann. de chim. et de phys.</i>, 1873, [4] 28, p. 366), + or by the action of sodium amalgam on methacrylic acid, + CH<sub>2</sub>·C(CH<sub>3</sub>)·COOH. It is a liquid of somewhat + unpleasant smell, boiling at 155.5° C. Its specific gravity is 0.9697 + (0°). Heated with chromic acid solution to 140° C., it gives carbon + dioxide and acetone. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to <span + class="grk">α</span>-oxyisobutyric acid, + (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·C(OH)·COOH, whilst concentrated nitric acid + converts it into dinitroisopropane. Its salts are more soluble in water + than those of the normal acid.</p> + + <p><b>BUXAR,</b> or <span class="sc">Baxar</span>, a town of India, in + the district of Shahabad, Bengal, on the south bank of the Ganges, and on + the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 13,945. There is a dismantled fort + of small size which was important from its commanding the Ganges. A + celebrated victory was gained here on the 23rd of October 1764 by the + British forces under Major (afterwards Sir Hector) Munro, over the united + armies of Shuja-ud-Dowlah and Kasim Ali Khan. The action raged from 9 + o'clock till noon, when the enemy gave way. Pursuit was, however, + frustrated by Shuja-ud-Dowlah sacrificing a part of his army to the + safety of the remainder. A bridge of boats had been constructed over a + stream about 2 m. distant from the field of battle, and this the enemy + destroyed before their rear had passed over. Through this act 2000 troops + were drowned, or otherwise lost; but destructive as was this proceeding, + it was, said Major Munro, "the best piece of generalship Shuja-ud-Dowlah + showed that day, because if I had crossed the rivulet with the army, I + should either have taken or drowned his whole army in the Karamnasa, and + come up with his treasure and jewels, and Kasim Ali Khan's jewels, which + I was informed amounted to between two and three millions."</p> + + <p><b>BUXTON, JEDEDIAH</b> (1707-1772), English arithmetician, was born + on the 20th of March 1707 at Elmton, near Chesterfield, in Derbyshire. + Although his father was schoolmaster of the parish, and his grandfather + had been the vicar, his education had been so neglected that he could not + write; and his knowledge, except of numbers, was extremely limited. How + he came first to know the relative proportions of numbers, and their + progressive denominations, he did not remember; but on such matters his + attention was so constantly riveted, that he frequently took no + cognizance of external objects, and when he did, it was only with + reference to their numbers. He measured the whole lordship of Elmton, + consisting of some thousand acres, simply by striding over it, and gave + the area not only in acres, roods and perches, but even in square inches. + After this, he reduced them into square hairs'-breadths, reckoning + forty-eight to each side of the inch. His memory was so great, that in + resolving a question he could leave off and resume the operation again at + the same point after the lapse of a week, or even of several months. His + perpetual application to figures prevented the smallest acquisition of + any other knowledge. His wonderful faculty was tested in 1754 by the + Royal Society of London, who acknowledged their satisfaction by + presenting him with a handsome gratuity. During his visit to the + metropolis he was taken to see the tragedy of <i>Richard III.</i> + performed at Drury Lane theatre, but his whole mind was given to the + counting of the words uttered by David Garrick. Similarly, he set himself + to count the steps of the dancers; and he declared that the innumerable + sounds produced by the musical instruments had perplexed him beyond + measure. He died in 1772.</p> + + <p>A memoir appeared in the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> for June 1754, to + which, probably through the medium of a Mr Holliday, of Haughton Hall, + Nottinghamshire, Buxton had contributed several letters. In this memoir, + his age is given as forty-nine, which points to his birth in 1705; the + date adopted above is on the authority of Lysons' <i>Magna Britannia</i> + (Derbyshire).</p> + + <p><b>BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL</b> (1786-1845), English philanthropist, + was born in Essex on the 1st of April 1786, and was educated at Trinity + College, Dublin, where, in spite of his early education having been + neglected, hard work made him one of the first men of his time, with a + high reputation as a speaker. In 1807 he married Hannah Gurney, sister of + the celebrated Elizabeth Fry. As his means were not sufficient to support + his family, he entered in 1808 the brewery of Truman, Hanbury & + Company, of which his uncles, the Hanburys, were partners. He devoted + himself to business with characteristic energy, became a partner in 1811, + and soon had the whole concern in his hands. In 1816 he brought himself + into notice by his speech on behalf of the Spitalfields weavers, and in + 1818 he published his able <i>Inquiry into Prison Discipline</i>. The + same year he was elected M.P. for Weymouth, a borough for which he + continued to sit till 1837. In the House of Commons he had a high + reputation as an able and straightforward speaker, devoted to + philanthropic schemes. Of these plans the most important was that for the + abolition of slavery in the British colonies. Buxton devoted his life to + this object, and through defeat and opposition, despite the attacks of + enemies and the remonstrances of faint-hearted friends, he remained true + to it. Not till 1833 was he successful, and even then only partially, for + he was compelled to admit into the bill some clauses against which his + better judgment had decided. In 1837 he ceased to <!-- Page 893 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page893"></a>[v.04 p.0893]</span>sit in the + House of Commons. He travelled on the continent in 1839 to recruit his + health, which had given way, and took the opportunity of inspecting + foreign prisons. He was made a baronet in 1840, and then devoted himself + to a plan for ameliorating the condition of the African natives. The + failure of the Niger expedition of 1841 was a blow from which he never + recovered. He died on the 19th of February 1845.</p> + + <p>See <i>Memoir and Correspondence of Sir T.F. Buxton</i> (1848), by his + third son, Charles Buxton (1823-1871), a well-known philanthropist and + member of parliament.</p> + + <p><b>BUXTON,</b> a market town and fashionable health-resort in the High + Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the London & + North-Western and Midland railways, 36 m. N.W. by N. of Derby. Pop. of + urban district (1901) 10,181. It occupies a high position, lying between + 1000 and 1150 ft. above sea-level, in an open hollow, surrounded at a + distance by hills of considerable elevation, except on the south-east + side, where the Wye, which rises about half a mile away, makes its exit. + The old town (High Buxton) stands a little above the new, and consists of + one wide street, and a considerable market-place with an old cross. The + new town is the richer portion. The Crescent is a fine range of buildings + in the Doric style, erected by the duke of Devonshire in 1779-1788. It + contains hotels, a ballroom, a bank, a library and other establishments, + and the surrounding open grounds are laid out in terraces and gardens. + The Old Hall hotel at the west end of the Crescent stands on the site of + the mansion built in 1572 by the earl of Shrewsbury in the reign of Queen + Elizabeth, which was the residence of Mary queen of Scots when she + visited the town. The mineral waters of Buxton, which have neither taste + nor smell, are among the most noted in England, and are particularly + efficacious in cases of rheumatism and gout. There are numerous public + and private baths, the most important of which are those in the + establishment at the eastern end of the Crescent. The springs supply hot + and cold water at a very short distance from each other, flowing at the + rate of 60 gallons a minute. The former possesses a uniform temperature + of 82° Fahr., and the principal substances in solution are bicarbonate of + calcium, bicarbonate of magnesium, chloride of sodium, chloride of + magnesium and silica acid. There is also a chalybeate spring known as St + Anne's well, situated at the S.W. corner of the Crescent, the water of + which when mixed with that of the other springs proves purgative. The + Devonshire hospital, formerly known as the Bath Charity, is a benevolent + institution, supported by voluntary subscriptions. Every year some + thousands of poor patients are treated free of cost; and the hospital was + enlarged for their accommodation, a dome being added which is of greater + circumference than any other in Europe. In 1894 the duke of Devonshire + erected a handsome pump-room at St Anne's well. The Buxton season extends + from June to October, and during that period the town is visited by + thousands, but it is also popular as a winter resort. The Buxton Gardens + are beautifully laid out, with ornamental waters, a fine opera-house, + pavilion and concert hall, theatre and reading rooms. Electric lighting + has been introduced, and there is an excellent golf course. The Cavendish + Terrace forms a fine promenade, and the neighbourhood of the town is rich + in objects of interest. Of these the chief are Poole's Hole, a vast + stalactite cave, about half a mile distant; Diamond Hill, which owes its + name to the quartz crystals which are not uncommon in its rocks; and Chee + Tor, a remarkable cliff, on the banks of the Wye, 300 ft. high. Ornaments + are manufactured by the inhabitants from alabaster and spar; and + excellent lime is burned at the quarries near Poole's Hole. Buxton is an + important centre for horse-breeding, and a large horse-fair is held + annually. Although the annual rainfall, owing to the situation of the + town towards the western flank of the Pennine Hills, is about 49 in., the + air is particularly dry owing to the high situation and the rapidity with + which waters drain off through the limestone. The climate is bracing and + healthy.</p> + + <p>The waters were known and used by the Romans, but to a limited extent, + and no remains of their baths survive. Roman roads connected the place + with Derby, Brough in Edale and Manchester. Buxton (Bawdestanes, + Bue-stanes), formed into a civil parish from Bakewell in 1895, has thus + claims to be considered one of the oldest English spas. It was probably + the "Bectune" mentioned in Domesday. After the departure of the Romans + the baths seem to have been long neglected, but were again frequented in + the 16th century, when the chapel of St Anne was hung round with the + crutches of those who were supposed to owe their cure to her healing + powers; these interesting relics were destroyed at the Reformation. The + baths were visited at least four times by Mary queen of Scots, when a + prisoner in charge of George, earl of Shrewsbury, other famous + Elizabethan visitors being Lord Burleigh, the earl of Essex, and Robert, + earl of Leicester. At the close of the 18th century the duke of + Devonshire, lord of the manor (whose ancestor Sir Ralph de Gernons was + lord of Bakewell in 1251), spent large sums of money on improvements in + the town. In 1781 he began to build the famous Crescent, and since that + time Buxton has steadily increased in favour as an inland watering-place. + In 1813 a weekly market on Saturday and four annual fairs were granted. + These were bought by the local authorities from the duke of Devonshire in + 1864.</p> + + <p>See Gough's edition of Camden's <i>Britannia</i>; Stephen Glover, + <i>History of the County of Derby</i> (Derby, 1829); W. Bemrose, <i>Guide + to Buxton</i> (London, 1869).</p> + + <p><b>BUXTORF,</b> or <span class="sc">Buxtorff</span>, <b>JOHANNES</b> + (1564-1629), German Hebrew and Rabbinic scholar, was born at Kamen in + Westphalia on the 25th of December 1564. The original form of the name + was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived the family crest, which + bore the figure of a goat (Ger. <i>Bock</i>, he-goat). After the death of + his father, who was minister of Kamen, Buxtorf studied at Marburg and the + newly-founded university of Herborn, at the latter of which C. Olevian + (1536-1587) and J.P. Piscator (1546-1625) had been appointed professors + of theology. At a later date Piscator received the assistance of Buxtorf + in the preparation of his Latin translation of the Old Testament, + published at Herborn in 1602-1603. From Herborn Buxtorf went to + Heidelberg, and thence to Basel, attracted by the reputation of J.J. + Grynaeus and J.G. Hospinian (1515-1575). After a short residence at Basel + he studied successively under H.B. Bullinger (1504-1575) at Zürich and + Th. Beza at Geneva. On his return to Basel, Grynaeus, desirous that the + services of so promising a scholar should be secured to the university, + procured him a situation as tutor in the family of Leo Curio, son of + Coelius Secundus Curio, well-known for his sufferings on account of the + Reformed faith. At the instance of Grynaeus, Buxtorf undertook the duties + of the Hebrew chair in the university, and discharged them for two years + with such ability that at the end of that time he was unanimously + appointed to the vacant office. From this date (1591) to his death in + 1629 he remained in Basel, and devoted himself with remarkable zeal to + the study of Hebrew and rabbinic literature. He received into his house + many learned Jews, that he might discuss his difficulties with them, and + he was frequently consulted by Jews themselves on matters relating to + their ceremonial law. He seems to have well deserved the title which was + conferred upon him of "Master of the Rabbins." His partiality for Jewish + society brought him, indeed, on one occasion into trouble with the + authorities of the city, the laws against the Jews being very strict. + Nevertheless, on the whole, his relations with the city of Basel were + friendly. He remained firmly attached to the university which first + recognized his merits, and declined two invitations from Leiden and + Saumur successively. His correspondence with the most distinguished + scholars of the day was very extensive; the library of the university of + Basel contains a rich collection of letters, which are valuable for a + literary history of the time.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Works</span>.—<i>Manuale Hebraicum et + Chaldaicum</i> (1602; 7th ed., 1658); <i>Synagoga Judaica</i> (1603 in + German; afterwards translated into Latin in an enlarged form), a valuable + repertory of information regarding the opinions and ceremonies of the + Jews; <i>Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum cum brevi Lexico Rabbinico + Philosophico</i> (1607; reprinted at Glasgow, 1824); his great Rabbinical + Bible, <i>Biblic Hebraica cum Paraphr. Chald. et Commentariis + Rabbinorum</i> (2 vols., 1618; 4 vols., 1618-1619), containing, in + addition to the Hebrew <!-- Page 894 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page894"></a>[v.04 p.0894]</span>text, the Aramaic Paraphrases of + Targums, punctuated after the analogy of the Aramaic passages in Ezra and + Daniel (a proceeding which has been condemned by Richard Simon and + others), and the Commentaries of the more celebrated Rabbis, with various + other treatises; <i>Tiberias, sive Commentarius Masoreticus</i> (1620; + quarto edition, improved and enlarged by J. Buxtorf the younger, 1665), + so named from the great school of Jewish criticism which had its seat in + the town of Tiberias. It was in this work that Buxtorf controverted the + views of Elias Levita regarding the late origin of the Hebrew vowel + points, a subject which gave rise to the controversy between Louis Cappel + and his son Johannes Buxtorf (<i>q.v.</i>). Buxtorf did not live to + complete the two works on which his reputation chiefly rests, viz. his + great <i>Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et Rabbinicum</i>, and the + <i>Concordantiae Bibliorum Hebraicorum</i>, both of which were edited by + his son. They are monuments of untiring labour and industry. The lexicon + was republished at Leipzig in 1869 with some additions by Bernard + Fischer, and the concordance was assumed by Julius Fürst as the basis of + his great Hebrew concordance, which appeared in 1840.</p> + + <p>For additional information regarding his writings see <i>Athenae + Rauricae</i>, pp. 444-448; articles in Ersch and Gruber's + <i>Encyclopädie</i>, and Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk.</i>; J.P. Niceron's + <i>Mémoires</i>, vol. xxxi. pp. 206-215; J.M. Schroeckh's + <i>Kirchengeschichte</i>, vol. v. (Post-Reformation period), pp. 72 seq. + (Leipzig, 1806); G.W. Meyer's <i>Geschichte der Schrift-Erklärung</i>, + vol. iii. (Göttingen, 1804); and E. Kautsch, <i>Johannes Buxtorf der + Ältere</i> (1879).</p> + + <p><b>BUXTORF,</b> or <span class="sc">Buxtorff</span>, <b>JOHANNES</b> + (1599-1664), son of the preceding, was born at Basel on the 13th of + August 1599, and when still a boy attained considerable proficiency in + the classical languages. Entering the university at the age of twelve, he + was only sixteen when he obtained his master's degree. He now gave + himself up to theological and especially to Semitic studies, + concentrating later on rabbinical Hebrew, and reading while yet a young + man both the Mishna and the Jerusalem and Babylonian Gemaras. These + studies he further developed by visits to Heidelberg, Dort (where he made + the acquaintance of many of the delegates to the synod of 1619) and + Geneva, and in all these places acquired a great reputation. In 1622 he + published at Basel a <i>Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum</i>, as a + companion work to his father's great Rabbinical Bible. He declined the + chair of logic at Lausanne, and in 1624 was appointed general deacon of + the church at Basel. On the death of his father in 1629, he was + unanimously designated his successor in the Hebrew professorship. From + this date until his death in 1664 he remained at Basel, declining two + offers which were made to him from Groningen and Leiden, to accept the + Hebrew chair in these two celebrated schools. In 1647 the governing body + of the university founded, specially for him, a third theological + professorship, that of "Commonplaces and Controversies," which Buxtorf + held for seven years along with the Hebrew chair. When, however, the + professorship of the Old Testament became vacant in 1654 by the death of + Theodor Zwinger, Buxtorf resigned the chair of theology and accepted that + of the Old Testament instead. He was four times married, his three first + wives dying shortly after marriage and the fourth predeceasing her + husband by seven years. His children died young, with the exception of + two boys, the younger of whom, Jakob (1645-1704), became his father's + colleague, and then his successor, in the chair of Hebrew. The same + distinction fell to the lot of his nephew Johann (1663-1732).</p> + + <p>A considerable portion of Buxtorf's public life was spent in + controversy regarding disputed points in biblical criticism, in reference + to which he had to defend his father's views. The attitude of the + Reformed churches at that time, as opposed to the Church of Rome, led + them to maintain many opinions in regard to biblical questions which were + not only erroneous, but altogether unnecessary for the stability of their + position. Having renounced the dogma of an infallible church, it was + deemed necessary to maintain as a counterpoise, not only that of an + infallible Bible, but, as the necessary foundation of this, of a Bible + which had been handed down from the earliest ages without the slightest + textual alteration. Even the vowel points and accents were held to have + been given by divine inspiration. The Massoretic text of the Old + Testament, therefore, as compared either with that of the recently + discovered Samaritan Pentateuch, or the Septuagint or of the Vulgate, + alone contained the true words of the sacred writers. Although many of + the Reformers, as well as learned Jews, had long seen that these + assertions could not be made good, there had been as yet no formal + controversy upon the subject. Louis Cappel (<i>q.v.</i>) was the first + effectually to dispel the illusions which had long prevailed by a work on + the modern origin of the vowel points and accents. The elder Buxtorf had + counselled him not to publish his work, pointing out the injury which it + would do the Protestant cause, but Cappel sent his MS. to Thomas Erpenius + of Leiden, the most learned orientalist of his day, by whom it was + published in 1624, under the title <i>Arcanum Punctationis revelatum</i>, + but without the author's name. The elder Buxtorf, though he lived five + years after the publication of the work, made no public reply to it, and + it was not until 1648 that Buxtorf junior published his <i>Tractatus de + punctorum origine, antiquitate, et authoritate, oppositus Arcano + punctationis revelato Ludovici Cappelli</i>. He tried to prove by copious + citations from the rabbinical writers, and by arguments of various kinds, + that the points, if not so ancient as the time of Moses, were at least as + old as that of Ezra, and thus possessed the authority of divine + inspiration. Unfortunately he allowed himself to employ contemptuous + epithets towards Cappel, such as "innovator" and "visionary." Cappel + speedily prepared a second edition of his work, in which, besides + replying to the arguments of his opponent, and fortifying his position + with new ones, he retorted his contumelious epithets with interest. Owing + to various causes, however, this second edition did not see the light + until 1685, when it was published at Amsterdam in the edition of his + collected works. Besides this controversy, Buxtorf engaged in three + others with the same antagonist, on the subject of the integrity of the + Massoretic text of the Old Testament, on the antiquity of the present + Hebrew characters, and on the Lord's Supper. In the two former Buxtorf + supported the untenable position that the text of the Old Testament had + been transmitted to us without any errors or alteration, and that the + present square or so-called Chaldee characters were coeval with the + original composition of the various books. These views were triumphantly + refuted by his great opponent in his <i>Critica Sacra</i>, and in his + <i>Diatriba veris et antiquis Ebraicorum literis</i>.</p> + + <p>Besides the works already mentioned in the course of this article, + Buxtorf edited the great <i>Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et + Rabbinicum</i>, on which his father had spent the labour of twenty years, + and to the completion of which he himself gave ten years of additional + study; and the great Hebrew <i>Concordance</i>, which his father had + little more than begun. In addition to these, he published new editions + of many of his father's works, as well as others of his own, complete + lists of which may be seen in the <i>Athenae Rauricae</i> and other works + enumerated at the close of the preceding article.</p> + + <p><b>BUYING IN,</b> on the English stock exchange, a transaction by + which, if a member has sold securities which he fails to deliver on + settling day, or any of the succeeding ten days following the settlement, + the buyer may give instructions to a stock exchange official to "buy in" + the stock required. The official announces the quantity of stock, and the + purpose for which he requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be + prepared to deliver it immediately. The original seller has to pay the + difference between the two prices, if the latter is higher than the + original contract price. A similar practice, termed "selling out," + prevails when a purchaser fails to take up his securities.</p> + + <p><b>BUYS BALLOT'S LAW,</b> in meteorology, the name given to a law + which may be expressed as follows:—"Stand with your back to the + wind; the low-pressure area will be on your left-hand." This rule, the + truth of which was first recognized by the American meteorologists J.H. + Coffin and W. Ferrel, is a direct consequence of Ferrel's Law + (<i>q.v.</i>). It is approximately true in the higher latitudes of the + Northern Hemisphere, and is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the + angle between barometric gradient and wind is not a right angle in low + latitudes. The law takes its name from C.H.D. Buys <span + class="correction" title="'Ballott' in original">Ballot</span>, a Dutch + meteorologist, who published it in the <i>Comptes rendus</i>, November + 1857.</p> + + <p><b>BUZEU,</b> the capital of the department of Buzeu, Rumania, + situated near the right bank of the river Buzeu, between the Carpathian + Mountains and the fertile lowlands of south Moldavia and east Walachia. + Pop. (1900) 21,561. Buzeu is important as a market for petroleum, timber + and grain. It is the meeting <!-- Page 895 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page895"></a>[v.04 p.0895]</span>place of railroads from Râmnicu + Sarat, Braila and Ploesci. Amber is found by the riverside, and there are + cloth-mills in the city. Buzeu is the seat of a bishop, whose cathedral + was erected in 1640 by Prince Matthias Bassarab of Walachia, on the site + of an older church. In the neighbourhood there are many monasteries. + Buzeu was formerly called Napuca or Buzograd.</p> + + <p><b>BUZOT, FRANÇOIS NICOLAS LÉONARD</b> (1760-1794), French + revolutionist, was born at Evreux on the 1st of March 1760. He studied + law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution was an advocate in his native + town. In 1789 he was elected deputy to the states-general, and there + became known for his advanced opinions. He demanded the nationalization + of the possessions of the clergy, and the right of all citizens to carry + arms. After the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, Buzot returned + to Evreux, where he was named president of the criminal tribunal. In 1792 + he was elected deputy to the Convention, and took his place among the + Girondists. He demanded the formation of a national guard from the + departments to defend the Convention against the populace of Paris. His + proposal was carried, but never put into force; and the Parisians were + extremely bitter against him and the Girondists. In the trial of Louis + XVI., Buzot voted for death, but with appeal to the people and + postponement of sentence. He had a decree of death passed against the + <i>émigrés</i> who did not return to France, and against anyone who + should demand the re-establishment of the monarchy. Proscribed with the + Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793, he succeeded in escaping, and took + refuge in Normandy, where he contributed to organize a federalist + insurrection against the Convention, which was speedily suppressed. Buzot + was outlawed, and fled to the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and committed + suicide in the woods of St Émilion on the 18th of June 1794. He was an + intelligent and honest man, although he seems to have profited by the + sale of the possessions of the clergy, but he had a stubborn, unyielding + temperament, was incapable of making concessions, and was dominated by + Madame Roland, who imparted to him her hatred of Danton and the + Montagnards.</p> + + <p>See <i>Mémoires de Pétion, Barbaroux, Buzot</i>, published by C.A. + Daubon (Paris, 1866). For the history of the federalist movement in + Normandy, see L. Boivin Champeaux, <i>Notices pour servir à, l'histoire + de la Révolution dans le département de l'Eure</i> (Evreux and Paris, + 1884).</p> + + <p><b>BUZZARD,</b> a word derived from the Lat. <i>Buteo</i>, through the + Fr. <i>Busard</i>, and used in a general sense for a large group of + diurnal birds-of-prey, which contains, among many others, the species + usually known as the common buzzard (<i>Buteo vulgaris</i>, Leach), + though the English epithet is nowadays hardly applicable. The name + buzzard, however, belongs quite as rightfully to the birds called in + books "harriers," which form a distinct subfamily of <i>Falconidae</i> + under the title <i>Circinae</i>, and by it one species, the moor-buzzard + (<i>Circus aeruginosus</i>), is still known in such places as it + inhabits. "Puttock" is also another name used in some parts of England, + but perhaps is rather a synonym of the kite (<i>Milvus ictinus</i>). + Though ornithological writers are almost unanimous in distinguishing the + buzzards as a group from the eagles, the grounds usually assigned for + their separation are but slight, and the diagnostic character that can be + best trusted is probably that in the former the bill is decurved from the + base, while in the latter it is for about a third of its length straight. + The head, too, in buzzards is short and round, while in the eagles it is + elongated. In a general way buzzards are smaller than eagles, though + there are several exceptions to this statement, and have their plumage + more mottled. Furthermore, most if not all of the buzzards, about which + anything of the kind is with certainty known, assume their adult dress at + the first moult, while the eagles take a longer time to reach maturity. + The buzzards are fine-looking birds, but are slow and heavy of flight, so + that in the old days of falconry they were regarded with infinite scorn, + and hence in common English to call a man "a buzzard" is to denounce him + as stupid. Their food consists of small mammals, young birds, reptiles, + amphibians and insects—particularly beetles—and thus they + never could have been very injurious to the game-preserver, if indeed + they were not really his friends, though they have fallen under his ban; + but at the present day they are so scarce that in England their effect, + whatever it may be, is inappreciable. Buzzards are found over the whole + world with the exception of the Australian region, and have been split + into many genera by systematists. In the British Islands are two species, + one resident (the <i>B. vulgaris</i> already mentioned), and now almost + confined to a few wooded districts; the other the rough-legged buzzard + (<i>Archibuteo lagopus</i>), an irregular winter-visitant, sometimes + arriving in large bands from the north of Europe, and readily + distinguishable from the former by being feathered down to the toes. The + honey-buzzard (<i>Pernis apivorus</i>), a summer-visitor from the south, + and breeding, or attempting to breed, yearly in the New Forest, does not + come into the subfamily <i>Buteoninae</i>, but is probably the type of a + distinct group, <i>Perninae</i>, of which there are other examples in + Africa and Asia. In America the name "buzzard" is popularly given to the + turkey-buzzard or turkey-vulture (<i>Cathartes Aura</i>).</p> + + <p>(A. N.)</p> + + <p><b>BYELAYA TSERKOV</b> (<i>i.e.</i> White Church), a town of Russia, + in the government of Kiev, 32 m. S.S.W. of Vasilkov, on the main road + from Kiev to the Crimea, in 49° 47′ N. lat. and 30° 7′ E. + long. Pop. (1860) 12,075; (1897) 20,705. First mentioned in 1155, Byelaya + Tserkov was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. In + 1550 a castle was built here by the prince of Kiev, and various + privileges were bestowed upon the inhabitants. From 1651 the town was + subject alternately to Poland and to independent hetmans (Cossack + chiefs). In 1793 it was united to Russia. There is a trade in beer, + cattle and grain, sold at eleven annual fairs, three of which last for + ten days each.</p> + + <p><b>BYELEV,</b> a town of Russia, in the government of Tula, and 67 m. + S.W. from the city of that name on the left bank of the Oka, in 53° + 48′ N. lat., and 36° 9′ E. long. Pop. (1860) 8063; (1897) + 9567. It is first mentioned in 1147. It belonged to Lithuania in the end + of the 14th century; and in 1468 it was raised to the rank of a + principality, dependent on that country. In the end of the 15th century + this principality began to attach itself to the grand-duchy of Moscow; + and by Ivan III. it was ultimately united to Russia. It suffered greatly + from the Tatars in 1507, 1512, 1530, 1536 and 1544. In 1826 the empress + Elizabeth died here on her way from Taganrog to St Petersburg. A public + library was founded in 1858 in memory of the poet Zhukovsky, who was born + (1782) in a neighbouring village. The industries comprise tallow-boiling, + oil-manufacture, tanning, sugar-refining and distilling. There is a trade + in grain, hemp oil, cattle and tallow. A fair is held from the 28th of + August to the 10th of September every year.</p> + + <p><b>BYELGOROD</b> (<i>i.e.</i> White Town), a town of Russia, in the + government of Kursk, 100 m. S.S.E. by rail from the city of that name, in + 50° 46′ N. lat. and 36° 37′ E. long., clustering on a chalk + hill on the right bank of the Donets. Pop. (1860) 11,722; (1897) 21,850. + In the 17th century it suffered repeatedly from Tatar incursions, against + which there was built (from 1633 to 1740) an earthen wall, with twelve + forts, extending upwards of 200 m. from the Vorskla to the Don, and + called the Byelgorod line. In 1666 an archiepiscopal see was established + in the town. There are two cathedral churches, both built in the 16th + century, as well as a theological seminary. Candles, leather, soap, lime + and bricks are manufactured, and a trade is carried on in grain, cattle, + wool, honey, wax and tallow. There are three annual fairs, on the 10th + Friday after Easter, the 29th of June and the 15th of August + respectively.</p> + + <p><b>BYELOSTOK</b> (Polish, <i>Bialystok</i>), a town of West Russia, in + the government of and 53 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Grodno, on the + main railway line from Moscow to Warsaw, at its junction with the + Kiev-Grayevo (Prussian frontier) line. Founded in 1320, it became part of + Prussia after the third partition of Poland, but was annexed to Russia in + 1807, after the peace of Tilsit. Its development dates from 1845, when + woollen-mills were built. Since that time it has grown very rapidly, its + population being 13,787 in 1857; 56,629 in 1889; and 65,781 in 1901, + three-fourths Jews. Its woollen, silk and felt hat factories give + occupation to several thousand workers.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 896 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page896"></a>[v.04 p.0896]</span></p> + + <p><b>BYEZHETSK,</b> a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, and 70 + m. N.N.E. of the city of that name, on the right bank of the Mologa, in + 57° 46′ N. lat. and 36° 43′ E. long. Pop. (1860) 5423; (1897) + 9090. It is mentioned in the chronicles of 1137. On the fall of Novgorod, + to which it had belonged, it was incorporated (1479) with the grand-duchy + of Moscow. The town is famous for its scythes and shearing hooks, but + makes also axes, nails and other hardware, and trades in grain, linen, + hemp and flax.</p> + + <p><b>BY-LAW,</b> or <span class="sc">Bye-law</span> (<i>by-</i> being + used in the sense of subordinate or secondary, cf. by-path), a regulation + made by councils, boards, corporations and companies, usually under + statutory power, for the preservation of order and good government within + some place or jurisdiction. When made under authority of a statute, + by-laws must generally, before they come into operation, be submitted to + some confirming authority for sanction and approval; when approved, they + are as binding as enacted laws. By-laws must be reasonable in themselves; + they must not be retrospective nor contrary to the general law of the + land. By various statutes powers are given to borough, county and + district councils, to make by-laws for various purposes; corporate + bodies, also, are empowered by their charters to make by-laws which are + binding on their members. Such by-laws must be in harmony with the + objects of the society and must not infringe or limit the powers and + duties of its officers.</p> + + <p><b>BYLES, MATHER</b> (1706-1788), American clergyman, was born in + Boston, Massachusetts, on the 26th of March 1706, descended, on his + mother's side, from John Cotton and Richard Mather. He graduated at + Harvard in 1725, and in 1733 became pastor of the Hollis Street church + (Congregational), Boston. He held a high rank among the clergy of the + province and was noted for his scholarly sermons and his ready wit. At + the outbreak of the War of Independence he was outspoken in his advocacy + of the royal cause, and after the British evacuation of Boston his + connexion with his church was dissolved. He remained in Boston, however, + and subsequently (1777) was arrested, tried and sentenced to deportation. + This sentence was later changed to imprisonment in his own house. He was + soon released, but never resumed his pastorate. He died in Boston on the + 5th of July 1788. Besides many sermons he published <i>A Poem on the + Death of George I.</i> (1727) and <i>Miscellaneous Poems</i> (1744).</p> + + <p>His son, <span class="sc">Mather Byles</span> (1735-1814), graduated + at Harvard in 1751, and was a Congregational clergyman at New London, + Connecticut, until 1768, when he entered the Established Church, and + became rector of Christ church, Boston. Sympathizing with the royal + cause, he settled, after the War of Independence, in St Johns, New + Brunswick, where he was rector of a church until his death.</p> + + <p><b>BYNG, JOHN</b> (1704-1757), British admiral, was the fourth son of + George Byng, Lord Torrington, and entered the navy in 1718. The powerful + influence of his father accounts for his rapid rise in the service. He + received his first appointment as lieutenant in 1723, and became captain + in 1727. His career presents nothing of note till after his promotion as + rear-admiral in 1745, and as vice-admiral in 1747. He served on the most + comfortable stations, and avoided the more arduous work of the navy. On + the approach of the Seven Years' War the island of Minorca was threatened + by an attack from Toulon and was actually invaded in 1756. Byng, who was + then serving in the Channel with the rank of admiral, which he attained + in 1755, was ordered to the Mediterranean to relieve the garrison of Fort + St Philip, which was still holding out. The squadron was not very well + manned, and Byng was in particular much aggrieved because his marines + were landed to make room for the soldiers who were to reinforce the + garrison, and he feared that if he met a French squadron after he had + lost them he would be dangerously undermanned. His correspondence shows + clearly that he left prepared for failure, that he did not believe that + the garrison could hold out against the French force landed, and that he + was already resolved to come back from Minorca if he found that the task + presented any great difficulty. He wrote home to that effect to the + ministry from Gibraltar. The governor of the fortress refused to spare + any of his soldiers to increase the relief for Minorca, and Byng sailed + on the 8th of May. On the 19th he was off Minorca, and endeavoured to + open communications with the fort. Before he could land any of the + soldiers, the French squadron appeared. A battle was fought on the + following day. Byng, who had gained the weather gauge, bore down on the + French fleet of M. de la Galissonière at an angle, so that his leading + ships came into action unsupported by the rest of his line. The French + cut the leading ships up, and then slipped away. When the flag captain + pointed out to Byng that by standing out of his line he could bring the + centre of the enemy to closer action, he declined on the ground that + Thomas Mathews had been condemned for so doing. The French, who were + equal in number to the English, got away undamaged. After remaining near + Minorca for four days without making any further attempt to communicate + with the fort or sighting the French, Byng sailed away to Gibraltar + leaving Fort St Philip to its fate. The failure caused a savage outburst + of wrath in the country. Byng was brought home, tried by court-martial, + condemned to death, and shot on the 14th of March 1757 at Portsmouth. The + severity of the penalty, aided by a not unjust suspicion that the + ministry sought to cover themselves by throwing all the blame on the + admiral, led in after time to a reaction in favour of Byng. It became a + commonplace to say that he was put to death for an error of judgment. The + court had indeed acquitted him of personal cowardice or of disaffection, + and only condemned him for not having done his utmost. But it must be + remembered that in consequence of many scandals which had taken place in + the previous war the Articles of War had been deliberately revised so as + to leave no punishment save death for the officer of any rank who did not + do his utmost against the enemy either in battle or pursuit. That Byng + had not done all he could is undeniable, and he therefore fell under the + law. Neither must it be forgotten that in the previous war in 1745 an + unhappy young lieutenant, Baker Phillips by name, whose captain had + brought his ship into action unprepared, and who, when his superior was + killed, surrendered the ship when she could no longer be defended, was + shot by sentence of a court-martial. This savage punishment was approved + by the higher officers of the navy, who showed great lenity to men of + their own rank. The contrast had angered the country, and the Articles of + War had been amended precisely in order that there might be one law for + all.</p> + + <p>The facts of Byng's life are fairly set out in Charnock's <i>Biogr. + Nav.</i> vol. iv. pp. 145 to 179. The number of contemporary pamphlets + about his case is very great, but they are of no historical value, except + as illustrating the state of public opinion.</p> + + <p>(D. H.)</p> + + <p><b>BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN</b> (1673-1743), Dutch jurist, was born + at Middleburg in Zeeland. In the prosecution of his legal studies, and + while holding the offices first of member and afterwards of president of + the supreme court, he found the common law of his country so defective as + to be nearly useless for practical purposes. This abuse he resolved to + reform, and took as the basis of a new system the principles of the + ancient Roman law. His works are very voluminous. The most important of + them are <i>De foro legatorum</i> (1702); <i>Observationes Juris + Romani</i> (1710), of which a continuation in four books appeared in + 1733; the treatise <i>De Dominio Maris</i> (1721); and the <i>Quaestiones + Juris Publici</i> (1737). Complete editions of his works were published + after his death; one in folio at Geneva in 1761, and another in two + volumes folio at Leiden in 1766.</p> + + <p><b>BYRD, WILLIAM</b> (1543-1623), English musical composer, was + probably a member of one of the numerous Lincolnshire families of the + name who were to be found at Lincoln, Spalding, Pinchbeck, Moulton and + Epworth in the 16th century. According to Wood, he was "bred up to musick + under Thomas Tallis." He was appointed organist of Lincoln cathedral + about 1563, and on the 14th of September 1568 was married at St Margaret + in the Close to Ellen or Julian Birley. On the 22nd of February 1569 he + was sworn in as a member of the Chapel Royal, but he does not seem to + have left Lincoln immediately. In the Chapel Royal he shared with Tallis + the honorary post of organist, and on the 22nd <!-- Page 897 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page897"></a>[v.04 p.0897]</span>of January 1575 + the two composers obtained a licence for twenty-one years from Elizabeth + to print music and music-paper, a monopoly which does not seem to have + been at all remunerative. In 1575 Byrd and Tallis published a collection + of Latin motets for five and six voices, printed by Thomas Vautrollier. + In 1578 Byrd and his family were living at Harlington, Middlesex. As + early as 1581 his name occurs among lists of recusants, and though he + retained his post in the Chapel Royal he was throughout his life a + Catholic. About 1579 he set a three-part song in Thomas Legge's Latin + play <i>Ricardus Tertius</i>. In 1588 he published <i>Psalmes, Sonets and + Songs of Sadnes and Pietie, </i>and in the same year contributed two + madrigals to Nicolas Yonge's <i>Musica Transalpina</i>. In 1589 appeared + <i>Songs of Sundrie Natures</i>, a second edition of which was issued in + 1610. In the same year he published <i>Liber Primus Sacrarum + Cantionum</i>, a second series of which was brought out in 1591. In 1590 + two madrigals by Byrd were included in Thomas Watson's <i>First Sett of + Italian Madrigalls Englished</i>; one of these seems to have been sung + before Queen Elizabeth on her visit to Lord Hertford at Elvetham in 1591. + In April 1592 Byrd was still living at Harlington, but about 1593 he + became possessed of the remainder of a lease of Stondon Place, Essex, a + farm of some 200 acres, belonging to William Shelley, who was shortly + afterwards convicted of high treason. The property was sequestrated, and + on the 15th of July 1595 Byrd obtained a crown lease of it for the lives + of his eldest son Christopher and his daughters Elizabeth and Rachel. On + the death of Shelley his son bought back his estates (in 1604), whereupon + his widow attempted to oust Byrd from Stondon Place, on the ground that + it formed part of her jointure. Byrd was upheld in his possession of the + property by James I. (<i>Calendar of State Papers, Dom. Series</i>, James + I. add. series, vol. xxxvi.), but Mrs Shelley persevered in her suit, + apparently until her death in 1609. In the following year the matter was + settled for a time by Byrd's buying Stondon Place in the names of John + and Thomas Petre, part of the property being charged with a payment to + Byrd of £20 for his life, with remainder to his second son Thomas. + Throughout this long suit Byrd, though in possession of property which + had been confiscated from a recusant and actually taking part as a member + of the Chapel Royal at the coronation of James I., had been + excommunicated since 1598, while from 1605 until 1612, and possibly + later, he was regularly presented before the archidiaconal court of Essex + as a Catholic. In 1603 Easte published a work (no copies of which are + known to exist) entitled <i>Medulla Musicke. Sucked out of the sappe of + two</i> [<i>of</i>] <i>the most famous Musitians that ever were in this + land, namely Master Wylliam Byrd ... and Master Alphonso Ferabosco ... + either of whom having made 40tie severall waies (without contention), + showing most rare and intricate skill in 2 partes in one upon the playne + song Miserere</i>. In 1607 appeared two books of <i>Gradualia</i>, a + second edition of which was issued in 1610. In the following year he + published <i>Psalmes, Songs and Sonnets; some solemne, others joyfull, + framed to the life of the Words</i>. Probably in the same year was issued + <i>Parthenia</i>, a collection of virginal music, in which Byrd was + associated with Bull and Orlando Gibbons. The last work to which he + contributed was Sir Thomas Leighton's <i>Teares or Lamentations of a + Sorrowfull Soule</i> (1614). His death took place on the 4th of July + 1623. It is recorded in the <i>Cheque Book</i> of the Chapel Royal as + that of a "father of musicke." His will, dated the 15th of November 1622, + shows that he remained a Catholic until the end of his life, and he + expresses a desire that he may die at Stondon and be buried near his + wife. From the same document it seems that his latter years had been + embittered by a dispute with his eldest son, but that the matter was + settled by an agreement with his daughter-in-law Catherine, to whom he + left his property at Stondon, charged with the payment of £20 to his + second son Thomas and £10 to his daughter Rachel, with remainder to his + grandson Thomas and his second son of the same name. In 1635 the estate + again came before the court of chancery, on the ground that the annuities + had not been paid. The property seems about 1637 to have been let to one + John Leigh, and in 1651 was held by a member of the Petre family. The + committee for compounding with delinquents at that date allowed Thomas + Byrd the annuity of £20 bequeathed by his father. Byrd's arms, as entered + in the Visitation of Essex of 1634 <i>ex sigillo</i> were three stags' + heads cabossed, a canton ermine. His children were (1) Christopher, who + married Catherine, daughter of Thomas Moore of Bamborough, and had a son, + Thomas, living at Stondon in 1634; (2) Thomas; (3) Elizabeth, who married + successively John Jackson and—Burdett; (4) Rachel, married + (1)—Hook, by whom she had two children, William and Catherine, + married to Michael Walton; in 1634 Rachel Hook had married (2) Edward + Biggs; (5) Mary, married (1) Henry Hawksworth, by whom she had four sons, + William, Henry, George and John; (2) Thomas Falconbridge. Anne Byrd, who + is mentioned in the proceedings <i>Shelley</i> v. <i>Byrd</i> + (<i>Exchequer Decrees</i>, 7 James I., series ii. vol. vii. fol. 294 and + 328), was probably a fourth daughter who died young.</p> + + <p>Besides the works already mentioned Byrd was the composer of three + masses, for three, four and five voices respectively, which seem to have + been published with some privacy about 1588. There exists a second + edition (also undated) of the four-part mass; all three have recently + appeared in modern editions, and increase Byrd's claim to rank as the + greatest English composer of his age. In addition to his published works, + a large amount still remains in MS., comprising nearly every kind of + composition. The Fitzwilliam <i>Virginal Book</i> contains a long series + of interesting pieces for the virginal, and more still remains + unpublished in Lady Neville's <i>Virginal Book</i> and other contemporary + collections. His industry was enormous, and though his work is unequal + and the licences he allowed can hardly be defended on strict grounds, his + Latin church music and his instrumental compositions entitle him to high + rank among his contemporaries. As a madrigalist he was inferior to + Morley, Wilbye and Gibbons, though even in this branch of his art he + often displays great charm and individuality.</p> + + <p>(W. B. S.*)</p> + + <p><b>BYROM, JOHN</b> (1692-1763), English poet, writer of hymns and + inventor of a system of shorthand, was born at Kersal Cell, near + Manchester, on the 29th of February 1692, the younger son of a prosperous + merchant. He was educated at Merchant Taylors school, and at Trinity + College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1714. His first poem, + "Colin to Phoebe," a pastoral, appeared in the <i>Spectator</i>, No. 603. + The heroine is said to have been Dr Bentley's daughter, Joanna, the + mother of Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. After leaving the university + Byrom went abroad, ostensibly to study medicine, but he never practised + and possibly his errand was really political, for he was an adherent of + the Pretender. He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1724. On + his return to London he married his cousin in 1721, and to support + himself taught a new method of shorthand of his own invention, till he + succeeded (1740) to his father's estate on the death of his elder + brother. His diary gives interesting portraits and letters of the many + great men of his time whom he knew intimately. He died on the 26th of + September 1763. A collection of his poems was published in 1773, and he + is included in Alexander Chalmers's <i>English Poets</i>. His system of + shorthand was not published until after his death, when it was printed as + <i>The Universal English Shorthand; or the way of writing English in the + most easy, concise, regular and beautiful manner, applicable to any other + language, but particularly adjusted to our own</i> (Manchester, + 1767).</p> + + <p>The <i>Private Journal and Literary Remains of John Byrom, related by + Richard Parkinson, D.D.</i>, was published by the Chetham Society + (1854-1857).</p> + + <p><b>BYRON, GEORGE GORDON BYRON,</b> <span class="sc">6th Baron</span> + (1788-1824), English poet, was born in London at 16 Holles Street, + Cavendish Square, on the 22nd of January 1788. The Byrons were of Norman + stock, but the founder of the family was Sir John Byron, who entered into + possession of the priory and lands of Newstead in the county of + Nottingham in 1540. From him it descended (but with a bar-sinister) to a + great-grandson, John (1st Baron) Byron (<i>q.v.</i>), a Cavalier general, + who was raised to the peerage in 1643. The first Lord Byron died + childless, and was succeeded by his brother Richard, the + great-grandfather of William, the 5th lord, who outlived son and + grandson, and was <!-- Page 898 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page898"></a>[v.04 p.0898]</span>succeeded by his great-nephew, the + poet. Admiral the Hon. John Byron (<i>q.v.</i>) was the poet's + grandfather. His eldest son, Captain John Byron, the poet's father, was a + libertine by choice and in an eminent degree. He caused to be divorced, + and married (1779) as his first wife, the marchioness of Carmarthen (born + Amelia D'Arcy), Baroness Conyers in her own right. One child of the + marriage survived, the Hon. Augusta Byron (1783-1851), the poet's + half-sister, who, in 1807, married her first cousin, Colonel George + Leigh. His second marriage to Catherine Gordon (b. 1765) of Gight in + Aberdeenshire took place at Bath on the 13th of May 1785. He is said to + have squandered the fortunes of both wives. It is certain that Gight was + sold to pay his debts (1786), and that the sole provision for his wife + was a settlement of £3000. It was an unhappy marriage. There was an + attempt at living together in France, and, when this failed, Mrs Byron + returned to Scotland. On her way thither she gave birth to a son, + christened George Gordon after his maternal grandfather, who was + descended from Sir William Gordon of Gight, grandson of James I. of + Scotland. After a while her husband rejoined her, but went back to France + and died at Valenciennes on the 2nd of August 1791. His wife was not a + bad woman, but she was not a good mother. Vain and capricious, passionate + and self-indulgent, she mismanaged her son from his infancy, now + provoking him by her foolish fondness, and now exciting his contempt by + her paroxysms of impotent rage. She neither looked nor spoke like a + gentlewoman; but in the conduct of her affairs she was praiseworthy. She + hated and avoided debt, and when relief came (a civil list pension of + £300 a year) she spent most of it upon her son. Fairly well educated, she + was not without a taste for books, and her letters are sensible and to + the point. But the violence of her temper was abnormal. Her father + committed suicide, and it is possible that she inherited a tendency to + mental derangement. If Byron owed anything to his parents it was a plea + for pardon.</p> + + <p>The poet's first years were spent in lodgings at Aberdeen. From 1794 + to 1798 he attended the grammar school, "threading all classes" till he + reached the fourth. It was a good beginning, a solid foundation, enabling + him from the first to keep a hand over his talents and to turn them to a + set purpose. He was lame from his birth. His right leg and foot, possibly + both feet, were contracted by infantile paralysis, and, to strengthen his + muscles, his mother sent him in the summers of 1796, 1797 to a farm house + on Deeside. He walked with difficulty, but he wandered at will, soothed + and inspired by the grandeur of the scenery. To his Scottish upbringing + he owed his love of mountains, his love and knowledge of the Bible, and + too much Calvinism for faith or unfaith in Christianity. The death of his + great-uncle (May 19, 1798) placed him in possession of the title and + estates. Early in the autumn Mrs Byron travelled south with her son and + his nurse, and for a time made her home at Newstead Abbey. Byron was old + enough to know what had befallen him. "It was a change from a shabby + Scotch flat to a palace," a half-ruined palace, indeed, but his very own. + It was a proud moment, but in a few weeks he was once more in lodgings. + The shrunken leg did not improve, and acting on bad advice his mother + entrusted him to the care of a quack named Lavender, truss-maker to the + general hospital at Nottingham. His nurse who was in charge of him + maltreated him, and the quack tortured him to no purpose. At his own + request he read Virgil and Cicero with a tutor.</p> + + <p>In August 1799 he was sent to a preparatory school at Dulwich. The + master, Dr Glennie, perceived that the boy liked reading for its own sake + and gave him the free run of his library. He read a set of the <i>British + Poets</i> from beginning to end more than once. This, too, was an + initiation and a preparation. He remained at Dulwich till April 1801, + when, on his mother's intervention, he was sent to Harrow. His school + days, 1801-1805, were fruitful in two respects. He learned enough Latin + and Greek to make him a classic, if not a classical scholar, and he made + friends with his equals and superiors. He learned something of his own + worth and of the worth of others. "My school-friendships," he says, "were + with me passions." Two of his closest friends died young, and from Lord + Clare, whom he loved best of all, he was separated by chance and + circumstance. He was an odd mixture, now lying dreaming on his favourite + tombstone in the churchyard, now the ring-leader in whatever mischief was + afoot. He was a "record" swimmer, and, in spite of his lameness, enough + of a cricketer to play for his school at Lord's, and yet he found time to + read and master standard works of history and biography, and to acquire + more general knowledge than boys and masters put together.</p> + + <p>In the midsummer of 1803, when he was in his sixteenth year, he fell + in love, once for all, with his distant relative, Mary Anne Chaworth, a + "minor heiress" of the hall and park of Annesley which marches with + Newstead. Two years his senior, she was already engaged to a neighbouring + squire. There were meetings half-way between Newstead and Annesley, of + which she thought little and he only too much. What was sport to the girl + was death to the boy, and when at length he realized the "hopelessness of + his attachment," he was "thrown out," as he said, "alone, on a wide, wide + sea." She is the subject of at least five of his early poems, including + the pathetic stanzas, "Hills of Annesley," and there are allusions to his + love story in <i>Childe Harold</i> (c. i <i>s.v.</i>), and in "The Dream" + (1816).</p> + + <p>Byron went into residence at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October + 1805. Cambridge did him no good. "The place is the devil," he said, and + according to his own showing he did homage to the <i>genius loci</i>. But + whatever he did or failed to do, he made friends who were worthy of his + choice. Among them were the scholar-dandy Scrope Berdmore Davies, Francis + Hodgson, who died provost of Eton, and, best friend of all, John Cam + Hobhouse (afterwards Lord Broughton). And there was another friend, a + chorister named Edleston, a "humble youth" for whom he formed a romantic + attachment. He died whilst Byron was still abroad (May 1811), but not + unwept nor unsung, if, as there is little doubt, the mysterious Thyrza + poems of 1811, 1812 refer to his death. During the vacation of 1806, and + in 1807 which was one "long vacation," he took to his pen, and wrote, + printed and published most of his "Juvenile Poems." His first venture was + a thin quarto of sixty-six pages, printed by S. and J. Ridge of Newark. + The "advertisement" is dated the 23rd of December 1806, but before that + date he had begun to prepare a second collection for the press. One poem + ("To Mary") contained at least one stanza which was frankly indecent, and + yielding to advice he gave orders that the entire issue should be thrown + into the fire. Early in January 1807 an expurgated collection entitled + <i>Poems on Various Occasions</i> was ready for private distribution. + Encouraged by two critics, Henry Mackenzie and Lord Woodhouselee, he + determined to recast this second issue and publish it under his own name. + <i>Hours of Idleness</i>, "by George Gordon Lord Byron, a minor," was + published in June 1807. The fourth and last issue of <i>Juvenilia</i>, + entitled <i>Poems, Original and Translated</i>, was published in March + 1808.</p> + + <p><i>Hours of Idleness</i> enjoyed a brief triumph. The <i>Critical</i> + and other reviews were "very indulgent," but the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> + for January 1808 contained an article, not, as Byron believed, by + Jeffrey, but by Brougham, which put, or tried to put, the author and "his + poesy" to open shame. The sole result was that it supplied fresh material + and a new title for some rhyming couplets on "British Bards" which he had + begun to write. A satire on Jeffrey, the editor, and Lord Holland, the + patron of the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, was slipped into the middle of + "British Bards," and the poem rechristened <i>English Bards and Scotch + Reviewers</i> (published the 1st of March 1809).</p> + + <p>In April 1808, whilst he was still "a minor," Byron entered upon his + inheritance. Hitherto the less ruinous portions of the abbey had been + occupied by a tenant, Lord Grey de Ruthven. The banqueting hall, the + grand drawing-room, and other parts of the monastic building were + uninhabitable, but by incurring fresh debts, two sets of apartments were + refurnished for Byron and for his mother. Dismantled and ruinous, it was + still a splendid inheritance. In line with the front of the abbey is the + west front of the priory church, with its hollow arch, once a "mighty + window," its vacant niches, its delicate Gothic mouldings. The abbey + buildings enclose a grassy quadrangle <!-- Page 899 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page899"></a>[v.04 p.0899]</span>overlooked by + two-storeyed cloisters. On the eastern side are the state apartments + occupied by kings and queens not as guests, but by feudal right. In the + park, which is part of Sherwood Forest, there is a chain of + lakes—the largest, the north-west, Byron's "lucid lake." A + waterfall or "cascade" issues from the lake, in full view of the room + where Byron slept. The possession of this lordly and historic domain was + an inspiration in itself. It was an ideal home for one who was to be + hailed as the spirit or genius of romance.</p> + + <p>On the 13th of March 1809, he took his seat in the House of Lords. He + had determined, as soon as he was of age, to travel in the East, but + before he sought "another zone" he invited Hobhouse and three others to a + house-warming. One of the party, C.S. Matthews, describes a day at + Newstead. Host and guests lay in bed till one. "The afternoon was passed + in various diversions, fencing, single-stick ... riding, cricket, sailing + on the lake." They dined at eight, and after the cloth was removed handed + round "a human skull filled with Burgundy." After dinner they "buffooned + about the house" in a set of monkish dresses. They went to bed some time + between one and three in the morning. Moore thinks that the picture of + these festivities is "pregnant in character," and argues that there were + limits to the misbehaviour of the "wassailers." The story, as told in + <i>Childe Harold</i> (c. I. s. v.-ix.), need not be taken too seriously. + Byron was angry because Lord De La Warr did not wish him goodbye, and + visited his displeasure on friends and "lemans" alike. May and June were + devoted to the preparation of an enlarged edition of his satire. At + length, accompanied by Hobhouse and a small staff of retainers, he set + out on his travels. He sailed from Falmouth on the 2nd of July and + reached Lisbon on the 7th of July 1809. The first two cantos of <i>Childe + Harold's Pilgrimage</i> contain a record of the principal events of his + first year of absence.</p> + + <p>The first canto describes Lisbon, Cintra, the ride through Portugal + and Spain to Seville and thence to Cadiz. He is moved by the grandeur of + the scenery, but laments the helplessness of the people and their + impending fate. Talavera was fought and won whilst he was in Spain, but + he is convinced that the "Scourge of the World" will prevail, and that + Britain, "the fond ally," will display her blundering heroism in vain. + Being against the government, he is against the war. History has + falsified his politics, but his descriptions of places and scenes, of + "Morena's dusky height," of Cadiz and the bull-fight, retain their + freshness and their warmth.</p> + + <p>Byron sailed from Gibraltar on the 16th of August, and spent a month + at Malta making love to Mrs Spencer Smith (the "Fair Florence" of c. II. + s. xxix.-xxxiii.). He anchored off Prevesa on the 28th of September. The + second canto records a journey on horseback through Albania, then almost + a <i>terra incognita</i>, as far as Tepeleni, where he was entertained by + Ali Pacha (October 20th), a yachting tour along the shores of the + Ambracian Gulf (November 8-23), a journey by land from Larnaki to Athens + (December 15-25), and excursions in Attica, Sunium and Marathon (January + 13-25, 1810).</p> + + <p>Of the tour in Asia Minor, a visit to Ephesus (March 15, 1810), an + excursion in the Troad (April 13), and the famous swim across the + Hellespont (May 3), the record is to be sought elsewhere. The stanzas on + Constantinople (lxxvii.-lxxxii.), where Byron and Hobhouse stayed for two + months, though written at the time and on the spot, were not included in + the poem till 1814. They are, probably, part of a projected third canto. + On the 14th of July Hobhouse set sail for England and Byron returned to + Athens.</p> + + <p>Of Byron's second year of residence in the East little is known beyond + the bare facts that he was travelling in the Morea during August and + September, that early in October he was at Patras, having just recovered + from a severe attack of malarial fever, and that by the 14th of November + he had returned to Athens and taken up his quarters at the Franciscan + convent. Of his movements during the next five months there is no record, + but of his studies and pursuits there is substantial evidence. He learnt + Romaic, he compiled the notes to the second canto of <i>Childe + Harold</i>. He wrote (March 12) <i>Hints from Horace</i> (published + 1831), an imitation or loose translation of the <i>Epistola ad + Pisones</i> (Art of Poetry), and (March 17) <i>The Curse of Minerva</i> + (published 1815), a skit on Lord Elgin's deportation of the metopes and + frieze of the Parthenon.</p> + + <p>He left Athens in April, passed some weeks at Malta, and landed at + Portsmouth (<i>c.</i> July 20). Arrived in London his first step was to + consult his literary adviser, R.C. Dallas, with regard to the publication + of <i>Hints from Horace</i>. Of <i>Childe Harold</i> he said nothing, but + after some hesitation produced the MS. from a "small trunk," and, + presenting him with the copyright, commissioned Dallas to offer it to a + publisher. Rejected by Miller of Albemarle Street, who published for Lord + Elgin, it was finally accepted by Murray of Fleet Street, who undertook + to share the profits of an edition with Dallas.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile Mrs Byron died suddenly from a stroke of apoplexy. Byron set + off at once for Newstead, but did not find his mother alive. He had but + little affection for her while she lived, but her death touched him to + the quick. "I had but one friend," he exclaimed, "and she is gone." + Another loss awaited him. Whilst his mother lay dead in his house, he + heard that his friend Matthews had been drowned in the Cam. Edleston and + Wingfield had died in May, but the news had reached him on landing. There + were troubles on every side. On the 11th of October he wrote the "Epistle + to a Friend" ("Oh, banish care," &c.) and the lines "To Thyrza," + which, with other elegies, were appended to the second edition of + <i>Childe Harold</i> (April 17, 1812). It was this cry of desolation, + this open profession of melancholy, which at first excited the interest + of contemporaries, and has since been decried as morbid and unreal. No + one who has read his letters can doubt the sincerity of his grief, but it + is no less true that he measured and appraised its literary significance. + He could and did turn it to account.</p> + + <p>Towards the close of the year he made friends with Moore. Some lines + in <i>English Bards</i>, &c. (ii. 466-467), taunting Moore with + fighting a duel with Jeffrey with "leadless pistol" had led to a + challenge, and it was not till Byron returned to England that + explanations ensued, and that the challenge was withdrawn. As a poet + Byron outgrew Moore, giving back more than he had received, but the + friendship which sprang up between them still serves Byron in good stead. + Moore's <i>Life of Byron</i> (1830) is no doubt a picture of the man at + his best, but it is a genuine likeness. At the end of October Byron moved + to London and took up his quarters at 8 St James's Street. On the 27th of + February 1812 he made his first speech in the House of Lords on a bill + which made the wilful destruction of certain newly invented + stocking-frames a capital offence, speaking in defence of the riotous + "hands" who feared that their numbers would be diminished by improved + machinery. It was a brilliant speech and won the praise of Burdett and + Lord Holland. He made two other speeches during the same session, but + thenceforth pride or laziness kept him silent. <i>Childe Harold</i> (4to) + was published on Tuesday, the 10th of March 1812. "The effect," says + Moore, "was ... electric, his fame ... seemed to spring, like the palace + of a fairy king, in a night." A fifth edition (8vo) was issued on the 5th + of December 1812. Just turned twenty-four he "found himself famous," a + great poet, a rising statesman. Society, which in spite of his rank had + neglected him, was now at his feet. But he could not keep what he had + won. It was not only "villainous company," as he put it, which was to + prove his "spoil," but the opportunity for intrigue. The excitement and + absorption of one reigning passion after another destroyed his peace of + mind and put him out of conceit with himself. His first affair of any + moment was with Lady Caroline Lamb the wife of William Lamb, better known + as Lord Melbourne, a delicate, golden-haired sprite, who threw herself in + his way, and afterwards, when she was shaken off, involved him in her own + disgrace. To her succeeded Lady Oxford, who was double his own age, and + Lady Frances Wedderburn Webster, the "Ginevra" of his sonnets, the + "Medora" of <i>The Corsair</i>.</p> + + <p>His "way of life" was inconsistent with an official career, but there + was no slackening of his poetical energies. In February 1813 he published + <i>The Waltz</i> (anonymously), he wrote and <!-- Page 900 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page900"></a>[v.04 p.0900]</span>published + <i>The Giaour</i> (published June 5, 1813) and <i>The Bride of Abydos</i> + (published November 29, 1813), and he wrote <i>The Corsair</i> (published + February 1, 1814). The <i>Turkish Tales</i> were even more popular than + <i>Childe Harold</i>. Murray sold 10,000 copies of <i>The Corsair</i> on + the day of publication. Byron was at pains to make his accessories + correct. He prided himself on the accuracy of his "costume." He was under + no delusion as to the ethical or artistic value of these experiments on + "public patience."</p> + + <p>In the summer of 1813 a new and potent influence came into his life. + Mrs Leigh, whose home was at Newmarket, came up to London on a visit. + After a long interval the brother and sister met, and whether there is or + is not any foundation for the dark story obscurely hinted at in Byron's + lifetime, and afterwards made public property by Mrs Beecher Stowe + (<i>Macmillan's Magazine</i>, 1869, pp. 377-396), there is no question as + to the depth and sincerity of his love for his "one relative,"—that + her well-being was more to him than his own. Byron passed the "seasons" + of 1813, 1814 in London. His manner of life we know from his journals. + Socially he was on the crest of the wave. He was a welcome guest at the + great Whig houses, at Lady Melbourne's, at Lady Jersey's, at Holland + House. Sheridan and Moore, Rogers and Campbell, were his intimates and + companions. He was a member of the Alfred, of Watier's, of the Cocoa + Tree, and half a dozen clubs besides. After the publication of <i>The + Corsair</i> he had promised an interval of silence, but the abdication of + Napoleon evoked "An Ode," &c., in his dishonour (April 16); <i>Lara, + a Tale</i>, an informal sequel to <i>The Corsair</i>, was published + anonymously on August 6, 1814.</p> + + <p>Newstead had been put up for sale, but pending the completion of the + contract was still in his possession. During his last visit but one, + whilst his sister was his guest, he became engaged to Miss Anna Isabella + Milbanke (b. May 17, 1792; d. May 16, 1860), the only daughter of Sir + Ralph Milbanke, Bart., and the Hon. Judith (born Noel), daughter of Lord + Wentworth. She was an heiress, and in succession to a peerage in her own + right (becoming Baroness Wentworth in 1856). She was a pretty girl of "a + perfect figure," highly educated, a mathematician, and, by courtesy, a + poetess. She had rejected Byron's first offer, but, believing that her + cruelty had broken his heart and that he was an altered man, she was now + determined on marriage. High-principled, but self-willed and opinionated, + she believed that she held her future in her own hands. On her side there + was ambition touched with fancy—on his, a wish to be married and + some hope perhaps of finding an escape from himself. The marriage took + place at Seaham in Durham on the 2nd of January 1815. Bride and + bridegroom spent three months in paying visits, and at the end of March + settled at 13 Piccadilly Terrace, London.</p> + + <p>Byron was a member of the committee of management of Drury Lane + theatre, and devoted much of his time to his professional duties. He + wrote but little poetry. <i>Hebrew Melodies</i> (published April 1815), + begun at Seaham in October 1814, were finished and given to the musical + composer, Isaac Nathan, for publication. <i>The Siege of Corinth</i> and + <i>Parisina</i> (published February 7, 1816) were got ready for the + press. On the 10th of December Lady Byron gave birth to a daughter + christened Augusta Ada. To judge from his letters, for the first weeks or + months of his marriage things went smoothly. His wife's impression was + that Byron "had avowedly begun his revenge from the first." It is certain + that before the child was born his conduct was so harsh, so violent, and + so eccentric, that she believed, or tried to persuade herself, that he + was mad.</p> + + <p>On the 15th of January 1816 Lady Byron left London for her father's + house, claimed his protection, and after some hesitation and consultation + with her legal advisers demanded a separation from her husband. It is a + matter of common knowledge that in 1869 Mrs Beecher Stowe affirmed that + Lady Byron expressly told her that Byron was guilty of incest with his + half-sister, Mrs Leigh; also that in 1905 the second Lord Lovelace (Lord + Byron's grandson) printed a work entitled <i>Astarte</i> which was + designed to uphold and to prove the truth of this charge. It is a fact + that neither Lady Byron nor her advisers supported their demand by this + or any other charge of misconduct, but it is also a fact that Lord Byron + yielded to the demand reluctantly, under pressure and for large pecuniary + considerations. It is a fact that Lady Byron's letters to Mrs Leigh + before and after the separation are inconsistent with a knowledge or + suspicion of guilt on the part of her sister-in-law, but it is also a + fact (see <i>Astarte</i>, pp. 142-145) that she signed a document (dated + March 14, 1816) to the effect that any renewal of intercourse did not + involve and must not be construed as a withdrawal of the charge. It + cannot be doubted that Lady Byron's conviction that her husband's + relations with his half-sister before his marriage had been of an immoral + character was a factor in her demand for a separation, but whether there + were other and what issues, and whether Lady Byron's conviction was + founded on fact, are questions which have not been finally answered. Lady + Byron's charge, as reported by Mrs Beecher Stowe and upheld by the 2nd + earl of Lovelace, is "non-proven." Mr Robert Edgcome, in <i>Byron: the + Last Phase</i> (1909), insists that Mary Chaworth was the real object of + Byron's passion, and that Mrs Leigh was only shielding her.</p> + + <p>The separation of Lord and Lady Byron was the talk of the town. Two + poems entitled "Fare Thee Well" and "A Sketch," which Byron had written + and printed for private circulation, were published by <i>The + Champion</i> on Sunday, April 14. The other London papers one by one + followed suit. The poems, more especially "A Sketch," were provocative of + criticism. There was a balance of opinion, but politics turned the scale. + Byron had recently published some pro-Gallican stanzas, "On the 'Star of + the Legion of Honour,'" in the <i>Examiner</i> (April 7), and it was felt + by many that private dishonour was the outcome of public disloyalty. The + Whigs defended Byron as best they could, but his own world, with one or + two exceptions, ostracized him. The "excommunicating voice of society," + as Moore put it, was loud and insistent. The articles of separation were + signed on or about the 18th of April, and on Sunday, the 25th of April, + Byron sailed from Dover for Ostend. The "Lines on Churchill's Grave" were + written whilst he was waiting for a favourable wind. His route lay + through the Low Countries, and by the Rhine to Switzerland. On his way he + halted at Brussels and visited the field of Waterloo. He reached Geneva + on the 25th of May, where he met by appointment at Dejean's Hôtel + d'Angleterre, Shelley, Mary Godwin and Clare (or "Claire") Clairmont. The + meeting was probably at the instance of Claire, who had recently become, + and aspired to remain, Byron's mistress. On the 10th of June Byron moved + to the Villa Diodati on the southern shore of the lake. Shelley and his + party had already settled at an adjoining villa, the Campagne Montalègre. + The friends were constantly together. On the 23rd of June Byron and + Shelley started for a yachting tour round the lake. They visited the + castle of Chillon on the 26th of June, and, being detained by weather at + the Hôtel de l'Ancre, Ouchy, Byron finished (June 27-29) the third canto + of <i>Childe Harold</i> (published November 18), and began the + <i>Prisoner of Chillon</i> (published December 5, 1816). These and other + poems of July-September 1816, <i>e.g.</i> "The Dream" and the first two + acts of <i>Manfred</i> (published June 16, 1817), betray the influence of + Shelley, and through him of Wordsworth, both in thought and style. Byron + knew that Wordsworth had power, but was against his theories, and + resented his criticism of Pope and Dryden. Shelley was a believer and a + disciple, and converted Byron to the Wordsworthian creed. Moreover he was + an inspiration in himself. Intimacy with Shelley left Byron a greater + poet than he was before. Byron passed the summer at the Villa Diodati, + where he also wrote the <i>Monody on the Death of Sheridan</i>, published + September 9, 1816. The second half of September was spent and devoted to + "an excursion in the mountains." His journal (September 18-29), which was + written for and sent to Mrs Leigh, is a great prose poem, the source of + the word pictures of Alpine scenery in <i>Manfred</i>. His old friend + Hobhouse was with him and he enjoyed himself, but at the close he + confesses that he could not lose his "own wretched identity" in the + "majesty and the power and the glory" of nature. Remorse was scotched, + not <!-- Page 901 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page901"></a>[v.04 + p.0901]</span>killed. On the 6th of October Byron and Hobhouse started + via Milan and Verona for Venice, which was reached early in November. For + the next three years Byron lived in or near Venice—at first, + 1816-1817, in apartments in the Frezzeria, and after January 1818 in the + central block of the Mocenigo palace. Venice appealed both to his higher + and his lower nature. He set himself to study her history, to understand + her constitution, to learn her language. The sights and scenes with which + Shakespeare and Otway, Schiller's <i>Ghostseer</i>, and Madame de Staël's + <i>Corinne</i> had made him familiar, were before his eyes, not dreams + but realities. He would "repeople" her with her own past, and "stamp her + image" on the creations of his pen. But he had no one to live for but + himself, and that self he gave over to a reprobate mind. He planned and + pursued a life of deliberate profligacy. Of two of his amours we learn + enough or too much from his letters to Murray and to Moore—the + first with his landlord's wife, Marianna Segati, the second with + Margarita Cogni (the "Fornarina"), a Venetian of the lower class, who + amused him with her savagery and her wit. But, if Shelley may be trusted, + there was a limit to his candour. There is abundant humour, but there is + an economy of detail in his pornographic chronicle. He could not touch + pitch without being defiled. But to do him justice he was never idle. He + kept his brains at work, and for this reason, perhaps, he seems for a + time to have recovered his spirits and sinned with a good courage. His + song of carnival, "So we'll go no more a-roving," is a hymn of triumph. + About the middle of April he set out for Rome. His first halt was at + Ferrara, which inspired the "Lament of Tasso" (published July 17, 1817). + He passed through Florence, where he saw "<i>the</i> Venus" (of Medici) + in the Uffizi Gallery, by reedy Thrasymene and Term's "matchless + cataract" to "Rome the Wonderful." At Rome, with Hobhouse as companion + and guide, he stayed three weeks. He returned to Venice on the 28th of + May, but shortly removed to a villa at Mira on the Brenta, some 7 m. + inland. A month later (June 26) when memory had selected and reduced to + order the first impressions of his tour, he began to work them up into a + fourth canto of <i>Childe Harold</i>. A first draft of 126 stanzas was + finished by the 29th of July; the 60 additional stanzas which made up the + canto as it stands were written up to material suggested by or supplied + by Hobhouse, "who put his researches" at Byron's disposal and wrote the + learned and elaborate notes which are appended to the poem. Among the + books which Murray sent out to Venice was a copy of Hookham Frere's + <i>Whistlecraft</i>. Byron took the hint and produced <i>Beppo, a + Venetian Story</i> (published anonymously on the 28th of February 1818). + He attributes his choice of the mock heroic <i>ottava-rima</i> to Frere's + example, but he was certainly familiar with Casti's <i>Novelle</i>, and, + according to Stendhal, with the poetry of Buratti. The success of + <i>Beppo</i> and a growing sense that "the excellent manner of + <i>Whistlecraft</i>" was the manner for him, led him to study Frere's + masters and models, Berni and Pulci. An accident had led to a great + discovery.</p> + + <p>The fourth canto of <i>Childe Harold</i> was published on the 28th of + April 1818. Nearly three months went by before Murray wrote to him, and + he began to think that his new poem was a failure. Meanwhile he completed + an "Ode on Venice," in which he laments her apathy and decay, and + contrasts the tyranny of the Old World with the new birth of freedom in + America. In September he began <i>Don Juan</i>. His own account of the + inception of his last and greatest work is characteristic but misleading. + He says (September 9) that his new poem is to be in the style of + <i>Beppo</i>, and is "meant to be a little quietly facetious about + everything." A year later (August 12, 1819), he says that he neither has + nor had a <i>plan</i>—but that "he had or has <i>materials</i>." By + materials he means books, such as Dalzell's <i>Shipwrecks and Disasters + by Sea</i>, or de Castelnau's <i>Histoire de la nouvelle Russie</i>, + &c., which might be regarded as poetry in the rough. The dedication + to Robert Southey (not published till 1833) is a prologue to the play. + The "Lakers" had given samples of their poetry, their politics and their + morals, and now it was his turn to speak and to speak out. He too would + write "An Excursion." He doubted that <i>Don Juan</i> might be "too free + for these modest days." It <i>was</i> too free for the public, for his + publisher, even for his mistress; and the "building up of the drama," as + Shelley puts it, was a slow and gradual process. Cantos I., II. were + published (4to) on the 15th of July 1819; Cantos III., IV., V., finished + in November 1820, were not published till the 8th of August 1821. Cantos + VI.-XVI., written between June 1822 and March 1823, were published at + intervals between the 15th of July 1823 and the 26th of March 1824. Canto + XVII. was begun in May 1823, but was never finished. A fragment of + fourteen stanzas, found in his room at Missolonghi, was first published + in 1903.</p> + + <p>He did not put all his materials into <i>Don Juan</i>. "Mazeppa, a + tale of the Russian Ukraine," based on a passage in Voltaire's <i>Charles + XII.</i>, was finished by the 30th of September 1818 and published with + "An Ode" (on Venice) on the 28th of June 1819. In the spring of 1819 + Byron met in Venice, and formed a connexion with, an Italian lady of + rank, Teresa (born Gamba), wife of the Cavaliere Guiccioli. She was young + and beautiful, well-read and accomplished. Married at sixteen to a man + nearly four times her age, she fell in love with Byron at first sight, + soon became and for nearly four years remained his mistress. A good and + true wife to him in all but name, she won from Byron ample devotion and a + prolonged constancy. Her volume of <i>Recollections</i> (<i>Lord Byron + jugé par les témoins de sa vie</i>, 1869), taken for what it is worth, is + testimony in Byron's favour. The countess left Venice for Ravenna at the + end of April; within a month she sent for Byron, and on the 10th of June + he arrived at Ravenna and took rooms in the Strada di Porto Sisi. The + house (now No. 295) is close to Dante's tomb, and to gratify the countess + and pass the time he wrote the "Prophecy of Dante" (published April 21, + 1821). According to the preface the poem was a metrical experiment, an + exercise in <i>terza rima</i>; but it had a deeper significance. It was + "intended for the Italians." Its purport was revolutionary. In the fourth + canto of <i>Childe Harold</i>, already translated into Italian, he had + attacked the powers, and "Albion most of all" for her betrayal of Venice, + and knowing that his word had weight he appeals to the country of his + adoption to strike a blow for freedom—to "unite." It is difficult + to realize the force or extent of Byron's influence on continental + opinion. His own countrymen admired his poetry, but abhorred and laughed + at his politics. Abroad he was the prophet and champion of liberty. His + hatred of tyranny—his defence of the oppressed—was a word + spoken in season when there were few to speak but many to listen. It + brought consolation and encouragement, and it was not spoken in vain. It + must, however, be borne in mind that Byron was more of a king-hater than + a people-lover. He was against the oppressors, but he disliked and + despised the oppressed. He was aristocrat by conviction as well as birth, + and if he espoused a popular cause it was <i>de haut en bas</i>. His + connexion with the Gambas brought him into touch with the revolutionary + movement, and thenceforth he was under the espionage of the Austrian + embassy at Rome. He was suspected and "shadowed," but he was left + alone.</p> + + <p>Early in September Byron returned to La Mira, bringing the countess + with him. A month later he was surprised by a visit from Moore, who was + on his way to Rome. Byron installed Moore in the Mocenigo palace and + visited him daily. Before the final parting (October 11) Byron placed in + Moore's hands the MS. of his <i>Life and Adventures</i> brought down to + the close of 1816. Moore, as Byron suggested, pledged the MS. to Murray + for 2000 guineas, to be Moore's property if redeemed in Byron's lifetime, + but if not, to be forfeit to Murray at Byron's death. On the 17th of May + 1824, with Murray's assent and goodwill, the MS. was burned in the + drawing-room of 50 Albemarle Street. Neither Murray nor Moore lost their + money. The Longmans lent Moore a sufficient sum to repay Murray, and were + themselves repaid out of the receipts of Moore's <i>Life of Byron</i>. + Byron told Moore that the memoranda were not "confessions," that they + were "the truth but not the whole truth." This, no doubt, was the truth, + and the whole truth. Whatever they may or may <!-- Page 902 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page902"></a>[v.04 p.0902]</span>not have + contained, they did not explain the cause or causes of the separation + from his wife.<a name="FnAnchor_121" + href="#Footnote_121"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + + <p>At the close of 1819 Byron finally left Venice and settled at Ravenna + in his own apartments in the Palazzo Guiccioli. His relations with the + countess were put on a regular footing, and he was received in society as + her <i>cavaliere servente</i>. At Ravenna his literary activity was + greater than ever. His translation of the first canto of Pulci's + <i>Morgante Maggiore</i> (published in the <i>Liberal</i>, No. IV., July + 30, 1832), a laborious and scholarly achievement, was the work of the + first two months of the year. From April to July he was at work on the + composition of <i>Marino Faliero, Doge of Venice</i>, a tragedy in five + acts (published April 21, 1821). The plot turns on an episode in Venetian + history known as <i>La Congiura</i>, the alliance between the doge and + the populace to overthrow the state. Byron spared no pains in preparing + his materials. In so far as he is unhistorical, he errs in company with + Sanudo and early Venetian chronicles. Moved by the example of Alfieri he + strove to reform the British drama by "a severer approach to the rules." + He would read his countrymen a "moral lesson" on the dramatic propriety + of observing the three unities. It was an heroic attempt to reassert + classical ideals in a romantic age, but it was "a week too late"; Byron's + "regular dramas" are admirably conceived and finely worded, but they are + cold and lifeless.</p> + + <p>Eighteen additional sheets of the <i>Memoirs</i> and a fifth canto of + <i>Don Juan</i> were the pastime of the autumn, and in January 1821 Byron + began to work on his second "historical drama," <i>Sardanapalus</i>. But + politics intervened, and little progress was made. He had been elected + <i>capo</i> of the "<i>Americani</i>," a branch of the Carbonari, and his + time was taken up with buying and storing arms and ammunition, and + consultations with leading conspirators. "The poetry of politics" and + poetry on paper did not go together. Meanwhile he would try his hand on + prose. A controversy had arisen between Bowles and Campbell with regard + to the merits of Pope. Byron rushed into the fray. To avenge and exalt + Pope, to decry the "Lakers," and to lay down his own canons of art, Byron + addressed two letters to **** ****** (<i>i.e.</i> John Murray), entitled + "Strictures on the Life and Writings of Pope." The first was published in + 1821, the second in 1835.</p> + + <p>The revolution in Italy came to nothing, and by the 28th of May, Byron + had finished his work on <i>Sardanapalus</i>. The <i>Two Foscari</i>, a + third historical drama, was begun on the 12th of June and finished on the + 9th of July. On the same day he began <i>Cain, a Mystery</i>. <i>Cain</i> + was an attempt to dramatize the Old Testament; Lucifer's apology for + himself and his arraignment of the Creator startled and shocked the + orthodox. Theologically the offence lay in its detachment. <i>Cain</i> + was not irreverent or blasphemous, but it treated accepted dogmas as open + questions. <i>Cain</i> was published in the same volume with the <i>Two + Foscari</i> and <i>Sardanapalus</i>, December 19, 1821. The "Blues," a + skit upon literary coteries and their patronesses, was written in August. + It was first published in <i>The Liberal</i>, No. III., April 26, 1823, + When <i>Cain</i> was finished Byron turned from grave to gay, from + serious to humorous theology. Southey had thought fit to eulogize George + III. in hexameter verse. He called his funeral ode a "Vision of + Judgment." In the preface there was an obvious reference to Byron. The + "Satanic School" of poetry was attributed to "men of diseased hearts and + depraved imaginations." Byron's revenge was complete. In his "Vision of + Judgment" (published in <i>The Liberal</i>, No. I., October 15, 1822) the + tables are turned. The laureate is brought before the hosts of heaven and + rejected by devils and angels alike. In October Byron wrote <i>Heaven and + Earth, a Mystery</i> (<i>The Liberal</i>, No. II., January 1, 1823), a + lyrical drama based on the legend of the "Watchers," or fallen angels of + the Book of Enoch. The countess and her family had been expelled from + Ravenna in July, but Byron still lingered on in his apartments in the + Palazzo Guiccioli. At length (October 28) he set out for Pisa. On the + road he met his old friend, Lord Clare, and spent a few minutes in his + company. Rogers, whom he met at Bologna, was his fellow-traveller as far + as Florence. At Pisa he rejoined the countess, who had taken on his + behalf the Villa Lanfranchi on the Arno. At Ravenna Byron had lived + amongst Italians. At Pisa he was surrounded by a knot of his own + countrymen, friends and acquaintances of the Shelleys. Among them were + E.J. Trelawny, Thomas Medwin, author of the well-known <i>Conversations + of Lord Byron</i> (1824), and Edward Elliker Williams. His first work at + Pisa was to dramatize Miss Lee's <i>Kruitzner, or the German's Tale</i>. + He had written a first act in 1815, but as the MS. was mislaid he made a + fresh adaptation of the story which he rechristened <i>Werner, or the + Inheritance</i>. It was finished on the 20th of January and published on + the 23rd of November 1822. <i>Werner</i> is in parts <i>Kruitzner</i> cut + up into loose blank verse, but it contains lines and passages of great + and original merit. Alone of Byron's plays it took hold of the stage. + Macready's "Werner" was a famous impersonation.</p> + + <p>In the spring of 1822 a heavy and unlooked-for sorrow befell Byron. + Allegra, his natural daughter by Claire Clairmont, died at the convent of + Bagna Cavallo on the 20th of April 1822. She was in her sixth year, an + interesting and attractive child, and he had hoped that her companionship + would have atoned for his enforced separation from Ada. She is buried in + a nameless grave at the entrance of Harrow church. Soon after the death + of Allegra, Byron wrote the last of his eight plays, <i>The Deformed + Transformed</i> (published by John Hunt, February 20, 1824). The + "sources" are Goethe's <i>Faust</i>, <i>The Three Brothers</i>, a novel + by Joshua Pickersgill, and various chronicles of the sack of Rome in + 1527. The theme or <i>motif</i> is the interaction of personality and + individuality. Remonstrances on the part of publisher and critic induced + him to turn journalist. The control of a newspaper or periodical would + enable him to publish what and as he pleased. With this object in view he + entered into a kind of literary partnership with Leigh Hunt, and + undertook to transport him, his wife and six children to Pisa, and to + lodge them in the Villa Lanfranchi. The outcome of this arrangement was + <i>The Liberal—Verse and Prose from the South</i>. Four numbers + were issued between October 1822 and June 1823. <i>The Liberal</i> did + not succeed financially, and the joint menage was a lamentable failure. + <i>Correspondence of Byron and some of his Contemporaries</i> (1828) was + Hunt's revenge for the slights and indignities which he suffered in + Byron's service. Yachting was one of the chief amusements of the English + colony at Pisa. A schooner, the "Bolivar," was built for Byron, and a + smaller boat, the "Don Juan" re-named "Ariel," for Shelley. Hunt arrived + at Pisa on the 1st of July. On the 8th of July Shelley, who had remained + in Pisa on Hunt's account, started for a sail with his friend Williams + and a lad named Vivian. The "Ariel" was wrecked in the Gulf of Spezia and + Shelley and his companions were drowned. On the 16th of August Byron and + Hunt witnessed the "burning of Shelley" on the seashore near Via Reggio. + Byron told Moore that "all of Shelley was consumed but the <i>heart</i>." + Whilst the fire was burning Byron swam out to the "Bolivar" and back to + the shore. The hot sun and the violent exercise brought on one of those + many fevers which weakened his constitution and shortened his life.</p> + + <p>The Austrian government would not allow the Gambas or the countess + Guiccioli to remain in Pisa. As a half measure Byron took a villa for + them at Montenero near Leghorn, but as the authorities were still + dissatisfied they removed to Genoa. Byron and Leigh Hunt left Pisa on the + last day of September. On reaching Genoa Byron took up his quarters with + the Gambas at the Casa Saluzzo, "a fine old palazzo with an extensive + view over the bay," and Hunt and his party at the Casa Negroto with Mrs + Shelley. Life at Genoa was uneventful. Of Hunt and Mrs Shelley he saw as + little as possible, and though his still unpublished poems were at the + service of <i>The Liberal</i>, he did little or nothing to further its + success. Each number was badly received. Byron had some reason to fear + that his popularity <!-- Page 903 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page903"></a>[v.04 p.0903]</span>was on the wane, and though he had + broken with Murray and was offering <i>Don Juan</i> (cantos vi.-xii.) to + John Hunt, the publisher of <i>The Liberal</i>, he meditated a "run down + to Naples" and a recommencement of <i>Childe Harold</i>. There was a + limit to his defiance of the "world's rebuke." Home politics and the + congress of Verona (November-December 1822) suggested a satire entitled + "The Age of Bronze" (published April 1, 1823). It is, as he said, + "stilted," and cries out for notes, but it embodies some of his finest + and most vigorous work as a satirist. By the middle of February (1823) he + had completed <i>The Island; or Christian and his Comrades</i> (published + June 26, 1823). The sources are Bligh's <i>Narrative of the Mutiny of the + Bounty</i>, and Mariner's <i>Account of the Tonga Islands</i>. Satire and + tale are a reversion to his earlier method. The execution of <i>The + Island</i> is hurried and unequal, but there is a deep and tender note in + the love-story and the recital of the "feasts and loves and wars" of the + islanders. The poetic faculty has been "softened into feeling" by the + experience of life.</p> + + <p>When <i>The Island</i> was finished, Byron went on with <i>Don + Juan</i>. Early in March the news reached him that he had been elected a + member of the Greek Committee, a small body of influential Liberals who + had taken up the cause of the liberation of Greece. Byron at once offered + money and advice, and after some hesitation on the score of health, + determined "to go to Greece." His first step was to sell the "Bolivar" to + Lord Blessington, and to purchase the "Hercules," a collier-built tub of + 120 tons. On the 23rd of July the "Hercules" sailed from Leghorn and + anchored off Cephalonia on the 3rd of August. The party on board + consisted of Byron, Pietro Gamba, Trelawny, Hamilton Browne and six or + seven servants. The next four months were spent at Cephalonia, at first + on board the "Hercules," in the harbour of Argostoli and afterwards at + Metaxata. The object of this delay was to ascertain the real state of + affairs in Greece. The revolutionary Greeks were split up into parties, + not to say factions, and there were several leaders. It was a question to + which leader he would attach himself. At length a message reached him + which inspired him with confidence. He received a summons from Prince + Alexander Mavrocordato, a man of birth and education, urging him to come + at once to Missolonghi, and enclosing a request from the legislative body + "to co-operate with Mavrocordato in the organization of western Greece." + Byron felt that he could act with a "clear conscience" in putting himself + at the disposal of a man whom he regarded as the authorized leader and + champion of the Greeks. He sailed from Argostoli on the 29th of December + 1823, and after an adventurous voyage landed at Missolonghi on the 5th of + January 1824. He met with a royal reception. Byron may have sought, but + he did not find, "a soldier's grave." During his three months' residence + at Missolonghi he accomplished little and he endured much. He advanced + large sums of money for the payment of the troops, for repair and + construction of fortifications, for the provision of medical appliances. + He brought opposing parties into line, and served as a link between + Odysseus, the democratic leader of the insurgents, and the "prince" + Mavrocordato. He was eager to take the field, but he never got the + chance. A revolt in the Morea, and the repeated disaffection of his + Suliote guard prevented him from undertaking the capture of Epacto, an + exploit which he had reserved for his own leadership. He was beset with + difficulties, but at length events began to move. On the 18th of March he + received an invitation from Odysseus and other chiefs to attend a + conference at Salona, and by the same messenger an offer from the + government to appoint him "governor-general of the enfranchised parts of + Greece." He promised to attend the conference but did not pledge himself + to the immediate acceptance of office. But to Salona he never came. + "Roads and rivers were impassable," and the conference was inevitably + postponed.</p> + + <p>His health had given way, but he does not seem to have realized that + his life was in danger. On the 15th of February he was struck down by an + epileptic fit, which left him speechless though not motionless. He + recovered sufficiently to conduct his business as usual, and to drill the + troops. But he suffered from dizziness in the head and spasms in the + chest, and a few days later he was seized with a second though slighter + convulsion. These attacks may have hastened but they did not cause his + death. For the first week of April the weather confined him to the house, + but on the 9th a letter from his sister raised his spirits and tempted + him to ride out with Gamba. It came on to rain, and though he was + drenched to the skin he insisted on dismounting and returning in an open + boat to the quay in front of his house. Two hours later he was seized + with ague and violent rheumatic pains. On the 11th he rode out once more + through the olive groves, attended by his escort of Suliote guards, but + for the last time. Whether he had got his deathblow, or whether copious + blood-letting made recovery impossible, he gradually grew worse, and on + the ninth day of his illness fell into a comatose sleep. It was reported + that in his delirium he had called out, half in English, half in Italian, + "Forward—forward—courage! follow my example—don't be + afraid!" and that he tried to send a last message to his sister and to + his wife. He died at six o'clock in the evening of the 19th of April + 1824, aged thirty-six years and three months. The Greeks were + heartbroken. Mavrocordato gave orders that thirty-seven minute-guns + should be fired at daylight and decreed a general mourning of twenty-one + days. His body was embalmed and lay in state. On the 25th of May his + remains, all but the heart, which is buried at Missolonghi, were sent + back to England, and were finally laid beneath the chancel of the village + church of Hucknall-Torkard on the 16th of July 1824. The authorities + would not sanction burial in Westminster Abbey, and there is neither bust + nor statue of Lord Byron in Poets' Corner.</p> + + <p>The title passed to his first cousin as 7th baron, from whom the + subsequent barons were descended. The poet's daughter Ada (d. 1852) + predeceased her mother, but the barony of Wentworth went to her heirs. + She was the first wife of Baron King, who in 1838 was created 1st earl of + Lovelace, and had two sons (of whom the younger, b. 1839, d. 1906, was + 2nd earl of Lovelace) and a daughter, Lady Anne, who married Wilfrid S. + Blunt (<i>q.v.</i>). On the death of the 2nd earl the barony of Wentworth + went to his daughter and only child, and the earldom of Lovelace to his + half-brother by the 1st earl's second wife.</p> + + <p>Great men are seldom misjudged. The world passes sentence on them, and + there is no appeal. Byron's contemporaries judged him by the tone and + temper of his works, by his own confessions or self-revelations in prose + and verse, by the facts of his life as reported in the newspapers, by the + talk of the town. His letters, his journals, the testimony of a dozen + memorialists are at the disposal of the modern biographer. Moore thinks + that Byron's character was obliterated by his versatility, his mobility, + that he was carried away by his imagination, and became the thing he + wished to be, or conceived himself as becoming. But his nature was not + chameleon-like. Self-will was the very pulse of the machine. Pride ruled + his years. All through his life, as child and youth and man, his one aim + and endeavour was the subjection of other people's wishes to, his own. He + would subject even fate if he could. He has two main objects in view, + <i>glory</i>, in the French rather than the English use of the word, and + passion. It is hard to say which was the strongest or the dearest, but, + on the whole, within his "little life" passion prevailed. Other + inclinations he could master. Poetry was often but not always an + exaltation and a relief. He could fulfil his tasks in "hours of gloom." + If he had not been a great poet he would have gained credit as a + painstaking and laborious man of letters. His habitual temperance was the + outcome of a stern resolve. He had no scruples, but he kept his body in + subjection as a means to an end. In his youth Byron was a cautious + spendthrift. Even when he was "cursedly dipped" he knew what he was + about; and afterwards, when his income was sufficient for his + requirements, he kept a hold on his purse. He loved display, and as he + admitted, spent money on women, but he checked his accounts and made both + ends meet. On the other hand, the "gift of continency" he did not + possess, or trouble himself to acquire. He was, to use his own phrase, + "passionate of body," and his desires were stronger than his will. There + are points of Byron's character with regard to which opinion is divided. + Candid he certainly was to the verge of brutality, but was he sincere? + Was <!-- Page 904 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page904"></a>[v.04 + p.0904]</span>he as melancholy as his poetry implies? Did he pose as + pessimist or misanthropist, or did he speak out of the bitterness of his + soul? It stands to reason that Byron knew that his sorrow and his despair + would excite public interest, and that he was not ashamed to exhibit "the + pageant of a bleeding heart." But it does not follow that he was a + hypocrite. His quarrel with mankind, his anger against fate, were + perfectly genuine. His outcry is, in fact, the anguish of a baffled will. + Byron was too self-conscious, too much interested in himself, to take any + pleasures in imaginary woes, or to credit himself with imaginary + vices.</p> + + <p>Whether he told the whole truth is another matter. He was naturally a + truthful man and his friends lived in dread of unguarded disclosures, but + his communications were not so free as they seemed. There was a string to + the end of the kite. Byron was kindly and generous by nature. He took + pleasure in helping necessitous authors, men and women, not at all <i>en + grand seigneur</i>, or without counting the cost, but because he knew + what poverty meant, and a fellow-feeling made him kind. Even in Venice he + set aside a fixed sum for charitable purposes. It was to his credit that + neither libertinism nor disgrace nor remorse withered at its root this + herb of grace. Cynical speeches with regard to friends and friendship, + often quoted to his disadvantage, need not be taken too literally. Byron + talked for effect, and in accordance with the whim of the moment. His + acts do not correspond with his words. Byron rejected and repudiated bath + Protestant and Catholic orthodoxy, but like the Athenians he was + "exceedingly religious." He could not, he did not wish to, detach himself + from a belief in an Invisible Power. "A fearful looking for of judgment" + haunted him to the last.</p> + + <p>There is an increasing tendency on the part of modern critics to cast + a doubt on Byron's sanity. It is true that he inherited bad blood on both + sides of his family, that he was of a neurotic temperament, that at one + time he maddened himself with drink, but there is no evidence that his + brain was actually diseased. Speaking figuratively, he may have been + "half mad," but, if so, it was a derangement of the will, not of the + mind. He was responsible for his actions, and they rise up in judgment + against him. He put indulgence before duty. He made a byword of his + marriage and brought lifelong sorrow on his wife. If, as Goethe said, he + was "the greatest talent" of the 19th century, he associated that talent + with scandal and reproach. But he was born with certain noble qualities + which did not fail him at his worst. He was courageous, he was kind, and + he loved truth rather than lies. He was a worker and a fighter. He hated + tyranny, and was prepared to sacrifice money and ease and life in the + cause of popular freedom. If the issue of his call to arms was greater + and other than he designed or foresaw, it was a generous instinct which + impelled him to begin the struggle.</p> + + <p>With regard to the criticism of his works, Byron's personality has + always confused the issue. Politics, religion, morality, have confused, + and still confuse, the issue. The question for the modern critic is, of + what permanent value is Byron's poetry? What did he achieve for art, for + the intellect, for the spirit, and in what degree does he still give + pleasure to readers of average intelligence? It cannot be denied that he + stands out from other poets of his century as a great creative artist, + that his canvas is crowded with new and original images, additions to + already <span class="correction" title="'exsiting' in original" + >existing</span> types of poetic workmanship. It has been said that Byron + could only represent himself under various disguises, that Childe Harold + and The Corsair, Lara and Manfred and Don Juan, are variants of a single + personality, the egotist who is at war with his fellows, the generous but + nefarious sentimentalist who sins and suffers and yet is to be pitied for + his suffering. None the less, with whatever limitations as artist or + moralist, he invented characters and types of characters real enough and + distinct enough to leave their mark on society as well as on literature. + These masks or replicas of his own personality were formative of thought, + and were powerful agents in the evolution of sentiment and opinion. In + language which was intelligible and persuasive, under shapes and forms + which were suggestive and inspiring, Byron delivered a message of + liberation. There was a double motive at work in his energies as a poet. + He wrote, as he said, because "his mind was full" of his own loves, his + own griefs, but also to register a protest against some external tyranny + of law or faith or custom. His own countrymen owe Byron another debt. His + poems were a liberal education in the manners and customs of "the + gorgeous East," in the scenery, the art, the history and politics of + Italy and Greece. He widened the horizon of his contemporaries, bringing + within their ken wonders and beauties hitherto unknown or unfamiliar, and + in so doing he heightened and cultivated, he "touched with emotion," the + unlettered and unimaginative many, that "reading public" which despised + or eluded the refinements and subtleties of less popular writers.</p> + + <p>To the student of literature the first half of the 19th century is the + age of Byron. He has failed to retain his influence over English readers. + The knowledge, the culture of which he was the immediate channel, were + speedily available through other sources. The politics of the Revolution + neither interested nor affected the Liberalism or Radicalism of the + middle classes. It was not only the loftier and wholesomer poetry of + Wordsworth and of Tennyson which averted enthusiasm from Byron, not only + moral earnestness and religious revival but the optimism and the + materialism of commercial prosperity. As time went on, a severer and more + intelligent criticism was brought to bear on his handiwork as a poet. It + was pointed out that his constructions were loose and ambiguous, that his + grammar was faulty, that his rhythm was inharmonious, and it was argued + that these defects and blemishes were outward and visible signs of a lack + of fineness in the man's spiritual texture; that below the sentiment and + behind the rhetoric the thoughts and ideas were mean and commonplace. + There was a suspicion of artifice, a questioning of the passion as + genuine. Poetry came to be regarded more and more as a source of + spiritual comfort, if not a religious exercise, yet, in some sort, a + substitute for religion. There was little or nothing in Byron's poetry + which fulfilled this want. He had no message for seekers after truth. + Matthew Arnold, in his preface to <i>The Poetry of Byron</i>, prophesied + that "when the year 1900 is turned, and our nation comes to recount the + poetic glories in the century which has then just ended, her first names + with her will be those of Byron and Wordsworth."</p> + + <p>That prophecy still waits fulfilment, but without doubt there has been + a reconsideration of Byron's place in literature, and he stands higher + than he did, say, in 1875. His quarrel with orthodoxy neither alarms nor + provokes the modern reader. Cynical or flippant turns of speech, which + distressed and outraged his contemporaries, are taken as they were meant, + for witty or humorous by-play. He is regarded as the herald and champion + <i>revolt</i>. He is praised for his "sincerity and strength," for his + single-mindedness, his directness, his audacity. A dispassionate + criticism recognizes the force and splendour of his rhetoric. The "purple + patches" have stood the wear and tear of time. Byron may have mismanaged + the Spenserian stanza, may have written up to or anticipated the + guide-book, but the spectacle of the bull-fight at Cadiz is "for ever + warm," the "sound of revelry" on the eve of Waterloo still echoes in our + ears, and Marathon and Venice, Greece and Italy, still rise up before us, + "as from the stroke of an enchanter's wand." It was, however, in another + vein that Byron achieved his final triumph. In <i>Don Juan</i> he set + himself to depict life as a whole. The style is often misnamed the + mock-heroic. It might be more accurately described as humorous-realistic. + His "plan was to have no plan" in the sense of synopsis or argument, but + in the person of his hero to "unpack his heart," to avenge himself on his + enemies, personal or political, to suggest an apology for himself and to + disclose a criticism and philosophy of life. As a satirist in the widest + sense of the word, as an analyser of human nature, he comes, at whatever + distance, after and yet next to Shakespeare. It is a test of the + greatness of <i>Don Juan</i> that its reputation has slowly increased and + that, in spite of its supposed immoral tendency, in spite of occasional + grossness and voluptuousness, it has come to be recognized as Byron's + masterpiece. <i>Don Juan</i> will be read for its own sake, for its + beauty, its humour, its faithfulness. It is a "hymn to the earth," but it + is a human sequence to "its own music chaunted."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 905 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page905"></a>[v.04 p.0905]</span></p> + + <p>In his own lifetime Byron stood higher on the continent of Europe than + in England or even in America. His works as they came out were translated + into French, into German, into Italian, into Russian, and the stream of + translation has never ceased to flow. The <i>Bride of Abydos</i> has been + translated into ten, <i>Cain</i> into nine languages. Of <i>Manfred</i> + there is one Bohemian translation, two Danish, two Dutch, two French, + nine German, three Hungarian, three Italian, two Polish, one Romaic, one + Rumanian, four Russian and three Spanish translations. The dictum or + verdict of Goethe that "the English may think of Byron as they please, + but this is certain that they show no poet who is to be compared with + him" was and is the keynote of continental European criticism. A survey + of European literature is a testimony to the universality of his + influence. Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Delavigne, Alfred de Musset, in + France; Börne, Müller and Heine in Germany; the Italian poets Leopardi + and Giusti; Pushkin and Lermontov among the Russians; Michiewicz and + Slowacki among the Poles—more or less, as eulogists or imitators or + disciples—were of the following of Byron. This fact is beyond + dispute, that after the first outburst of popularity he has touched and + swayed other nations rather than his own. The part he played or seemed to + play in revolutionary politics endeared him to those who were struggling + to be free. He stood for freedom of thought and of life. He made himself + the mouthpiece of an impassioned and welcome protest against the + hypocrisy and arrogance of his order and his race. He lived on the + continent and was known to many men in many cities. It has been argued + that foreigners are insensible to his defects as a writer, and that this + may account for an astonishing and perplexing preference. The cause is + rather to be sought in the quality of his art. It was as the creator of + new types, "forms more real than living man," that Byron appealed to the + artistic sense and to the imagination of Latin, Teuton or Slav. That "he + taught us little" of the things of the spirit, that he knew no cure for + the sickness of the soul, were considerations which lay outside the + province of literary criticism. "It is a mark," says Goethe (<i>Aus + meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit</i>, 1876, iii. 125), "of true + poetry, that as a secular gospel it knows how to free us from the earthly + burdens which press upon us, by inward serenity, by outward charm." Now + of this "secular gospel" the redemption from "real woes" by the + exhibition of imaginary glory, and imaginary delights, Byron was both + prophet and evangelist.</p> + + <p>Byron was 5 ft. 8 in. in height, and strongly built; only with + difficulty and varying success did he prevent himself from growing fat. + At five-and-thirty he was extremely thin. He was "very slightly lame," + but he was painfully conscious of his deformity and walked as little and + as seldom as he could. He had a small head covered and fringed with dark + brown or auburn curls. His forehead was high and narrow, of a marble + whiteness. His eyes were of a light grey colour, clear and luminous. His + nose was straight and well-shaped, but "from being a little too thick, it + looked better in profile than in front face." Moore says that it was in + "the mouth and chin that the great beauty as well as expression of his + fine countenance lay." The upper lip was of a Grecian shortness and the + corners descending. His complexion was pale and colourless. Scott speaks + of "his beautiful pale face—like a spirit's good or evil." Charles + Matthews said that "he was the only man to whom he could apply the word + beautiful." Coleridge said that "if you had seen him you could scarce + disbelieve him... his eyes the open portals of the sun—things of + light and for light." He was likened to "the god of the Vatican," the + Apollo Belvidere.</p> + + <p>The best-known portraits are: (1) Byron at the age of seven by Kay of + Edinburgh; (2) a drawing of Lord Byron at Cambridge by Gilchrist (1808); + (3) a portrait in oils by George Sanders (1809); (4) a miniature by + Sanders (1812); (5) a portrait in oils by Richard Westall, R.A. (1813); + (6) a portrait in oils (Byron in Albanian dress) by Thomas Phillips, R.A. + (1813); (7) a portrait in oils by Phillips (1813); (8-9) a sketch for a + miniature, and a miniature by James Holmes (1815); (10) a sketch by + George Henry Harlow (1818); (11) a portrait in oils by Vincenzio + Camuccini (in the Vatican) <i>c.</i> 1822; (12) a portrait in oils by + W.H. West (1822); (13) a sketch by Count D'Orsay (1823). Busts were taken + by Bertel Thorwaldsen (1817) and by Lorenzo Bartolini (1822). The statue + (1829) in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, is by Thorwaldsen + after the bust taken in 1817.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The best editions of Lord + Byron's poetical works are: (1) <i>The Works of Lord Byron with his + Letters and Journals and his Life</i>, by Thomas Moore (17 vols., London, + John Murray, 1832, 1833); (2) <i>The Works of Lord Byron</i> (1 vol., + 1837, reissued, 1838-1892); (3) <i>The Poetical Works of Lord Byron</i> + (6 vols., 1855); (4) <i>The Works of Lord Byron</i>, new, revised and + enlarged edition, <i>Letters and Journals</i>, edited by G.E. Prothero, 6 + vols., <i>Poetry</i>, edited by E.H. Coleridge (7 vols., 1898-1903); (5) + <i>The Poetical Works of Lord Byron</i>, with memoir by E.H. Coleridge (1 + vol., 1905).</p> + + <p>The principal biographies, critical notices, memoirs, &c., + are:—<i>Journey through Albania... with Lord Byron</i>, by J.C. + Hobhouse (1812; reprinted in 2 vols., 1813 and 1855); <i>Memoirs of the + Life and Writings of ... Lord Byron</i> [by Dr John Watkins] (1822); + <i>Letters on the Character and Poetical Genius of Lord Byron</i>, by Sir + E. Brydges, Bart. (1824); <i>Correspondence of Lord Byron with a + Friend</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1824); <i>Recollections of the Life of Lord + Byron</i>, by R.C. Dallas (1824); <i>Journal of the Conversations of Lord + Byron</i>, by Capt. T. Medwin (1824); <i>Last Days of Lord Byron</i>, by + W. Parry (1824); <i>Narrative of a Second Visit to Greece</i>, by E. + Blaquiere (1825); <i>A Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to + Greece</i>, by Count Gamba (1825); <i>The Life, Writings, Opinions and + Times of Lord Byron</i> (3 vols., 1825); <i>The Spirit of the Age</i>, by + W. Hazlitt (1825); <i>Memoir of the Life and Writings of Lord Byron</i>, + by George Clinton (1826); <i>Correspondence of Byron and some of his + Contemporaries</i>, by J.H. Leigh Hunt (2 vols., 1828); <i>Letters and + Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices of his Life</i>, by Thomas Moore (2 + vols., 1830); <i>The Life of Lord Byron</i>, by J. Galt (1830); + <i>Conversations on Religion with Lord Byron</i>, by J. Kennedy (1830); + <i>Conversations of Lord Byron with the Countess of Blessington</i> + (1834); <i>Critical and Historical Essays</i>, by T.B. Macaulay, i. + 311-352 (1843); <i>Lord Byron jugé par les témoins de sa vie</i> (1869), + <i>My Recollections of Lord Byron</i>, by the Countess <i>Guiccioli</i> + (1869); <i>Lady Byron Vindicated, A History of the Byron Controversy</i>, + by H. Beecher Stowe (1870); <i>Lord Byron, a Biography</i>, by Karl Elze + (1872); <i>Kunst und Alterthum</i>, Goethe's <i>Sämmtliche Werke</i> + (1874), vol. xiii. p. 641; <i>Memoir of the Rev. F. Hodgson</i> (2 vols., + 1878); <i>The Real Lord Byron</i>, by J.C. Jeaffreson (2 vols., 1883); + <i>A Selection</i>, &c., by A.C. Swinburne (1885); <i>Records of + Shelley, Byron and the Author</i>, by E.J. Trelawny (1887); <i>Memoirs of + John Murray</i>, by S. Smiles (2 vols., 1891); <i>Poetry of Byron</i>, + chosen and arranged by Matthew Arnold (preface) (1892); <i>The Siege of + Corinth</i>, edited by E. Kölbing (1893); <i>Prisoner of Chillon and + other Poems</i>, edited by E. Kölbing (<span class="correction" + title="'1869' in original, the place in this list implies 1896 and other sources support this" + >1896</span>); <i>The Works of Lord Byron</i>, edited by W. Henley, vol. + i. (1897); A. Brandl's "Goethes Verhältniss zu Byron," <i>Goethe + Jahrbuch, zwanzigster Band</i> (1899); <i>Main Currents in Nineteenth + Century Literature</i>, by G. Brandis (6 vols., 1901-1905), translated + from <i>Hauptströmungen der Literatur des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts</i>, 4 + Bde. (Berlin 1872-1876); <i>Chambers's Cyclopaedia of English + Literature</i>, vol. iii. (1903) art. "Byron," by T. Watts Dunton; + <i>Studies in Poetry and Criticism</i>, by J. Churton Collins (1905); + <i>Lord Byron, sein Leben</i>, &c., by Richard Ackermann; + <i>Byron</i>, 3 vols. in the <i>Biblioteka velikikh pisatelei pod + redaktsei</i>, edited by S.A. Vengesova (St Petersburg, 1906): a variorum + translation; <i>Byron et le romantisme français</i>, by Edmond Estève + (1907).</p> + + <p>(E. H. C.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_121" href="#FnAnchor_121">[1]</a> An anonymous work + entitled <i>The Life, Writings, &c. of ... Lord Byron</i> (3 vols., + 1825) purports to give "Recollections of the Lately Destroyed + Manuscript." To judge by internal evidence (see "The Wedding Day," + &c. ii. 278-284) there is some measure of truth in this assertion, + but the work as a whole is untrustworthy.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BYRON, HENRY JAMES</b> (1834-1884), English playwright, son of + Henry Byron, at one time British consul at Port-au-Prince, was born in + Manchester in January 1834. He entered the Middle Temple as a student in + 1858, with the intention of devoting his time to play-writing. He soon + ceased to make any pretence of legal study, and joined a provincial + company as an actor. In this line he never made any real success; and, + though he continued to act for years, chiefly in his own plays, he had + neither originality nor charm. Meanwhile he wrote assiduously, and few + men have produced so many pieces of so diverse a nature. He was the first + editor of the weekly comic paper, <i>Fun</i>, and started the short-lived + <i>Comic Trials</i>. His first successes were in burlesque; but in 1865 + he joined Miss Marie Wilton (afterwards Lady Bancroft) in the management + of the Prince of Wales's theatre, near Tottenham Court Road. Here several + of his pieces, comedies and extravaganzas were produced with success; + but, upon his severing the partnership two years later, and starting + management on his own account in the provinces, he was financially + unfortunate. The commercial success of his life was secured with <i>Our + Boys</i>, which was played at the Vaudeville from January 1875 till April + 1879—a then unprecedented "run." <i>The Upper Crust</i>, another of + his successes, gave a congenial opportunity to Mr J.L. Toole for one of + his <!-- Page 906 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page906"></a>[v.04 + p.0906]</span>inimitably broad character-sketches. During the last few + years of his life Byron was in frail health; he died in Clapham on the + 11th of April 1884. H.J. Byron was the author of some of the most popular + stage pieces of his day. Yet his extravaganzas have no wit but that of + violence; his rhyming couplets are without polish, and decorated only by + forced and often pointless puns. His sentiment had T.W. Robertson's + insipidity without its freshness, and restored an element of vulgarity + which his predecessor had laboured to eradicate from theatrical + tradition. He could draw a "Cockney" character with some fidelity, but + his <i>dramatis personae</i> were usually mere puppets for the utterance + of his jests. Byron was also the author of a novel, <i>Paid in Full</i> + (1865), which appeared originally in <i>Temple Bar</i>. In his social + relations he had many friends, among whom he was justly popular for + geniality and imperturbable good temper.</p> + + <p><b>BYRON, JOHN BYRON,</b> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (c. + 1600-1652), English cavalier, was the eldest son of Sir John Byron (d. + 1625), a member of an old Lancashire family which had settled at + Newstead, near Nottingham. During the third decade of the 17th century + Byron was member of parliament for the town and afterwards for the county + of Nottingham; and having been knighted and gained some military + experience he was an enthusiastic partisan of Charles I. during his + struggle with the parliament. In December 1641 the king made him + lieutenant of the Tower of London, but in consequence of the persistent + demand of the House of Commons he was removed from this position at his + own request early in 1642. At the opening of the Civil War Byron joined + Charles at York. He was present at the skirmish at Powick Bridge; he + commanded his own regiment of horse at Edgehill and at Roundway Down, + where he was largely responsible for the royalist victory; and at the + first battle of Newbury Falkland placed himself under his orders. In + October 1643 he was created Baron Byron of Rochdale, and was soon serving + the king in Cheshire, where the soldiers sent over from Ireland augmented + his forces. His defeat at Nantwich, however, in January 1644, compelled + him to retire into Chester, and he was made governor of this city by + Prince Rupert. At Marston Moor, as previously at Edgehill, Byron's + rashness gave a great advantage to the enemy; then after fighting in + Lancashire and North Wales he returned to Chester, which he held for + about twenty weeks in spite of the king's defeat at Naseby and the + general hopelessness of the royal cause. Having obtained favourable terms + he surrendered the city in February 1646. Byron took some slight part in + the second Civil War, and was one of the seven persons excepted by + parliament from all pardon in 1648. But he had already left England, and + he lived abroad in attendance on the royal family until his death in + Paris in August 1652. Although twice married Byron left no children, and + his title descended to his brother Richard (1605-1679), who had been + governor of Newark. Byron's five other brothers served Charles I. during + the Civil War, and one authority says that the seven Byrons were all + present at Edgehill.</p> + + <p><b>BYRON, HON. JOHN</b> (1723-1786), British vice-admiral, second son + of the 4th Lord Byron, and grandfather of the poet, was born on the 8th + of November 1723. While still very young, he accompanied Anson in his + voyage of discovery round the world. During many successive years he saw + a great deal of hard service, and so constantly had he to contend, on his + various expeditions, with adverse gales and dangerous storms, that he was + nicknamed by the sailors, "Foul-weather Jack." It is to this that Lord + Byron alludes in his <i>Epistle to Augusta</i>:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"A strange doom is thy father's son's, and past</p> + <p class="i2">Recalling as it lies beyond redress,</p> + <p>Reversed for him our grandsire's fate of yore,</p> + <p class="i2">He had no rest at sea, nor I on shore."</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Among his other expeditions was that to Louisburg in 1760, where he + was sent in command of a squadron to destroy the fortifications. And in + 1764 in the "Dolphin" he went for a prolonged cruise in the South Seas. + In 1768 he published a <i>Narrative</i> of some of his early adventures + with Anson, which was to some extent utilized by his grandson in <i>Don + Juan</i>. In 1769 he was appointed governor of Newfoundland. In 1775 he + attained his flag rank, and in 1778 became a vice-admiral. In the same + year he was despatched with a fleet to watch the movements of the Count + d'Estaing, and in July 1779 fought an indecisive engagement with him off + Grenada. He soon after returned to England, retiring into private life, + and died on the 10th of April 1786.</p> + + <p><b>BYSTRÖM, JOHAN NIKLAS</b> (1783-1848), Swedish sculptor, was born + on the 18th of December 1783 at Philipstad. At the age of twenty he went + to Stockholm and studied for three years under Sergel. In 1809 he gained + the academy prize, and in the following year visited Rome. He sent home a + beautiful work, "The Reclining Bacchante," in half life size, which + raised him at once to the first rank among Swedish sculptors. On his + return to Stockholm in 1816 he presented the crown prince with a colossal + statue of himself, and was entrusted with several important works. + Although he was appointed professor of sculpture at the academy, he soon + returned to Italy, and with the exception of the years from 1838 to 1844 + continued to reside there. He died at Rome in 1848. Among Byström's + numerous productions the best are his representations of the female form, + such as "Hebe," "Pandora," "Juno suckling Hercules," and the "Girl + entering the Bath." His colossal statues of the Swedish kings are also + much admired.</p> + + <p><b>BYTOWNITE,</b> a rock-forming mineral belonging to the plagioclase + (<i>q.v.</i>) series of the felspars. The name was originally given + (1835) by T. Thomson, to a greenish-white felspathic mineral found in a + boulder near Bytown (now the city of Ottawa) in Ontario, but this + material was later shown on microscopical examination to be a mixture. + The name was afterwards applied by G. Tschermak to those plagioclase + felspars which lie between labradorite and anorthite; and this has been + generally adopted by petrologists. In chemical composition and in optical + and other physical characters it is thus much nearer to the anorthite end + of the series than to albite. Like labradorite and anorthite, it is a + common constituent of basic igneous rocks, such as gabbro and basalt. + Isolated crystals of bytownite bounded by well-defined faces are + unknown.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>BYWATER, INGRAM</b> (1840- ), English classical scholar, was born + in London on the 27th of June 1840. He was educated at University and + King's College schools, and at Queen's College, Oxford. He obtained a + first class in Moderations (1860) and in the final classical schools + (1862), and became fellow of Exeter (1863), reader in Greek (1883), + regius professor of Greek (1893-1908), and student of Christ Church. He + received honorary degrees from various universities, and was elected + corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He is chiefly + known for his editions of Greek philosophical works: <i>Heracliti Ephesii + Reliquiae</i> (1877); <i>Prisciani Lydi quae extant</i> (edited for the + Berlin Academy in the <i>Supplementum Aristolelicum</i>, 1886); + Aristotle, <i>Ethica Nicomachea</i> (1890), <i>De Arte Poetica</i> + (1898); <i>Contributions to the Textual Criticism of the Nicomachean + Ethics</i> (1892).</p> + +<h3>BYZANTINE ART</h3> + +<h4>PLATE I.</h4> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zbyzantine_art_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/byzantine_art_1.png" + alt="Interior of S. Sophia, Constantinople." title="Interior of S. Sophia, Constantinople." /></a> + INTERIOR OF THE HOLY WISDOM (S. SOPHIA), CONSTANTINOPLE.<br /> Sixth + century, the dome was rebuilt in the tenth century. The metal + balustrades, pulpits, and the large discs are Turkish. + </div> +<p class="cenhead">CAPITALS OF COLUMNS.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/byzantine_art_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/byzantine_art_4.png" + alt="S. Apollinari, Ravenna." title="S. Apollinari, Ravenna." /></a> + S. APOLLINARI, RAVENNA.<br /> Sixth + century. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/byzantine_art_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/byzantine_art_3.png" + alt="S. Mark, Venice." title="S. Mark, Venice." /></a> + S. MARK, VENICE.<br /> Eleventh + century. + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/byzantine_art_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/byzantine_art_2.png" + alt="S. Vitali, Ravenna." title="S. Vitali, Ravenna." /></a> + S. VITALI, RAVENNA.<br /> Sixth + century. + </div> +<h4>PLATE II.</h4> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zbyzantine_art_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/byzantine_art_5.png" + alt="Small Medieval Cathedral, Athens." title="Small Medieval Cathedral, Athens." /></a> + SMALL MEDIEVAL CATHEDRAL, ATHENS. <i>Photo: Emery Walker.</i> + </div> + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/zbyzantine_art_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/byzantine_art_6.png" + alt="Interior of St. Luke's, near Delphi." title="Interior of St. Luke's, near Delphi." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + INTERIOR OF ST. LUKE'S, NEAR DELPHI. + + <p class="poem">Showing a typical scheme of internal decoration. The + lower parts of the walls are covered with marble, and the upper + surfaces and vaults with mosaics and paintings. Eleventh century. + <i>From a Drawing by Sidney Barnsley.</i></p> + </div> + <p><b>BYZANTINE ART.</b><a name="FnAnchor_131" + href="#Footnote_131"><sup>[1]</sup></a> By "Byzantine art" is meant the + art of Constantinople (sometimes called <i>Byzantium</i> in the middle + ages as in antiquity), and of the Byzantine empire; it represents the + form of art which followed the classical, after the transitional interval + of the early Christian period. It reached maturity under Justinian + (527-565), declined and revived with the fortunes of the empire, and + attained a second culmination from the 10th to the 12th centuries. + Continuing in existence throughout the later middle ages, it is hardly + yet extinct in the lands of the Greek Church. It had enormous influence + over the art of Europe and the East during the early middle ages, not + only through the distribution of minor works from Constantinople but by + the reputation of its architecture and painting. Several buildings in + Italy are truly Byzantine. It is difficult to set a time for the origin + of the style. When Constantine founded new Rome the art was still + classical, although it had even then gathered up many of the elements + which were to transform its aspect. Just two hundred years later some of + the most characteristic works of this style of art were being produced, + such <!-- Page 907 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page907"></a>[v.04 + p.0907]</span>as the churches of St Sergius, the Holy Wisdom (St Sophia), + and the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, and San Vitale at Ravenna. We + may best set an arbitrary point for the demarcation of the new style + midway between these two dates, with the practical separation of the + eastern and western empires.</p> + + <p>The style may be said to have arisen from the orientalization of Roman + art, and itself largely contributed to the formation of the Saracenic or + Mahommedan styles. As Choisy well says, "The history of art in the Roman + epoch presents two currents, one with its source in Rome, the other in + Hellenic Asia. When Rome fell the Orient returned to itself and to the + freedom of exploring new ways. There was now a new form of society, the + Christian civilization, and, in art, an original type of architecture, + the Byzantine." It has hardly been sufficiently emphasized how closely + the art was identified with the outward expression of the Christian + church; in fact, the Christian element in late classical art is the chief + root of the new style, and it was the moral and intellectual criticism + that was brought to bear on the old material, which really marked off + Byzantine art from being merely a late form of classic.</p> + + <p>Hardly any distinction can be set up in the material contents of the + art; it was at least for a period only simplified and sweetened, and it + is this freshening which prepared the way for future development. It must + be confessed, however, that certain influences darkened the style even + before it had reached maturity; chief among these was a gloomy + hierarchical splendour, and a ritual rigidity, which to-day we yet refer + to, quite properly, as Byzantinism. Choisy sees a distinction in the + constructive types of Roman and Byzantine architecture, in that the + former covered spaces by concreted vaults built on centres, which + approximated to a sort of "monolithic" formation, whereas in the + Byzantine style the vaults were built of brick and drawn forward in space + without the help of preparatory support. Building in this way, it became + of the greatest importance that the vaults should be so arranged as to + bring about an equilibrium of thrusts. The distinction holds as between + Rome in the 4th century and Constantinople in the 6th, but we are not + sufficiently sure that the concreted construction did not depend on + merely local circumstances, and it is possible, in other centres of the + empire where strong cement was not so readily obtainable, and wood was + scarce, that the Byzantine <i>constructive</i> method was already known + in classical times. Choisy, following Dieulafoy, would derive the + Byzantine system of construction from Persia, but this proposition seems + to depend on a mistaken chronology of the monuments as shown by Perrot + and Chipiez in their <i>History of Art in Persia</i>. It seems probable + that the erection of brick vaulting was indigenous in Egypt as a building + method. Strzygowski, in his recent elaborate examination of the art-types + found at the palace of Mashita (Mschatta), a remarkable ruin discovered + by Canon Tristram in Moab, of which the most important parts have now + been brought to the new Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin, shows that + there are Persian ideas intermixed with Byzantine in its decoration, and + there are also brick arches of high elliptical form in the structure. He + seems disposed to date this work rather in the 5th than in the 6th + century, and to see in it an intermediate step between the Byzantine work + of the west and a Mesopotamian style, which he postulates as probably + having its centre at Seleucia-Ctesiphon. From the examples brought + forward by the learned author himself, it is safer as yet to look on the + work as in the main Byzantine, with many Egyptian and Syrian elements, + and an admixture, as has been said, of Persian ideas in the + ornamentation. Egypt was certainly an important centre in the development + of the Byzantine style.</p> + + <p>The course of the transition to Byzantine, the first mature Christian + style, cannot be satisfactorily traced while, guided by Roman + archaeologists, we continue to regard Rome as a source of Christian art + apart from the rest of the world. Christianity itself was not of Rome, it + was an eastern leaven in Roman society. Christian art even in that + capital was, we may say, an eastern leaven in Roman art. If we set the + year 450 for the beginning of Byzantine art, counting all that went + before as early Christian, we get one thousand years to the Moslem + conquest of Constantinople (1453). This millennium is broken into three + well-marked periods by the great iconoclastic schism (726-842) and the + taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204. The first we may call + the classical epoch of Byzantine art; it includes the mature period under + Justinian (the central year of which we may put as 550), from which it + declined until the settlement of the quarrel about images, 400 years in + all, to, say, 850. The second period, to which we may assign the limits + 850-1200, is, in the main, one of orientalizing influences, especially in + architecture, although in MSS. and paintings there was, at one time, a + distinct and successful classical revival. The interregnum had caused + almost complete isolation from the West, and inspiration was only to be + found either by casting back on its own course, or by borrowing from the + East. This period is best represented by the splendid works undertaken by + Basil the Macedonian (867-886) and his immediate successors, in the + imperial palace, Constantinople. The third period is marked by the return + of western influence, of which the chief agency was probably the + establishment of Cistercian monasteries. This western influence, although + it may be traced here and there, was not sufficient, however, to change + the essentially oriental character of the art, which from first to last + may be described as Oriental-Christian.</p> + + <p><i>Architecture.</i>—The architecture of our period is treated + in some detail in the article <span class="sc">Architecture</span>; here + we can only glance at some broad aspects of its development. As early as + the building of Constantine's churches in Palestine there were two chief + types of plan in use—the basilican, or axial, type, represented by + the basilica at the Holy Sepulchre, and the circular, or central, type, + represented by the great octagonal church once at Antioch. Those of the + latter type we must suppose were nearly always vaulted, for a central + dome would seem to furnish their very <i>raison d'être</i>. The central + space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep + recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at the noble church of St + George, Salonica (5th century?), or by a vaulted aisle, as at Sta + Costanza, Rome (4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the central + space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped + to counterpoise the central vault, as at the mausoleum of Galla Placidia, + Ravenna (5th century). The most famous church of this type was that of + the Holy Apostles, Constantinople. Vaults appear to have been early + applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at St Irene, + Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by + two domes.</p> + + <p>At St Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of + the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal + additions made to the octagon. Finally, at St Sophia (6th century) a + combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of + planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft. square is increased + to 200 ft. in length by adding two hemicycles to it to the east and the + west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, + and two others, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. + This unbroken area, about 260 ft. long, the larger part of which is over + 100 ft. wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above + the conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover + the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the + central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it + is supported by vaulted aisles in two storeys which bring the exterior + form to a general square. At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes + were applied to a cruciform plan, that in the midst being the highest. + After the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way + competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more + or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by + the dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four + divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in + the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a + sort of nave <!-- Page 908 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page908"></a>[v.04 p.0908]</span>and transepts. Sometimes the + central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were + eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the "nave" and + "transepts" were narrower in proportion. If we draw a square and divide + each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the + others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we + approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add + three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and + opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the + front. Still in front put a square court. The court is the <i>atrium</i> + and usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on + pillars. The entrance porch is the <i>narthex</i>. The central area + covered by the dome is the <i>solea</i>, the place for the choir of + singers. Here also stood the <i>ambo</i>. Across the eastern side of the + central square was a screen which divided off the <i>bema</i>, where the + altar was situated, from the body of the church; this screen, bearing + images, is the <i>iconastasis</i>. The altar was protected by a canopy or + <i>ciborium</i> resting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve + of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the middle eastern point + formed the <i>synthronon</i>. The two smaller compartments and apses at + the sides of the bema were sacristies, the <i>diaconicon</i> and + <i>prothesis</i>. The continuous influence from the East is strangely + shown in the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built + about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set + up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are + imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the + disposition of the exterior brick and stone work generally into many + varieties of pattern, zig-zags, key-patterns, &c.; and, as similar + decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this + custom also was derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the + exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety. The + window and door frames were of marble. The interior surfaces were adorned + all over by mosaics or paintings in the higher parts of the edifice, and + below with incrustations of marble slabs, which were frequently of very + beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, although in one surface, the + colouring formed a series of large panels. The choicer marbles were + opened out so that the two surfaces produced by the division formed a + symmetrical pattern resembling somewhat the marking of skins of + beasts.</p> + + <p><i>Mosaics and Paintings.</i>—The method of depicting designs by + bringing together morsels of variously colored materials is of high + antiquity. We are apt to think of a line of distinction between classical + and Christian mosaics in that the former were generally of marble and the + latter mostly of colored and gilt glass. But glass mosaics were already + in use in the Augustan age, and the use of gilt tesserae goes back to the + 1st or 2nd century. The first application of glass to this purpose seems + to have been made in Egypt, the great glass-working centre of antiquity, + and the gilding of tesserae may with probability be traced to the same + source, whence, it is generally agreed, most of the gilt glass vessels, + of which so many have been found in the catacombs, were derived. The + earliest existing mosaics of a typically Christian character are some to + be found at Santa Costanza, Rome (4th century). Other mosaics on the + vaults of the same church are of marble and follow a classical tradition. + It is probable that we have here the meeting-point of two art-currents, + the indigenous and the eastern. In Rome, the great apse-mosaic of S. + Pudenziana dates from about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 400. The + mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, is incrusted within by mosaic work + of the 5th century, and most probably the dome mosaics of the church of + St George, Salonica, are also of this period. Of the 6th century are many + of the magnificent examples still remaining at Ravenna, portions of the + original incrustation of St Sophia, Constantinople, those of the basilica + at Parenzo, on the Gulf of Istria, and of St Catherines, Sinai. An + interesting mosaic which is probably of this period, and has only + recently been described, is at the small church of Keti in Cyprus. This, + which may be the only Byzantine mosaic in the British dominions, fills + the conch of a tiny apse, but is none the less of great dignity. In the + centre is a figure of the Virgin with the Holy Child in her arms standing + between two angels who hold disks marked with the sign <b><span + class="grk">Χ</span></b>. They are named Michael and Gabriel. Another + mosaic of this period brought from Ravenna to Germany two generations ago + has been recently almost rediscovered, and set up in the new Museum of + Decorative Art in Berlin. In this, a somewhat similar composition fills + the conch of the apse, but here it is the Risen Christ who stands between + the two archangels. Above, in a broad strip, a frieze of angels blowing + trumpets stand on the celestial sea on either hand of the Enthroned + Majesty.</p> + + <p>Such mosaics flowed out widely over the Christian world trom its art + centres, as far east as Sanâ, the capital of Yemen, as far north as Kiev + in Russia, and Aachen in Germany, and as far west as Paris, and continued + in time for a thousand years without break in the tradition save by the + iconoclastic dispute. The finest late example is the well-known + "mosaic-church" (the Convent of the Saviour) at Constantinople, a work of + the 14th century.</p> + + <p>The single figures were from the first, and for the most part, treated + with an axial symmetry. Almost all are full front; only occasionally will + one, like the announcing angel, be drawn with a three-quarter face. The + features are thus kept together on the general map of the face. In the + same way the details of a tree will be collected on a simple including + form which makes a sort of mat for them. Groups, similarly, are closely + gathered up into masses of balanced form, and such masses are arranged + with strict regard for general symmetry. "The art," as Bayet says, "in + losing something of life and liberty became so much the better fitted for + the decoration of great edifices." The technical means were just as much + simplified, and only a few frank colours were made sufficient, by skilful + juxtaposition, to do all that was required of them. The fine pure blue, + or bright gold, backgrounds on which the figures were spaced, as well as + the broken surface incidental to the process, created an atmosphere which + harmonized all together. At St Sophia there were literally acres of such + mosaics, and they seem to have been applied with similar profusion in the + imperial palace.</p> + + <p>Mosaic was only a more magnificent kind of painting, and painted + design followed exactly the same laws; the difference is in the splendour + of effect and in the solidity and depth of colour. Paintings, from the + first, must have been of more grey and pearly hues. A large side chapel + at the mosaic church at Constantinople is painted, and it is difficult to + say which is really the more beautiful, the deep splendour of the one, or + the tender yet gay colour of the other. The greatest thing in Byzantine + art was this picturing of the interiors of entire buildings with a series + of mosaics or paintings, filling the wall space, vaults and domes with a + connected story. The typical character of the personages and scenes, the + elimination of non-essentials, and the continuity of the tradition, + brought about an intensity of expression such as may nowhere else be + found. It is part of the limited greatness of this side of Byzantine art + that there was no room in it for the gaiety and humour of the later + medieval schools; all was solemn, epical, cosmic. When such stories are + displayed on the golden ground of arches and domes, and related in a + connected cycle, the result produces, as it was intended to produce, a + sense of the universal and eternal. Beside this great power of + co-ordination possessed by Byzantine artists, they created imaginative + types of the highest perfection. They clothed Christian ideas with forms + so worthy, which have become so diffused, and so intimately one with the + history, that we are apt to take them for granted, and not to see in them + the superb results of Greek intuition and power of expression. Such a + type is the Pantocrator,—the Creator-Redeemer, the Judge inflexible + and yet compassionate,—who is depicted at the zenith of all greater + domes; such the Virgin with the Holy Child, enthroned or standing in the + conchs of apses, all tenderness and dignity, or with arms extended, all + solicitude; of her image the <i>Painter's Guide</i> directs that it is to + be painted with the "complexion the colour of wheat, hair and eyes brown, + grand eyebrows, and beautiful eyes, clad in beautiful clothing, humble, + beautiful and faultless"; such are the angels with their mighty <!-- Page + 909 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page909"></a>[v.04 + p.0909]</span>wings, splendid impersonations of beneficent power; such + are the prophets, doctors, martyrs, saints,—all have been fixed + into final types.</p> + + <p>We are apt to speak of the rigidity and fixity of Byzantine work, but + the method is germane in the strictest sense to the result desired, and + we should ask ourselves how far it is possible to represent such a + serious and moving drama except by dealing with more or less unchangeable + types. It could be no otherwise. This art was not a matter of taste, it + was a growth of thought, cast into an historical mould. Again, the + artists had an extraordinary power of concentrating and abstracting the + great things of a story into a few elements or symbols. For example, the + seven days of creation are each figured by some simple detail, such as a + tree, or a flight of birds, or symbolically, as seven spirits; the flood + by an ark on the waters. What the capabilities of such a method are, + where invention is not allowed to wander into variety, but may only add + intensity, may, for instance, be seen in representations of the Agony in + the Garden. This subject is usually divided into three sections, each + consecutive one showing, with the same general scene, greater darkness, + an advance up the hill, and the figure of Christ more bowed. Another + composition, the "Sleep (death) of the Virgin," is all sweetness and + peace, but no less powerful. A remarkable invention is the + <i>etomasia</i>, a splendid empty throne prepared for the Second Advent. + The stories of the Old Testament are put into relation with the Gospel by + way of type and anti-type. There are allegories: the anchorite life + contrasted with the mad life of the world, the celestial ladder, &c., + and fine impersonations, such as night and dawn, mercy and truth, cities + and rivers, are frequently found, especially in MS. pictures.</p> + + <p>A few general schemes may be briefly summarized. St Sophia has the + Pantocrator in the middle of the dome, and four cherubim of colossal size + at the four corners; on the walls below were angels, prophets, saints and + doctors. On the circle of the apse was enthroned the Virgin. To the right + and left, high above the altar, were two archangels holding banners + inscribed "Holy, Holy, Holy." These last are also found at Nicaea, and at + the monastery of St Luke. The church of the Holy Apostles had the + Ascension in the central dome, and below, the Life of Christ. St Sophia, + Salonica, also has the Ascension, a composition which is repeated on the + central dome of St Mark's, Venice. In the eastern dome of the Venetian + church is Christ surrounded by prophets, and, in the western dome, the + Descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles. A Pentecost similar to the + last occupies the dome over the Bema of St Luke's monastery in Phocis; in + the central dome of this church is the Pantocrator, while in a zone below + stand, the Virgin to the east, St John Baptist to the west, and the four + archangels, Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Uriel, to the north and south. + A better example of grandeur of treatment can hardly be cited than the + paintings of the now destroyed dome of the little church of Megale + Panagia at Athens, a dome which was only about 12 ft. across. At the + centre was Christ enthroned, next came a series of nine semicircles + containing the orders of the angels, seraphim, cherubim, thrones, + dominations, virtues, powers, principalities, archangels and angels. + Below these came a wide blue belt set with stars and the signs of the + zodiac; to the east the sun, to the west the moon. Still below these were + the winds, hail and snow; and still lower mountains and trees and the + life on the earth, with all of which were interwoven passages from the + last three Psalms, forming a Benedicite. After St Mark's, Venice, the + completest existing scheme of mosaics is that of the church of St Luke; + those of Daphne, Athens, are the most beautiful. A complete series of + paintings exists in one of the monastic churches on Mount Athos. The + Pantocrator is at the centre of the dome, then comes a zone with the + Virgin, St John Baptist and the orders of the angels. Then the prophets + between the windows of the dome and the four evangelists in the + pendentives. On the rest of the vaults is the life of Christ, ending at + the Bema with the Ascension; in the apse is the Virgin above, the Divine + Liturgy lower, and the four doctors of the church below. All the walls + are painted as well as the vaults. The mosaics overflowed from the + interiors on to the external walls of buildings even in Roman days, and + the same practice was continued on churches. The remains of an external + mosaic of the 6th century exist on the west façade of the basilica at + Parenzo. Christ is there seated amongst the seven candlesticks, and + adored by saints. At the basilica at Bethlehem the gable end was + appropriately covered with a mosaic of the Nativity, also a work of the + age of Justinian. In Rome, St Peter's and other churches had mosaics on + the façades; a tradition represented, in a small way, at San Miniato, + Florence. At Constantinople, according to Clavigo, the Spanish ambassador + who visited that city about 1400, the church of St Mary of the Fountain + had its exterior richly worked in gold, azure and other colours; and it + seems almost necessary to believe that the bare front of the narthex of + St Sophia was intended to be decorated in a similar manner. In Damascus + the courtyard of the Great Mosque seems to have been adorned with + mosaics; photographs taken before the fire in 1893 show patches on the + central gable in some of the spandrels of the side colonnade and on the + walls of the isolated octagonal treasury. The mosaics here were of + Byzantine workmanship, and their effect, used in such abundance, must + have been of great splendour. In Jerusalem the mosque of Omar also had + portions of the exterior covered with mosaics. We may imagine that such + external decorations of the churches, where a few solemn figures told + almost as shadows on the golden background brightly reflecting the sun, + must have been even more glorious than the imagery of their + interiors.</p> + + <p>Painted books were hardly different in their style from the paintings + on the walls. Of the MSS. the Cottonian Genesis, now only a collection of + charred fragments, was an early example. The great <i>Natural History</i> + of Dioscorides of Vienna (<i>c.</i> 500) and the Joshua Roll of the + Vatican, which have both been lately published in perfect facsimile, are + magnificent works. In the former the plants are drawn with an accuracy of + observation which was to disappear for a thousand years. The latter shows + a series of drawings delicately tinted in pinks and blues. Many of the + compositions contain classical survivals, like personified rivers.</p> + + <p>In some of the miniatures of the later school of the art the classical + revival of the 10th century was especially marked. Still later others + show a very definite Persian influence in their ornamentation, where + intricate arabesques almost of the style of eastern rugs are found.</p> + + <p><i>The Plastic Art.</i>—If painting under the new conditions + entered on a fresh course of power and conquest, if it set itself + successfully to provide an imagery for new and intense thought, + sculpture, on the other hand, seems to have withered away as it became + removed from the classic stock. Already in the pre-Constantinian epoch of + classical art sculpture had become strangely dry and powerless, and as + time went on the traditions of modelling appear to have been forgotten. + Two points of recent criticism may be mentioned here. It has been shown + that the porphyry images of warriors at the southwest angle of St Mark's, + Venice, are of Egyptian origin and are of late classical tradition. The + celebrated bronze St Peter at Rome is now assigned to the 13th century. + Not only did statue-making become nearly a lost art, but architectural + carvings ceased to be seen as <i>modelled form</i>, and a new system of + relief came into use. Ornament, instead of being gathered up into + forcible projections relieved against retiring planes, and instead of + having its surfaces modulated all over with delicate gradations of shade, + was spread over a given space in an even fretwork. Such a highly + developed member as the capital, for instance, was thought of first as a + simple, solid form, usually more or less the shape of a bowl, and the + carving was spread out over the general surface, the background being + sunk into sharply defined spaces of shadow, all about the same size. + Often the background was so deeply excavated that it ceased to be a plane + supporting the relieved parts, but passed wholly into darkness. + Strzygowski has given to this process the name of the "deep-dark" ground. + A further step was to relieve the upper fretwork of carving from the + ground altogether in certain places by cutting away the sustaining + portions.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 910 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page910"></a>[v.04 p.0910]</span></p> + + <p>The simplicity, the definition and crisp sharpness of some of the + results are entirely delightful. The bluntness and weariness of many of + the later modelled Roman forms disappear in the new energy of workmanship + which was engaged in exploring a fresh field of beauty. These brightly + illuminated lattices of carved ornament seem to hold within them masses + of cold shadow. Beautiful as was this method of architectural adornment, + it must be allowed that it was, in essence, much more elementary than the + school of modelled form. All such carvings were usually brightly coloured + and gilt, and it seems probable that the whole was considered rather as a + colour arrangement than as sculpture proper.</p> + + <p>Plaster work, again, an art on which wonderful skill was lavished in + Rome, became under the Byzantines extremely rude. Many good examples of + this work exist at San Vitale and Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna, + also at Parenzo, and at St Sophia, Constantinople. Later examples of + plaster work of Byzantine tradition are to be found at Cividale, and at + Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, where the tympana of the well-known baldachin are + of this material, and contain modelled figures.</p> + + <p>Coins and medallions of even the best period of Byzantine art prove + what a deep abyss separates them from the power over modelled relief + shown in classical examples. The sculptural art is best displayed by + ivory carvings, although this is more to be attributed to their pictorial + quality than to a feeling for modelling.</p> + + <p><i>Metal Work, Ivories and Textiles.</i>—One of the greatest of + Byzantine arts is the goldsmith's. This absorbed so much from Persian and + Oriental schools as to become semi-barbaric. Under Justinian the + transformation from Classical art was almost complete. Some few examples, + like a silver dish from Cyprus in the British Museum, show refined + restraint; on the other hand, the mosaic portraits of the emperor and + Theodora show crowns and jewels of full Oriental style, and the + description of the splendid fittings of St Sophia read like an eastern + tale. Goldsmith's work was executed on such a scale for the great church + as to form parts of the architecture of the interior. The altar was + wholly of gold, and its ciborium and the iconastasis were of silver. In + the later palace-church, built by Basil the Macedonian, the previous + metals were used to such an extent that it is clear, from the + description, that the interior was intended to be, as far as possible, + like a great jewelled shrine. Gold and silver, we are told, were spread + over all the church, not only in the mosaics, but in plating and other + applications. The enclosure of the bema, with its columns and + entablatures, was of silver gilt, and set with gems and pearls.</p> + + <p>The most splendid existing example of goldsmith's work on a large + scale is the <i>Paid d'Oro</i> of St Mark's, Venice; an assemblage of + many panels on which saints and angels are enamelled. The monastic church + of St Catherine, Sinai, is entered through a pair of enamelled doors, and + several doors inlaid with silver still exist. In these doors the ground + was of gilt-bronze; but there is also record of silver doors in the + imperial palace at Constantinople. The inlaid doors of St Paul Outside + the Walls at Rome were executed in Constantinople by Stauricios, in 1070, + and have Greek inscriptions. There are others at Salerno (<i>c.</i> + 1080), but the best known are those at St Mark's, Venice. In all these + the imagery was delineated in silver on the gilt-bronze ground. The + earliest works of this sort are still to be found in Constantinople. The + panels of a door at St Sophia bear the monograms of Theophilus and + Michael (840). Two other doors in the narthex of the same church, having + simpler ornamentation of inlaid silver, are probably as early as the time + of Justinian.</p> + + <p>The process of enamelling dates from late classical times and Venturi + supposes that it was invented in Alexandria. The cloisonné process, + characteristic of Byzantine enamels, is thought by Kondakov to be derived + from Persia, and to its study he has devoted a splendid volume. One of + the finest examples of this cloisonné is the reliquary at Limburg on + which the enthroned Christ appears between St Mary and St John in the + midst of the twelve apostles. An inscription tells that it was executed + for the emperors Constantine and Romanus (948-959).</p> + + <p>A reliquary lately added to the J. Pierpont Morgan collection at South + Kensington is of the greatest beauty in regard to the colour and + clearness of the enamel. The cover, which is only about 4½ by 3 ins., has + in the centre a crucifixion with St Mary and St John to the right and + left, while around are busts of the apostles. Christ is vested in a + tunic. The ground colour is the green of emerald, the rest mostly blue + and white. The cloisons are of gold. Two other Byzantine enamels are in + the permanent collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum: one is a + cross with the crucifixion on a background of the same emerald enamel; + the other is a small head of St Paul of remarkably fine workmanship.</p> + + <p>Ivory-working was another characteristic Byzantine art, although, like + so many others it had its origin in antiquity. One of the earliest + ivories of the Byzantine type is the diptych at Monza, showing a princess + and a boy, supposed to be Galla Placidia and Valentinian III. This + already shows the broad, flattened treatment which seems to mark the + ivory work of the East. The majestic archangel of the British Museum, one + of the largest panels known, is probably of the 5th century, and almost + certainly, as Strzygowski has shown, of Syrian origin. Design and + execution are equally fine. The drawing of the body, and the modelling of + the drapery, are accomplished and classical. Only the full front pose, + the balanced disposition of the large wings, and the intense outlook of + the face, give it the Byzantine type.</p> + + <p>Ivory, like gold-work and enamel, was pressed into the adornment of + architectural works. The ambo erected by Justinian at St Sophia was in + part covered by ivory panels set into the marble. The best existing + specimen of this kind of work is the celebrated ivory throne at Ravenna. + This masterpiece, which resembles a large, high-backed chair, is entirely + covered with sculptured ivory, delicate carvings of scriptural subjects + and ornament. It is of the 6th century and bears the monogram of Bishop + Maximian. It is probably of Egyptian or Syrian origin.</p> + + <p>So many fragments of ivories have been discovered in recent + explorations in Egypt that it is most likely that Alexandria, a fit + centre for receiving the material, was also its centre of distribution. + The weaving of patterned silks was known in Europe in the classical age, + and they reached great development in the Byzantine era. A fragment, long + ago figured by Semper, showing a classical design of a nereid on a + sea-horse, is so like the designs found on many ivories discovered in + Egypt that we may probably assign it to Alexandria. Such fabrics going + back to the 3rd century have been found in Egypt which must have been one + of the chief centres for the production of silk as for linen textiles. + The Victoria and Albert Museum is particularly rich in early silks. One + fine example, having rose-coloured stripes and repeated figures of Samson + and the lion, must be of the great period of the 6th century. The + description of St Sophia written at that time tells of the altar curtains + that they bore woven images of Christ, St Peter and St Paul standing + under tabernacles upon a crimson ground, their garments being enriched + with gold embroidery. Later the patterns became more barbaric and of + great scale, lions trampled across the stuff, and in large circles were + displayed eagles, griffins and the like in a fine heraldic style. From + the origin of the raw material in China and India and the ease of + transport, such figured stuffs gathered up and distributed patterns over + both Europe and Asia. The Persian influence is marked. There is, for + example, a pattern of a curious dragon having front feet and a peacock's + tail. It appears on a silver Persian dish in the Hermitage Museum, it is + found on the mixed Byzantine and Persian carvings of the palace of + Mashita, and it occurs on several silks of which there are two varieties + at the Victoria and Albert Museum, both of which are classed as + Byzantine; it is difficult to say of many of these patterns whether they + are Sassanian originals or Byzantine adaptations from them.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—A very complete + bibliography is given by H. Leclercq, <i>Manuel d'archéologie + chrétienne</i> (Paris, 1907). The current authorities for all that + concerns Byzantine history or art <!-- Page 911 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page911"></a>[v.04 + p.0911]</span>are:—<i>Byzantinische Zeitschrift ...</i> (Leipzig, + 1892 seq.); <i>Oriens Christianus</i> (Rome, 1900 seq.). See also Dom + R.P. Cabrol, <i>Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne</i>, &c. + (Paris, 1902 seq.). The best general introduction is:—C. Bayet, + <i>L'Art byzantin</i> (Paris, 1883, new edition, 1904). See J. + Strzygowski, <i>Orient oder Rom</i> (Leipzig, 1901) and other works; + Kondakov, <i>Les Émaux byz.</i> (1892), and other works; C. Diehl, + <i>Justinien et la civilis. byz.</i> (Paris, 1901), and other works; G. + Millet, <i>Le Monastère de Daphne</i>, &c. (Paris, 1899), and other + works; L.G. Schlumberger, <i>L'Epopée byz.</i> &c. (1896 seq.); A. + Michel, <i>Histoire de l'art</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1905); H. Brockhaus, + <i>Die Kunst in den Athos-Klostern</i> (Leipzig, 1891); E. Molinier, + <i>Histoire générale des arts</i>, &c. i., <i>Ivoires</i> (Paris, + 1896); O. Dalton, <i>Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities...of the + British Museum</i> (1901); A. van Millingen, <i>Byzantine + Constantinople</i> (1899); Salzenberg, <i>Altchristliche Baudenkmaler</i> + &c. (Berlin, 1854); A. Choisy, <i>L'Art de bâtir chez les + Byzantins</i> (Paris, 1875); Couchand, <i>Églises byzantines en + Grèce</i>; Ongania, <i>Basilica di S. Marco</i>; Texier and Pullan, + <i>L'Architecture b. 73</i> (1864); Lethaby and Swainson, <i>Sancta + Sophia, Constantinople</i> (1894); Schultz and Barnsley, <i>The Monastery + of St Luke</i>, &c. (1890); L. de Beylié, <i>L'Habitation byz.</i> + (Paris, 1903). For Syria: M. de Vogüé, <i>L'Architecture...dans la Syrie + centrale</i> (Paris, 1866-1877); H.C. Butler, <i>Architecture and other + Arts</i>, &c. (New York, 1904). For Egypt: W.E. Crum, <i>Coptic + Monuments</i> (Cairo, 1902); A. Gayet, <i>L'Art Copte</i> (Paris, 1902); + A.J. Butler, <i>Ancient Coptic Churches</i>. For North Africa: S. Csell, + <i>Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie</i> (Paris, 1901). For Italy: A. + Venturi, <i>Storia dell' arte Italiana</i> (Milan, 1901); G. Rivoira, + <i>Le Origini della architettura Lombarda</i> (Rome, 1901); C. Errard and + A. Gayet, <i>L'Art byzantin</i>, &c. (Paris,1903).</p> + + <p>(W. R. L.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_131" href="#FnAnchor_131">[1]</a> For Byzantine + literature see <span class="sc">Greek Literature</span>: + <i>Byzantine</i>.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>BYZANTIUM,</b> an ancient Greek city on the shores of the Bosporus, + occupying the most easterly of the seven hills on which modern + Constantinople stands. It was said to have been founded by Megarians and + Argives under Byzas about 657 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but the + original settlement having been destroyed in the reign of Darius + Hystaspes by the satrap Otanes, it was recolonized by the Spartan + Pausanias, who wrested it from the Medes after the battle of Plataea (479 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>)—a circumstance which led several + ancient chroniclers to ascribe its foundation to him. Its situation, said + to have been fixed by the Delphic oracle, was remarkable for beauty and + security. It had complete control over the Euxine grain-trade; the + absence of tides and the depth of its harbour rendered its quays + accessible to vessels of large burden; while the tunny and other + fisheries were so lucrative that the curved inlet near which it stood + became known as the Golden Horn. The greatest hindrance to its prosperity + was the miscellaneous character of the population, partly Lacedaemonian + and partly Athenian, who flocked to it under Pausanias. It was thus a + subject of dispute between these states, and was alternately in the + possession of each, till it fell into the hands of the Macedonians. From + the same cause arose the violent intestine contests which ended in the + establishment of a rude and turbulent democracy. About seven years after + its second colonization, the Athenian Cimon wrested it from the + Lacedaemonians; but in 440 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it returned to + its former allegiance. Alcibiades, after a severe blockade (408 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), gained possession of the city through the + treachery of the Athenian party; in 405 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it + was retaken by Lysander and placed under a Spartan harmost. It was under + the Lacedaemonian power when the Ten Thousand, exasperated by the conduct + of the governor, made themselves masters of the city, and would have + pillaged it had they not been dissuaded by the eloquence of Xenophon. In + 390 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Thrasybulus, with the assistance of + Heracleides and Archebius, expelled the Lacedaemonian oligarchy, and + restored democracy and the Athenian influence.</p> + + <p>After having withstood an attempt under Epaminondas to restore it to + the Lacedaemonians, Byzantium joined with Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and + Mausolus, King of Caria, in throwing off the yoke of Athens, but soon + after sought Athenian assistance when Philip of Macedon, having overrun + Thrace, advanced against it. The Athenians under Chares suffered a severe + defeat from Amyntas, the Macedonian admiral, but in the following year + gained a decisive victory under Phocion and compelled Philip to raise the + siege. The deliverance of the besieged from a surprise, by means of a + flash of light which revealed the advancing masses of the Macedonian + army, has rendered this siege memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous + interference, the Byzantines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, + and stamped a crescent on their coins, a device which is retained by the + Turks to this day. They also granted the Athenians extraordinary + privileges, and erected a monument in honour of the event in a public + part of the city.</p> + + <p>During the reign of Alexander Byzantium was compelled to acknowledge + the Macedonian supremacy; after the decay of the Macedonian power it + regained its independence, but suffered from the repeated incursions of + the Scythians. The losses which they sustained by land roused the + Byzantines to indemnify themselves on the vessels which still crowded the + harbour, and the merchantmen which cleared the straits; but this had the + effect of provoking a war with the neighbouring naval powers. The + exchequer being drained by the payment of 10,000 pieces of gold to buy + off the Gauls who had invaded their territories about 279 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and by the imposition of an annual tribute + which was ultimately raised to 80 talents, they were compelled to exact a + toll on all the ships which passed the Bosporus—a measure which the + Rhodians resented and avenged by a war, wherein the Byzantines were + defeated. After the retreat of the Gauls Byzantium rendered considerable + services to Rome in the contests with Philip II., Antiochus and + Mithradates.</p> + + <p>During the first years of its alliance with Rome it held the rank of a + free confederate city; but, having sought arbitration on some of its + domestic disputes, it was subjected to the imperial jurisdiction, and + gradually stripped of its privileges, until reduced to the status of an + ordinary Roman colony. In recollection of its former services, the + emperor Claudius remitted the heavy tribute which had been imposed on it; + but the last remnant of its independence was taken away by Vespasian, + who, in answer to a remonstrance from Apollonius of Tyana, taunted the + inhabitants with having "forgotten to be free." During the civil wars it + espoused the party of Pescennius Niger; and though skilfully defended by + the engineer Periscus, it was besieged and taken (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 196) by Severus, who destroyed the city, + demolished the famous wall, which was built of massive stones so closely + riveted together as to appear one block, put the principal inhabitants to + the sword and subjected the remainder to the Perinthians. This overthrow + of Byzantium was a great loss to the empire, since it might have served + as a protection against the Goths, who afterwards sailed past it into the + Mediterranean. Severus afterwards relented, and, rebuilding a large + portion of the town, gave it the name of Augusta Antonina. He ornamented + the city with baths, and surrounded the hippodrome with porticos; but it + was not till the time of Caracalla that it was restored to its former + political privileges. It had scarcely begun to recover its former + position when, through the capricious resentment of Gallienus, the + inhabitants were once more put to the sword and the town was pillaged. + From this disaster the inhabitants recovered so far as to be able to give + an effectual check to an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius + II., and the fortifications were greatly strengthened during the civil + wars which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Licinius, after his + defeat before Adrianople, retired to Byzantium, where he was besieged by + Constantine, and compelled to surrender (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 323-324). To check the inroads of the barbarians on the north of the + Black Sea, Diocletian had resolved to transfer his capital to Nicomedia; + but Constantine, struck with the advantages which the situation of + Byzantium presented, resolved to build a new city there on the site of + the old and transfer the seat of government to it. The new capital was + inaugurated with special ceremonies, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 330. + (See <span class="sc">Constantinople</span>.)</p> + + <p>The ancient historians invariably note the profligacy of the + inhabitants of Byzantium. They are described as an idle, depraved people, + spending their time for the most part in loitering about the harbour, or + carousing over the fine wine of Maronea. In war they trembled at the + sound of a trumpet, in peace they quaked before the shouting of their own + demagogues; and during the assault of Philip II. they could only be + prevailed on to man the walls by the savour of extempore cook-shops + distributed along the ramparts. The modern Greeks attribute the + introduction of Christianity into Byzantium to St Andrew; it certainly + had some hold there in the time of Severus.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 912 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page912"></a>[v.04 p.0912]</span></p> + + <p><b>C</b> The third letter in the Latin alphabet and its descendants + corresponds in position and in origin to the Greek Gamma (<span + class="grk">Γ</span>, <span class="grk">γ</span>), which in + its turn is borrowed from the third symbol of the Phoenician alphabet + (Heb. <i>Gimel</i>). The earliest Semitic records give its form as <img + src="images/C_letter_1.png" style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="shape + like Cyrillic ch" /> or more frequently <img src="images/C_letter_2.png" + style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="shape like small lambda" /> or + <img src="images/C_letter_3.png" style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" + alt="shape like capital lambda" />. The form <img + src="images/C_letter_3.png" style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="as + last" /> is found in the earliest inscriptions of Crete, Attica, Naxos + and some other of the Ionic islands. In Argolis and Euboea especially a + form with legs of unequal length is found <img + src="images/C_letter_4.png" style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="as + last but with shorter right leg" />. From this it is easy to pass to the + most widely spread Greek form, the ordinary <img + src="images/C_letter_5.png" style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="shape + like capital gamma" />. In Corinth, however, and its colony Corcyra, in + Ozolian Locris and Elis, a form <img src="images/C_letter_6.png" + style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="shape like less-than sign" /> + inclined at a different angle is found. From this form the transition is + simple to the rounded <img src="images/C_letter_7.png" + style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="rounded C" />, which is generally + found in the same localities as the pointed form, but is more widely + spread, occurring in Arcadia and on Chalcidian vases of the 6th century + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, in Rhodes and Megara with their colonies + in Sicily. In all these cases the sound represented was a hard G (as in + <i>gig</i>). The rounded form was probably that taken over by the Romans + and with the value of G. This is shown by the permanent abbreviation of + the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus by C. and Cn. respectively. On the + early inscription discovered in the Roman Forum in 1899 the letter occurs + but once, in the form <img src="images/C_letter_8.png" + style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="reversed rounded C" /> written + from right to left. The broad lower end of the symbol is rather an + accidental pit in the stone than an attempt at a diacritic mark—the + word is <i>regei</i>, in all probability the early dative form of + <i>rex</i>, "king." It is hard to decide why Latin adopted the + <i>g</i>-symbol with the value of <i>k</i>, a letter which it possessed + originally but dropped, except in such stereotyped abbreviations as K. + for the proper name <i>Kaeso</i> and <i>Kal.</i> for <i>Calendae</i>. + There are at least two possibilities: (1) that in Latium <i>g</i> and + <i>k</i> were pronounced almost identically, as, <i>e.g.</i>, in the + German of Württemberg or in the Celtic dialects, the difference + consisting only in the greater energy with which the <i>k</i>-sound is + produced; (2) that the confusion is graphic, K being sometimes written + <img src="images/C_letter_9.png" style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="K + written like IC" />, which was then regarded as two separate symbols. A + further peculiarity of the use of C in Latin is in the abbreviation for + the district <i>Subura</i> in Roma and its adjective <i>Suburanus</i>, + which appears as SVC. Here C no doubt represents G, but there is no + interchange between <i>g</i> and <i>b</i> in Latin. In other dialects of + Italy <i>b</i> is found representing an original voiced guttural + (<i>gw</i>), which, however, is regularly replaced by <i>v</i> in Latin. + As the district was full of traders, <i>Subura</i> may very well be an + imported word, but the form with C must either go back to a period before + the disappearance of <i>g</i> before <i>v</i> or must come from some + other Italic dialect. The symbol G was a new coinage in the 3rd century + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The pronunciation of C throughout the + period of classical Latin was that of an unvoiced guttural stop + (<i>k</i>). In other dialects, however, it had been palatalized to a + sibilant before <i>i</i>-sounds some time before the Christian era; + <i>e.g.</i> in the Umbrian <i>façia</i> = Latin <i>facial</i>. In Latin + there is no evidence for the interchange of <i>c</i> with a sibilant + earlier than the 6th century <span class="scac">A.D.</span> in south + Italy and the 7th century <span class="scac">A.D.</span> in Gaul + (Lindsay, <i>Latin Language</i>, p. 88). This change has, however, taken + place in all Romance languages except Sardinian. In Anglo-Saxon <i>c</i> + was adopted to represent the hard stop. After the Norman conquest many + English words were re-spelt under Norman influence. Thus Norman-French + spelt its palatalized <i>c</i>-sound (<i>=tsh</i>) with <i>ch</i> as in + <i>cher</i> and the English palatalized <i>cild</i>, &c. became + <i>child</i>, &c. In Provençal from the 10th century, and in the + northern dialects of France from the 13th century, this palatalized + <i>c</i> (in different districts <i>ts</i> and <i>tsh</i>) became a + simple <i>s</i>. English also adopted the value of <i>s</i> for <i>c</i> + in the 13th century before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i> and <i>y</i>. In some + foreign words like <i>cicala</i> the <i>ch-</i> (<i>tsh</i>) value is + given to <i>c</i>. In the transliteration of foreign languages also it + receives different values, having that of <i>tsh</i> in the + transliteration of Sanskrit and of <i>ts</i> in various Slavonic + dialects.</p> + + <p>As a numeral C denotes 100. This use is borrowed from Latin, in which + the symbol was originally <img src="images/C_letter_10.png" + style="height:2.5ex; width:1.5em" alt="circle with central dot" />, a + form of the Greek <span class="grk">θ</span>. This, like the + numeral symbols later identified with L and M, was thus utilized since it + was not required as a letter, there being no sound in Latin corresponding + to the Greek <span class="grk">θ</span>. Popular etymology + identified the symbol with the initial letter of <i>centum</i>, + "hundred."</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">P. Gi.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CAB</b> (shortened about 1825 from the Fr. <i>cabriolet</i>, + derived from <i>cabriole</i>, implying a bounding motion), a form of + horsed vehicle for passengers either with two ("hansom") or four wheels + ("four-wheeler" or "growler"), introduced into London as the <i>cabriolet + de place</i>, from Paris in 1820 (see <span class="sc">Carriage</span>). + Other vehicles plying for hire and driven by mechanical means are + included in the definition of the word "cab" in the London Cab and Stage + Carriage Act 1007. The term "cab" is also applied to the driver's or + stoker's shelter on a locomotive-engine.</p> + + <p>Cabs, or hackney carriages, as they are called in English acts of + parliament, are regulated in the United Kingdom by a variety of statutes. + In London the principal acts are the Hackney Carriage Acts of 1831-1853, + the Metropolitan Public Carriages Act 1869, the London Cab Act 1896 and + the London Cab and Stage Carriage Act 1907. In other large British towns + cabs are usually regulated by private acts which incorporate the Town + Police Clauses Act 1847, an act which contains provisions more or less + similar to the London acts. The act of 1869 defined a hackney carriage as + any carriage for the conveyance of passengers which plies for hire within + the metropolitan police district and is not a stage coach, <i>i.e.</i> a + conveyance in which the passengers are charged separate and distinct + fares for their seats. Every cab must be licensed by a licence renewable + every year by the home secretary, the licence being issued by the + commissioner of police. Every cab before being licensed must be inspected + at the police station of the district by the inspector of public + carriages, and certified by him to be in a fit condition for public use. + The licence costs £2. The number of persons which the cab is licensed to + carry must be painted at the back on the outside. It must carry a lighted + lamp during the period between one hour after sunset and one hour before + sunrise. The cab must be under the charge of a driver having a licence + from the home secretary. A driver before obtaining a licence, which costs + five shillings per annum, must pass an examination as to his ability to + drive and as to his knowledge of the topography of London.</p> + + <p>General regulations with regard to fares and hiring may be made from + time to time by the home secretary under the London Cab and Stage + Carriage Act 1907. The hiring is by distance or by time as the hirer may + decide at the beginning of the hiring; if not otherwise expressed the + fare is paid according to distance. If a driver is hired by distance he + is not compelled to drive more than six miles, and if hired by time he is + not compelled to drive for more than one hour. When a cab is hired in + London by distance, and discharged within a circle the radius of which is + four miles (the centre being taken at Charing Cross), the fare is one + shilling for any distance not exceeding two miles, and sixpence for every + additional mile or part of a mile. Outside the circle the fare for each + mile, or part of a mile, is one shilling. When a cab is hired by time, + the fare (inside or outside the circle) is two shillings and sixpence for + the first hour, and eightpence for every quarter of an hour afterwards. + Extra payment has to be made for luggage (twopence per piece outside), + for extra passengers (sixpence each for more than two), and for waiting + (eightpence each completed quarter of an hour). If a horse cab is fitted + with a taximeter (<i>vide infra</i>) the fare for a journey wholly + <i>within</i> or partly without and partly within the four-mile radius, + and not exceeding one mile or a period of ten minutes, is sixpence. For + each half mile or six minutes an additional threepence is paid. If the + journey is wholly <i>without</i> the four-mile radius the fare for the + first mile is one shilling, and for each additional quarter of a mile or + period of three minutes, threepence is paid. If the cab is one propelled + by mechanical means the fare for a journey not <!-- Page 913 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page913"></a>[v.04 p.0913]</span>exceeding one + mile or a period of ten minutes is eightpence, and for every additional + quarter mile or period of 2½ minutes twopence is paid. A driver required + to wait may demand a reasonable sum as a deposit and also payment of the + sum which he has already earned. The London Cab Act 1896 (by which for + the first time legal sanction was given to the word "cab") made an + important change in the law in the interest of cab drivers. It renders + liable to a penalty on summary conviction any person who (<i>a</i>) hires + a cab knowing or having reason to believe that he cannot pay the lawful + fare, or with intent to avoid payment; (<i>b</i>) fraudulently endeavours + to avoid payment; (<i>c</i>) refuses to pay or refuses to give his + address, or gives a false address with intent to deceive. The offences + mentioned (generally known as "bilking") may be punished by imprisonment + without the option of a fine, and the whole or any part of the fine + imposed may be applied in compensation to the driver.</p> + + <p>Strictly speaking, it is an offence for a cab to ply for hire when not + waiting on an authorized "standing," but cabs passing in the street for + this purpose are not deemed to be "plying for hire." These stands for + cabs are appointed by the commissioner of police or the home secretary. + "Privileged cabs" is the designation given to those cabs which by virtue + of a contract between a railway company and a number of cab-owners are + alone admitted to ply for hire within a company's station, until they are + all engaged, on condition (1) of paying a certain weekly or annual sum, + and (2) of guaranteeing to have cabs in attendance at all hours. This + system was abolished by the act of 1907, but the home secretary was + empowered to suspend or modify the abolition if it should interfere with + the proper accommodation of the public.</p> + + <p>At one time there was much discussion in England as to the + desirability of legalizing on cabs the use of a mechanical fare-recorder + such as, under the name of taximeter or taxameter, is in general use on + the continent of Europe. It is now universal on hackney carriages + propelled by mechanical means, and it has also extended largely to those + drawn by animal power. A taximeter consists of a securely closed and + sealed metal box containing a mechanism actuated by a flexible shaft + connected with the wheel of the vehicle, in the same manner as the + speedometer on a motor car. It has, within plain view of the passenger, a + number of apertures in which appear figures showing the amount payable at + any time. A small lever, with a metal flag, bearing the words "for hire" + stands upright upon it when the cab is disengaged. As soon as a passenger + enters the cab the lever is depressed by the driver and the recording + mechanism starts. At the end of the journey the figures upon the dials + show exactly the sum payable for hire; this sum is based on a combination + of time and distance.</p> + + <p><b>CABAL</b> (through the Fr. <i>cabale</i> from the <i>Cabbala</i> or + <i>Kabbalah</i>, the theosophical interpretation of the Hebrew + scriptures), a private organization or party engaged in secret intrigues, + and applied also to the intrigues themselves. The word came into common + usage in English during the reign of Charles II. to describe the + committee of the privy council known as the "Committee for Foreign + Affairs," which developed into the cabinet. The invidious meaning + attached to the term was stereotyped by the coincidence that the initial + letters of the names of the five ministers, Clifford, Arlington, + Buckingham, Ashley and Lauderdale, who signed the treaty of alliance with + France in 1673, spelled cabal.</p> + + <p><b>CABALLERO, FERNÁN</b> (1796-1877), the pseudonym adopted from the + name of a village in the province of Ciudad Real by the Spanish novelist + Cecilia Francisca Josefa Böhl de Faber y Larrea. Born at Morges in + Switzerland on the 24th of December 1796, she was the daughter of Johan + Nikolas Böhl von Faber, a Hamburg merchant, who lived long in Spain, + married a native of Cadiz, and is creditably known to students of Spanish + literature as the editor of the <i>Floresta de rimas antiguas + castellanas</i> (1821-1825), and the <i>Teatro español anterior á Lope de + Vega</i> (1832). Educated principally at Hamburg, she visited Spain in + 1815, and, unfortunately for herself, in 1816 married Antonio Planells y + Bardaxi, an infantry captain of bad character. In the following year + Planells was killed in action, and in 1822 the young widow married + Francisco Ruiz del Arco, marqués de Arco Hermoso, an officer in one of + the Spanish household regiments. Upon the death of Arco Hermoso in 1835, + the marquesa found herself in straitened circumstances, and in less than + two years she married Antonio Arrón de Ayala, a man considerably her + junior. Arrón was appointed consul in Australia, engaged in business + enterprises and made money; but unfortunate speculations drove him to + commit suicide in 1859. Ten years earlier the name of Fernán Caballero + became famous in Spain as the author of <i>La Gaviola</i>. The writer had + already published in German an anonymous romance, <i>Sola</i> (1840), and + curiously enough the original draft of <i>La Gaviota</i> was written in + French. This novel, translated into Spanish by José Joaquín de Mora, + appeared as the <i>feuilleton</i> of <i>El Heraldo</i> (1849), and was + received with marked favour. Ochoa, a prominent critic of the day, + ratified the popular judgment, and hopefully proclaimed the writer to be + a rival of Scott. No other Spanish book of the 19th century has obtained + such instant and universal recognition. It was translated into most + European languages, and, though it scarcely seems to deserve the intense + enthusiasm which it excited, it is the best of its author's works, with + the possible exception of <i>La Familia de Alvareda</i> (which was + written, first of all, in German). Less successful attempts are <i>Lady + Virginia</i> and <i>Clemencia</i>; but the short stories entitled + <i>Cuadros de Costumbres</i> are interesting in matter and form, and + <i>Una en otra</i> and <i>Elia ó la España treinta años ha</i> are + excellent specimens of picturesque narration. It would be difficult to + maintain that Fernán Caballero was a great literary artist, but it is + certain that she was a born teller of stories and that she has a graceful + style very suitable to her purpose. She came into Spain at a most happy + moment, before the new order had perceptibly disturbed the old, and she + brought to bear not alone a fine natural gift of observation, but a + freshness of vision, undulled by long familiarity. She combined the + advantages of being both a foreigner and a native. In later publications + she insisted too emphatically upon the moral lesson, and lost much of her + primitive simplicity and charm; but we may believe her statement that, + though she occasionally idealized circumstances, she was conscientious in + choosing for her themes subjects which had occurred in her own + experience. Hence she may be regarded as a pioneer in the realistic + field, and this historical fact adds to her positive importance. For many + years she was the most popular of Spanish writers, and the sensation + caused by her death at Seville on the 7th of April 1877 proved that her + naïve truthfulness still attracted readers who were interested in records + of national customs and manners.</p> + + <p>Her <i>Obras completas</i> are included in the <i>Colección de + escritores castellanos</i>: a useful biography by Fernando de Gabriel + Ruiz de Apodaca precedes the <i>Últimas producciones de Fernán + Caballero</i> (Seville, 1878).</p> + + <p>(J. F.-K.)</p> + + <p><b>CABANEL, ALEXANDRE</b> (1823-1889), French painter, was born at + Montpellier, and studied in Paris, gaining the Prix de Rome in 1845. His + pictures soon attracted attention, and by his "Birth of Venus" (1863), + now in the Luxembourg, he became famous, being elected that year to the + Institute. He became the most popular portrait painter of the day, and + his pupils included a number of famous artists.</p> + + <p><b>CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE</b> (1757-1808), French physiologist, + was born at Cosnac (Corrèze) on the 5th of June 1757, and was the son of + Jean Baptiste Cabanis (1723-1786), a lawyer and agronomist. Sent at the + age of ten to the college of Brives, he showed great aptitude for study, + but his independence of spirit was so excessive that he was almost + constantly in a state of rebellion against his teachers, and was finally + dismissed from the school. He was then taken to Paris by his father and + left to carry on his studies at his own discretion for two years. From + 1773 to 1775 he travelled in Poland and Germany, and on his return to + Paris he devoted himself mainly to poetry. About this time he ventured to + send in to the Academy a translation of the passage from Homer proposed + for their prize, and, though his attempt passed without notice, he + received so much encouragement from his friends that he contemplated + translating the whole of the <i>Iliad</i>. But at the <!-- Page 914 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page914"></a>[v.04 p.0914]</span>desire + of his father he relinquished these pleasant literary employments, and + resolving to engage in some settled profession selected that of medicine. + In 1789 his <i>Observations sur les hôpitaux</i> procured him an + appointment as administrator of hospitals in Paris, and in 1795 he became + professor of hygiene at the medical school of Paris, a post which he + exchanged for the chair of legal medicine and the history of medicine in + 1799. From inclination and from weak health he never engaged much in + practice as a physician, his interests lying in the deeper problems of + medical and physiological science. During the last two years of + Mirabeau's life he was intimately connected with that extraordinary man, + and wrote the four papers on public education which were found among the + papers of Mirabeau at his death, and were edited by the real author soon + afterwards in 1791. During the illness which terminated his life Mirabeau + confided himself entirely to the professional skill of Cabanis. Of the + progress of the malady, and the circumstances attending the death of + Mirabeau, Cabanis drew up a detailed narrative, intended as a + justification of his treatment of the case. Cabanis espoused with + enthusiasm the cause of the Revolution. He was a member of the Council of + Five Hundred and then of the Conservative senate, and the dissolution of + the Directory was the result of a motion which he made to that effect. + But his political career was not of long continuance. A foe to tyranny in + every shape, he was decidedly hostile to the policy of Bonaparte, and + constantly rejected every solicitation to accept a place under his + government. He died at Meulan on the 5th of May 1808.</p> + + <p>A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five + volumes were published. His principal work, <i>Rapports du physique et du + moral de l'homme</i>, consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 + to the Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. Psychology + is with Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the + fundamental fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of + intelligence. All the intellectual processes are evolved from + sensibility, and sensibility itself is a property of the nervous system. + The soul is not an entity, but a faculty; thought is the function of the + brain. Just as the stomach and intestines receive food and digest it, so + the brain receives impressions, digests them, and has as its organic + secretion, thought. Alongside of this harsh materialism Cabanis held + another principle. He belonged in biology to the vitalistic school of + G.E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work, <i>Lettre sur les causes + premières</i> (1824), the consequences of this opinion became clear. Life + is something added to the organism; over and above the universally + diffused sensibility there is some living and productive power to which + we give the name of Nature. But it is impossible to avoid ascribing to + this power both intelligence and will. In us this living power + constitutes the ego, which is truly immaterial and immortal. These + results Cabanis did not think out of harmony with his earlier theory.</p> + + <p><b>CABARRUS, FRANÇOIS</b> (1752-1810), French adventurer and Spanish + financier, was born at Bayonne, where his father was a merchant. Being + sent into Spain on business he fell in love with a Spanish lady, and + marrying her, settled in Madrid. Here his private business was the + manufacture of soap; but he soon began to interest himself in the public + questions which were ventilated even at the court of Spain. The + enlightenment of the 18th century had penetrated as far as Madrid; the + king, Charles III., was favourable to reform; and a circle of men + animated by the new spirit were trying to infuse fresh vigour into an + enfeebled state. Among these Cabarrus became conspicuous, especially in + finance. He originated a bank, and a company to trade with the Philippine + Islands; and as one of the council of finance he had planned many reforms + in that department of the administration, when Charles III. died (1788), + and the reactionary government of Charles IV. arrested every kind of + enlightened progress. The men who had taken an active part in reform were + suspected and prosecuted. Cabarrus himself was accused of embezzlement + and thrown into prison. After a confinement of two years he was released, + created a count and employed in many honourable missions; he would even + have been sent to Paris as Spanish ambassador, had not the Directory + objected to him as being of French birth. Cabarrus took no part in the + transactions by which Charles IV. was obliged to abdicate and make way + for Joseph, brother of Napoleon, but his French birth and intimate + knowledge of Spanish affairs recommended him to the emperor as the + fittest person for the difficult post of minister of finance, which he + held at his death. His beautiful daughter Thérèse, under the name of + Madame Tallien (afterwards princess of Chimay), played an interesting + part in the later stages of the French Revolution.</p> + + <p><b>CABASILAS, NICOLAUS</b> (d. 1371), Byzantine mystic and theological + writer. He was on intimate terms with the emperor John VI. Cantacuzene, + whom he accompanied in his retirement to a monastery. In 1355 he + succeeded his uncle Nilus Cabasilas, like himself a determined opponent + of the union of the Greek and Latin churches, as archbishop of + Thessalonica. In the Hesychast controversy he took the side of the monks + of Athos, but refused to agree to the theory of the uncreated light. His + chief work is his <span title="Peri tês en Christôi zôês" class="grk" + >Περὶ τῆς ἐν + Χριστῷ ζωῆς</span> + (<i>ed. pr.</i> of the Greek text, with copious introduction, by W. Gass, + 1849; new ed. by M. Heinze, 1899), in which he lays down the principle + that union with Christ is effected by the three great mysteries of + baptism, confirmation and the eucharist. He also wrote homilies on + various subjects, and a speech <span class="correction" title="'againt' in original" + >against</span> usurers, printed with other works in Migne, <i>Patrologia + Graeca</i>, c. i. A large number of his works is still extant in MS.</p> + + <p>See C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> + (1897), and article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie für + protestantische Theologie</i> (1901).</p> + + <p><b>CABATÚAN,</b> a town of the province of Ilóilo, Panay, Philippine + Islands, on a branch of the Suague river, 15 m. N.W. of Ilóilo, the + capital. Pop. (1903) 16,497. In 1903, after the census had been taken, + the neighbouring town of Maasin, with a population of 8401, was annexed + to Cabatúan. Its climate is healthful. The surrounding country is very + fertile and produces large quantities of rice, as well as Indian corn, + tobacco, sugar, coffee and a great variety of fruits. The language is + Visayan. Cabatúan was founded in 1732.</p> + + <p><b>CABBAGE.</b> The parent form of the variety of culinary and fodder + vegetables included under this head is generally supposed to be the wild + or sea cabbage (<i>Brassica oleracea</i>), a plant found near the sea + coast of various parts of England and continental Europe, although + Alphonse de Candolle considered it to be really descended from the two or + three allied species which are yet found growing wild on the + Mediterranean coast. In any case the cultivated varieties have departed + very widely from the original type, and they present very marked and + striking dissimilarities among themselves. The wild cabbage is a + comparatively insignificant plant, growing from 1 to 2 ft. high, in + appearance very similar to the corn mustard or charlock (<i>Sinapis + arvensis</i>), but differing from it in having smooth leaves. The wild + plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the uppermost being + undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers, elongated seed-pod, and + seeds with conduplicate cotyledons. Notwithstanding the fact that the + cultivated forms differ in habit so widely, it is remarkable that the + flower, seed-pods and seeds of the varieties present no appreciable + difference.</p> + + <p>John Lindley proposed the following classification for the various + forms, which includes all yet cultivated: (1) All the leaf-buds active + and open, as in wild cabbage and kale or greens; (2) All the leaf-buds + active, but forming heads, as in Brussels sprouts; (3) Terminal leaf-bud + alone active, forming a head, as in common cabbage, savoys, &c.; (4) + Terminal leaf-bud alone active and open, with most of the flowers + abortive and succulent, as in cauliflower and broccoli; (5) All the + leaf-buds active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and + succulent, as in sprouting broccoli. The last variety bears the same + relation to common broccoli as Brussels sprouts do to the common cabbage. + Of all these forms there are numerous gardeners' varieties, all of which + reproduce faithfully enough their parent form by proper and separate + cultivation.</p> + + <p>Under Lindley's first class, common or Scotch kale or borecole + (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>acephala</i> or var. <i>fimbriata</i>) + includes several varieties which are amongst the hardiest of our + esculents, and seldom fail to yield a good supply of winter greens. They + require well-enriched soil, and sufficient space for full exposure to + air; and they should also be sown early, so as to be well <!-- Page 915 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page915"></a>[v.04 + p.0915]</span>established and hardened before winter. The main crops + should be sown about the first week of April, or, in the north, in the + third week of March, and a succession a month later. The Buda kale is + sown in May, and planted out in September, but a sowing for late spring + use may be made in the last week of August and transplanted towards the + end of September. To prevent overcrowding, the plants should be + transplanted as soon as they are of sufficient size, but if the ground is + not ready to receive them a sufficient number should be pricked out in + some open spot. In general the more vigorous sorts should be planted in + rows 3 ft. and the smaller growers 2 ft. apart, and 18 in. from plant to + plant. In these the heads should be first used, only so much of the heart + as is fresh and tender being cut out for boiling; side shoots or sprouts + are afterwards produced for a long time in succession, and may be used so + long as they are tender enough to admit of being gathered by snapping + their stalks asunder.</p> + + <p>The plant sends up a stout central stem, growing upright to a height + of about 2 ft., with close-set, large thick, plain leaves of a light red + or purplish hue. The lower leaves are stripped off for use as the plants + grow up, and used for the preparation of broth or "Scotch kail," a dish + at one time in great repute in the north-eastern districts of Scotland. A + very remarkable variety of open-leaved cabbage is cultivated in the + Channel Islands under the name of the Jersey or branching cabbage. It + grows to a height of 8 ft, but has been known to attain double that + altitude. It throws out branches from the central stem, which is + sufficiently firm and woody to be fashioned into walking-sticks; and the + stems are even used by the islanders as rafters for bearing the thatch on + their cottage-roofs. Several varieties are cultivated as ornamental + plants on account of their beautifully coloured, frizzled and laciniated + leaves.</p> + + <p>Brussels sprouts (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>bullata + gemmifera</i>) are miniature cabbage-heads, about an inch in diameter, + which form in the axils of the leaves. There appears to be no information + as to the plant's origin, but, according to Van Mons (1765-1842), + physician and chemist, it is mentioned in the year 1213, in the + regulations for holding the markets of Belgium, under the name of + <i>spruyten</i> (sprouts). It is very hardy and productive, and is much + esteemed for the table on account of its flavour and its sightly + appearance. The seed should be sown about the middle of March, and again + in the first or second week in April for succession. Any good garden soil + is suitable. For an early crop it may be sown in a warm pit in February, + pricked out and hardened in frames, and planted out in a warm situation + in April. The main crop may be planted in rows 2 ft. asunder, the plants + 18 in. apart. They should be got out early, so as to be well established + and come into use before winter. The head may be cut and used after the + best of the little rosettes which feather the stem have been gathered; + but, if cut too early, it exposes these rosettes, which are the most + delicate portion of the produce, to injury, if the weather be severe. The + earliest sprouts become fit for use in November, and they continue good, + or even improve in quality, till the month of March following; by + successive sowings the sprouts are obtained for the greater part of the + year.</p> + + <p>The third class is chiefly represented by the common or drumhead + cabbage, <i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>capitata</i>, the varieties of + which are distinguished by difference in size, form and colour. In + Germany it is converted into a popular article of diet under the name of + <i>Sauerkraut</i> by placing in a tub alternate layers of salt and + cabbage. An acid fermentation sets in, which after a few days is + complete, when the vessel is tightly covered over and the product kept + for use with animal food.</p> + + <p>The savoy is a hardy green variety, characterized by its very wrinkled + leaves. The Portugal cabbage, or <i>Couve Tronchuda</i>, is a variety, + the tops of which form an excellent cabbage, while the midribs of the + large leaves are cooked like sea-kale.</p> + + <p>Cabbages contain a very small percentage of nitrogenous compounds as + compared with most other articles of food. Their percentage composition, + when cooked, is—water, 97.4; fat, 0.1; carbohydrate, 0.4; mineral + matter, 0.1; cellulose, 1.3; nitrogenous matter (only about half being + proteid), 0.6. Their food-value, apart from their anti-scorbutic + properties, is therefore practically nil.</p> + + <p>The cabbage requires a well-manured and well-wrought loamy soil. It + should have abundant water in summer, liquid manure being specially + beneficial. Round London where it is grown in perfection, the ground for + it is dug to the depth of two spades or spits, the lower portion being + brought up to the action of the weather, and rendered available as food + for the plants; while the top-soil, containing the eggs and larvae of + many insects, being deeply buried, the plants are less liable to be + attacked by the club disease. Farm-yard manure is that most suitable for + the cabbage, but artificial manures such as guano, superphosphate of lime + or gypsum, together with lime-rubbish, wood-ashes and marl, may, if + required, be applied with advantage.</p> + + <p>The first sowing of cabbage should be made about the beginning of + March; this will be ready for use in July and August, following the + autumn-sown crops. Another sowing should be made in the last week of + March or first week of April, and will afford a supply from August till + November; and a further crop may be made in May to supply young-hearted + cabbages in the early part of winter. The autumn sowing, which is the + most important, and affords the supply for spring and early summer use, + should be made about the last week in August, in warm localities in the + south, and about a fortnight earlier in the north; or, to meet + fluctuations of climate, it is as well in both cases to anticipate this + sowing by another two or three weeks earlier, planting out a portion from + each, but the larger number from that sowing which promises best to stand + without running to seed.</p> + + <p>The cabbages grown late in autumn and in the beginning of winter are + denominated coleworts (vulg. collards), from a kindred vegetable no + longer cultivated. Two sowings are made, in the middle of June and in + July, and the seedlings are planted a foot or 15 in. asunder, the rows + being 8 or 10 in. apart. The sorts employed are the Rosette and the Hardy + Green.</p> + + <p>About London the large sorts, as Enfield Market, are planted for + spring cabbages 2 ft. apart each way; but a plant from an earlier sowing + is dibbled in between every two in the rows, and an intermediate row a + foot apart is put in between the permanent rows, these extra plants being + drawn as coleworts in the course of the winter. The smaller sorts of + cabbage may be planted 12 in. apart, with 12 or 15 in. between the rows. + The large sorts should be planted 2 ft. apart, with 2½ ft. between the + rows. The only culture required is to stir the surface with the hoe to + destroy the weeds, and to draw up the soil round the stems.</p> + + <p>The red cabbage, <i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>capitata rubra</i>, + of which the Red Dutch is the most commonly grown, is much used for + pickling. It is sown about the end of July, and again in March or April. + The Dwarf Red and Utrecht Red are smaller sorts. The culture is in every + respect the same as in the other sorts, but the plants have to stand + until they form hard close hearts.</p> + + <p>Cauliflower, which is the chief representative of class 4, consists of + the inflorescence of the plant modified so as to form a compact succulent + white mass or head. The cauliflower (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. + <i>botrytis cauliflora</i>) is said by our old authors to have been + introduced from Cyprus, where, as well as on the Mediterranean coasts, it + appears to have been cultivated for ages. It is one of the most + delicately flavoured of vegetables, the dense cluster formed by its + incipient succulent flower-buds being the edible portion.</p> + + <p>The sowing for the first or spring crop, to be in use in May and June, + should be made from the 15th to the 25th of August for England, and from + the 1st to the 15th of August for Scotland. In the neighbourhood of + London the growers adhere as nearly as possible to the 21st day. A sowing + to produce heads in July and August takes place in February on a slight + hotbed. A late spring sowing to produce cauliflowers in September or + October or later, should be made early in April and another about the + 20th of May.</p> + + <p>The cauliflower succeeds best in a rich soil and sheltered position; + but, to protect the young plants in winter, they are sometimes pricked + out in a warm situation at the foot of a south <!-- Page 916 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page916"></a>[v.04 p.0916]</span>wall, and in + severe weather covered with hoops and mats. A better method is to plant + them thickly under a garden frame, securing them from cold by coverings + and giving air in mild weather. For a very early supply, a few scores of + plants may be potted and kept under glass during winter and planted out + in spring, defended with a hand-glass. Sometimes patches of three or four + plants on a south border are sheltered by hand-glasses throughout the + winter. It is advantageous to prick out the spring-sown plants into some + sheltered place before they are finally transplanted in May. The later + crop, the transplanting of which may take place at various times, is + treated like early cabbages. After planting, all that is necessary is to + hoe the ground and draw up the soil about the stems.</p> + + <p>It is found that cauliflowers ready for use in October may be kept in + perfection over winter. For this purpose they are lifted carefully with + the spade, keeping a ball of earth attached to the roots. Some of the + large outside leaves are removed, and any points of leaves that + immediately overhang the flower are cut off. They are then placed either + in pots or in garden frames, the plants being arranged close together, + but without touching. In mild dry weather the glass frames are drawn off, + but they are kept on during rainstorms, ventilation being afforded by + slightly tilting the frames, and in severe frost they are thickly covered + with mats.</p> + + <p>Broccoli is merely a variety of cauliflower, differing from the other + in the form and colour of its inflorescence and its hardiness. The + broccoli (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>botrytis asparagoides</i>) + succeeds best in loamy soil, somewhat firm in texture. For the autumn + broccolis the ground can scarcely be too rich, but the winter and spring + sorts on ground of this character are apt to become so succulent and + tender that the plants suffer from frost even in sheltered situations, + while plants less stimulated by manure and growing in the open field may + be nearly all saved, even in severe winters. The main crops of the early + sorts for use in autumn should be sown early in May, and planted out + while young to prevent them coming too early into flower; in the north + they may be sown a fortnight earlier. The later sorts for use during + winter and spring should be sown about the middle or end of May, or about + ten days earlier in the north. The seed-beds should be made in fresh + light soil; and if the season be dry the ground should be well watered + before sowing. If the young plants are crowding each other they should be + thinned. The ground should not be dug before planting them out, as the + firmer it is the better; but a shallow drill may be drawn to mark the + lines. The larger-growing sorts may be put in rows 3 ft. apart, and the + plants about 2½ ft. apart in the rows, and the smaller-growing ones at + from 2 to 2½ ft. between, and 1½ to 2 ft. in the rows. If the ground is + not prepared when young plants are ready for removal, they should be + transferred to nursery beds and planted at 3 to 4 in. apart, but the + earlier they can be got into their permanent places the better.</p> + + <p>It is of course the young flower-heads of the plant which are eaten. + When these form, they should be shielded from the light by bending or + breaking down an inner leaf or two. In some of the sorts the leaves + naturally curve over the heads. To prevent injury to the heads by frost + in severe winters, the plants should be laid in with their heads sloping + towards the north, the soil being thrown back so as to cover their stems; + or they may be taken up and laid in closely in deep trenches, so that + none of the lower bare portion of the stem may be exposed. Some dry fern + may also be laid over the tops. The spring varieties are extremely + valuable, as they come at a season when the finer vegetables are scarce. + They afford a supply from December to May inclusive.</p> + + <p>Broccoli sprouts, the representative of the fifth class, are a form of + recent introduction, and consist of flowering sprouts springing from the + axils of the leaves. The purple-leaved variety is a very hardy and + much-esteemed vegetable.</p> + + <p>Kohl-rabi (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>caulo-rapa</i>) is a + peculiar variety of cabbage in which the stem, just above ground, swells + into a fleshy turnip-like mass. It is much cultivated in certain + districts as a food for stock, for which purpose the drumhead cabbage and + the thousand-headed kale are also largely used. Kohl-rabi is exceedingly + hardy, withstanding both severe frosts and drought. It is not much grown + in English gardens, though when used young it forms a good substitute for + turnips. The seeds should be sown in May and June, and the seedlings + should be planted shallowly in well-manured ground, 8 or 10 in. apart, in + rows 15 in. asunder; and they should be well watered, so as to induce + quick growth.</p> + + <p>The varieties of cabbage, like other fresh vegetables, are possessed + of anti-scorbutic properties; but unless eaten when very fresh and tender + they are difficult of digestion, and have a very decided tendency to + produce flatulence.</p> + + <p>Although the varieties reproduce by seed with remarkable constancy, + occasional departures from the types occur, more especially among the + varieties of spring cabbages, cauliflowers and broccoli. The departures, + known technically as "rogues," are not as a rule sufficiently numerous to + materially affect crops grown for domestic purposes. Rogues appearing + among the stocks of seed-growers, however, if allowed to remain, very + materially affect the character of particular stocks by the dissemination + of strange pollen and by the admixture of their seed. Great care is + exercised by seed-growers, with reputations to maintain, to eliminate + these from among their stock-plants before the flowering period is + reached.</p> + + <p>Several species of palm, from the fact of yielding large sapid central + buds which are cooked as vegetables, are known as cabbage-palms. The + principal of these is <i>Areca oleracea</i>, but other species, such as + the coco-palm, the royal palm (<i>Oreodoxa regia</i>), <i>Arenga + saccharifera</i> and others yield similar edible leaf-buds.</p> + + <p><b>CABEIRI,</b> in Greek mythology, a group of minor deities, of whose + character and worship nothing certain is known. Their chief seats of + worship were the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, the coast of + Troas, Thessalia and Boeotia. The name appears to be of Phoenician + origin, signifying the "great" gods, and the Cabeiri seem to have been + deities of the sea who protected sailors and navigation, as such often + identified with the Dioscuri, the symbol of their presence being St + Elmo's fire. Originally the Cabeiri were two in number, an older + identified with Hephaestus (or Dionysus), and a younger identified with + Hermes, who in the Samothracian mysteries was called Cadmilus or + Casmilus. Their cult at an early date was united with that of Demeter and + Kore, with the result that two pairs of Cabeiri appeared, Hephaestus and + Demeter, and Cadmilus and Kore. According to Mnaseas<a + name="FnAnchor_141" href="#Footnote_141"><sup>[1]</sup></a> (quoted by + the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius i. 917) they were four in + number:—Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, Casmilus. It is there + stated that Axieros is Demeter; Axiokersa, Persephone; Axiokersos, Hades; + and Casmilus, Hermes. The substitution of Hades for Hephaestus is due to + the fact that Hades was regarded as the husband of Persephone. Cabeiro, + who is mentioned in the logographers Acusilaus and Pherecydes as the wife + of Hephaestus, is identical with Demeter, who indeed is expressly called + <span title="Kabeiria" class="grk" + >Καβειρία</span> in + Thebes. Roman antiquarians identified the Cabeiri with the three + Capitoline deities or with the Penates. In Lemnos an annual festival of + the Cabeiri was held, lasting nine days, during which all the fires were + extinguished and fire brought from Delos. From this fact and from the + statement of Strabo x. p. 473, that the father of the Cabeiri was + Camillus, a son of Hephaestus, the Cabeiri have been thought to be, like + the Corybantes, Curetes and Dactyli, demons of volcanic fire. But this + view is not now generally held. In Lemnos they fostered the vine and + fruits of the field, and from their connexion with Hermes in Samothrace + it would also seem that they promoted the fruitfulness of cattle.</p> + + <p>By far the most important seat of their worship was Samothrace. Here, + as early as the 5th century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, their + mysteries, possibly under Athenian influence, attracted great attention, + and initiation was looked upon as a general safeguard against all + misfortune. But it was in the period after the death of Alexander the + Great that their cult reached its height. Demetrius Poliorcetes, + Lysimachus and Arsinoë regarded the Cabeiri with especial favour, and + initiation was sought, not only by large numbers of pilgrims, but by + persons of distinction. Initiation included also an asylum or refuge + within the strong walls of Samothrace, for which purpose it was used + among others by Arsinoë, who, to show her gratitude, afterwards caused a + monument to be erected there, the ruins of which were explored in <!-- + Page 917 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page917"></a>[v.04 + p.0917]</span>1874 by an Austrian archaeological expedition. In 1888 + interesting details as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were obtained + by the excavations of their temple in the neighbourhood of Thebes, + conducted by the German archaeological institute. The two male deities + worshipped were Cabeiros and a boy: the Cabeiros resembles Dionysus, + being represented on vases as lying on a couch, his head surrounded with + a garland of ivy, a drinking cup in his right hand; and accompanied by + maenads and satyrs. The boy is probably his cup-bearer. The Cabeiri were + held in even greater esteem by the Romans, who regarded themselves as + descendants of the Trojans, whose ancestor Dardanus (himself identified + in heroic legend with one of the Cabeiri) came from Samothrace. The + identification of the three Capitoline deities with the Penates, and of + these with the Cabeiri, tended to increase this feeling.</p> + + <p>See C.A. Lobeck, <i>Aglaophamus</i> (1829); F.G. Welcker, <i>Die + Aeschylische Trilogie und die Kabirenweihe zu Lemnos</i> (1824); J.P. + Rossignol, <i>Les Métaux dans l'antiquité</i> (1863), discussing the gods + of Samothrace (the Dactyli, the Cabeiri, the Corybantes, the Curetes, and + the Telchines) as workers in metal, and the religious origin of + metallurgy; O. Rubensohn, <i>Die Mysterienheiligtümer in Eleusis und + Samothrake</i> (1892); W.H. Roscher, <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> + (<i>s.v.</i> "Megaloi Theoi"); L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i> + (4th ed., appendix); and the article by F. Lenormant in Daremberg and + Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des Antiquités</i>.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_141" href="#FnAnchor_141">[1]</a> A grammarian of + Patrae in Achaea (or Patara in Lycia), pupil of Eratosthenes (275-195 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), and author of a periplus and a + collection of Delphic oracles.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CABER TOSSING</b> (Gaelic <i>cabar</i>, a pole or beam), a Scottish + athletic exercise which consists in throwing a section of a trunk of a + tree, called the "caber," in such a manner that it shall turn over in the + air and fall on the ground with its small end pointing in the direction + directly opposite to the "tosser." Tossing the caber is usually + considered to be a distinctly Scottish sport, although "casting the bar," + an exercise evidently similar in character, was popular in England in the + 16th century but afterwards died out. The caber is the heavy trunk of a + tree from 16 to 20 ft. long. It is often brought upon the field heavier + than can be thrown and then cut to suit the contestants, although + sometimes cabers of different sizes are kept, each contestant taking his + choice. The toss is made after a run, the caber being set up + perpendicularly with the heavy end up by assistants on the spot indicated + by the tosser, who sets one foot against it, grasps it with both hands, + and, as soon as he feels it properly balanced, gives the word to the + assistants to let go their hold. He then raises the caber and gets both + hands underneath the lower end. "A practised hand, having freed the caber + from the ground, and got his hands underneath the end, raises it till the + lower end is nearly on a level with his elbows, then advances for several + yards, gradually increasing his speed till he is sometimes at a smart run + before he gives the toss. Just before doing this he allows the caber to + leave his shoulder, and as the heavy top end begins to fall forward, he + throws the end he has in his hands upwards with all his strength, and, if + successful, after the heavy end strikes the ground the small end + continues its upward motion till perpendicular, when it falls forward, + and the caber lies in a straight line with the tosser" (W.M. Smith). The + winner is he who tosses with the best and easiest style, according to old + Highland traditions, and whose caber falls straightest in a direct line + from him. In America a style called the Scottish-American prevails at + Caledonian games. In this the object is distance alone, the same caber + being used by all contestants and the toss being measured from the + tosser's foot to the spot where the small end strikes the ground. This + style is repudiated in Scotland. Donald Dinnie, born in 1837 and still a + champion in 1890, was the best tosser of modern times.</p> + + <p>See W.M. Smith, <i>Athletics and Athletic Sports in Scotland</i> + (Edinburgh, 1891).</p> + + <p><b>CABET, ÉTIENNE</b> (1788-1856), French communist, was born at Dijon + in 1788, the son of a cooper. He chose the profession of advocate, + without succeeding in it, but ere long became notable as the persevering + apostle of republicanism and communism. He assisted in a secondary way in + the revolution of 1830, and obtained the appointment of + <i>procureur-général</i> in Corsica under the government of Louis + Philippe; but was dismissed for his attack upon the conservatism of the + government, in his <i>Histoire de la révolution de 1830</i>. Elected, + notwithstanding, to the chamber of deputies, he was prosecuted for his + bitter criticism of the government, and obliged to go into exile in + England in 1834, where he became an ardent disciple of Robert Owen. On + the amnesty of 1839 he returned to France, and attracted some notice by + the publication of a badly written and fiercely democratic history of the + Revolution of 1789 (4 vols., 1840), and of a social romance, <i>Voyage en + Icarie</i>, in which he set forth his peculiar views. These works met + with some success among the radical working-men of Paris. Like Owen, he + sought to realize his ideas in practice, and, pressed as well by his + friends, he made arrangements for an experiment in communism on American + soil. By negotiations in England favoured by Owen, he purchased a + considerable tract of land on the Red river, Texas, and drew up an + elaborate scheme for the intending colony, community of property being + the distinctive principle of the society. Accordingly in 1848 an + expedition of 1500 "Icarians" sailed to America; but unexpected + difficulties arose and the complaints of the disenchanted settlers soon + reached Europe. Cabet, who had remained in France, had more than one + judicial investigation to undergo in consequence, but was honourably + acquitted. In 1849 he went out in person to America, but on his arrival, + finding that the Mormons had been expelled from their city Nauvoo + (<i>q.v.</i>), in Illinois, he transferred his settlement thither. There, + with the exception of a journey to France, where he returned to defend + himself successfully before the tribunals, he remained, the dictator of + his little society. In 1856, however, he withdrew and died the same year + at St Louis.</p> + + <p>See <span class="sc">Communism</span>. Also Félix Bonnaud, <i>Cabet et + son œuvre, appel à tous les socialistes</i> (Paris, 1900); J. + Prudhommeaux, <i>Icaria and its Founder, Étienne Cabet</i> (Nîmes, + 1907).</p> + + <p><b>CABIN,</b> a small, roughly built hut or shelter; the term is + particularly applied to the thatched mud cottages of the negro slaves of + the southern states of the Unites States of America, or of the + poverty-stricken peasantry of Ireland or the crofter districts of + Scotland. In a special sense it is used of the small rooms or + compartments on board a vessel used for sleeping, eating or other + accommodation. The word in its earlier English forms was <i>cabane</i> or + <i>caban</i>, and thus seems to be an adaptation of the French + <i>cabane</i>; the French have taken <i>cabine</i>, for the room on board + a ship, from the English. In French and other Romanic languages, in which + the word occurs, <i>e.g.</i> Spanish <i>cabaña</i>, Portuguese + <i>cabana</i>, the origin is usually found in the Medieval Latin + <i>capanna</i>. Isidore of Seville (<i>Origines</i>, lib. xiv. 12) + says:—<i>Tugurium</i> (hut) <i>parva casula est, quam faciunt sibi + custodes vinearum, ad tegimen seu quasi tegurium. Hoc rustici Capannam + vocant, quod unum tantum capiat</i> (see Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, + s.v. <i>Capanna</i>). Others derive from Greek <span title="kapê" class="grk" + >κάπη</span>, crib, manger. Skeat considers the + English word was taken from the Welsh <i>caban</i>, rather than from the + French, and that the original source for all the forms was Celtic.</p> + + <p><b>CABINET,</b> a word with various applications which may be traced + to two principal meanings, (1) a small private chamber, and (2) an + article of furniture containing compartments formed of drawers, shelves, + &c. The word is a diminutive of "cabin" and therefore properly means + a small hut or shelter. This meaning is now obsolete; the <i>New English + Dictionary</i> quotes from Leonard Digges's <i>Stratioticos</i> + (published with additions by his son Thomas in 1579), "the Lance Knights + encamp always in the field very strongly, two or three to a Cabbonet." + From the use both of the article of furniture and of a small chamber for + the safe-keeping of a collection of valuable prints, pictures, medals or + other objects, the word is frequently applied to such a collection or to + objects fit for such safe-keeping. The name of <i>Cabinet du Roi</i> was + given to the collection of prints prepared by the best artists of the + 17th century by order of Louis XIV. These were intended to commemorate + the chief events of his reign, and also to reproduce the paintings and + sculptures and other art treasures contained in the royal palaces. It was + begun in 1667 and was placed under the superintendence of Nicholas + Clement (1647 or 1651-1712), the royal librarian. The collection was + published in 1727. The plates are now in the Louvre. A "cabinet" edition + <!-- Page 918 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page918"></a>[v.04 + p.0918]</span>of a literary work is one of somewhat small size, and bound + in such a way as would suit a tasteful collection. The term is applied + also to a size of photograph of a larger size than the <i>carte de + visite</i> but smaller than the "panel." The political use of the term is + derived from the private chamber of the sovereign or head of a state in + which his advisers met.</p> + + <p><i>Cabinet in Furniture.</i>—The artificer who constructs + furniture is still called a "cabinet-maker," although the manufacture of + cabinets, properly so called, is now a very occasional part of his work. + Cabinets can be divided into a very large number of classes according to + their shape, style, period and country of origin; but their usual + characteristic is that they are supported upon a stand, and that they + contain a series of drawers and pigeon-holes. The name is, however, now + given to many pieces of furniture for the safe-keeping or exhibition of + valuable objects, which really answer very little to the old conception + of a cabinet. The cabinet represented an evolution brought about by the + necessities of convenience, and it appealed to so many tastes and needs + that it rapidly became universal in the houses of the gentle classes, and + in great measure took the impress of the peoples who adopted it. It would + appear to have originated in Italy, probably at the very beginning of the + 16th century. In its rudimentary form it was little more than an oblong + box, with or without feet, small enough to stand upon a table or chair, + filled with drawers and closed with doors. In this early form its + restricted dimensions permitted of its use only for the safeguard of + jewels, precious stones and sometimes money. One of the earliest cabinets + of which we have mention belonged to Francis I. of France, and is + described as covered with gilt leather, tooled with mauresque work. As + the Renaissance became general these early forms gave place to larger, + more elaborate and more architectural efforts, until the cabinet became + one of the most sumptuous of household adornments. It was natural that + the countries which were earliest and most deeply touched by the + Renaissance should excel in the designing of these noble and costly + pieces of furniture. The cabinets of Italy, France and the Netherlands + were especially rich and monumental. Those of Italy and Flanders are + often of great magnificence and of real artistic skill, though like all + other furniture their style was often grievously debased, and their + details incongruous and bizarre. Flanders and Burgundy were, indeed, + their lands of adoption, and Antwerp added to its renown as a metropolis + of art by developing consummate skill in their manufacture and adornment. + The cost and importance of the finer types have ensured the preservation + of innumerable examples of all but the very earliest periods; and the + student never ceases to be impressed by the extraordinary variety of the + work of the 16th and 17th centuries, and very often of the 18th also. The + basis of the cabinet has always been wood, carved, polished or inlaid; + but lavish use has been made of ivory, tortoise-shell, and those cut and + polished precious stones which the Italians call <i>pietra dura</i>. In + the great Flemish period of the 17th century the doors and drawers of + cabinets were often painted with classical or mythological scenes. Many + French and Florentine cabinets were also painted. In many classes the + drawers and pigeon-holes are enclosed by folding doors, carved or inlaid, + and often painted on the inner sides. Perhaps the most favourite type + during a great part of the 16th and 17th centuries—a type which + grew so common that it became cosmopolitan—was characterized by a + conceit which acquired astonishing popularity. When the folding doors are + opened there is disclosed in the centre of the cabinet a tiny but + palatial interior. Floored with alternate squares of ebony and ivory to + imitate a black and white marble pavement, adorned with Corinthian + columns or pilasters, and surrounded by mirrors, the effect, if + occasionally affected and artificial, is quite as often exquisite. + Although cabinets have been produced in England in considerable variety, + and sometimes of very elegant and graceful form, the foreign makers on + the whole produced the most elaborate and monumental examples. As we have + said, Italy and the Netherlands acquired especial distinction in this + kind of work. In France, which has always enjoyed a peculiar genius for + assimilating modes in furniture, Flemish cabinets were so greatly in + demand that Henry IV. determined to establish the industry in his own + dominions. He therefore sent French workmen to the Low Countries to + acquire the art of making cabinets, and especially those which were + largely constructed of ebony and ivory. Among these workmen were Jean + Macé and Pierre Boulle, a member of a family which was destined to + acquire something approaching immortality. Many of the Flemish cabinets + so called, which were in such high favour in France and also in England, + were really <i>armoires</i> consisting of two bodies superimposed, + whereas the cabinet proper does not reach to the floor. Pillared and + fluted, with panelled sides, and front elaborately carved with masks and + human figures, these pieces which were most often in oak were exceedingly + harmonious and balanced. Long before this, however, France had its own + school of makers of cabinets, and some of their carved work was of the + most admirable character. At a somewhat later date André Charles Boulle + made many pieces to which the name of cabinet has been more or less + loosely given. They were usually of massive proportions and of extreme + elaboration of marquetry. The North Italian cabinets, and especially + those which were made or influenced by the Florentine school, were + grandiose and often gloomy. Conceived on a palatial scale, painted or + carved, or incrusted with marble and <i>pietra dura</i>, they were + intended for the adornment of galleries and lofty bare apartments where + they were not felt to be overpowering. These North Italian cabinets were + often covered with intarsia or marquetry, which by its subdued gaiety + retrieved somewhat their heavy stateliness of form. It is, however, often + difficult to ascribe a particular fashion of shape or of workmanship to a + given country, since the interchange of ideas and the imports of actual + pieces caused a rapid assimilation which destroyed frontiers. The close + connexion of centuries between Spain and the Netherlands, for instance, + led to the production north and south of work that was not definitely + characteristic of either. Spain, however, was more closely influenced + than the Low Countries, and contains to this day numbers of cabinets + which are not easily to be distinguished from the characteristic ebony, + ivory and tortoise-shell work of the craftsmen whose skill was so rapidly + acquired by the emissaries of Henry IV. The cabinets of southern Germany + were much influenced by the models of northern Italy, but retained to a + late date some of the characteristics of domestic Gothic work such as + elaborately fashioned wrought-iron handles and polished steel hinges. + Often, indeed, 17th-century South Germany work is a curious blend of + Flemish and Italian ideas executed in oak and Hungarian ash. Such work, + however interesting, necessarily lacks simplicity and repose. A curious + little detail of Flemish and Italian, and sometimes of French later + 17th-century cabinets, is that the interiors of the drawers are often + lined with stamped gold or silver paper, or marbled ones somewhat similar + to the "end papers" of old books. The great English cabinet-makers of the + 18th century were very various in their cabinets, which did not always + answer strictly to their name; but as a rule they will not bear + comparison with the native work of the preceding century, which was most + commonly executed in richly marked walnut, frequently enriched with + excellent marquetry of woods. Mahogany was the dominating timber in + English furniture from the accession of George II. almost to the time of + the Napoleonic wars; but many cabinets were made in lacquer or in the + bright-hued foreign woods which did so much to give lightness and grace + to the British style. The glass-fronted cabinet for China or glass was in + high favour in the Georgian period, and for pieces of that type, for + which massiveness would have been inappropriate, satin and tulip woods, + and other timbers with a handsome grain taking a high polish were much + used.</p> + + <p>(J. P.-B.)</p> + + <p><i>The Political Cabinet.</i>—Among English political + institutions, the "Cabinet" is a conventional but not a legal term + employed to describe those members of the privy council who fill the + highest executive offices in the state, and by their concerted policy + direct the government, and are responsible for all the acts of the crown. + The cabinet now always includes the persons filling the following + offices, who are therefore called "cabinet ministers," viz.:—the + first lord of the treasury, the lord chancellor of England, the lord + president of the council, the lord privy seal, the five secretaries of + state, the chancellor of the exchequer <!-- Page 919 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page919"></a>[v.04 p.0919]</span>and the first + lord of the admiralty. The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, the + postmaster-general, the first commissioner of works, the president of the + board of trade, the chief secretary for Ireland, the lord chancellor of + Ireland, the president of the local government board, the president of + the board of agriculture, and the president of the board of education, + are usually members of the cabinet, but not necessarily so. A modern + cabinet contains from sixteen to twenty members. It used to be said that + a large cabinet is an evil; and the increase in its numbers in recent + years has often been criticized. But the modern widening of the franchise + has tended to give the cabinet the character of an executive committee + for the party in power, no less than that of the prime-minister's + consultative committee, and to make such a committee representative it is + necessary to include the holders of all the more important offices in the + administration, who are generally selected as the influential politicians + of the party rather than for special aptitude in the work of the + departments.</p> + + <p>The word "cabinet," or "cabinet council," was originally employed as a + term of reproach. Thus Lord Bacon says, in his essay <i>Of Counsel</i> + (xx.), "The doctrine of Italy and practice of France, in some kings' + times, hath introduced cabinet councils—a remedy worse than the + disease"; and, again, "As for cabinet councils, it may be their motto + <i>Plenus rimarum sum</i>." Lord Clarendon—after stating that, in + 1640, when the great Council of Peers was convened by the king at York, + the burden of affairs rested principally on Laud, Strafford and + Cottington, with five or six others added to them on account of their + official position and ability—adds, "These persons made up the + committee of state, which was reproachfully after called the + <i>Juncto</i>, and enviously then in court the <i>Cabinet Council</i>." + And in the Second Remonstrance in January 1642, parliament complained "of + the managing of the great affairs of the realm in <i>Cabinet Councils</i> + by men unknown and not publicly trusted." But this use of the term, + though historically curious, has in truth nothing in common with the + modern application of it. It meant, at that time, the employment of a + select body of favourites by the king, who were supposed to possess a + larger share of his confidence than the privy council at large. Under the + Tudors, at least from the later years of Henry VIII. and under the + Stuarts, the privy council was the council of state or government. During + the Commonwealth it assumed that name.</p> + + <p>The Cabinet Council, properly so called, dates from the reign of + William III. and from the year 1693, for it was not until some years + after the Revolution that the king discovered and adopted the two + fundamental principles of a constitutional executive government, namely, + that a ministry should consist of statesmen holding the same political + principles and identified with each other; and, secondly, that the + ministry should stand upon a parliamentary basis, that is, that it must + command and retain the majority of votes in the legislature. It was long + before these principles were thoroughly worked out and understood, and + the perfection to which they have been brought in modern times is the + result of time, experience and in part of accident. But the result is + that the cabinet council for the time being <i>is</i> the government of + Great Britain; that all the powers vested in the sovereign (with one or + two exceptions) are practically exercised by the members of this body; + that all the members of the cabinet are jointly and severally responsible + for all its measures, for if differences of opinion arise their existence + is unknown as long as the cabinet lasts—when publicly manifested + the cabinet is at an end; and lastly, that the cabinet, being responsible + to the sovereign for the conduct of executive business, is also + collectively responsible to parliament both for its executive conduct and + for its legislative measures, the same men being as members of the + cabinet the servants of the crown, and as members of parliament and + leaders of the majority responsible to those who support them by their + votes and may challenge in debate every one of their actions. In this + latter sense the cabinet has sometimes been described as a standing + committee of both Houses of Parliament.</p> + + <p>One of the consequences of the close connexion of the cabinet with the + legislature is that it is desirable to divide the strength of the + ministry between the two Houses of Parliament. Pitt's cabinet of 1783 + consisted of himself in the House of Commons and seven peers. But so + aristocratic a government would now be impracticable. In Gladstone's + cabinet of 1868, eight, and afterwards nine, ministers were in the House + of Commons and six in the House of Lords. Great efforts were made to + strengthen the ministerial bench in the Commons, and a new principle was + introduced, that the representatives of what are called the spending + departments—that is, the secretary of state for war and the first + lord of the admiralty—should, if possible, be members of the House + which votes the supplies. Disraeli followed this precedent but it has + since been disregarded. In Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet formed in + 1905, six ministers were in the House of Lords and thirteen in the House + of Commons.</p> + + <p>Cabinets are usually convoked by a summons addressed to "His Majesty's + confidential servants" by the prime minister; and the ordinary place of + meeting is either at the official residence of the first lord of the + treasury in Downing Street or at the foreign office, but they may be held + anywhere. No secretary or other officer is present at the deliberations + of this council. No official record is kept of its proceedings, and it is + even considered a breach of ministerial confidence to keep a private + record of what passed in the cabinet, inasmuch as such memoranda may fall + into other hands. But on some important occasions, as is known from the + <i>Memoirs of Lord Sidmouth</i>, the <i>Correspondence of Earl Grey with + King William IV.</i>, and from Sir Robert Peel's <i>Memoirs</i>, + published by permission of Queen Victoria, cabinet minutes are drawn up + and submitted to the sovereign, as the most formal manner in which the + advice of the ministry can be tendered to the crown and placed upon + record. (See also Sir Algernon West's <i>Recollections</i>, 1899.) More + commonly, it is the duty of the prime minister to lay the collective + opinion of his colleagues before the sovereign, and take his pleasure on + public measures and appointments. The sovereign never presides at a + cabinet; and at the meetings of the privy council, where the sovereign + does preside, the business is purely formal. It has been laid down by + some writers as a principle of the British constitution that the + sovereign is never present at a discussion between the advisers of the + crown; and this is, no doubt, an established fact and practice. But like + many other political usages of Great Britain it originated in a happy + accident.</p> + + <p>King William and Queen Anne always presided at weekly cabinet + councils. But when the Hanoverian princes ascended the throne, they knew + no English, and were barely able to converse at all with their ministers; + for George I. or George II. to take part in, or even to listen to, a + debate in council was impossible. When George III. mounted the throne the + practice of the independent deliberations of the cabinet was well + established, and it has never been departed from.</p> + + <p>Upon the resignation or dissolution of a ministry, the sovereign + exercises the undoubted prerogative of selecting the person who may be + thought by him most fit to form a new cabinet. In several instances the + statesmen selected by the crown have found themselves unable to + accomplish the task confided to them. But in more favourable cases the + minister chosen for this supreme office by the crown has the power of + distributing all the political offices of the government as may seem best + to himself, subject only to the ultimate approval of the sovereign. The + prime minister is therefore in reality the author and constructor of the + cabinet; he holds it together; and in the event of his retirement, from + whatever cause, the cabinet is really dissolved, even though its members + are again united under another head.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Sir W. Anson, <i>Law and + Custom of the Constitution</i> (1896); W. Bagehot, <i>The English + Constitution</i>; M.T. Blauvelt, <i>The Development of Cabinet Government + in England</i> (New York, 1902); E. Boutmy, <i>The English + Constitution</i> (trans. I.M. Eaden, 1891); A. Lawrence Lowell, <i>The + Government of England</i> (1908), part I.; A.V. Dicey, <i>Law of the + Constitution</i> (1902); Sir T. Erskine May, <i>Constitutional History of + England</i> (1863-1865); H. Hallam, <i>Constitutional History of + England</i>; W.E. Hearn, <i>The Government of England</i> (1867); S. Low, + <i>The Governance of England</i> (1904); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional + History of England</i>; Hannis Taylor, <i>Origin and Growth of the + English Constitution</i> (Boston, 1889-1900); <!-- Page 920 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page920"></a>[v.04 p.0920]</span>A. Todd, + <i>Parliamentary Government in England</i> (1867-1869); much valuable + information will also be found in such works as W.E. Gladstone's + <i>Gleanings</i>; the third earl of Malmesbury's <i>Memoirs of an + ex-Minister</i> (1884-1885); Greville's <i>Memoirs</i>; Sir A. West's + <i>Recollections</i>, 1832-1886 (1889), &c.</p> + + <p><b>CABINET NOIR,</b> the name given in France to the office where the + letters of suspected persons were opened and read by public officials + before being forwarded to their destination. This practice had been in + vogue since the establishment of posts, and was frequently used by the + ministers of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV.; but it was not until the reign + of Louis XV. that a separate office for this purpose was created. This + was called the <i>cabinet du secret des postes</i>, or more popularly the + <i>cabinet noir</i>. Although declaimed against at the time of the + Revolution, it was used both by the revolutionary leaders and by + Napoleon. The <i>cabinet noir</i> has now disappeared, but the right to + open letters in cases of emergency appears still to be retained by the + French government; and a similar right is occasionally exercised in + England under the direction of a secretary of state, and, indeed, in all + civilized countries. In England this power was frequently employed during + the 18th century and was confirmed by the Post Office Act of 1837; its + most notorious use being, perhaps, the opening of Mazzini's letters in + 1844.</p> + + <p><b>CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON</b> (1844- ) American author, was born in + New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 12th of October 1844. At the age of + fourteen he entered a mercantile establishment as a clerk; joined the + Confederate army (4th Mississippi Cavalry) at the age of nineteen; at the + close of the war engaged in civil engineering, and in newspaper work in + New Orleans; and first became known in literature by sketches and stories + of old French-American life in that city. These were first published in + <i>Scribner's Monthly</i>, and were collected in book form in 1879, under + the title of <i>Old Creole Days</i>. The characteristics of the + series—of which the novelette <i>Madame Delphine</i> (1881) is + virtually a part—are neatness of touch, sympathetic accuracy of + description of people and places, and a constant combination of gentle + pathos with quiet humour. These shorter tales were followed by the novels + <i>The Grandissimes</i> (1880), <i>Dr Sevier</i> (1883) and + <i>Bonaventure</i> (1888), of which the first dealt with Creole life in + Louisiana a hundred years ago, while the second was related to the period + of the Civil War of 1861-65. <i>Dr Sevier</i>, on the whole, is to be + accounted Cable's masterpiece, its character of Narcisse combining nearly + all the qualities which have given him his place in American literature + as an artist and a social chronicler. In this, as in nearly all of his + stories, he makes much use of the soft French-English dialect of + Louisiana. He does not confine himself to New Orleans, laying many of his + scenes, as in the short story <i>Belles Demoiselles Plantation</i>, in + the marshy lowlands towards the mouth of the Mississippi. Cable was the + leader in the noteworthy literary movement which has influenced nearly + all southern writers since the war of 1861—a movement of which the + chief importance lay in the determination to portray local scenes, + characters and historical episodes with accuracy instead of merely + imaginative romanticism, and to interest readers by fidelity and sympathy + in the portrayal of things well known to the authors. Other writings by + Cable have dealt with various problems of race and politics in the + southern states during and after the "reconstruction period" following + the Civil War; while in <i>The Creoles of Louisiana</i> (1884) he + presented a history of that folk from the time of its appearance as a + social and military factor. His dispassionate treatment of his theme in + this volume and its predecessors gave increasing offence to sensitive + Creoles and their sympathizers, and in 1886 Cable removed to Northampton, + Massachusetts. At one time he edited a magazine in Northampton, and + afterwards conducted the monthly <i>Current Literature</i>, published in + New York. His <i>Collected Works</i> were published in a uniform issue in + 5 vols. (New York, 1898). Among his later volumes are <i>The Cavalier</i> + (1901), <i>Bylow Hill</i> (1902), and <i>Kincaid's Battery</i> + (1908).</p> + + <p><b>CABLE</b> (from Late Lat. <i>capulum</i>, a halter, from + <i>capere</i>, to take hold of), a large rope or chain, used generally + with ships, but often employed for other purposes; the term "cable" is + also used by analogy in minor varieties of similar engineering or other + attachments, and in the case of "electric cables" for the submarine wires + (see <span class="sc">Telegraph</span>) by which telegraphic messages are + transmitted.<a name="FnAnchor_151" + href="#Footnote_151"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The cable by which a ship rides at her anchor is now made of iron; + prior to 1811 only hempen cables were supplied to ships of the British + navy, a first-rate's complement on the East Indian station being eleven; + the largest was 25 in. (equal to 2¼ in. iron cable) and weighed 6 tons. + In 1811, iron cables were supplied to stationary ships; their superiority + over hempen ones was manifest, as they were less liable to foul or to be + cut by rocks, or to be injured by enemy's shot. Iron cables are also + handier and cleaner, an offensive odour being exhaled from dirty hempen + cables, when unbent and stowed inboard. The first patent for iron cables + was by Phillip White in 1634; twisted links were suggested in 1813 by + Captain Brown (who afterwards, in conjunction with Brown, Lenox & + Co., planned the Brighton chain pier in 1823); and studs were introduced + in 1816. Hempen cables are not now supplied to ships, having been + superseded by steel wire hawsers. The length of a hempen cable is 101 + fathoms, and a cable's length, as a standard of measurement, usually + placed on charts, is assumed to be 100 fathoms or 600 ft. The sizes, + number and lengths of cables supplied to ships of the British navy are + given in the official publication, the <i>Ship's Establishment</i>; + cables for merchant ships are regulated by Lloyds, and are tested + according to the Anchors and Chain Cables Act 1899.</p> + + <p>In manufacturing chain cables, the bars are cut to the required length + of link, at an angle for forming the welds and, after heating, are bent + by machinery to the form of a link and welded by smiths, each link being + inserted in the previous one before welding. Cables of less than 1¼ in. + are welded at the crown, there not being sufficient room for a side weld; + experience has shown that the latter method is preferable and it is + employed in making larger sized cables. In 1898 steel studs were + introduced instead of cast iron ones, the latter having a tendency to + work loose, but the practice is not universal. After testing, the + licensed tester must place on every five fathoms of cable a distinctive + mark which also indicates the testing establishments; the stamp or die + employed must be approved by the Board of Trade. The iron used in the + construction, also the testing, of mooring chains and cables for the + London Trinity House Corporation are subject to more stringent + regulations.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/cable_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/cable_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Stud-link Chain." title="Fig. 1.--Stud-link Chain." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Stud-link Chain. + </div> + <p>Cables for the British navy and mercantile marine are supplied in 12½ + fathom and 15 fathom lengths respectively, connected together by "joining + shackles", D (fig. 1). Each length is "marked" by pieces of iron wire + being twisted round the studs of the links; the wire is placed on the + first studs on each side of the first shackle, on the second studs on + each side of the second shackle, and so on; thus the number of lengths of + cable out is clearly indicated. For instance, if the wire is on the sixth + <!-- Page 921 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page921"></a>[v.04 + p.0921]</span>studs on each side of the shackle, it indicates that six + lengths or 75 fathoms of cable are out. In joining the lengths together, + the round end of the shackle is placed towards the anchor. The end links + of each length (C.C.) are made without studs, in order to take the + shackle; but as studs increase the strength of a link, in a studless or + open link the iron is of greater diameter. The next links (B.B.) have to + be enlarged, in order to take the increased size of the links C.C. In the + joining shackle (D), the pin is oval, its greater diameter being in the + direction of the strain. The pin of a shackle, which attaches the cable + to the anchor (called an "anchor shackle", to distinguish it from a + joining shackle) projects and is secured by a forelock; but since any + projection in a joining shackle would be liable to be injured when the + cable is running out or when passing around a capstan, the pins are made + as shown at D, and are secured by a small pin d. This small pin is kept + from coming out by being made a little short, and lead pellets are driven + in at either end to fill up the holes in the shackle, which are made with + a groove, so that as the pellets are driven in they expand or dovetail, + keeping the small pin in its place.<a name="FnAnchor_152" + href="#Footnote_152"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/cable_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/cable_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Mooring Swivel." title="Fig. 2.--Mooring Swivel." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Mooring Swivel. + </div> + <p>The cables are stowed in chain lockers, the inboard ends being secured + by a "slip" (in the mercantile marine the cable is often shackled or + lashed to the kelson); the slip prevents the cable's inner end from + passing overboard, and also enables the cable to be "slipped", or let go, + in case of necessity. In the British navy, swivel pieces are fitted in + the first and last lengths of cable, to avoid and, if required, to take + out turns in a cable, caused by a ship swinging round when at anchor. + With a ship moored with two anchors, the cables are secured to a mooring + swivel (fig. 2), which prevents a "foul hawse", <i>i.e.</i> the cables + being entwined round each other. When mooring, unmooring, and as may be + necessary, cables are temporarily secured by "slips" shackled to eye or + ring bolts in the deck (see <span class="sc">Anchor</span>). The cable is + hove up by either a capstan or windlass (see <span + class="sc">Capstan</span>) actuated by steam, electricity or manual + power. Ships in the British navy usually ride by the compressor, the + cable holder being used for checking the cable running out. When a ship + has been given the necessary cable, the cable holder is eased up and the + compressor "bowsed to"; in a heavy sea, a turn, or if necessary two + turns, are taken round the "bitts," a strong iron structure placed + between the hawse and navel ("deck") pipes. A single turn of cable is + often taken round the bitts when anchoring in deep water. Small vessels + of the mercantile marine ride by turns around the windlass; in larger or + more modern vessels fitted with a steam windlass, the friction brakes + take the strain, aided when required by the bitts, compressor or + controller in bad weather.</p> + + <p>(J. W. D.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_151" href="#FnAnchor_151">[1]</a> The word "cable" + is a various reading for "camel" in the Biblical phrase, "it is easier + for a camel to go through the eye of a needle" of Matt. xix. 24, Mark x. + 25, and Luke xviii. 25, mentioned as early as Cyril of Alexandria (5th + cent.); and it was adopted by Sir John Cheke and other 16th century and + later English writers. The reading <span title="kamilos" class="grk" + >κάμιλος</span> for <span + title="kamêlos" class="grk" + >κάμηλος</span> is found in + several late cursive MSS. Cheyne, in the <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, ascribes + it to a non-Semitic scribe, and regards <span title="kamêlos" class="grk" + >κάμηλος</span> as correct. + (See under <span class="sc">Camel</span>.)</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_152" href="#FnAnchor_152">[2]</a> The dimensions + marked in the figure are those for 1-in. chains, and signify so many + diameters of the iron of the common links; thus forming a scale for all + sizes.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CABLE MOULDING,</b> in architecture, the term given to a convex + moulding carved in imitation of a rope or cord, and used to decorate the + mouldings of the Romanesque style in England, France and Spain. The word + "cabling" by itself indicates a convex circular moulding sunk in the + concave fluting of a classic column, and rising about one-third of the + height of the shaft.</p> + + <p><b>CABOCHE, SIMON.</b> Simon Lecoustellier, called "Caboche", a + skinner of the Paris Boucherie, played an important part in the Parisian + riots of 1413. He had relations with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, + since 1411, and was prominent in the seditious disturbances which broke + out in April and May, following on the <i>États</i> of February 1413. In + April he stirred the people to the point of revolt, and was among the + first to enter the hôtel of the dauphin. When the butchers had made + themselves masters of Paris, Caboche became bailiff (<i>huissier + d'armes</i>) and warden of the bridge of Charenton. Upon the publication + of the great ordinance of May 26th, he used all his efforts to prevent + conciliation between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. After the fall of + the <i>Cabochien</i> party on the 4th of August he fled to Burgundy in + order to escape from royal justice. Doubtless he returned to Paris in + 1418 with the Burgundians.</p> + + <p>See Colville, <i>Les Cabochiens et l'ordonnance de 1413</i> (Paris, + 1888).</p> + + <p><b>CABOT, GEORGE</b> (1751-1823), American political leader, was born + in Salem, Massachusetts, on the 16th of December 1751. He studied at + Harvard from 1766 to 1768, when he went to sea as a cabin boy. He + gradually became a ship-owner and a successful merchant, retiring from + business in 1794. Throughout his life he was much interested in politics, + and though his temperamental indolence and his aversion for public life + often prevented his accepting office, he exercised, as a contributor to + the press and through his friendships, a powerful political influence, + especially in New England. He was a member of the Massachusetts + Constitutional Convention of 1770-1780, of the state senate in 1782-1783, + of the convention which in 1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal + Constitution, and from 1791 to 1796 of the United States Senate, in + which, besides serving on various important committees, he became + recognized as an authority on economic and commercial matters. Among the + bills introduced by him in the Senate was the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. + Upon the establishment of the navy department in 1798, he was appointed + and confirmed as its secretary, but he never performed the duties of the + office, and was soon replaced by Benjamin Stoddert (1751-1813), actually + though not nominally the first secretary of the department. In 1814-1815 + Cabot was the president of the Hartford Convention, and as such was then + and afterwards acrimoniously attacked by the Republicans throughout the + country. He died in Boston on the 18th of April 1823. In politics he was + a staunch Federalist, and with Fisher Ames, Timothy Pickering and + Theophilus Parsons (all of whom lived in Essex county, Massachusetts) was + classed as a member of the "Essex Junto",—a wing of the party and + not a formal organization. A fervent advocate of a strong centralized + government, he did much to secure the ratification by Massachusetts of + the Federal Constitution, and after the overturn of the Federalist by the + Republican party, he wrote (1804): "We are democratic altogether, and I + hold democracy in its natural operation to be a government of the + worst".</p> + + <p>See Henry Cabot Lodge's <i>Life and Letters of George Cabot</i> + (Boston, 1877).</p> + + <p><b>CABOT, JOHN</b> [<span class="sc">Giovanni Caboto</span>] + (1450-1498), Italian navigator and discoverer of North America, was born + in Genoa, but in 1461 went to live in Venice, of which he became a + naturalized citizen in 1476. During one of his trading voyages to the + eastern Mediterranean, Cabot paid a visit to Mecca, then the greatest + mart in the world for the exchange of the goods of the East for those of + the West. On inquiring whence came the spices, perfumes, silks and + precious stones bartered there in great quantities, Cabot learned that + they were brought by caravan from the north-eastern parts of farther + Asia. Being versed in a knowledge of the sphere, it occurred to him that + it would be shorter and quicker to bring these goods to Europe straight + across the western ocean. First of all, however, a way would have to be + found across this ocean from Europe to Asia. Full of this idea, Cabot, + about the year 1484, removed with his family to London. His plans were in + course of time made known to <!-- Page 922 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page922"></a>[v.04 p.0922]</span>the leading merchants of Bristol, + from which port an extensive trade was carried on already with Iceland. + It was decided that an attempt should be made to reach the island of + Brazil or that of the Seven Cities, placed on medieval maps to the west + of Ireland, and that these should form the first halting-places on the + route to Asia by the west.</p> + + <p>To find these islands vessels were despatched from Bristol during + several years, but all in vain. No land of any sort could be seen. + Affairs were in this state when in the summer of 1493 news reached + England that another Genoese, Christopher Columbus, had set sail westward + from Spain and had reached the Indies. Cabot and his friends at once + determined to forgo further search for the islands and to push straight + on to Asia. With this end in view application was made to the king for + formal letters patent, which were not issued until March 5, 1496. By + these Henry VII. granted to his "well-beloved John Cabot, citizen of + Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian and Santius,<a name="FnAnchor_161" + href="#Footnote_161"><sup>[1]</sup></a> sonnes of the said John, full and + free authority, leave and power upon theyr own proper costs and charges, + to seeke out, discover and finde whatsoever isles, countries, regions or + provinces of the heathen and infidels, which before this time have been + unknown to all Christians". Merchandise from the countries visited was to + be entered at Bristol free of duty, but one-fifth of the net gains was to + go to the king.</p> + + <p>Armed with these powers Cabot set sail from Bristol on Tuesday the 2nd + of May 1497, on board a ship called the "Mathew" manned by eighteen men. + Rounding Ireland they headed first north and then west. During several + weeks they were forced by variable winds to keep an irregular course, + although steadily towards the west. At length, after being fifty-two days + at sea, at five o'clock on Saturday morning, June 24, they reached the + northern extremity of Cape Breton Island. The royal banner was unfurled, + and in solemn form Cabot took possession of the country in the name of + King Henry VII. The soil being found fertile and the climate temperate, + Cabot was convinced he had reached the north-eastern coast of Asia, + whence came the silks and precious stones he had seen at Mecca. Cape + North was named Cape Discovery, and as the day was the festival of St + John the Baptist, St Paul Island, which lies opposite, was called the + island of St John.</p> + + <p>Having taken on board wood and water, preparations were made to return + home as quickly as possible. Sailing north, Cabot named Cape Ray, St + George's Cape, and christened St Pierre and Miquelon, which then with + Langley formed three separate islands, the Trinity group. Hereabout they + met great schools of cod, quantities of which were caught by the sailors + merely by lowering baskets into the water. Cape Race, the last land seen, + was named England's Cape.</p> + + <p>The return voyage was made without difficulty, since the prevailing + winds in the North Atlantic are westerly, and on Sunday, the 6th of + August, the "Mathew" dropped anchor once more in Bristol harbour. Cabot + hastened to Court, and on Thursday the 10th of August received from the + king £10 for having "found the new isle". Cabot reported that 700 leagues + beyond Ireland he had reached the country of the Grand Khan. Although + both silk and brazil-wood could be obtained there, he intended on his + next voyage to follow the coast southward as far as Cipangu or Japan, + then placed near the equator. Once Cipangu had been reached London would + become a greater centre for spices than Alexandria. Henry VII. was + delighted, and besides granting Cabot a pension of £20 promised him in + the spring a fleet of ten ships with which to sail to Cipangu.</p> + + <p>On the 3rd of February 1498, fresh letters patent were issued, whereby + Cabot was empowered to "take at his pleasure VI. englisshe shippes and + theym convey and lede to the londe and iles of late founde by the seid + John". Henry VII. himself also advanced considerable sums of money to + various members of the expedition. As success seemed assured, it was + expected the returns would be high.</p> + + <p>In the spring Cabot visited Lisbon and Seville, to secure the services + of men who had sailed along the African coast with Cam and Diaz or to the + Indies with Columbus. At Lisbon he met a certain João Fernandes, called + Llavrador, who about the year 1492 appears to have made his way from + Iceland to Greenland. Cabot, on learning from Fernandes that part of + Asia, as they supposed Greenland to be, lay so near Iceland, determined + to return by way of this country. On reaching Bristol he laid his plans + accordingly. Early in May the expedition, which consisted of two ships + and 300 men, left Bristol. Several vessels in the habit of trading to + Iceland accompanied them. Off Ireland a storm forced one of these to + return, but the rest of the fleet proceeded on its way along the parallel + of 58°. Each day the ships were carried northward by the Gulf Stream. + Early in June Cabot reached the east coast of Greenland, and as Fernandes + was the first who had told him of this country he named it the Labrador's + Land.</p> + + <p>In the hope of finding a passage Cabot proceeded northward along the + coast. As he advanced, the cold became more intense and the icebergs + thicker and larger. It was also noticed that the land trended eastward. + As a result on the 11th of June in latitude 67° 30′ the crews + mutinied and refused to proceed farther in that direction. Cabot had no + alternative but to put his ships about and look for a passage towards the + south. Rounding Cape Farewell he explored the southern coast of Greenland + and then made his way a certain distance up the west coast. Here again + his progress was checked by icebergs, whereupon a course was set towards + the west. Crossing Davis Strait Cabot reached our modern Baffin Land in + 66°. Judging this to be the Asiatic mainland, he set off southward in + search of Cipangu. South of Hudson Strait a little bartering was done + with the Indians, but these could offer nothing in exchange but furs. Our + strait of Belle Isle was mistaken for an ordinary bay, and Newfoundland + was regarded by Cabot as the main shore itself. Rounding Cape Race he + visited once more the region explored in the previous summer, and then + proceeded to follow the coast of our Nova Scotia and New England in + search of Cipangu. He made his way as far south as the thirty-eighth + parallel, when the absence of all signs of eastern civilization and the + low state of his stores forced him to abandon all hope of reaching + Cipangu on this voyage. Accordingly the ships were put about and a course + set for England, where they arrived safely late in the autumn of 1498. + Not long after his return John Cabot died.</p> + + <p>His son, <span class="sc">Sebastian Cabot</span> (1476-1557),<a + name="FnAnchor_162" href="#Footnote_162"><sup>[2]</sup></a> is not + independently heard of until May 1512, when he was paid twenty shillings + "for making a carde of Gascoigne and Guyenne", whither he accompanied the + English army sent that year by Henry VIII. to aid his father-in-law + Ferdinand of Aragon against the French. Since Ferdinand and his daughter + Joanna were contemplating the dispatch of an expedition from Santander to + explore Newfoundland, Sebastian was questioned about this coast by the + king's councillors. As a result Ferdinand summoned him in September 1512 + to Logroño, and on the 30th of October appointed him a captain in the + navy at a salary of 50,000 maravedis a year. A letter was also written to + the Spanish ambassador in England to help Cabot and his family to return + to Spain, with the result that in March 1514 he was again back at Court + discussing with Ferdinand the proposed expedition to Newfoundland. + Preparations were made for him to set sail in March 1516; but the death + of the king in January of that year put an end to the undertaking. His + services were retained by Charles V., and on the 5th of February 1518 + Cabot was named Pilot Major and official examiner of pilots.</p> + + <p>In the winter of 1520-1521 Sebastian Cabot returned to England <!-- + Page 923 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page923"></a>[v.04 + p.0923]</span>and while there was offered by Wolsey the command of five + vessels which Henry VIII. intended to despatch to Newfoundland. Being + reproached by a fellow Venetian with having done nothing for his own + country, Cabot refused, and on reaching Spain entered into secret + negotiations with the Council of Ten at Venice. It was agreed that as + soon as an opportunity offered Cabot should come to Venice and lay his + plans before the Signiory. The conference of Badajoz took up his time in + 1524, and on the 4th of March 1525 he was appointed commander of an + expedition fitted out at Seville "to discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, + Ophir, Cipango and Cathay."</p> + + <p>The three vessels set sail in April, and by June were off the coast of + Brazil and on their way to the Straits of Magellan. Near the La Plata + river Cabot found three Spaniards who had formed part of De Solis's + expedition of 1515. These men gave such glowing accounts of the riches of + the country watered by this river that Cabot was at length induced, + partly by their descriptions and in part by the casting away of his + flag-ship, to forgo the search for Tarsis and Ophir and to enter the La + Plata, which was reached in February 1527. All the way up the Parana + Cabot found the Indians friendly, but those on the Paraguay proved so + hostile that the attempt to reach the mountains, where the gold and + silver were procured, had to be given up. On reaching Seville in August + 1530, Cabot was condemned to four years' banishment to Oran in Africa, + but in June 1533 he was once more reinstated in his former post of Pilot + Major, which he continued to fill until he again removed to England.</p> + + <p>As early as 1538 Cabot tried to obtain employment under Henry VIII., + and it is possible he was the Sevillian pilot who was brought to London + by the king in 1541. Soon after the accession of Edward VI., however, his + friends induced the Privy Council to advance money for his removal to + England, and on the 5th of January 1549 the king granted him a pension of + £166, 13s. 4d. On Charles V. objecting to this proceeding, the Privy + Council, on the zist of April 1550, made answer that since "Cabot of + himself refused to go either into Spayne or to the emperour, no reason or + equitie wolde that he shulde be forced or compelled to go against his + will." A fresh application to Queen Mary on the 9th of September 1553 + likewise proved of no avail.</p> + + <p>On the 26th of June 1550 Cabot received £200 "by waie of the kinges + Majesties rewarde," but it is not clear whether this was for his services + in putting down the privileges of the German Merchants of the Steelyard + or for founding the company of Merchant Adventurers incorporated on the + 18th of December 1551. Of this company Cabot was made governor for life. + Three ships were sent out in May 1553 to search for a passage to the East + by the north-east. Two of the vessels were caught in the ice near Arzina + and the crews frozen to death. Chancellor's vessel alone reached the + White Sea, whence her captain made his way overland to Moscow. He + returned to England in the summer of 1554 and was the means of opening up + a very considerable trade with Russia. Vessels were again despatched to + Russia in 1555 and 1556. On the departure of the "Searchthrift" in May + 1556, "the good old gentleman Master Cabot gave to the poor most liberal + alms, wishing them to pray for the good fortune and prosperous success of + the 'Searchthrift'; and then, at the sign of the Christopher, he and his + friends banqueted and made them that were in the company good cheer; and + for very joy that he had to see the towardness of our intended discovery, + he entered into the dance himself among the rest of the young and lusty + company." On the arrival of King Philip II. in England Cabot's pension + was stopped on the 26th of May 1557, but three days later Mary had it + renewed. The date of Cabot's death has not been definitely discovered. It + is supposed that he died within the year.</p> + + <p>See G.P. Winship, <i>Cabot Bibliography, with an Introductory Essay on + the Careers of the Cabots</i> (London, 1900); and H.P. Biggar, "The + Voyages of the Cabots to North America and Greenland," in the <i>Revue + Hispanique</i>, tome x. pp. 485-593 (Paris, 1903).</p> + + <p>(H. P. B.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_161" href="#FnAnchor_161">[1]</a> Nothing further is + known of Lewis and Santius.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_162" href="#FnAnchor_162">[2]</a> The dates are + conjectural. Richard Eden (<i>Decades of the Newe Worlde</i>, f. 255) + says Sebastian told him that when four years old he was taken by his + father to Venice, and returned to England "after certeyne yeares; wherby + he was thought to have bin born in Venice"; Stow (<i>Annals</i>, under + year 1498) styles "Sebastian Caboto, a Genoas sonne, borne in Bristow". + Galvano and Herrera also give England the honour of his nativity. See + also Nicholls, <i>Remarkable Life of Sebastian Cabot</i> (1869), a + eulogistic account, with which may be contrasted Henry Harrisse's <i>John + Cabot and his son Sebastian</i> (1896).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CABOTAGE</b>, the French term for coasting-trade, a coast-pilotage. + It is probably derived from <i>cabot</i>, a small boat, with which the + name Cabot may be connected; the conjecture that the word comes from + <i>cabo</i>, the Spanish for cape, and means "sailing from cape to cape", + has little foundation.</p> + + <p><b>CABRA,</b> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 28 + m. S.E. by S. of Cordova, on the Jaen-Málaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,127. + Cabra is built in a fertile valley between the Sierra de Cabra and the + Sierra de Montilla, which together form the watershed between the rivers + Cabra and Guadajoz. The town was for several centuries an episcopal see. + Its chief buildings are the cathedral, originally a mosque, and the + ruined castle, which is the chief among many interesting relics of + Moorish rule. The neighbouring fields of clay afford material for the + manufacture of bricks and pottery; coarse cloth is woven in the town; and + there is a considerable trade in farm produce. Cabra is the Roman + <i>Baebro</i> or <i>Aegabro</i>. It was delivered from the Moors by + Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1240, and entrusted to the Order of + Calatrava; in 1331 it was recaptured by the Moorish king of Granada; but + in the following century it was finally reunited to Christian Spain.</p> + + <p><b>CABRERA, RAMON</b> (1806-1877), Carlist general, was born at + Tortosa, province of Tarragona, Spain, on the 27th of December 1806. As + his family had in their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to + the seminary of Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly + pupil, ever mixed up in disturbances and careless in his studies. After + he had taken minor orders, the bishop refused to ordain him as a priest, + telling him that the Church was not his vocation, and that everything in + him showed that he ought to be a soldier. Cabrera followed this advice + and took part in Carlist conspiracies on the death of Ferdinand VII. The + authorities exiled him and he absconded to Morella to join the forces of + the pretender Don Carlos. In a very short time he rose by sheer daring, + fanaticism and ferocity to the front rank among the Carlist chiefs who + led the bands of Don Carlos in Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. As a + raider he was often successful, and he was many times wounded in the + brilliant fights in which he again and again defeated the generals of + Queen Isabella. He sullied his victories by acts of cruelty, shooting + prisoners of war whose lives he had promised to spare and not respecting + the lives and property of non-combatants. The queen's generals seized his + mother as a hostage, whereupon Cabrera shot several mayors and officers. + General Nogueras unfortunately caused the mother of Cabrera to be shot, + and the Carlist leader then started upon a policy of reprisals so + merciless that the people nicknamed him "The Tiger of the Maeztrazgo". It + will suffice to say that he shot 1110 prisoners of war, 100 officers and + many civilians, including the wives of four leading Isabellinos, to + avenge his mother. When Marshal Espartero induced the Carlists of the + north-western provinces, with Maroto at their head, to submit in + accordance with the Convention of Vergara, which secured the recognition + of the rank and titles of 1000 Carlist officers, Cabrera held out in + Central Spain for nearly a year. Marshals Espartero and O'Donnell, with + the bulk of the Isabellino armies, had to conduct a long and bloody + campaign against Cabrera before they succeeded in driving him into French + territory in July 1840. The government of Louis Philippe kept him in a + fortress for some months and then allowed him to go to England, where he + quarrelled with the pretender, disapproving of his abdication in favour + of the count of Montemolin. In 1848 Cabrera reappeared in the mountains + of Catalonia at the head of Carlist bands. These were soon dispersed and + he again fled to France. After this last effort he did not take a very + active part in the propaganda and subsequent risings of the Carlists, + who, however, continued to consult him. He took offence when new men, not + a few of them quondam regular officers, became the advisers and + lieutenants of Don Carlos in the war which lasted more or less from + 1870-1876. Indeed, his long residence in England, his marriage with Miss + Richards, and his prolonged absence from Spain had much shaken his + devotion to his old cause and belief in its success. In March 1875 + Cabrera sprang upon Don Carlos a manifesto in which he called upon the + adherents of the pretender to follow his own example and submit to the + restored monarchy of Alphonso XII., the son of Queen Isabella, who + recognized the rank of captain-general and the title of count of Morella + conferred on Cabrera by <!-- Page 924 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page924"></a>[v.04 p.0924]</span>the first pretender. Only a very + few insignificant Carlists followed Cabrera's example, and Don Carlos + issued a proclamation declaring him a traitor and depriving him of all + his honours and titles. Cabrera, who was ever afterwards regarded with + contempt and execration by the Carlists, died in London on the 24th of + May 1877. He did not receive much attention from the majority of his + fellow-countrymen, who commonly said that his disloyalty to his old cause + had proved more harmful to him than beneficial to the new state of + things. A pension which had been granted to his widow was renounced by + her in 1899 in aid of the Spanish treasury after the loss of the + colonies.</p> + + <p>(A. E. H.)</p> + + <p><b>CACCINI, GIULIO</b> (1558-1615?), Italian musical composer, also + known as Giulio Romano, but to be distinguished from the painter of that + name, was born at Rome about 1558, and in 1578 entered the service of the + grand duke of Tuscany at Florence. He collaborated with J. Peri in the + early attempts at musical drama which were the ancestors of modern opera + (<i>Dafne</i>, 1594, and <i>Euridice</i>, 1600), produced at Florence by + the circle of musicians and amateurs which met at the houses of G. Bardi + and Corsi. He also published in 1601 <i>Le nuove musiche</i>, a + collection of songs which is of great importance in the history of + singing as well as in that of the transition period of musical + composition. He was a lyric composer rather than a dramatist like Peri, + and the genuine beauty of his works makes them acceptable even at the + present day.</p> + + <p><b>CÁCERES,</b> a province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of + districts taken from Estremadura, and bounded on the N. by Salamanca and + Ávila, E. by Toledo, S. by Badajoz, and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) + 362,164; area, 7667 sq. m. Cáceres is the largest of Spanish provinces, + after Badajoz, and one of the most thinly peopled, although the number of + its inhabitants steadily increases. Except for the mountainous north, + where the Sierra de Gata and the Sierra de Grédos mark respectively the + boundaries of Salamanca and Ávila, and in the south-east, where there are + several lower ranges, almost the entire surface is flat or undulating, + with wide tracts of moorland and thin pasture. There is little forest and + many districts suffer from drought. The whole province, except the + extreme south, belongs to the basin of the river Tagus, which flows from + east to west through the central districts, and is joined by several + tributaries, notably the Alagon and Tietar, from the north, and the Salor + and Almonte from the south. The climate is temperate except in summer, + when hot east winds prevail. Fair quantities of grain and olives are + raised, but as a stock-breeding province Cáceres ranks second only to + Badajoz. In 1900 its flocks and herds numbered more than 1,000,000 head. + It is famed for its sheep and pigs, and exports wool, hams and the red + sausages called <i>embutidos</i>. Its mineral resources are comparatively + insignificant. The total number of mines at work in 1903 was only nine; + their output consisted of phosphates, with a small amount of zinc and + tin. Brandy, leather and cork goods, and coarse woollen stuffs are + manufactured in many of the towns, but the backwardness of education, the + lack of good roads, and the general poverty retard the development of + commerce. The more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon railways enters the + province on the east; passes south of Plasencia, where it is joined by + the railway from Salamanca, on the north; and reaches the Portuguese + frontier at Valencia de Alcántara. This line is supplemented by a branch + from Arroyo to the city of Cáceres, and thence southwards to Mérida in + Badajoz. Here it meets the railways from Seville and Cordova. The + principal towns of Cáceres are Cáceres (pop. 1900, 16,933); Alcántara + (3248), famous for its Roman bridge; Plasencia (8208); Trujillo (12,512), + and Valencia de Alcántara (9417). These are described in separate + articles. Arroyo, or Arroyo del Puerco (7094), is an important + agricultural market. (See also <span class="sc">Estremadura</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>CÁCERES,</b> the capital of the Spanish province of Cáceres, about + 20 m. S. of the river Tagus, on the Cáceres-Mérida railway, and on a + branch line which meets the more northerly of the two Madrid-Lisbon + railways at Arroyo, 10 m. W. Pop. (1900) 16,933. Cáceres occupies a + conspicuous eminence on a low ridge running east and west. At the highest + point rises the lofty tower of San Mateo, a fine Gothic church, which + overlooks the old town, with its ancient palaces and massive walls, + gateways and towers. Many of the palaces, notably those of the provincial + legislature, the dukes of Abrantes, and the counts of la Torre, are good + examples of medieval domestic architecture. The monastery and college of + the Jesuits, formerly one of the finest in Spain, has been secularized + and converted into a hospital. In the modern town, built on lower ground + beyond the walls, are the law courts, town-hall, schools and the palace + of the bishops of Cória (pop. 3124), a town on the river Alagon. The + industries of Cáceres include the manufacture of cork and leather goods, + pottery and cloth. There is also a large trade in grain, oil, live-stock + and phosphates from the neighbouring mines. The name of <i>Cáceres</i> is + probably an adaptation of <i>Los Alcázares</i>, from the Moorish + <i>Alcázar</i>, a tower or castle; but it is frequently connected with + the neighbouring <i>Castra Caecilia</i> and <i>Castra Servilia</i>, two + Roman camps on the Mérida-Salamanca road. The town is of Roman origin and + probably stands on the site of <i>Norba Caesarina</i>. Several Roman + inscriptions, statues and other remains have been discovered.</p> + + <p><b>CACHAR,</b> or <span class="sc">Kachar</span>, a district of + British India, in the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies + the upper basin of the Surma or Barak river, and is bounded on three + sides by lofty hills. Its area is 3769 sq. m. It is divided naturally + between the plain and hills. The scenery is beautiful, the hills rising + generally steeply and being clothed with forests, while the plain is + relieved of monotony by small isolated undulations and by its rich + vegetation. The Surma is the chief river, and its principal tributaries + from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and from the south the Sonai and + Daleswari. The climate is extremely moist. Several extensive fens, + notably that of Chatla, which becomes lakes in time of flood, are + characteristic of the plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of + rice, next to which in importance is tea. The industry connected with the + latter crop employs large numbers of the population; manufacturing + industries are otherwise slight. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the + district, including the capital town of Silchar. The population of the + district in 1901 was 455,593, and showed a large increase, owing in great + part to immigration from the adjacent district of Sylhet. The plain is + the most thickly populated part of the district; in the North Cachar + Hills the population is sparse. About 66% of the population are Hindus + and 29% Mahommedans. There are three administrative subdivisions of the + district: Silchar, Hailakandi and North Cachar. The district takes name + from its former rulers of the Kachari tribe, of whom the first to settle + here did so early in the 18th century, after being driven out of the + Assam valley in 1536, and from the North Cachar Hills in 1706, by the + Ahoms. About the close of the 18th century the Burmans threatened to + expel the Kachari raja and annex his territory; the British, however, + intervened to prevent this, and on the death of the last raja without + heir in 1830 they obtained the territory under treaty. A separate + principality which had been established in the North Cachar Hills earlier + in the century by a servant of the raja, and had been subsequently + recognized as such, was taken over by the British in 1854 owing to the + misconduct of its rulers. The southern part of the district was raided + several times in the 19th century by the turbulent tribe of Lushais.</p> + + <p><b>CACHOEIRA,</b> an important inland town of Bahia, Brazil, on the + Paraguassu river, about 48 m. from São Salvador, with which it is + connected by river-boats. Pop. (1890) of the city, 12,607; of the + municipality, 48,352. The Bahia Central railway starts from this point + and extends S. of W. to Machado Portella, 161 m., and N. to Feira de + Santa Anna, 28 m. Although badly situated on the lower levels of the + river (52 ft. above sea-level) and subject to destructive floods, + Cachoeira is one of the most thriving commercial and industrial centres + in the state. It exports sugar and tobacco and is noted for its cigar and + cotton factories.</p> + + <p><b>CACTUS.</b> This word, applied in the form of <span title="Kaktos" class="grk" + >Κάκτος</span> by the ancient + Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus as the name of a + group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed plants, most of them prickly + and leafless, some of which produce <!-- Page 925 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page925"></a>[v.04 p.0925]</span>beautiful + flowers, and are now so popular in our gardens that the name has become + familiar. As applied by Linnaeus, the name <i>Cactus</i> is almost + conterminous with what is now regarded as the natural order Cactaceae, + which embraces several modern genera. It is one of the few Linnaean + generic terms which have been entirely set aside by the names adopted for + the modern divisions of the group.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/cactus_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/cactus_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Prickly Pear." title="Fig. 1.--Prickly Pear." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Prickly Pear + (<i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>). 1, Flower reduced; 2, Same in vertical + section; 3, Flattened branch much reduced; 4, Horizontal plan of + arrangement of flower.</p> + </div> + <p>The <i>Cacti</i> may be described in general terms as plants having a + woody axis, overlaid with thick masses of cellular tissue forming the + fleshy stems. These are extremely various in character and form, being + globose, cylindrical, columnar or flattened into leafy expansions or + thick joint-like divisions, the surface being either ribbed like a melon, + or developed into nipple-like protuberances, or variously angular, but in + the greater number of the species furnished copiously with tufts of horny + spines, some of which are exceedingly keen and powerful. These tufts show + the position of buds, of which, however, comparatively few are developed. + The stems are in most cases leafless, using the term in a popular sense; + the leaves, if present at all, being generally reduced to minute scales. + In one genus, however, <i>Peireskia</i>, the stems are less succulent, + and the leaves, though rather fleshy, are developed in the usual form. + The flowers are frequently large and showy, and are generally attractive + from their high colouring. In one group, represented by <i>Cereus</i>, + they consist of a tube, more or less elongated, on the outer surface of + which, towards the base, are developed small and at first inconspicuous + scales, which gradually increase in size upwards, and at length become + crowded, numerous and petaloid, forming a funnel-shaped blossom, the + beauty of which is much enhanced by the multitude of conspicuous stamens + which with the pistil occupy the centre. In another group, represented by + <i>Opuntia</i> (fig. 1), the flowers are rotate, that is to say, the long + tube is replaced by a very short one. At the base of the tube, in both + groups, the ovary becomes developed into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, + that produced by the <i>Opuntia</i> being known as the prickly pear or + Indian fig.</p> + + <p>The principal modern genera are grouped by the differences in the + flower-tube just explained. Those with long-tubed flowers comprise the + genera <i>Melocactus</i>, <i>Mammillaria</i>, <i>Echinocactus</i>, + <i>Cereus</i>, <i>Pilocereus</i>, <i>Echinopsis</i>, <i>Phyllocactus</i>, + <i>Epiphyllum</i>, &c.; while those with short-tubed flowers are + <i>Rhipsalis</i>, <i>Opuntia</i>, <i>Peireskia</i>, and one or two of + minor importance. Cactaceae belong almost entirely to the New World; but + some of the Opuntias have been so long distributed over certain parts of + Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean and the volcanic + soil of Italy, that they appear in some places to have taken possession + of the soil, and to be distinguished with difficulty from the aboriginal + vegetation. The habitats which they affect are the hot, dry regions of + tropical America, the aridity of which they are enabled to withstand in + consequence of the thickness of their skin and the paucity of evaporating + pores or stomata with which they are furnished,—these conditions + not permitting the moisture they contain to be carried off too rapidly; + the thick fleshy stems and branches contain a store of water. The + succulent fruits are not only edible but agreeable, and in fevers are + freely administered as a cooling drink. The Spanish Americans plant the + Opuntias around their houses, where they serve as impenetrable + fences.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Melocactus</span>, the genus of melon-thistle or + Turk's-cap cactuses, contains, according to a recent estimate, about 90 + species, which inhabit chiefly the West Indies, Mexico and Brazil, a few + extending into New Granada. The typical species, <i>M. communis</i>, + forms a succulent mass of roundish or ovate form, from 1 ft. to 2 ft. + high, the surface divided into numerous furrows like the ribs of a melon, + with projecting angles, which are set with a regular series of stellated + spines—each bundle consisting of about five larger spines, + accompanied by smaller but sharp bristles—and the tip of the plant + being surmounted by a cylindrical crown 3 to 5 in. high, composed of + reddish-brown, needle-like bristles, closely packed with cottony wool. At + the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers are produced, half + protruding from the mass of wool, and these are succeeded by small red + berries. These strange plants usually grow in rocky places with little or + no earth to support them; and it is said that in times of drought the + cattle resort to them to allay their thirst, first ripping them up with + their horns and tearing off the outer skin, and then devouring the moist + succulent parts. The fruit, which has an agreeably acid flavour, is + frequently eaten in the West Indies. The <i>Melocacti</i> are + distinguished by the distinct cephalium or crown which bears the + flowers.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Mammillaria</span>.—This genus, which comprises + nearly 300 species, mostly Mexican, with a few Brazilian and West Indian, + is called nipple cactus, and consists of globular or cylindrical + succulent plants, whose surface instead of being cut up into ridges with + alternate furrows, as in <i>Melocactus</i>, is broken up into teat-like + cylindrical or angular tubercles, spirally arranged, and terminating in a + radiating tuft of spines which spring from a little woolly cushion. The + flowers issue from between the mammillae, towards the upper part of the + stem, often disposed in a zone just below the apex, and are either + purple, rose-pink, white or yellow, and of moderate size. The spines are + variously coloured, white and yellow tints predominating, and from the + symmetrical arrangement of the areolae or tufts of spines they are very + pretty objects, and are hence frequently kept in drawing-room plant + cases. They grow freely in a cool greenhouse.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/cactus_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/cactus_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Echinocactus." title="Fig. 2.--Echinocactus." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> + 2.—<i>Echinocactus</i> much reduced; the flowers are several + inches in diameter.</p> + </div> + <p><span class="sc">Echinocactus</span> (fig. 2) is the name given to the + genus bearing the popular name of hedgehog cactus. It comprises some 200 + species, distributed from the south-west United States to Brazil and + Chile. They have the fleshy stems characteristic of the order, these + being either globose, oblong or cylindrical, and either ribbed as in + <i>Melocactus</i>, or broken up into distinct tubercles, and most of them + armed with stiff sharp pines, set in little woolly cushions occupying the + place of the buds. The flowers, produced near the apex of the plant, are + generally large and showy, yellow and rose being the prevailing colours. + They are succeeded by succulent fruits, which are exserted, and + frequently scaly or spiny, in which respects this genus differs both from + <i>Melocactus</i> and <i>Mamrmllaria</i>, which have the fruits immersed + and smooth. One of the most interesting species is the <i>E. ingens</i>, + of which some very large plants have been from time to time imported. + These large plants have from 40 to 50 ridges, on which the buds and + clusters of spines are sunk at intervals, the aggregate number of the + spines having been in some cases computed at upwards of 50,000 on a + single plant. These spines are used by the Mexicans as toothpicks. The + plants are slow growers and must have plenty of sun heat; they require + sandy loam with a mixture of sand and bricks finely broken and must be + kept dry in winter.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Cereus</span>.—This group bears the common name + of torch thistle. It comprises about 100 species, largely Mexican but + scattered through South America and the West Indies. The stems are + columnar or elongated, some of the latter creeping on the ground or + climbing up the trunks of trees, rooting as they grow. <i>C. + giganteus</i>, the largest and most striking species of the genus, is a + native of hot, arid, desert regions of New Mexico, growing there in rocky + valleys and on mountain sides, where the tall stems with their erect + branches have the appearance of telegraph poles. The stems grow to a + height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., and have a diameter of from 1 ft. to 2 + ft., often unbranched, but sometimes furnished with branches <!-- Page + 926 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page926"></a>[v.04 + p.0926]</span>which grow out at right angles from the main stem, and then + curve upwards and continue their growth parallel to it; these stems have + from twelve to twenty ribs, on which at intervals of about an inch are + the buds with their thick yellow cushions, from which issue five or six + large and numerous smaller spines. The fruits of this plant, which are + green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long, contain a crimson pulp from which + the Pimos and Papagos Indians prepare an excellent preserve; and they + also use the ripe fruit as an article of food, gathering it by means of a + forked stick attached to a long pole. The Cereuses include some of our + most interesting and beautiful hothouse plants. In the allied genus + <i>Echinocereus</i>, with 25 to 30 species in North and South America, + the stems are short, branched or simple, divided into few or many ridges + all armed with sharp, formidable spines. <i>E. pectinatus </i>produces a + purplish fruit resembling a gooseberry, which is very good eating; and + the fleshy part of the stem itself, which is called <i>cabeza del + viego</i> by the Mexicans, is eaten by them as a vegetable after removing + the spines.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Pilocereus</span>, the old man cactus, forms a small + genus with tallish erect, fleshy, angulate stems, on which, with the + tufts of spines, are developed hair-like bodies, which, though rather + coarse, bear some resemblance to the hoary locks of an old man. The + plants are nearly allied to <i>Cereus</i>, differing chiefly in the + floriferous portion developing these longer and more attenuated hair-like + spines, which surround the base of the flowers and form a dense woolly + head or cephalium. The most familiar species is <i>P. senilis</i>, a + Mexican plant, which though seldom seen more than a foot or two in height + in greenhouses, reaches from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in its native country.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Echinopsis</span> is another small group of species, + separated by some authors from <i>Cereus</i>. They are dwarf, ribbed, + globose or cylindrical plants; and the flowers, which are produced from + the side instead of the apex of the stem, are large, and in some cases + very beautiful, being remarkable for the length of the tube, which is + more or less covered with bristly hairs. They are natives of Brazil, + Bolivia and Chile.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/cactus_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/cactus_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.Phyllocactus." title="Fig. 3.Phyllocactus." /></a> + <p class="poem"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Branch of + <i>Phyllocactus</i> much reduced; the flowers are 6 in. or more in + diameter.</p> + </div> + <p><span class="sc">Phyllocactus</span> (fig. 3), the Leaf Cactus family, + consists of about a dozen species, found in Central and tropical South + America. They differ from all the forms already noticed in being shrubby + and epiphytal in habit, and in having the branches compressed and dilated + so as to resemble thick fleshy leaves, with a strong median axis and + rounded woody base. The margins of these leaf-like branches are more or + less crenately notched, the notches representing buds, as do the + spine-clusters in the spiny genera; and from these crenatures the large + showy flowers are produced. As garden plants the <i>Phyllocacti</i> are + amongst the most ornamental of the whole family, being of easy culture, + free blooming and remarkably showy, the colour of the flowers ranging + from rich crimson, through rose-pink to creamy white. Cuttings strike + readily in spring before growth has commenced; they should be potted in + 3-in. or 4-in. pots, well drained, in loamy soil made very porous by the + admixture of finely broken crocks and sand, and placed in a temperature + of 60°; when these pots are filled with roots they are to be shifted into + larger ones, but overpotting must be avoided. During the summer they need + considerable heat, all the light possible and plenty of air; in winter a + temperature of 45° or 50° will be sufficient, and they must be kept + tolerably dry at the root. By the spring they may have larger pots if + required and should be kept in a hot and fairly moistened atmosphere; and + by the end of June, when they have made new growth, they may be turned + out under a south wall in the full sun, water being given only as + required. In autumn they are to be returned to a cool house and wintered + in a dry stove. The turning of them outdoors to ripen their growth is the + surest way to obtain flowers, but they do not take on a free blooming + habit until they have attained some age. They are often called + <i>Epiphyllum</i>, which name is, however, properly restricted to the + group next to be mentioned.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Epiphyllum</span>.—This name is now restricted + to two or three dwarf branching Brazilian epiphytal plants of extreme + beauty, which agree with <i>Phyllocactus</i> in having the branches + dilated into the form of fleshy leaves, but differ in haying them divided + into short truncate leaf-like portions, which are articulated, that is to + say, provided with a joint by which they separate spontaneously; the + margins are crenate or dentate, and the flowers, which are large and + showy, magenta or crimson, appear at the apex of the terminal joints. In + <i>E. truncatum</i> the flowers have a very different aspect from that of + other <i>Cacti</i>, from the mouth of the tube being oblique and the + segments all reflexed at the tip. The short separate pieces of which + these plants are made up grow out of each other, so that the branches may + be said to resemble leaves joined together endwise.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Rhipsalis</span>, a genus of about 50 tropical + species, mainly in Central and South America, but a few in tropical + Africa and Madagascar. It is a very heterogeneous group, being + fleshy-stemmed with a woody axis, the branches being angular, winged, + flattened or cylindrical, and the flowers small, short-tubed, succeeded + by small, round, pea-shaped berries. <i>Rhipsalis Cassytha</i>, when seen + laden with its white berries, bears some resemblance to a branch of + mistletoe. All the species are epiphytal in habit.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Opuntia</span>, the prickly pear, or Indian fig + cactus, is a large typical group, comprising some 150 species, found in + North America, the West Indies, and warmer parts of South America, + extending as far as Chile. In aspect they are very distinct from any of + the other groups. They are fleshy shrubs, with rounded, woody stems, and + numerous succulent branches, composed in most of the species of separate + joints or parts, which are much compressed, often elliptic or + suborbicular, dotted over in spiral lines with small, fleshy, caducous + leaves, in the axils of which are placed the areoles or tufts of barbed + or hooked spines of two forms. The flowers are mostly yellow or + reddish-yellow, and are succeeded by pear-shaped or egg-shaped fruits, + having a broad scar at the top, furnished on their soft, fleshy rind with + tufts of small spines. The sweet, juicy fruits of <i>O. vulgaris</i> and + <i>O. Tuna</i> are much eaten under the name of prickly pears, and are + greatly esteemed for their cooling properties. Both these species are + extensively cultivated for their fruit in Southern Europe, the Canaries + and northern Africa; and the fruits are not unfrequently to be seen in + Covent Garden Market and in the shops of the leading fruiterers of the + metropolis. <i>O. vulgaris</i> is hardy in the south of England.</p> + + <p>The cochineal insect is nurtured on a species of <i>Opuntia</i> (<i>O. + coccinellifera</i>), separated by some authors under the name of + <i>Nopalea</i>, and sometimes also on <i>O. Tuna</i>. Plantations of the + nopal and the tuna, which are called nopaleries, are established for the + purpose of rearing this insect, the <i>Coccus Cacti</i>, and these often + contain as many as 50,000 plants. The females are placed on the plants + about August, and in four months the first crop of cochineal is gathered, + two more being produced in the course of the year. The native country of + the insect is Mexico, and it is there more or less cultivated; but the + greater part of our supply comes from Colombia and the Canary + Islands.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Peireskia aculeata</span>, or Barbadoes gooseberry, + the <i>Cactus peireskia</i> of Linnaeus, differs from the rest in having + woody stems and leaf-bearing branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, + but otherwise of the ordinary laminate character. The flowers are + subpaniculate, white or yellowish. This species is frequently used as a + stock on which to graft other <i>Cacti</i>. There are about a dozen + species known of this genus, mainly Mexican.</p> + + <p><b>CADALSO VAZQUEZ, JOSÉ</b> (1741-1782), Spanish author, was born at + Cadiz on the 8th of October 1741. Before completing his twentieth year he + had travelled through Italy, Germany, England, France and Portugal, and + had studied the literatures of these countries. On his return to Spain he + entered the army and rose to the rank of colonel. He was killed at the + siege of Gibraltar, on the 27th of February 1782. His first published + work was a rhymed tragedy, <i>Don Sancho Garcia, Conde de Castilla</i> + (1771). In the following year he published his <i>Eruditos á la + Violeta</i>, a prose satire on superficial knowledge, which was very + successful. In 1773 appeared a volume of miscellaneous poems, <i>Ocios de + mi juventud</i>, and after his death there was found among his MSS. a + series of fictitious letters in the style of the <i>Lettres Persanes</i>; + these were issued in 1793 under the title of <i>Cartas marruecas</i>. A + good edition of his works appeared at Madrid, in 3 vols., 1823. This is + supplemented by the <i>Obras inéditas</i> (Paris, 1894) published by R. + Foulché-Delbosc.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 927 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page927"></a>[v.04 p.0927]</span></p> + + <p><b>CADAMOSTO</b> (or <span class="sc">Ca Da Mosto</span>), + <b>ALVISE</b> (1432-1477), a Venetian explorer, navigator and writer, + celebrated for his voyages in the Portuguese service to West Africa. In + 1454 he sailed from Venice for Flanders, and, being detained by contrary + winds off Cape St Vincent, was enlisted by Prince Henry the Navigator + among his explorers, and given command of an expedition which sailed + (22nd of March 1455) for the south. Visiting the Madeira group and the + Canary Islands (of both which he gives an elaborate account, especially + concerned with European colonization and native customs), and coasting + the West Sahara (whose tribes, trade and trade-routes he likewise + describes in detail), he arrived at the Senegal, whose lower course had + already, as he tells us, been explored by the Portuguese 60 m. up. The + negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and especially the country + and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning about 50 m. beyond the + river, are next treated with equal wealth of interesting detail, and + Cadamosto thence proceeded towards the Gambia, which he ascended some + distance (here also examining races, manners and customs with minute + attention), but found the natives extremely hostile, and so returned + direct to Portugal. Cadamosto expressly refers to the chart he kept of + this voyage. At the mouth of the Gambia he records an observation of the + "Southern Chariot" (Southern Cross). Next year (1456) he went out again + under the patronage of Prince Henry. Doubling Cape Blanco he was driven + out to sea by contrary winds, and thus made the first known discovery of + the Cape Verde Islands. Having explored Boavista and Santiago, and found + them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland, and pushed on to + the Gambia, Rio Grande and Geba. Returning thence to Portugal, he seems + to have remained there till 1463, when he reappeared at Venice. He died + in 1477.</p> + + <p>Besides the accounts of his two voyages, Cadamosto left a narrative of + Pedro de Cintra's explorations in 1461 (or 1462) to Sierre Leone and + beyond Cape Mesurado to El Mina and the Gold Coast; all these relations + first appeared in the 1507 Vicenza Collection of Voyages and Travels (the + <i>Paesi novamente retrovati et novo mondo da Alberico Vesputio + Florentino</i>); they have frequently since been reprinted and translated + (<i>e.g.</i> Ital. text in 1508, 1512, 1519, 1521, 1550 (Ramusio), + &c.; Lat. version, <i>Itinerarium Portugallensium</i>, &c.,1508, + 1532 (Grynaeus), &c.; Fr. <i>Sensuyt le nouveau monde</i>, &c., + 1516, 1521; German, <i>Newe unbekante Landte</i>, &c., 1508). See + also C. Schefer, <i>Relation des voyages ... de Ca' da Mosto</i> (1895); + R.H. Major, <i>Henry the Navigator</i> (1868), pp. 246-287; C.R. Beazley, + <i>Henry the Navigator</i> (1895), pp. 261-288; Yule Oldham, <i>Discovery + of the Cape Verde Islands</i> (1892), esp. pp. 4-15.</p> + + <p>It may be noted that Antonio Uso di Mare (Antoniotto Ususmaris), the + Genoese, wrote his famous letter of the 12th of December 1455 (purporting + to record a meeting with the last surviving descendant of the + Genoese-Indian expedition of 1291, at or near the Gambia), after + accompanying Cadamosto to West Africa; see Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern + Geography</i> (1892), iii. 416-418.</p> + + <p><b>CADASTRE</b> (a French word from the Late Lat. <i>capitastrum</i>, + a register of the poll-tax), a register of the real property of a + country, with details of the area, the owners and the value. A "cadastral + survey" is properly, therefore, one which gives such information as the + Domesday Book, but the term is sometimes used loosely of the Ordnance + Survey of the United Kingdom (1=2500), which is on sufficiently large a + scale to give the area of every field or piece of ground.</p> + + <p><b>CADDIS-FLY</b> and <b>CADDIS-WORM,</b> the name given to insects + with a superficial resemblance to moths, sometimes referred to the + Neuroptera, sometimes to a special order, the Trichoptera, in allusion to + the hairy clothing of the body and wings. Apart from this feature the + Trichoptera also differ from the typical Neuroptera in the relatively + simple, mostly longitudinal neuration of the wings, the absence or + obsolescence of the mandibles and the semi-haustellate nature of the rest + of the mouth-parts. Although caddis-flies are sometimes referred to + several families, the differences between the groups are of no great + importance. Hence the insects may more conveniently be regarded as + constituting the single family <i>Phryganeidae</i>. The larvae known as + caddis-worms are aquatic. The mature females lay their eggs in the water, + and the newly-hatched larvae provide themselves with cases made of + various particles such as grains of sand, pieces of wood or leaves stuck + together with silk secreted from the salivary glands of the insect. These + cases differ greatly in structure and shape. Those of <i>Phyrganea</i> + consist of bits of twigs or leaves cut to a suitable length and laid side + by side in a long spirally-coiled band, forming the wall of a + subcylindrical cavity. The cavity of the tube of <i>Helicopsyche</i>, + composed of grains of sand, is itself spirally coiled, so that the case + exactly resembles a small snail-shell in shape. One species of + <i>Limnophilus</i> uses small but entire leaves; another, the shells of + the pond-snail <i>Planorbis</i>; another, pieces of stick arranged + transversely with reference to the long axis of the tube. To admit of the + free inflow and outflow of currents of water necessary for respiration, + which is effected by means of filamentous abdominal tracheal gills, the + two ends of the tube are open. Sometimes the cases are fixed, but more + often portable. In the latter case the larva crawls about the bottom of + the water or up the stems of plants, with its thickly-chitinized head and + legs protruding from the larger orifice, while it maintains a secure hold + of the silk lining of the tube by means of a pair of strong hooks at the + posterior end of its soft defenceless abdomen. Their food appears for the + most part to be of a vegetable nature. Some species, however, are alleged + to be carnivorous, and a North American form of the genus + <i>Hydropsyche</i> is said to spin around the mouth of its burrow a + silken net for the capture of small animal organisms living in the water. + Before passing into the pupal stage, the larva partially closes the + orifice of the tube with silk or pieces of stone loosely spun together + and pervious to water. Through this temporary protection the active pupa, + which closely resembles the mature insect, subsequently bites a way by + means of its strong mandibles, and rising to the surface of the water + casts the pupal integument and becomes sexually adult.</p> + + <p>The above sketch may be regarded as descriptive of the life-history of + a great majority of species of caddis-flies. It is only necessary here to + mention one anomalous form, <i>Enoicyla pusilla</i>, in which the mature + female is wingless and the larva is terrestrial, living in moss or + decayed leaves.</p> + + <p>Caddis-flies are universally distributed. Geologically they are known + to date back to the Oligocene period, and wings believed to be referable + to them have been found in Liassic and Jurassic beds.</p> + + <p>(R. I. P.)</p> + + <p><b>CADDO,</b> a confederacy of North American Indian tribes which gave + its name to the Caddoan stock, represented in the south by the Caddos, + Wichita and Kichai, and in the north by the Pawnee and Arikara tribes. + The Caddos, now reduced to some 500, settled in western Oklahoma, + formerly ranged over the Red River (Louisiana) country, in what is now + Arkansas, northern Texas and Oklahoma. The native name of the confederacy + is Hasinai, corrupted by the French into Asinais and Cenis. The Caddoan + tribes were mostly agricultural and sedentary, and to-day they are + distinguished by their industry and intelligence.</p> + + <p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p> + + <p><b>CADE, JOHN</b> (d. 1450), commonly called <span class="sc">Jack + Cade</span>, English rebel and leader of the rising of 1450, was probably + an Irishman by birth, but the details of his early life are very scanty. + He seems to have resided for a time in Sussex, to have fled from the + country after committing a murder, and to have served in the French wars. + Returning to England, he settled in Kent under the name of Aylmer and + married a lady of good position. When the men of Kent rose in rebellion + in May 1450, they were led by a man who took the name of Mortimer, and + who has generally been regarded as identical with Cade. Mr James + Gairdner, however, considers it probable that Cade did not take command + of the rebels until after the skirmish at Sevenoaks on the 18th of June. + At all events, it was Cade who led the insurgents from Blackheath to + Southwark, and under him they made their way into London on the 3rd of + July. A part of the populace was doubtless favourable to the rebels, but + the opposing party gained strength when Cade and his men began to + plunder. Having secured the execution of James Fiennes, Baron Say and + Sele, and of William Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, Cade and his followers + retired to Southwark, and on the 5th of July, after a fierce struggle on + London Bridge, the citizens prevented them from re-entering the city. + Cade then met the chancellor, John <!-- Page 928 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page928"></a>[v.04 p.0928]</span>Kemp, + archbishop of York, and William of Wayneflete, bishop of Winchester, and + terms of peace were arranged. Pardons were drawn up, that for the leaders + being in the name of Mortimer. Cade, however, retained some of his men, + and at this time, or a day or two earlier, broke open the prisons in + Southwark and released the prisoners, many of whom joined his band. + Having collected some booty, he went to Rochester, made a futile attempt + to capture Queenborough castle, and then quarrelled with his followers + over some plunder. On the 10th of July a proclamation was issued against + him in the name of Cade, and a reward was offered for his apprehension. + Escaping into Sussex he was captured at Heathfield on the 12th. During + the scuffle he had been severely wounded, and on the day of his capture + he died in the cart which was conveying him to London. The body was + afterwards beheaded and quartered, and in 1451 Cade was attainted.</p> + + <p>See Robert Fabyan, <i>The New Chronicles of England and France</i>, + edited by H. Ellis (London, 1811); William of Worcester, <i>Annales rerum + Anglicarum</i>, edited by J. Stevenson, (London, 1864); <i>An English + Chronicle of the Reigns of Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry + VI.</i>, edited by J.S. Davies (London, 1856); <i>Historical Collections + of a Citizen of London</i>, edited by J. Gairdner (London, 1876); + <i>Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles</i>, edited by J. Gairdner (London, + 1880); J. Gairdner, Introduction to the <i>Paston Letters</i> (London, + 1904); G. Kriehn, <i>The English Rising of 1450</i> (Strassburg, + 1892.)</p> + + <p><b>CADENABBIA,</b> a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of + Como, about 15 m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of Como. It is situated + on the W. shore of the lake of Como, and owing to the great beauty of the + scenery and of the vegetation, and its sheltered situation, is a + favourite spring and autumn resort. The most famous of its villas is the + Villa Carlotta, now the property of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, which + contains marble reliefs by Thorwaldsen, representing the triumph of + Alexander, and statues by Canova.</p> + + <p><b>CADENCE</b> (through the Fr. from the Lat. <i>cadentia</i>, from + <i>cadere</i>, to fall), a falling or sinking, especially as applied to + rhythmical or musical sounds, as in the "fall" of the voice in speaking, + the rhythm or measure of verses, song or dance. In music, the word is + used of the closing chords of a musical phrase, which succeed one another + in such a way as to produce, first an expectation or suspense, and then + an impression of finality, indicating also the key strongly. "Cadenza," + the Italian form of the same word, is used of a free flourish in a vocal + or instrumental composition, introduced immediately before the close of a + movement or at the end of the piece. The object is to display the + performer's technique, or to prevent too abrupt a contrast between two + movements. Cadenzas are usually left to the improvisation of the + performer, but are sometimes written in full by the composer, or by some + famous executant, as in the cadenza in Brahms's <i>Violin Concerto</i>, + written by Joseph Joachim.</p> + + <p><b>CADER IDRIS</b> ("the Seat of Idris"), the second most imposing + mountain in North Wales, standing in Merionethshire to the S. of + Dolgelly, between the broad estuaries of the Mawddach and the Dovey. It + is so called in memory of Idris Gawr, celebrated in the Triads as one of + the three "Gwyn Serenyddion," or "Happy Astronomers," of Wales, who is + traditionally supposed to have made his observations on this peak. Its + loftiest point, known as Pen-y-gader, rises to the height of 2914 ft., + and in clear weather commands a magnificent panorama of immense extent. + The mountain is everywhere steep and rocky, especially on its southern + side, which falls abruptly towards the Lake of Tal-y-llyn. Mention of + Cader Idris and its legends is frequent in Welsh literature, old and + modern.</p> + + <p><b>CADET</b> (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. <i>capitettum</i>, a + diminutive of <i>caput</i>, head, through the Provençal form + <i>capdet</i>), the head of an inferior branch of a family, a younger + son; particularly a military term for an accepted candidate for a + commission in the army or navy, who is undergoing training to become an + officer. This latter use of the term arose in France, where it was + applied to the younger sons of the <i>noblesse</i> who gained + commissioned rank, not by serving in the ranks or by entering the + <i>écoles militaires</i>, but by becoming attached to corps without pay + but with certain privileges. "Cadet Corps," in the British service, are + bodies of boys or youths organized, armed and trained on volunteer + military lines. Derived from "cadet," through the Scots form "cadee," + comes "caddie," a messenger-boy, and particularly one who carries clubs + at golf, and also the slang word "cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person.</p> + + <p><b>CADGER</b> (a word of obscure origin possibly connected with + "catch"), a hawker or pedlar, a carrier of farm produce to market. The + word in this sense has fallen into disuse, and now is used for a beggar + or loafer, one who gets his living in more or less questionable ways.</p> + + <p><b>CADI</b> (<i><span class="special" + title="qadi">qāḍī</span></i>), a judge in a <i><span + class="special" title="mahkama">maḥkama</span></i> or Mahommedan + ecclesiastical court, in which decisions are rendered on the basis of the + canon law of Islam (<i>sharī `a</i>). It is a general duty, + according to canon law, upon a Moslem community to judge legal disputes + on this basis, and it is an individual duty upon the ruler of the + community to appoint a cadi to act for the community. According to + Shāfi`ite law, such a cadi must be a male, free, adult Moslem, + intelligent, of unassailed character, able to see, hear and write, + learned in the Koran, the traditions, the Agreement, the differences of + the legal schools, acquainted with Arabic grammar and the exegesis of the + Koran. He must not sit in a mosque, except under necessity, but in some + open, accessible place. He must maintain a strictly impartial attitude of + body and mind, accept no presents from the people of his district, and + render judgment only when he is in a normal condition mentally and + physically. He may not engage in any business. He shall ride to the place + where he holds court, greeting the people on both sides. He shall visit + the sick and those returned from a journey, and attend funerals. On some + of these points the codes differ, and the whole is to be regarded as the + ideal qualification, built up theoretically by the canonists.</p> + + <p>See <span class="sc">Mahommedan Law</span>; also Juynboll, <i>De + Mohammedaansche Wet</i> (Leiden, 1903), pp. 287 ff.; Sachau, + <i>Muhammedanisches Recht</i> (Berlin, 1897), pp. 687 ff.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">D. B. Ma.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CADILLAC,</b> a city and the county seat of Wexford county, + Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Cadillac, about 95 m. N. by E. of Grand Rapids + and about 85 m. N.W. of Bay City. Pop. (1890) 4461; (1900) 5997, of whom + 1676 were foreign-born; (1904) 6893; (1910) 8375. It is served by the Ann + Arbor and the Grand Rapids & Indiana railways. Cadillac overlooks + picturesque lake scenery, and the good fishing for pike, pickerel and + perch in the lake, and for brook trout in streams near by, attracts many + visitors. Among the city's chief manufactures are hardwood lumber, iron, + tables, crates and woodenware, veneer, flooring and flour. Cadillac was + settled in 1871, was incorporated as a village under the name of Clam + Lake in 1875, was chartered as a city under its present name (from + Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac) in 1877, and was rechartered in 1895.</p> + + <p><b>CADIZ,</b> a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of + Negros, Philippine Islands, on the N. coast, about 53 m. N.N.E. of + Bacólod, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,429. Lumber products are + manufactured in the town, and a saw-mill here is said to be the largest + in the Philippines.</p> + + <p><b>CADIZ</b> (<i>Cádiz</i>), a maritime province in the extreme south + of Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from the province of Seville; + and bounded on the N. by Seville, E. by Málaga, S.E. by the Mediterranean + sea, S. by the Straits of Gibraltar, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. + (1900) 452,659; area 2834 sq. m.; inclusive, in each case, of the town + and territory of Ceuta, on the Moroccan coast, which belong, for + administrative purposes, to Cadiz. The sea-board of Cadiz possesses + several features of exceptional interest. On the Atlantic littoral, the + broad Guadalquivir estuary marks the frontier of Seville; farther south, + the river Guadalete, which waters the northern districts, falls into the + magnificent double bay of Cadiz; farther south again, is Cape Trafalgar, + famous for the British naval victory of 1805. Near Trafalgar, the river + Barbate issues into the straits of Gibraltar, after receiving several + small tributaries, which combine with it to form, near its mouth, the + broad and marshy Laguna de la Janda. Punta Marroqui, on the straits, is + the southernmost promontory of the European mainland. The <!-- Page 929 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page929"></a>[v.04 p.0929]</span>most + conspicuous feature of the east coast is Algeciras Bay, overlooked by the + rock and fortress of Gibraltar. The river Guadiaro, which drains the + eastern highlands, enters the Mediterranean close to the frontier of + Málaga. In the interior there is a striking contrast between the + comparatively level western half of Cadiz and the very picturesque + mountain ranges of the eastern half, which are well wooded and abound in + game. The whole region known as the Campo de Gibraltar is of this + character; but it is in the north-east that the summits are most closely + massed together, and attain their greatest altitudes in the Cerro de San + Cristobal (5630 ft.) and the Sierra del Pinar (5413 ft.).</p> + + <p>The climate is generally mild and temperate, some parts of the coast + only being unhealthy owing to a marshy soil. Severe drought is not + unusual, and it was largely this cause, together with want of capital, + and the dependence of the peasantry on farming and fishing, that brought + about the distress so prevalent early in the 20th century. The + manufactures are insignificant compared with the importance of the + natural products of the soil, especially wines and olives. Jerez de la + Frontera (Xeres) is famous for the manufacture and export of sherry. The + fisheries furnish about 2500 tons of fish per annum, one-fifth part of + which is salted for export and the rest consumed in Spain. There are no + important mines, but a considerable amount of salt is obtained by + evaporation of sea-water in pans near Cadiz, San Fernando, Puerto Real + and Santa Maria. The railway from Seville passes through Jerez de la + Frontera to Cadiz and San Fernando, and another line, from Granada, + terminates at Algeciras; but at the beginning of the 20th century, + although it was proposed to construct railways from Jerez inland to + Grazalema and coastwise from San Fernando to Tarifa, travellers who + wished to visit these places were compelled to use the old-fashioned + diligence, over indifferent roads, or to go by sea. The principal + seaports are, after Cadiz the capital (pop. 1900, 69,382), Algeciras + (13,302), La Línea (31,862), Puerto de Santa Maria (20,120), Puerto Real + (10,535), the naval station of San Fernando (29,635), San Lucar (23,883) + and Tarifa (11,723); the principal inland towns are Arcos de la Frontera + (13,926), Chiclana (10,868), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Medina + Sidonia (11,040), and Véjer de la Frontera (11,298). These are all + described in separate articles. Grazalema (5587), Jimena de la Frontera + (7549), and San Roque (8569) are less important towns with some trade in + leather, cork, wine and farm produce. They all contain many Moorish + antiquities, and Grazalema probably represents the Roman + <i>Lacidulermium</i>. (See also <span class="sc">Andalusia</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>CADIZ</b> (in Lat. <i>Gades</i>, and formerly called <i>Cales</i> + by the English), the capital and principal seaport of the Spanish + province of Cadiz; on the Bay of Cadiz, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, + in 36° 27′ N. and 6° 12′ W., 94 m. by rail S. of Seville. + Pop. (1900) 69,382. Cadiz is built on the extremity of a tongue of land, + projecting about 5 m. into the sea, in a north-westerly direction from + the Isla de Leon. Its noble bay, more than 30 m. in circuit, and almost + entirely land-locked by the isthmus and the headlands which lie to the + north-east, has principally contributed to its commercial importance. The + outer bay stretches from the promontory and town of Rota to the mouth of + the river Guadalete; the inner bay, protected by the forts of Matagorda + and Puntales, affords generally good anchorage, and contains a harbour + formed by a projecting mole, where vessels of small burden may discharge. + The entrance to the bays is rendered somewhat dangerous by the low + shelving rocks (Cochinos and Las Puercas) which encumber the passage, and + by the shifting banks of mud deposited by the Guadalete and the Rio Santi + Petri, a broad channel separating the Isla de Leon from the mainland. At + the mouth of this channel is the village of Caracca; close beside it is + the important naval arsenal of San Fernando (<i>q.v.</i>); and on the + isthmus are the defensive works known as the Cortadura, or Fort San + Fernando, and the well-frequented sea-bathing establishments.</p> + + <p>From its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild and serene + climate. The <i>Medina</i>, or land-wind, so-called because it blows from + the direction of Medina Sidonia, prevails during the winter; the + moisture-laden <i>Virazón</i>, a westerly sea-breeze, sets in with the + spring. The mean annual temperature is about 64° F., while the mean + summer and winter temperatures vary only about 10° above and below this + point; but the damp atmosphere is very oppressive in summer, and its + unhealthiness is enhanced by the inadequate drainage and the masses of + rotting seaweed piled along the shore. The high death-rate, nearly 45 per + thousand, is also due to the bad water-supply, the water being either + collected in cisterns from the tops of the houses, or brought at great + expense from Santa Maria on the opposite coast by an aqueduct nearly 30 + m. long. An English company started a waterworks in Cadiz about 1875, but + came to grief through the incapacity of the population to appreciate its + necessity.</p> + + <p>The city, which is 6 or 7 m. in circumference, is surrounded by a wall + with five gates, one of which communicates with the isthmus. Seen from a + distance off the coast, it presents a magnificent display of snow-white + turrets rising majestically from the sea; and for the uniformity and + elegance of its buildings, it must certainly be ranked as one of the + finest cities of Spain, although, being hemmed in on all sides, its + streets and squares are necessarily contracted. Every house annually + receives a coating of whitewash, which, when it is new, produces a + disagreeable glare. The city is distinguished by its somewhat deceptive + air of cleanliness, its quiet streets, where no wheeled traffic passes, + and its lavish use of white Italian marble. But the most characteristic + feature of Cadiz is the marine promenades, fringing the city all round + between the ramparts and the sea, especially that called the + <i>Alameda</i>, on the eastern side, commanding a view of the shipping in + the bay and the ports on the opposite shore. The houses are generally + lofty and surmounted by turrets and flat roofs in the Moorish style.</p> + + <p>Cadiz is the see of a bishop, who is suffragan to the archbishop of + Seville, but its chief conventual and monastic institutions have been + suppressed. Of its two cathedrals, one was originally erected by Alphonso + X. of Castile (1252-1284), and rebuilt after 1596; the other, begun in + 1722, was completed between 1832 and 1838. Under the high altar of the + old cathedral rises the only freshwater spring in Cadiz. The chief + secular buildings include the Hospicio, or Casa de Misericordia, adorned + with a marble portico, and having an interior court with Doric + colonnades; the bull-ring, with room for 12,000 spectators; the two + theatres, the prison, the custom-house, and the lighthouse of San + Sebastian on the western side rising 172 ft. from the rock on which it + stands. Besides the Hospicio already mentioned, which sometimes contains + 1000 inmates, there are numerous other charitable institutions, such as + the women's hospital, the foundling institution, the admirable Hospicio + de San Juan de Dios for men, and the lunatic asylum. Gratuitous + instruction is given to a large number of children, and there are several + mathematical and commercial academies, maintained by different commercial + corporations, a nautical school, a school of design, a theological + seminary and a flourishing medical school. The museum is filled for the + most part with Roman and Carthaginian coins and other antiquities; the + academy contains a valuable collection of pictures. In the church of + Santa Catalina, which formerly belonged to the Capuchin convent, now + secularized, there is an unfinished picture of the marriage of St + Catherine, by Murillo, who met his death by falling from the scaffold on + which he was painting it (3rd of April 1682).</p> + + <p>Cadiz no longer ranks among the first marine cities of the world. Its + harbour works are insufficient and antiquated, though a scheme for their + improvement was adopted in 1903; its communications with the mainland + consist of a road and a single line of railway; its inhabitants, apart + from foreign residents and a few of the more enterprising merchants, rest + contented with such prosperity as a fine natural harbour and an + unsurpassed geographical situation cannot fail to confer. Several great + shipping lines call here; shipbuilding yards and various factories exist + on the mainland; and there is a considerable trade in the exportation of + wine, principally sherry from Jerez, salt, olives, figs, canary-seed and + ready-made corks; and in the importation of fuel, iron and machinery, + building materials, American oak staves for casks, &c. In 1904, 2753 + ships of 1,745,588 tons <!-- Page 930 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page930"></a>[v.04 p.0930]</span>entered the port. But local trade, + though still considerable, remains stationary if it does not actually + recede. Its decline, originally due to the Napoleonic wars and the + acquisition of independence by many Spanish colonies early in the 19th + century, was already recognised, and an attempt made to check it in 1828, + when the Spanish government declared Cadiz a free warehousing port; but + this valuable privilege was withdrawn in 1832. Among the more modern + causes of depression have been the rivalry of Gibraltar and Seville; the + decreasing demand for sherry; and the disasters of the Spanish-American + war of 1898, which almost ruined local commerce with Cuba and Porto + Rico.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Cadiz represents the Sem. <i>Agadir</i>, + <i>Gadir</i>, or <i>Gaddir</i> ("stronghold") of the Carthaginians, the + Gr. <i>Gadeira</i>, and the Lat. <i>Gades</i>. Tradition ascribes its + foundation to Phoenician merchants from Tyre, as early as 1100 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>; and in the 7th century it had already become + the great mart of the west for amber and tin from the Cassiterides + (<i>q.v.</i>). About 501 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it was occupied + by the Carthaginians, who made it their base for the conquest of southern + Iberia, and in the 3rd century for the equipment of the armaments with + which Hannibal undertook to destroy the power of Rome. But the loyalty of + Gades, already weakened by trade rivalry with Carthage, gave way after + the second Punic War. Its citizens welcomed the victorious Romans, and + assisted them in turn to fit out an expedition against Carthage. + Thenceforward, its rapidly-growing trade in dried fish and meat, and in + all the produce of the fertile Baetis (Guadalquivir) valley, attracted + many Greek settlers; while men of learning, such as Pytheas in the 4th + century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, Polybius and Artemidorus of + Ephesus in the 2nd, and Posidonius in the 1st, came to study the ebb and + flow of its tides, unparalleled in the Mediterranean. C. Julius Caesar + conferred the <i>civitas</i> of Rome on all its citizens in 49 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>; and, not long after L. Cornelius Balbus Minor + built what was called the "New City," constructed the harbour which is + now known as Puerto Real, and spanned the strait of Santi Petri with the + bridge which unites the Isla de Leon with the mainland, and is now known + as the Puente de Zuazo, after Juan Sanchez de Zuazo, who restored it in + the 15th century. Under Augustus, when it was the residence of no fewer + than 500 <i>equites</i>, a total only surpassed in Rome and Padua, Gades + was made a <i>municipium</i> with the name of <i>Augusta Urbs + Gaditana</i>, and its citizens ranked next to those of Rome. In the 1st + century <span class="scac">A.D.</span> it was the birthplace or home of + several famous authors, including Lucius Columella, poet and writer on + husbandry; but it was more renowned for gaiety and luxury than for + learning. Juvenal and Martial write of <i>Jocosae Gades</i>, "Cadiz the + Joyous," as naturally as the modern Andalusian speaks of <i>Cadiz la + Joyosa</i>; and throughout the Roman world its cookery and its + dancing-girls were famous. In the 5th century, however, the overthrow of + Roman dominion in Spain by the Visigoths involved Cadiz in destruction. A + few fragments of masonry, submerged under the sea, are almost all that + remains of the original city. Moorish rule over the port, which was + renamed <i>Jezirat-Kadis</i>, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz was + captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alphonso X. of Castile. Its renewed + prosperity dates from the discovery of America in 1492. As the + headquarters of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon recovered its + position as the wealthiest port of western Europe, and consequently it + was a favourite point of attack for the enemies of Spain. During the 16th + century it repelled a series of raids by the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 + all the shipping in its harbour was burned by the English squadron under + Sir Francis Drake; in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord + Charles Howard sacked the city, and destroyed forty merchant vessels and + thirteen warships. This disaster necessitated the rebuilding of Cadiz on + a new plan. Its recovered wealth tempted the duke of Buckingham to + promote the fruitless expedition to Cadiz of 1626; thirty years later + Admiral Blake blockaded the harbour in an endeavour to intercept the + treasure fleet; and in 1702 another attack was made by the British under + Sir George Rooke and the duke of Ormonde. During the 18th century the + wealth of Cadiz became greater than ever; from 1720 to 1765, when it + enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with Spanish America, the city annually + imported gold and silver to the value of about £5,000,000. With the + closing years of the century, however, it entered upon a period of + misfortune. From February 1797 to April 1798 it was blockaded by the + British fleet, after the battle of Cape St Vincent; and in 1800 it was + bombarded by Nelson. In 1808 the citizens captured a French squadron + which was imprisoned by the British fleet in the inner bay. From February + 1810 until the duke of Wellington raised the siege in August 1812, Cadiz + resisted the French forces sent to capture it; and during these two years + it served as the capital of all Spain which could escape annexation by + Napoleon. Here, too, the Cortes met and promulgated the famous Liberal + constitution of March 1812. To secure a renewal of this constitution, the + citizens revolted in 1820; the revolution spread throughout Spain; the + king, Ferdinand VII., was imprisoned at Cadiz, which again became the + seat of the Cortes; and foreign intervention alone checked the movement + towards reform. A French army, under the duc d'Angoulême, seized Cadiz in + 1823, secured the release of Ferdinand and suppressed Liberalism. In 1868 + the city was the centre of the revolution which effected the dethronement + of Queen Isabella.</p> + + <p>See <i>Sevilla y Cadiz, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza é + historia</i>, an illustrated volume in the series "España," by P. de + Madrazo (Barcelona, 1884); <i>Recuerdos Gaditanos</i>, a very full + history of local affairs, by J.M. León y Dominguez (Cadiz, 1897); + <i>Historia de Cadiz y de su provincia desde los remotos tiempos + hasta</i> 1824, by A. de Castro (Cadiz, 1858); and <i>Descripcion + historico-artistica de la catedral de Cadiz</i>, by J. de Urrutia (Cadiz, + 1843).</p> + + <p><b>CADMIUM</b> (symbol Cd, atomic weight 112.4 (O=16)), a metallic + element, showing a close relationship to zinc, with which it is very + frequently associated. It was discovered in 1817 by F. Stromeyer in a + sample of zinc carbonate from which a specimen of zinc oxide was + obtained, having a yellow colour, although quite free from iron; + Stromeyer showing that this coloration was due to the presence of the + oxide of a new metal. Simultaneously Hermann, a German chemical + manufacturer, discovered the new metal in a specimen of zinc oxide which + had been thought to contain arsenic, since it gave a yellow precipitate, + in acid solution, on the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen. This + supposition was shown to be incorrect, and the nature of the new element + was ascertained.</p> + + <p>Cadmium does not occur naturally in the uncombined condition, and only + one mineral is known which contains it in any appreciable quantity, + namely, greenockite, or cadmium sulphide, found at Greenock and at + Bishopton in Scotland, and in Bohemia and Pennsylvania. It is, however, + nearly always found associated with zinc blende, and with calamine, + although only in small quantities.</p> + + <p>The metal is usually obtained from the flue-dust (produced during the + first three or four hours working of a zinc distillation) which is + collected in the sheet iron cones or adapters of the zinc retorts. This + is mixed with small coal, and when redistilled gives an enriched dust, + and by repeating the process and distilling from cast iron retorts the + metal is obtained. It can be purified by solution in hydrochloric acid + and subsequent precipitation by metallic zinc.</p> + + <p>Cadmium is a white metal, possessing a bluish tinge, and is capable of + taking a high polish; on breaking, it shows a distinct fibrous fracture. + By sublimation in a current of hydrogen it can be crystallized in the + form of regular octahedra; it is slightly harder than tin, but is softer + than zinc, and like tin, emits a crackling sound when bent. It is + malleable and can be rolled out into sheets. The specific gravity of the + metal is 8.564, this value being slightly increased after hammering; its + specific heat is 0.0548 (R. Bunsen), it melts at 310-320° C. and boils + between 763-772° C. (T. Carnelley), forming a deep yellow vapour. The + cadmium molecule, as shown by determinations of the density of its + vapour, is monatomic. The metal unites with the majority of the heavy + metals to form alloys; some of these, the so-called fusible alloys, find + a useful application from the fact that they possess a low melting-point. + It also forms amalgams with mercury, and on this account has been + employed in dentistry for the purpose of stopping (or filling) <!-- Page + 931 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page931"></a>[v.04 + p.0931]</span>teeth. The metal is quite permanent in dry air, but in + moist air it becomes coated with a superficial layer of the oxide; it + burns on heating to redness, forming a brown coloured oxide; and is + readily soluble in mineral acids with formation of the corresponding + salts. Cadmium vapour decomposes water at a red heat, with liberation of + hydrogen, and formation of the oxide of the metal.</p> + + <p>Cadmium oxide, CdO, is a brown powder of specific gravity 6.5, which + can be prepared by heating the metal in air or in oxygen; or by ignition + of the nitrate or carbonate; by heating the metal to a white heat in a + current of oxygen it is obtained as a dark red crystalline sublimate. It + does not melt at a white heat, and is easily reduced to the metal by + heating in a current of hydrogen or with carbon. It is a basic oxide, + dissolving readily in acids, with the formation of salts, somewhat + analogous to those of zinc.</p> + + <p>Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)<sub>2</sub>, is obtained as a white + precipitate by adding potassium hydroxide to a solution of any soluble + cadmium salt. It is decomposed by heat into the oxide and water, and is + soluble in ammonia but not in excess of dilute potassium hydroxide; this + latter property serves to distinguish it from zinc hydroxide.</p> + + <p>The chloride, CdCl<sub>2</sub>, bromide, CdBr<sub>2</sub>, and iodide, + CdI<sub>2</sub>, are also known, cadmium iodide being sometimes used in + photography, as it is one of the few iodides which are soluble in + alcohol. Cadmium chloride and iodide have been shown to behave in an + anomalous way in aqueous solution (W. Hittorf, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1859, + 106, 513), probably owing to the formation of complex ions; the abnormal + behaviour apparently diminishing as the solution becomes more and more + dilute, until, at very high dilutions the salts are ionized in the normal + manner.</p> + + <p>Cadmium sulphate, CdSO<sub>4</sub>, is known in several hydrated + forms; being deposited, on spontaneous evaporation of a concentrated + aqueous solution, in the form of large monosymmetric crystals of + composition 3CdSO<sub>4</sub>·8H<sub>2</sub>O, whilst a boiling saturated + solution, to which concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, deposits + crystals of composition CdSO<sub>4</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O. It is largely + used for the purpose of making standard electric cells, such for example + as the Weston cell.</p> + + <p>Cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurs naturally as greenockite (<i>q.v.</i>), + and can be artificially prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through + acid solutions of soluble cadmium salts, when it is precipitated as a + pale yellow amorphous solid. It is used as a pigment (cadmium yellow), + for it retains its colour in an atmosphere containing sulphuretted + hydrogen; it melts at a white heat, and on cooling solidifies to a + lemon-yellow micaceous mass.</p> + + <p>Normal cadmium carbonates are unknown, a white precipitate of variable + composition being obtained on the addition of solutions of the alkaline + carbonates to soluble cadmium salts.</p> + + <p>Cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O, is a + deliquescent salt, which may be obtained by dissolving either the metal, + or its oxide or carbonate in dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in + needles and is soluble in alcohol.</p> + + <p>Cadmium salts can be recognized by the brown incrustation which is + formed when they are heated on charcoal in the oxidizing flame of the + blowpipe; and also by the yellow precipitate formed when sulphuretted + hydrogen is passed though their acidified solutions. This precipitate is + insoluble in cold dilute acids, in ammonium sulphide, and in solutions of + the caustic alkalis, a behaviour which distinguishes it from the yellow + sulphides of arsenic and tin. Cadmium is estimated quantitatively by + conversion into the oxide, being precipitated from boiling solutions by + the addition of sodium carbonate, the carbonate thus formed passing into + the oxide on ignition. It can also be determined as sulphide, by + precipitation with sulphuretted hydrogen, the precipitated sulphide being + dried at 100° C. and weighed.</p> + + <p>The atomic weight of cadmium was found by O.W. Huntington + (<i>Berichte</i>, 1882, 15, p. 80), from an analysis of the pure bromide, + to be 111.9. H.N. Morse and H.C. Jones (<i>Amer. Chem. Journ.</i>, 1892, + 14, p. 261) by conversion of cadmium into the oxalate and then into + oxide, obtained values ranging from 111.981 to 112.05, whilst W.S. + Lorimer and E.F. Smith (<i>Zeit. für anorg. Chem.</i>, 1891, 1, p. 364), + by the electrolytic reduction of cadmium oxide in potassium cyanide + solution, obtained as a mean value 112.055. The atomic weight of cadmium + has been revised by G.P. Baxter and M.A. Hines (<i>Journ. Amer. Chem. + Soc.</i>, 1905, 27, p. 222), by determinations of the ratio of cadmium + chloride to silver chloride, and of the amount of silver required to + precipitate cadmium chloride. The mean value obtained was 112.469 + (Ag=107.93). The mean value 112.467 was obtained by Baxter, Hines and + Frevert (ibid., 1906, 28, p. 770) by analysing cadmium bromide.</p> + + <p><b>CADMUS,</b> in Greek legend, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia and + brother of Europa. After his sister had been carried off by Zeus, he was + sent out to find her. Unsuccessful in his search, he came in the course + of his wanderings to Delphi, where he consulted the oracle. He was + ordered to give up his quest and follow a cow which would meet him, and + to build a town on the spot where she should lie down exhausted. The cow + met him in Phocis, and guided him to Boeotia, where he founded the city + of Thebes. Intending to sacrifice the cow, he sent some of his companions + to a neighbouring spring for water. They were slain by a dragon, which + was in turn destroyed by Cadmus; and by the instructions of Athena he + sowed its teeth in the ground, from which there sprang a race of fierce + armed men, called Sparti (sown). By throwing a stone among them Cadmus + caused them to fall upon each other till only five survived, who assisted + him to build the Cadmeia or citadel of Thebes and became the founders of + the noblest families of that city (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> iii. 1 ff.; + Apollodorus iii. 4, 5). Cadmus, however, because of this bloodshed, had + to do penance for eight years. At the expiration of this period the gods + gave him to wife Harmonia (<i>q.v.</i>), daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, + by whom he had a son Polydorus, and four daughters, Ino, Autonoë, Agave + and Semele—a family which was overtaken by grievous misfortunes. At + the marriage all the gods were present; Harmonia received as bridal gifts + a peplos worked by Athena and a necklace made by Hephaestus. Cadmus is + said to have finally retired with Harmonia to Illyria, where he became + king. After death, he and his wife were changed into snakes, which + watched the tomb while their souls were translated to the Elysian + fields.</p> + + <p>There is little doubt that Cadmus was originally a Boeotian, that is, + a Greek hero. In later times the story of a Phoenician immigrant of that + name became current, to whom was ascribed the introduction of the + alphabet, the invention of agriculture and working in bronze and of + civilization generally. But the name itself is Greek rather than + Phoenician; and the fact that Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace under + the name of Cadmus or Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was + originally an ancestral Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian. + The name may mean "order," and be used to characterize one who introduces + order and civilization.</p> + + <p>The exhaustive article by O. Crusius in W.H. Roscher's <i>Lexikon der + Mythologie</i> contains a list of modern authorities on the subject of + Cadmus; see also O. Gruppe, <i>De Cadmi Fabula</i> (1891).</p> + + <p><b>CADMUS OF MILETUS,</b> according to some ancient authorities the + oldest of the logographi (<i>q.v.</i>). Modern scholars, who accept this + view, assign him to about 550 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; others + regard him as purely mythical. A confused notice in Suidas mentions three + persons of the name: the first, the inventor of the alphabet; the second, + the son of Pandion, "according to some" the first prose writer, a little + later than Orpheus, author of a history of the <i>Foundation of + Miletus</i> and of Ionia generally, in four books; the third, the son of + Archelaus, of later date, author of a history of Attica in fourteen + books, and of some poems of an erotic character. As Dionysius of + Halicarnassus (<i>Judicium de Thucydide</i>, c. 23) distinctly states + that the work current in his time under the name of Cadmus was a forgery, + it is most probable that the two first are identical with the Phoenician + Cadmus, who, as the reputed inventor of letters, was subsequently + transformed into the Milesian and the author of an historical work. In + this connexion it should be observed that the old Milesian nobles traced + their descent back to the Phoenician or one of his companions. The text + of the notice of the third Cadmus of Miletus in Suidas is unsatisfactory; + and it is uncertain whether he is to be explained in the same way, or + whether he was an historical personage, of whom all further record is + lost.</p> + + <p>See C.W. Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec</i>, ii. 2-4; and O. Crusius in + Roscher's <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> (article "Kadmos," 90, 91).</p> + + <p><b>CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN,</b> <span class="sc">1st Earl</span> + (1675-1726), British soldier, was the son of Henry Cadogan, a Dublin + barrister, and grandson of Major William Cadogan (1601-1661), governor of + Trim. The family has been credited with a descent from Cadwgan, the old + Welsh prince. Cadogan began his military career as a cornet of horse + under William III. at the Boyne, and, with the regiment now known as the + 5th (Royal Irish) Lancers, made the campaigns in the Low Countries. In + the course of these years he attracted the notice of Marlborough. In 1701 + Cadogan was employed by him as a staff officer in the complicated task of + concentrating the grand army formed by contingents from <!-- Page 932 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page932"></a>[v.04 + p.0932]</span>multitudinous states, and Marlborough soon made the young + officer his confidential staff officer and right-hand man. His services + in the campaign of 1701 were rewarded with the colonelcy of the famous + "Cadogan's Horse" (now the 5th Dragoon Guards). As quartermaster-general, + it fell to his lot to organize the celebrated march of the allies to the + Danube, which, as well as the return march with its heavy convoys, he + managed with consummate skill. At the Schellenberg he was wounded and his + horse shot under him, and at Blenheim he acted as Marlborough's chief of + staff. Soon afterwards he was promoted brigadier-general, and in 1705 he + led "Cadogan's Horse" at the forcing of the Brabant lines between Wange + and Elissem, capturing four standards. He was present at Ramillies, and + immediately afterwards was sent to take Antwerp, which he did without + difficulty. Becoming major-general in 1706, he continued to perform the + numerous duties of chief staff officer, quartermaster-general and colonel + of cavalry, besides which he was throughout constantly employed in + delicate diplomatic missions. In the course of the campaign of 1707, when + leading a foraging expedition, he fell into the hands of the enemy but + was soon exchanged. In 1708 he commanded the advanced guard of the army + in the operations which culminated in the victory of Oudenarde, and in + the same year he was with Webb at the action of Wynendael. On the 1st of + January 1709 he was made lieutenant-general. At the siege of Menin in + this year occurred an incident which well illustrates his qualifications + as a staff officer and diplomatist. Marlborough, riding with his staff + close to the French, suddenly dropped his glove and told Cadogan to pick + it up. This seemingly insolent command was carried out at once, and when + Marlborough on the return to camp explained that he wished a battery to + be erected on the spot, Cadogan informed him that he had already given + orders to that effect. He was present at Malplaquet, and after the battle + was sent off to form the siege of Mons, at which he was dangerously + wounded. At the end of the year he received the appointment of lieutenant + of the Tower, but he continued with the army in Flanders to the end of + the war. His loyalty to the fallen Marlborough cost him, in 1712, his + rank, positions and emoluments under the crown. George I. on his + accession, however, reinstated Cadogan, and, amongst other appointments, + made him lieutenant of the ordnance. In 1715, as British plenipotentiary, + he signed the third Barrier Treaty between Great Britain, Holland and the + emperor. His last campaign was the Jacobite insurrection of 1715-1716. At + first as Argyle's subordinate (see Coxe, <i>Memoirs of Marlborough</i>, + cap. cxiv.), and later as commander-in-chief, General Cadogan by his + firm, energetic and skilful handling of his task restored quiet and order + in Scotland. Up to the death of Marlborough he was continually employed + in diplomatic posts of special trust, and in 1718 he was made Earl + Cadogan, Viscount Caversham and Baron Cadogan of Oakley. In 1722 he + succeeded his old chief as head of the army and master-general of the + ordnance, becoming at the same time colonel of the 1st or Grenadier + Guards. He sat in five successive parliaments as member for Woodstock. He + died at Kensington in 1726, leaving two daughters, one of whom married + the second duke of Richmond and the other the second son of William earl + of Portland.</p> + + <p>Readers of <i>Esmond</i> will have formed a very unfavourable estimate + of Cadogan, and it should be remembered that Thackeray's hero was the + friend and supporter of the opposition and General Webb. As a soldier, + Cadogan was one of the best staff officers in the annals of the British + army, and in command of detachments, and also as a commander-in-chief, he + showed himself to be an able, careful and withal dashing leader.</p> + + <p>He was succeeded, by special remainder, in the barony by his brother, + General Charles Cadogan (1691-1776), who married the daughter of Sir Hans + Sloane, thus beginning the association of the family with Chelsea, and + died in 1776, being succeeded in turn by his son Charles Sloane + (1728-1807), who in the year 1800 was created Viscount Chelsea and Earl + Cadogan. His descendant George Henry, 5th Earl Cadogan (b. 1840), was + lord privy seal from 1886 to 1892, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland from + 1895 to 1902.</p> + + <p><b>CADOUDAL, GEORGES</b> (1771-1804), leader of the <i>Chouans</i> + during the French Revolution, was born in 1771 near Auray. He had + received a fair education, and when the Revolution broke out he remained + true to his royalist and Catholic teaching. From 1793 he organized a + rebellion in the Morbihan against the revolutionary government. It was + quickly suppressed and he thereupon joined the army of the revolted + Vendeans, taking part in the battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in + December 1793. Returning to Morbihan, he was arrested, and imprisoned at + Brest. He succeeded, however, in escaping, and began again the struggle + against the Revolution. In spite of the defeat of his party, and of the + fact that he was forced several times to take refuge in England, Cadoudal + did not cease both to wage war and to conspire in favour of the royalist + pretenders. He refused to come to any understanding with the government, + although offers were made to him by Bonaparte, who admired his skill and + his obstinate energy. From 1800 it was impossible for Cadoudal to + continue to wage open war, so he took altogether to plotting. He was + indirectly concerned in the attempt made by Saint Régent in the rue + Sainte Nicaise on the life of the First Consul, in December 1800, and + fled to England again. In 1803 he returned to France to undertake a new + attempt against Bonaparte. Though watched for by the police, he succeeded + in eluding them for six months, but was at length arrested. Found guilty + and condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon and was executed in + Paris on the 10th of June 1804, along with eleven of his companions. He + is often called simply Georges.</p> + + <p>See <i>Procès de Georges, Moreau et Pichegru</i> (Paris, 1804, 8 vols. + 8vo); the <i>Mémoires</i> of Bourrienne, of Hyde de Neuville and of Rohu; + Lenotre, <i>Tournebut</i> (on the arrest); Lejean, <i>Biographie + bretonne</i>; and the bibliography to the article <span + class="sc">Vendée</span>.</p> + + <p><b>CADRE</b> (Fr. for a frame, from the Lat. <i>quadrum</i>, a + square), a framework or skeleton, particularly the permanent + establishment of a military corps, regiment, &c. which can be + expanded on emergency.</p> + + <p><b>CADUCEUS</b> (the Lat. adaptation of the Doric Gr. <span + title="karukeion" class="grk" + >καρύκειον</span>, + Attic <span title="kêrukeion" class="grk" + >κηρύκειον</span>, a + herald's wand), the staff used by the messengers of the gods, and + especially by Hermes as conductor of the souls of the dead to the world + below. The caduceus of Hermes, which was given him by Apollo in exchange + for the lyre, was a magic wand which exercised influence over the living + and the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned everything it + touched into gold. In its oldest form it was a rod ending in two prongs + twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with two shoots, adorned + with ribbons or garlands), for which, later, two serpents, with heads + meeting at the top, were substituted. The mythologists explained this by + the story of Hermes finding two serpents thus knotted together while + fighting; he separated them with his wand, which, crowned by the + serpents, became the symbol of the settlement of quarrels (Thucydides i. + 53; Macrobius, <i>Sat.</i> i. 19; Hyginus, <i>Poet. Astron.</i> ii. 7). A + pair of wings was sometimes attached to the top of the staff, in token of + the speed of Hermes as a messenger. In historical times the caduceus was + the attribute of Hermes as the god of commerce and peace, and among the + Greeks it was the distinctive mark of heralds and ambassadors, whose + persons it rendered inviolable. The caduceus itself was not used by the + Romans, but the derivative <i>caduceator</i> occurs in the sense of a + peace commissioner.</p> + + <p>See L. Preller, "Der Hermesstab" in <i>Philologus</i>, i. (1846); O.A. + Hoffmann, <i>Hermes und Kerykeion</i> (1890), who argues that Hermes is a + male lunar divinity and his staff the special attribute of + Aphrodite-Astarte.</p> + + <p><b>CADUCOUS</b> (Lat. <i>caducus</i>), a botanical term for "falling + early," as the sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand.</p> + + <p><b>CAECILIA.</b> This name was given by Linnaeus to the blind, or + nearly blind, worm-like Batrachians which were formerly associated with + the snakes and are now classed as an order under the names of <i>Apoda, + Peromela</i> or <i>Gymnophiona</i>. The type of the genus <i>Caecilia</i> + is <i>Caecilia tentaculata</i>, a moderately slender species, not unlike + a huge earth-worm, growing to 2 ft. in length with a diameter of + three-quarters of an inch. It is one of the largest species of the order. + Other species of the same genus are very slender in form, as for instance + <i>Caecilia gracilis</i>, <!-- Page 933 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page933"></a>[v.04 p.0933]</span>which with a length of 2¼ ft. has + a diameter of only a quarter of an inch. One of the most remarkable + characters of the genus <i>Caecilia</i>, which it shares with about + two-thirds of the known genera of the order, is the presence of thin, + cycloid, imbricate scales imbedded in the skin, a character only to be + detected by raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or + less completely encircle the body. This feature, unique among living + Batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly + <i>Stegocephalia</i>, a view which is further strengthened by the + similarity of structure of these scales in both groups, which the + histological investigations of H. Credner have revealed. The skull is + well ossified and contains a greater number of bones than occur in any + other living Batrachian. There is therefore strong reason for tracing the + Caecilians directly from the Stegocephalia, as was the view of T.H. + Huxley and of R. Wiedersheim, since supported by H. Gadow and by J.S. + Kingsley. E.D. Cope had advocated the abolition of the order Apoda and + the incorporation of the Caecilians among the Urodela or Caudata in the + vicinity of the Amphiumidae, of which he regarded them as further + degraded descendants; and this opinion, which was supported by very + feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately received the + support of the two great authorities, P. and F. Sarasin, to whom we are + indebted for our first information on the breeding habits and development + of these Batrachians.</p> + + <p>The knowledge of species of Caecilians has made rapid progress, and we + are now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred to twenty-one + genera. The principal characters on which these genera are founded reside + in the presence or absence of scales, the presence or absence of eyes, + the presence of one or of two series of teeth in the lower jaw, the + structure of the tentacle (representing the so-called "balancers" of + Urodele larvae) on the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of + a vacuity between the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. Of these + twenty-one genera six are peculiar to tropical Africa, one to the + Seychelles, four to south-eastern Asia, eight to Central and South + America, one occurs in both continental Africa and the Seychelles, and + one is common to Africa and South America.</p> + + <p>These Batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in soft mud. + The complete development of <i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i> has been + observed in Ceylon by P. and F. Sarasin. The eggs, forming a rosary-like + string, are very large, and deposited in a burrow near the water. The + female protects them by coiling herself round the egg-mass, which the + young do not leave till after the loss of the very large external gills + (one on each side); they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with + an opening, or spiraculum, on each side of the neck. In these larvae the + head is fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes, with the + eyes much more distinct than in the perfect animal; the tail, which is + quite rudimentary in all Caecilians, is very distinct, strongly + compressed, and bordered above and beneath by a dermal fold.</p> + + <p>In <i>Hypogeophis</i>, a Caecilian from the Seychelles studied by A. + Brauer, the development resembles that of <i>Ichthyophis</i>, but there + is no aquatic larval stage. The young leaves the egg in the perfect + condition, and at once leads a terrestrial life like its parents. In + accordance with this abbreviated development, the caudal membranous crest + does not exist, and the branchial aperture closes as soon as the external + gills disappear.</p> + + <p>In the South American <i>Typhlonectes</i>, and in the <i>Dermophis</i> + from the Island of St Thomé, West Africa, the young are brought forth + alive, in the former as larvae with external gills, and in the latter in + the perfect air-breathing condition.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">References</span>.—R. Wiedersheim, <i>Anatomie + der Gymnophionen</i> (Jena, 1879), 4to; G.A. Boulenger, "Synopsis of the + Genera and Species," <i>P.Z.S.</i>, 1895, p. 401; R. Greeff, "Über + Siphonops thomensis," <i>Sizb. Ges. Naturw.</i> (Marburg, 1884), p. 15; + P. and F. Sarasin, <i>Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen auf Ceylon</i>, + ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890), 4to; A. Brauer, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der + Entwicklungsgeschichte und der Anatomie der Gymnophionen," <i>Zool. + Jahrb. Ana.</i> x., 1897, p. 389, xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, + Suppl. p. 381; E.A. Göldi, "Entwicklung von Siphonops annulatus," + <i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst.</i> xii., 1899, p. 170; J.S. Kingsley, "The + systematic Position of the Caecilians," <i>Tufts Coll. Stud.</i> vii., + 1902, p. 323.</p> + + <p>(G. A. B.)</p> + + <p><b>CAECILIA, VIA,</b> an ancient highroad of Italy, which diverged + from the Via Salaria at the 35th m. from Rome, and ran by Amiternum to + the Adriatic coast, passing probably by Hadria. A branch ran to Interamna + Praetuttiorum (Teramo) and thence probably to the sea at Castrum Novum + (Giulianova), a distance of about 151 m. from Rome. It was probably + constructed by L. Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (consul in 117 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>).</p> + + <p>See C. Hülsen in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i> (1896), 87 seq. N. + Persichetti in <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i> (1898), 193 seq.; (1902), 277 + seq.</p> + + <p><b>CAECILIUS,</b> of Calacte (<span title="Kalê Aktê" class="grk" + >Καλὴ Ἀκτή</span>) in + Sicily, Greek rhetorician, flourished at Rome during the reign of + Augustus. Originally called Archagathus, he took the name of Caecilius + from his patron, one of the Metelli. According to Suidas, he was by birth + a Jew. Next to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, he was the most important + critic and rhetorician of the Augustan age. Only fragments are extant of + his numerous and important works, among which may be mentioned: <i>On the + Style of the Ten Orators</i> (including their lives and a critical + examination of their works), the basis of the pseudo-Plutarchian treatise + of the same name, in which Caecilius is frequently referred to; <i>On the + Sublime</i>, attacked by (?) Longinus in his essay on the same subject + (see L. Martens, <i>De Libello</i> <span title="Peri hupsous" class="grk" + >Περὶ + ὕψους</span>, 1877); <i>History of the + Servile Wars</i>, or slave risings in Sicily, the local interest of which + would naturally appeal to the author; <i>On Rhetoric</i> and + <i>Rhetorical Figures</i>; an <i>Alphabetical Selection of Phrases</i>, + intended to serve as a guide to the acquirement of a pure Attic + style—the first example of an Atticist lexicon, mentioned by Suidas + in the preface to his lexicon as one of his authorities; <i>Against the + Phrygians</i>, probably an attack on the florid style of the Asiatic + school of rhetoric.</p> + + <p>The fragments have been collected and edited by T. Burckhardt (1863), + and E. Ofenloch (1907); some in C.W. Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum</i>, iii.; C. Bursian's <i>Jahresbericht ... der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</i>, xxiii. (1896), contains full notices of recent + works on Caecilius, by C. Hammer; F. Blass, <i>Griechische Beredsamkeit + von Alexander bis auf Augustus</i> (1865), treats of Dionysius of + Halicarnassus and Caecilius together; see also J. Brzoska in + Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1897).</p> + + <p><b>CAECILIUS STATIUS,</b> or <span class="sc">Statius + Caecilius</span>, Roman comic poet, contemporary and intimate friend of + Ennius, died in 168 (or 166) <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He was born + in the territory of the Insubrian Gauls, and was probably taken as a + prisoner to Rome (c. 200), during the great Gallic war. Originally a + slave, he assumed the name of Caecilius from his patron, probably one of + the Metelli. He supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the Roman + stage from the new comedy writers, especially Menander. If the statement + in the life of Terence by Suetonius is correct and the reading sound, + Caecilius's judgment was so esteemed that he was ordered to hear + Terence's <i>Andria</i> (exhibited 166 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) + read and to pronounce an opinion upon it. After several failures + Caecilius gained a high reputation. Volcacius Sedigitus, the dramatic + critic, places him first amongst the comic poets; Varro credits him with + pathos and skill in the construction of his plots; Horace + (<i>Epistles</i>, ii. 1. 59) contrasts his dignity with the art of + Terence. Quintilian (<i>Inst. Orat.</i>, x. 1. 99) speaks somewhat + disparagingly of him, and Cicero, although he admits with some hesitation + that Caecilius may have been the chief of the comic poets (<i>De Optimo + Genere Oratorum</i>, 1), considers him inferior to Terence in style and + Latinity (<i>Ad Att.</i> vii. 3), as was only natural, considering his + foreign extraction. The fact that his plays could be referred to by name + alone without any indication of the author (Cicero, <i>De Finibus</i>, + ii. 7) is sufficient proof of their widespread popularity. Caecilius + holds a place between Plautus and Terence in his treatment of the Greek + originals; he did not, like Plautus, confound things Greek and Roman, + nor, like Terence, eliminate everything that could not be romanized.</p> + + <p>The fragments of his plays are chiefly preserved in Aulus Gellius, who + cites several passages from the <i>Plocium</i> (necklace) together with + the original Greek of Menander. The translation which is diffuse and by + no means close, fails to reproduce the spirit of the original. Fragments + in Ribbeck, <i>Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta</i> (1898); see also + W.S. Teuffel, <i>Caecilius Statius</i>, &c. (1858); Mommsen, <i>Hist. + of Rome</i> (Eng. tr.), bk. iii. ch. 14; F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa, + <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1897).</p> + +<p><!-- Page 934 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page934"></a>[v.04 p.0934]</span></p> + + <p><b>CAECĪNA,</b> the name of a distinguished Etruscan family of + Volaterrae. Graves have been discovered belonging to the family, whose + name is still preserved in the river and hamlet of Cecina.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Aulus Caecina</span>, son of Aulus Caecina who was + defended by Cicero (69 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) in a speech still + extant, took the side of Pompey in the civil wars, and published a + violent tirade against Caesar, for which he was banished. He recanted in + a work called <i>Querelae</i>, and by the intercession of his friends, + above all, of Cicero, obtained pardon from Caesar. Caecina was regarded + as an important authority on the Etruscan system of divination + (<i>Etrusca Disciplina</i>), which he endeavoured to place on a + scientific footing by harmonizing its theories with the doctrines of the + Stoics. Considerable fragments of his work (dealing with lightning) are + to be found in Seneca (<i>Naturales Quaestiones</i>, ii. 31-49). Caecina + was on intimate terms with Cicero, who speaks of him as a gifted and + eloquent man and was no doubt considerably indebted to him in his own + treatise <i>De Divinatione</i>. Some of their correspondence is preserved + in Cicero's letters (<i>Ad Fam.</i> vi. 5-8; see also ix. and xiii. + 66).</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Aulus Caecina Alienus</span>, Roman general, was + quaestor of Baetica in Spain (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 68). On the + death of Nero, he attached himself to Galba, who appointed him to the + command of a legion in upper Germany. Having been prosecuted for + embezzling public money, Caecina went over to Vitellius, who sent him + with a large army into Italy. Caecina crossed the Alps, but was defeated + near Cremona by Suetonius Paulinus, the chief general of Otho. + Subsequently, in conjunction with Fabius Valens, Caecina defeated Otho at + the decisive battle of Bedriacum (Betriacum). The incapacity of Vitellius + tempted Vespasian to take up arms against him. Caecina, who had been + entrusted with the repression of the revolt, turned traitor, and tried to + persuade his army to go over to Vespasian, but was thrown into chains by + the soldiers. After the overthrow of Vitellius, he was released, and + taken into favour by the new emperor. But he could not remain loyal to + any one. In 79 he was implicated in a conspiracy against Vespasian, and + was put to death by order of Titus. Caecina is described by Tacitus as a + man of handsome presence and boundless ambition, a gifted orator and a + great favourite with the soldiers.</p> + + <p>Tacitus, <i>Histories</i>, i. 53, 61, 67-70, ii. 20-25, 41-44, iii. + 13; Dio Cassius lxv. 10-14, lxvi. 16; Plutarch, <i>Otho</i>, 7; + Suetonius, <i>Titus</i>, 6; Zonaras xi. 17.</p> + + <p><b>CÆDMON,</b> the earliest English Christian poet. His story, and + even his very name, are known to us only from Bæda (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> + iv. 24). He was, according to Bæda (see <span class="sc">Bede</span>), a + herdsman, who received a divine call to poetry by means of a dream. One + night, having quitted a festive company because, from want of skill, he + could not comply with the demand made of each guest in turn to sing to + the harp, he sought his bed and fell asleep. He dreamed that there + appeared to him a stranger, who addressed him by his name, and commanded + him to sing of "the beginning of created things." He pleaded inability, + but the stranger insisted, and he was compelled to obey. He found himself + uttering "verses which he had never heard." Of Cædmon's song Bæda gives a + prose paraphrase, which may be literally rendered as follows:—"Now + must we praise the author of the heavenly kingdom, the Creator's power + and counsel, the deeds of the Father of glory: how He, the eternal God, + was the author of all marvels—He, who first gave to the sons of men + the heaven for a roof, and then, Almighty Guardian of mankind, created + the earth." Bæda explains that his version represents the sense only, not + the arrangement of the words, because no poetry, however excellent, can + be rendered into another language, without the loss of its beauty of + expression. When Cædmon awoke he remembered the verses that he had sung + and added to them others. He related his dream to the farm bailiff under + whom he worked, and was conducted by him to the neighbouring monastery at + Streanæshalch (now called Whitby). The abbess Hild and her monks + recognized that the illiterate herdsman had received a gift from heaven, + and, in order to test his powers, proposed to him that he should try to + render into verse a portion of sacred history which they explained to + him. On the following morning he returned having fulfilled his task. At + the request of the abbess he became an inmate of the monastery. + Throughout the remainder of his life his more learned brethren from time + to time expounded to him the events of Scripture history and the + doctrines of the faith, and all that he heard from them he reproduced in + beautiful poetry. "He sang of the creation of the world, of the origin of + mankind and of all the history of Genesis, of the exodus of Israel from + Egypt and their entrance into the Promised Land, of many other incidents + of Scripture history, of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection + and ascension, of the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the + apostles. He also made many songs of the terrors of the coming judgment, + of the horrors of hell and the sweetness of heaven; and of the mercies + and the judgments of God." All his poetry was on sacred themes, and its + unvarying aim was to turn men from sin to righteousness and the love of + God. Although many amongst the Angles had, following his example, essayed + to compose religious poetry, none of them, in Bæda's opinion, had + approached the excellence of Cædmon's songs.</p> + + <p>Bæda's account of Cædmon's deathbed has often been quoted, and is of + singular beauty. It is commonly stated that he died in 680, in the same + year as the abbess Hild, but for this there is no authority. All that we + know of his date is that his dream took place during the period (658-680) + in which Hild was abbess of Streanæshalch, and that he must have died + some considerable time before Bæda finished his history in 731.</p> + + <p>The hymn said to have been composed by Cædmon in his dream is extant + in its original language. A copy of it, in the poet's own Northumbrian + dialect, and in a handwriting of the 8th century, appears on a blank page + of the Moore MS. of Bæda's History; and five other Latin MSS. of Bæda + have the poem (but transliterated into a more southern dialect) as a + marginal note. In the old English version of Bæda, ascribed to King + Alfred, and certainly made by his command if not by himself, it is given + in the text. Probably the Latin MS. used by the translator was one that + contained this addition. It was formerly maintained by some scholars that + the extant Old English verses are not Bæda's original, but a mere + retranslation from his Latin prose version. The argument was that they + correspond too closely with the Latin; Bæda's words, "hic est sensus, non + autem ordo ipse verborum," being taken to mean that he had given, not a + literal translation, but only a free paraphrase. But the form of the + sentences in Bæda's prose shows a close adherence to the parallelistic + structure of Old English verse, and the alliterating words in the poem + are in nearly every case the most obvious and almost the inevitable + equivalents of those used by Bæda. The sentence quoted above<a + name="FnAnchor_171" href="#Footnote_171"><sup>[1]</sup></a> can therefore + have been meant only as an apology for the absence of those poetic graces + that necessarily disappear in translations into another tongue. Even on + the assumption that the existing verses are a retranslation, it would + still be certain that they differ very slightly from what the original + must have been. It is of course possible to hold that the story of the + dream is pure fiction, and that the lines which Bæda translated were not + Cædmon's at all. But there is really nothing to justify this extreme of + scepticism. As the hymn is said to have been Cædmon's first essay in + verse, its lack of poetic merit is rather an argument for its genuineness + than against it. Whether Bæda's narrative be historical or not—and + it involves nothing either miraculous or essentially + improbable—there is no reason to doubt that the nine lines of the + Moore MS. are Cædmon's composition.</p> + + <p>This poor fragment is all that can with confidence be affirmed to + remain of the voluminous works of the man whom Bæda regarded as the + greatest of vernacular religious poets. It is true that for two centuries + and a half a considerable body of verse has been currently known by his + name; but among modern scholars the use of the customary designation is + merely a matter of convenience, and does not imply any belief in the + correctness of the attribution. The so-called Cædmon poems are contained + <!-- Page 935 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page935"></a>[v.04 + p.0935]</span>in a MS. written about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1000, + which was given in 1651 by Archbishop Ussher to the famous scholar + Francis Junius, and is now in the Bodleian library. They consist of + paraphrases of parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and three separate + poems the first on the lamentations of the fallen angels, the second on + the "Harrowing of Hell," the resurrection, ascension and second coming of + Christ, and the third (a mere fragment) on the temptation. The subjects + correspond so well with those of Cædmon's poetry as described by Bæda + that it is not surprising that Junius, in his edition, published in 1655, + unhesitatingly attributed the poems to him. The ascription was rejected + in 1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the character of the + language, is now known to be fallacious, as most of the poetry that has + come down to us in the West Saxon dialect is certainly of Northumbrian + origin. Since, however, we learn from Bæda that already in his time + Cædmon had had many imitators, the abstract probability is rather + unfavourable than otherwise to the assumption that a collection of poems + contained in a late 10th century MS. contains any of his work. Modern + criticism has shown conclusively that the poetry of the "Cædmon MS." + cannot be all by one author. Some portions of it are plainly the work of + a scholar who wrote with his Latin Bible before him. It is possible that + some of the rest may be the composition of the Northumbrian herdsman; but + in the absence of any authenticated example of the poet's work to serve + as a basis of comparison, the internal evidence can afford no ground for + an affirmative conclusion. On the other hand, the mere unlikeness of any + particular passage to the nine lines of the <i>Hymn</i> is obviously no + reason for denying that it may have been by the same author.</p> + + <p>The <i>Genesis</i> contains a long passage (ii. 235-851) on the fall + of the angels and the temptation of our first parents, which differs + markedly in style and metre from the rest. This passage, which begins in + the middle of a sentence (two leaves of the MS. having been lost) is one + of the finest in all Old English poetry. In 1877 Professor E. Sievers + argued, on linguistic grounds, that it was a translation, with some + original insertions, from a lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the + author of the <i>Heliand</i>. Sievers's conclusions were brilliantly + confirmed in 1894 by the discovery in the Vatican library of a MS. + containing 62 lines of the <i>Heliand</i> and three fragments of an old + Saxon poem on the story of Genesis. The first of these fragments includes + the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of the Old English + <i>Genesis</i>. The Old Saxon Biblical poetry belongs to the middle of + the 9th century; the Old English translation of a portion of it is + consequently later than this.</p> + + <p>As the <i>Genesis</i> begins with a line identical in meaning, though + not in wording, with the opening of Cædmon's <i>Hymn</i>, we may perhaps + infer that the writer knew and used Cædmon's genuine poems. Some of the + more poetical passages may possibly echo Cædmon's expressions; but when, + after treating of the creation of the angels and the revolt of Lucifer, + the paraphrast comes to the Biblical part of the story, he follows the + sacred text with servile fidelity, omitting no detail, however prosaic. + The ages of the antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately + rendered into verse. In all probability the <i>Genesis</i> is of + Northumbrian origin. The names assigned to the wives of Noah and his + three sons (Phercoba, Olla, Olliua, Olliuani<a name="FnAnchor_172" + href="#Footnote_172"><sup>[2]</sup></a>) have been traced to an Irish + source, and this fact seems to point to the influence of the Irish + missionaries in Northumbria.</p> + + <p>The <i>Exodus</i> is a fine poem, strangely unlike anything else in + Old English literature. It is full of martial spirit, yet makes no use of + the phrases of the heathen epic, which Cynewulf and other Christian poets + were accustomed to borrow freely, often with little appropriateness. The + condensation of the style and the peculiar vocabulary make the + <i>Exodus</i> somewhat obscure in many places. It is probably of southern + origin, and can hardly be supposed to be even an imitation of Cædmon.</p> + + <p>The <i>Daniel</i> is often unjustly depreciated. It is not a great + poem but the narration is lucid and interesting. The author has borrowed + some 70 lines from the beginning of a poetical rendering of the Prayer of + Azarias and the Song of the Three Children, of which there is a copy in + the Exeter Book. The borrowed portion ends with verse 3 of the canticle, + the remainder of which follows in a version for the most part + independent, though containing here and there a line from <i>Azarias</i>. + Except in inserting the prayer and the <i>Benedicite</i>, the paraphrast + draws only from the canonical part of the book of Daniel. The poem is + obviously the work of a scholar, though the Bible is the only source + used.</p> + + <p>The three other poems, designated as "Book II" in the Junius MS., are + characterized by considerable imaginative power and vigour of expression, + but they show an absence of literary culture and are somewhat rambling, + full of repetitions and generally lacking in finish. They abound in + passages of fervid religious exhortation. On the whole, both their merits + and their defects are such as we should expect to find in the work of the + poet celebrated by Bæda, and it seems possible, though hardly more than + possible, that we have in these pieces a comparatively little altered + specimen of Cædmon's compositions.</p> + + <p>Of poems not included in the Junius MS., the <i>Dream of the Rood</i> + (see <span class="sc">Cynewulf</span>) is the only one that has with any + plausibility been ascribed to Cædmon. It was affirmed by Professor G. + Stephens that the Ruthwell Cross, on which a portion of the poem is + inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone the name "Cadmon";<a + name="FnAnchor_173" href="#Footnote_173"><sup>[3]</sup></a> but, + according to Professor W. Vietor, the traces of runes that are still + visible exclude all possibility of this reading. The poem is certainly + Northumbrian and earlier than the date of Cynewulf. It would be + impossible to prove that Cædmon was not the author, though the production + of such a work by the herdsman of Streanæshalch would certainly deserve + to rank among the miracles of genius.</p> + + <p>Certain similarities between passages in <i>Paradise Lost</i> and + parts of the translation from Old Saxon interpolated in the Old English + <i>Genesis</i> have given occasion to the suggestion that some scholar + may have talked to Milton about the poetry published by Junius in 1655, + and that the poet may thus have gained some hints which he used in his + great work. The parallels, however, though very interesting, are only + such as might be expected to occur between two poets of kindred genius + working on what was essentially the same body of traditional + material.</p> + + <p>The name Cædmon (in the MSS. of the Old English version of Bæda + written <i>Cedmon, Ceadmann</i>) is not explicable by means of Old + English; the statement that it means "boatman" is founded on the corrupt + gloss <i>liburnam, ced</i>, where <i>ced</i> is an editorial misreading + for <i>ceol</i>. It is most probably the British <i>Cadman</i>, + intermediate between the Old Celtic <i>Catumanus</i> and the modern Welsh + <i>Cadfan</i>. Possibly the poet may have been of British descent, though + the inference is not certain, as British names may sometimes have been + given to English children. The name Caedwalla or Ceadwalla was borne by a + British king mentioned by Bæda and by a king of the West Saxons. The + initial element <i>Caed</i>—or <i>Cead</i> (probably adopted from + British names in which it represents <i>catu</i>, war) appears combined + with an Old English terminal element in the name <i>Caedbaed</i> (cp., + however, the Irish name Cathbad), and hypocoristic forms of names + containing it were borne by the English saints Ceadda (commonly known as + St Chad) and his brother Cedd, called Ceadwealla in one MS. of the <i>Old + English Martyrology</i>. A Cadmon witnesses a Buckinghamshire charter of + about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 948.</p> + + <p>The older editions of the so-called "Cædmon's Paraphrase" by F. Junius + (1655); B. Thorpe (1832), with an English translation; K.W. Bouterwek + (1851-1854); C.W.M. Grein in his <i>Bibliothek der angelsächsischen + Poesie</i> (1857) are superseded, so far as the text is concerned, by R. + Wülker's re-edition of Grein's <i>Bibliothek</i>, Bd. ii. (1895). This + work contains also the texts of the <i>Hymn</i> and the <i>Dream of the + Rood</i>. The pictorial illustrations of the Junius MS. were published in + 1833 by Sir H. Ellis.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">H. Br.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_171" href="#FnAnchor_171">[1]</a> It is a + significant fact that the Alfredian version, instead of translating this + sentence, introduces the verses with the words, "This is the order of the + words."</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_172" href="#FnAnchor_172">[2]</a> The invention of + these names was perhaps suggested by <i>Pericope Oollae et Oolibae</i>, + which may have been a current title for the 23rd chapter of Ezekiel.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_173" href="#FnAnchor_173">[3]</a> Stephens read the + inscription on the top-stone as <i>Cadmon mae fauaepo</i>, which he + rendered "Cadmon made me." But these words are mere jargon, not belonging + to any known or possible Old English dialect.</p> + +</div> +<p><!-- Page 936 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page936"></a>[v.04 p.0936]</span></p> + + <p><b>CAELIA,</b> the name of two ancient cities in Italy, (1) In Apulia + (mod. <i>Ceglie di Bari</i>) on the Via Traiana, 5 m. S. of Barium. Coins + found here bearing the inscription <span title="Kailinôn" class="grk" + >Καιλίνων</span> prove that it + was once an independent town. Discoveries of ruins and tombs have also + been made. (2) In Calabria (mod. <i>Ceglie Messapica</i>) 25 m. W. of + Brundusium, and 991 ft. above sea-level. It was in early times a place of + some importance, as is indicated by the remains of a prehistoric + <i>enceinte</i> and by the discovery of several Messapian + inscriptions.</p> + + <p>See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. + 1252.</p> + + <p><b>CAEN,</b> a city of north-western France, capital of the department + of Calvados, 7½ m. from the English Channel and 149 m. W.N.W. of Paris on + the Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) 36,247. It is situated in + the valley and on the left bank of the Orne, the right bank of which is + occupied by the suburb of Vaucelles with the station of the Western + railway. To the south-west of Caen, the Orne is joined by the Odon, arms + of which water the "Prairie," a fine plain on which a well-known + race-course is laid out. Its wide streets, of which the most important is + the rue St Jean, shady boulevards, and public gardens enhance the + attraction which the town derives from an abundance of fine churches and + old houses. Hardly any remains of its once extensive ramparts and towers + are now to be seen; but the castle, founded by William the Conqueror and + completed by Henry I., is still employed as barracks, though in a greatly + altered condition. St Pierre, the most beautiful church in Caen, stands + at the northern extremity of the rue St Jean, in the centre of the town. + In the main, its architecture is Gothic, but the choir and the apsidal + chapels, with their elaborate interior and exterior decoration, are of + Renaissance workmanship. The graceful tower, which rises beside the + southern portal to a height of 255 ft., belongs to the early 14th + century. The church of St Étienne, or l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes, in the west of + the town, is an important specimen of Romanesque architecture, dating + from about 1070, when it was founded by William the Conqueror. It is + unfortunately hemmed in by other buildings, so that a comprehensive view + of it is not to be obtained. The whole building, and especially the west + façade, which is flanked by two towers with lofty spires, is + characterized by its simplicity. The choir, which is one of the earliest + examples of the Norman Gothic style, dates from the early 13th century. + In 1562 the Protestants did great damage to the building, which was + skilfully restored in the early 17th century. A marble slab marks the + former resting-place of William the Conqueror. The abbey-buildings were + rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, and now shelter the lycée. + Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, was the foundress of the church of La + Trinité or l'Abbaye-aux-Dames, which is of the same date as St Étienne. + Two square unfinished towers flank the western entrance, and another + rises above the transept. Queen Matilda is interred in the choir, and a + fine crypt beneath it contains the remains of former abbesses. The + buildings of the nunnery, reconstructed in the early 18th century, now + serve as a hospital. Other interesting old churches are those of St + Sauveur, St Michel de Vaucelles, St Jean, St Gilles, Notre-Dame de la + Gloriette, St Étienne le Vieux and St Nicolas, the last two now + secularized. Caen possesses many old timber houses and stone mansions, in + one of which, the hôtel d'Ecoville (c. 1530), the exchange and the + tribunal of commerce are established. The hôtel de Than, also of the 16th + century, is remarkable for its graceful dormer-windows. The Maison des + Gens d'Armes (15th century), in the eastern outskirts of the town, has a + massive tower adorned with medallions and surmounted by two figures of + armed men. The monuments at Caen include one to the natives of Calvados + killed in 1870 and 1871 and one to the lawyer J.C.F. Demolombe, together + with statues of Louis XIV, Élie de Beaumont, Pierre Simon, marquis de + Laplace, D.F.E. Auber and François de Malherbe, the two last natives of + the town. Caen is the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of assizes + and of a prefect. It is the centre of an academy and has a university + with faculties of law, science and letters and a preparatory school of + medicine and pharmacy; there are also a lycée, training colleges, schools + of art and music, and two large hospitals. The other chief public + institutions are tribunals of first instance and commerce, an exchange, a + chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The + hôtel-de-ville contains the library, with more than 100,000 volumes and + the art museum with a fine collection of paintings. The town is the seat + of several learned societies including the Société des Antiquaires, which + has a rich museum of antiquities. Caen, despite a diversity of + manufactures, is commercial rather than industrial. Its trade is due to + its position in the agricultural and horse-breeding district known as the + "Campagne de Caen" and to its proximity to the iron mines of the Orne + valley, and to manufacturing towns such as Falaise, Le Mans, &c. In + the south-east of the town there is a floating basin lined with quays and + connected with the Orne and with the canal which debouches into the sea + at Ouistreham 9 m. to the N.N.E. The port, which also includes a portion + of the river-bed, communicates with Havre and Newhaven by a regular line + of steamers; it has a considerable fishing population. In 1905 the number + of vessels entered was 563 with a tonnage of 190,190. English coal is + foremost among the imports, which also include timber and grain, while + iron ore, Caen stone<a name="FnAnchor_181" + href="#Footnote_181"><sup>[1]</sup></a>, butter and eggs and fruit are + among the exports. Important horse and cattle fairs are held in the town. + The industries of Caen include timber-sawing, metal-founding and + machine-construction, cloth-weaving, lace-making, the manufacture of + leather and gloves, and of oil from the colza grown in the district, + furniture and other wooden goods and chemical products.</p> + + <p>Though Caen is not a town of great antiquity, the date of its + foundation is unknown. It existed as early as the 9th century, and when, + in 912, Neustria was ceded to the Normans by Charles the Simple, it was a + large and important place. Under the dukes of Normandy, and particularly + under William the Conqueror, it rapidly increased. It became the capital + of lower Normandy, and in 1346 was besieged and taken by Edward III. of + England. It was again taken by the English in 1417, and was retained by + them till 1450, when it capitulated to the French. The university was + founded in 1436 by Henry VI. of England. During the Wars of Religion, + Caen embraced the reform; in the succeeding century its prosperity was + shattered by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the + city was the focus of the Girondist movement against the Convention.</p> + + <p>See G. Mancel et C. Woinez, <i>Hist. de la ville de Caen et de ses + progrès</i> (Caen, 1836); B. Pent, <i>Hist. de la ville de Caen, ses + origines</i> (Caen, 1866); E. de R. de Beaurepaire, <i>Caen illustré: son + histoire, ses monuments</i> (Caen, 1896).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_181" href="#FnAnchor_181">[1]</a> A limestone well + adapted for building. It was well known in the 15th and 16th centuries, + at which period many English churches were built of it.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIUS,</b> Roman general, consul 106 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> During his year of office, he brought forward a + law by which the jurymen were again to be chosen from the senators + instead of the equites (Tacitus, <i>Ann.</i> xii. 60). As governor of + Gallia Narbonensis, he plundered the temple of the Celtic Apollo at + Tolosa (Toulouse), which had joined the Cimbri. In 105, Caepio suffered a + crushing defeat from the Cimbri at Arausio (Orange) on the Rhone, which + was looked upon as a punishment for his sacrilege; hence the proverb + <i>Aurum Tolosanum habet</i>, of an act involving disastrous + consequences. In the same year he was deprived of his proconsulship and + his property confiscated; subsequently (the chronology is obscure, see + Mommsen, <i>History of Rome</i>, bk. iv. ch. 5) he was expelled from the + senate, accused by the tribune Norbanus of embezzlement and misconduct + during the war, condemned and imprisoned. He either died during his + confinement or escaped to Smyrna.</p> + + <p>Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 67; Valerius Maximus iv. 7. 3; Justin xxxii. 3; + Aulus Gellius iii. 9.</p> + + <p><b>CAERE</b> (mod. <i>Cerveteri</i>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>Caere vetus</i>, + see below), an ancient city of Etruria about 5 m. from the sea coast and + about 20 m. N.W. of Rome, direct from which it was reached by branch + roads from the Via Aurelia and Via Clodia. Ancient writers tell us that + its original Pelasgian name was Agylla, and that the Etruscans took it + and called it Caere (when this occurred is not known), <!-- Page 937 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page937"></a>[v.04 p.0937]</span>but + the former name lasted on into later times as well as Caere. It was one + of the twelve cities of Etruria, and its trade, through its port Pyrgos + (<i>q.v.</i>), was of considerable importance. It fought with Rome in the + time of Tarquinus Priscus and Servius Tullius, and subsequently became + the refuge of the expelled Tarquins. After the invasion of the Gauls in + 390 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the vestal virgins and the sacred + objects in their custody were conveyed to Caere for safety, and from this + fact some ancient authorities derive the word <i>caerimonia</i>, + ceremony. A treaty was made between Rome and Caere in the same year. In + 353, however, Caere took up arms against Rome out of friendship for + Tarquinii, but was defeated, and it is probably at this time that it + became partially incorporated with the Roman state, as a community whose + members enjoyed only a restricted form of Roman citizenship, without the + right to a vote, and which was, further, without internal autonomy. The + status is known as the <i>ius Caeritum</i>, and Caere was the first of a + class of such municipalities (Th. Mommsen, <i>Römische Staatsrecht</i>, + iii. 583). In the First Punic War, Caere furnished Rome with corn and + provisions, but otherwise, up till the end of the Republic, we only hear + of prodigies being observed at Caere and reported at Rome, the Etruscans + being especially expert in augural lore. By the time of Augustus its + population had actually fallen behind that of the Aquae Caeretanae (the + sulphur springs now known as the Bagni del Sasso, about 5 m. W.), but + under either Augustus or Tiberius its prosperity was to a certain extent + restored, and inscriptions speak of its municipal officials (the chief of + them called <i>dictator</i>) and its town council, which had the title of + <i>senatus</i>. In the middle ages, however, it sank in importance, and + early in the 13th century, a part of the inhabitants founded Caere novum + (mod. <i>Ceri</i>) 3 m. to the east.</p> + + <p>The town lay on a hill of tufa, running from N.E. to S.W., isolated + except on the N.E., and about 300 ft. above sea-level. The modern town, + at the western extremity, probably occupies the site of the acropolis. + The line of the city walls, of rectangular blocks of tufa, can be traced, + and there seem to have been eight gates in the circuit, which was about 4 + m. in length. There are no remains of buildings of importance, except the + theatre, in which many inscriptions and statues of emperors were found. + The necropolis in the hill to the north-west, known as the Banditaccia, + is important. The tomb chambers are either hewn in the rock or covered by + mounds. One of the former class was the family tomb of the + Tarchna-Tarquinii, perhaps descended from the Roman kings; others are + interesting from their architectural and decorative details. One + especially, the Grotta dei Bassirilievi, has interesting reliefs cut in + the rock and painted, while the walls of another were decorated with + painted tiles of terracotta. The most important tomb of all, the + Regolini-Galassi tomb (taking its name from its discoverers), which lies + S.W. of the ancient city, is a narrow rock-hewn chamber about 60 ft. + long, lined with masonry, the sides converging to form the roof. The + objects found in it (a chariot, a bed, silver goblets with reliefs, rich + gold ornaments, &c.) are now in the Etruscan Museum at the Vatican: + they are attributed to about the middle of the 7th century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> At a short distance from the modern town on the + west, thousands of votive terracottas were found in 1886, some + representing divinities, others parts of the human body (<i>Notizie degli + Scavi</i>, 1886, 38). They must have belonged to some temple.</p> + + <p>See G. Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, i. 226 seq.; + C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. 1281.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CAERLEON,</b> an ancient village in the southern parliamentary + division of Monmouthshire, England, on the right (west) bank of the Usk, + 3 m. N.E. of Newport. Pop. (1901) 1411. Its claim to notice rests on its + Roman and British associations. As <i>Isca Silurum</i>, it was one of the + three great legionary fortresses of Roman Britain, established either + about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 50 (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xii. + 32), or perhaps, as coin-finds suggest, about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 74-78 in the governorship of Julius Frontinus, + and in either case intended to coerce the wild Silures. It was garrisoned + by the Legio II. Augusta from its foundation till near the end of the + Roman rule in Britain. Though never seriously excavated, it contains + plentiful visible traces of its Roman period—part of the ramparts, + the site of an amphitheatre, and many inscriptions, sculptured stones, + &c., in the local museum. No civil life or municipality seems, + however, to have grown up outside its walls, as at York + (<i>Eburācum</i>). Like Chester (see <span class="sc">Deva</span>), + it remained purely military, and the common notion that it was the seat + of a Christian bishopric in the 4th century is unproved and improbable. + Its later history is obscure. We do not know when the legion was finally + withdrawn, nor what succeeded. But Welsh legend has made the site very + famous with tales of Arthur (revived by Tennyson in his <i>Idylls</i>), + of Christian martyrs, Aaron and Julius, and of an archbishopric held by + St Dubric and shifted to St David's in the 6th century. Most of these + traditions date from Geoffrey of Monmouth (about 1130-1140), and must not + be taken for history. The ruins of Caerleon attracted notice in the 12th + and following centuries, and gave plain cause for legend-making. There is + better, but still slender, reason for the belief that it was here, and + not at Chester, that five kings of the Cymry rowed Edgar in a barge as a + sign of his sovereignty (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 973). The name + Caerleon seems to be derived from the Latin <i>Castra legionum</i>, but + it is not peculiar to Caerleon-on-Usk, being often used of Chester and + occasionally of Leicester and one or two other places.</p> + + <p>(F. J. H.)</p> + + <p><b>CAERPHILLY,</b> a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, 152¼ m. + from London by rail <i>via</i> Cardiff, 7 m. from Cardiff, 12 m. from + Newport and 6 m. from Pontypridd. The origin of the name is unknown. It + was formerly in the ancient parish of Eglwysilan, but from that and + Bedwas (Mon.) an ecclesiastical parish was formed in 1850, while the + whole of the parishes of Eglwysilan and Llanfabon, with a total acreage + of 14,426, were in 1893 constituted into an urban district; its + population in 1901 was 15,385, of which 4343 were in the "town" ward. In + 1858 was opened the Rhymney railway from Rhymney to Caerphilly and on to + Taff's Well, whence it had running powers over the Taff Vale railway to + Cardiff, but in 1871, by means of a tunnel about 2000 yds. long, under + Cefn Onn, a direct line was provided from Caerphilly to Cardiff. A branch + line, 4 m. long, was opened in 1894 to Senghenydd. The Pontypridd and + Newport railway was constructed in 1887, and there is a joint station at + Caerphilly for both railways. Some 2 m. eastwards there is a station on + the Brecon and Merthyr railway at Bedwas.</p> + + <p>The ancient commote of Senghenydd (corresponding to the modern hundred + of Caerphilly) comprised the mountainous district extending from the + ridge of Cefn Onn on the south to Breconshire on the north, being bounded + by the rivers Taff and Rumney on the west and east. Its inhabitants, + though nominally subject to the lords of Glamorgan since Fitzhamon's + conquest, enjoyed a large measure of independence and often raided the + lowlands. To keep these in check, Gilbert de Clare, during the closing + years of the reign of Henry III., built the castle of Caerphilly on the + southern edge of this district, in a wide plain between the two rivers. + It had probably not been completed, though it was already defensible, + when Prince Llewelyn ab Griffith, incensed by its construction and + claiming its site as his own, laid siege to it in 1271 and refused to + retire except on conditions. Subsequently completed and strengthened it + became and still remains (in the words of G.T. Clark) "both the earliest + and the most complete example in Britain of a concentric castle of the + type known as 'Edwardian', the circle of walls and towers of the outer, + inner and middle wards exhibiting the most complete illustration of the + most scientific military architecture". The knoll on which it stood was + converted almost into an island by the damming up of an adjacent brook, + and the whole enclosed area amounted to 30 acres. The great hall (which + is 73 ft. by 35 ft. and about 30 ft. high) is a fine example of Decorated + architecture. This and other additions are attributed to Hugh le + Despenser (1318-1326). Edward II. visited the castle shortly before his + capture in 1326. The defence of the castle was committed by Henry IV. to + Constance, Lady Despenser, in September 1403, but it was shortly + afterwards taken by Owen Glyndwr, to whose mining operations tradition + ascribes the leaning position of a large <!-- Page 938 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page938"></a>[v.04 p.0938]</span>circular tower, + about 50 ft. high, the summit of which overhangs its base about 9 ft. + Before the middle of the 15th century it had ceased to be a fortified + residence and was used as a prison, which was also the case in the time + of Leland (1535), who describes it as in a ruinous state. It is still, + however, one of the most extensive and imposing ruins of the kind in the + kingdom.</p> + + <p>The town grew up around the castle but never received a charter or had + a governing body. In 1661 the corporation of Cardiff complained of + Cardiff's impoverishment by reason of a fair held every three weeks for + the previous four years at Caerphilly, though "no Borough." Its markets + during the 19th century had been chiefly noted for the Caerphilly cheese + sold there. The district was one of the chief centres of the Methodist + revival of the 18th century, the first synod of the Calvinistic + Methodists being held in 1743 at Watford farm close to the town, from + which place George Whitefield was married at Eglwysilan church two years + previously. The church of St Martin was built in 1879, and there are + Nonconformist chapels. Mining is now the chief industry of the + district.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">D. Ll. T.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CAESALPINUS</b> (<span class="sc">Cesalpino</span>), <b>ANDREAS</b> + (1519-1603), Italian natural philosopher, was born in Arezzo in Tuscany + in 1519. He studied anatomy and medicine at the university of Pisa, where + he took his doctor's degree in 1551, and in 1555 became professor materia + medica and director of the botanical garden. Appointed physician to Pope + Clement VIII., he removed in 1592 to Rome, where he died on the 23rd of + February 1603. Caesalpinus was the most distinguished botanist of his + time. His work, <i>De Plantis libri xvi.</i> (Florence, 1583), was not + only the source from which various subsequent writers, and especially + Robert Morison (1620-1683) derived their ideas of botanical arrangement + but it was a mine of science to which Linnaeus himself gratefully avowed + his obligations. Linnaeus's copy of the book evinces the great assiduity + with which he studied it; he laboured throughout to remedy the defect of + the want of synonyms, sub-joined his own generic names to nearly every + species, and particularly indicated the two remarkable passages where the + germination of plants and their sexual distinctions are explained. + Caesalpinus was also distinguished as a physiologist, and it has been + claimed that he had a clear idea of the circulation of the blood (see + <span class="sc">Harvey, William</span>). His other works include + <i>Daemonum investigatio peripatetica</i> (1580), <i>Quaestionum + medicarum libri ii.</i> (1593), <i>De Metallicis</i> (1596), and + <i>Quaestionum peripateticarum libri v.</i> (1571)</p> + + <p><b>CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS</b> (102-44 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), + the great Roman soldier and statesman, was born on the 12th of July 102 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span><a name="FnAnchor_191" + href="#Footnote_191"><sup>[1]</sup></a> <span class="sidenote">Early + years.</span> His family was of patrician rank and traced a legendary + descent from Iulus, the founder of Alba Longa, son of Aeneas and grandson + of Venus and Anchises. Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and + built a temple in his forum to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician descent + was of little importance in politics and disqualified Caesar from holding + the tribunate, an office to which, as a leader of the popular party, he + would naturally have aspired. The Julii Caesares, however, had also + acquired the new <i>nobilitas</i>, which belonged to holders of the great + magistracies. Caesar's uncle was consul in 91 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and his father held the praetorship. Most of + the family seem to have belonged to the senatorial party + (<i>optimates</i>); but Caesar himself was from the first a + <i>popularis</i>. The determining factor is no doubt to be sought in his + relationship with C. Marius, the husband of his aunt Julia. Caesar was + born in the year of Marius's first great victory over the Teutones, and + as he grew up, inspired by the traditions of the great soldier's career, + attached himself to his party and its fortunes. Of his education we know + scarcely anything. His mother, Aurelia, belonged to a distinguished + family, and Tacitus (<i>Dial. de Orat.</i> xxviii.) couples her name with + that of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the Roman + matron whose <i>disciplina</i> and <i>severitas</i> formed her son for + the duties of a soldier and statesman. His tutor was M. Antonius Gnipho, + a native of Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is said to + have been equally learned in Greek and Latin literature, and to have set + up in later years a school of rhetoric which was attended by Cicero in + his praetorship 66 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> It is possible that + Caesar may have derived from him his interest in Gaul and its people and + his sympathy with the claims of the Romanized Gauls of northern Italy to + political rights.</p> + + <p>In his sixteenth year (87 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) Caesar lost + his father, and assumed the <i>toga virilis</i> as the token of manhood. + The social war (90-89 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) had been brought to + a close by the enfranchisement of Rome's Italian subjects; and the civil + war which followed it led, after the departure of Sulla for the East, to + the temporary triumph of the <i>populares</i>, led by Marius and Cinna, + and the indiscriminate massacre of their political opponents, including + both of Caesar's uncles. Caesar was at once marked out for high + distinction, being created <i>flamen Dialis</i> or priest of Jupiter. In + the following year (which saw the death of Marius) Caesar, rejecting a + proposed marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress, sought and + obtained the hand of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and thus became + further identified with the ruling party. His career was soon after + interrupted by the triumphant return of Sulla (82 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), who ordered him to divorce his wife, and on + his refusal deprived him of his property and priesthood and was induced + to spare his life only by the intercession of his aristocratic relatives + and the college of vestal virgins.</p> + + <p>Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) left Rome for the East and served his first + campaign under Minucius Thermus, who was engaged in stamping out the + embers of resistance to Roman rule in the province of Asia, and received + from him the "civic crown" for saving a fellow-soldier's life at the + storm of Mytilene. In 78 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he was serving + under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician pirates when the news of + Sulla's death reached him and he at once returned to Rome. Refusing to + entangle himself in the abortive and equivocal schemes of Lepidus to + subvert the Sullan constitution, Caesar took up the only instrument of + political warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial + governors, Cn. Cornelius Dolabella (in 77 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) + and C. Antonius (in 76 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) for extortion in + the provinces of Macedonia and Greece, and though he lost both cases, + probably convinced the world at large of the corruption of the senatorial + tribunals. After these failures Caesar determined to take no active part + in politics for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in order to + study rhetoric under Molon, at Rhodes. On the journey thither he was + caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate nonchalance while + awaiting his ransom, threatening to return and crucify them; when + released he lost no time in carrying out his threat. Whilst he was + studying at Rhodes the third Mithradatic War broke out, and Caesar at + once raised a corps of volunteers and helped to secure the wavering + loyalty of the provincials of Asia. When Lucullus assumed the command of + the Roman troops in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had + been elected to a seat on the college of <i>pontifices</i> left vacant by + the death of his uncle, C. Aurelius Cotta. He was likewise elected first + of the six <i>tribuni militum a populo</i>, but we hear nothing of his + service in this capacity. Suetonius tells us that he threw himself into + the agitation for the restoration of the ancient powers of the tribunate + curtailed by Sulla, and that he secured the passing of a law of amnesty + in favour of the partisans of Sertorius. He was not, however, destined to + compass the downfall of the Sullan <i>régime</i>; the crisis of the Slave + War placed the Senate at the mercy of Pompey and Crassus, who in 70 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> swept away the safeguards of senatorial + ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to the tribunes, and + replaced the Equestrian order, <i>i.e.</i> the capitalists, in partial + possession of the jury-courts. This judicial reform (or rather + compromise) was the work of Caesar's uncle, L. Aurelius Cotta. Caesar + himself, however, gained no accession of influence. In 69 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> he served as quaestor under Antistius Vetus, + governor of Hither Spain, and on his way back to Rome (according to + Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation <!-- Page 939 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page939"></a>[v.04 p.0939]</span>amongst the + Transpadanes for the acquisition of full political rights, which had been + denied them by Sulla's settlement.</p> + + <p>Caesar was now best known as a man of pleasure, celebrated for his + debts and his intrigues; in politics he had no force behind <span + class="sidenote">Opposition to the Optimates.</span> him save that of the + discredited party of the <i>populares</i>, reduced to lending a passive + support to Pompey and Crassus. But as soon as the proved incompetence of + the senatorial government had brought about the mission of Pompey to the + East with the almost unlimited powers conferred on him by the Gabinian + and Manilian laws of 67 and 66 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> (see <span + class="sc">Pompey</span>), Caesar plunged into a network of political + intrigues which it is no longer possible to unravel. In his public acts + he lost no opportunity of upholding the democratic tradition. Already in + 68 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he had paraded the bust of Marius at + his aunt's funeral; in 65 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, as curule + aedile, he restored the trophies of Marius to their place on the Capitol; + in 64 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, as president of the murder + commission, he brought three of Sulla's executioners to trial, and in 63 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he caused the ancient procedure of trial + by popular assembly to be revived against the murderer of Saturninus. By + these means, and by the lavishness of his expenditure on public + entertainments as aedile, he acquired such popularity with the plebs that + he was elected <i>pontifex maximus</i> in 63 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> against such distinguished rivals as Q. Lutatius + Catulus and P. Servilius Isauricus. But all this was on the surface. + There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of some at least of the + threads of conspiracy which were woven during Pompey's absence in the + East. According to one story, the <i>enfants perdus</i> of the + revolutionary party—Catiline, Autronius and others—designed + to assassinate the consuls on the 1st of January 65, and make Crassus + dictator, with Caesar as master of the horse. We are also told that a + public proposal was made to confer upon him an extraordinary military + command in Egypt, not without a legitimate king and nominally under the + protection of Rome. An equally abortive attempt to create a counterpoise + to Pompey's power was made by the tribune Rullus at the close of 64 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> He proposed to create a land commission with + very wide powers, which would in effect have been wielded by Caesar and + Crassus. The bill was defeated by Cicero, consul in 63 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> In the same year the conspiracy associated with + the name of Catiline came to a head. The charge of complicity was freely + levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by Cato in the great debate + in the senate. But Caesar, for party reasons, was bound to oppose the + execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who shared in the + accusation, was the richest man in Rome and the least likely to further + anarchist plots. Both, however, doubtless knew as much and as little as + suited their convenience of the doings of the left wing of their party, + which served to aggravate the embarrassments of the government.</p> + + <p>As praetor (62 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) Caesar supported + proposals in Pompey's favour which brought him into violent collision + with the senate. This was a master-stroke of tactics, as Pompey's return + was imminent. Thus when Pompey landed in Italy and disbanded his army he + found in Caesar a natural ally. After some delay, said to have been + caused by the exigencies of his creditors, which were met by a loan of + £200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left Rome for his province of Further + Spain, where he was able to retrieve his financial position, and to lay + the foundations of a military reputation. He returned to Rome in 60 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> to find that the senate had sacrificed the + support of the capitalists (which Cicero had worked so hard to secure), + and had finally alienated Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and grant + lands to his soldiers. Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus, + who alike detested the existing system of government but were personally + at variance, and succeeded in persuading them to forget their quarrel and + join him in a coalition which should put an end to the rule of the + oligarchy. He even made a generous, though unsuccessful, endeavour to + enlist the support of Cicero. The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, + and constitutional government ceased to exist save in name.</p> + + <p>The first prize which fell to Caesar was the consulship, to secure + which he forewent the triumph which he had earned in Spain. His colleague + was M. Bibulus, who belonged to the straitest sect of the senatorial + oligarchy and, together with <span class="sidenote">Coalition with Pompey + and Crassus.</span> his party, placed every form of constitutional + obstruction in the path of Caesar's legislation. Caesar, however, + overrode all opposition, mustering Pompey's veterans to drive his + colleague from the forum. Bibulus became a virtual prisoner in his own + house, and Caesar placed himself outside the pale of the free republic. + Thus the programme of the coalition was carried through. Pompey was + satisfied by the ratification of his acts in Asia, and by the assignment + of the Campanian state domains to his veterans, the capitalists (with + whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain for the farming + of the Asiatic revenues cancelled, Ptolemy Auletes received the + confirmation of his title to the throne of Egypt (for a consideration + amounting to £1,500,000), and a fresh act was passed for preventing + extortion by provincial governors.</p> + + <p>It was now all-important for Caesar to secure practical + irresponsibility by obtaining a military command. The senate, <span + class="sidenote">Gallic wars.</span> in virtue of its constitutional + prerogative, had assigned as the <i>provincia</i> of the consuls of 59 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> the supervision of roads and forests in + Italy. Caesar secured the passing of a legislative enactment conferring + upon himself the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria for five years, + and exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine Gaul, + where, as he well knew, a storm was brewing which threatened to sweep + away Roman civilization beyond the Alps. The mutual jealousies of the + Gallic tribes had enabled German invaders first to gain a foothold on the + left bank of the Rhine, and then to obtain a predominant position in + Central Gaul. In 60 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> the German king + Ariovistus had defeated the Aedui, who were allies of Rome, and had + wrested from the Sequani a large portion of their territory. Caesar must + have seen that the Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome the + mastery of Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Ariovistus was inscribed on the roll of the + friends of the Roman people. In 58 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> the + Helvetii, a Celtic people inhabiting Switzerland, determined to migrate + for the shores of the Atlantic and demanded a passage through Roman + territory. According to Caesar's statement they numbered 368,000, and it + was necessary at all hazards to save the Roman province from the + invasion. Caesar had but one legion beyond the Alps. With this he marched + to Geneva, destroyed the bridge over the Rhone, fortified the left bank + of the river, and forced the Helvetii to follow the right bank. Hastening + back to Italy he withdrew his three remaining legions from Aquileia, + raised two more, and, crossing the Alps by forced marches, arrived in the + neighbourhood of Lyons to find that three-fourths of the Helvetii had + already crossed the Saône, marching westward. He destroyed their + rearguard, the Tigurini, as it was about to cross, transported his army + across the river in twenty-four hours, pursued the Helvetii in a + northerly direction, and utterly defeated them at Bibracte (Mont + Beuvray). Of the survivors a few were settled amongst the Aedui; the rest + were sent back to Switzerland lest it should fall into German hands.</p> + + <p>The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from the + actual or threatened tyranny of Ariovistus. He at once demanded a + conference, which Ariovistus refused, and on hearing that fresh swarms + were crossing the Rhine, marched with all haste to Vesontio (Besançon) + and thence by way of Belfort into the plain of Alsace, where he gained a + decisive victory over the Germans, of whom only a few (including + Ariovistus) reached the right bank of the Rhine in safety. These + successes roused natural alarm in the minds of the Belgae—a + confederacy of tribes in the north-west of Gaul, whose civilization was + less advanced than that of the Celtae of the centre—and in the + spring of 57 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Caesar determined to + anticipate the offensive movement which they were understood to be + preparing and marched northwards into the territory of the Remī + (about Reims), who alone amongst their neighbours were friendly to Rome. + He successfully checked the advance of the enemy at the passage of the + Aisne (between Laon and Reims) and their ill-organized force melted away + as he advanced. But the Nervii, and their neighbours further to the + north-west, remained to be dealt with, and were <!-- Page 940 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page940"></a>[v.04 p.0940]</span>crushed only + after a desperate struggle on the banks of the Sambre, in which Caesar + was forced to expose his person in the <i>mêlée</i>. Finally, the + Aduatuci (near Namur) were compelled to submit, and were punished for + their subsequent treachery by being sold wholesale into slavery. In the + meantime Caesar's lieutenant, P. Crassus, received the submission of the + tribes of the north-east, so that by the close of the campaign almost the + whole of Gaul—except the Aquitani in the + south-west—acknowledged Roman suzerainty.</p> + + <p>In 56 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, however, the Veneti of Brittany + threw off the yoke and detained two of Crassus's officers as hostages. + Caesar, who had been hastily summoned from Illyricum, crossed the Loire + and invaded Brittany, but found that he could make no headway without + destroying the powerful fleet of high, flat-bottomed boats like floating + castles possessed by the Veneti. A fleet was hastily constructed in the + estuary of the Loire, and placed under the command of Decimus Brutus. The + decisive engagement was fought (probably) in the Gulf of Morbihan and the + Romans gained the victory by cutting down the enemy's rigging with + sickles attached to poles. As a punishment for their treachery, Caesar + put to death the senate of the Veneti and sold their people into slavery. + Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious on the northern coasts, and Crassus + subdued the Aquitani. At the close of the season Caesar raided the + territories of the Morini and Menapii in the extreme north-west.</p> + + <p>In 55 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> certain German tribes, the + Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the lower Rhine, and invaded the modern + Flanders. <span class="sidenote">Expeditions to Britain </span> Caesar at + once marched to meet them, and, on the pretext that they had violated a + truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with him, and then + surprised and practically destroyed their host. His enemies in Rome + accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be handed + over to the Germans. Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge over + the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right + bank. In the remaining weeks of the summer he made his first expedition + to Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> On the first occasion Caesar took with him only + two legions, and effected little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent. + The second expedition consisted of five legions and 2000 cavalry, and set + out from the Portus Itius (Boulogne or Wissant; see T. Rice Holmes, + <i>Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar</i>, 1907, later + views in <i>Classical Review</i>, May 1909, and H.S. Jones, in <i>Eng. + Hist. Rev.</i> xxiv., 1909, p. 115). Caesar now penetrated into Middlesex + and crossed the Thames, but the British prince Cassivellaunus with his + war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled to + return to Gaul after imposing a tribute which was never paid.</p> + + <p>The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for + freedom. Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan + chief, had been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an + attempt to escape from Caesar's camp. At the close of the campaign Caesar + distributed his legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory. Two of + their camps were treacherously attacked. At Aduatuca (near + Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones + under Ambiorix, while Quintus Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of + Namur and only just relieved in time by Caesar, who was obliged to winter + in Gaul in order to check the spread of the rebellion. Indutiomarus, + indeed, chief of the Treveri (about Trèves), revolted and attacked + Labienus, but was defeated and killed. The campaign of 53 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> was marked by a second crossing of the Rhine and + by the destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, + escaped. In the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), + and Acco, a chief of the Senones, was convicted of treason and flogged to + death.</p> + + <p>Early in 52 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> some Roman traders were + massacred at Cenabum (Orléans), and, on hearing the news, the Arverni + revolted under Vercingetorix and were quickly joined by other tribes, + especially the Bituriges, whose capital was Avaricum (Bourges). Caesar + hastened back from Italy, slipped past Vercingetorix and reached + Agedincum (Sens), the headquarters of his legions. Vercingetorix saw that + Caesar could not be met in open battle, and determined to concentrate his + forces in a few strong positions. Caesar first besieged and took + Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then invested Gergovia + (near the Puy-de-Dôme), the capital of the Arverni, but suffered a severe + repulse and was forced to raise the siege. Hearing that the Roman + province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated Vercingetorix near + Dijon and shut him up in Alesia (Mont-Auxois), which he surrounded with + lines of circumvallation. An attempt at relief by Vercassivellaunus was + defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix surrendered. The + struggle was over except for some isolated operations in 51 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, ending with the siege and capture of + Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu), whose defenders had their hands cut off. + Caesar now reduced Gaul to the form of a province, fixing the tribute at + 40,000,000 sesterces (£350,000), and dealing liberally with the conquered + tribes, whose cantons were not broken up.</p> + + <p>In the meantime his own position was becoming critical. In 56 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, at the conference of Luca (Lucca), Caesar, + Pompey <span class="sidenote">Break-up of the Coalition.</span> and + Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command in Gaul, which + would have expired on the 1st of March 54 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, + was renewed, probably for five years, <i>i.e.</i> to the 1st of March 49 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and it was enacted that the question of + his successor should not be discussed until the 1st of March 50 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, by which time the provincial commands for 49 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> would have been assigned, so that Caesar + would retain <i>imperium</i>, and thus immunity from persecution, until + the end of 49 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He was to be elected consul + for 48 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and, as the law prescribed a + personal canvass, he was by special enactment dispensed from its + provisions. But in 54 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Julia, the daughter + of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Crassus was killed at Carrhae. Pompey now + drifted apart from Caesar and became the champion of the senate. In 52 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he passed a fresh law <i>de jure + magistratuum</i> which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by + making it possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before + the close of 49 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, which meant that Caesar + would become for some months a private person, and thus liable to be + called to account for his unconstitutional acts. Caesar had no resource + left but uncompromising obstruction, which he sustained by enormous + bribes. His representative in 50 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the + tribune C. Scribonius Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm + majority of the senate to refrain from extreme measures, insisting that + Pompey, as well as Caesar, should resign the <i>imperium</i>. But all + attempts at negotiation failed, and in January 49 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, martial law having been proclaimed on the + proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar, + who crossed the Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, + exclaiming "<i>Alea jacta est.</i>"</p> + + <p>Pompey's available force consisted in two legions stationed in + Campania, and eight, commanded by his lieutenants, Afranius <span + class="sidenote">The Civil war </span> and Petreius, in Spain; both sides + levied troops in Italy. Caesar was soon joined by two legions from Gaul + and marched rapidly down the Adriatic coast, overtaking Pompey at + Brundisium (Brindisi), but failing to prevent him from embarking with his + troops for the East, where the prestige of his name was greatest. + Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed "I am going to Spain to fight an + army without a general, and thence to the East to fight a general without + an army." He carried out the first part of this programme with marvellous + rapidity. He reached Ilerda (Lerida) on the 23rd of June and, after + extricating his army from a perilous situation, outmanœuvred + Pompey's lieutenants and received their submission on the 2nd of August. + Returning to Rome, he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected + consul for 48 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and set sail for Epirus at + Brundisium on the 4th of January. He attempted to invest Pompey's lines + at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), though his opponent's force was double that of + his own, and was defeated with considerable loss. He now marched + eastwards, in order if possible to intercept the reinforcements which + Pompeys father-in-law, Scipio, was bringing up; but Pompey <!-- Page 941 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page941"></a>[v.04 p.0941]</span>was + able to effect a junction with this force and descended into the plain of + Thessaly, where at the battle of Pharsalus he was decisively defeated and + fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, who learnt of his rival's murder on + landing at Alexandria. Here he remained for nine months, fascinated (if + the story be true) by Cleopatra, and almost lost his life in an + <i>émeute</i>. In June 47 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he proceeded to + the East and Asia Minor, where he "came, saw and conquered" Pharnaces, + son of Mithradates the Great, at Zela. Returning to Italy, he quelled a + mutiny of the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and + crossed to Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions under + Scipio was cut to pieces at Thapsus (6th of April 46 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>). Here most of the republican leaders were + killed and Cato committed suicide. On the 26th to 29th July Caesar + celebrated a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten + years. In November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where the + sons of Pompey still held out. On the 17th of March 45 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> they were crushed at Munda. Caesar returned to + Rome in September, and six months later (15th of March 44 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) was murdered in the senate house at the foot of + Pompey's statue.</p> + + <p>It was remarked by Seneca that amongst the murderers of Caesar were to + be found more of his friends than of his enemies. <span + class="sidenote">Caesar's dictatorship </span> We can account for this + only by emphasizing the fact that the form of Caesar's government became + as time went on more undisguised in its absolutism, while the honours + conferred upon seemed designed to raise him above the rest of humanity. + It is explained elsewhere (see <span class="sc">Rome</span>: <i>History, + Ancient</i>) that Caesar's power was exercised under the form of + dictatorship. In the first instance (autumn of 49 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) this was conferred upon him as the only + solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the flight of the + magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including that of Caesar + himself to the consulship) might be held in due course. For this there + were republican precedents. In 48 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he was + created dictator for the second time, probably with constituent powers + and for an undefined period, according to the dangerous and unpopular + precedent of Sulla. In May 46 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> a third + dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten years and + apparently as a yearly office, so that he became Dictator IV. in May 45 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Finally, before the 15th of February 44 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, this was exchanged for a + life-dictatorship. Not only was this a contradiction in terms, since the + dictatorship was by tradition a makeshift justified only when the state + had to be carried through a serious crisis, but it involved military rule + in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional guarantees, + such as <i>intercessio</i> and <i>provocatio</i>, by which the liberties + of Romans were protected. That Caesar held the <i>imperium</i> which he + enjoyed as dictator to be distinct in kind from that of the republican + magistrates he indicated by placing the term <i>imperator</i> at the head + of his titles.<a name="FnAnchor_192" + href="#Footnote_192"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Besides the dictatorship, Caesar + held the consulship in each year of his reign except 47 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> (when no curule magistrates were elected save + for the last three months of the year); and he was moreover invested by + special enactments with a number of other privileges and powers; of these + the most important was the <i>tribunicia potestas</i>, which we may + believe to have been free from the limits of place (<i>i.e.</i> Rome) and + collegiality. Thus, too, he was granted the sole right of making peace + and war, and of disposing of the funds in the treasury of the state.<a + name="FnAnchor_193" href="#Footnote_193"><sup>[3]</sup></a> Save for the + title of dictator, which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and + was formally abolished on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's death, + this cumulation of powers has little to distinguish it from the + Principate of Augustus; and the assumption of the perpetual dictatorship + would hardly by itself suffice to account for the murder of Caesar. But + there are signs that in the last six months of his life he aspired not + only to a monarchy in name as well as in fact, but also to a divinity + which Romans should acknowledge as well as Greeks, Orientals and + barbarians. His statue was set up beside those of the seven kings of + Rome, and he adopted the throne of gold, the sceptre of ivory and the + embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them. He allowed his + supporters to suggest the offer of the regal title by putting in + circulation an oracle according to which it was destined for a king of + Rome to subdue the Parthians, and when at the Lupercalia (15th February + 44 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) Antony set the diadem on his head he + rejected the offer half-heartedly on account of the groans of the people. + His image was carried in the <i>pompa circensis</i> amongst those of the + immortal gods, and his statue set up in the temple of Quirinus with the + inscription "To the Unconquerable God." A college of Luperci, with the + surname Juliani, was instituted in his honour and <i>flamines</i> were + created as priests of his godhead. This was intolerable to the + aristocratic republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious + commanders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks and + Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the same worship to a + Roman.</p> + + <p>Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be borne in mind + in considering his record of legislative and <span + class="sidenote">Legislative reforms.</span> administrative reform. Some + account of this is given elsewhere (see <span class="sc">Rome</span>: + <i>History, Ancient</i>), but it may be well to single out from the list + of his measures (some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and the + children of proscribed persons, were dictated by political expediency, + while others, such as his financial proposals for the relief of debtors, + and the steps which he took to restore Italian agriculture, were of the + nature of palliatives) those which have a permanent significance as + indicating his grasp of imperial problems. The Social War had brought to + the inhabitants of Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman + citizenship; it remained to extend this gift to the Transpadane Italians, + to establish a uniform system of local administration and to devise + representative institutions by which at least some voice in the + government of Rome might be permitted to her new citizens. This last + conception lay beyond the horizon of Caesar, as of all ancient statesmen, + but his first act on gaining control of Italy was to enfranchise the + Transpadanes, whose claims he had consistently advocated, and in 45 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> he passed the <i>Lex Julia Municipalis</i>, an + act of which considerable fragments are inscribed on two bronze tables + found at Heraclea near Tarentum.<a name="FnAnchor_194" + href="#Footnote_194"><sup>[4]</sup></a> This law deals <i>inter alia</i> + with the police and the sanitary arrangements of the city of Rome, and + hence it has been argued by Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to + reduce Rome to the level of a municipal town. But it is not likely that + such is the case. Caesar made no far-reaching modifications in the + government of the city, such as were afterwards carried out by Augustus, + and the presence in the <i>Lex Julia Municipalis</i> of the clauses + referred to is an example of the common process of "tacking" (legislation + <i>per saturam</i>, as it was called by the Romans). The law deals with + the constitution of the local senates, for whose members qualifications + of age (30 years) and military service are laid down, while persons who + have suffered conviction for various specified offences, or who are + insolvent, or who carry on discreditable or immoral trades are excluded. + It also provides that the local magistrates shall take a census of the + citizens at the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and send the + registers to Rome within sixty days. The existing fragments tell us + little as to the decentralization of the functions of government, but + from the <i>Lex Rubria</i>, which applies to the Transpadane districts + enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul + remained nominally a province until 42 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) we + gather that considerable powers of independent jurisdiction were reserved + to the municipal magistrates. But Caesar was not content with framing a + uniform system of local government <!-- Page 942 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page942"></a>[v.04 p.0942]</span>for Italy. He + was the first to carry out on a large scale those plans of transmarine + colonization whose inception was due to the Gracchi. As consul in 59 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Caesar had established colonies <span + class="sidenote">Colonies.</span> of veterans in Campania under the + <i>Lex Julia Agraria</i>, and had even then laid down rules for the + foundation of such communities. As dictator he planted numerous colonies + both in the eastern and western provinces, notably at Corinth and + Carthage. Mommsen interprets this policy as signifying that "the rule of + the urban community of Rome over the shores of the Mediterranean was at + an end," and says that the first act of the "new Mediterranean state" was + "to atone for the two greatest outrages which that urban community had + perpetrated on civilization." This, however, cannot be admitted. The + sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for their commercial value, and + that the citizens of Rome should cease to be rulers of the Mediterranean + basin could never have entered into Caesar's mind. The colonists were in + many cases veterans who had served under Caesar, in others members of the + city proletariat. We possess the charter of the colony planted at Urso in + southern Spain under the name of <i>Colonia Julia Genetiva Urbanorum</i>. + Of the two latter titles, the first is derived from the name of Venus + Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian house, the second indicates that + the colonists were drawn from the <i>plebs urbana</i>. Accordingly, we + find that free birth is not, as in Italy, a necessary qualification for + municipal office. By such foundations Caesar began the extension to the + provinces of that Roman civilization which the republic had carried to + the bounds of the Italian peninsula. Lack of time alone prevented him + from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of the Isthmus of + Corinth, whose object was to promote trade and intercourse throughout the + Roman dominions, and we are told that at the time of his death he was + contemplating the extension of the empire to its natural frontiers, and + was about to engage in a war with Parthia with the object of carrying + Roman arms to the Euphrates. Above all, he was determined that the empire + should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer exploited + by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the <i>legati</i>, who, + under the form of military subordination, were responsible to him for the + administration of their provinces.</p> + + <p>Caesar's writings are treated under <span class="sc">Latin + Literature</span>. It is sufficient here to say that of those preserved + to us the <span class="sidenote">The Commentaries.</span> seven books + <i>Commentarii de bello Gallico</i> appear to have been written in 51 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> and carry the narrative of the Gallic + campaigns down to the close of the previous year (the eighth book, + written by A. Hirtius, is a supplement relating the events of 51-50 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), while the three books <i>De bello civili</i> + record the struggle between Caesar and Pompey (49-48 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>). Their veracity was impeached in ancient times + by Asinius Pollio and has often been called in question by modern + critics. The <i>Gallic War</i>, though its publication was doubtless + timed to impress on the mind of the Roman people the great services + rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands the test of criticism as far as it is + possible to apply it, and the accuracy of its narrative has never been + seriously shaken. The <i>Civil War</i>, especially in its opening + chapters is, however, not altogether free from traces of + misrepresentation. With respect to the first moves made in the struggle, + and the negotiations for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's + account sometimes conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's correspondence + or implies movements which cannot be reconciled with geographical facts. + We have but few fragments of Caesar's other works, whether political + pamphlets such as the <i>Anticato</i>, grammatical treatises (<i>De + Analogia</i>) or poems. All authorities agree in describing him as a + consummate orator. Cicero (<i>Brut. 22</i>) wrote: <i>de Caesare ita + judico, illum omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui elegantissime</i>, while + Quintilian (x. i. 114) says that had he practised at the bar he would + have been the only serious rival of Cicero.</p> + + <p>The verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured by their + political sympathies. All have recognised his commanding <span + class="sidenote">Character.</span> genius, and few have failed to do + justice to his personal charm and magnanimity, which almost won the heart + of Cicero, who rarely appealed in vain to his clemency. Indeed, he was + singularly tolerant of all but intellectual opposition. His private life + was not free from scandal, especially in his youth, but it is difficult + to believe the worst of the tales which were circulated by his opponents, + <i>e.g.</i> as to his relations with Nicomedes of Bithynia. As to his + public character, however, no agreement is possible between those who + regard Caesarism as a great political creation, and those who hold that + Caesar by destroying liberty lost a great opportunity and crushed the + sense of dignity in mankind. The latter view is unfortunately confirmed + by the undoubted fact that Caesar treated with scant respect the + historical institutions of Rome, which with their magnificent traditions + might still have been the organs of true political life. He increased the + number of senators to 900 and introduced provincials into that body; but + instead of making it into a grand council of the empire, representative + of its various races and nationalities, he treated it with studied + contempt, and Cicero writes that his own name had been set down as the + proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing, conferring the title of + king on potentates of whom he had never heard. A similar treatment was + meted out to the ancient magistracies of the republic; and thus began the + process by which the emperors undermined the self-respect of their + subjects and eventually came to rule over a nation of slaves. Few men, + indeed, have partaken as freely of the inspiration of genius as Julius + Caesar; few have suffered more disastrously from its illusions. See + further <span class="sc">Rome</span>: <i>History</i>, ii. "The Republic," + Period C <i>ad fin.</i></p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The principal ancient + authorities for the life of Caesar are his own <i>Commentaries</i>, the + biographies of Plutarch and Suetonius, letters and speeches of Cicero, + the <i>Catiline</i> of Sallust, the <i>Pharsalia</i> of Lucan, and the + histories of Appian, Dio Cassius and Velleius Paterculus (that of Livy + exists only in the <i>Epitome</i>). Amongst modern works may be named the + exhaustive repertory of fact contained in Drumann, <i>Geschichte + Roms</i>, vol. iii. (new ed. by Groebe, 1906, pp. 125-829), and the + brilliant but partial panegyric of Th. Mommsen in his <i>History of + Rome</i> (Eng. trans., vol. iv., esp. p. 450 ff.). J.A. Froude's + <i>Caesar; a Sketch</i> (2nd ed., 1896) is equally biased and much less + critical. W. Warde Fowler's <i>Julius Caesar</i> (1892) gives a + favourable account (see also his <i>Social Life at Rome</i>, 1909). On + the other side see especially A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. + trans., vol. iv. p. 582 ff.), J.L. Strachan Davidson, <i>Cicero</i> + (1894), p. 345 ff., and the introductory Lections in Prof. Tyrrell's + edition of the <i>Correspondence of Cicero</i>, particularly "Cicero's + case against Caesar," vol. v. p. 13 ff. Vol. ii. of G. Ferrero's + <i>Greatness and Decline of Rome</i> (Eng. trans., 1907) is largely + devoted to Caesar, but must be used with caution. The Gallic campaigns + have been treated by Napoleon III., <i>Histoire de Jules César</i> + (1865-1866), which is valuable as giving the result of excavations, and + in English by T. Rice Holmes, <i>Caesar's Conquest of Gaul</i> (1901), in + which references to earlier literature will be found. A later account is + that of G. Veith, <i>Geschichte der Feldzüge C. Julius Caesars</i> + (1906). For maps see A. von Kampen. For the Civil War see Colonel Stoffel + (the collaborator of Napoleon III.), <i>Histoire de Jules César: guerre + civile</i> (1887). There is an interesting article, "The Likenesses of + Julius Caesar," by J.C. Ropes, in <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, Feb. 1887, + with 18 plates.</p> + + <p>(H. S. J.)</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Medieval Legends.</i></p> + + <p>In the middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such + extraordinary transformations as befell the history of Alexander the + Great and the Theban legend. Lucan was regularly read in medieval + schools, and the general facts of Caesar's life were too well known. He + was generally, by a curious error, regarded as the first emperor of + Rome,<a name="FnAnchor_195" href="#Footnote_195"><sup>[5]</sup></a> and + representing as he did in the popular mind the glory of Rome, by an easy + transition he became a pillar of the Church. Thus, in a French + pseudo-historic romance, <i>Les Faits des Romains</i> (c. 1223), he + receives the honour of a bishopric. His name was not usually associated + with the marvellous, and the <i>trouvère</i> of <i>Huon de Bordeaux</i> + outstepped the usual sober tradition when he made Oberon the son of + Julius Caesar and Morgan la Fay. About 1240 Jehan de Tuim composed a + prose <i>Hystore de Julius Cesar</i> (ed. F. Settegast, Halle, 1881) + based on the <i>Pharsalia</i> of Lucan, and the <i>commentaries</i> of + Caesar (on the Civil War) and his continuators (on the Alexandrine, + African and Spanish wars). The author gives a romantic description of the + meeting with Cleopatra, with an interpolated dissertation on <i>amour + courtois</i> as understood by the <i>trouvères</i>. <!-- Page 943 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page943"></a>[v.04 p.0943]</span>The + <i>Hystore</i> was turned into verse (alexandrines) by Jacot de Forest + (latter part of the 13th century) under the title of <i>Roman de Julius + César</i>. A prose compilation by an unknown author, <i>Les Fails des + Romains</i> (<i>c.</i> 1225), has little resemblance to the last two + works, although mainly derived from the same sources. It was originally + intended to contain a history of the twelve Caesars, but concluded with + the murder of the dictator, and in some MSS. bears the title of <i>Li + livres de César</i>. Its popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in + which it is preserved and by three separate translations into Italian. A + <i>Mistaire de Julius César</i> is said to have been represented at + Amboise in 1500 before Louis XII.</p> + + <p>See A. Graf, <i>Roma nella memoria e nella imaginazione del medio + evo</i>, i. ch. 8 (1882-1883); P. Meyer in <i>Romania</i>, xiv. (Paris, + 1885), where the <i>Faits des Romains</i> is analysed at length; A. Duval + in <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, xix. (1838); L. Constans in + Petit de Jullevilles' <i>Hist. de la langue et de la litt. française</i>, + i. (1896); H. Wesemann, <i>Die Cäsarfabeln des Mittelalters</i> + (Löwenberg, 1879).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">M. Br.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_191" href="#FnAnchor_191">[1]</a> In spite of the + explicit statements of Suetonius, Plutarch and Appian that Caesar was in + his fifty-sixth year at the time of his murder, it is, as Mommsen has + shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, since he held the chief offices of state in + regular order, beginning with the aedileship in 65 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and the legal age for this was fixed at + 37-38.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_192" href="#FnAnchor_192">[2]</a> Suetonius, + <i>Jul.</i> 76, errs in stating that he used the title <i>imperator</i> + as a <i>praenomen</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_193" href="#FnAnchor_193">[3]</a> The statement of + Dio and Suetonius, that a general <i>cura legum et morum</i> was + conferred on Caesar in 46 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, is rejected by + Mommsen. It is possible that it may have some foundation in the terms of + the law establishing his third dictatorship.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_194" href="#FnAnchor_194">[4]</a> Since the + discovery of a fragmentary municipal charter at Tarentum (see <span + class="sc">Rome</span>), dating from a period shortly after the Social + War, doubts have been cast on the identification of the tables of + Heraclea with Caesar's municipal statute. It has been questioned whether + Caesar passed such a law, since the <i>Lex Julia Municipalis</i> + mentioned in an inscription of Patavium (Padua) may have been a local + charter. See Legras, <i>La Table latine d'Héraclée</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_195" href="#FnAnchor_195">[5]</a> Brunetto Latini, + <i>Trésor</i>: "<i>Et ainsi Julius César fu li premiers empereres des + Romains.</i>"</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CAESAR, SIR JULIUS</b> (1557-1558-1636), English judge, descended + by the female line from the dukes de' Cesarini in Italy, was born near + Tottenham in Middlesex. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and + afterwards studied at the university of Paris, where in the year 1581 he + was made a doctor of the civil law. Two years later he was admitted to + the same degree at Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law. He + held many high offices during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., + including a judgeship of the admiralty court (1584), a mastership in + chancery (1588), a mastership of the court of requests (1595), chancellor + and under treasurer of the exchequer (1606). He was knighted by King + James in 1603, and in 1614 was appointed master of the rolls, an office + which he held till his death on the 18th of April 1636, He was so + remarkable for his bounty and charity to all persons of worth that it was + said of him that he seemed to be the almoner-general of the nation. His + manuscripts, many of which are now in the British Museum, were sold by + auction in 1757 for upwards of £500.</p> + + <p>See E. Lodge, <i>Life of Sir Julius Caesar</i> (1810); Wood, <i>Fasti + Oxonienses</i>, ed. Bliss; Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p> + + <p><b>CAESAREA MAZACA</b> (mod. <i>Kaisarieh</i>), chief town of a sanjak + in the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor. Mazaca, the residence of the kings + of Cappadocia, later called <i>Eusebea</i> (perhaps after Ariarathes + Eusebes), and named <i>Caesarea</i> probably by Claudius, stood on a low + spur on the north side of Erjies Dagh (<i>M. Argaeus</i>). The site, now + called <i>Eski-shehr</i>, shows only a few traces of the old town. It was + taken by Tigranes and destroyed by the Persian king Shapur (Sapor) I. + after his defeat of Valerian in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 260. At + this time it is stated to have contained 400,000 inhabitants. In the 4th + century Basil, when bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the + plain, about 1 m. to the north-east, and this gradually supplanted the + old town. A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong walls + and turned into a fortress by Justinian; and within the walls, rebuilt in + the 13th and 16th centuries, lies the greater part of Kaisarieh, altitude + 3500 ft. The town was captured by the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, 1064, + and by the Mongols, 1243, before passing to the Osmanli Turks. Its + geographical situation has made it a place of commercial importance + throughout history. It lay on the ancient trade route from Sinope to the + Euphrates, on the Persian "Royal Road" from Sardis to Susa, and on the + great Roman highway from Ephesus to the East. It is still the most + important trade centre in eastern Asia Minor. The town is noted for its + fruit, especially its vines; and it exports tissues, carpets, hides, + yellow berries and dried fruit. Kaisarieh is the headquarters of the + American mission in Cappadocia, which has several churches and schools + for boys and girls and does splendid medical work. It is the seat of a + Greek bishop, an Armenian archbishop and a Roman Catholic bishop, and + there is a Jesuit school. On the 30th of November 1895 there was a + massacre of Armenians, in which several Gregorian priests and Protestant + pastors lost their lives. Pop., according to Cuinet, 71,000 (of whom + 26,000 are Christians). Sir C. Wilson gave it as 50,000 (23,000 + Christians).</p> + + <p>(C. W. W.; J. G. C. A.)</p> + + <p><b>CAESAREAN SECTION,</b> in obstetrics (<i>q.v.</i>) the operation + for removal of a foetus from the uterus by an abdominal incision, so + called from a legend of its employment at the birth of Julius Caesar. + This procedure has been practised on the dead mother since very early + times; in fact it was prescribed by Roman law that every woman dying in + advanced pregnancy should be so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice + enacted that any practitioner who failed to perform this operation on a + pregnant woman supposed to be dead, laid himself open to very heavy + penalties. But the first recorded instance of its being performed on a + living woman occurred about 1500, when a Swiss pig-gelder operated on his + own wife. From this time onwards it was tried in many ways and under many + conditions, but almost invariably with the same result, the death of the + mother. Even as recently as the first half of the 19th century the + recorded mortality is over 50%. Thus it is no surprise that + craniotomy—in which the life of the child is sacrificed to save + that of the mother—was almost invariably preferred. As the use of + antiseptics was not then understood, and as it was customary to return + the uterus to the body cavity without suturing the incision, the + immediate cause of death was either septicaemia or haemorrhage. But in + 1882 Sänger published his method of suturing the uterus—that of + employing two series of sutures, one deep, the other superficial. This + method of procedure was immediately adopted by many obstetricians, and it + has proved so satisfactory that it is still in use today. This, and the + increasing knowledge of aseptic technique, has brought the mortality from + this operation to less than 3% for the mother and about 5% for the child; + and every year it is being advised more freely for a larger number of + morbid conditions, and with increasingly favourable results. Craniotomy, + <i>i.e.</i> crushing the head of the foetus to reduce its size, is now + very rarely performed on the living child, but symphysiotomy, <i>i.e.</i> + the division of the symphysis pubis to produce a temporary enlargement of + the pelvis, or caesarean section, is advocated in its place. Of these two + operations, symphysiotomy is steadily being replaced by caesarean + section.</p> + + <p>This operation is now advised for (1) extreme degrees of pelvic + contraction, (2) any malformation or tumour of the uterus, cervix or + vagina, which would render the birth of the child through the natural + passages impossible, (3) maternal complications, as eclampsia and + concealed accidental haemorrhage, and (4) at the death of the mother for + the purpose of saving the child.</p> + + <p><b>CAESAREA PALAESTINA,</b> a town built by Herod about 25-13 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, on the sea-coast of Palestine, 30 miles N. of + Joppa, on the site of a place previously called <i>Tunis Stratonis</i>. + Remains of all the principal buildings erected by Herod existed down to + the end of the 19th century; the ruins were much injured by a colony of + Bosnians established here in 1884. These buildings are a temple, + dedicated to Caesar; a theatre; a hippodrome; two aqueducts; a boundary + wall; and, chief of all, a gigantic mole, 200 ft. wide, built of stones + 50 ft. long, in 20 fathoms of water, protecting the harbour on the south + and west. The harbour measures 180 yds. across. The massacre of Jews at + this place led to the Jewish rebellion and to the Roman war. Vespasian + made it a colony and called it Flavia: the old name, however, persisted, + and still survives as <i>Kaisarieh</i>. Eusebius was archbishop here + (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 315-318). It was captured by the Moslems + in 638 and by the Crusaders in 1102, by Saladin in 1187, recaptured by + the Crusaders in 1191, and finally lost by them in 1265, since when till + its recent settlement it has lain in ruins. Remains of the medieval town + are also visible, consisting of the walls (one-tenth the area of the + Roman city), the castle, the cathedral (now covered by modern houses), + and a church.</p> + + <p>(R. A. S. M.)</p> + + <p><b>CAESAREA PHILIPPI,</b> the name of a town 95 miles N. of Jerusalem, + 35 miles S.W. from Damascus, 1150 ft. above the sea, on the south base of + Hermon, and at an important source of the Jordan. It does not certainly + appear in the Old Testament history, though identifications with Baal-Gad + and (less certainly) with Laish (Dan) have been proposed. It was + certainly a place of great sanctity from very early times, and when + foreign <!-- Page 944 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page944"></a>[v.04 p.0944]</span>religious influences intruded upon + Palestine, the cult of its local <i>numen</i> gave place to the worship + of Pan, to whom was dedicated the cave in which the copious spring + feeding the Jordan arises. It was long known as <i>Panium</i> or + <i>Panias</i>, a name that has survived in the modern <i>Banias</i>. When + Herod the Great received the territory from Augustus, 20 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, he erected here a temple in honour of his + patron; but the re-foundation of the town is due to his son, Philip the + Tetrarch, who here erected a city which he named <i>Caesarea</i> in + honour of Tiberius, adding <i>Philippi</i> to immortalize his own name + and to distinguish his city from the similarly-named city founded by his + father on the sea-coast. Here Christ gave His charge to Peter (Matt. xvi. + 13). Many Greek inscriptions have been found here, some referring to the + shrine. Agrippa II. changed the name to <i>Neronias</i>, but this name + endured but a short while. Titus here exhibited gladiatorial shows to + celebrate the capture of Jerusalem. The Crusaders took the city in 1130, + and lost it to the Moslems in 1165. Banias is a poor village inhabited by + about 350 Moslems; all round it are gardens of fruit-trees. It is well + watered and fertile. There are not many remains of the Roman city above + ground. The Crusaders' castle of Subeibeh, one of the finest in + Palestine, occupies the summit of a conical hill above the village.</p> + + <p>(R. A. S. M.)</p> + + <p><b>CAESIUM</b> (symbol Cs, atomic weight 132.9), one of the alkali + metals. Its name is derived from the Lat. <i>caesius</i>, sky-blue, from + two bright blue lines of its spectrum. It is of historical importance, + since it was the first metal to be discovered by the aid of the + spectroscope (R. Bunsen, <i>Berlin Acad. Ber.</i>, 1860), although + caesium salts had undoubtedly been examined before, but had been mistaken + for potassium salts (see C.F. Plattner, <i>Pog. Ann.</i>, 1846, p. 443, + on the analysis of pollux and the subsequent work of F. Pisani, + <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1864, 58, p. 714). Caesium is found in the mineral + springs of Frankenhausen, Montecatini, di Val di Nievole, Tuscany, and + Wheal Clifford near Redruth, Cornwall (W.A. Miller, <i>Chem. News</i>, + 1864, 10, p. 181), and, associated with rubidium, at Dürkheim; it is also + found in lepidolite, leucite, petalite, triphylline and in the carnallite + from Stassfurt. The separation of caesium from the minerals which contain + it is an exceedingly difficult and laborious process. According to R. + Bunsen, the best source of rubidium and caesium salts is the residue left + after extraction of lithium salts from lepidolite. This residue consists + of sodium, potassium and lithium chlorides, with small quantities of + caesium and rubidium chlorides. The caesium and rubidium are separated + from this by repeated fractional crystallization of their double platinum + chlorides, which are much less soluble in water than those of the other + alkali metals (R. Bunsen, <i>Ann.</i>, 1862, 122, p. 347; 1863, 125, p. + 367). The platino-chlorides are reduced by hydrogen, and the caesium and + rubidium chlorides extracted by water. See also A. Schrötter (<i>Jour. + prak. Chem.</i>, 1864, 93, p. 2075) and W. Heintz (<i>Journ. prak. + Chem.</i>, 1862, 87, p. 310). W. Feit and K. Kubierschky (<i>Chem. + Zeit.</i>, 1892, 16, p. 335) separate rubidium and caesium from the other + alkali metals by converting them into double chlorides with stannic + chloride; whilst J. Redtenbacher (<i>Jour. prak. Chem.</i>, 1865, 94, p. + 442) separates them from potassium by conversion into alums, which C. + Setterberg (<i>Ann.</i>, 1882, 211, p. 100) has shown are very slightly + soluble in a solution of potash alum. In order to separate caesium from + rubidium, use is made of the different solubilities of their various + salts. The bitartrates RbHC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>0<sub>6</sub> and + CsHC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>0<sub>6</sub> have been employed, as have + also the alums (see above). The double chloride of caesium and antimony + 3CsCl·2SbCl<sub>3</sub> (R. Godeffroy, <i>Ber.</i>, 1874, 7, p. 375; + <i>Ann.</i>, 1876, 181, p. 176) has been used, the corresponding compound + not being formed by rubidium. The metal has been obtained by electrolysis + of a mixture of caesium and barium cyanides (C. Setterberg, <i>Ann.</i>, + 1882, 211, p. 100) and by heating the hydroxide with magnesium or + aluminium (N. Beketoff, <i>Chem. Centralblatt</i>, 1889, 2, p. 245). L. + Hackspill (<i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1905, 141, p. 101) finds that metallic + caesium can be obtained more readily by heating the chloride with + metallic calcium. A special V-shaped tube is used in the operation, and + the reaction commences between 400°C. and 500°C. It is a silvery white + metal which burns on heating in air. It melts at 26° to 27°C. and has a + specific gravity of 1.88 (15°C.).</p> + + <p>The atomic weight of caesium has been determined by the analysis of + its chloride and bromide. Richards and Archibald (<i>Zeit. anorg. + Chem.</i>, 1903, 34, p. 353) obtained 132.879 (O=16).</p> + + <p><i>Caesium hydroxide</i>, Cs(OH)<sub>2</sub>, obtained by the + decomposition of the sulphate with baryta water, is a greyish-white + deliquescent solid, which melts at a red heat and absorbs carbon dioxide + rapidly. It readily dissolves in water, with evolution of much heat. + <i>Caesium chloride</i>, CsCl, is obtained by the direct action of + chlorine on caesium, or by solution of the hydroxide in hydrochloric + acid. It forms small cubes which melt at a red heat and volatilize + readily. It deliquesces in moist air. Many double chlorides are known, + and may be prepared by mixing solutions of the two components in the + requisite proportions. The <i>bromide</i>, CsBr, and <i>iodide</i>, CsI, + resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Many trihaloid salts of + caesium are also known, such as CsBr<sub>3</sub>, CsClBr<sub>2</sub>, + CsI<sub>3</sub>, CsBrI<sub>2</sub>, CsBr<sub>2</sub>I, &c. (H.L. + Wells and S.L. Penfield, <i>Zeit. fur anorg. Chem.</i>, 1892, i, p. 85). + <i>Caesium sulphate</i>, Cs<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, may be prepared by + dissolving the hydroxide or carbonate in sulphuric acid. It crystallizes + in short hard prisms, which are readily soluble in water but insoluble in + alcohol. It combines with many metallic sulphates (silver, zinc, cobalt, + nickel, &c.) to form double sulphates of the type + Cs<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>·RSO<sub>4</sub>·6H<sub>2</sub>O. It also + forms a caesium-alum + Cs<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>·Al<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·24H<sub>2</sub>O. + <i>Caesium nitrate</i>, CsNO<sub>3</sub>, is obtained by dissolving the + carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizes in glittering prisms, which + melt readily, and on heating evolve oxygen and leave a residue of caesium + nitrite. The carbonate, Cs<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>, silicofluoride, + Cs<sub>2</sub>SiF<sub>6</sub>, borate, + Cs<sub>2</sub>O·3B<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and the sulphides + Cs<sub>2</sub>S·4H<sub>2</sub>O, + Cs<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, + Cs<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, Cs<sub>2</sub>S<sub>4</sub> + and Cs<sub>2</sub>S<sub>6</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, are also known.</p> + + <p>Caesium compounds can be readily recognized by the two bright blue + lines (of wave length 4555 and 4593) in their flame spectrum, but these + are not present in the spark spectrum. The other lines include three in + the green, two in the yellow, and two in the orange.</p> + + <p><b>CAESPITOSE</b> (Lat. <i>caespes</i>, a sod), a botanical term for + "growing in tufts," like many grasses.</p> + + <p><b>CAESTUS,</b> or <span class="sc">Cestus</span> (from Lat. + <i>caedo</i>, strike), a gauntlet or boxing-glove used by the ancient + pugilists. Of this there were several varieties, the simplest and least + dangerous being the <i>meilichae</i> (<span title="meilichai" class="grk" + >μειλίχαι</span>), which + consisted of strips of raw hide tied under the palm, leaving the fingers + bare. With these the athletes in the <i>palaestrae</i> were wont to + practise, reserving for serious contests the more formidable kinds, such + as the <i>sphaerae</i> (<span title="sphairai" class="grk" + >σφαῖραι</span>), which were sewn + with small metal balls covered with leather, and the terrible + <i>murmekes</i> (<span title="murmêkes" class="grk" + >μύρμηκες</span>), sometimes + called "limb-breakers" (<span title="guiotoroi" class="grk" + >γυιοτόροι</span>), + which were studded with heavy nails. The straps (<span title="himantes" class="grk" + >ἳμαντες</span>) were of different + lengths, many reaching to the elbow, in order to protect the forearm when + guarding heavy blows (see J.H. Krause, <i>Gymnastik und Agonistik der + Hellenen</i>, 1841). The <i>caestus</i> is to be distinguished from + <i>cestus</i> (=embroidered, from <span title="kentein" class="grk" + >κεντεῖν</span>), an adjective + used as a noun in the sense of "girdle," especially the girdle of + Aphrodite, which was supposed to have the power of exciting love.</p> + + <p><b>CAESURA</b> (Lat. for "cutting," Gr. <span title="tomê" class="grk" + >τομη</span>), in prosody, a rest or pause, usually + occurring about the middle of a verse, which is thereby separated into + two parts (<span title="kôla" class="grk" + >κωλα</span>, members). In Greek and Latin + hexameters the best and most common caesura is the penthemimeral + (<i>i.e.</i> after the 5th half-foot):</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span title="Mênin a | eide, the | a, | Pê | lêïa | deô Achi | lêos" class="grk">Μῆνιν ἄ | ειδε, θε | ά, | Πη <b>|</b> ληϊα | δέω Ἀχι | λῆος</span><br /> +Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Tro | jae qui | primus ab | oris.</p> + + <p>Another caesura very common in Homer, but rare in Latin verse, is + after the 2nd syllable of the 3rd dactyl:</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span title="Oiô | noisi te | pasi Di | os d' ete | leieto | boulê." class="grk">Οἰω | νοῖσί τε | πᾶσι Δι | ὸς δ' ἐτε | λείετο | βουλή.</span></p> + + <p>On the other hand, the hephthemimeral caesura (<i>i.e.</i> after the + 7th half-foot) is common in Latin, but rare in Greek:</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Formo | sam reso | nare do | ces Ama | ryllida | silvas.</p> + + <p>The "bucolic" caesura, peculiar to Greek (so called because it is + chiefly found in writers like Theocritus) occurs after the 4th + dactyl:</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span title="Ándra moi | ennepe, | Mousa, po | lutropon, | hos mala | polla" class="grk">Ἄνδρα μοι | ἔννεπε, | Μοῦσα, πο | λύτροπον, | ὃς μάλα | πολλά</span></p> + + <p>In the pentameter verse of the elegiac distich the caesura is always + penthemimeral. In the iambic trimeter (consisting of three dipodia or + pairs of feet), both in Greek and Latin, the most usual caesura is the + penthemimeral; next, the hephthemimeral:</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span title="Ô tek | na Kad | mou tou | palai | nea | trophê" class="grk">Ὦ τέκ | να Κάδ | μου τοῦ | πάλαι | νέα | τροφή</span><br /> +Supplex | et o | ro reg | na per | Proser | pinae.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 945 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page945"></a>[v.04 p.0945]</span></p> + + <p>Verses in which neither of these caesuras occurs are considered + faulty. On the other hand, secondary or subsidiary caesuras are found in + both Greek and Latin; thus, a trithemimeral (after the 3rd half-foot) is + combined with the hephthemimeral, which divides the verse into two + unequal parts. A caesura is often called masculine when it falls after a + long, feminine when it falls after a short syllable.</p> + + <p>The best treatise on Greek and Latin metre for general use is L. + Müller, <i>Die Metrik der Griechen und Romer</i> (1885); see also the + article <span class="sc">Verse</span>.</p> + + <p><b>CAFFEINE,</b> or <span class="sc">Theine</span> (1.3.7 trimethyl + 2.6 dioxypurin), + C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>10</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, a + substance found in the leaves and beans of the coffee tree, in tea, in + Paraguay tea, and in small quantities in cocoa and in the kola nut. It + may be extracted from tea or coffee by boiling with water, the dissolved + tannin precipitated by basic lead acetate, the solution filtered, excess + of lead precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtered liquid + then evaporated to crystallization; or, tea is boiled with water, and the + whole then evaporated to a syrup, which is mixed with slaked lime, + evaporated to dryness on the water-bath and extracted with chloroform (P. + Cazeneuve, <i>Bull. de la soc. chim. de Paris</i>, 1876-1877, 27, p. + 199). Synthetically it may be prepared by the methylation of silver + theobromine and silver theophyllin or by boiling heteroxanthine with + methyl iodide and potash. E. Fischer and L. Ach (<i>Berichte</i>, 1895, + 28, p. 3135) have synthesized it from dimethyl alloxan, whilst W. Traube + (<i>Berichte</i>, 1900, 33, p. 3435) has obtained it from 1.3 diamethyl + 4.5 diamino 2.6 dioxypyrimidine. On the constitution of caffeine see + <span class="sc">Purin</span> and also E. Fischer (<i>Annalen</i>, 1882, + 215, p. 253).</p> + + <p>Caffeine crystallizes in long silky needles, which are slightly + soluble in cold water. It becomes anhydrous at 100°C. and melts at 234° + to 235°C. It has a faint bitter taste and gives salts with mineral acids. + On oxidation with nitric acid caffeine gives cholesterophane (dimethyl + parabanic acid), but if chlorine water be used as the oxidant, then it + yields monomethyl urea and dimethyl alloxan (E. Fischer).</p> + + <p><b>CAFFIERI, JACQUES</b> (1678-1755), French worker in metal, the most + famous member of a family several of whom distinguished themselves in + plastic art, was the fifth son of Philippe Caffieri (1634-1716), a + decorative sculptor, who, after serving Pope Alexander VII., entered the + service of Louis XIV. in 1660. An elder son of Philippe, François Charles + (1667-1721), was associated with him. As a <i>fondeur ciseleur</i>, + however, the renown of the house centred in Jacques, though it is not + always easy to distinguish between his own work and that of his son + Philippe (1714-1777). A large proportion of his brilliant achievement as + a designer and chaser in bronze and other metals was executed for the + crown at Versailles, Fontainebleau, Compiègne, Choisy and La Muette, and + the crown, ever in his debt, still owed him money at his death. Jacques + and his son Philippe undoubtedly worked together in the "Appartement du + Dauphin" at Versailles, and although much of their contribution to the + palace has disappeared, the decorations of the marble chimney-piece still + remain. They belong to the best type of the Louis XV. + style—vigorous and graceful in design, they are executed with + splendid skill. It is equally certain that father and son worked together + upon the gorgeous bronze case of the famous astronomical clock made by + Passement and Danthiau for Louis XV. between 1749 and 1753. The form of + the case has been much criticized, and even ridiculed, but the severest + critics in that particular have been the readiest to laud the boldness + and freedom of the motives, the jewel-like finish of the craftsmanship, + the magnificent dexterity of the master-hand. The elder Caffieri was, + indeed, the most consummate practitioner of the <i>style rocaille</i>, + which he constantly redeemed from its mannered conventionalism by the + ease and mastery with which he treated it. From the studio in which he + and his son worked side by side came an amazing amount of work, chiefly + in the shape of those gilded bronze mounts which in the end became more + insistent than the pieces of furniture which they adorned. Little of his + achievement was ordinary; an astonishingly large proportion of it is + famous. There is in the Wallace collection (Hertford House, London) a + commode from the hand of Jacques Caffieri in which the brilliance and + spontaneity, the sweeping boldness and elegance of line that mark his + style at its best, are seen in a perfection hardly exceeded in any other + example. Also at Hertford House is the exceptionally fine lustre which + was a wedding present from Louis XV. to Louise Elizabeth of France. After + Jacques' death his son Philippe continued to work for the crown, but had + many private clients. He made a great cross and six candlesticks for the + high altar of Notre Dame, which disappeared in the revolution, but + similar work for Bayeux cathedral still exists. A wonderful enamelled + toilet set which he executed for the Princess of Asturias has also + disappeared. Philippe's style was gradually modified into that which + prevailed in the third quarter of the 18th century, since by 1777, when + he died, the taste for the magnificent mounts of his early days had + passed away. Like his father, he drew large sums from the crown, usually + after giving many years' credit, while many other years were needed by + his heirs to get in the balance of the royal indebtedness. Philippe's + younger brother, Jean Jacques Caffieri (1725-1792), was a sculptor, but + was sufficiently adept in the treatment of metals to design the fine + <i>rampe d'escalier</i> which still adorns the Palais Royal.</p> + + <p><b>CAFTAN,</b> or <span class="sc">Kaftan</span> (a Turkish word, also + in use in Persia), a tunic or under-dress with long hanging sleeves, tied + with a girdle at the waist, worn in the East by persons of both sexes. + The caftan was worn by the upper and middle classes in Russia till the + time of Peter the Great, when it was generally discarded.</p> + + <p><b>CAGLI,</b> a town and (with Pergola) an episcopal see of the + Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 18 m. S. of the + latter town by rail, and 830 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, + 4628; commune, 12,533. The church of S. Domenico contains a good fresco + (Madonna and saints) by Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael. The + citadel of the 15th century, constructed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini + of Siena, is on the S.E. of the modern town. Cagli occupies the site of + an ancient <i>vicus</i> (village) on the Via Flaminia, which seems to + have borne the name Cale, 24 m. N. of Helvillum (mod. <i>Sigillo</i>) and + 18 m. S.W. of Forum Sempronii (mod. <i>Fossombrone</i>). Below the town + to the north is a single arched bridge of the road, the arch having the + span of 38¼ ft. (See G. Mochi, <i>Storia di Cagli</i>, Cagli, 1878.) + About 5 m. to the N.N.W. of Cagli and 2½ m. W. of the Via Flaminia at the + mod. <i>Acqualagna</i> is the site of an ancient town; the place is now + called <i>piano di Valeria</i>, and is scattered with ruins. Inscriptions + show that this was a Roman <i>municipium</i>, perhaps Pitinum Mergens + (<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> xi. [Berlin, 1901] p. 876). Three miles north + of Acqualagna the Via Flaminia, which is still in use as the modern + high-road, traverses the Furlo Pass, a tunnel about 40 yds. long, + excavated by Vespasian in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 77, as an + inscription at the north end records. There is another tunnel at lower + level, which belongs to an earlier date; this seems to have been in use + till the construction of the Roman road, which at first ran round the + rock on the outside, until Vespasian cut the tunnel. In repairing the + modern road just outside the south entrance to the tunnel, a stratum of + carbonized corn, beans, &c., and a quantity of burnt wood, stones, + tiles, pottery, &c., was found under and above the modern road, for a + distance of some 500 yds. This débris must have belonged to the castle of + Petra Pertusa, burned by the Lombards in 570 or 571 on their way to Rome. + The castle itself is mentioned by Procopius (<i>Bell. Goth.</i> ii. 11, + iii. 6, iv. 28, 34). Here also was found the inscription of <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 295, relating to the measures taken to suppress + brigandage in these parts. (See <span class="sc">Apennines</span>.)</p> + + <p>See A. Vernarecci in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1886, 411 (cf. + <i>ibid.</i> 227); <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> (Berlin, 1901), Nos. 6106, + 6107.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CAGLIARI</b> (anc. <i>Carales</i>), the capital of the island of + Sardinia, an archiepiscopal see, and the chief town of the province of + Cagliari, which embraces the southern half of the island. It is 270 m. + W.S.W. of Naples, and 375 m. south of Genoa by sea. Pop. (1900) of town, + 48,098; of commune, 53,057. It is finely situated at the northern + extremity of the Gulf of Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of + the island. The medieval town occupies a long narrow hill running N. and + S. with precipitous <!-- Page 946 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page946"></a>[v.04 p.0946]</span>cliffs on the E. and W. which must + have been the ancient acropolis, but the modern town, like the Roman town + before it, extends to the slopes of the hill and to the low ground by the + sea. On each side of the town are lagoons. That of S. Gilla on the W., + which produces fish in abundance, was originally an open bay. That of + Molentargius on the E. has large saltpans. The upper town still retains + in part its fortifications, including the two great towers at the two + extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (S.) and the Torre di S. + Pancrazio (N.), both erected by the Pisans, the former in 1307, the + latter in 1305. The Torre di S. Pancrazio at the highest point (367 ft. + above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. Close to it is the + archaeological museum, the most important in the island. To the north of + it are the modern citadel and the barracks, and beyond, a public + promenade. The narrow streets run from north to south for the whole + length of the upper town. On the edge of the cliffs on the E. is the + cathedral, built in 1257-1312 by the Pisans, and retaining two of the + original transept doors. The pulpit of the same period is also fine: it + now stands, divided into two, on each side of the entrance, while the + lions which supported it are on the balustrade in front of the cathedral + (see E. Brunelli in <i>L'Arte</i>, Rome, 1901, 59; D. Scano, <i>ibid.</i> + 204). Near the sacristy are also some Gothic chapels of the Aragonese + period. The church was, however, remodelled in 1676, and the interior is + baroque. Two fine silver candelabra, the tabernacle and the altar front + are of the 17th century; and the treasury also contains some good silver + work. (See D. Scano in <i>Bolletino d'Arte</i>, February 1907, p. 14; and + E. Brunelli in <i>L'Arte</i>, 1907, p. 47.) The crypt contains three + ancient sarcophagi. The façade, in the baroque style, was added in 1703. + The university, a little farther north, the buildings of which were + erected in 1764, has some 240 students. At the south extremity of the + hill, on the site of the bastian of south Caterina, a large terrace, the + Passeggiata Umberto Primo, has been constructed: it is much in use on + summer evenings, and has a splendid view. Below it are covered + promenades, and from it steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part + of which (the so-called Marina), sloping gradually towards the sea, is + probably the nucleus of the Roman <i>municipium</i>, while the quarter of + Stampace lies to the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' + Avendrace. The northern portion of this, below the castle hill, is the + older, while the part near the shore consists mainly of modern buildings + of no great interest. To the east of the castle hill and the Marina is + the quarter of Villanova, which contains the church of S. Saturnino, a + domed church of the 8th century with a choir of the Pisan period. The + harbour of Cagliari (along the north side of which runs a promenade + called the Via Romo) is a good one, and has a considerable trade, + exporting chiefly lead, zinc and other minerals and salt, the total + annual value of exports amounting to nearly 1½ million sterling in value. + The Campidano of Cagliari, the plain which begins at the north end of the + lagoon of S. Gilla, is very fertile and much cultivated, as is also the + district to the east round Quarto S. Elena, a village with 8459 + inhabitants (1901). The national costumes are rarely now seen in the + neighbourhood of Cagliari, except at certain festivals, especially that + of S. Efisio (May 1-4) at Pula (see <span class="sc">Nora</span>). The + methods of cultivation are primitive: the curious water-wheels, made of + brushwood with pots tied on to them, and turned by a blindfolded donkey, + may be noted. The ox-carts are often made with solid wheels, for greater + strength. Prickly pear (<i>opuntia</i>) hedges are as frequent as in + Sicily. Cagliari is considerably exposed to winds in winter, while in + summer it is almost African in climate. The aqueduct was constructed in + quite recent times, rain-water having previously given the only supply. + The main line of railway runs north to Decimomannu (for Iglesias), + Oristano, Macomer and Chilivani (for Golfo degli Aranci and Sassari); + while another line (narrow-gauge) runs to Mandas (for Sorgono and + Tortoli). There is also a tramway to Quarto S. Elena.</p> + + <p>In <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 485 the whole of Sardinia was taken + by the Vandals from Africa; but in 533 it was retaken by Justinian. In + 687 Cagliari rose against the East Roman emperors, under Gialetus, one of + the citizens, who made himself king of the whole island, his three + brothers becoming governors of Torres (in the N.W.), Arborea (in the + S.W.) and Gallura (in the N.E. of the island). The Saracens devastated it + in the 8th century, but were driven out, and the island returned to the + rule of kings, until they fell in the 10th century, their place being + taken by four "judges" of the four provinces, Cagliari, Torres, Arborea + and Gallura. In the 12th century Musatto, a Saracen, established himself + in Cagliari, but was driven out with the help of the Pisans and Genoese. + The Pisans soon acquired the sovereignty over the whole island with the + exception of Arborea, which continued to be independent. In 1297 Boniface + VIII. invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and in 1326 they + finally drove the Pisans out of Cagliari, and made it the seat of their + government. In 1348 the island was devastated by the plague described by + Boccaccio. It was not until 1403 that the kings of Aragon were able to + conquer the district of Arborea, which, under the celebrated Eleonora + (whose code of laws—the so-called <i>Carta de Logu</i>—was + famous), offered a heroic resistance. In 1479 the native princes were + deprived of all independence. The island remained in the hands of Spain + until the peace of Utrecht (1714), by which it was assigned to Austria. + In 1720 it was ceded by the latter, in exchange for Sicily, to the duke + of Savoy, who assumed the title of king of Sardinia (Cagliari continuing + to be the seat of government), and this remained the title of the house + of Savoy until 1861. Cagliari was bombarded by the French fleet in 1793, + but Napoleon's attempt to take the island failed.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO,</b> <span class="sc">Count</span> + (1743-1793), Italian alchemist and impostor, was born at Palermo on the + 8th of June 1743. Giuseppe Balsamo—for such was the "count's" real + name—gave early indications of those talents which afterwards + gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of his + education at the monastery of Caltagirone in Sicily, but was expelled + from it for misconduct and disowned by his relations. He now signalized + himself by his dissolute life and the ingenuity with which he contrived + to perpetrate forgeries and other crimes without exposing himself to the + risk of detection. Having at last got into trouble with the authorities + he fled from Sicily, and visited in succession Greece, Egypt, Arabia, + Persia, Rhodes—where he took lessons in alchemy and the cognate + sciences from the Greek Althotas—and Malta. There he presented + himself to the grand master of the Maltese order as Count Cagliostro, and + curried favour with him as a fellow alchemist, for the grand master's + tastes lay in the same direction. From him he obtained introductions to + the great houses of Rome and Naples, whither he now hastened. At Rome he + married a beautiful but unprincipled woman, Lorenza Feliciani, with whom + he travelled, under different names, through many parts of Europe. It is + unnecessary to recount the various infamous means which he employed to + pay his expenses during these journeys. He visited London and Paris in + 1771, selling love-philtres, elixirs of youth, mixtures for making ugly + women beautiful, alchemistic powders, &c., and deriving large profits + from his trade. After further travels on the continent he returned to + London, where he posed as the founder of a new system of freemasonry, and + was well received in the best society, being adored by the ladies. He + went to Germany and Holland once more, and to Russia, Poland, and then + again to Paris, where, in 1785, he was implicated in the affair of the + Diamond Necklace (<i>q.v.</i>); and although Cagliostro escaped + conviction by the matchless impudence of his defence, he was imprisoned + for other reasons in the Bastille. On his liberation he visited England + once more, where he succeeded well at first; but was ultimately outwitted + by some English lawyers, and confined for a while in the Fleet prison. + Leaving England, he travelled through Europe as far as Rome, where he was + arrested in 1789. He was tried and condemned to death for being a + heretic, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment, while + his wife was immured in a convent. He died in the fortress prison of San + Leo in 1795.</p> + + <p>The best account of the life, adventures and character of Giuseppe + Balsamo is contained in Carlyle's <i>Miscellanies</i>. Dumas's novel, + <i>Memoirs of a Physician</i>, is founded on his adventures; see also a + <!-- Page 947 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page947"></a>[v.04 + p.0947]</span>series of papers in the <i>Dublin University Magazine</i>, + vols. lxxviii. and lxxix.; <i>Memorial, or Brief for Cagliostro in the + Cause of Card. de Rohan</i>, &c. (Fr.) by P. Macmahon (1786); + <i>Compendio della vita e delle gesta di Giuseppe Balsamo denominato il + conte di Cagliostro</i> (Rome, 1791); Sierke, <i>Schwarmer und Schwindler + zu Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderts</i> (1875); and the sketch of his life in + D. Silvagni's <i>La Corte e la Società Romana nei secoli XVIII. e + XIX.</i> vol. i. (Florence, 1881).</p> + + <p>(L. V.*)</p> + + <p><b>CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES</b> (1777-1859), French engineer and + physicist, was born in Paris on the 31st of March 1777, and after + attending the École Polytechnique became one of the <i>ingénieurs + géographiques</i>. He was made a baron in 1818, and died in Paris on the + 5th of July 1859. He was the author of numerous inventions, including the + cagniardelle, a blowing machine, which consists essentially of an + Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank of water in such a way that its + lower end is completely and its upper end partially immersed, and + operated by being rotated in the opposite direction to that required for + raising water. In acoustics he invented, about 1819, the improved siren + which is known by his name, using it for ascertaining the number of + vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch, and he also + made experiments on the mechanism of voice-production. In course of an + investigation in 1822-1823 on the effects of heat and pressure on certain + liquids he found that for each there was a certain temperature above + which it refused to remain liquid but passed into the gaseous state, no + matter what the amount of pressure to which it was subjected, and in the + case of water he determined this critical temperature, with a remarkable + approach to accuracy, to be 362°C. He also studied the nature of yeast + and the influence of extreme cold upon its life.</p> + + <p><b>CAGNOLA, LUIGI,</b> <span class="sc">Marchese</span> (1762-1833), + Italian architect, was born on the 9th of June 1762 in Milan. He was sent + at the age of fourteen to the Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards + studied at the university of Pavia. He was intended for the legal + profession, but his passion for architecture was too strong, and after + holding some government posts at Milan, he entered as a competitor for + the construction of the Porta Orientale. His designs were commended, but + were not selected on account of the expense their adoption would have + involved. From that time Cagnola devoted himself entirely to + architecture. After the death of his father he spent two years in Verona + and Venice, studying the architectural structures of these cities. In + 1806 he was called upon to erect a triumphal arch for the marriage of + Eugene Beauharnais with the princess of Bavaria. The arch was of wood, + but was of such beauty that it was resolved to carry it out in marble. + The result was the magnificent Arco della Pace in Milan, surpassed in + dimensions only by the Arc de l'Étoile at Paris. Among other works + executed by Cagnola are the Porta di Marengo at Milan, the campanile at + Urgnano, and the chapel of Santa Marcellina in Milan. He died on the 14th + of August 1833, five years before the completion of the Arco del + Sempione, which he designed for his native city.</p> + + <p><b>CAGOTS,</b> a people found in the Basque provinces, Béarn, Gascony + and Brittany. The earliest mention of them is in 1288, when they appear + to have been called Christiens or Christianos. In the 16th century they + had many names, Cagots, Gahets, Gafets in France; Agotes, Gafos in Spain; + and Cacons, Cahets, Caqueux and Caquins in Brittany. During the middle + ages they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics and + even as cannibals. They were shunned and hated; were allotted separate + quarters in towns, called <i>cagoteries</i>, and lived in wretched huts + in the country distinct from the villages. Excluded from all political + and social rights, they were only allowed to enter a church by a special + door, and during the service a rail separated them from the other + worshippers. Either they were altogether forbidden to partake of the + sacrament, or the holy wafer was handed to them on the end of a stick, + while a receptacle for holy water was reserved for their exclusive use. + They were compelled to wear a distinctive dress, to which, in some + places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck (whence they were + sometimes called <i>Canards</i>). And so pestilential was their touch + considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road + barefooted. The only trades allowed them were those of butcher and + carpenter, and their ordinary occupation was wood-cutting. Their language + is merely a corrupt form of that spoken around them; but a Teutonic + origin seems to be indicated by their fair complexions and blue eyes. + Their crania have a normal development; their cheek-bones are high; their + noses prominent, with large nostrils; their lips straight; and they are + marked by the absence of the auricular lobules.</p> + + <p>The origin of the Cagots is undecided. Littré defines them as "a + people of the Pyrenees affected with a kind of cretinism." It has been + suggested that they were descendants of the Visigoths, and Michael + derives the name from <i>caas</i> (dog) and <i>Goth</i>. But opposed to + this etymology is the fact that the word <i>cagot</i> is first found in + the <i>for</i> of Béarn not earlier than 1551. Marca, in his <i>Histoire + de Béarn</i>, holds that the word signifies "hunters of the Goths," and + that the Cagots are descendants of the Saracens. Others made them + descendants of the Albigenses. The old MSS. call them Chrétiens or + Chrestiaas, and from this it has been argued that they were Visigoths who + originally lived as Christians among the Gascon pagans. A far more + probable explanation of their name "Chrétiens" is to be found in the fact + that in medieval times all lepers were known as <i>pauperes Christi</i>, + and that, Goths or not, these Cagots were affected in the middle ages + with a particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it. Thus + would arise the confusion between Christians and Cretins. To-day their + descendants are not more subject to goitre and cretinism than those + dwelling around them, and are recognized by tradition and not by features + or physical degeneracy. It was not until the French Revolution that any + steps were taken to ameliorate their lot, but to-day they no longer form + a class, but have been practically lost sight of in the general + peasantry.</p> + + <p>See Francisque Michel, <i>Histoire des races maudites de France et + d'Espagne</i> (Paris, 1846); Abbé Venuti, <i>Recherches sur les Cahets de + Bordeaux</i> (1754); <i>Bulletins de la société anthropologique</i> + (1861, 1867, 1868, 1871); <i>Annales medico-psychologiques</i> (Jan. + 1867); Lagneau, <i>Questionnaire sur l'ethnologie de la France</i>; Paul + Raymond, <i>Mœurs béarnaises</i> (Pau, 1872); V. de Rochas, <i>Les + Parias de France et d'Espagne (Cagots et Bohémiens)</i> (Paris, 1877); J. + Hack Tuke, <i>Jour. Anthropological Institute</i> (vol. ix., 1880).</p> + + <p><b>CAHER</b> (or <span class="sc">Cahir</span>), a market-town of Co. + Tipperary, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, beautifully + situated on the river Suir at the foot of the Galtee Mountains. Pop. + (1901) 2058. It stands midway between Clonmel and Tipperary town on the + Waterford and Limerick line of the Great Southern and Western railway, + 124 m. S.W. from Dublin. It is the centre of a rich agricultural + district, and there is some industry in flour-milling. Its name + (<i>cathair</i>, stone fortress) implies a high antiquity and the site of + the castle, picturesquely placed on an island in the river, was occupied + from very early times. Here was a fortress-palace of Munster, originally + called <i>Dun-iasgach</i>, the suffix signifying "abounding in fish." The + present castle dates from 1142, being built by O'Connor, lord of Thomond, + and is well restored. It was besieged during the wars of 1599 and 1647, + and by Cromwell. Among the fine environs of the town the demesne of Caher + Park is especially noteworthy. The Mitchelstown stalactite caverns, 10 m. + S.W., and the finely-placed Norman castle of Ardfinnan, on a precipitous + crag 6 m. down the Suir, are other neighbouring features of interest, + while the Galtee Mountains, reaching in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., + command admirable prospects.</p> + + <p><b>CAHITA,</b> a group of North American Indians, mainly of the Mayo + and Yaqui tribes, found chiefly in Mexico, belonging to the Piman family, + and numbering some 40,000.</p> + + <p><b>CAHOKIA,</b> the name of a North American Indian tribe of the + Illinois confederacy, and of their mission station, near St Louis. The + "Cahokia mound" there (a model of which is in the Peabody Museum, + Cambridge, Mass.) is interesting as the largest pre-historic earth-work + in America.</p> + + <p><b>CAHORS,</b> a city of south-western France, capital of the + department of Lot, 70 m. N. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city + and Limoges. Pop. (1906) 10,047. Cahors stands on the right bank of the + river Lot, occupying a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. It + is divided into two portions <!-- Page 948 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page948"></a>[v.04 p.0948]</span>by the Boulevard Gambetta, which + runs from the Pont Louis Philippe on the south to within a short distance + of the fortified wall of the 14th and 15th centuries enclosing the town + on the north. To the east lies the old town, with its dark narrow streets + and closely-packed houses; west of the Boulevard a newer quarter, with + spacious squares and promenades, stretches to the bank of the river. + Cahors communicates with the opposite shore by three bridges. One of + these, the Pont Valentré to the west of the town, is the finest fortified + bridge of the middle ages in France. It is a structure of the early 14th + century, restored in the 19th century, and is defended at either end by + high machicolated towers, another tower, less elaborate, surmounting the + centre pier. The east bridge, the Pont Neuf, also dates from the 14th + century. The cathedral of St Étienne stands in the heart of the old town. + It dates from the 12th century, but was entirely restored in the 13th + century. Its exterior, for the most part severe in appearance, is + relieved by some fine sculpture, that of the north portal being + especially remarkable. The nave, which is without aisles, is surmounted + by two cupolas; its interior is whitewashed and plain in appearance, + while the choir is decorated with medieval paintings. Adjoining the + church to the south-east there are remains of a cloister built from 1494 + to 1509. St Urcisse, the chief of the other ecclesiastical buildings, + stands near the cathedral. Dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, it + preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. The principal + of the civil buildings is the palace of Pope John XXII., built at the + beginning of the 14th century; a massive square tower is still standing, + but the rest is in ruins. The residence of the seneschals of Quercy, a + building of the 14th to the 17th centuries, known as the Logis du Roi, + also remains. The chief of the old houses, of which there are many in + Cahors, is one of the 15th century, known as the Maison d'Henri IV. Most + of the state buildings are modern, with the exception of the prefecture + which occupies the old episcopal palace, and the old convent and the + Jesuit college in which the Lycée Gambetta is established. The Porte de + Diane is a large archway of the Roman period, probably the entrance to + the baths. Of the commemorative monuments, the finest is that erected in + the Place d'Armes to Gambetta, who was a native of the town. There is + also a statue of the poet Clément Marot, born at Cahors in 1496. Cahors + is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes. It has + tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a + branch of the Bank of France. There are also training colleges, a lycée, + a communal college for girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, a library, + museum and hospital. The manufacture of farm implements, tanning, + wool-spinning, metal-founding, distilling and the preparation of <i>pâté + de foie gras</i> and other delicacies are carried on. Wine, nuts, oil of + nuts, tobacco, truffles and plums are leading articles of commerce.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Before the Roman conquest, Cahors, which grew up + near the sacred fountain of Divona (now known as the Fontaine des + Chartreux), was the capital of the Cadurci. Under the Romans it enjoyed a + prosperity partly due to its manufacture of cloth and of mattresses, + which were exported even to Rome. The first bishop of Cahors, St + Genulfus, appears to have lived in the 3rd century. In the middle ages + the town was the capital of Quercy, and its territory until after the + Albigensian Crusade was a fief of the counts of Toulouse. The seigniorial + rights, including that of coining money, belonged to the bishops. In the + 13th century Cahors was a financial centre of much importance owing to + its colony of Lombard bankers, and the name <i>cahorsin</i> consequently + came to signify "banker" or "usurer." At the beginning of the century a + commune was organized in the town. Its constant opposition to the bishops + drove them, in 1316, to come to an arrangement with the French king, by + which the administration of the town was placed almost entirely in the + hands of royal officers, king and bishop being co-seigneurs. This + arrangement survived till the Revolution. In 1331 Pope John XXII., a + native of Cahors, founded there a university, which afterwards numbered + Jacques Cujas among its teachers and François Fénelon among its students. + It flourished till 1751, when it was united to its rival the university + of Toulouse. During the Hundred Years' War, Cahors, like the rest of + Quercy, consistently resisted the English occupation, from which it was + relieved in 1428. In the 16th century it belonged to the viscounts of + Béarn, but remained Catholic and rose against Henry of Navarre who took + it by assault in 1580. On his accession Henry IV. punished the town by + depriving it of its privileges as a wine-market; the loss of these was + the chief cause of its decline.</p> + + <p><b>CAIATIA</b> (mod. <i>Caiazzo</i>), an ancient city of Campania, on + the right bank of the Volturnus, 11 m. N.E. of Capua, on the road between + it and Telesia. It was already in the hands of the Romans in 306 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and since in the 3rd century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> it issued copper coins with a Latin legend it + must have had the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>. In the Social War it + rebelled from Rome, and its territory was added to that of Capua by + Sulla. In the imperial period, however, we find it once more a + <i>municipium</i>. Caiatia has remains of Cyclopean walls, and under the + Piazza del Mercato is a large Roman cistern, which still provides a good + water supply. The episcopal see was founded in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 966. The place is frequently confused with + Calatia (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p><b>CAIETAE PORTUS</b> (mod. <i>Gaeta</i>), an ancient harbour of + <i>Latium adiectum</i>, Italy, in the territory of Formiae, from which it + is 5 m. S.W. The name (originally <span title="Aiêtê" class="grk" + >Αἰήτη</span>) is generally derived from the + nurse of Aeneas. The harbour, owing to its fine anchorage, was much in + use, but the place was never a separate town, but always dependent on + Formiae. Livy mentions a temple of Apollo. The coast of the Gulf not only + between Caietae Portus and Formiae, but E. of the latter also, as far as + the modern Monte Scauri, was a favourite summer resort (see <span + class="sc">Formia</span>). Cicero may have had villas both at Portus + Caietae and at Formiae<a name="FnAnchor_201" + href="#Footnote_201"><sup>[1]</sup></a> proper, and the emperors + certainly possessed property at both places. After the destruction of + Formiae in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 847 it became one of the most + important seaports of central Italy (see <span class="sc">Gaeta</span>). + In the town are scanty remains of an amphitheatre and theatre: near the + church of La Trinità, higher up, are remains of a large reservoir. There + are also traces of an aqueduct. The promontory (548 ft.) is crowned by + the tomb of Munatius Plancus, founder of Lugudunum (mod. Lyons), who died + after 22 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> It is a circular structure of + blocks of travertine 160 ft. high and 180 ft. in diameter. Further inland + is the so-called tomb of L. Atratinus, about 100 ft. in diameter. Caietae + Portus was no doubt connected with the Via Appia (which passed through + Formiae) by a <i>deverticulum</i>. There seems also to have been a road + running W.N.W. along the precipitous coast to Speluncae (mod. + Sperlonga).</p> + + <p>See E. Gesualdo <i>Osservazioni critiche sopra la storia della Via + Appia di Pratilli</i> p. 7 (Naples, 1754).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_201" href="#FnAnchor_201">[1]</a> The two places are + sufficiently close for the one villa to have borne both names; but + Mommsen (<i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 603) prefers to + differentiate them.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CAILLIÉ</b> (or <span class="sc">Caillé</span>), <b>RENÉ + AUGUSTE</b> (1799-1838), French explorer, was born at Mauzé, Poitou, in + 1799, the son of a baker. The reading of <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> kindled + in him a love of travel and adventure, and at the age of sixteen he made + a voyage to Senegal whence he went to Guadeloupe. Returning to Senegal in + 1818 he made a journey to Bondu to carry supplies to a British expedition + then in that country. Ill with fever he was obliged to go back to France, + but in 1824 was again in Senegal with the fixed idea of penetrating to + Timbuktu. He spent eight months with the Brakna "Moors" living north of + Senegal river, learning Arabic and being taught, as a convert, the laws + and customs of Islam. He laid his project of reaching Timbuktu before the + governor of Senegal, but receiving no encouragement went to Sierra Leone + where the British authorities made him superintendent of an indigo + plantation. Having saved £80 he joined a Mandingo caravan going inland. + He was dressed as a Mussulman, and gave out that he was an Arab from + Egypt who had been carried off by the French to Senegal and was desirous + of regaining his own country. Starting from Kakundi near Boké on the Rio + Nunez on 19th of April 1827, he travelled east along the hills of Futa + Jallon, passing the head streams of the Senegal and crossing the Upper + Niger at Kurussa. Still going east he came to the Kong highlands, where + at a place called Timé he was detained five months by illness. Resuming + his journey <!-- Page 949 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page949"></a>[v.04 p.0949]</span>in January 1828 he went north-east + and gained the city of Jenné, whence he continued his journey to Timbuktu + by water. After spending a fortnight (20th April-4th May) in Timbuktu he + joined a caravan crossing the Sahara to Morocco, reaching Fez on the 12th + of August. From Tangier he returned to France. He had been preceded at + Timbuktu by a British officer, Major Gordon Laing, but Laing had been + murdered (1826) on leaving the city and Caillié was the first to + accomplish the journey in safety. He was awarded the prize of £400 + offered by the Geographical Society of Paris to the first traveller who + should gain exact information of Timbuktu, to be compared with that given + by Mungo Park. He also received the order of the Legion of Honour, a + pension, and other distinctions, and it was at the public expense that + his <i>Journal d'un voyage à Temboctou et à Jenne dans l'Afrique + Centrale</i>, etc. (edited by E.F. Jomard) was published in three volumes + in 1830. Caillié died at Badère in 1838 of a malady contracted during his + African travels. For the greater part of his life he spelt his name + Caillié, afterwards omitting the second "i."</p> + + <p>See Dr Robert Brown's <i>The Story of Africa</i>, vol. i. chap. xii. + (London, 1892); Goepp and Cordier, <i>Les Grands Hommes de France, + voyageurs: René Caillé</i> (Paris, 1885); E.F. Jomard, <i>Notice + historique sur la vie et les voyages de R. Caillié</i> (Paris, 1839). An + English version of Caillié's <i>Journal</i> was published in London in + 1830 in two volumes under the title of <i>Travels through Central Africa + to Timbuctoo</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>CAIN,</b> in the Bible, the eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gen. iv.), + was a tiller of the ground, whilst his younger brother, Abel, was a + keeper of sheep. Enraged because the Lord accepted Abel's offering, and + rejected his own, he slew his brother in the field (see <span + class="sc">Abel</span>). For this a curse was pronounced upon him, and he + was condemned to be a "fugitive and a wanderer" on the earth, a mark + being set upon him "lest any finding him should kill him." He took up his + abode in the land of Nod ("wandering") on the east of Eden, where he + built a city, which he named after his son Enoch. The narrative presents + a number of difficulties, which early commentators sought to solve with + more ingenuity than success. But when it is granted that the ancient + Hebrews, like other primitive peoples, had their own mythical and + traditional figures, the story of Cain becomes less obscure. The mark set + upon Cain is usually regarded as some tribal mark or sign analogous to + the cattle marks of Bedouin and the related usages in Europe. Such marks + had often a religious significance, and denoted that the bearer was a + follower of a particular deity. The suggestion has been made that the + name Cain is the eponym of the Kenites, and although this clan has a good + name almost everywhere in the Old Testament, yet in Num. xxiv. 22 its + destruction is foretold, and the Amalekites, of whom they formed a + division, are consistently represented as the inveterate enemies of + Yahweh and of his people Israel. The story of Cain and Abel, which + appears to represent the nomad life as a curse, may be an attempt to + explain the origin of an existence which in the eyes of the settled + agriculturist was one of continual restlessness, whilst at the same time + it endeavours to find a reason for the institution of blood-revenge on + the theory that at some remote age a man (or tribe) had killed his + brother (or brother tribe). Cain's subsequent founding of a city finds a + parallel in the legend of the origin of Rome through the swarms of + outlaws and broken men of all kinds whom Romulus attracted thither. The + list of Cain's descendants reflects the old view of the beginnings of + civilization; it is thrown into the form of a genealogy and is parallel + to Gen. v. (see <span class="sc">Genesis</span>). It finds its analogy in + the Phoenician account of the origin of different inventions which + Eusebius (<i>Praep. Evang.</i> i. 10) quotes from Philo of Byblus + (Gebal), and probably both go back to a common Babylonian origin.</p> + + <p>On this question, see Driver, <i>Genesis</i> (Westminster Comm., + London, 1904), p. 80 seq.; A. Jeremias, <i>Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten + Orients</i> (Leipzig, 1906), pp. 220 seq.; also <span + class="sc">Enoch</span>, <span class="sc">Lamech</span>. On the story of + Cain, see especially Stade, <i>Akademische Reden</i>, pp. 229-273; Ed. + Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 395 sqq.; A.R. Gordon, <i>Early Trad. + Genesis</i> (Index). Literary criticism (see Cheyne, <i>Encycl. Bib.</i> + col. 620-628, and 4411-4417) has made it extremely probable that Cain the + nomad and outlaw (Gen. iv. 1-16) was originally distinct from Cain the + city-builder (vv. 17 sqq.). The latter was perhaps regarded as a "smith," + cp. v. 22 where Tubal-cain is the "father" of those who work in bronze + (or copper). That the Kenites, too, were a race of metal-workers is quite + uncertain, although even at the present day the smiths in Arabia form a + distinct nomadic class. Whatever be the meaning of the name, the words + put into Eve's mouth (v. 1) probably are not an etymology, but an + assonance (Driver). It is noteworthy that Kenan, son of Enosh ("man," + Gen. v. 9), appears in Sabaean inscriptions of South Arabia as the name + of a tribal-god.</p> + + <p>A Gnostic sect of the 2nd century was known by the name of Cainites. + They are first mentioned by Irenaeus, who connects them with the + Valentinians. They believed that Cain derived his existence from the + superior power, and Abel from the inferior power, and that in this + respect he was the first of a line which included Esau, Korah, the + Sodomites and Judas Iscariot.</p> + + <p>(S. A. C.)</p> + + <p><b>CAINE, THOMAS HENRY HALL</b> (1853- ), British novelist and + dramatist, was born of mixed Manx and Cumberland parentage at Runcorn, + Cheshire, on the 14th of May 1853. He was educated with a view to + becoming an architect, but turned to journalism, becoming a leader-writer + on the <i>Liverpool Mercury</i>. He came up to London at the suggestion + of D.G. Rossetti, with whom he had had some correspondence, and lived + with the poet for some time before his death. He published a volume of + <i>Recollections of Rossetti</i> (1882), and also some critical work; but + in 1885 he began an extremely successful career as a novelist of a + melodramatic type with <i>The Shadow of a Crime</i>, followed by <i>The + Son of Hagar</i> (1886), <i>The Deemster</i> (1887), <i>The Bondman</i> + (1890), <i>The Scapegoat</i> (1891), <i>The Manxman</i> (1894), <i>The + Christian</i> (1897), <i>The Eternal City</i> (1901), and <i>The Prodigal + Son</i> (1904). His writings on Manx subjects were acknowledged by his + election in 1901 to represent Ramsey in the House of Keys. <i>The + Deemster</i>, <i>The Manxman</i> and <i>The Christian</i> had already + been produced in dramatic form, when <i>The Eternal City</i> was staged + with magnificent accessories by Mr Beerbohm Tree in 1902, and in 1905 + <i>The Prodigal Son</i> had a successful run at Drury Lane.</p> + + <p>See C.F. Kenyon, <i>Hall Caine</i>; <i>The Man and the Novelist</i> + (1901); and the novelist's autobiography, <i>My Story</i> (1908).</p> + + <p><b>CA'ING WHALE</b> (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>), a large + representative of the dolphin tribe frequenting the coasts of Europe, the + Atlantic coast of North America, the Cape and New Zealand. From its + nearly uniform black colour it is also called the "black-fish." Its + maximum length is about 20 ft. These cetaceans are gregarious and + inoffensive in disposition and feed chiefly on cuttle-fish. Their + sociable character constantly leads to their destruction, as when + attacked they instinctively rush together, and blindly follow the leaders + of the herd, whence the names pilot-whale and ca'ing (or driving) whale. + Many hundreds at a time are thus frequently driven ashore and killed, + when a herd enters one of the bays or fiords of the Faeroe Islands or + north of Scotland. The ca'ing whale of the North Pacific has been + distinguished as <i>G. scammoni</i>, while one from the Atlantic coast, + south of New Jersey, and another from the bay of Bengal, are possibly + also distinct. (See <span class="sc">Cetacea</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>CAINOZOIC</b> (from the Gr. <span title="kainos" class="grk" + >καινός</span>, recent, <span + title="zôê" class="grk">ζωή</span>, life), also written + Cenozoic (American), <i>Kainozoisch</i>, <i>Cänozoisch</i> (German), + <i>Cénozoaire</i> (Renevier), in geology, the name given to the youngest + of the three great eras of geological time, the other two being the + Mesozoic and Palaeozoic eras. Some authors have employed the term + "Neozoic" (<i>Neozoisch</i>) with the same significance, others have + restricted its application to the Tertiary epoch (<i>Néozoique</i>, De + Lapparent). The "Neogene" of Hörnes (1853) included the Miocene and + Pliocene periods; Renevier subsequently modified its form to + <i>Néogénique</i>. The remaining Tertiary periods were classed as + Paléogaen by Naumaun in 1866. The word "Neocene" has been used in place + of Neozoic, but its employment is open to objection.</p> + + <p>Some confusion has been introduced by the use of the term Cainozoic to + include, on the one hand, the Tertiary period alone, and on the other + hand, to make it include both the Tertiary and the post-Tertiary or + Quaternary epochs; and in order that it may bear a relationship to the + concepts of time and faunal development similar to those indicated by the + terms Mesozoic and Palaeozoic it is advisable to restrict its use to the + latter alternative. Thus the Cainozoic era would embrace all the + geological periods from Eocene to Recent. (See <span + class="sc">Tertiary</span> and <span class="sc">Pleistocene</span>.)</p> + + <p>(J. A. H.)</p> + +<p><!-- Page 950 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page950"></a>[v.04 p.0950]</span></p> + + <p><b>CAÏQUE</b> (from Turk. <i>Kaik</i>), a light skiff or rowing-boat + used by the Turks, having from one to twelve rowers; also a Levantine + sailing vessel of considerable size.</p> + + <p><b>ÇA IRA,</b> a song of the French Revolution, with the + refrain:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"<i>Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira!</i></p> + <p><i>Les aristocrates à la lanterne.</i>"</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The words, written by one Ladré, a street singer, were put to an older + tune, called "Le Carillon National," and the song rivalled the + "Carmagnole" (<i>q.v.</i>) during the Terror. It was forbidden by the + Directory.</p> + + <p><b>CAIRD, EDWARD</b> (1835-1908), British philosopher and theologian, + brother of John Caird (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Greenock on the 22nd of + March 1835, and educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, + Oxford. He took a first class in moderations in 1862 and in <i>Literae + humaniores</i> in 1863, and was Pusey and Ellerton scholar in 1861. From + 1864 to 1866 he was fellow and tutor of Merton College. In 1866 he became + professor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow, and in 1893 + succeeded Benjamin Jowett as master of Balliol. With Thomas Hill Green he + founded in England a school of orthodox neo-Hegelianism (see <span + class="sc">Hegel</span>, <i>ad fin.</i>), and through his pupils he + exerted a far-reaching influence on English philosophy and theology. + Owing to failing health he gave up his lectures in 1904, and in May 1906 + resigned his mastership, in which he was succeeded by James Leigh + Strachan-Davidson, who had previously for some time, as senior tutor and + fellow, borne the chief burden of college administration. Dr Caird + received the honorary degree of D.C.L. in 1892; he was made a + corresponding member of the French Academy of Moral and Political Science + and a fellow of the British Academy. His publications include + <i>Philosophy of Kant</i> (1878); <i>Critical Philosophy of Kant</i> + (1889); <i>Religion and Social Philosophy of Comte</i> (1885); <i>Essays + on Literature and Philosophy</i> (1892); <i>Evolution of Religion</i> + (Gifford Lectures, 1891-1892); <i>Evolution of Theology in the Greek + Philosophers</i> (1904); and he is represented in this encyclopaedia by + the article on <span class="sc">Cartesianism</span>. He died on the 1st + of November 1908.</p> + + <p>For a criticism of Dr Caird's theology, see A.W. Benn, <i>English + Rationalism in the 19th Century</i> (London, 1906).</p> + + <p><b>CAIRD, JOHN</b> (1820-1898), Scottish divine and philosopher, was + born at Greenock on the 15th of December 1820. In his sixteenth year he + entered the office of his father, who was partner and manager of a firm + of engineers. Two years later, however, he obtained leave to continue his + studies at Glasgow University. After a year of academic life he tried + business again, but in 1840 he gave it up finally and returned to + college. In 1845 he entered the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and + after holding several livings accepted the chair of divinity at Glasgow + in 1862. During these years he won a foremost place among the preachers + of Scotland. In theology he was a Broad Churchman, seeking always to + emphasize the permanent elements in religion, and ignoring + technicalities. In 1873 he was appointed vice-chancellor and principal of + Glasgow University. He delivered the Gifford Lectures in 1892-1893 and in + 1895-1896. His <i>Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion</i> (1880) + is an attempt to show the essential rationality of religion. It is + idealistic in character, being in fact a reproduction of Hegelian + teaching in clear and melodious language. His argument for the Being of + God is based on the hypothesis that thought—not individual but + universal—is the reality of all things, the existence of this + Infinite Thought being demonstrated by the limitations of finite thought. + Again his Gifford Lectures are devoted to the proof of the truth of + Christianity on grounds of right reason alone. Caird wrote also an + excellent study of Spinoza, in which he showed the latent Hegelianism of + the great Jewish philosopher. He died on the 30th of July 1898.</p> + + <p><b>CAIRN</b> (in Gaelic and Welsh, <i>Carn</i>), a heap of stones + piled up in a conical form. In modern times cairns are often erected as + landmarks. In ancient times they were erected as sepulchral monuments. + The <i>Duan Eireanach</i>, an ancient Irish poem, describes the erection + of a family cairn; and the <i>Senchus Mor</i>, a collection of ancient + Irish laws, prescribes a fine of three three-year-old heifers for "not + erecting the tomb of thy chief." Meetings of the tribes were held at + them, and the inauguration of a new chief took place on the cairn of one + of his predecessors. It is mentioned in the <i>Annals of the Four + Masters</i> that, in 1225, the O'Connor was inaugurated on the cairn of + Fraech, the son of Fiodhach of the red hair. In medieval times cairns are + often referred to as boundary marks, though probably not originally + raised for that purpose. In a charter by King Alexander II. (1221), + granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss, the boundary is + described as passing "from the great oak in Malevin as far as the <i>Rune + Pictorum</i>," which is explained as "the Carne of the Pecht's fieldis." + In Highland districts small cairns used to be erected, even in recent + times, at places where the coffin of a distinguished person was "rested" + on its way to the churchyard. Memorial cairns are still occasionally + erected, as, for instance, the cairn raised in memory of the prince + consort at Balmoral, and "Maule's Cairn," in Glenesk, erected by the earl + of Dalhousie in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends specified + by name in the inscription placed upon it. (See <span + class="sc">Barrow</span>.)</p> + + <p><b>CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT</b> (1823-1875), British political economist, + was born at Castle Bellingham, Ireland, in 1823. After leaving school he + spent some years in the counting-house of his father, a brewer. His + tastes, however, lay altogether in the direction of study, and he was + permitted to enter Trinity College, Dublin, where he took the degree of + B.A. in 1848, and six years later that of M.A. After passing through the + curriculum of arts he engaged in the study of law and was called to the + Irish bar. But he felt no very strong inclination for the legal + profession, and during some years he occupied himself to a large extent + with contributions to the daily press, treating of the social and + economical questions that affected Ireland. He devoted most attention to + political economy, which he studied with great thoroughness and care. + While residing in Dublin he made the acquaintance of Archbishop Whately, + who conceived a very high respect for his character and abilities. In + 1856 a vacancy occurred in the chair of political economy at Dublin + founded by Whately, and Cairnes received the appointment. In accordance + with the regulations of the foundation, the lectures of his first year's + course were published. The book appeared in 1857 with the title + <i>Character and Logical Method of Political Economy</i>. It follows up + and expands J.S. Mill's treatment in the <i>Essays on some Unsettled + Questions in Political Economy</i>, and forms an admirable introduction + to the study of economics as a science. In it the author's peculiar + powers of thought and expression are displayed to the best advantage. + Logical exactness, precision of language, and firm grasp of the true + nature of economic facts, are the qualities characteristic of this as of + all his other works. If the book had done nothing more, it would still + have conferred inestimable benefit on political economists by its clear + exposition of the true nature and meaning of the ambiguous term "law." To + the view of the province and method of political economy expounded in + this early work the author always remained true, and several of his later + essays, such as those on <i>Political Economy and Land</i>, <i>Political + Economy and Laissez-Faire</i>, are but reiterations of the same doctrine. + His next contribution to economical science was a series of articles on + the gold question, published partly in <i>Fraser's Magazine</i>, in which + the probable consequences of the increased supply of gold attendant on + the Australian and Californian gold discoveries were analysed with great + skill and ability. And a critical article on M. Chevalier's work <i>On + the Probable Fall in the Value of Gold</i> appeared in the <i>Edinburgh + Review</i> for July 1860.</p> + + <p>In 1861 Cairnes was appointed to the professorship of political + economy and jurisprudence in Queen's College, Galway, and in the + following year he published his admirable work <i>The Slave Power</i>, + one of the finest specimens of applied economical philosophy. The + inherent disadvantages of the employment of slave labour were exposed + with great fulness and ability, and the conclusions arrived at have taken + their place among the recognized doctrines of political economy. The + opinions expressed by Cairnes as to the probable issue of the war in + America were largely verified by the actual course of events, and the + appearance of the book had a marked influence on the attitude taken by + serious political thinkers in England towards the southern states.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 951 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page951"></a>[v.04 p.0951]</span></p> + + <p>During the remainder of his residence at Galway Professor Cairnes + published nothing beyond some fragments and pamphlets mainly upon Irish + questions. The most valuable of these papers are the series devoted to + the consideration of university education. His health, at no time very + good, was still further weakened in 1865 by a fall from his horse. He was + ever afterwards incapacitated from active exertion and was constantly + liable to have his work interfered with by attacks of illness. In 1866 he + was appointed professor of political economy in University College, + London. He was compelled to spend the session 1868-1869 in Italy but on + his return continued to lecture till 1872. During his last session he + conducted a mixed class, ladies being admitted to his lectures. His + health soon rendered it impossible for him to discharge his public + duties; he resigned his post in 1872, and retired with the honorary title + of emeritus professor of political economy. In 1873 his own university + conferred on him the degree of LL.D. He died at Blackheath, near London, + on the 8th of July 1875.</p> + + <p>The last years of his life were spent in the collection and + publication of some scattered papers contributed to various reviews and + magazines, and in the preparation of his most extensive and important + work. The <i>Political Essays</i>, published in 1873, comprise all his + papers relating to Ireland and its university system, together with some + other articles of a somewhat similar nature. The <i>Essays in Political + Economy, Theoretical and Applied</i>, which appeared in the same year, + contain the essays towards a solution of the gold question, brought up to + date and tested by comparison with statistics of prices. Among the other + articles in the volume the more important are the criticisms on Bastiat + and Comte, and the essays on <i>Political Economy and Land</i>, and on + <i>Political Economy and Laissez-Faire</i>, which have been referred to + above. In 1874 appeared his largest work, <i>Some Leading Principles of + Political Economy, newly Expounded</i>, which is beyond doubt a worthy + successor to the great treatises of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo and Mill. It + does not expound a completed system of political economy; many important + doctrines are left untouched; and in general the treatment of problems is + not such as would be suited for a systematic manual. The work is + essentially a commentary on some of the principal doctrines of the + English school of economists, such as value, cost of production, wages, + labour and capital, and international values, and is replete with keen + criticism and lucid illustration. While in fundamental harmony with Mill, + especially as regards the general conception of the science, Cairnes + differs from him to a greater or less extent on nearly all the cardinal + doctrines, subjects his opinions to a searching examination, and + generally succeeds in giving to the truth that is common to both a firmer + basis and a more precise statement. The last labour to which he devoted + himself was a republication of his first work on the <i>Logical Method of + Political Economy</i>.</p> + + <p>Taken as a whole the works of Cairnes formed the most important + contribution to economical science made by the English school since the + publication of J.S. Mill's <i>Principles</i>. It is not possible to + indicate more than generally the special advances in economic doctrine + effected by him, but the following points may be noted as establishing + for him a claim to a place beside Ricardo and Mill: (1) His exposition of + the province and method of political economy. He never suffers it to be + forgotten that political economy is a <i>science</i>, and consequently + that its results are entirely neutral with respect to social facts or + systems. It has simply to trace the necessary connexions among the + phenomena of wealth and dictates no rules for practice. Further, he is + distinctly opposed both to those who would treat political economy as an + integral part of social philosophy, and to those who have attempted to + express economic facts in quantitative formulae and to make economy a + branch of applied mathematics. According to him political economy is a + mixed science, its field being partly mental, partly physical. It may be + called a positive science, because its premises are facts, but it is + hypothetical in so far as the laws it lays down are only approximately + true, <i>i.e.</i> are only valid in the absence of counteracting + agencies. From this view of the nature of the science, it follows at once + that the method to be pursued must be that called by Mill the physical or + concrete deductive, which starts from certain known causes, investigates + their consequences and verifies or tests the result by comparison with + facts of experience. It may, perhaps, be thought that Cairnes gives too + little attention to the effects of the organism of society on economic + facts, and that he is disposed to overlook what Bagehot called the + postulates of political economy. (2) His analysis of cost of production + in its relation to value. According to Mill, the universal elements in + cost of production are the wages of labour and the profits of capital. To + this theory Cairnes objects that wages, being remuneration, can in no + sense be considered as cost, and could only have come to be regarded as + cost in consequence of the whole problem being treated from the point of + view of the capitalist, to whom, no doubt, the wages paid represent cost. + The real elements of cost of production he looks upon as labour, + abstinence and risk, the second of these falling mainly, though not + necessarily, upon the capitalist. In this analysis he to a considerable + extent follows and improves upon Senior, who had previously defined cost + of production as the sum of the labour and abstinence necessary to + production. (3) His exposition of the natural or social limit to free + competition, and of its bearing on the theory of value. He points out + that in any organized society there can hardly be the ready transference + of capital from one employment to another, which is the indispensable + condition of free competition; while class distinctions render it + impossible for labour to transfer itself readily to new occupations. + Society may thus be regarded as consisting of a series of non-competing + industrial groups, with free competition among the members of any one + group or class. Now the only condition under which cost of production + will regulate value is perfect competition. It follows that the normal + value of commodities—the value which gives to the producers the + average and usual remuneration—will depend upon cost of production + only when the exchange is confined to the members of one class, among + whom there is free competition. In exchange between classes or + non-competing industrial groups, the normal value is simply a case of + international value, and depends upon reciprocal demand, that is to say, + is such as will satisfy the equation of demand. This theory is a + substantial contribution to economical science and throws great light + upon the general problem of value. At the same time, it may be thought + that Cairnes overlooked a point brought forward prominently by Senior, + who also had called attention to the bearing of competition on the + relation between cost of production and value. The cost to the producer + fixes the limit below which the price cannot fall without the supply + being affected; but it is the desire of the consumer—<i>i.e.</i> + what he is willing to give up rather than be compelled to produce the + commodity for himself—that fixes the maximum value of the article. + To treat the whole problem of natural or normal value from the point of + view of the producer is to give but a one-sided theory of the facts. (4) + His defence of the wages fund doctrine. This doctrine, expounded by Mill + in his <i>Principles</i>, had been relinquished by him, but Cairnes still + undertook to defend it. He certainly succeeded in removing from the + theory much that had tended to obscure its real meaning and in placing it + in its very best aspect. He also showed the sense in which, when treating + the problem of wages, we must refer to some fund devoted to the payment + of wages, and pointed out the conditions under which the wages fund may + increase or decrease. It may be added that his <i>Leading Principles</i> + contain admirable discussions on trade unions and protection, together + with a clear analysis of the difficult theory of international trade and + value, in which there is much that is both novel and valuable. The + <i>Logical Method</i> contains about the best exposition and defence of + Ricardo's theory of rent; and the <i>Essays</i> contain a very clear and + formidable criticism of Bastiat's economic doctrines.</p> + + <p>Professor Cairnes's son, <span class="sc">Captain W.E. Cairnes</span> + (1862-1906), was an able writer on military subjects, being author of + <i>An Absent-minded War</i> (1900), <i>The Coming Waterloo</i> (1905), + &c.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 952 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page952"></a>[v.04 p.0952]</span></p> + + <p><b>CAIRNGORM,</b> a yellow or brown variety of quartz, named from + Cairngorm or Cairngorum, one of the peaks of the Grampian Mountains in + Banffshire, Scotland. According to Mr E.H. Cunningham-Craig, the mineral + occurs in crystals lining cavities in highly-inclined veins of a + fine-grained granite running through the coarser granite of the main + mass: Shallow pits were formerly dug in the kaolinized granite for sake + of the cairngorm and the mineral was also found as pebbles in the bed of + the river Avon. Cairngorm is a favourite ornamental stone in Scotland, + being set in the lids of snuff-mulls, in the handles of dirks and in + brooches for Highland costume. A rich sherry-yellow colour is much + esteemed. Quartz of yellow and brown colour is often known in trade as + "false topaz," or simply "topaz." Such quartz is found at many localities + in Brazil, Russia and Spain. Much of the yellow quartz used in jewellery + is said to be "burnt amethyst"; that is, it was originally amethystine + quartz, the colour of which has been modified by heat (see <span + class="sc">Amethyst</span>). Yellow quartz is sometimes known as citrine; + when the quartz presents a pale brown tint it is called "smoky quartz"; + and when the brown is so deep that the stone appears almost black it is + termed morion. The brown colour has been referred to the presence of + titanium.</p> + + <p><b>CAIRNS, HUGH MCCALMONT CAIRNS,</b> <span class="sc">1st Earl</span> + (1819-1885), Irish statesman, and lord chancellor of England, was born at + Cultra, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 27th of December 1819. His father, + William Cairns, formerly a captain in the 47th regiment, came of a + family<a name="FnAnchor_211" href="#Footnote_211"><sup>[1]</sup></a> of + Scottish origin, which migrated to Ireland in the time of James I. Hugh + Cairns was his second son, and was educated at Belfast academy and at + Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with a senior moderatorship in + classics in 1838. In 1844 he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple, + to which he had migrated from Lincoln's Inn. During his first years at + the chancery bar, Cairns showed little promise of the eloquence which + afterwards distinguished him. Never a rapid speaker, he was then so slow + and diffident, that he feared that this defect might interfere with his + legal career. Fortunately he was soon able to rid himself of the idea + that he was only fit for practice as a conveyancer. In 1852 he entered + parliament as member for Belfast, and his Inn, on his becoming a Q.C. in + 1856, made him a bencher.</p> + + <p>In 1858 Cairns was appointed solicitor-general, and was knighted, and + in May of that year made two of his most brilliant and best-remembered + speeches in the House of Commons. In the first, he defended the action of + Lord Ellenborough, who, as president of the board of control, had not + only censured Lord Canning for a proclamation issued by him as + governor-general of India but had made public the despatch in which the + censure was conveyed. On the other occasion referred to, Sir Hugh Cairns + spoke in opposition to Lord John Russell's amendment to the motion for + the second reading of the government Reform Bill, winning the most + cordial commendation of Disraeli. Disraeli's appreciation found an + opportunity for displaying itself some years later, when in 1868 he + invited him to be lord chancellor in the brief Conservative + administration which followed Lord Derby's resignation of the leadership + of his party. Meanwhile, Cairns had maintained his reputation in many + other debates, both when his party was in power and when it was in + opposition. In 1866 Lord Derby, returning to office, had made him + attorney-general, and in the same year he had availed himself of a + vacancy to seek the comparative rest of the court of appeal. While a lord + justice he had been offered a peerage, and though at first unable to + accept it, he had finally done so on a relative, a member of the wealthy + family of McCalmont, providing the means necessary for the endowment of a + title.</p> + + <p>The appointment of Baron Cairns of Garmoyle as lord chancellor in 1868 + involved the superseding of Lord Chelmsford, an act which apparently was + carried out by Disraeli with less tact than might have been expected of + him. Lord Chelmsford bitterly declared that he had been sent away with + less courtesy than if he had been a butler, but the testimony of Lord + Malmesbury is strong that the affair was the result of an understanding + arrived at when Lord Chelmsford took office. Disraeli held office on this + occasion for a few months only, and when Lord Derby died in 1869, Lord + Cairns became the leader of the Conservative opposition in the House of + Lords. He had distinguished himself in the Commons by his resistance to + the Roman Catholics' Oath Bill brought in in 1865; in the Lords, his + efforts on behalf of the Irish Church were equally strenuous. His speech + on Gladstone's Suspensory Bill was afterwards published as a pamphlet, + but the attitude which he and the peers who followed him had taken up, in + insisting on their amendments to the preamble of the bill, was one + difficult to maintain, and Lord Cairns made terms with Lord Granville in + circumstances which precluded his consulting his party first. He issued a + circular to explain his action in taking a course for which many blamed + him. Viewed dispassionately, the incident appears to have exhibited his + statesmanlike qualities in a marked degree, for he secured concessions + which would have been irretrievably lost by continued opposition. Not + long after this, Lord Cairns resigned the leadership of his party in the + upper house, but he had to resume it in 1870 and took a strong part in + opposing the Irish Land Bill in that year. On the Conservatives coming + into power in 1874, he again became lord chancellor; in 1878 he was made + Viscount Garmoyle and Earl Cairns; and in 1880 his party went out of + office. In opposition he did not take as prominent a part as previously, + but when Lord Beaconsfield died in 1881, there were some Conservatives + who considered that his title to lead the party was better than that of + Lord Salisbury. His health, however, never robust, had for many years + shown intermittent signs of failing. He had periodically made enforced + retirements to the Riviera, and for many years had had a house at + Bournemouth, and it was here that he died on the 2nd of April 1885.</p> + + <p>Cairns was a great lawyer, with an immense grasp of first principles + and the power to express them; his judgments taking the form of luminous + expositions or treatises upon the law governing the case before him, + rather than of controversial discussions of the arguments adduced by + counsel or of analysis of his own reasons. Lucidity and logic were the + leading characteristics of his speeches in his professional capacity and + in the political arena. In an eloquent tribute to his memory in the House + of Lords, Lord Chief Justice Coleridge expressed the high opinion of the + legal profession upon his merits and upon the severe integrity and + single-minded desire to do his duty, which animated him in his selections + for the bench. His piety was reflected by that of his great opponent, + rival and friend, Lord Selborne. Like Lord Selborne and Lord Hatherley, + Cairns found leisure at his busiest for teaching in the Sunday-school, + but it is not recorded of them (as of him) that they refused to undertake + work at the bar on Saturdays, in order to devote that day to hunting. He + used to say that his great incentive to hard work at his profession in + early days was his desire to keep hunters, and he retained his keenness + as a sportsman as long as he was able to indulge it. Of his personal + characteristics, it may be said that he was a spare man, with a Scottish, + not an Irish, cast of countenance. He was scrupulously neat in his + personal appearance, faultless in bands and necktie, and fond of wearing + a flower in his button-hole. His chilly manner, coupled with his somewhat + austere religious principles, had no doubt much to do with the fact that + he was never a popular man. His friends claimed for him a keen sense of + humour, but it was not to be detected by those whose knowledge of him was + professional rather than personal. Probably he thought the exhibition of + humour incompatible with the dignity of high judicial position. Of his + legal attainments there can be no doubt. His influence upon the + legislation of the day was largely felt where questions affecting + religion and the Church were involved and in matters peculiarly affecting + his own profession. His power was felt, as has been said, both when he + was in office and when his party was in opposition. He had been chairman + of the committee on judicature reform, and although he was not in office + when the Judicature Act was passed, all the reforms in the legal + procedure of his day owed much to him. He took part, when out of office, + in the passing of the Married Women's Property Act, and was directly + responsible for the Conveyancing Acts of 1881-1882, and <!-- Page 953 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page953"></a>[v.04 p.0953]</span>for + the Settled Land Act. Many other statutes in which he was largely + concerned might be quoted. His judgments are to be found in the Law + Reports and those who wish to consider his oratory should read the + speeches above referred to, or that delivered in the House of Lords on + the Compensation for Disturbance Bill in 1880, and his memorable + criticism of Mr Gladstone's policy in the Transvaal, after Majuba Hill. + (See Hansard and <i>The Times</i>, 1st of April 1881.) His style of + delivery was, as a rule, cold to a marked degree. The term "frozen + oratory" has been applied to his speeches, and it has been said of them + that they flowed "like water from a glacier.... The several stages of his + speech are like steps cut out in ice, as sharply defined, as smooth and + as cold." Lord Caims married in 1856 Mary Harriet, eldest daughter of + John McNeill, of Parkmount, Co. Antrim, by whom he had issue five sons + and two daughters. He was succeeded in the earldom by his second but + eldest surviving son, Arthur William (1861-1890), who left one daughter, + and from whom the title passed to his two next younger brothers in + succession, Herbert John, third earl (1863-1905), and Wilfrid Dallas, + fourth earl (b. 1865).</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See <i>The Times</i>, 3rd + and 14th of April 1885; <i>Law Journal, Law Times, Solicitors' + Journal</i>, 11th of April 1885; the <i>Law Magazine</i>, vol. xi. p. + 133; the <i>Law Quarterly</i>, vol. i. p. 365; <i>Earl Russell's + Recollections; Memoirs of Lord Malmesbury</i>; Sir Theodore Martin, + <i>The Life of the Prince Consort</i>; E. Manson, <i>Builders of our + Law</i>; J.B. Atlay, <i>Victorian Chancellors</i>, vol. ii.</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_211" href="#FnAnchor_211">[1]</a> See <i>History of + the family of Cairnes or Cairns</i>, by H.C. Lawlor (1907).</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CAIRNS, JOHN</b> (1818-1892), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was + born at Ayton Hill, Berwickshire, on the 23rd of August 1818, the son of + a shepherd. He went to school at Ayton and Oldcambus, Berwickshire, and + was then for three years a herd boy, but kept up his education. In 1834 + he entered Edinburgh University, but during 1836 and 1837, owing to + financial straits, taught in a school at Ayton. In November 1837 he + returned to Edinburgh, where he became the most distinguished student of + his time, graduating M.A. in 1841, first in classics and philosophy and + bracketed first in mathematics. While at Edinburgh he organized the + Metaphysical Society along with A. Campbell Fraser and David Masson. He + entered the Presbyterian Secession Hall in 1840, and in 1843 wrote an + article in the <i>Secession Magazine</i> on the Free Church movement, + which aroused the interest of Thomas Chalmers. The years 1843-1844 he + spent at Berlin studying German philosophy and theology. He was licensed + as preacher on the 3rd of February 1845, and on the 6th of August + ordained as minister of Golden Square Church, Berwick-on-Tweed. There his + preaching was distinguished by its impressiveness and by a broad and + unaffected humanity. He had many "calls" to other churches, but chose to + remain at Berwick. In 1857 he was one of the representatives at the + meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, and in 1858 Edinburgh + University conferred on him an honorary D.D. In the following year he + declined an invitation to become principal of Edinburgh University. In + 1872 he was elected moderator of the United Presbyterian Synod and + represented his church in Paris at the first meeting of the Reformed + Synod of France. In May 1876, he was appointed joint professor of + systematic theology and apologetics with James Harper, principal of the + United Presbyterian Theological College, whom he succeeded as principal + in 1879. He was an indefatigable worker and speaker, and in order to + facilitate his efforts in other countries and other literatures he learnt + Arabic, Norse, Danish and Dutch. In 1890 he visited Berlin and Amsterdam + to acquaint himself with the ways of younger theologians, especially with + the Ritschlians, whose work he appreciated but did not accept as final. + On his return he wrote a long article on "Recent Scottish Theology" for + the <i>Presbyterian and Reformed Review</i>, for which he read over every + theological work of note published in Scotland during the preceding + half-century. He died on the 12th of March, 1892, at Edinburgh. Among his + principal publications are <i>An Examination of Ferrier's "Knowing and + Being," and the Scottish Philosophy</i>—(a work which gave him the + reputation of being an independent Hamiltonian in philosophy); <i>Memoir + of John Brown, D.D.</i> (1860); <i>Romanism and Rationalism</i> (1863); + <i>Outlines of Apologetical Theology</i> (1867); <i>The Doctrine of the + Presbyterian Church</i> (1876); <i>Unbelief in the 18th Century</i> + (1881); <i>Doctrinal Principles of the United Presbyterian Church</i> (Dr + Blair's Manual, 1888).</p> + + <p>See MacEwen's <i>Life and Letters of John Cairns</i> (1895).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">D. Mn.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CAIRNS,</b> a seaport of Nares county, Queensland, Australia, 890 + m. direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 3557. The town lies parallel + with the sea, on the western shore of Trinity Bay, with an excellent + harbour, and a long beach, finely timbered. Cairns is the natural outlet + for the gold-fields, tin-mines and silver-fields of the district and for + the rich copper district of Chillagoe. A government railway, 48 m. long, + runs to Mareeba, whence a private company's line continues to Mungana, + 100 m. W. There is also a line belonging to a private company connecting + Chillagoe with Mareeba. In the vicinity of Cairns are extensive sugar + plantations, with sugar mills and refineries; the culture of coffee and + tobacco has rapidly extended; bananas, pine-apples and other fruits are + exported in considerable quantities and there is a large industry in + cedar. The Barron Falls, among the finest in Australia, are near Kuranda, + 19 m. from Cairns. Cairns became a municipality in 1885.</p> + + <p><b>CAIRO</b> (Arabic <i>Misr-al-Kahira</i>, or simply <i>Misr</i>), + the capital of modern Egypt and the most populous city in Africa, on the + Nile, 12 m. S. of the apex of the Delta, in 30° 3′ N. and 31° + 21′ E. It is 130 m. S.E. of Alexandria, and 148 E. of Suez by rail, + though only 84 m. from the last-named port by the overland route across + the desert, in use before the opening of the Suez Canal. Cairo occupies a + length of 5 m. on the east bank of the Nile, stretching north from the + old Roman fortress of Babylon, and covers an area of about 8 sq. m. It is + built partly on the alluvial plain of the Nile valley and partly on the + rocky slopes of the Mokattam hills, which rise 550 ft. above the + town.</p> + + <p>The citadel, which is built on a spur of the Mokattam hills, occupies + the S.E. angle of the city. The prospect from the ramparts of this + fortress is one of striking picturesqueness and beauty. Below lies the + city with its ancient walls and lofty towers, its gardens and squares, + its palaces and its mosques, with their delicately-carved domes and + minarets covered with fantastic tracery, the port of Bulak, the gardens + and palace of Shubra, the broad river studded with islands, the valley of + the Nile dotted with groups of trees, with the pyramids on the north + horizon, and on the east the barren cliffs, backed by a waste of sand. + Since the middle of the 19th century the city has more than doubled in + size and population. The newer quarters, situated near the river, are + laid out in the fashion of French cities, but the eastern parts of the + town retain, almost unimpaired, their Oriental aspect, and in scores of + narrow, tortuous streets, and busy bazaars it is easy to forget that + there has been any change from the Cairo of medieval times. Here the line + of fortifications still marks the eastern limits of the city, though on + the north large districts have grown up beyond the walls. Neither on the + south nor towards the river are there any fortifications left.</p> + + <p><i>Principal Quarters and Modern Buildings.</i>—From the citadel + a straight road, the Sharia Mehemet Ali, runs N. to the Ezbekia + (Ezbekiyeh) Gardens, which cover over 20 acres, and form the central + point of the foreign colony. North and west of the Ezbekia runs the + Ismailia canal, and on the W. side of the canal, about half a mile N. of + the Gardens, is the Central railway station, approached by a broad road, + the Sharia Clot Bey. The Arab city and the quarters of the Copts and Jews + lie E. of the two streets named. West of the Ismailia canal lies the + Bulak quarter, the port or riverside district. At Bulak are the arsenal, + foundry and railway works, a paper manufactory and the government + printing press, founded by Mehemet Ali. A little distance S.E. of the + Ezbekia is the Place Atabeh, the chief point of intersection of the + electric tramways which serve the newer parts of the town. From the Place + Atabeh a narrow street, the Muski, leads E. into the heart of the Arab + city. Another street leads S.W. to the Nile, at the point where the Kasr + en Nil or Great Nile bridge spans the river, leading to Gezira Bulak, an + island whereon is a palace, now turned into a hotel, polo, cricket and + tennis grounds, and a racecourse. The districts between the bridge, the + Ezbekia <!-- Page 954 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page954"></a>[v.04 p.0954]</span>and the Ismailia canal, are known + as the Ismailia and Tewfikia quarters, after the khedives in whose reigns + they were laid out. The district immediately south of the bridge is + called the Kasr el-Dubara quarter. Abdin Square, which occupies a central + position, is connected with Ezbekia Gardens by a straight road. The + narrow canal, El Khalig, which branched from the Nile at Old Cairo and + traversed the city from S.W. to N.E., was filled up in 1897, and an + electric tramway runs along the road thus made. With the filling up of + the channel the ancient festival of the cutting of the canal came to an + end.</p> + + <p>The government offices and other modern public buildings are nearly + all in the western half of the city. On the south side of the Ezbekia are + the post office, the courts of the International Tribunals, and the opera + house. On the east side are the bourse and the Crédit Lyonnais, on the + north the buildings of the American mission. On or near the west side of + the gardens are most of the large and luxurious hotels which the city + contains for the accommodation of Europeans. Facing the river immediately + north of the Great Nile bridge are the large barracks, called + Kasr-en-Nil, and the new museum of Egyptian antiquities (opened in 1902). + South of the bridge are the Ismailia palace (a khedivial residence), the + British consulate general, the palace of the khedive's mother, the + medical school and the government hospital. Farther removed from the + river are the offices of the ministries of public works and of + war—a large building surrounded by gardens—and of justice and + finance. On the east side of Abdin Square is Abdin palace, an + unpretentious building used for official receptions. Adjoining the palace + are barracks. N.E. of Abdin Square, in the Sharia Mehemet Ali, is the + Arab museum and khedivial library. Near this building are the new courts + of the native tribunals. Private houses in these western districts + consist chiefly of residential flats, though in the Kasr el-Dubara + quarter are many detached residences.</p> + + <p><i>The Oriental City.</i>—The eastern half of Cairo is divided + into many quarters. These quarters were formerly closed at night by + massive gates. A few of these gates remain. In addition to the Mahommedan + quarters, usually called after the trade of the inhabitants or some + notable building, there are the Copt or Christian quarter, the Jews' + quarter and the old "Frank" quarter. The last is the Muski district + where, since the days of Saladin, "Frank" merchants have been permitted + to live and trade. Some of the principal European shops are still to be + found in this street. The Copt and Jewish quarters lie north of the + Muski. The Coptic cathedral, dedicated to St Mark, is a modern building + in the basilica style. The oldest Coptic church in Cairo is, probably, + the Keniset-el-Adra, or Church of the Virgin, which is stated to preserve + the original type of Coptic basilica. The Coptic churches in the city are + not, however, of so much interest as those in Old Cairo (see below). In + the Copt quarter are also Armenian, Syrian, Maronite, Greek and Roman + Catholic churches. In the Copt and Jewish quarters the streets, as in the + Arab quarters, are winding and narrow. In them the projecting upper + stories of the houses nearly meet. Sebils or public fountains are + numerous. These fountains are generally two-storeyed, the lower chamber + enclosing a well, the upper room being often used for scholastic + purposes. Many of the fountains are fine specimens of Arab architecture. + While the houses of the poorer classes are mean and too often dirty, in + marked contrast are the houses of the wealthier citizens, built generally + in a style of elaborate arabesque, the windows shaded with projecting + cornices of graceful woodwork (<i>mushrebiya</i>) and ornamented with + stained glass. A winding passage leads through the ornamental doorway + into the court, in the centre of which is a fountain shaded with + palm-trees. The principal apartment is generally paved with marble; in + the centre a decorated lantern is suspended over a fountain, while round + the sides are richly inlaid cabinets and windows of stained glass; and in + a recess is the <i>divan</i>, a low, narrow, cushioned seat. The basement + storey is generally built of the soft calcareous stone of the + neighbouring hills, and the upper storey, which contains the harem, of + painted brick. The shops of the merchants are small and open to the + street. The greater part of the trade is done, however, in the bazaars or + markets, which are held in large <i>khans</i> or storehouses, of two + storeys and of considerable size. Access to them is gained from the + narrow lanes which usually surround them. The khans often possess fine + gateways. The principal bazaar, the Khan-el-Khalil, marks the site of the + tombs of the Fatimite caliphs.</p> + + <p><i>The Citadel and the Mosques.</i>—Besides the citadel, the + principal edifices in the Arab quarters are the mosques and the ancient + gates. The citadel or El-Kala was built by Saladin about 1166, but it has + since undergone frequent alteration, and now contains a palace erected by + Mehemet Ali, and a mosque of Oriental alabaster (based on the model of + the mosques at Constantinople) founded by the same pasha on the site of + "Joseph's Hall," so named after the prenomen of Saladin. The dome and the + two slender minarets of this mosque form one of the most picturesque + features of Cairo, and are visible from a great distance. In the centre + is a well called Joseph's Well, sunk in the solid rock to the level of + the Nile. There are four other mosques within the citadel walls, the + chief being that of Ibn Kalaun, built in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 1317 by Sultan Nasir ibn Kalaun. The dome has fallen in. After having + been used as a prison, and, later, as a military storehouse, it has been + cleared and its fine colonnades are again visible. The upper parts of the + minarets are covered with green tiles. They are furnished with bulbous + cupolas. The most magnificent of the city mosques is that of Sultan + Hasan, standing in the immediate vicinity of the citadel. It dates from + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1357, and is celebrated for the grandeur + of its porch and cornice and the delicate stalactite vaulting which + adorns them. The restoration of parts of the mosque which had fallen into + decay was begun in 1904. Besides it there is the mosque of Tulun (c. + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 879) exhibiting very ancient specimens of + the pointed arch; the mosque of Sultan El Hakim (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1003), the mosque el Azhar (the splendid), which + dates from about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 970, and is the seat of a + Mahommedan university; and the mosque of Sultan Kalaun, which is attached + to the hospital or madhouse (<i>muristan</i>) begun by Kalaun in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1285. The whole forms a large group of + buildings, now partially in ruins, in a style resembling the + contemporaneous medieval work in Europe, with pointed arches in several + orders. Besides the mosque proper there is a second mosque containing the + fine mausoleum of Kalaun. Adjacent to the <i>muristan</i> on the north is + the tomb mosque of al Nasir, completed 1303, with a fine portal. East of + the Khan-el-Khalil is the mosque of El Hasanēn, which is invested + with peculiar sanctity as containing relics of Hosain and Hasan, + grandsons of the Prophet. This mosque was rebuilt in the 19th century and + is of no architectural importance. In all Cairo contains over 260 + mosques, and nearly as many <i>zawias</i> or chapels. Of the gates the + finest are the Bab-en-Nasr, in the north wall of the city, and the + Bab-ez-Zuwēla, the only surviving part of the southern + fortifications.</p> + + <p><i>Tombs of the Caliphs and Mamelukes.</i>—Beyond the eastern + wall of the city are the splendid mausolea erroneously known to Europeans + as the tombs of the caliphs; they really are tombs of the Circassian or + Burji Mamelukes, a race extinguished by Mehemet Ali. Their lofty gilt + domes and fanciful network or arabesque tracery are partly in ruins, and + the mosques attached to them are also partly ruined. The chief tomb + mosques are those of Sultan Barkuk, with two domes and two minarets, + completed AD. 1410, and that of Kait Bey (c. 1470), with a slender + minaret 135 ft. high. This mosque was carefully restored in 1898. South + of the citadel is another group of tomb-mosques known as the tombs of the + Mamelukes. They are architecturally of less interest than those of the + "caliphs". Southwest of the Mameluke tombs is the much-venerated + tomb-mosque of the Imam esh-Shafih or Shaf'i, founder of one of the four + orthodox sects of Islam. Near the imam's mosque is a family burial-place + built by Mehemet Ali.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/zcairo_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/cairo_1.png" + alt="Map of Cairo." title="Map of Cairo." /></a> + </div> + <p><i>Old Cairo: the Fortress of Babylon and the + Nilometer.</i>—About a mile south of the city is Masr-el-Atika, + called by Europeans Old Cairo. Between Old Cairo and the newer city are + large mounds of débris marking the site of Fostat (see below, + <i>History</i>). <!-- Page 955 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page955"></a>[v.04 p.0955]</span>The road to Old Cairo by the river + leads past the monastery of the "Howling" Dervishes, and the head of the + aqueduct which formerly supplied the citadel with water. Farther to the + east is the mosque of Amr, a much-altered building dating from <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 643 and containing the tomb of the Arab + conqueror of Egypt. Most important of the quarters of Masr-el-Atika is + that of Kasr-esh-Shama (Castle of the Candle), built within the outer + walls of the Roman fortress of Babylon. Several towers of this fortress + remain, and in the south wall is a massive gateway, uncovered in 1901. In + the quarter are five Coptic churches, a Greek convent and two churches, + and a synagogue. The principal Coptic church is that of Abu Serga (St + Sergius). The crypt dates from about the 6th century and is dedicated to + Sitt Miriam (the Lady Mary), from a tradition that in the flight into + Egypt the Virgin and Child rested at this spot. The upper church is + basilican in form, the nave being, as customary in Coptic churches, + divided into three sections by wooden screens, which are adorned by + carvings in ivory and wood. The wall above the high altar is faced with + beautiful mosaics of marbles, blue glass and mother-of-pearl. Of the + other churches in Kasr-esh-Shama the most noteworthy is that of El Adra + (the Virgin), also called El Moallaka, or The Suspended, being built in + one of the towers of the Roman gateway. It contains fine wooden and ivory + screens. The pulpit is supported on fifteen columns, which rest on a slab + of white marble. The patriarch of the Copts was formerly consecrated in + this church. The other buildings in Old Cairo, or among the mounds of + rubbish which adjoin it, include several fort-like <i>ders</i> or + convents. One, south of the Kasr-esh-Shama, is called Der Bablun, thus + preserving the name of the ancient fortress. In the Der Abu Sephin, to + the north of Babylon, is a Coptic church of the 10th century, possessing + magnificent carved screens, a pulpit with fine mosaics and a semi-circle + of marble steps.</p> + + <p>Opposite Old Cairo lies the island of Roda, where, according to Arab + tradition, Pharaoh's daughter found Moses in the bulrushes. Two bridges, + opened in 1908, connect Old Cairo with Roda, and a third bridge joins + Roda to Giza on the west bank of the river. Roda Island contains a mosque + built by Kait Bey, and at its southern extremity is the Nilometer, by + which the Cairenes have for over a thousand years measured the rise of + the river. It is a square well with an octagonal pillar marked in cubits + in the centre.</p> + + <p><i>Northern and Western Suburbs.</i>—Two miles N.E. of Cairo and + on the edge of the desert is the suburb of Abbasia (named after the + viceroy Abbas), connected with the city by a continuous line of houses. + Abbasia is now largely a military colony, the cavalry barracks being the + old palace of Abbas Pasha. In these barracks Arabi Pasha surrendered to + the British on the 14th of September 1882, the day after the battle of + Tel el-Kebir. Mataria, a village 3 m. farther to the N.E., is the site of + the defeat of the Mamelukes by the Turks in 1517, and of the defeat of + the Turks by the French under General Kleber in 1800. At Mataria was a + sycamore-tree, the successor of a tree which decayed in 1665, venerated + as being that beneath which the Holy Family, rested on their flight into + Egypt. This tree was blown down in July 1906 and its place taken by a + cutting made from the tree some years previously. Less than a mile N.E. + of Mataria are the scanty remains of the ancient city of On or + Heliopolis. The chief monument is an obelisk, about 66 ft. high, erected + by Usertesen I. of the XIIth dynasty. A residential suburb, named + Heliopolis, containing many fine buildings, was laid out between Mataria + and Abbasia during 1905-10.</p> + + <p>On the west bank of the Nile, opposite the southern end of Roda + Island, is the small town of Giza or Gizeh, a fortified place of + considerable importance in the times of the Mamelukes. In the viceregal + palace here the museum of Egyptian antiquities was housed for several + years (1889-1902). The grounds of this palace have been converted into + zoological gardens. A broad, tree-bordered, macadamized road, along which + run electric trams, leads S.S.W. across the plain to the Pyramids of + Giza, 5 m. distant, built on the edge of the desert.</p> + + <p><i>Helwan.</i>—Fourteen miles S. of Cairo and connected with it + by railway is the town of Helwan, built in the desert 3 m. E. of the + Nile, and much frequented by invalids on account of its sulphur baths, + which are owned by the Egyptian government. A khedivial astronomical + observatory was built here in 1903-1904, to take the place of that at + Abbasia, that site being no longer suitable in consequence of the + northward extension of the city. The ruins of Memphis are on the E. bank + of the Nile opposite Helwan.</p> + + <p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The inhabitants are of many diverse races, + the various nationalities being frequently distinguishable by differences + in dress as well as in physiognomy and colour. In the oriental quarters + of the city the curious shops, the markets of different trades (the shops + of each trade being generally congregated in one street or district), the + easy merchant sitting before his shop, the musical and quaint + street-cries of the picturesque vendors of fruit, sherbet, water, + &c., with the ever-changing and many-coloured throng of passengers, + all render the streets a delightful study for the lover of Arab life, + nowhere else to be seen in such perfection, or with so fine a background + of magnificent buildings. The Cairenes, or native citizens, differ from + the fellahin in having a much larger mixture of Arab blood, and are at + once keener witted and more conservative than the peasantry. The Arabic + spoken by the middle and higher classes is generally inferior in + grammatical correctness and pronunciation to that of the Bedouins of + Arabia, but is purer than that of Syria or the dialect spoken by the + Western Arabs. Besides the Cairenes proper, who are largely engaged in + trade or handicrafts, the inhabitants include Arabs, numbers of Nubians + and Negroes—mostly labourers or domestics in nominal + slavery—and many Levantines, there being considerable colonies of + Syrians and Armenians. The higher classes of native society are largely + of Turkish or semi-Turkish descent. Of other races the most numerous are + Greeks, Italians, British, French and Jews. Bedouins from the desert + frequent the bazaars.</p> + + <p>At the beginning of the 19th century the population was estimated at + about 200,000, made up of 120,000 Moslems, 60,000 Copts, 4000 Jews and + 16,000 Greeks, Armenians and "Franks." In 1882 the population had risen + to 374,000, in 1897 to 570,062, and in 1907, including Helwan and + Mataria, the total population was 654,476, of whom 46,507 were + Europeans.</p> + + <p><i>Climate and Health.</i>—In consequence of its insanitary + condition, Cairo used to have a heavy death-rate. Since the British + occupation in 1882 much has been done to better this state of things, + notably by a good water-supply and a proper system of drainage. The + death-rate of the native population is about 35 per 1000. The climate of + the city is generally healthy, with a mean temperature of about 68° F. + Though rain seldom falls, exhalations from the river, especially when the + flood has begun to subside, render the districts near the Nile damp + during September, October and November, and in winter early morning fogs + are not uncommon. The prevalent north wind and the rise of the water tend + to keep the air cool in summer.</p> + + <p><i>Commerce.</i>—The commerce of Cairo, of considerable extent + and variety, consists mainly in the transit of goods. Gum, ivory, hides, + and ostrich feathers from the Sudan, cotton and sugar from Upper Egypt, + indigo and shawls from India and Persia, sheep and tobacco from Asiatic + Turkey, and European manufactures, such as machinery, hardware, cutlery, + glass, and cotton and woollen goods, are the more important articles. The + traffic in slaves ceased in 1877. In Bulak are several factories founded + by Mehemet Ali for spinning, weaving and printing cotton, and a + paper-mill established by the khedive Ismail in 1870. Various kinds of + paper are manufactured, and especially a fine quality for use in the + government offices. In the Island of Roda there is a sugar-refinery of + considerable extent, founded in 1859, and principally managed by + Englishmen. Silk goods, saltpetre, gunpowder, leather, &c., are also + manufactured. An octroi duty of 9% <i>ad valorem</i> formerly levied on + all food stuffs entering the city was abolished in 1903. It used to + produce about £150,000 per annum.</p> + + <p><i>Mahommedan Architecture.</i>—Architecturally considered Cairo + is still the most remarkable and characteristic of Arab cities. The + edifices raised by the Moorish kings of Spain and the Moslem <!-- Page + 956 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page956"></a>[v.04 + p.0956]</span>rulers of India may have been more splendid in their + materials, and more elaborate in their details; the houses of the great + men of Damascus may be more costly than were those of the Mameluke beys; + but for purity of taste and elegance of design both are far excelled by + many of the mosques and houses of Cairo. These mosques have suffered much + in the beauty of their appearance from the effects of time and neglect; + but their colour has been often thus softened, and their outlines + rendered the more picturesque. What is most to be admired in their style + of architecture is its extraordinary freedom from restraint, shown in the + wonderful variety of its forms, and the skill in design which has made + the most intricate details to harmonize with grand outlines. Here the + student may best learn the history of Arab art. Like its contemporary + Gothic, it has three great periods, those of growth, maturity and + decline. Of the first, the mosque of Ahmed Ibn-Tulun in the southern part + of Cairo, and the three great gates of the city, the Bab-en-Nasr, + Bab-el-Futuh and Bab-Zuwela, are splendid examples. The design of these + entrance gateways is extremely simple and massive, depending for their + effect on the fine ashlar masonry in which they are built, the decoration + being more or less confined to ornamental disks. The mosque of Tulun was + built entirely in brick, and is the earliest instance of the employment + of the pointed arch in Egypt. The curve of the arch turns in slightly + below the springing, giving a horse-shoe shape. Built in brick, it was + found necessary to give a more monumental appearance to the walls by a + casing of stucco, which remains in fair preservation to the present day. + This led to the enrichment of the archivolts and imposts with that + peculiar type of conventional foliage which characterizes Mahommedan + work, and which in this case was carried out by Coptic craftsmen. The + attached angle-shafts of piers are found here for the first time, and + their capitals are enriched, as also the frieze surmounting the walls, + with other conventional patterns. The second period passes from the + highest point to which this art attained to a luxuriance promising decay. + The mosque of sultan Hasan, below the citadel, those of Muayyad and + Kalaun, with the Barkukiya and the mosque of Barkuk in the cemetery of + Kait Bey, are instances of the second and more matured style of the + period. The simple plain ashlar masonry still predominates, but the wall + surface is broken up with sunk panels, sometimes with geometrical + patterns in them. The principal characteristics of this second period are + the magnificent portals, rising sometimes, as in the mosque of sultan + Hasan, to 80 or 90 ft., with elaborate stalactite vaulting at the top, + and the deep stalactite cornices which crown the summit of the building. + The decoration of the interior consists of the casing of the walls with + marble with enriched borders, and (about 20 ft. above the ground) friezes + 3 to 5 ft. in height in which the precepts of the Koran are carved in + relief, with a background of conventional foliage. Of the last style of + this period the Ghuriya and the mosque of Kait Bey in his cemetery are + beautiful specimens. They show an elongation of forms and an excess of + decoration in which the florid qualities predominate. Of the age of + decline the finest monument is the mosque of Mahommad Bey Abu-Dahab. The + forms are now poor, though not lacking in grandeur, and the details are + not as well adjusted as before, with a want of mastery of the most + suitable decoration. The usual plan of a congregational mosque is a + large, square, open court, surrounded by arcades of which the chief, + often several bays deep, and known as the Manksura, or prayer-chamber, + faces Mecca (eastward), and has inside its outer wall a decorated niche + to mark the direction of prayer. In the centre of the court is a fountain + for ablutions, often surmounted by a dome, and in the prayer-chamber a + pulpit and a desk for readers. When a mosque is also the founder's tomb, + it has a richly ornamented sepulchral chamber always covered by a dome + (see further <span class="sc">Mosque</span>, which contains plans of the + mosques of Amr and sultan Hasan, and of the tomb mosque of Kait Bey).</p> + + <p>After centuries of neglect efforts are now made to preserve the + monuments of Arabic art, a commission with that object having been + appointed in 1881. To this commission the government makes an annual + grant of £4000. The careful and syste-matic work accomplished by this + commission has preserved much of interest and beauty which would + otherwise have gone utterly to ruin. Arrangements were made in 1902 for + the systematic repair and preservation of Coptic monuments.</p> + + <p><i>Museums and Library.</i>—The museum of Egyptian antiquities + was founded at Bulak in 1863, being then housed in a mosque, by the + French savant Auguste Mariette. In 1889 the collection was transferred to + the Giza (Ghezireh) palace, and in 1902 was removed to its present + quarters, erected at a cost of over £250,000. A statue of Mariette was + unveiled in 1904. The museum is entirely devoted to antiquities of + Pharaonic times, and, except in historical papyri, in which it is + excelled by the British Museum, is the most valuable collection of such + antiquities in existence.</p> + + <p>The Arab museum and khedivial library are housed in a building erected + for the purpose, at a cost of £66,000, and opened in 1903. In the museum + are preserved treasures of Saracenic art, including many objects removed + from the mosques for their better security. The khedivial library + contains some 64,000 volumes, over two-thirds being books and MSS. in + Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Amharic and Syriac. The Arabic section includes + a unique collection of 2677 korans. The Persian section is rich in + illuminated MSS. The numismatic collection, as regards the period of the + caliphs and later dynasties, is one of the richest in the world.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—Before the Arab conquest of Egypt the site of + Cairo appears to have been open country. Memphis was some 12 m. higher up + on the opposite side of the Nile, and Heliopolis was 5 or 6 m. distant on + the N.E. The most ancient known settlement in the immediate neighbourhood + of the present city was the town called Babylon. From its situation it + may have been a north suburb of Memphis, which was still inhabited in the + 7th century <span class="scac">A.D.</span> Babylon is said by Strabo to + have been founded by emigrants from the ancient city of the same name in + 525 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, <i>i.e.</i> at the time of the + Persian conquest of Egypt. Here the Romans built a fortress and made it + the headquarters of one of the three legions which garrisoned the + country. The church of Babylon mentioned in 1 Peter v. 13 has been + thought by some writers to refer to this town—an improbable + supposition. Amr, the conqueror of Egypt for the caliph Omar, after + taking the town besieged the fortress for the greater part of a year, the + garrison surrendering in April <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 641. The + town of Babylon disappeared, but the strong walls of the fortress in part + remain, and the name survived, "Babylon of Egypt," or "Babylon" simply, + being frequently used in medieval writings as synonymous with Cairo or as + denoting the successive Mahommedan dynasties of Egypt.</p> + + <p>Cairo itself is the fourth Moslem capital of Egypt; the site of one of + those that had preceded it is, for the most part, included within its + walls, while the other two were a little to the south. Amr founded + El-Fostat, the oldest of these, close to the fortress which he had + besieged. Fostat signifies "the tent," the town being built where Amr had + pitched his tent. The new town speedily became a place of importance, and + was the residence of the náibs, or lieutenants, appointed by the orthodox + and Omayyad caliphs. It received the name of Masr, properly Misr, which + was also applied by the Arabs to Memphis and to Cairo, and is to-day, + with the Roman town which preceded it, represented by Masr el-Atika, or + "Old Cairo." Shortly after the overthrow of the Omayyad dynasty, and the + establishment of the Abbasids, the city of El-'Askar was founded (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 750) by Suleiman, the general who subjugated the + country, and became the capital and the residence of the successive + lieutenants of the Abbasid caliphs. El-'Askar was a small town N.E. of + and adjacent to El-Fostat, of which it was a kind of suburb. Its site is + now entirely desolate. The third capital, El-Katai, was founded about + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 873 by Ahmed Ibn Tulun, as his capital. It + continued the royal residence of his successors; but was sacked not long + after the fall of the dynasty and rapidly decayed. A part of the present + Cairo occupies its site and contains its great mosque, that of Ahmed Ibn + Tulun.</p> + + <p>Jauhar (Gohar) el-Kaid, the conqueror of Egypt for the Fatimite caliph + El-Moizz, founded a new capital, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 968, + which <!-- Page 957 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page957"></a>[v.04 + p.0957]</span>was named El-Kāhira, that is, "the Victorious," a + name corrupted into Cairo. The new city, like that founded by Amr, was + originally the camp of the conqueror. This town occupied about a fourth + part, the north-eastern, of the present metropolis. By degrees it became + greater than El-Fostāt, and took from it the name of Misr, or Masr, + which is applied to it by the modern Egyptians. With its rise + Fostāt, which had been little affected by the establishment of + Askar and Katai, declined. It continually increased so as to include the + site of El-Katai to the south. In <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1176 + Cairo was unsuccessfully attacked by the Crusaders; shortly afterwards + Saladin built the citadel on the lowest point of the mountains to the + east, which immediately overlooked El-Katai, and he partly walled round + the towns and large gardens within the space now called Cairo. Under the + prosperous rule of the Mameluke sultans this great tract was filled with + habitations; a large suburb to the north, the Hoseynia, was added; and + the town of Bulak was founded. After the Turkish conquest (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1517) the metropolis decayed, but its limits + were the same. In 1798 the city was captured by the French, who were + driven out in 1801 by the Turkish and English forces, the city being + handed over to the Turks. Mehemet Ali, originally the Turkish viceroy, by + his massacre of the Mamelukes in 1811, in a narrow street leading to the + citadel, made himself master of the country, and Cairo again became the + capital of a virtually independent kingdom. Under Mehemet and his + successors all the western part of the city has grown up. The khedive + Ismail, in making the straight road from the citadel to the Ezbekia + gardens, destroyed many of the finest houses of the old town. In 1882 + Cairo was occupied by the British, and British troops continue to + garrison the citadel.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—S.L. Poole, <i>The Story + of Cairo</i> (London, 1902), a historical and architectural survey of the + Moslem city; E. Reynolds-Ball, <i>Cairo: the City of the Caliphs</i> + (Boston, U.S.A., 1897); Prisse d'Avennes, <i>L'Art arabe d'après les + monuments du Caire</i> (Paris, 1847); P. Ravaisse, <i>L'Histoire et la + topographie du Caire d'après Makrizi</i> (Paris, 1887); E.W. Lane, + <i>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</i> (London, 1896), presents a picture of the + city as it was before the era of European "improvements," and gives + extracts from the <i>Khitat</i> of Maqrizi, written in 1417, the chief + original authority on the antiquities of Cairo; Murray's and Baedeker's + <i>Guides</i>, and A. and C. Black's <i>Cairo of To-day</i> (1905), + contain much useful and accurate information about Cairo. For the + fortress of Babylon and its churches consult A.J. Butler, <i>Ancient + Coptic Churches in Egypt</i> (Oxford, 1884).</p> + + <p><b>CAIRO,</b> a city and the county-seat of Alexander county, + Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of the state, at the confluence of the + Ohio and Mississippi rivers, 365 m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,324; + (1900) 12,566, of whom 5000 were negroes; (1910 census) 14,548. Cairo is + served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio, the Cleveland, + Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & + Southern, and the St Louis South-Western railways, and by river steamboat + lines. The city, said to be the "Eden" of Charles Dickens's <i>Martin + Chuzzlewit</i>, is built on a tongue of land between the rivers, and has + suffered many times from inundations, notably in 1858. It is now + protected by great levees. A fine railway bridge (1888) spans the Ohio. + The city has a large government building, a U.S. marine hospital (1884), + and the A.B. Safford memorial library (1882), and is the seat of St + Joseph's Loretto Academy (Roman Catholic, 1864). In one of the squares + there is a bronze statue, "The Hewer," by G.G. Barnard. In the N. part of + the city is St Mary's park (30 acres). At Mound City (pop. in 1910, + 2837), 5 m. N. of Cairo, there is a national cemetery. Lumber and flour + are Cairo's principal manufactured products, and the city is an important + hardwood and cotton-wood market; the Singer Manufacturing Co. has veneer + mills here, and there are large box factories. In 1905 the value of the + city's factory products was $4,381,465, an increase of 40.6% since 1900. + Cairo is a shipping-point for the surrounding agricultural country. The + city owes its origin to a series of commercial experiments. In 1818 a + charter was secured from the legislature of the territory of Illinois + incorporating the city and bank of Cairo. The charter was soon forfeited, + and the land secured by it reverted to the government. In 1835 a new + charter was granted to a second company, and in 1837 the Cairo City & + Canal Co. was formed. By 1842, however, the place was practically + abandoned. A successful settlement was made in 1851-1854 under the + auspices of the New York Trust Co.; the Illinois Central railway was + opened in 1856; and Cairo was chartered as a city in 1857. During the + Civil War Cairo was an important strategic point, and was a military + centre and depot of supplies of considerable importance for the Federal + armies in the west. In 1862 Admiral Andrew H. Foote established at Mound + City a naval depot, which was the basis of his operations on the + Mississippi.</p> + + <p><b>CAIROLI, BENEDETTO</b> (1825-1889), Italian statesman, was born at + Pavia on the 28th of January 1825. From 1848 until the completion of + Italian unity in 1870, his whole activity was devoted to the + Risorgimento, as Garibaldian officer, political refugee, anti-Austrian + conspirator and deputy to parliament. He commanded a volunteer company + under Garibaldi in 1859 and 1860, being wounded slightly at Calatafimi + and severely at Palermo in the latter year. In 1866, with the rank of + colonel, he assisted Garibaldi in Tirol, in 1867 fought at Mentana, and + in 1870 conducted the negotiations with Bismarck, during which the German + chancellor is alleged to have promised Italy possession of Rome and of + her natural frontiers if the Democratic party could prevent an alliance + between Victor Emmanuel and Napoleon. The prestige personally acquired by + Benedetto Cairoli was augmented by that of his four brothers, who fell + during the wars of Risorgimento, and by the heroic conduct of their + mother. His refusal of all compensation or distinction further endeared + him to the Italian people. When in 1876 the Left came into power, + Cairoli, then a deputy of sixteen years' standing, became parliamentary + leader of his party, and, after the fall of Depretis, Nicotera and + Crispi, formed his first cabinet in March 1878 with a Francophil and + Irredentist policy. After his marriage with the countess Elena Sizzo of + Trent, he permitted the Irredentist agitation to carry the country to the + verge of a war with Austria. General irritation was caused by his and + Count Corti's policy of "clean hands" at the Berlin Congress, where Italy + obtained nothing, while Austria-Hungary secured a European mandate to + occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. A few months later the attempt of + Passanante to assassinate King Humbert at Naples (12th of December 1878) + caused his downfall, in spite of the courage displayed and the severe + wound received by him in protecting the king's person on that occasion. + On the 3rd of July 1879 Cairoli returned to power, and in the following + November formed with Depretis a coalition ministry, in which he retained + the premiership and the foreign office. Confidence in French assurances, + and belief that Great Britain would never permit the extension of French + influence in North Africa, prevented him from foreseeing the French + occupation of Tunis (11th of May 1881). In view of popular indignation he + resigned in order to avoid making inopportune declarations to the + chamber. Thenceforward he practically disappeared from political life. In + 1887 he received the knighthood of the Annunziata, the highest Italian + decoration, and on the 8th of August 1889 died while a guest of King + Humbert in the royal palace of Capodimonte near Naples. Cairoli was one + of the most conspicuous representatives of that type of Italian public + men who, having conspired and fought for a generation in the cause of + national unity, were despite their valour little fitted for the + responsible parliamentary and official positions they subsequently + attained; and who by their ignorance of foreign affairs and of internal + administration unwittingly impeded the political development of their + country.</p> + + <p><b>CAISSON</b> (from the Fr. <i>caisse</i>, the variant form "cassoon" + being adapted from the Ital. <i>casone</i>), a chest or case. When + employed as a military term, it denotes an ammunition wagon or chest; in + architecture it is the term used for a sunk panel or coffer in a ceiling, + or in the soffit of an arch or a vault.</p> + + <p>In civil engineering, however, the word has attained a far wider + signification, and has been adopted in connexion with a considerable + variety of hydraulic works. A caisson in this sense implies a case or + enclosure of wood or iron, generally employed for keeping out water + during the execution of foundations and other works in water-bearing + strata, at the side of or under rivers, and also <!-- Page 958 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page958"></a>[v.04 p.0958]</span>in the sea. + There are two distinct forms of this type of caisson:—(1) A caisson + open at the top, whose sides, when it is sunk in position, emerge above + the water-level, and which is either provided with a water-tight bottom + or is carried down, by being weighted at the top and having a cutting + edge round the bottom, into a water-tight stratum, aided frequently by + excavation inside; (2) A bottomless caisson, serving as a sort of + diving-bell, in which men can work when compressed air is introduced to + keep out the water in proportion to the depth below the water-level, + which is gradually carried down to an adequately firm foundation by + excavating at the bottom of the caisson, and building up a quay-wall or + pier out of water on the top of its roof as it descends. An example of a + caisson with a water-tight bottom is furnished by the quays erected + alongside the Seine at Rouen, where open-timber caissons were sunk on to + bearing-piles down to a depth of 9¾ ft. below low-water, the brick and + concrete lower portions of the quay-wall being built inside them out of + water (see <span class="sc">Dock</span>). At Bilbao, Zeebrugge and + Scheveningen harbours, large open metal caissons, built inland, ballasted + with concrete, floated out into position, and then sunk and filled with + concrete, have been employed for forming very large foundation blocks for + the breakwaters (see <span class="sc">Breakwater</span>). Open iron + caissons are frequently employed for enclosing the site of river piers + for bridges, where a water-tight stratum can be reached at a moderate + depth, into which the caisson can be taken down, so that the water can be + pumped out of the enclosure and the foundations laid and the pier carried + up in the open air. Thus the two large river piers carrying the high + towers, bascules, and machinery of the Tower Bridge, London, were each + founded and built within a group of twelve plate-iron caissons open at + the top; whilst four of the piers on which the cantilevers of the Forth + Bridge rest, were each erected within an open plate-iron caisson fitted + at the bottom to the sloping rock, where ordinary cofferdams could not + have been adopted.</p> + + <p>Where foundations have to be carried down to a considerable depth in + water-bearing strata, or through the alluvial bed of a river, to reach a + hard stratum, bottomless caissons sunk by excavating under compressed air + are employed. The caisson at the bottom, forming the working chamber, is + usually provided with a strong roof, round the top of which, when the + caisson is floated into a river, plate-iron sides are erected forming an + upper open caisson, inside which the pier or quay-wall is built up out of + water, on the top of the roof, as the sinking proceeds. Shafts through + the roof up to the open air provide access for men and materials to the + working chamber, through an air-lock consisting of a small chamber with + an air-tight door at each end, enabling locking into and out of the + compressed-air portion to be readily effected, on the same principle as a + water-lock on a canal. When a sufficiently reliable stratum has been + reached, the men leave the working chamber; and it is filled with + concrete through the shafts, the bottomless caisson remaining embedded in + the work. The foundations for the two river piers of the Brooklyn + Suspension Bridge, carried down to the solid rock, 78 and 45 ft. + respectively below high-water, by means of bottomless timber caissons + with compressed air, were an early instance of this method of carrying + out subaqueous foundations; whilst the Antwerp quay-walls, commenced many + years ago in the river Scheldt at some distance out from the right bank, + and the foundations of six of the piers supporting the cantilevers of the + Forth Bridge, carried down to rock between 64 and 89 ft. below + high-water, are notable examples of works founded under water within + wrought iron bottomless caissons by the aid of compressed air. The + foundations of the two piers of the Eiffel Tower adjoining the Seine were + carried down through soft water-bearing strata to a depth of 33 ft. by + means of wrought iron bottomless caissons sunk by the help of compressed + air; and the deep foundations under the sills of the new large Florida + lock at Havre (see <span class="sc">Dock</span>) were laid underneath the + water logged alluvial strata close to the Seine estuary by similar means. + Workmen, after emerging from such caissons, sometimes exhibit symptoms of + illness which is known as <i>caisson disease</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p>As in the above system, significantly termed by French engineers + <i>par caisson perdu</i>, the materials of the bottomless caisson have to + be left in the work, a more economical system has been adapted for + carrying out similar foundations, at moderate depths, by using movable + caissons, which, after the lowest portions of the foundations have been + laid, are raised by screw-jacks for constructing the next portions. In + this way, instead of building the pier or wall on the roof of the + caisson, the work is carried out under water in successive stages, by + raising the bottomless caisson as the work proceeds; and by this + arrangement, the caisson, having completed the subaqueous portion of the + structure, is available for work elsewhere. This movable system has been + used with advantage for the foundations for some piers of river bridges, + some breakwater foundations, and, at the Florida lock, Havre, for + founding portions of the side walls.</p> + + <p>Closed iron caissons, termed ship-caissons, and sliding or rolling + caissons, are generally employed for closing graving-docks, especially + the former (so called from their resemblance in shape to a vessel) on + account of their simplicity, being readily floated into and out of + position; whilst sliding caissons are sometimes used instead of + lock-gates at docks, but require a chamber at the side to receive them + when drawn back. They possess the advantage, particularly for naval + dockyards where heavy weights are transported, of providing in addition a + strong movable bridge, thereby dispensing with a swing-bridge across the + opening.</p> + + <p>The term caisson is sometimes applied to flat air-tight constructions + used for raising vessels out of water for cleaning or repairs, by being + sunk under them and then floated; but these floating caissons are more + commonly known as pontoons, or, when air-chambers are added at the sides, + as floating dry-docks.</p> + + <p>(L. F. V.-H.)</p> + + <p><b>CAISSON DISEASE.</b> In order to exclude the water, the air + pressure within a caisson used for subaqueous works must be kept in + excess of the pressure due to the superincumbent water; that is, it must + be increased by one atmosphere, or 15 lb per sq. in. for every 33½ ft. + that the caisson is submerged below the surface. Hence at a depth of 100 + ft. a worker in a caisson, or a diver in a diving-dress, must be + subjected to a pressure of four atmospheres or 60 lb per sq. in. Exposure + to such pressures is apt to be followed by disagreeable and even + dangerous physiological effects, which are commonly referred to as + caisson disease or compressed air illness. The symptoms are of a very + varied character, including pains in the muscles and joints (the + "bends"), deafness, embarrassed breathing, vomiting, paralysis ("divers' + palsy"), fainting and sometimes even sudden death. At the St Louis + bridge, where a pressure was employed equal to 4¼ atmospheres, out of 600 + workmen, 119 were affected and 14 died. At one time the symptoms were + attributed to congestion produced by the mechanical effects of the + pressure on the internal organs of the body, but this explanation is seen + to be untenable when it is remembered that the pressure is immediately + transmitted by the fluids of the body equally to all parts. They do not + appear during the time that the pressure is being raised nor so long as + it is continued, but only after it has been removed; and the view now + generally accepted is that they are due to the rapid effervescence of the + gases which are absorbed in the body-fluids during exposure to pressure. + Experiment has proved that in animals exposed to compressed air nitrogen + is dissolved in the fluids in accordance with Dalton's law, to the extent + of roughly 1% for each atmosphere of pressure, and also that when the + pressure is suddenly relieved the gas is liberated in bubbles within the + body. It is these bubbles that do the mischief. Set free in the spinal + cord, for instance, they may give rise to partial paralysis, in the + labyrinth of the ear to auditory vertigo, or in the heart to stoppage of + the circulation; on the other hand, they may be liberated in positions + where they do no harm. But if the pressure is relieved gradually they are + not formed, because the gas comes out of solution slowly and is got rid + of by the heart and lungs. Paul Bert exposed 24 dogs to pressure of 7-9½ + atmospheres and "decompressed" them rapidly in 1-4 minutes. The result + was that 21 died, while only one showed no symptoms. In one of his cases, + in which the apparatus burst while at a pressure of 9½ atmospheres, death + was instantaneous and the body was enormously distended, with the right + heart full of gas. <!-- Page 959 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page959"></a>[v.04 p.0959]</span>But he also found that dogs + exposed, for moderate periods, to similar pressures suffered no ill + effects provided that the pressure was relieved gradually, in 1-1½ hours; + and his results have been confirmed by subsequent investigators. To + prevent caisson disease, therefore, the decompression should be slow; + Leonard Hill suggests it should be at a rate of not less than 20 minutes + for each atmosphere of pressure. Good ventilation of the caisson is also + of great importance (though experiment does not entirely confirm the view + that the presence of carbonic acid to an amount exceeding 1 or 1¼ parts + per thousand exercises a specific influence on the production of + compressed air illness), and long shifts should be avoided, because by + fatigue the circulatory and respiratory organs are rendered less able to + eliminate the absorbed gas. Another reason against long shifts, + especially at high pressures, is that a high partial pressure of oxygen + acts as a general protoplasmic poison. This circumstance also sets a + limit to the pressures that can possibly be used in caissons and + therefore to the depths at which they can be worked, though there is + reason to think that the maximum pressure (4¾ atmospheres) so far used in + caisson work might be considerably exceeded with safety, provided that + proper precautions were observed in regard to slow decompression, the + physique of the workmen, and the hours of labour. As to the remedy for + the symptoms after they have appeared, satisfactory results have been + obtained by replacing the sufferers in a compressed air chamber + ("recompression"), when the gas is again dissolved by the body fluids, + and then slowly "decompressing" them.</p> + + <p>See Paul Bert, <i>La Pression barométrique</i> (1878); and Leonard + Hill, <i>Recent Advances in Physiology and Biochemistry</i> (1906), (both + these works contain bibliographies); also a lecture by Leonard Hill + delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the 25th of May + 1906; "Diving and Caisson Disease," a summary of recent investigations, + by Surgeon Howard Mummery, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, June 27th, + 1908; <i>Diseases of Occupation</i>, by T. Oliver (1908); <i>Diseases of + Workmen</i>, by T. Luson and R. Hyde (1908).</p> + + <p><b>CAITHNESS,</b> a county occupying the extreme north-east of + Scotland, bounded W. and S. by Sutherlandshire, E. by the North Sea, and + N. by the Pentland Firth. Its area is 446,017 acres, or nearly 697 sq. m. + The surface generally is flat and tame, consisting for the most part of + barren moors, almost destitute of trees. It presents a gradual slope from + the north and east up to the heights in the south and west, where the + chief mountains are Morven (2313 ft.), Scaraben (2054 ft.) and Maiden Pap + (1587 ft.). The principal rivers are the Thurso ("Thor's River"), which, + rising in Cnoc Crom Uillt (1199 ft.) near the Sutherlandshire border, + pursues a winding course till it reaches the sea in Thurso Bay; the + Forss, which, emerging from Loch Shurrery, follows a generally northward + direction and enters the sea at Crosskirk, a fine cascade about a mile + from its mouth giving the river its name (<i>fors</i>, Scandinavian, + "waterfall;" in English the form is <i>force</i>); and Wick Water, which, + draining Loch Watten, flows into the sea at Wick. There are many other + smaller streams well stocked with fish. Indeed, the county offers fine + sport for rod and gun. The lochs are numerous, the largest being Loch + Watten, 2¾ m. by ¾ m., and Loch Calder, 2¼ by 1 m., and Lochs Colam, + Hempriggs, Heilen, Ruard, Scarmclate, St John's, Toftingale and Wester. + So much of the land is low-lying and boggy that there are no glens, + except in the mountainous south-west, although towards the centre of the + county are Strathmore and Strathbeg (the great and little valleys). Most + of the coast-line is precipitous and inhospitable, particularly at the + headlands of the Ord, Noss, Skirsa, Duncansbay, St John's Point, Dunnet + Head (346 ft.), the most northerly point of Scotland, Holburn and Brims + Ness. From Berriedale at frequent intervals round the coast occur superb + "stacks," or detached pillars of red sandstone, which add much to the + grandeur of the cliff scenery.</p> + + <p>Caithness is separated from the Orkneys by the Pentland Firth, a + strait about 14 miles long and from 6 to 8 miles broad. Owing to the rush + of the tide, navigation is difficult, and, in rough weather, dangerous. + The tidal wave races at a speed which varies from 6 to 12 m. an hour. At + the meeting of the western and eastern currents the waves at times rise + into the air like a waterspout, but the current does not always nor + everywhere flow at a uniform rate, being broken up at places into eddies + as perilous as itself. The breakers caused by the sunken reefs off + Duncansbay Head create the Bores of Duncansbay, and eddies off St John's + Point are the origin of the Merry Men of Mey, while off the island of + Stroma occurs the whirlpool of the Swalchie, and off the Orcadian Swona + is the vortex of the Wells of Swona. Nevertheless, as the most direct + road from Scandinavian ports to the Atlantic the Firth is used by at + least 5000 vessels every year. In the eastern entrance to the Firth lies + the group of islands known as the Pentland Skerries. They are four in + number—Muckle Skerry, Little Skerry, Clettack Skerry and Louther + Skerry—and the nearest is 4½ m. from the mainland. On Muckle + Skerry, the largest (½ m. by ⅓ m.), stands a lighthouse with twin + towers, 100 ft. apart. The island of Stroma, 1½ m. from the mainland + (pop. 375), belongs to Caithness and is situated in the parish of + Canisbay. It is 2¼ m. long by 1¼ m. broad. In 1862 a remarkable tide + climbed the cliffs (200 ft.) and swept across the island.</p> + + <p><i>Geology.</i>—Along the western margin of the county from Reay + on the north coast to the Scaraben Hills there is a narrow belt of + country which is occupied by metamorphic rocks of the types found in the + east of Sutherland. They consist chiefly of granulitic quartzose schists + and felspathic gneisses, permeated in places by strings and veins of + pegmatite. On the Scaraben Hills there is a prominent development of + quartz-schists the age of which is still uncertain. These rocks are + traversed by a mass of granite sometimes foliated, trending north and + south, which is traceable from Reay southwards by Aultnabreac station to + Kinbrace and Strath Helmsdale in Sutherland. Excellent sections of this + rock, showing segregation veins, are exposed in the railway cuttings + between Aultnabreac and Forsinard. A rock of special interest described + by Professor Judd occurs on Achvarasdale Moor, near Loch Scye, and hence + named Scyelite. It forms a small isolated boss, its relations to the + surrounding rocks not being apparent. Under the microscope, the rock + consists of biotite, hornblende, serpentinous pseudo-morphs after olivine + and possibly after enstatite and magnetite, and may be described as a + mica-hornblende-picrite. The remainder of the county is occupied by + strata of Old Red Sandstone age, the greater portion being grouped with + the Middle or Orcadian division of that system, and a small area on the + promontory of Dunnet Head being provisionally placed in the upper + division. By means of the fossil fishes, Dr Traquair has arranged the + Caithness flagstone series in three groups, the Achanarras beds at the + base, the Thurso flagstones in the middle, and the John o' Groats beds at + the top. In the extreme south of the county certain minor subdivisions + appear which probably underlie the lowest fossiliferous beds containing + the Achanarras fauna. These comprise (1) the coarse basement + conglomerate, (2) dull chocolate-red sandstones, shales and clays around + Braemore in the Berriedale Water, (3) the brecciated conglomerate largely + composed of granite detritus seen at Badbea, (4) red sandstones, shales + and conglomeratic bands found in the Berriedale Water and further + northwards in the direction of Strathmore. Morven, the highest hill in + Caithness, is formed of gently inclined sandstones and conglomerates + resting on an eroded platform of quartz-schists and + quartz-mica-granulites. The flagstones yielding the fishes of the lowest + division of the Orcadian series appear on Achanarras Hill about three + miles south of Halkirk. The members of the overlying Thurso group have a + wide distribution as they extend along the shore on either side of Thurso + and spread across the county by Castletown and Halkirk to Sinclairs Bay + and Wick. They are thrown into folds which are traversed by faults some + of which run in a north and south direction. They consist of dark grey + and cream-coloured flagstones, sometimes thick-bedded with grey and blue + shales and thin limestones and occasional intercalations of sandstone. In + the north-west of the county the members of the Thurso group appear to + overlap the Achanarras beds and to rest directly on the platform of + crystalline schists. In the extreme north-east there is a passage upwards + into the John o' Groats group <!-- Page 960 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page960"></a>[v.04 p.0960]</span>with its characteristic fishes, + the strata consisting of sandstones, flagstones with thin impure + limestones. The rocks of Dunnet Head, which are provisionally classed + with the upper Old Red Sandstone, are composed of red and yellow + sandstones, marls and mudstones. Hitherto no fossils have been obtained + from these beds save some obscure plant-like markings, but they are + evidently a continuation southwards of the sandstones of Hoy, which there + rest unconformably on the flagstone series of Orkney. This patch of Upper + Old Red strata is faulted against the Caithness flagstones to the south. + For many years the flagstones have been extensively quarried for pavement + purposes, as for instance near Thurso, at Castletown and Achanarras. Two + instances of volcanic necks occur in Caithness, one piercing the red + sandstones at the Ness of Duncansbay and the other the sandstones of + Dunnet Head north of Brough. They point to volcanic activity subsequent + to the deposition of the John o' Groats beds and of the Dunnet + sandstones. The materials filling these vents consist of agglomerate + charged with blocks of diabase, sandstone, flagstone and limestone.</p> + + <p>An interesting feature connected with the geology of Caithness is the + deposit of shelly boulder clay which is distributed over the low ground, + being deepest in the valleys and in the cliffs surrounding the bays on + the east coast. Apart from the shell fragments, many of which are + striated, the deposit contains blocks foreign to the county, as for + instance chalk and chalk-flints, fragments of Jurassic rocks with fossils + and pieces of jet. The transport of local boulders shows that the ice + must have moved from the south-east towards the north-west, which + coincides with the direction indicated by the striae. The Jurassic blocks + may have been derived from the strip of rocks of that age on the east + coast of Sutherland. The shell fragments, many of which are striated, + include arctic, boreal and southern forms, only a small number being + characteristic of the littoral zone.</p> + + <p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—The climate is variable, and + though the winter storms fall with great severity on the coast, yet owing + to proximity to a vast expanse of sea the cold is not intense and snow + seldom lies many days continuously. In winter and spring the northern + shore is subject to frequent and disastrous gales from the N. and N.W. + Only about two-fifths of the arable land is good. In spite of this and + the cold, wet and windy climate, progressive landlords and tenants keep a + considerable part of the acreage of large farms successfully tilled. In + 1824 James Traill of Ratter, near Dunnet, recognizing that it was + impossible to expect tenants to reclaim and improve the land on a system + of short leases, advocated large holdings on long terms, so that farmers + might enjoy a substantial return on their capital and labour. Thanks to + this policy and the farmers' skill and enterprise, the county has + acquired a remarkable reputation for its produce; notably oats and + barley, turnips, potatoes and beans. Sheep—chiefly Leicester and + Cheviots—of which the wool is in especial request in consequence of + its fine quality, cattle, horses and pigs are raised for southern + markets.</p> + + <p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The great source of profit to the + inhabitants is to be found in the fisheries of cod, ling, lobster and + herring. The last is the most important, beginning about the end of July + and lasting for six weeks, the centre of operations being at Wick. + Besides those more immediately engaged in manning the boats, the + fisheries give employment to a large number of coopers, curers, packers + and helpers. The salmon fisheries on the coast and at the mouths of + rivers are let at high prices. The Thurso is one of the best salmon + streams in the north. The flagstone quarries, mostly situated in the + Thurso, Olrig and Halkirk districts, are another important source of + revenue. Of manufactures there is little beyond tweeds, ropes, + agricultural implements and whisky, and the principal imports consist of + coal, wood, manure, flour and lime.</p> + + <p>The only railway in the county is the Highland railway, which, from a + point some four miles to the south-west of Aultnabreac station, crosses + the shire in a rough semicircle, via Halkirk, to Wick, with a branch from + Georgemas Junction to Thurso. There is also, however, frequent + communication by steamer between Wick and Thurso and the Orkneys and + Shetlands, Aberdeen, Leith and other ports. The deficiency of railway + accommodation is partly made good by coach services between different + places.</p> + + <p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population of Caithness in + 1891 was 33,177, and in 1901, 33,870, of whom twenty-four persons spoke + Gaelic only, and 2876 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Wick (pop. + in 1901, 7911) and Thurso (3723). The county returns one member to + parliament. Wick is the only royal burgh and one of the northern group of + parliamentary burghs which includes Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall + and Tain. Caithness unites with Orkney and Shetland to form a sheriffdom, + and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Wick, who sits also at + Thurso and Lybster. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and + there are academies at Wick and Thurso. The county council subsidizes + elementary schools and cookery classes and provides apparatus for + technical classes.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The early history of Caithness may, to some + extent, be traced in the character of its remains and its local + nomenclature. Picts' houses, still fairly numerous, Norwegian names and + Danish mounds attest that these peoples displaced each other in turn, and + the number and strength of the fortified keeps show that its annals + include the usual feuds, assaults and reprisals. Circles of standing + stones, as at Stemster Loch and Bower, and the ruins of Roman Catholic + chapels and places of pilgrimage in almost every district, illustrate the + changes which have come over its ecclesiastical condition. The most + important remains are those of Bucholie Castle, Girnigo Castle, and the + tower of Keiss; and, on the S.E. coast, the castles of Clyth, Swiney, + Forse, Laveron, Knockinnon, Berriedale, Achastle and Dunbeath, the last + of which is romantically situated on a detached stack of sandstone rock. + About six miles from Thurso stand the ruins of Braal Castle, the + residence of the ancient bishops of Caithness. On the coast of the + Pentland Firth, 1½ miles west of Dunscansbay Head, is the site of John o' + Groat's house.</p> + + <p>See S. Laing, <i>Prehistoric Remains of Caithness</i> (London and + Edinburgh, 1866); James T. Calder, <i>History of Caithness</i> (2nd + edition, Wick); John Home, <i>In and About Wick</i> (Wick); Thomas + Sinclair, <i>Caithness Events</i> (Wick, 1899); <i>History of the Clan + Gunn</i> (Wick, 1890); J. Henderson, <i>Caithness Family History</i> + (Edinburgh, 1884); Harvie-Brown, <i>Fauna of Caithness</i> (Edinburgh, + 1887); Principal Miller, <i>Our Scandinavian Forefathers</i> (Thurso, + 1872); Smiles, <i>Robert Dick, Botanist and Geologist</i> (London, 1878); + H. Morrison, <i>Guide to Sutherland and Caithness</i> (Wick, 1883); A. + Auld, <i>Ministers and Men in the Far North</i> (Edinburgh, 1891).</p> + + <p><b>CAIUS</b> or <span class="sc">Gaius</span>, pope from 283 to 296, + was the son of Gaius, or of Concordius, a relative of the emperor + Diocletian, and became pope on the 17th of December 283. His tomb, with + the original epitaph, was discovered in the cemetery of Calixtus and in + it the ring with which he used to seal his letters (see Arringhi, <i>Roma + subterr.</i>, <i>l.</i> iv. <i>c.</i> xlviii. p. 426). He died in + 296.</p> + + <p><b>CAIUS</b> [<i>Anglice</i> <span class="sc">Kees, Keys</span>, + etc.], <b>JOHN</b> (1510-1573), English physician, and second founder of + the present Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, was born at Norwich on + the 6th of October 1510. He was admitted a student at what was then + Gonville Hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have mainly studied divinity. + After graduating in 1533, he visited Italy, where he studied under the + celebrated Montanus and Vesalius at Padua; and in 1541 he took his degree + in physic at Padua. In 1543 he visited several parts of Italy, Germany + and France; and returned to England. He was a physician in London in + 1547, and was admitted fellow of the College of Physicians, of which he + was for many years president. In 1557, being then physician to Queen + Mary, he enlarged the foundation of his old college, changed the name + from "Gonville Hall" to "Gonville and Caius College," and endowed it with + several considerable estates, adding an entire new court at the expense + of £1834. Of this college he accepted the mastership (24th of January + 1558/9) on the death of Dr Bacon, and held it till about a month before + his death. He was physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary and Queen + Elizabeth. He returned to Cambridge from London for a few days in June + 1573, about a month before his death, and resigned the mastership to Dr + Legge, a tutor at Jesus College. He died at his London House, in St + Bartholomew's, on the 29th <!-- Page 961 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page961"></a>[v.04 p.0961]</span>of July, 1573, but his body was + brought to Cambridge, and buried in the chapel under the well-known + monument which he had designed. Dr Caius was a learned, active and + benevolent man. In 1557 he erected a monument in St Paul's to the memory + of Linacre. In 1564 he obtained a grant for Gonville and Caius College to + take the bodies of two malefactors annually for dissection; he was thus + an important pioneer in advancing the science of anatomy. He probably + devised, and certainly presented, the silver caduceus now in the + possession of Caius College as part of its <i>insignia</i>; he first gave + it to the College of Physicians, and afterwards presented the London + College with another.</p> + + <p>His works are: <i>Annals of the College from 1555 to 1572</i>; + translation of several of Galen's works, printed at different times + abroad. <i>Hippocrates de Medicamenlis</i>, first discovered and + published by Dr Caius; also <i>De Ratione Victus</i> (Lov. 1556, 8vo). + <i>De Mendeti Methodo</i> (Basel, 1554; London, 1556, 8vo). <i>Account of + the Sweating Sickness in England</i> (London, 1556, 1721), (it is + entitled <i>De Ephemera Britannica</i>). <i>History of the University of + Cambridge</i> (London, 1568, 8vo; 1574, 4to, in Latin). <i>De Thermis + Britannicis</i>; but it is doubtful whether this work was ever printed. + <i>Of some Rare Plants and Animals</i> (London, 1570). <i>De Canibus + Britannicis</i> (1570, 1729). <i>De Pronunciatione Graecae et Latinae + Linguae</i> (London, 1574); <i>De Libris propriis</i> (London, 1570). He + also wrote numerous other works which were never printed.</p> + + <p>For further details see the <i>Biographical History of Caius + College</i>, an admirable piece of historical work, by Dr John Venn + (1897).</p> + + <p><b>CAJAMARCA,</b> or <span class="sc">Caxamarca</span>, a city of + northern Peru, capital of a department and province of the same name, 90 + m. E. by N. of Pacasmayo, its port on the Pacific coast. Pop. (1906, + estimate) of the department, 333,310; of the city, 9000. The city is + situated in an elevated valley between the Central and Western + Cordilleras, 9400 ft. above sea level, and on the Eriznejas, a small + tributary of the Marañon. The streets are wide and cross at right angles; + the houses are generally low and built of clay. Among the notable public + buildings are the old parish church built at the expense of Charles II. + of Spain, the church of San Antonio, a Franciscan monastery, a nunnery, + and the remains of the palace of Atahualpa, the Inca ruler whom Pizarro + treacherously captured and executed in this place in 1533. The hot + sulphur springs of Pultamarca, called the Baños del Inca (Inca's baths) + are a short distance east of the city and are still frequented. Cajamarca + is an important commercial and manufacturing town, being the distributing + centre for a large inland region, and having long-established + manufactures of woollen and linen goods, and of metal work, leather, etc. + It is the seat of one of the seven superior courts of the republic, and + is connected with the coast by telegraph and telephone. A railway has + been undertaken from Pacasmayo, on the coast, to Cajamarca, and by 1908 + was completed as far as Yonán, 60 m. from its starting-point.</p> + + <p>The department of Cajamarca lies between the Western and Central + Cordilleras and extends from the frontier of Ecuador S. to about 7° S. + lat., having the departments of Piura and Lambayeque on the W. and + Amazonas on the E. Its area according to official returns is 12,542 sq. + m. The upper Marañon traverses the department from S. to N. The + department is an elevated region, well watered with a large number of + small streams whose waters eventually find their way through the Amazon + into the Atlantic. Many of its productions are of the temperate zone, and + considerable attention is given to cattle-raising. Coal is found in the + province of Hualgayoc at the southern extremity of the department, which + is also one of the rich silver-mining districts of Peru. Next to its + capital the most important town of the department is Cajamarquilla, whose + population was about 6000 in 1906.</p> + + <p><b>CAJATAMBO,</b> or <span class="sc">Caxatambo</span>, a town and + province of the department of Ancachs, Peru, on the western slope of the + Andes. Since 1896 the population of the town has been estimated at 6000, + but probably it does not exceed 4500. The town is 110 m. N. by E. of + Lima, in lat. 9° 53′ S., long. 76° 57′ W. The principal + industries of the province are the raising of cattle and sheep, and the + cultivation of cereals. Cochineal is a product of this region. Near the + town there are silver mines, in which a part of its population is + employed.</p> + + <p><b>CAJETAN</b> (<span class="sc">Gaetanus</span>), <span + class="sc">Cardinal</span> (1470-1534), was born at Gaeta in the kingdom + of Naples. His proper name was Tommaso<a name="FnAnchor_221" + href="#Footnote_221"><sup>[1]</sup></a> de Vio, but he adopted that of + Cajetan from his birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at + the age of sixteen, and ten years later became doctor of theology at + Padua, where he was subsequently professor of metaphysics. A public + disputation at Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola gave him a great + reputation as a theologian, and in 1508 he became general of his order. + For his zeal in defending the papal pretensions against the council of + Pisa, in a series of works which were condemned by the Sorbonne and + publicly burnt by order of King Louis XII., he obtained the bishopric of + Gaeta, and in 1517 Pope Leo X. made him a cardinal and archbishop of + Palermo. The year following he went as legate into Germany, to quiet the + commotions raised by Luther. It was before him that the Reformer appeared + at the diet of Augsburg; and it was he who, in 1519, helped in drawing up + the bull of excommunication against Luther. Cajetan was employed in + several other negotiations and transactions, being as able in business as + in letters. In conjunction with Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the + conclave of 1521-1522, he secured the election of Adrian Dedel, bishop of + Tortosa, as Adrian VI. Though as a theologian Cajetan was a scholastic of + the older Thomist type, his general position was that of the moderate + reformers of the school to which Reginald Pole, archbishop of Canterbury, + also belonged; <i>i.e.</i> he desired to retain the best elements of the + humanist revival in harmony with Catholic orthodoxy illumined by a + revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine of justification. + Nominated by Clement VII. a member of the committee of cardinals + appointed to report on the "Nuremberg Recess," he recommended, in + opposition to the majority, certain concessions to the Lutherans, notably + the marriage of the clergy as in the Greek Church, and communion in both + kinds according to the decision of the council of Basel. In this spirit + he wrote commentaries upon portions of Aristotle, and upon the + <i>Summa</i> of Aquinas, and towards the end of his life made a careful + translation of the Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song, the + Prophets and the Revelation of St John. In contrast to the majority of + Italian cardinals of his day, Cajetan was a man of austere piety and + fervent zeal; and if, from the standpoint of the Dominican idea of the + supreme necessity of maintaining ecclesiastical discipline, he defended + the extremist claims of the papacy, he also proclaimed that the pope + should be "the mirror of God on earth." He died at Rome on the 9th of + August 1534.</p> + + <p>See "Aktenstücke über das Verhalten der römischen Kurie zur + Reformation, 1524-1531," in <i>Quellen und Forschungen</i> (Kön. Preuss. + Hist. Inst., Rome), vol. iii. p. 1-20; T.M. Lindsay, <i>History of the + Reformation</i>, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1906).</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_221" href="#FnAnchor_221">[1]</a> He was christened + Giacomo, but afterwards took the name of Tommaso in honour of Thomas + Aquinas.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CAJUPUT OIL,</b> a volatile oil obtained by distillation from the + leaves of the myrtaceous tree <i>Melaleuca leucadendron</i>, and probably + other species. The trees yielding the oil are found throughout the Indian + Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula and over the hotter parts of the + Australian continent; but the greater portion of the oil is produced from + Celebes Island. The name cajuput is derived from the native + <i>Kayuputi</i> or white wood. The oil is prepared from leaves collected + on a hot dry day, which are macerated in water, and distilled after + fermenting for a night. This oil is extremely pungent to the taste, and + has the odour of a mixture of turpentine and camphor. It consists mainly + of cineol (see <span class="sc">Terpenes</span>), from which cajuputene + having a hyacinthine odour can be obtained by distillation with + phosphorus pentoxide. The drug is a typical volatile oil, and is used + internally in doses of ½ to 3 minims, for the same purposes as, say, + clove oil. It is frequently employed externally as a + counter-irritant.</p> + + <p><b>CAKCHIQUEL,</b> a tribe of Central American Indians of Mayan stock, + inhabiting parts of Guatemala. Their name is said to be that of a native + tree. At the conquest they were found to be in a much civilized + condition.</p> + + <p>See D.G. Brinton, <i>Annals of the Cakchiquels</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 962 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page962"></a>[v.04 p.0962]</span></p> + + <p><b>CALABAR</b> (or <span class="sc">Old Calabar</span>), a seaport of + West Africa in the British protectorate of Southern Nigeria, on the left + bank of the Calabar river in 4° 56′ N., 8° 18′ E., 5 m. above + the point where the river falls into the Calabar estuary of the Gulf of + Guinea. Pop. about 15,000. It is the capital of the eastern province of + the protectorate, and is in regular steamship and telegraphic + communication with Europe. From the beach, where are the business houses + and customs office, rise cliffs of moderate elevation, and on the sides + or summits of the hills are the principal buildings, such as Government + House, the European hospital and the church of the Presbyterian mission. + The valley between the hills is occupied by the native quarter, called + Duke Town. Here are several fine houses in bungalow style, the residences + of the chiefs or wealthy natives. Along the river front runs a tramway + connecting Duke Town with Queen Beach, which is higher up and provided + with excellent quay accommodation. Among the public institutions are + government botanical gardens, primary schools and a high school. Palms, + mangos and other trees grow luxuriantly in the gardens and open spaces, + and give the town a picturesque setting. The trade is very largely + centred in the export of palm oil and palm kernels and the import of + cotton goods and spirits, mostly gin. (See <span + class="sc">Nigeria</span> for trade returns.)</p> + + <p>Calabar was the name given by the Portuguese discoverers of the 15th + century to the tribes on this part of the Guinea coast at the time of + their arrival, when as yet the present inhabitants were unknown in the + district. It was not till the early part of the 18th century that the + Efik, owing to civil war with their kindred and the Ibibio, migrated from + the neighbourhood of the Niger to the shores of the river Calabar, and + established themselves at Ikoritungko or Creek Town, a spot 4 m. higher + up the river. To get a better share in the European trade at the mouth of + the river a body of colonists migrated further down and built Obutöng or + Old Town, and shortly afterwards a rival colony established itself at + Aqua Akpa or Duke Town, which thus formed the nucleus of the existing + town. The native inhabitants are still mainly Efik. They are pure + negroes. They have been for several generations the middle men between + the white traders on the coast and the inland tribes of the Cross river + and Calabar district. Christian missions have been at work among the + Efiks since the middle of the 19th century. Many of the natives are well + educated, profess Christianity and dress in European fashion. A powerful + bond of union among the Efik, and one that gives them considerable + influence over other tribes, is the secret society known as the Egbo + (<i>q.v.</i>). The chiefs of Duke Town and other places in the + neighbourhood placed themselves in 1884 under British protection. From + that date until 1906 Calabar was the headquarters of the European + administration in the Niger delta. In 1906 the seat of government was + removed to Lagos.</p> + + <p>Until 1904 Calabar was generally, and officially, known as Old + Calabar, to distinguish it from New Calabar, the name of a river and port + about 100 m. to the east. Since the date mentioned the official style is + Calabar simply. Calabar estuary is mainly formed by the Cross river + (<i>q.v.</i>), but receives also the waters of the Calabar and other + streams. The Rio del Rey creek at the eastern end of the estuary marks + the boundary between (British) Nigeria and (German) Cameroon. The estuary + is 10 to 12 m. broad at its mouth and maintains the same breadth for + about 30 m.</p> + + <p><b>CALABAR BEAN,</b> the seed of a leguminous plant, <i>Physostigma + venenosum</i>, a native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific + name from a curious beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the + centre of the flower; this appendage though solid was supposed to be + hollow (hence the name from <span title="phusa" class="grk" + >φῦσα</span>, a bladder, and <i>stigma</i>). The + plant has a climbing habit like the scarlet runner, and attains a height + of about 50 ft. with a stem an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, + which contain two or three seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 in. in length; and + the beans are about the size of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, + with a deep chocolate-brown colour. They constitute the E-ser-e or ordeal + beans of the negroes of Old Calabar, being administered to persons + accused of witchcraft or other crimes. In cases where the poisonous + material did its deadly work, it was held at once to indicate and rightly + to punish guilt; but when it was rejected by the stomach of the accused, + innocence was held to be satisfactorily established. A form of duelling + with the seeds is also known among the natives, in which the two + opponents divide a bean, each eating one-half; that quantity has been + known to kill both adversaries. Although thus highly poisonous, the bean + has nothing in external aspect, taste or smell to distinguish it from any + harmless leguminous seed, and very disastrous effects have resulted from + its being incautiously left in the way of children. The beans were first + introduced into England in the year 1840; but the plant was not + accurately described till 1861, and its physiological effects were + investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas R. Fraser.</p> + + <p>The bean usually contains a little more than 1% of alkaloids. Of these + two have been identified, one called <i>calabarine</i>, and the other, + now a highly important drug, known as <i>physostigmine</i>—or + occasionally as <i>eserine</i>. The British pharmacopoeia contains an + alcoholic extract of the bean, intended for internal administration; but + the alkaloid is now always employed. This is used as the sulphate, which + has the empirical formula of + (C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>21</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, plus an unknown number of molecules of + water. It occurs in small yellowish crystals, which are turned red by + exposure to light or air. They are readily soluble in water or alcohol + and possess a bitter taste. The dose is 1/60-1/30 grain, and should + invariably be administered by hypodermic injection. For the use of the + oculist, who constantly employs this drug, it is also prepared in + <i>lamellae</i> for insertion within the conjunctival sac. Each of these + contains one-thousandth part of a grain of physostigmine sulphate, a + quantity which is perfectly efficient.</p> + + <p>Physostigmine has no action on the unbroken skin. When swallowed it + rapidly causes a great increase in the salivary secretion, being one of + the most powerful <i>sialogogues</i> known. It has been shown that the + action is due to a direct influence on the secreting gland-cells + themselves. After a few minutes the salivation is arrested owing to the + constricting influence of the drug upon the blood-vessels that supply the + glands. There is also felt a sense of constriction in the pharynx, due to + the action of the drug on its muscular fibres. A similar stimulation of + the non-striped muscle in the alimentary canal results in violent + vomiting and purging, if a large dose has been taken. Physostigmine, + indeed, stimulates nearly all the non-striped muscles in the body, and + this action upon the muscular coats of the arteries, and especially of + the arterioles, causes a great rise in blood-pressure shortly after its + absorption, which is very rapid. The terminals of the vagus nerve are + also stimulated, causing the heart to beat more slowly. Later in its + action, the drug depresses the intra-cardiac motor ganglia, causing + prolongation of diastole and finally arrest of the heart in dilatation. A + large lethal dose kills by this action, but the minimum lethal dose by + its combined action on the respiration and the heart. The respiration is + at first accelerated by a dose of physostigmine, but is afterwards slowed + and ultimately arrested. The initial hastening is due to a stimulation of + the vagus terminals in the lung, as it does not occur if these nerves are + previously divided. The final arrest is due to paralysis of the + respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata, hastened by a + quasi-asthmatic contraction of the non-striped muscular tissue in the + bronchial tubes, and by a "water-logging" of the lungs due to an increase + in the amount of bronchial secretion. It may here be stated that the + non-striped muscular tissue of the bladder, the uterus and the spleen is + also stimulated, as well as that of the iris (see below). It is only in + very large doses that the voluntary muscles are poisoned, there being + induced in them a tremor which may simulate ordinary convulsions. The + action is a direct one upon the muscular tissue (cf. the case of the + gland-cells), since it occurs in an animal whose motor nerves have been + paralysed by curare.</p> + + <p>Consciousness is entirely unaffected by physostigmine, there being + apparently no action on any part of the brain above the medulla + oblongata. But the influence of the alkaloid upon the <!-- Page 963 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page963"></a>[v.04 p.0963]</span>spinal + cord is very marked and characteristic. The reflex functions of the cord + are entirely abolished, and it has been experimentally shown that this is + due to a direct influence upon the cells in the anterior cornua. It is + precisely the reverse of the typical action of strychnine. Near the + termination of a fatal case there is a paralysis of the sensory columns + of the cord, so that general sensibility is lowered. The alkaloid + calabarine is, on the other hand, a stimulant of the motor and reflex + functions of the cord, so that only the pure alkaloid physostigmine and + not any preparation of Calabar bean itself should be used when it is + desired to obtain this action.</p> + + <p>Besides the secretions already mentioned as being stimulated, the + bile, the tears and the perspiration are increased by the exhibition of + this drug.</p> + + <p>There remains only to consider its highly important action upon the + eye. Whether administered in the form of the official lamella or by + subcutaneous injection, physostigmine causes a contraction of the pupil + more marked than in the case of any other known drug. That this action is + a direct and not a nervous one is shown by the fact that if the eye be + suddenly shaded the pupil will dilate a little, showing that the nerves + which cause dilatation are still competent after the administration of + physostigmine. Besides the <i>sphincter pupillae</i>, the fibres of the + ciliary muscle are stimulated. There is consequently spasm of + accommodation, so that clear vision of distant objects becomes + impossible. The intra-ocular tension is markedly lowered. This action, at + first sight somewhat obscure, is due to the extreme pupillary contraction + which removes the mass of the iris from pressing upon the spaces of + Fontana, through which the intraocular fluids normally make a very slow + escape from the eye into its efferent lymphatics.</p> + + <p>There is a marked antagonism in nearly all important particulars + between the actions of physostigmine and of atropine. The details of this + antagonism, as well as nearly all our knowledge of this valuable drug, we + owe to Sir Thomas Fraser, who introduced it into therapeutics.</p> + + <p>The clinical uses of physostigmine are based upon the facts of its + pharmacology, as above detailed. It has been recommended in cases of + chronic constipation, and of want of tone in the muscular wall of the + urinary bladder. It has undoubtedly been of value in many cases of + tetanus, in which it must be given in maximal doses. (The tetanus + antitoxin should invariably be employed as well.) Sir Thomas Fraser + differs from nearly all other authorities in regarding the drug as + useless in cases of strychnine poisoning, and the question must be left + open. There is some doubtful evidence of the value of the alkaloid in + chorea. The oculist uses it for at least six purposes. Its stimulant + action on the iris and ciliary muscle is employed when they are weak or + paralysed. It is used in all cases where one needs to reduce the + intra-ocular tension, and for this and other reasons in glaucoma. It is + naturally the most efficient agent in relieving the discomfort or + intolerable pain of photophobia; and it is the best means of breaking + down adhesions of the iris, and of preventing prolapse of the iris after + injuries to the cornea. In fact it is hardly possible to over-estimate + its value in ophthalmology. The drug has been highly and widely + recommended in general paralysis, but there remains grave doubt as to its + utility in this disease.</p> + + <p><i>Toxicology.</i>—The symptoms of Calabar bean poisoning have + all been stated above. The obvious antidote is atropine, which may often + succeed; and the other measures are those usually employed to stimulate + the circulation and respiration. Unfortunately the antagonism between + physostigmine and atropine is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has + shown that in such cases there comes a time when, if the action of the + two drugs be summated, death results sooner than from either alone. Thus + atropine will save life after three and a half times the fatal dose of + physostigmine has been taken, but will hasten the end if four or more + times the fatal dose has been ingested. Thus it would be advisable to use + the physiological antidote only when the dose of the + poison—assuming estimation to be possible—was known to be + comparatively small.</p> + + <p><b>CALABASH</b> (from the Span. <i>calabaza</i>, a gourd or pumpkin, + possibly derived from the Pers. <i>kharlunza</i>, a melon), the shell of + a gourd or pumpkin made into a vessel for holding liquids; also a vessel + of similar shape made of other materials. It is the name of a tree + (<i>Crescentia Cujete</i>) of tropical America, whose gourd-like fruit is + so hard that vessels made of it can be used over a fire many times before + being burned.</p> + + <p><b>CALABASH TREE,</b> a native of the West Indies and South America, + known botanically as <i>Crescentia Cujete</i> (natural order, + Bignoniaceae). The fruit resembles a gourd, and has a woody rind, which + after removal of the pulp forms a calabash.</p> + + <p><b>CALABOZO,</b> or <span class="sc">Calaboso</span>, an inland town + of Venezuela, once capital of the province of Caracas in the colonial + period, and now capital of the state of Guárico. Pop. (1891) 5618. + Calabozo is situated in the midst of an extensive <i>llano</i> on the + left bank of the Guárico river, 325 ft. above sea-level and 123 m. S.S.W. + of Caracas. The plain lies slightly above the level of intersecting + rivers and is frequently flooded in the rainy season; in summer the heat + is most oppressive, the average temperature being 88°F. The town is + regularly laid out with streets crossing at right angles, and possesses + several fine old churches, a college and public school. It is also a + bishop's see, and a place of considerable commercial importance because + of its situation in the midst of a rich cattle-raising country. It is + said to have been an Indian town originally, and was made one of the + trading stations of the Compañia Guipuzcoana in 1730. However, like most + Venezuelan towns, Calabozo made little growth during the 19th century. In + 1820 the Spanish forces under Morales were defeated here by the + revolutionists under Bolívar and Paez.</p> + + <p><b>CALABRESELLA</b> (sometimes spelt Calabrasella), an Italian + card-game ("the little Calabrian game") for three players. All the tens, + nines and eights are removed from an ordinary pack; the order of the + cards is three, two, ace, king, queen, &c. In scoring the ace counts + 3; the three 2; king, queen and knave 1 each. The last trick counts 3. + Each separate hand is a whole game. One player plays against the other + two, paying to each or receiving from each the difference between the + number of points that he and they hold. Each player receives twelve + cards, dealt two at a time. The remainder form the stock, which is left + face downwards. There are no trumps. The player on the dealer's left + declares first: he can either play or pass. The dealer has the last + option. If one person announces that he plays, the others combine against + him. If all decline to play, the deal passes, the hands being abandoned. + The single player may demand any "three" he chooses, giving a card in + exchange. If the three demanded is in the stock, no other card may be + asked for. If a player hold all the threes, he may demand a two. The + single player must take one card from the stock, in exchange for one of + his own (which is never exposed) and may take more. He puts out the cards + he wishes to exchange face downwards, and selects what he wishes from the + stock, which is now exposed; the rejected cards and cards left in the + stock form the "discard." The player on the dealer's left then leads. The + highest card wins the trick, there being no trumps. Players must follow + suit, if they can. The single player and the allies collect all the + tricks they win respectively. The winner of the last trick, besides + scoring three, adds the discard to his heap. The heaps are then searched + for the scoring cards, the scores are compared and the stakes paid. It is + important to remember that the value and the order of the cards are not + the same, thus the ace, whose value is 3, is only third as a + trick-winner; also that it is highly important to win the last trick. + Thirty-five is the full score.</p> + + <p><b>CALABRIA,</b> a territorial district of both ancient and modern + Italy.</p> + + <p>(1) The ancient district consisted of the peninsula at its southeast + extremity, between the Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Tarentum, ending in + the lapygian promontory (Lat. <i>Promunturium Sallentinum</i>; the + village upon it was called Leuca—Gr. <span title="Leuka" class="grk" + >Λευκά</span>, white, from its + colour—and is still named S. Maria di Leuca) and corresponding in + the main with the modern province of Lecce, Brundisium and Tarentum being + its most north-westerly cities, though the boundary of the latter extends + somewhat farther <!-- Page 964 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page964"></a>[v.04 p.0964]</span>west. It is a low terrace of + limestone, the highest parts of which seldom reach 1500 ft.; the cliffs, + though not high, are steep, and it has no rivers of any importance, but + despite lack of water it was (and is) remarkably fertile. Strabo mentions + its pastures and trees, and its olives, vines and fruit trees (which are + still the principal source of prosperity) are frequently spoken of by the + ancients. The wool of Tarentum and Brundisium was also famous, and at the + former place were considerable dye-works. These two towns acquired + importance in very early times owing to the excellence of their harbours. + Traces of a prehistoric population of the stone and early bronze age are + to be found all over Calabria. Especially noticeable are the menhirs + (<i>pietre fitte</i>) and the round tower-like <i>specchie</i> or + <i>truddhi</i>, which are found near Lecce, Gallipolli and Muro Leccese + (and only here in Italy); they correspond to similar monuments, the + <i>perdas fittas</i> and the <i>nuraghi</i>, of Sardinia, and the + inter-relation between the two populations which produced them requires + careful study. In 272-266 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> we find six + triumphs recorded in the Roman <i>fasti</i> over the Tarentini, + Sallentini and Messapii, while the name Calabria does not occur; but + after the foundation of a colony at Brundisium in 246-245 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and the final subjection of Tarentum in 209 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, Calabria became the general name for the + peninsula. The population declined to some extent; Strabo (vi. 281) tells + us that in earlier days Calabria had been extremely populous and had had + thirteen cities, but that in his time all except Tarentum and Brundisium, + which retained their commercial importance, had dwindled down to + villages. The Via Appia, prolonged to Brundisium perhaps as early as 190 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, passed through Tarentum; the shorter + route by Canusium, Barium and Gnathia was only made into a main artery of + communication by Trajan (see <span class="sc">Appia, Via</span>). The + only other roads were the two coast roads, the one from Brundisium by + Lupiae, the other from Tarentum by Manduria, Neretum, Aletium (with a + branch to Callipolis) and Veretum (hence a branch to Leuca), which met at + Hydruntum. Augustus joined Calabria to Apulia and the territory of the + Hirpini to form the second region of Italy. From the end of the second + century we find Calabria for juridical purposes associated either with + Apulia or with Lucania and the district of the Bruttii, while Diocletian + placed it under one <i>corrector</i> with Apulia. The loss of the name + Calabria came with the Lombard conquest of this district, when it was + transferred to the land of the Bruttii, which the Byzantine empire still + held.</p> + + <p>(2) The modern Calabria consists of the south extremity of Italy (the + "toe of the boot" in the popular simile, while the ancient Calabria, with + which the present province of Lecce more or less coincides, is the + "heel"), bounded on the N. by the province of Potenza (Basilicata) and on + the other three sides by the sea. Area 5819 sq. m. The north boundary is + rather farther north than that of the ancient district of the Bruttii + (<i>q.v.</i>). Calabria acquired its present name in the time of the + Byzantine supremacy, after the ancient Calabria had fallen into the hands + of the Lombards and been lost to the Eastern empire about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 668. The name is first found in the modern sense + in Paulus Diaconus's <i>Historia Langobardorum</i> (end of the 8th + century). It is mainly mountainous; at the northern extremity of the + district the mountains still belong to the Apennines proper (the highest + point, the Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., is on the boundary between Basilicata + and Calabria), but after the plain of Sibari, traversed by the Crati + (anc. Crathis, a river 58 m. long, the only considerable one in + Calabria), the granite mountains of Calabria proper (though still called + Apennines in ordinary usage) begin. They consist of two groups. The first + extends as far as the isthmus, about 22 m. wide, formed by the gulfs of + S. Eufemia and Squillace; its highest point is the Botte Donato (6330 + ft.). It is in modern times generally called the Sila, in + contradistinction to the second (southern) group, the Aspromonte (6420 + ft.); the ancients on the other hand applied the name Sila to the + southern group. The rivers in both parts of the chain are short and + unimportant. The mountain districts are in parts covered with forest + (though less so than in ancient times), still largely government + property, while in much of the rest there is good pasture. The scenery is + fine, though the country is hardly at all visited by travellers. The + coast strip is very fertile, and though some parts are almost deserted + owing to malaria, others produce wine, olive-oil and fruit (oranges and + lemons, figs, &c.) in abundance, the neighbourhood of Reggio being + especially fertile. The neighbourhood of Cosenza is also highly + cultivated; and at the latter place a school of agriculture has been + founded, though the methods used in many parts of Calabria are still + primitive. Wheat, rice, cotton, liquorice, saffron and tobacco are also + cultivated. The coast fisheries are important, especially in and near the + straits of Messina. Commercial organization is, however, wanting. The + climate is very hot in summer, while snow lies on the mountain-tops for + at least half the year. Earthquakes are frequent and have done great + damage: that of the autumn of 1905 was very disastrous (O. Malagodi, + <i>Calabria Desolata</i>, Rome, 1905), but it was surpassed in its + effects by the terrible earthquake of 1908, by which Messina + (<i>q.v.</i>) was destroyed, and in Calabria itself Reggio and numerous + smaller places ruined. The railway communications are sufficient for the + coast districts; there are lines along both the east and west coasts (the + latter forms part of the through route by land from Italy to Sicily, + ferry-boats traversing the Strait of Messina with the through trains on + board) which meet at Reggio di Calabria. They are connected by a branch + from Marina di Catanzaro passing through Catanzaro to S. Eufemia; and + there is also a line from Sibari up the valley of the Crati to Cosenza + and Pietrafitta. The interior is otherwise untouched by railways; indeed + many of the villages in the interior can only be approached by paths; and + this is one of the causes of the economic difficulties of Calabria. + Another is the unequal distribution of wealth, there being practically no + middle class; a third is the injudicious disforestation which has been + carried on without regard to the future. The natural check upon torrents + is thus removed, and they sometimes do great damage. The Calabrian + costumes are still much worn in the remoter districts: they vary + considerably in the different villages. There is, and has been, + considerable emigration to America, but many of the emigrants return, + forming a slightly higher class, and producing a rise in the rate of + payment to cultivators, which has increased the difficulties of the small + proprietors. The smallness and large number of the communes, and the + consequently large number of the professional classes and officials, are + other difficulties, which, noticeable throughout Italy, are especially + felt in Calabria. The population of Calabria was 1,439,329 in 1901. The + chief towns of the province of Catanzaro were in 1901:—Catanzaro + (32,005), Nicastro (18,150), Monteleone (13,481), Cotrone (9545), total + of province (1871) 412,226; (1901) 498,791; number of communes, 152; of + the province of Cosenza, Cosenza (20,857), Corigliano Calabro (15,379), + Rossano (13,354), S. Giovanni in Fiore (13,288), Castrovillari (9945), + total of province (1871) 440,468; (1901) 503,329, number of communes, + 151; of the province of Reggio, Reggio di Calabria (44,569), Palmi + (13,346), Cittanova (11,782), Gioiosa Ionica(11,200), Bagnara Calabra + (11,136), Siderno Marina (10,775), Gerace (10,572), Polistena (10,112); + number of communes 106; total of province (1871) 353,608; (1901) 437,209. + A feature of modern Calabria is the existence of several Albanian + colonies, founded in the 15th century by Albanians expelled by the Turks, + who still speak their own language, wear their national costume, and + worship according to the Greek rite. Similar colonies exist in Sicily, + notably at Piana dei Greci near Palermo.</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CALAFAT,</b> a town of Rumania in the department of Doljiu; on the + river Danube, opposite the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin. Pop. (1900) 7113. + Calafat is an important centre of the grain trade, and is connected by a + branch line with the principal Walachian railways, and by a steam ferry + with Vidin. It was founded in the 14th century by Genoese colonists, who + employed large numbers of workmen (<i>Calfats</i>) in repairing + ships—which industry gave its name to the place. In 1854 a Russian + force was defeated at Calafat by the Turks under Ahmed Pasha, who + surprised the enemy's camp.</p> + + <p><b>CALAH</b> (so in the Bible; <i>Kalah</i> in the Assyrian + inscriptions), an ancient city situated in the angle formed by the Tigris + and <!-- Page 965 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page965"></a>[v.04 + p.0965]</span>the upper Zab, 19 m. S. of Nineveh, and one of the capitals + of Assyria. According to the inscriptions, it was built by Shalmaneser I. + about 1300 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, as a residence city in place + of the older Assur. After that it seems to have fallen into decay or been + destroyed, but was restored by Assur-nasir-pal, about 880 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and from that time to the overthrow of the + Assyrian power it remained a residence city of the Assyrian kings. It + shared the fate of Nineveh, was captured and destroyed by the Medes and + Babylonians toward the close of the 7th century, and from that time has + remained a ruin. The site was discovered by Sir A.H. Layard, in 1845, in + the <i>tel</i> of Nimrud. Hebrew tradition (in the J narrative, Genesis + x. 11, 12) mentions Calah as built by Nimrod. Modern Arabic tradition + likewise ascribes the ruins, like those of Birs Nimrud, near Babylon, to + Nimrod, because they are the most prominent ruins of that region. + Similarly the ancient dike in the river Tigris at this point is ascribed + to Nimrod. The ruin mounds of Nimrud consist of an oblong enclosure, + formed by the walls of the ancient city, of which fifty-eight towers have + been traced on the N. and about fifty on the E. In the S.W. corner of + this oblong is an elevated platform in the form of a rectangular + parallelogram, some 600 yds. from N. to S. and 400 yds. from E. to W., + raised on an average about 40 ft. above the plain, with a lofty cone 140 + ft. high in the N.W. corner. This is the remains of the raised platform + of unbaked brick, faced with baked bricks and stone, on which stood the + principal palaces and temples of the city, the cone at the N.W. + representing the <i>ziggurat</i>, or stage-tower, of the principal + temple. Originally on the banks of the Tigris, this platform now stands + some distance E. of the river. Here Layard conducted excavations from + 1845 to 1847, and again from 1849 to 1851. The means at his disposal were + inadequate, his excavations were incomplete and also unscientific in that + his prime object was the discovery of inscriptions and museum objects; + but he was wonderfully successful in achieving the results at which he + aimed, and the numerous statues, monuments, inscribed stones, bronze + objects and the like found by him in the ruins of Calah are among the + most precious possessions of the British Museum. Excavations were also + conducted by Hormuzd Rassan in 1852-1854, and again in 1878, and by + George Smith in 1873. But while supplementing in some important respects + Layard's excavations, this later work added relatively little to his + discoveries whether of objects or of facts. The principal buildings + discovered at Calah are:—(<i>a</i>) the North-West palace, south of + the <i>ziggurat</i>, one of the most complete and perfect Assyrian + buildings known, about 350 ft. square, consisting of a central court, 129 + ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a number of halls and chambers. This palace + was originally constructed by Assur-nasir-pal I. (885-860 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), and restored and reoccupied by Sargon (722-705 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). In it were found the winged lions, now + in the British Museum, the fine series of sculptured bas-reliefs + glorifying the deeds of Assur-nasir-pal in war and peace, and the large + collection of bronze vessels and implements, numbering over 200 pieces; + (<i>b</i>) the Central palace, in the interior of the mound, toward its + southern end, erected by Shalmaneser II. (860-825 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) and rebuilt by Tiglath-pileser III. (745-727 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). Here were found the famous black obelisk + of Shalmaneser, now in the British Museum, in the inscription on which + the tribute of Jehu, son of Omri, is mentioned, the great winged bulls, + and also a fine series of slabs representing the battles and sieges of + Tiglath-pileser; (<i>c</i>) the South-West palace, in the S.W. corner of + the platform, an uncompleted building of Esarhaddon (681-668 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), who robbed the North-West and Central palaces, + effacing the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, to obtain material for his + construction; (<i>d</i>) the smaller West palace, between the South-West + and the North-West palaces, a construction of Hadad-nirari or Adadnirari + III. (812-783 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>); (<i>e</i>) the South-East + palace, built by Assur-etil-ilani, after 626 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, for his harem, in the S.E. corner of the + platform, above the remains of an older similar palace of Shalmaneser; + (<i>f</i>) two small temples of Assur-nasir-pal, in connexion with the + <i>ziggurat</i> in the N.W. corner; and (<i>g</i>) a temple called + E-Zida, and dedicated to Nebo, near the South-East palace. From the + number of colossal figures of Nebo discovered here it would appear that + the cult of Nebo was a favourite one, at least during the later period. + The other buildings on the E. side of the platform had been ruined by the + post-Assyrian use of the mound for a cemetery, and for tunnels for the + storage and concealment of grain. While the ruins of Calah were + remarkably rich in monumental material, enamelled bricks, bronze and + ivory objects and the like, they yielded few of the inscribed clay + tablets found in such great numbers at Nineveh and various Babylonian + sites. Not a few of the astrological and omen tablets in the Kuyunjik + collection of the British Museum, however, although found at Nineveh, + were executed, according to their own testimony, at Calah for the + <i>rab-dup-šarrē</i> or principal librarian during the reigns + of Sargon and Sennacherib (716-684 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). From + this it would appear that there was at that time at Calah a library or a + collection of archives which was later removed to Nineveh. In the + prestige of antiquity and religious renown, Calah was inferior to the + older capital, Assur, while in population and general importance it was + much inferior to the neighbouring Nineveh. There is no proper ground for + regarding it, as some Biblical scholars of a former generation did, + through a false interpretation of the book of Jonah, as a part or suburb + of Nineveh.</p> + + <p>See A.H. Layard, <i>Nineveh and its Remains</i> (London, 1849); George + Smith, <i>Assyrian Discoveries</i> (London, 1883); Hormuzd Rassam, + <i>Ashur and the Land of Nimrod</i> (London and New York, 1897).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">J. P. Pe.</span>)</p> + + <p><b>CALAHORRA</b> (anc. <i>Calagurris</i>), a city of northern Spain, + in the province of Logroño; on the left bank of the river Cidacos, which + enters the Ebro 3 m. E., and on the Bilbao-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) + 9475. Calahorra is built on the slope of a hill overlooking the wide Ebro + valley, which supplies its markets with an abundance of grain, wine, oil + and flax. Its cathedral, which probably dates from the foundation of the + see of Calahorra in the 5th century, was restored in 1485, and + subsequently so much altered that little of the original Gothic structure + survives. The Casa Santa, annually visited by many thousands of pilgrims + on the 31st of August, is said to contain the bodies of the martyrs + Emeterius and Celedonius, who were beheaded in the 3rd or 4th century, on + the site now occupied by the cathedral. Their heads, according to local + legend, were cast into the Ebro, and, after floating out to sea and + rounding the Iberian peninsula, are now preserved at Santander.</p> + + <p>The chief remains of the Roman Calagurris are the vestiges of an + aqueduct and an amphitheatre. Calagurris became famous in 76 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, when it was successfully defended against + Pompey by the adherents of Sertorius. Four years later it was captured by + Pompey's legate, Afranius, after starvation had reduced the garrison to + cannibalism. Under Augustus (31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>-<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 14) Calagurris received the privileges of Roman + citizenship, and at a later date it was given the additional name of + <i>Nassica</i> to distinguish it from the neighbouring town of + <i>Calagurris Fibularensis</i>, the exact site of which is uncertain. The + rhetorician Quintilian was born at Calagurris Nassica about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 35.</p> + + <p><b>CALAIS,</b> a seaport and manufacturing town of northern France, in + the department of Pas-de-Calais, 18 m. E.S.E. of Dover, and 185 m. N. of + Paris by the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 59,623. Calais, formerly a + celebrated fortress, is defended by four forts, not of modern + construction, by a citadel built in 1560, which overlooks it on the west, + and by batteries. The old town stands on an island hemmed in by the canal + and the harbour basins, which divide it from the much more extensive + manufacturing quarter of St Pierre, enveloping it on the east and south. + The demolition of the ramparts of Old Calais was followed by the + construction of a new circle of defences, embracing both the old and new + quarters, and strengthened by a deep moat. In the centre of the old town + is the Place d'Armes, in which stands the former hôtel-de-ville (rebuilt + in 1740, restored in 1867), with busts of Eustache de St Pierre, Francis, + duke of Guise, and Cardinal Richelieu. The belfry belongs to the 16th and + early 17th century. Close by is the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, used as + a lighthouse until 1848. The church of Notre-Dame, built during the + English occupancy of Calais, has a <!-- Page 966 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page966"></a>[v.04 p.0966]</span>fine high altar + of the 17th century; its lofty tower serves as a landmark for sailors. A + gateway flanked by turrets (14th century) is a relic of the Hôtel de + Guise, built as a gild hall for the English woolstaplers, and given to + the duke of Guise as a reward for the recapture of Calais. The modern + town-hall and a church of the 19th century are the chief buildings of the + quarter of St Pierre. Calais has a board of trade-arbitrators, a tribunal + and a chamber of commerce, a commercial and industrial school, and a + communal college.</p> + + <p>The harbour is entered from the roads by way of a channel leading to + the outer harbour which communicates with a floating basin 22 acres in + extent, on the east, and with the older and less commodious portion of + the harbour to the north and west of the old town. The harbour is + connected by canals with the river Aa and the navigable waterways of the + department.</p> + + <p>Calais is the principal port for the continental passenger traffic + with England carried on by the South-Eastern & Chatham and the + Northern of France railways. The average number of passengers between + Dover and Calais for the years 1902-1906 inclusive was 315,012. Trade is + chiefly with the United Kingdom. The principal exports are wines, + especially champagne, spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, + fruit, glass-ware, lace and metal-ware. Imports include cotton and silk + goods, coal, iron and steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and + cork. During the five years 1901-1905 the average annual value of exports + was £8,388,000 (£6,363,000 in the years 1896-1900), of imports £4,145,000 + (£3,759,000 in 1896-1900). In 1905, exclusive of passenger and mail + boats, there entered the port 848 vessels of 312,477 tons and cleared 857 + of 305,284 tons, these being engaged in the general carrying trade of the + port. The main industry of Calais is the manufacture of tulle and lace, + for which it is the chief centre in France. Brewing, saw-milling, + boat-building, and the manufacture of biscuits, soap and submarine cables + are also carried on. Deep-sea and coast fishing for cod, herring and + mackerel employ over 1000 of the inhabitants.</p> + + <p>Calais was a petty fishing-village, with a natural harbour at the + mouth of a stream, till the end of the 10th century. It was first + improved by Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 997, and afterwards, in + 1224, was regularly fortified by Philip Hurepel, count of Boulogne. It + was besieged in 1346, after the battle of Crécy, by Edward III. and held + out resolutely by the bravery of Jean de Vienne, its governor, till after + nearly a year's siege famine forced it to surrender. Its inhabitants were + saved from massacre by the devotion of Eustache de St Pierre and six of + the chief citizens, who were themselves spared at the prayer of Queen + Philippa. The city remained in the hands of the English till 1558, when + it was taken by Francis, duke of Guise, at the head of 30,000 men from + the ill-provided English garrison, only 800 strong, after a siege of + seven days. From this time the <i>Calaisis</i> or territory of Calais was + known as the <i>Pays Reconquis</i>. It was held by the Spaniards from + 1595 to 1598, but was restored to France by the treaty of Vervins.</p> + + <p><b>CALAIS,</b> a city and sub-port of entry of Washington county, + Maine, U.S.A., on the Saint Croix river, 12 m. from its mouth, opposite + Saint Stephens, New Brunswick, with which it is connected by bridges. + Pop. (1890) 7290;(1900) 7655 (1908 being foreign-born); (1910) 6116. It + is served by the Washington County railway (102.5 m. to Washington + Junction, where it connects with the Maine Central railway), and by + steamboat lines to Boston, Portland and Saint Johns. In the city limits + are the post-offices of Calais, Milltown and Red Beach. The city has a + small public library. The valley here is wide and deep, the banks of the + river bold and picturesque, and the tide rises and falls about 25 ft. The + city has important interests in lumber, besides foundries, machine shops, + granite works—there are several granite (notably red granite) + quarries in the vicinity—a tannery, and manufactories of shoes and + calcined plaster. Big Island, now in the city of Calais, was visited in + the winter of 1604-1605 by Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts. Calais was + first settled in 1779, was incorporated as a town in 1809, and was + chartered as a city in 1851.</p> + + <p><b>CALAÏS</b> and <b>ZETES</b> (the Boreadae), in Greek mythology, the + winged twin sons of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival with the + Argonauts at Salmydessus in Thrace, they liberated their sister + Cleopatra, who had been thrown into prison with her two sons by her + husband Phineus, the king of the country (Sophocles, <i>Antigone</i>, + 966; Diod. Sic. iv. 44). According to another story, they delivered + Phineus from the Harpies (<i>q.v.</i>), in pursuit of whom they perished + (Apollodorus i. 9; iii. 15). Others say that they were slain by Heracles + near the island of Tenos, in consequence of a quarrel with Tiphys, the + pilot of the Argonauts, or because they refused to wait during the search + for Hylas, the favourite of Heracles (Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i>, 14. 273; + schol. on Apollonius Rhodius i. 1304). They were changed by the gods into + winds, and the pillars over their tombs in Tenos were said to wave + whenever the wind blew from the north. Like the Harpies, Calaïs and Zetes + are obvious personifications of winds. Legend attributed the foundation + of Cales in Campania to Calaïs (Silius Italicus viii. 512).</p> + + <p><b>CALAMINE,</b> a mineral species consisting of zinc carbonate, + ZnCO<sub>3</sub>, and forming an important ore of zinc. It is + rhombohedral in crystallization and isomorphous with calcite and + chalybite. Distinct crystals are somewhat rare; they have the form of the + primitive rhombohedron (<i>rr</i>′ = 72° 20′), the faces of + which are generally curved and rough. Botryoidal and stalactitic masses + are more common, or again the mineral may be compact and granular or + loose and earthy. As in the other rhombohedral carbonates, the crystals + possess perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron. The + hardness is 5; specific gravity, 4.4. The colour of the pure mineral is + white; more often it is brownish, sometimes green or blue: a + bright-yellow variety containing cadmium has been found in Arkansas, and + is known locally as "turkey-fat ore." The pure material contains 52% of + zinc, but this is often partly replaced isomorphously by small amounts of + iron and manganese, traces of calcium and magnesium, and sometimes by + copper or cadmium.</p> + + <p>Calamine is found in beds and veins in limestone rocks, and is often + associated with galena and blende. It is a product of alteration of + blende, having been formed from this by the action of carbonated waters; + or in many cases the zinc sulphide may have been first oxidized to + sulphate, which in solution acted on the surrounding limestone, producing + zinc carbonate. The latter mode of origin is suggested by the frequent + occurrence of calamine pseudomorphous after calcite, that is, having the + form of calcite crystals. Deposits of calamine have been extensively + mined in the limestones of the Mendip Hills, in Derbyshire, and at Alston + Moor in Cumberland. It also occurs in large amount in the province of + Santander in Spain, in Missouri, and at several other places where zinc + ores are mined. The best crystals of the mineral were found many years + ago at Chessy near Lyons; these are rhombohedra of a fine apple-green + colour. A translucent botryoidal calamine banded with blue and green is + found at Laurion in Greece, and has sometimes been cut and polished for + small ornaments such as brooches.</p> + + <p>The name calamine (German, <i>Galmei</i>), from <i>lapis + calaminaris</i>, a Latin corruption of cadmia (<span title="kadmia" class="grk" + >καδμία</span>), the old name for zinc + ores in general (G. Agricola in 1546 derived it from the Latin + <i>calamus</i>, a reed), was early used indiscriminately for the + carbonate and the hydrous silicate of zinc, and even now both species are + included by miners under the same term. The two minerals often closely + resemble each other in appearance, and can usually only be distinguished + by chemical analysis; they were first so distinguished by James Smithson + in 1803. F.S. Beudant in 1832 restricted the name calamine to the hydrous + silicate and proposed the name "smithsonite" for the carbonate, and these + meanings of the terms are now adopted by Dana and many other + mineralogists. Unfortunately, however, in England (following Brooke and + Miller, 1852) these designations have been reversed, calamine being used + for the carbonate and smithsonite for the silicate. This unfortunate + confusion is somewhat lessened by the use of the terms zinc-spar and + hemimorphite (<i>q.v.</i>) for the carbonate and silicate + respectively.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + +<p><!-- Page 967 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page967"></a>[v.04 p.0967]</span></p> + + <p><b>CALAMIS,</b> an Athenian sculptor of the first half of the 5th + century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He made statues of Apollo the + averter of ill, Hermes the ram-bearer, Aphrodite and other deities, as + well as part of a chariot group for Hiero, king of Syracuse. His works + are praised by ancient critics for delicacy and grace, as opposed to + breadth and force. Archaeologists are disposed to regard the bronze + charioteer recently found at Delphi as a work of Calamis; but the + evidence is not conclusive (see <span class="sc">Greek Art</span>).</p> + + <p><b>CALAMY, EDMUND,</b> known as "the elder" (1600-1666), English + Presbyterian divine, was born of Huguenot descent in Walbrook, London, in + February 1600, and educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his + opposition to the Arminian party, then powerful in that society, excluded + him from a fellowship. Nicholas Felton, bishop of Ely, however, made him + his chaplain, and gave him the living of St Mary, Swaffham Prior, which + he held till 1626. He then removed to Bury St Edmunds, where he acted as + lecturer for ten years, retiring when his bishop (Wren) insisted on the + observance of certain ceremonial articles. In 1636 he was appointed + rector (or perhaps only lecturer) of Rochford in Essex, which was so + unhealthy that he had soon to leave it, and in 1639 he was elected to the + perpetual curacy of St Mary Aldermanbury in London, where he had a large + following. Upon the opening of the Long Parliament he distinguished + himself in defence of the Presbyterian cause, and had a principal share + in writing the conciliatory work known as <i>Smectymnuus</i>, against + Bishop Joseph Hall's presentation of episcopacy. The initials of the + names of the several contributors formed the name under which it was + published, viz., S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T. Young, M. Newcomen and W. + Spurstow. Calamy was an active member in the Westminster assembly of + divines, and, refusing to advance to Congregationalism, found in + Presbyterianism the middle course which best suited his views of theology + and church government. He opposed the execution of Charles I., lived + quietly under the Commonwealth, and was assiduous in promoting the king's + return; for this he was afterwards offered the bishopric of Coventry and + Lichfield, but declined it, it is said, on his wife's persuasion. He was + made one of Charles's chaplains, and vainly tried to secure the legal + ratification of Charles's declaration of the 25th of October 1660. He was + ejected for Nonconformity in 1662, and was so affected by the sight of + the devastation caused by the great fire of London that he died shortly + afterwards, on the 29th of October 1666. He was buried in the ruins of + his church, near the place where the pulpit had stood. His publications + are almost entirely sermons. His eldest son (Edmund), known as "the + younger," was educated at Cambridge, and was ejected from the rectory of + Moreton, Essex, in 1662. He was of a retiring disposition and moderate + views, and died in 1685.</p> + + <p><b>CALAMY, EDMUND</b> (1671-1732), English Nonconformist divine, the + only son of Edmund Calamy "the younger," was born in London, in the + parish of St Mary Aldermanbury, on the 5th of April 1671. He was sent to + various schools, including Merchant Taylors', and in 1688 proceeded to + the university of Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a + professor's chair in the university of Edinburgh made to him by the + principal, William Carstares, who had gone over on purpose to find + suitable men for such posts. After his return to England in 1691 he began + to study divinity, and on Baxter's advice went to Oxford, where he was + much influenced by Chillingworth. He declined invitations from Andover + and Bristol, and accepted one as assistant to Matthew Sylvester at + Blackfriars (1692). In June 1694 he was publicly ordained at Annesley's + meeting-house in Little St Helen's, and soon afterwards was invited to + become assistant to Daniel Williams in Hand Alley, Bishopsgate. In 1702 + he was chosen one of the lecturers in Salters' Hall, and in 1703 he + succeeded Vincent Alsop as pastor of a large congregation in Westminster. + In 1709 Calamy made a tour through Scotland, and had the degree of doctor + of divinity conferred on him by the universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen + and Glasgow. Calamy's forty-one publications are mainly sermons, but his + fame rests on his nonconformist biographies. His first essay was a table + of contents to Baxter's <i>Narrative</i> of his life and times, which was + sent to the press in 1696; he made some remarks on the work itself and + added to it an index, and, reflecting on the usefulness of the book, he + saw the expediency of continuing it, as Baxter's history came no further + than the year 1684. Accordingly, he composed an abridgment of it, with an + account of many other ministers who were ejected after the restoration of + Charles II.; their apology, containing the grounds of their nonconformity + and practice as to stated and occasional communion with the Church of + England; and a continuation of their history until the year 1691. This + work was published in 1702. The most important chapter (ix.) is that + which gives a detailed account of the ministers ejected in 1662; it was + afterwards published as a distinct volume. He afterwards published a + moderate defence of Nonconformity, in three tracts, in answer to some + tracts of Benjamin, afterwards Bishop, Hoadly. In 1713 he published a + second edition (2 vols.) of his <i>Abridgment of Baxter's History</i>, in + which, among various additions, there is a continuation of the history + through the reigns of William and Anne, down to the passing of the + Occasional Bill. At the end is subjoined the reformed liturgy, which was + drawn up and presented to the bishops in 1661. In 1718 he wrote a + vindication of his grandfather and several other persons against certain + reflections cast upon them by Laurence Echard in his <i>History of + England</i>. In 1719 he published <i>The Church and the Dissenters + Compar'd as to Persecution</i>, and in 1728 appeared his <i>Continuation + of the Account</i> of the ejected ministers and teachers, a volume which + is really a series of emendations of the previously published account. He + died on the 3rd of June 1732, having been married twice and leaving six + of his thirteen children to survive him. Calamy was a kindly man, frankly + self-conscious, but very free from jealousy. He was an able diplomatist + and generally secured his ends. His great hero was Baxter, of whom he + wrote three distinct memoirs. His eldest son Edmund (the fourth) was a + Presbyterian minister in London and died 1755; another son (Edmund, the + fifth) was a barrister who died in 1816; and this one's son (Edmund, the + sixth) died in 1850, his younger brother Michael, the last of the direct + Calamy line, surviving till 1876.</p> + + <p><b>CALARASHI</b> (<i>Călărasi</i>), the capital of the + Jalomitza department, Rumania, situated on the left bank of the Borcea + branch of the Danube, amid wide fens, north of which extends the desolate + Baragan Steppe. Pop. (1900) 11,024. Calarashi has a considerable transit + trade in wheat, linseed, hemp, timber and fish from a broad mere on the + west or from the Danube. Small vessels carry cargo to Braila and Galatz, + and a branch railway from Calarashi traverses the Steppe from south to + north, and meets the main line between Bucharest and Constantza.</p> + + <p><b>CALAS, JEAN</b> (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse, + whose legal murder is a celebrated case in French history. His wife was + an Englishwoman of French extraction. They had three sons and three + daughters. His son Louis had embraced the Roman Catholic faith through + the persuasions of a female domestic who had lived thirty years in the + family. In October 1761 another son, Antoine, hanged himself in his + father's warehouse. The crowd, which collected on so shocking a + discovery, took up the idea that he had been strangled by the family to + prevent him from changing his religion, and that this was a common + practice among Protestants. The officers of justice adopted the popular + tale, and were supplied by the mob with what they accepted as conclusive + evidence of the fact. The fraternity of White Penitents buried the body + with great ceremony, and performed a solemn service for the deceased as a + martyr; the Franciscans followed their example; and these formalities led + to the popular belief in the guilt of the unhappy family. Being all + condemned to the rack in order to extort confession, they appealed to the + parlement; but this body, being as weak as the subordinate magistrates, + sentenced the father to the torture, ordinary and extraordinary, to be + broken alive upon the wheel, and then to be burnt to ashes; which decree + was carried into execution on the 9th of March 1762. Pierre Calas, the + surviving son, was banished for life; the rest were acquitted. The + distracted widow, however, found some friends, and among them Voltaire, + who laid her case before the council of state at <!-- Page 968 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page968"></a>[v.04 p.0968]</span>Versailles. For + three years he worked indefatigably to procure justice, and made the + Calas case famous throughout Europe (see <span + class="sc">Voltaire</span>). Finally the king and council unanimously + agreed to annul the proceeding of the parlement of Toulouse; Calas was + declared to have been innocent, and every imputation of guilt was removed + from the family.</p> + + <p>See <i>Causes célèbres</i>, tome iv.; Raoul Allier, <i>Voltaire et + Calas, une erreur judiciaire au XVIII<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (Paris, + 1898); and biographies of Voltaire.</p> + + <p><b>CALASH</b> (from Fr. <i>calèche</i>, derived from Polish + <i>kolaska</i>, a wheeled carriage), a light carriage with a folding + hood; the Canadian calash is two-wheeled and has a seat for the driver on + the splash-board. The word is also used for a kind of hood made of silk + stretched over hoops, formerly worn by women.</p> + + <p><b>CALASIAO,</b> a town of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, + Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Agno river, about 4 m. S. by E. of + Dagupan, the N. terminal of the Manila & Dagupan railway. Pop. (1903) + 16,539. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the neighbouring town + of Santa Barbara (pop. 10,367) was annexed to Calasiao. It is in the + midst of a fertile district and has manufactures of hats and various + woven fabrics.</p> + + <p><b>CALASIO, MARIO DI</b> (1550-1620), Italian Minorite friar, was born + at a small town in the Abruzzi whence he took his name. Joining the + Franciscans at an early age, he devoted himself to Oriental languages and + became an authority on Hebrew. Coming to Rome he was appointed by Paul + V., whose confessor he was, to the chair of Scripture at Ara Coeli, where + he died on the 1st of February 1620. Calasio is known by his + <i>Concordantiae sacrorum Bibliorum hebraicorum</i>, published in 4 vols. + (Rome, 1622), two years after his death, a work which is based on + Nathan's <i>Hebrew Concordance</i> (Venice, 1523). For forty years + Calasio laboured on this work, and he secured the assistance of the + greatest scholars of his age. The <i>Concordance</i> evinces great care + and accuracy. All root-words are treated in alphabetical order and the + whole Bible has been collated for every passage containing the word, so + as to explain the original idea, which is illustrated from the cognate + usages of the Chaldee, Syrian, Rabbinical Hebrew and Arabic. Calasio + gives under each Hebrew word the literal Latin translation, and notes any + existing differences from the Vulgate and Septuagint readings. An + incomplete English translation of the work was published in London by + Romaine in 1747. Calasio also wrote a Hebrew grammar, <i>Canones + generates linguae sanctatae</i> (Rome, 1616), and the <i>Dictionarium + hebraicum</i> (Rome, 1617).</p> + + <p><b>CALATAFIMI,</b> a town of the province of Trapani, Sicily, 30 m. + W.S.W. of Palermo direct (51½ m. by rail). Pop. (1901) 11,426. The name + of the town is derived from the Saracenic castle of <i>Kalat-al-Fimi</i> + (castle of Euphemius), which stands above it. The principal church + contains a fine Renaissance reredos in marble. Samuel Butler, the author + of <i>Erewhon</i>, did much of his work here. The battlefield where + Garibaldi won his first victory over the Neapolitans on the 15th of May + 1860, lies 2 m. S.W.</p> + + <p><b>CALATAYÚD,</b> a town of central Spain, in the province of + Saragossa, at the confluence of the rivers Jalón and Jiloca, and on the + Madrid-Saragossa and Calatayúd-Sagunto railways. Pop. (1900) 11,526. + Calatayúd consists of a lower town, built on the left bank of the Jalón, + and an upper or Moorish town, which contains many dwellings hollowed out + of the rock above and inhabited by the poorer classes. Among a number of + ecclesiastical buildings, two collegiate churches are especially + noteworthy. Santa Maria, originally a mosque, has a lofty octagonal tower + and a fine Renaissance doorway, added in 1528; while Santo Sepulcro, + built in 1141, and restored in 1613, was long the principal church of the + Spanish Knights Templar. In commercial importance Calatayúd ranks second + only to Saragossa among the Aragonese towns, for it is the central market + of the exceptionally fertile expanse watered by the Jalón and Jiloca. + About 2 m. E. are the ruins of the ancient <i>Bilbilis</i>, where the + poet Martial was born <i>c.</i> <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 40. It was + celebrated for its breed of horses, its armourers, its gold and its iron; + but Martial also mentions its unhealthy climate, due to the icy winds + which sweep down from the heights of Moncayo (7705 ft.) on the north. In + the middle ages the ruins were almost destroyed to provide stone for the + building of Calatayúd, which was founded by a Moorish amir named Ayub and + named <i>Kalat Ayub</i>, "Castle of Ayub." Calatayúd was captured by + Alphonso I. of Aragon in 1119.</p> + + <p><b>CALATIA,</b> an ancient town of Campania, Italy, 6 m. S.E. of + Capua, on the Via Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia branches + off from it. It is represented by the church of St. Giacomo alle Galazze. + The Via Appia here, as at Capua, abandons its former S.E. direction for a + length of 2000 Oscan ft. (1804½ English ft.), for which it runs due E. + and then resumes its course S.E. There are no ruins, but a considerable + quantity of débris; and the pre-Roman necropolis was partially excavated + in 1882. Ten shafts lined with slabs of tufa which were there found may + have been the approaches to tombs or may have served as wells. The + history of Calatia is practically that of its more powerful neighbour + Capua, but as it lay near the point where the Via Appia turns east and + enters the mountains, it had some strategic importance. In 313 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> it was taken by the Samnites and recaptured by + the dictator Q. Fabius; the Samnites captured it again in 311, but it + must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the 3rd century we find it + issuing coins with an Oscan legend, but in 211 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> it shared the fate of Capua. In 174 we hear of + its walls being repaired by the censors. In 59 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> a colony was established here by Caesar.</p> + + <p>See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. 1334 + (Stuttgart, 1899).</p> + + <p><b>CALAVERAS SKULL,</b> a famous fossil cranium, reported by Professor + J.D. Whitney as found (1886) in the undisturbed auriferous gravels of + Calaveras county, California. The discovery at once raised the still + discussed question of "tertiary man" in the New World. Doubt has been + thrown on the genuineness of the find, as the age of the gravels is + disputed and the skull is of a type corresponding exactly with that of + the present Indian inhabitants of the district. Whitney assigns the + fossil to late Tertiary (Pliocene) times, and concludes that "man existed + in California previous to the cessation of volcanic activity in the + Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of the greatest extension of the glaciers in + that region and to the erosion of the present river cañons and valleys, + at a time when the animal and vegetable creation differed entirely from + what they now are...." The specimen is preserved in the Peabody museum, + Cambridge, Mass.</p> + + <p><b>CALBÁYOG,</b> a town of the province of Sámar, Philippine Islands, + on the W. coast at the mouth of the Calbáyog river, about 30 m. N.W. of + Catbalogan, the capital, in lat. 12° 3′ N. Pop. (1903) 15,895. + Calbáyog has an important export trade in hemp, which is shipped to + Manila. Copra is also produced in considerable quantity, and there is + fine timber in the vicinity. There are hot springs near the town. The + neighbouring valleys of the Gándara and Hippatan rivers are exceedingly + fertile, but in 1908 were uncultivated. The climate is very warm, but + healthy. The language is Visayan.</p> + + <p><b>CALBE,</b> or <span class="sc">Kalbe</span>, a town of Germany, on + the Saale, in Prussian Saxony. It is known as Calbe-an-der-Saale, to + distinguish it from the smaller town of Calbe on the Milde in the same + province. Pop. (1905) 12,281. It is a railway junction, and among its + industries are wool-weaving and the manufacture of cloth, paper, stoves, + sugar and bricks. Cucumbers and onions are cultivated, and soft coal is + mined in the neighbourhood.</p> + + <p><b>CALCAR</b> (or <span class="sc">Kalcker</span>), <b>JOHN DE</b> + (1499-1546), Italian painter, was born at Calcar, in the duchy of Cleves. + He was a disciple of Titian at Venice, and perfected himself by studying + Raphael. He imitated those masters so closely as to deceive the most + skilful critics. Among his various pieces is a Nativity, representing the + angels around the infant Christ, which he arranged so that the light + emanated wholly from the child. He died at Naples.</p> + + <p><b>CALCEOLARIA,</b> in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order + Scrophulariaceae, containing about 150 species of herbaceous or shrubby + plants, chiefly natives of the South American Andes of Peru and Chile. + The calceolaria of the present day has <!-- Page 969 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page969"></a>[v.04 p.0969]</span>been developed + into a highly decorative plant, in which the herbaceous habit has + preponderated. The plants are now very generally raised annually from + seed, which is sown about the end of June in a mixture of loam, + leaf-mould and sand, and, being very small, must be only slightly + covered. When the plants are large enough to handle they are pricked out + an inch or two apart into 3-inch or 5-inch pots; when a little more + advanced they are potted singly. They should be wintered in a greenhouse + with a night temperature of about 40°, occupying a shelf near the light. + By the end of February they should be moved into 8-inch or 10-inch pots, + using a compost of three parts good turfy loam, one part leaf-mould, and + one part thoroughly rotten manure, with a fair addition of sand. They + need plenty of light and air, but must not be subjected to draughts. When + the pots get well filled with roots, they must be liberally supplied with + manure water. In all stages of growth the plants are subject to the + attacks of the green-fly, for which they must be fumigated.</p> + + <p>The so-called shrubby calceolarias used for bedding are increased from + cuttings, planted in autumn in cold frames, where they can be wintered, + protected from frost by the use of mats and a good layer of litter placed + over the glass and round the sides.</p> + + <p><b>CALCHAQUI,</b> a tribe of South American Indians, now extinct, who + formerly occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them + to have reached a high degree of civilization. They offered a vigorous + resistance to the first Spanish colonists coming from Chile.</p> + + <p><b>CALCHAS,</b> of Mycenae or Megara, son of Thestor, the most famous + soothsayer among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war. He foretold + the duration of the siege of Troy, and, when the fleet was detained by + adverse winds at Aulis, he explained the cause and demanded the sacrifice + of Iphigeneia. When the Greeks were visited with pestilence on account of + Chryseis, he disclosed the reasons of Apollo's anger. It was he who + suggested that Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched from Scyros + and Lemnos to Troy, and he was one of those who advised the construction + of the wooden horse. When the Greeks, on their journey home after the + fall of Troy, were overtaken by a storm, Calchas is said to have been + thrown ashore at Colophon. According to another story, he foresaw the + storm and did not attempt to return by sea. It had been predicted that he + should die when he met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was + fulfilled in the person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met in the grove of the + Clarian Apollo near Colophon. Having been beaten in a trial of + soothsaying, Calchas died of chagrin or committed suicide. He had a + temple and oracle in Apulia.</p> + + <p>Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xii. 18 ff.; Homer, <i>Iliad</i> i. 68, ii. 322; + Strabo vi. p. 284, xiv. p. 642.</p> + + <p><b>CALCITE,</b> a mineral consisting of naturally occurring calcium + carbonate, CaCO<sub>3</sub>, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system. + With the exception of quartz, it is the most widely distributed of + minerals, whilst in the beautiful development and extraordinary variety + of form of its crystals it is surpassed by none. In the massive condition + it occurs as large rock-masses (marble, limestone, chalk) which are often + of organic origin, being formed of the remains of molluscs, corals, + crinoids, &c., the hard parts of which consist largely of + calcite.</p> + + <p>The name calcite (Lat. <i>calx</i>, <i>calcis</i>, meaning burnt lime) + is of comparatively recent origin, and was first applied, in 1836, to the + "barleycorn" pseudomorphs of calcium carbonate after celestite from + Sangerhausen in Thuringia; it was not until about 1843 that the name was + used in its present sense. The mineral had, however, long been known + under the names calcareous spar and calc-spar, and the beautifully + transparent variety called Iceland-spar had been much studied. The strong + double refraction and perfect cleavages of Iceland-spar were described in + detail by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 in his book <i>Experimenta + Crystalli Islandici disdiaclastici</i>; the study of the same mineral led + Christiaan Huygens to discover in 1690 the laws of double refraction, and + E.L. Malus in 1808 the polarization of light.</p> + + <p>An important property of calcite is the great ease with which it may + be cleaved in three directions; the three perfect cleavages are parallel + to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron, and the angle between them + was determined by W.H. Wollaston in 1812, with the aid of his newly + invented reflective goniometer, to be 74° 55′. The cleavage is of + great help in distinguishing calcite from other minerals of similar + appearance. The hardness of 3 (it is readily scratched with a knife), the + specific gravity of 2.72, and the fact that it effervesces briskly in + contact with cold dilute acids are also characters of determinative + value.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/calcite_1_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calcite_1_6.png" + alt="Figs. 1-6.--Crystals of Calcite." title="Figs. 1-6.--Crystals of Calcite." /></a> + <span class="sc">Figs.</span> 1-6.—Crystals of Calcite. + </div> + <p>Crystals of calcite are extremely varied in form, but, as a rule, they + may be referred to four distinct habits, namely: rhombohedral, prismatic, + scalenohedral and tabular. The primitive rhombohedron, <i>r</i> {100} + (fig. 1), is comparatively rare except in combination with other forms. A + flatter rhombohedron, <i>e</i> {110}, is shown in fig. 2, and a more + acute one, <i>f</i> {11<span class="over">1</span>}, in fig. 3. These + three rhombohedra are related in such a manner that, when in combination, + the faces of <i>r</i> truncate the polar edges of <i>f</i>, and the faces + of <i>e</i> truncate the edges of <i>r</i>. The crystal of prismatic + habit shown in fig. 4 is a combination of the prism <i>m</i> {2<span + class="over">1</span><span class="over">1</span>} and the rhombohedron + <i>e</i> {110}; fig. 5 is a combination of the scalenohedron <i>v</i> + {20<span class="over">1</span>} and the rhombohedron <i>r</i> {100}; and + the crystal of tabular habit represented in fig. 6 is a combination of + the basal pinacoid <i>c</i> {111}, prism <i>m</i> {2<span + class="over">1</span><span class="over">1</span>}, and rhombohedron + <i>e</i> {110}. In these figures only six distinct forms (<i>r</i>, + <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>c</i>) are represented, but + more than 400 have been recorded for calcite, whilst the combinations of + them are almost endless.</p> + + <p>Depending on the habits of the crystals, certain trivial names have + been used, such, for example, as dog-tooth-spar for the crystals of + scalenohedral habit, so common in the Derbyshire lead mines and limestone + caverns; nail-head-spar for crystals terminated by the obtuse + rhombohedron <i>e</i>, which are common in the lead mines of Alston Moor + in Cumberland; slate-spar (German <i>Schieferspath</i>) for crystals of + tabular habit, and sometimes as thin as paper: cannon-spar for crystals + of prismatic habit terminated by the basal pinacoid <i>c</i>.</p> + + <p>Calcite is also remarkable for the variety and perfection of its + twinned crystals. Twinned crystals, though not of infrequent occurrence, + are, however, far less common than simple (untwinned) crystals. No less + than four well-defined twin-laws are to be distinguished:—</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/calcite_7_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calcite_7_10.png" + alt="Figs. 7-10.--Twinned Crystals of Calcite" title="Figs. 7-10.--Twinned Crystals of Calcite" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7-10.—Twinned Crystals of Calcite. + </div> + <p>i. Twin-plane <i>c</i> (111).—Here there is rotation of one + portion with respect to the other through 180° about the principal + (trigonal) axis, which is perpendicular to the plane <i>c</i> (111); or + the same result may be obtained by reflection across this plane. Fig. 7 + shows a prismatic crystal (like fig. 4) twinned in this manner, and fig. + 8 represents a twinned scalenohedron <i>v</i> {20<span + class="over">1</span>}.</p> + + <p>ii. Twin-plane <i>e</i> (110).—The principal axes of the two + portions are inclined at an angle of 52° 30½′. Repeated twinning on + this plane is very common, and the twin-lamellae (fig. 9) to which it + gives rise are often to be observed in the grains of calcite of + crystalline limestones which have been subjected to pressure. This + lamellar twinning is of secondary origin; it may be readily produced + artificially by pressure, for example, by pressing a knife into the edge + of a cleavage rhombohedron.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 970 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page970"></a>[v.04 p.0970]</span></p> + + <p>iii. Twin-plane <i>r</i> (100).—Here the principal axes of the + two portions are nearly at right angles (89° 14′), and one of the + directions of cleavage in both portions is parallel to the twin-plane. + Fine crystals of prismatic habit twinned according to this law were + formerly found in considerable numbers at Wheal Wrey in Cornwall, and of + scalenohedral habit at Eyam in Derbyshire and Cleator Moor in Cumberland; + those from the last two localities are known as "butterfly twins" or + "heart-shaped twins" (fig. 10), according to their shape.</p> + + <p>iv. Twin-plane <i>f</i> (11<span class="over">1</span>).—The + principal axes are here inclined at 53° 46′. This is the rarest + twin-law of calcite.</p> + + <p>Calcite when pure, as in the well-known Iceland-spar, is perfectly + transparent and colourless. The lustre is vitreous. Owing to the presence + of various impurities, the transparency and colour may vary considerably. + Crystals are often nearly white or colourless, usually with a slight + yellowish tinge. The yellowish colour is in most cases due to the + presence of iron, but in some cases it has been proved to be due to + organic matter (such as apocrenic acid) derived from the humus overlying + the rocks in which the crystals were formed. An opaque calcite of a + grass-green colour, occurring as large cleavage masses in central India + and known as hislopite, owes its colour to enclosed "green-earth" + (glauconite and celadonite). A stalagmitic calcite of a beautiful purple + colour, from Reichelsdorf in Hesse, is coloured by <span + class="correction" title="'colbalt' in original">cobalt</span>.</p> + + <p>Optically, calcite is uniaxial with negative bi-refringence, the index + of refraction for the ordinary ray being greater than for the + extraordinary ray; for sodium-light the former is 1.6585 and the latter + 1.4862. The difference, 0.1723, between these two indices gives a measure + of the bi-refringence or double refraction.</p> + + <p>Although the double refraction of some other minerals is greater than + that of calcite (<i>e.g.</i> for cinnabar it is 0.347, and for calomel + 0.683), yet this phenomenon can be best demonstrated in calcite, since it + is a mineral obtainable in large pieces of perfect transparency. Owing to + the strong double refraction and the consequent wide separation of the + two polarized rays of light traversing the crystal, an object viewed + through a cleavage rhombohedron of Iceland-spar is seen double, hence the + name doubly-refracting spar. Iceland-spar is extensively used in the + construction of Nicol's prisms for polariscopes, polarizing microscopes + and saccharimeters, and of dichroscopes for testing the pleochroism of + gem-stones.</p> + + <p>Chemically, calcite has the same composition as the orthorhombic + aragonite (<i>q.v.</i>), these minerals being dimorphous forms of calcium + carbonate. Well-crystallized material, such as Iceland-spar, usually + consists of perfectly pure calcium carbonate, but at other times the + calcium may be isomorphously replaced by small amounts of magnesium, + barium, strontium, manganese, zinc or lead. When the elements named are + present in large amount we have the varieties dolomitic calcite, + baricalcite, strontianocalcite, ferrocalcite, manganocalcite, + zincocalcite and plumbocalcite, respectively.</p> + + <p>Mechanically enclosed impurities are also frequently present, and it + is to these that the colour is often due. A remarkable case of enclosed + impurities is presented by the so-called Fontainbleau limestone, which + consists of crystals of calcite of an acute rhombohedral form (fig. 3) + enclosing 50 to 60% of quartz-sand. Similar crystals, but with the form + of an acute hexagonal pyramid, and enclosing 64% of sand, have recently + been found in large quantity over a wide area in South Dakota, Nebraska + and Wyoming. The case of hislopite, which encloses up to 20% of "green + earth," has been noted above.</p> + + <p>In addition to the varieties of calcite noted above, some others, + depending on the state of aggregation of the material, are distinguished. + A finely fibrous form is known as satin-spar (<i>q.v.</i>), a name also + applied to fibrous gypsum: the most typical example of this is the + snow-white material, often with a rosy tinge and a pronounced silky + lustre, which occurs in veins in the Carboniferous shales of Alston Moor + in Cumberland. Finely scaly varieties with a pearly lustre are known as + argentine and aphrite (German <i>Schaumspath</i>); soft, earthy and dull + white varieties as agaric mineral, rock-milk, rock-meal, + &c.—these form a transition to marls, chalk, &c. Of the + granular and compact forms numerous varieties are distinguished (see + <span class="sc">Limestone</span> and <span class="sc">Marble</span>). In + the form of stalactites calcite is of extremely common occurrence. Each + stalactite usually consists of an aggregate of radially arranged + crystalline individuals, though sometimes it may consist of a single + individual with crystal faces developed at the free end. Onyx-marbles or + Oriental alabaster (see <span class="sc">Alabaster</span>) and other + stalagmitic deposits also consist of calcite, and so do the allied + deposits of travertine, calc-sinter or calc-tufa.</p> + + <p>The modes of occurrence of calcite are very varied. It is a common + gangue mineral in metalliferous deposits, and in the form of crystals is + often associated with ores of lead, iron, copper and silver. It is a + common product of alteration in igneous rocks, and frequently occurs as + well-developed crystals in association with zeolites lining the + amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic and other rocks. Veins and cavities in + limestones are usually lined with crystals of calcite. The wide + distribution, under various conditions, of crystallized calcite is + readily explained by the solubility of calcium carbonate in water + containing carbon dioxide, and the ease with which the material is again + deposited in the crystallized state when the carbon dioxide is liberated + by evaporation. On this also depends the formation of stalactites and + calc-sinter.</p> + + <p>Localities at which beautifully crystallized specimens of calcite are + found are extremely numerous. For beauty of crystals and variety of forms + the haematite mines of the Cleator Moor district in west Cumberland and + the Furness district in north Lancashire are unsurpassed. The lead mines + of Alston in Cumberland and of Derbyshire, and the silver mines of + Andreasberg in the Harz and Guanajuato in Mexico have yielded many fine + specimens. From the zinc mines of Joplin in Missouri enormous crystals of + golden-yellow and amethystine colours have been recently obtained. At all + the localities here mentioned the crystals occur with metalliferous ores. + In Iceland the mode of occurrence is quite distinct, the mineral being + here found in a cavity in basalt.</p> + + <p>The quarry, which since the 19th century has supplied the famous + Iceland-spar, is in a cavity in basalt, the cavity itself measuring 12 by + 5 yds. in area and about 10 ft. in height. It is situated quite close to + the farm Helgustadir, about an hour's ride from the trading station of + Eskifjordur on Reydar Fjordur, on the east coast of Iceland. This cavity + when first found was filled with pure crystallized masses and enormous + crystals. The crystals measure up to a yard across, and are rhombohedral + or scalenohedral in habit; their faces are usually dull and corroded or + coated with stilbite. In recent years much of the material taken out has + not been of sufficient transparency for optical purposes, and this, + together with the very limited supply, has caused a considerable rise in + price. Only very occasionally has calcite from any locality other than + Iceland been used for the construction of a Nicol's prism.</p> + + <p>(L. J. S.)</p> + + <p><b>CALCIUM</b> [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (O=16)], a metallic + chemical element, so named by Sir Humphry Davy from its <!-- Page 971 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page971"></a>[v.04 + p.0971]</span>occurrence in chalk (Latin <i>calx</i>). It does not occur + in nature in the free state, but in combination it is widely and + abundantly diffused. Thus the sulphate constitutes the minerals + anhydrite, alabaster, gypsum, and selenite; the carbonate occurs + dissolved in most natural waters and as the minerals chalk, marble, + calcite, aragonite; also in the double carbonates such as dolomite, + bromlite, barytocalcite; the fluoride as fluorspar; the fluophosphate + constitutes the mineral apatite; while all the more important mineral + silicates contain a proportion of this element.</p> + + <p><i>Extraction.</i>—Calcium oxide or lime has been known from a + very remote period, and was for a long time considered to be an + elementary or undecomposable earth. This view was questioned in the 18th + century, and in 1808 Sir Humphry Davy (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1808, p. 303) + was able to show that lime was a combination of a metal and oxygen. His + attempts at isolating this metal were not completely successful; in fact, + metallic calcium remained a laboratory curiosity until the beginning of + the 20th century. Davy, inspired by his successful isolation of the + metals sodium and potassium by the electrolysis of their hydrates, + attempted to decompose a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide by the + electric current; an amalgam of calcium was obtained, but the separation + of the mercury was so difficult that even Davy himself was not sure as to + whether he had obtained pure metallic calcium. Electrolysis of lime or + calcium chloride in contact with mercury gave similar results. Bunsen + (<i>Ann.</i>, 1854, 92, p. 248) was more successful when he electrolysed + calcium chloride moistened with hydrochloric acid; and A. Matthiessen + (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1856, p. 28) obtained the metal by + electrolysing a mixture of fused calcium and sodium chlorides. Henri + Moissan obtained the metal of 99% purity by electrolysing calcium iodide + at a low red heat, using a nickel cathode and a graphite anode; he also + showed that a more convenient process consisted in heating the iodide + with an excess of sodium, forming an amalgam of the product, and removing + the sodium by means of absolute alcohol (which has but little action on + calcium), and the mercury by distillation.</p> + + <p>The electrolytic isolation of calcium has been carefully investigated, + and this is the method followed for the commercial production of the + metal. In 1902 W. Borchers and L. Stockem (<i>Zeit. für + Electrochemie</i>, 1902, p. 8757) obtained the metal of 90% purity by + electrolysing calcium chloride at a temperature of about 780°, using an + iron cathode, the anode being the graphite vessel in which the + electrolysis was carried out. In the same year, O. Ruff and W. Plato + (<i>Ber.</i> 1902, 35, p. 3612) employed a mixture of calcium chloride + (100 parts) and fluorspar (16.5 parts), which was fused in a porcelain + crucible and electrolysed with a carbon anode and an iron cathode. + Neither of these processes admitted of commercial application, but by a + modification of Ruff and Plato's process, W. Ruthenau and C. Suter have + made the metal commercially available. These chemists electrolyse either + pure calcium chloride, or a mixture of this salt with fluorspar, in a + graphite vessel which serves as the anode. The cathode consists of an + iron rod which can be gradually raised. On electrolysis a layer of + metallic calcium is formed at the lower end of this rod on the surface of + the electrolyte; the rod is gradually raised, the thickness of the layer + increases, and ultimately a rod of metallic calcium, forming, as it were, + a continuation of the iron cathode, is obtained. This is the form in + which calcium is put on the market.</p> + + <p>An idea as to the advance made by this method is recorded in the + variation in the price of calcium. At the beginning of 1904 it was quoted + at 5s. per gram, £250 per kilogram or £110 per pound; about a year later + the price was reduced to 21s. per kilogram, or 12s. per kilogram in + quantities of 100 kilograms. These quotations apply to Germany; in the + United Kingdom the price (1905) varied from 27s. to 30s. per kilogram + (12s. to 13s. per lb.).</p> + + <p><i>Properties.</i>—A freshly prepared surface of the metal + closely resembles zinc in appearance, but on exposure to the air it + rapidly tarnishes, becoming yellowish and ultimately grey or white in + colour owing to the information of a surface layer of calcium hydrate. A + faint smell of acetylene may be perceived during the oxidation in moist + air; this is probably due to traces of calcium carbide. It is rapidly + acted on by water, especially if means are taken to remove the layer of + calcium hydrate formed on the metal; alcohol acts very slowly. In its + chemical properties it closely resembles barium and strontium, and to + some degree magnesium; these four elements comprise the so-called metals + of the "alkaline earths." It combines directly with most elements, + including nitrogen; this can be taken advantage of in forming almost a + perfect vacuum, the oxygen combining to form the oxide, CaO, and the + nitrogen to form the nitride, Ca<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub>. Several of its + physical properties have been determined by K. Arndt (<i>Ber.</i>, 1904, + 37, p. 4733). The metal as prepared by electrolysis generally contains + traces of aluminium and silica. Its specific gravity is 1.54, and after + remelting 1.56; after distillation it is 1.52. It melts at about 800°, + but sublimes at a lower temperature.</p> + + <p><i>Compounds.</i>—Calcium hydride, obtained by heating + electrolytic calcium in a current of hydrogen, appears in commerce under + the name hydrolite. Water decomposes it to give hydrogen free from + ammonia and acetylene, 1 gram yielding about 100 ccs. of gas (Prats + Aymerich, <i>Abst. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, ii p. 460). Calcium forms two + oxides—the monoxide, CaO, and the dioxide, CaO<sub>2</sub>. The + monoxide and its hydrate are more familiarly known as lime (<i>q.v.</i>) + and slaked-lime. The dioxide was obtained as the hydrate, + CaO<sub>2</sub>·8H<sub>2</sub>O, by P. Thénard (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, + 1818, 8, p. 213), who precipitated lime-water with hydrogen peroxide. It + is permanent when dry; on heating to 130° C. it loses water and gives the + anhydrous dioxide as an unstable, pale buff-coloured powder, very + sparingly soluble in water. It is used as an antiseptic and oxidizing + agent.</p> + + <p>Whereas calcium chloride, bromide, and iodide are deliquescent solids, + the fluoride is practically insoluble in water; this is a parallelism to + the soluble silver fluoride, and the insoluble chloride, bromide and + iodide. <i>Calcium fluoride</i>, CaF<sub>2</sub>, constitutes the mineral + fluor-spar (<i>q.v.</i>), and is prepared artificially as an insoluble + white powder by precipitating a solution of calcium chloride with a + soluble fluoride. One part dissolves in 26,000 parts of water. <i>Calcium + chloride</i>, CaCl<sub>2</sub>, occurs in many natural waters, and as a + by-product in the manufacture of carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), and + potassium chlorate. Aqueous solutions deposit crystals containing 2, 4 or + 6 molecules of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride, prepared by heating the + hydrate to 200° (preferably in a current of hydrochloric acid gas, which + prevents the formation of any oxychloride), is very hygroscopic, and is + used as a desiccating agent. It fuses at 723°. It combines with gaseous + ammonia and forms crystalline compounds with certain alcohols. The + crystallized salt dissolves very readily in water with a considerable + absorption of heat; hence its use in forming "freezing mixtures." A + temperature of -55°C. is obtained by mixing 10 parts of the hexahydrate + with 7 parts of snow. A saturated solution of calcium chloride contains + 325 parts of CaCl<sub>2</sub> to 100 of water at the boiling point + (179.5°). Calcium iodide and bromide are white deliquescent solids and + closely resemble the chloride.</p> + + <p><i>Chloride of lime</i> or "bleaching powder" is a calcium + chlor-hypochlorite or an equimolecular mixture of the chloride and + hypochlorite (see <span class="sc">Alkali Manufacture</span> and <span + class="sc">Bleaching</span>).</p> + + <p><i>Calcium carbide</i>, CaC<sub>2</sub>, a compound of great + industrial importance as a source of acetylene, was first prepared by F. + Wohler. It is now manufactured by heating lime and carbon in the electric + furnace (see <span class="sc">Acetylene</span>). Heated in chlorine or + with bromine, it yields carbon and calcium chloride or bromide; at a dull + red heat it burns in oxygen, forming calcium carbonate, and it becomes + incandescent in sulphur vapour at 500°, forming calcium sulphide and + carbon disulphide. Heated in the electric furnace in a current of air, it + yields calcium cyanamide (see <span class="sc">Cyanamide</span>).</p> + + <p><i>Calcium carbonate</i>, CaCO<sub>3</sub>, is of exceptionally wide + distribution in both the mineral and animal kingdoms. It constitutes the + bulk of the chalk deposits and limestone rocks; it forms over one-half of + the mineral dolomite and the rock magnesium limestone; it occurs also as + the dimorphous minerals aragonite (<i>q.v.</i>) and calcite + (<i>q.v.</i>). Tuff (<i>q.v.</i>) and travertine are calcareous deposits + found in volcanic districts. Most natural waters contain it dissolved in + carbonic acid; this confers "temporary hardness" on the water. The + dissipation of the dissolved carbon dioxide results in the formation of + "fur" in kettles or boilers, and if the solution is falling, as from the + roof of a cave, in the formation of stalactites and stalagmites. In the + animal kingdom it occurs as both calcite and aragonite in the tests of + the foraminifera, echinoderms, brachiopoda, and mollusca; also in the + skeletons of sponges and corals. Calcium carbonate is obtained as a white + precipitate, almost insoluble in water (1 part requiring 10,000 of water + for solution), by mixing solutions of a carbonate and a calcium salt. Hot + or dilute cold solutions deposit minute orthorhombic crystals of + aragonite, cold saturated or moderately strong solutions, hexagonal + (rhombohedral) crystals of calcite. Aragonite is the least stable form; + crystals have been found altered to calcite.</p> + + <p><i>Calcium nitride</i>, Ca<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, is a + greyish-yellow powder formed by heating calcium in air or nitrogen; water + decomposes it with evolution of ammonia (see H. Moissan, <i>Compt. + Rend.</i>, 127, p. 497).</p> + + <p><i>Calcium nitrate</i>, + Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O, is a highly deliquescent + salt, <!-- Page 972 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page972"></a>[v.04 + p.0972]</span>crystallizing in monoclinic prisms, and occurring in + various natural waters, as an efflorescence in limestone caverns, and in + the neighbourhood of decaying nitrogenous organic matter. Hence its + synonyms, "wall-saltpetre" and "lime-saltpetre"; from its disintegrating + action on mortar, it is sometimes referred to as "saltpetre rot." The + anhydrous nitrate, obtained by heating the crystallized salt, is very + phosphorescent, and constitutes "Baldwin's phosphorus." A basic nitrate, + Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub>·3H<sub>2</sub>O, is + obtained by dissolving calcium hydroxide in a solution of the normal + nitrate.</p> + + <p><i>Calcium phosphide</i>, Ca<sub>3</sub>P<sub>2</sub>, is obtained as + a reddish substance by passing phosphorus vapour over strongly heated + lime. Water decomposes it with the evolution of spontaneously inflammable + hydrogen phosphide; hence its use as a marine signal fire ("Holmes + lights"), (see L. Gattermann and W. Haussknecht, <i>Ber.</i>, 1890, 23, + p. 1176, and H. Moissan, <i>Compt. Rend.</i>, 128, p. 787).</p> + + <p>Of the calcium orthophosphates, the normal salt, + Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, is the most important. It is + the principal inorganic constituent of bones, and hence of the "bone-ash" + of commerce (see <span class="sc">Phosphorus</span>); it occurs with + fluorides in the mineral apatite (<i>q.v.</i>); and the concretions known + as coprolites (<i>q.v.</i>) largely consist of this salt. It also + constitutes the minerals ornithite, + Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O, osteolite and + sombrerite. The mineral brushite, CaHPO<sub>4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O, + which is isomorphous with the acid arsenate pharmacolite, + CaHAsO<sub>4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O, is an acid phosphate, and assumes + monoclinic forms. The normal salt may be obtained artificially, as a + white gelatinous precipitate which shrinks greatly on drying, by mixing + solutions of sodium hydrogen phosphate, ammonia, and calcium chloride. + Crystals may be obtained by heating di-calcium pyrophosphate, + Ca<sub>2</sub>P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>, with water under pressure. It + is insoluble in water; slightly soluble in solutions of carbonic acid and + common salt, and readily soluble in concentrated hydrochloric and nitric + acid. Of the acid orthophosphates, the mono-calcium salt, + CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, may be obtained as + crystalline scales, containing one molecule of water, by evaporating a + solution of the normal salt in hydrochloric or nitric acid. It dissolves + readily in water, the solution having an acid reaction. The artificial + manure known as "superphosphate of lime" consists of this salt and + calcium sulphate, and is obtained by treating ground bones, coprolites, + &c., with sulphuric acid. The di-calcium salt, + Ca<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, occurs in a + concretionary form in the ureters and cloaca of the sturgeon, and also in + guano. It is obtained as rhombic plates by mixing dilute solutions of + calcium chloride and sodium phosphate, and passing carbon dioxide into + the liquid. Other phosphates are also known.</p> + + <p><i>Calcium monosulphide</i>, CaS, a white amorphous powder, sparingly + soluble in water, is formed by heating the sulphate with charcoal, or by + heating lime in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is particularly + noteworthy from the phosphorescence which it exhibits when heated, or + after exposure to the sun's rays; hence its synonym "Canton's + phosphorus," after John Canton (1718-1772), an English natural + philosopher. The sulphydrate or hydrosulphide, Ca(SH)<sub>2</sub>, is + obtained as colourless, prismatic crystals of the composition + Ca(SH)<sub>2</sub>·6H<sub>2</sub>O, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into + milk of lime. The strong aqueous solution deposits colourless, four-sided + prisms of the hydroxy-hydrosulphide, Ca(OH)(SH). The disulphide, + CaS<sub>2</sub> and pentasulphide, CaS<sub>5</sub>, are formed when milk + of lime is boiled with flowers of sulphur. These sulphides form the basis + of Balmain's luminous paint. An oxysulphide, 2CaS·CaO, is sometimes + present in "soda-waste," and orange-coloured, acicular crystals of + 4CaS·CaSO<sub>4</sub>·18H<sub>2</sub>O occasionally settle out on the + long standing of oxidized "soda- or alkali-waste" (see <span + class="sc">Alkali Manufacture</span>).</p> + + <p><i>Calcium sulphite</i>, CaSO<sub>3</sub>, a white substance, soluble + in water, is prepared by passing sulphur dioxide into milk of lime. This + solution with excess of sulphur dioxide yields the "bisulphite of lime" + of commerce, which is used in the "chemical" manufacture of wood-pulp for + paper making.</p> + + <p><i>Calcium sulphate</i>, CaSO<sub>4</sub>, constitutes the minerals + anhydrite (<i>q.v.</i>), and, in the hydrated form, selenite, gypsum + (<i>q.v.</i>), alabaster (<i>q.v.</i>), and also the adhesive plaster of + Paris (see <span class="sc">Cement</span>). It occurs dissolved in most + natural waters, which it renders "permanently hard." It is obtained as a + white crystalline precipitate, sparingly soluble in water (100 parts of + water dissolve 24 of the salt at 15°C.), by mixing solutions of a + sulphate and a calcium salt; it is more soluble in solutions of common + salt and hydrochloric acid, and especially of sodium thiosulphate.</p> + + <p><i>Calcium silicates</i> are exceptionally abundant in the mineral + kingdom. Calcium metasilicate, CaSiO<sub>3</sub>, occurs in nature as + monoclinic crystals known as tabular spar or wollastonite; it may be + prepared artificially from solutions of calcium chloride and sodium + silicate. H. Le Chatelier (<i>Annales des mines</i>, 1887, p. 345) has + obtained artificially the compounds: CaSiO<sub>3</sub>, + Ca<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub>, Ca<sub>3</sub>Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>, + and Ca<sub>3</sub>SiO<sub>5</sub>. (See also G. Oddo, <i>Chemisches + Centralblatt</i>, 1896, 228.) Acid calcium silicates are represented in + the mineral kingdom by gyrolite, + H<sub>2</sub>Ca<sub>2</sub>(SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, + a lime zeolite, sometimes regarded as an altered form of apophyllite + (<i>q.v.</i>), which is itself an acid calcium silicate containing an + alkaline fluoride, by okenite, + H<sub>2</sub>Ca(SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O, and by + xonalite 4CaSiO<sub>3</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O. Calcium silicate is also + present in the minerals: olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, epidote, + felspars, zeolites, scapolites (<i>qq.v.</i>).</p> + + <p><i>Detection and Estimation.</i>—Most calcium compounds, + especially when moistened with hydrochloric acid, impart an orange-red + colour to a Bunsen flame, which when viewed through green glass appears + to be finch-green; this distinguishes it in the presence of strontium, + whose crimson coloration is apt to mask the orange-red calcium flame + (when viewed through green glass the strontium flame appears to be a very + faint yellow). In the spectroscope calcium exhibits two intense + lines—an orange line (<span class="grk">α</span>), (<span + class="grk">λ</span> 6163), a green line (<span + class="grk">β</span>), (<span class="grk">λ</span> 4229), and + a fainter indigo line. Calcium is not precipitated by sulphuretted + hydrogen, but falls as the carbonate when an alkaline carbonate is added + to a solution. Sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate of calcium + sulphate with strong solutions; ammonium oxalate gives calcium oxalate, + practically insoluble in water and dilute acetic acid, but readily + soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. Calcium is generally estimated by + precipitation as oxalate which, after drying, is heated and weighed as + carbonate or oxide, according to the degree and duration of the + heating.</p> + + <p><b>CALCULATING MACHINES.</b> Instruments for the mechanical + performance of numerical calculations, have in modern times come into + ever-increasing use, not merely for dealing with large masses of figures + in banks, insurance offices, &c., but also, as cash registers, for + use on the counters of retail shops. They may be classified as + follows:—(i.) Addition machines; the first invented by Blaise + Pascal (1642). (ii.) Addition machines modified to facilitate + multiplication; the first by G.W. Leibnitz (1671). (iii.) True + multiplication machines; Léon Bollés (1888), Steiger (1894). (iv.) + Difference machines; Johann Helfrich von Müller (1786), Charles Babbage + (1822). (v.) Analytical machines; Babbage (1834). The number of distinct + machines of the first three kinds is remarkable and is being constantly + added to, old machines being improved and new ones invented; Professor R. + Mehmke has counted over eighty distinct machines of this type. The + fullest published account of the subject is given by Mehmke in the + <i>Encyclopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften</i>, article + "Numerisches Rechnen," vol. i., Heft 6 (1901). It contains historical + notes and full references. Walther von Dyck's <i>Catalogue</i> also + contains descriptions of various machines. We shall confine ourselves to + explaining the principles of some leading types, without giving an exact + description of any particular one.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_1.png" + alt="Fig. 1.--Figure disk." title="Fig. 1.--Figure disk." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1. + </div> + <p>Practically all calculating machines contain a "counting work," a + series of "figure disks" consisting in the original form of horizontal + circular disks (fig. 1), on which the figures 0, 1, 2, to 9 are marked. + Each disk can turn about its vertical axis, and is covered by a fixed + plate with a hole or "window" in it through which one figure can be seen. + On turning the disk through one-tenth of a revolution this figure will be + changed into the next higher or lower. Such turning may be called a + "step," <i>positive</i> <span class="sidenote">Addition machines.</span> + if the next higher and <i>negative</i> if the next lower figure appears. + Each positive step therefore adds one unit to the figure under the + window, while two steps add two, and so on. If a series, say six, of such + figure disks be placed side by side, their windows lying in a row, then + any number of six places can be made to appear, for instance 000373. In + order to add 6425 to this number, the disks, counting from right to left, + have to be turned 5, 2, 4 and 6 steps respectively. If this is done the + sum 006798 will appear. In case the sum of the two figures at any disk is + greater than 9, if for instance the last figure to be added is 8 instead + of 5, the sum for this disk is 11 and the 1 only will appear. Hence an + arrangement for "carrying" has to be introduced. This may be done as + follows. The axis of a figure disk contains a wheel with ten teeth. Each + figure disk has, besides, one long tooth which when its 0 passes the + window turns the next wheel to the left, one tooth forward, and hence the + figure disk one step. The actual mechanism is not quite so simple, + because the long teeth as described would gear also into the wheel to the + right, and besides would interfere with each other. They must therefore + be replaced by a somewhat more complicated arrangement, which has been + done in various ways not necessary to describe more fully. On the way in + which this is done, however, depends to a great extent the durability and + trustworthiness of any arithmometer; in fact, it is often its weakest + point. If to the series of figure disks arrangements are added for + turning each disk through a required number of steps, <!-- Page 973 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page973"></a>[v.04 p.0973]</span>we + have an addition machine, essentially of Pascal's type. In it each disk + had to be turned by hand. This operation has been simplified in various + ways by mechanical means. For pure addition machines key-boards have been + added, say for each disk nine keys marked 1 to 9. On pressing the key + marked 6 the disk turns six steps and so on. These have been introduced + by Stettner (1882), Max Mayer (1887), and in the comptometer by Dorr Z. + Felt of Chicago. In the comptograph by Felt and also in "Burrough's + Registering Accountant" the result is printed.</p> + + <p>These machines can be used for multiplication, as repeated addition, + but the process is laborious, depending for rapid execution <span + class="sidenote"><b>Modified addition machines</b>.</span> essentially on + the skill of the operator.<a name="FnAnchor_231" + href="#Footnote_231"><sup>[1]</sup></a> To adapt an addition machine, as + described, to rapid multiplication the turnings of the separate figure + disks are replaced by one motion, commonly the turning of a handle. As, + however, the different disks have to be turned through different steps, a + contrivance has to be inserted which can be "set" in such a way that by + one turn of the handle each disk is moved through a number of steps equal + to the number of units which is to be added on that disk. This may be + done by making each of the figure disks receive on its axis a ten-toothed + wheel, called hereafter the A-wheel, which is acted on either directly or + indirectly by another wheel (called the B-wheel) in which the number of + teeth can be varied from 0 to 9. This variation of the teeth has been + effected in different ways. Theoretically the simplest seems to be to + have on the B-wheel nine teeth which can be drawn back into the body of + the wheel, so that at will any number from 0 to 9 can be made to project. + This idea, previously mentioned by Leibnitz, has been realized by Bohdner + in the "Brunsviga." Another way, also due to Leibnitz, consists in + inserting between the axis of the handle bar and the A-wheel a "stepped" + cylinder. This may be considered as being made up of ten wheels large + enough to contain about twenty teeth each; but most of these teeth are + cut away so that these wheels retain in succession 9, 8, ... 1, 0 teeth. + If these are made as one piece they form a cylinder with teeth of lengths + from 9, 8 ... times the length of a tooth on a single wheel.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_2.png" + alt="Fig. 2.--Brunsviga." title="Fig. 2.--Brunsviga." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2. + </div> + <p>In the diagrammatic vertical section of such a machine (fig. 2) FF is + a figure disk with a conical wheel A on its axis. In the covering plate + HK is the window W. A stepped cylinder is shown at B. The axis Z, which + runs along the whole machine, is turned by a handle, and itself turns the + cylinder B by aid of conical wheels. Above this cylinder lies an axis EE + with square section along which a wheel D can be moved. The same axis + carries at E′ a pair of conical wheels C and C′, which can + also slide on the axis so that either can be made to drive the A-wheel. + The covering plate MK has a slot above the axis EE allowing a rod + LL′ to be moved by aid of a button L, carrying the wheel D with it. + Along the slot is a scale of numbers 0 1 2 ... 9 corresponding with the + number of teeth on the cylinder B, with which the wheel D will gear in + any given position. A series of such slots is shown in the top middle + part of Steiger's machine (fig. 3). Let now the handle driving the axis Z + be turned once round, the button being set to 4. Then four teeth of the + B-wheel will turn D and with it the A-wheel, and consequently the figure + disk will be moved four steps. These steps will be positive or forward if + the wheel C gears in A, and consequently four will be added to the figure + showing at the window W. But if the wheels CC′ are moved to the + right, C′ will gear with A moving backwards, with the result that + four is subtracted at the window. This motion of all the wheels C is done + simultaneously by the push of a lever which appears at the top plate of + the machine, its two positions being marked "addition" and "subtraction." + The B-wheels are in fixed positions below the plate MK. Level with this, + but separate, is the plate KH with the window. On it the figure disks are + mounted.</p> + + <p>This plate is hinged at the back at H and can be lifted up, thereby + throwing the A-wheels out of gear. When thus raised the figure disks can + be set to any figures; at the same time it can slide to and fro so that + an A-wheel can be put in gear with any C-wheel forming with it one + "element." The number of these varies with the size of the machine. + Suppose there are six B-wheels and twelve figure disks. Let these be all + set to zero with the exception of the last four to the right, these + showing 1 4 3 2, and let these be placed opposite the last B-wheels to + the right. If now the buttons belonging to the latter be set to 3 2 5 6, + then on turning the B-wheels all once round the latter figures will be + added to the former, thus showing 4 6 8 8 at the windows. By aid of the + axis Z, this turning of the B-wheels is performed simultaneously by the + movement of one handle. We have thus an addition machine. If it be + required to multiply a number, say 725, by any number up to six figures, + say 357, the buttons are set to the figures 725, the windows all showing + zero. The handle is then turned, 725 appears at the windows, and + successive turns add this number to the first. Hence seven turns show the + product seven times 725. Now the plate with the A-wheels is lifted and + moved one step to the right, then lowered and the handle turned five + times, thus adding fifty times 725 to the product obtained. Finally, by + moving the piate again, and turning the handle three times, the required + product is obtained. If the machine has six B-wheels and twelve disks the + product of two six-figure numbers can be obtained. Division is performed + by repeated subtraction. The lever regulating the C-wheel is set to + subtraction, producing negative steps at the disks. The dividend is set + up at the windows and the divisor at the buttons. Each turn of the handle + subtracts the divisor once. To count the number of turns of the handle a + second set of windows is arranged with number disks below. These have no + carrying arrangement, but one is turned one step for each turn of the + handle. The machine described is essentially that of Thomas of Colmar, + which was the first that came into practical use. Of earlier machines + those of Leibnitz, Müller (1782), and Hahn (1809) deserve to be mentioned + (see Dyck, <i>Catalogue</i>). Thomas's machine has had many imitations, + both in England and on the Continent, with more or less important + alterations. Joseph Edmondson of Halifax has given it a circular form, + which has many advantages.</p> + + <p>The accuracy and durability of any machine depend to a great extent on + the manner in which the carrying mechanism is constructed. Besides, no + wheel must be capable of moving in any other way than that required; + hence every part must be locked and be released only when required to + move. Further, any disk must carry to the next only after the carrying to + itself has been completed. If all were to carry at the same time a + considerable force would be required to turn the handle, and serious + strains would be introduced. It is for this reason that the B-wheels or + cylinders have the greater part of the circumference free from teeth. + Again, the carrying acts generally as in the machine described, in one + sense only, and this involves that the handle be turned always in the + same direction. Subtraction therefore cannot be done by turning it in the + opposite way, hence the two wheels C and C′ are introduced. These + are moved all at once by one lever acting on a bar shown at R in section + (fig. 2).</p> + + <p>In the Brunsviga, the figure disks are all mounted on a common + horizontal axis, the figures being placed on the rim. On the side of each + disk and rigidly connected with it lies its A-wheel with which it can + turn independent of the others. The B-wheels, all fixed on another + horizontal axis, gear directly on the A-wheels. By an ingenious + contrivance the teeth are made to appear from out of the rim to any + desired number. The carrying mechanism, too, is different, and so + arranged that the handle can be turned either way, no special setting + being required for subtraction or division. It is extremely handy, taking + up much less room than the others. Professor Eduard Selling of Würzburg + has invented an altogether different machine, which has been made by Max + Ott, of Munich. The B-wheels are replaced by lazy-tongs. To the joints of + these the ends of racks are pinned; and as they are stretched out the + racks are moved forward 0 to 9 steps, according to the joints they are + pinned to. The racks gear directly in the A-wheels, and the figures are + placed on cylinders as in the Brunsviga. The carrying is done + continuously by a train of epicycloidal wheels. The working is thus + rendered very smooth, without the jerks which the ordinary carrying tooth + produces; but the arrangement has the disadvantage that the resulting + figures do not appear in a straight line, a figure followed by a 5, for + instance, being already carried half a step forward. This is not a + serious matter in the hands of a mathematician or an operator using the + machine constantly, but it is serious for casual work. Anyhow, it has + prevented the machine from being a commercial success, and it is not any + longer made. For ease and rapidity of working it surpasses all others. + Since the lazy-tongs allow of an extension equivalent to five turnings of + the handle, if the multiplier is 5 or under, one push forward will do the + <!-- Page 974 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page974"></a>[v.04 + p.0974]</span>same as five (or less) turns of the handle, and more than + two pushes are never required.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_3.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_3.png" + alt="Fig. 3.--Steiger-Egli machine." title="Fig. 3.--Steiger-Egli machine." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3. + </div> + <p>The <i>Steiger-Egli</i> machine is a multiplication machine, of which + fig. 3 gives a picture as it appears to the manipulator. The lower <span + class="sidenote">Multiplication machines.</span> part of the figure + contains, under the covering plate, a carriage with two rows of windows + for the figures marked <i>ff</i> and <i>gg</i>. On pressing down the + button W the carriage can be moved to right or left. Under each window is + a figure disk, as in the Thomas machine. The upper part has three + sections. The one to the right contains the handle K for working the + machine, and a button U for setting the machine for addition, + multiplication, division, or subtraction. In the middle section a number + of parallel slots are seen, with indices which can each be set to one of + the numbers 0 to 9. Below each slot, and parallel to it, lies a shaft of + square section on which a toothed wheel, the A-wheel, slides to and fro + with the index in the slot. Below these wheels again lie 9 toothed racks + at right angles to the slots. By setting the index in any slot the wheel + below it comes into gear with one of these racks. On moving the rack, the + wheels turn their shafts and the figure disks <i>gg</i> opposite to them. + The dimensions are such that a motion of a rack through 1 cm. turns the + figure disk through one "step" or adds 1 to the figure under the window. + The racks are moved by an arrangement contained in the section to the + left of the slots. There is a vertical plate called the multiplication + table block, or more shortly, the <i>block</i>. From it project rows of + horizontal rods of lengths varying from 0 to 9 centimetres. If one of + these rows is brought opposite the row of racks and then pushed forward + to the right through 9 cm., each rack will move and add to its figure + disk a number of units equal to the number of centimetres of the rod + which operates on it. The block has a square face divided into a hundred + squares. Looking at its face from the right—<i>i.e.</i> from the + side where the racks lie—suppose the horizontal rows of these + squares numbered from 0 to 9, beginning at the top, and the columns + numbered similarly, the 0 being to the right; then the multiplication + table for numbers 0 to 9 can be placed on these squares. The row 7 will + therefore contain the numbers 63, 56, ... 7, 0. Instead of these numbers, + each square receives two "rods" perpendicular to the plate, which may be + called the units-rod and the tens-rod. Instead of the number 63 we have + thus a tens-rod 6 cm. and a units-rod 3 cm. long. By aid of a lever H the + block can be raised or lowered so that any row of the block comes to the + level of the racks, the units-rods being opposite the ends of the + racks.</p> + + <p>The action of the machine will be understood by considering an + example. Let it be required to form the product 7 times 385. The indices + of three consecutive slots are set to the numbers 3, 8, 5 respectively. + Let the windows <i>gg</i> opposite these slots be called <i>a</i>, + <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>. Then to the figures shown at these windows we have to + add 21, 56, 35 respectively. This is the same thing as adding first the + number 165, formed by the units of each place, and next 2530 + corresponding to the tens; or again, as adding first 165, and then moving + the carriage one step to the right, and adding 253. The first is done by + moving the block with the units-rods opposite the racks forward. The + racks are then put out of gear, and together with the block brought back + to their normal position; the block is moved sideways to bring the + tens-rods opposite the racks, and again moved forward, adding the tens, + the carriage having also been moved forward as required. This complicated + movement, together with the necessary carrying, is actually performed by + one turn of the handle. During the first quarter-turn the block moves + forward, the units-rods coming into operation. During the second + quarter-turn the carriage is put out of gear, and moved one step to the + right while the necessary carrying is performed; at the same time the + block and the racks are moved back, and the block is shifted so as to + bring the tens-rods opposite the racks. During the next two quarter-turns + the process is repeated, the block ultimately returning to its original + position. Multiplication by a number with more places is performed as in + the Thomas. The advantage of this machine over the Thomas in saving time + is obvious. Multiplying by 817 requires in the Thomas 16 turns of the + handle, but in the Steiger-Egli only 3 turns, with 3 settings of the + lever H. If the lever H is set to 1 we have a simple addition machine + like the Thomas or the Brunsviga. The inventors state that the product of + two 8-figure numbers can be got in 6-7 seconds, the quotient of a + 6-figure number by one of 3 figures in the same time, while the square + root to 5 places of a 9-figure number requires 18 seconds.</p> + + <p>Machines of far greater powers than the arithmometers mentioned have + been invented by Babbage and by Scheutz. A description is impossible + without elaborate drawings. The following account will afford some idea + of the working of Babbage's difference machine. Imagine a number of + striking clocks placed in a row, each with only an hour hand, and with + only the striking apparatus retained. Let the hand of the first clock be + turned. As it comes opposite a number on the dial the clock strikes that + number of times. Let this clock be connected with the second in such a + manner that by each stroke of the first the hand of the second is moved + from one number to the next, but can only strike when the first comes to + rest. If the second hand stands at 5 and the first strikes 3, then when + this is done the second will strike 8; the second will act similarly on + the third, and so on. Let there be four such clocks with hands set to the + numbers 6, 6, 1, 0 respectively. Now set the third clock striking 1, this + sets the hand of the fourth clock to 1; strike the second (6), this puts + the third to 7 and the fourth to 8. Next strike the first (6); this moves + the other hands to 12, 19, 27 respectively, and now repeat the striking + of the first. The hand of the fourth clock will then give in succession + the numbers 1, 8, 27, 64, &c., being the cubes of the natural + numbers. The numbers thus obtained on the last dial will have the + differences given by those shown in succession on the dial before it, + their differences by the next, and so on till we come to the constant + difference on the first dial. A function</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>y</i> = <i>a</i> + <i>bx</i> + <i>cx</i><sup>2</sup> + <i>dx</i><sup>3</sup> + <i>ex</i><sup>4</sup></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>gives, on increasing <i>x</i> always by unity, a set of values for + which the fourth difference is constant. We can, by an arrangement like + the above, with five clocks calculate <i>y</i> for <i>x</i> = 1, 2, 3, + ... to any extent. This is the principle of Babbage's difference machine. + The clock dials have to be replaced by a series of dials as in the + arithmometers described, and an arrangement has to be made to drive the + whole by turning one handle by hand or some other power. Imagine further + that with the last clock is connected a kind of typewriter which prints + the number, or, better, impresses the number in a soft substance from + which a stereotype casting can be taken, and we have a machine which, + when once set for a given formula like the above, will automatically + print, or prepare stereotype plates for the printing of, tables of the + function without any copying or typesetting, thus excluding all + possibility of errors. Of this "Difference engine," as Babbage called it, + a part was finished in 1834, the government having contributed £17,000 + towards the cost. This great expense was chiefly due to the want of + proper machine tools.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile Babbage had conceived the idea of a much more powerful + machine, the "analytical engine," intended to perform any series of + possible arithmetical operations. Each of these was to be communicated to + the machine by aid of cards with holes punched in them into which levers + could drop. It was long taken for granted that Babbage left complete + plans; the committee of the British Association appointed to consider + this question came, however, to the conclusion (<i>Brit. Assoc. + Report</i>, 1878, pp. 92-102) that no detailed working drawings existed + at all; that the drawings left were only diagrammatic and not nearly + sufficient to put into the hands of a draughtsman for making working + plans; and "that in the present state of the design it is not more than a + theoretical possibility." A full account of the work done by Babbage in + connexion with calculating machines, and much else published by others in + connexion therewith, is contained in a work published by his son, General + Babbage.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_4.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_4.png" + alt="Fig. 4.--Slide rule." title="Fig. 4.--Slide rule." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4. + </div> + <p>Slide rules are instruments for performing logarithmic calculations + mechanically, and are extensively used, especially where <span + class="sidenote">Slide rules.</span> only rough approximations are + required. They are almost as old as logarithms themselves. Edmund Gunter + drew a "logarithmic line" on his "Scales" as follows (fig. 4):—On a + line AB lengths are set off to scale to represent the common logarithms + of the numbers 1 2 3 ... 10, and the points thus obtained are marked with + these numbers. <!-- Page 975 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page975"></a>[v.04 p.0975]</span>As log 1 = 0, the beginning A has + the number 1 and B the number 10, hence the unit of length is AB, as log + 10 = 1. The same division is repeated from B to C. The distance 1,2 thus + represents log 2, 1,3 gives log 3, the distance between 4 and 5 gives log + 5 - log 4 = log 5/4, and so for others. In order to multiply two numbers, + say 2 and 3, we have log 2 × 3 = log 2 + log 3. Hence, setting off the + distance 1,2 from 3 forward by the aid of a pair of compasses will give + the distance log 2 + log 3, and will bring us to 6 as the required + product. Again, if it is required to find 4/5 of 7, set off the distance + between 4 and 5 from 7 backwards, and the required number will be + obtained. In the actual scales the spaces between the numbers are + subdivided into 10 or even more parts, so that from two to three figures + may be read. The numbers 2, 3 ... in the interval BC give the logarithms + of 10 times the same numbers in the interval AB; hence, if the 2 in the + latter means 2 or .2, then the 2 in the former means 20 or 2.</p> + + <p>Soon after Gunter's publication (1620) of these "logarithmic lines," + Edmund Wingate (1672) constructed the slide rule by repeating the + logarithmic scale on a tongue or "slide," which could be moved along the + first scale, thus avoiding the use of a pair of compasses. A clear idea + of this device can be formed if the scale in fig. 4 be copied on the edge + of a strip of paper placed against the line A C. If this is now moved to + the right till its 1 comes opposite the 2 on the first scale, then the 3 + of the second will be opposite 6 on the top scale, this being the product + of 2 and 3; and in this position every number on the top scale will be + twice that on the lower. For every position of the lower scale the ratio + of the numbers on the two scales which coincide will be the same. + Therefore multiplications, divisions, and simple proportions can be + solved at once.</p> + + <p>Dr John Perry added log log scales to the ordinary slide rule in order + to facilitate the calculation of <i>a</i><sup><i>x</i></sup> or + <i>e</i><sup><i>x</i></sup> according to the formula log + log<i>a</i><sup><i>x</i></sup> = log log<i>a</i> + log<i>x</i>. These + rules are manufactured by A.G. Thornton of Manchester.</p> + + <p>Many different forms of slide rules are now on the market. The + handiest for general use is the Gravet rule made by Tavernier-Gravet in + Paris, according to instructions of the mathematician V.M.A. Mannheim of + the École Polytechnique in Paris. It contains at the back of the slide + scales for the logarithms of sines and tangents so arranged that they can + be worked with the scale on the front. An improved form is now made by + Davis and Son of Derby, who engrave the scales on white celluloid instead + of on box-wood, thus greatly facilitating the readings. These scales have + the distance from one to ten about twice that in fig. 4. Tavernier-Gravet + makes them of that size and longer, even ½ metre long. But they then + become somewhat unwieldy, though they allow of reading to more figures. + To get a handy long scale Professor G. Fuller has constructed a spiral + slide rule drawn on a cylinder, which admits of reading to three and four + figures. The handiest of all is perhaps the "Calculating Circle" by + Boucher, made in the form of a watch. For various purposes special + adaptations of the slide rules are met with—for instance, in + various exposure meters for photographic purposes. General Strachey + introduced slide rules into the Meteorological Office for performing + special calculations. At some blast furnaces a slide rule has been used + for determining the amount of coke and flux required for any weight of + ore. Near the balance a large logarithmic scale is fixed with a slide + which has three indices only. A load of ore is put on the scales, and the + first index of the slide is put to the number giving the weight, when the + second and third point to the weights of coke and flux required.</p> + + <p>By placing a number of slides side by side, drawn if need be to + different scales of length, more complicated calculations may be + performed. It is then convenient to make the scales circular. A number of + rings or disks are mounted side by side on a cylinder, each having on its + rim a log-scale.</p> + + <p>The "Callendar Cable Calculator," invented by Harold Hastings and + manufactured by Robert W. Paul, is of this kind. In it a number of disks + are mounted on a common shaft, on which each turns freely unless a button + is pressed down whereby the disk is clamped to the shaft. Another disk is + fixed to the shaft. In front of the disks lies a fixed zero line. Let all + disks be set to zero and the shaft be turned, with the first disk + clamped, till a desired number appears on the zero line; let then the + first disk be released and the second clamped and so on; then the fixed + disk will add up all the turnings and thus give the product of the + numbers shown on the several disks. If the division on the disks is drawn + to different scales, more or less complicated calculations may be rapidly + performed. Thus if for some purpose the value of say <i>ab</i>³ + √<i>c</i> is required for many different values of <i>a</i>, + <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, three movable disks would be needed with divisions + drawn to scales of lengths in the proportion 1: 3: ½. The instrument now + on sale contains six movable disks.</p> + + <p><i>Continuous Calculating Machines or Integrators.</i>—In order + to measure the length of a curve, such as the road on a map, a <span + class="sidenote">Curvometers.</span> wheel is rolled along it. For one + revolution of the wheel the path described by its point of contact is + equal to the circumference of the wheel. Thus, if a cyclist counts the + number of revolutions of his front wheel he can calculate the distance + ridden by multiplying that number by the circumference of the wheel. An + ordinary cyclometer is nothing but an arrangement for counting these + revolutions, but it is graduated in such a manner that it gives at once + the distance in miles. On the same principle depend a number of + instruments which, under various fancy names, serve to measure the length + of any curve; they are in the shape of a small meter chiefly for the use + of cyclists. They all have a small wheel which is rolled along the curve + to be measured, and this sets a hand in motion which gives the reading on + a dial. Their accuracy is not very great, because it is difficult to + place the wheel so on the paper that the point of contact lies exactly + over a given point; the beginning and end of the readings are therefore + badly defined. Besides, it is not easy to guide the wheel along the curve + to which it should always lie tangentially. To obviate this defect more + complicated curvometers or kartometers have been devised. The handiest + seems to be that of G. Coradi. He uses two wheels; the tracing-point, + halfway between them, is guided along the curve, the line joining the + wheels being kept normal to the curve. This is pretty easily done by eye; + a constant deviation of 8° from this direction produces an error of only + 1%. The sum of the two readings gives the length. E. Fleischhauer uses + three, five or more wheels arranged symmetrically round a tracer whose + point is guided along the curve; the planes of the wheels all pass + through the tracer, and the wheels can only turn in one direction. The + sum of the readings of all the wheels gives approximately the length of + the curve, the approximation increasing with the number of the wheels + used. It is stated that with three wheels practically useful results can + be obtained, although in this case the error, if the instrument is + consistently handled so as always to produce the greatest inaccuracy, may + be as much as 5%.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_5.png" + alt="Fig. 5.--Amsler's Planimeter." title="Fig. 5.--Amsler's Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5. + </div> + <p>Planimeters are instruments for the determination by mechanical means + of the area of any figure. A pointer, generally called the <span + class="sidenote">Planimeters.</span> "tracer," is guided round the + boundary of the figure, and then the area is read off on the recording + apparatus of the instrument. The simplest and most useful is Amsler's + (fig. 5). It consists of two bars of metal OQ and QT, <!-- Page 976 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page976"></a>[v.04 p.0976]</span>which + are hinged together at Q. At O is a needle-point which is driven into the + drawing-board, and at T is the tracer. As this is guided round the + boundary of the figure a wheel W mounted on QT rolls on the paper, and + the turning of this wheel measures, to some known scale, the area. We + shall give the theory of this instrument fully in an elementary manner by + aid of geometry. The theory of other planimeters can then be easily + understood.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_6.png" + alt="Fig. 6.--Theory of Planimeter." title="Fig. 6.--Theory of Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6. + </div> + <p>Consider the rod QT with the wheel W, without the arm OQ. Let it be + placed with the wheel on the paper, and now moved perpendicular to itself + from AC to BD (fig. 6). The rod sweeps over, or generates, the area of + the rectangle ACDB = <i>lp</i>, where <i>l</i> denotes the length of the + rod and <i>p</i> the distance AB through which it has been moved. This + distance, as measured by the rolling of the wheel, which acts as a + curvometer, will be called the "roll" of the wheel and be denoted by + <i>w</i>. In this case <i>p</i> = <i>w</i>, and the area P is given by P + = <i>wl</i>. Let the circumference of the wheel be divided into say a + hundred equal parts <i>u</i>; then <i>w</i> registers the number of + <i>u</i>'s rolled over, and <i>w</i> therefore gives the number of areas + <i>lu</i> contained in the rectangle. By suitably selecting the radius of + the wheel and the length <i>l</i>, this area <i>lu</i> may be any + convenient unit, say a square inch or square centimetre. By changing + <i>l</i> the unit will be changed.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_7.png" + alt="Fig. 7.--Theory of Planimeter." title="Fig. 7.--Theory of Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7. + </div> + <p>Again, suppose the rod to turn (fig. 7) about the end Q, then it will + describe an arc of a circle, and the rod will generate an area + ½<i>l</i>²<span class="grk">θ</span>, where <span + class="grk">θ</span> is the angle AQB through which the rod has + turned. The wheel will roll over an arc <i>c</i><span + class="grk">θ</span>, where <i>c</i> is the distance of the wheel + from Q. The "roll" is now <i>w</i> = <i>c</i><span + class="grk">θ</span>; hence the area generated is</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><span class="correction" title="equals sign oriented vertically in original">P =</span></td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />2</td><td><i>l</i>²<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>c</i></td><td><i>w</i></td></tr></table> + + <p>and is again determined by <i>w</i>.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_8.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_8.png" + alt="Fig. 8.--Theory of Planimeter." title="Fig. 8.--Theory of Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8. + </div> + <p>Next let the rod be moved parallel to itself, but in a direction not + perpendicular to itself (fig. 8). The wheel will now not simply roll. + Consider a <i>small</i> motion of the rod from QT to Q′T′. + This may be resolved into the motion to RR′ perpendicular to the + rod, whereby the rectangle QTR′R is generated, and the sliding of + the rod along itself from RR′ to Q′T′. During this + second step no area will be generated. During the first step the roll of + the wheel will be QR, whilst during the second step there will be no roll + at all. The roll of the wheel will therefore measure the area of the + rectangle which equals the parallelogram QTT′Q′. If the whole + motion of the rod be considered as made up of a very great number of + small steps, each resolved as stated, it will be seen that the roll again + measures the area generated. But it has to be noticed that now the wheel + does not only roll, but also slips, over the paper. This, as will be + pointed out later, may introduce an error in the reading.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_9.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_9.png" + alt="Fig. 9.--Theory of Planimeter." title="Fig. 9.--Theory of Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9. + </div> + <p>We can now investigate the most general motion of the rod. We again + resolve the motion into a number of small steps. Let (fig. 9) AB be one + position, CD the next after a step so small that the arcs AC and BD over + which the ends have passed may be considered as straight lines. The area + generated is ABDC. This motion we resolve into a step from AB to + CB′, parallel to AB and a turning about C from CB′ to CD, + steps such as have been investigated. During the first, the "roll" will + be <i>p</i> the altitude of the parallelogram; during the second will be + <i>c</i><span class="grk">θ</span>. Therefore</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>w</i> = <i>p</i> + <i>c</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_10.png" + alt="Fig. 10.--Theory of Planimeter." title="Fig. 10.--Theory of Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10. + </div> + <p>The area generated is <i>lp</i> + ½ <i>l</i><sup>2</sup><span + class="grk">θ</span>, or, expressing <i>p</i> in terms of <i>w</i>, + <i>lw</i> + (½<i>l</i><sup>2</sup> - <i>lc</i>)<span + class="grk">θ</span>. For a finite motion we get the area equal to + the sum of the areas generated during the different steps. But the wheel + will continue rolling, and give the whole roll as the sum of the rolls + for the successive steps. Let then <i>w</i> denote the whole roll (in + fig. 10), and let <span class="grk">α</span> denote the sum of all + the small turnings <span class="grk">θ</span>; then the area is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = <i>lw</i> + (½<i>l</i><sup>2</sup> - <i>lc</i>)<span class="grk">α</span> . . . (1)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Here <span class="grk">α</span> is the angle which the last + position of the rod makes with the first. In all applications of the + planimeter the rod is brought back to its original position. Then the + angle <span class="grk">α</span> is either zero, or it is 2<span + class="grk">π</span> if the rod has been once turned quite round.</p> + + <p>Hence in the first case we have</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = <i>lw</i> . . . (2a)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and <i>w</i> gives the area as in case of a rectangle.</p> + + <p>In the other case</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = <i>lw</i> + <i>l</i>C . . . (2b)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where C = (½<i>l</i>-<i>c</i>)2<span class="grk">π</span>, if the + rod has once turned round. The number C will be seen to be always the + same, as it depends only on the dimensions of the instrument. Hence now + again the area is determined by <i>w</i> if C is known.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_11.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_11.png" + alt="Fig. 11.--Theory of Planimeter." title="Fig. 11.--Theory of Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11. + </div> + <p>Thus it is seen that the area generated by the motion of the rod can + be measured by the roll of the wheel; it remains to show how any given + area can be generated by the rod. Let the rod move in any manner but + return to its original position. Q and T then describe closed curves. + Such motion may be called cyclical. Here the theorem holds:—<i>If a + rod QT performs a cyclical motion, then the area generated equals the + difference of the areas enclosed by the paths of T and Q + respectively.</i> The truth of this proposition will be seen from a + figure. In fig. 11 different positions of the moving rod QT have been + marked, and its motion can be easily followed. It will be seen that every + part of the area TT′BB′ will be passed over once and always + by a <i>forward motion</i> of the rod, whereby the wheel will + <i>increase</i> its roll. The area AA′QQ′ will also be swept + over once, but with a <i>backward</i> roll; it must therefore be counted + as negative. The area between the curves is passed over twice, once with + a forward and once with a backward roll; it therefore counts once + positive and once negative; hence not at all. In more complicated figures + it may happen that the area within one of the curves, say + TT′BB′, is passed over several times, but then it will be + passed over once more in the forward direction than in the backward one, + and thus the theorem will still hold.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_12.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_12.png" + alt="Fig. 12.--Amslers Planimeter." title="Fig. 12.--Amslers Planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12. + </div> + <p>To use Amsler's planimeter, place the pole O on the paper + <i>outside</i> the figure to be measured. Then the area generated by QT + is that of the figure, because the point Q moves on an arc of a circle to + and fro enclosing no area. At the same time the rod comes back without + making a complete rotation. We have therefore in formula (1), <span + class="grk">α</span> = 0; and hence</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = <i>lw</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> +<p><!-- Page 977 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page977"></a>[v.04 p.0977]</span></p> + + <p>which is read off. But if the area is too large the pole O may be + placed within the area. The rod describes the area between the boundary + of the figure and the circle with radius <i>r</i> = OQ, whilst the rod + turns once completely round, making <span class="grk">α</span> = + 2<span class="grk">π</span>. The area measured by the wheel is by + formula (1), <i>lw</i> + (½<i>l</i>²-<i>lc</i>) 2<span + class="grk">π</span>.</p> + + <p>To this the area of the circle <span class="grk">π</span><i>r</i>² + must be added, so that now</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = <i>lw</i> + (½<i>l</i>²-<i>lc</i>)2<span class="grk">π</span> + <span class="grk">π</span><i>r</i>²,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>or</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = <i>lw</i> + C,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>C = (½<i>l</i>²-<i>lc</i>)2<span class="grk">π</span> + <span class="grk">π</span><i>r</i>²,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>is a constant, as it depends on the dimensions of the instrument + alone. This constant is given with each instrument.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_14.png" + alt="Fig. 14.--Recording wheel with a sharp edge." title="Fig. 14.--Recording wheel with a sharp edge." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14. + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_13.png" + alt="Fig. 13.--Amslers planimeter." title="Fig. 13.--Amslers planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13. + </div> + <p>Amsler's planimeters are made either with a rod QT of fixed length, + which gives the area therefore in terms of a fixed unit, say in square + inches, or else the rod can be moved in a sleeve to which the arm OQ is + hinged (fig. 13). This makes it possible to change the unit <i>lu</i>, + which is proportional to <i>l</i>.</p> + + <p>In the planimeters described the recording or integrating apparatus is + a smooth wheel rolling on the paper or on some other surface. Amsler has + described another recorder, viz. a wheel with a sharp edge. This will + roll on the paper but not slip. Let the rod QT carry with it an arm CD + perpendicular to it. Let there be mounted on it a wheel W, which can slip + along and turn about it. If now QT is moved parallel to itself to + Q′T′, then W will roll without slipping parallel to QT, and + slip along CD. This amount of slipping will equal the perpendicular + distance between QT and Q′T′, and therefore serve to measure + the area swept over like the wheel in the machine already described. The + turning of the rod will also produce slipping of the wheel, but it will + be seen without difficulty that this will cancel during a cyclical motion + of the rod, provided the rod does not perform a whole rotation.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_15.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_15.png" + alt="Fig. 15.--Early planimeter." title="Fig. 15.--Early planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15. + </div> + <p>The first planimeter was made on the following principles:—A + frame FF (fig. 15) can move parallel to OX. It carries a rod TT <span + class="sidenote">Early forms.</span> movable along its own length, hence + the tracer T can be guided along any curve ATB. When the rod has been + pushed back to Q′Q, the tracer moves along the axis OX. On the + frame a cone VCC′ is mounted with its axis sloping so that its top + edge is horizontal and parallel to TT′, whilst its vertex V is + opposite Q′. As the frame moves it turns the cone. A wheel W is + mounted on the rod at T′, or on an axis parallel to and rigidly + connected with it. This wheel rests on the top edge of the cone. If now + the tracer T, when pulled out through a distance <i>y</i> above Q, be + moved parallel to OX through a distance <i>dx</i>, the frame moves + through an equal distance, and the cone turns through an angle + <i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span> proportional to <i>dx</i>. The + wheel W rolls on the cone to an amount again proportional to <i>dx</i>, + and also proportional to <i>y</i>, its distance from V. Hence the roll of + the wheel is proportional to the area <i>ydx</i> described by the rod QT. + As T is moved from A to B along the curve the roll of the wheel will + therefore be proportional to the area AA′B′B. If the curve is + closed, and the tracer moved round it, the roll will measure the area + independent of the position of the axis OX, as will be seen by drawing a + figure. The cone may with advantage be replaced by a horizontal disk, + with its centre at V; this allows of <i>y</i> being negative. It may be + noticed at once that the roll of the wheel gives at every moment the area + A′ATQ. It will therefore allow of registering a set of values of + ∫<sub><i>a</i></sub><span class="intlim"><i>x</i></span> + <i>ydx</i> for any values of <i>x</i>, and thus of tabulating the values + of any indefinite integral. In this it differs from Amsler's planimeter. + Planimeters of this type were first invented in 1814 by the Bavarian + engineer Hermann, who, however, published nothing. They were reinvented + by Prof. Tito Gonnella of Florence in 1824, and by the Swiss engineer + Oppikofer, and improved by Ernst in Paris, the astronomer Hansen in + Gotha, and others (see Henrici, <i>British Association Report</i>, 1894). + But all were driven out of the field by Amsler's simpler planimeter.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_16.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_16.png" + alt="Fig. 16.--Hatchet planimeter." title="Fig. 16.--Hatchet planimeter." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16. + </div> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_17.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_17.png" + alt="Fig. 17.--Hatchet planimeter." title="Fig. 17.--Hatchet planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17. + </div> + <p>Altogether different from the planimeters described is the hatchet + planimeter, invented by Captain Prytz, a Dane, and made by Herr <span + class="sidenote">Hatchet planimeters.</span> Cornelius Knudson in + Copenhagen. It consists of a single rigid piece like fig. 16. The one end + T is the tracer, the other Q has a sharp hatchet-like edge. If this is + placed with QT on the paper and T is moved along any curve, Q will + follow, describing a "curve of pursuit." In consequence of the sharp + edge, Q can only move in the direction of QT, but the whole can turn + about Q. Any small step forward can therefore be considered as made up of + a motion along QT, together with a turning about Q. The latter motion + alone generates an area. If therefore a line OA = QT is turning about a + fixed point O, always keeping parallel to QT, it will sweep over an area + equal to that generated by the more general motion of QT. Let now (fig. + 17) QT be placed on OA, and T be guided round the closed curve in the + sense of the arrow. Q will describe a curve OSB. It may be made visible + by putting a piece of "copying paper" under the hatchet. When T has + returned to A the hatchet has the position BA. A line turning from OA + about O kept parallel to QT will describe the circular sector OAC, which + is equal in magnitude and sense to AOB. This therefore measures the area + generated by the motion of QT. To make this motion cyclical, suppose the + hatchet turned about A till Q comes from B to O. Hereby the sector AOB is + again described, and again in the positive sense, if it is remembered + that it turns about the tracer T fixed at A. The whole area now generated + is therefore twice the area of this sector, or equal to OA. OB, where OB + is measured along the arc. According to the theorem given above, this + area also equals the area of the given curve less the area OSBO. To make + this area disappear, a slight modification of the motion of QT is + required. Let the tracer T be moved, both from the first position OA and + the last BA of the rod, along some straight line AX. Q describes curves + OF and BH respectively. Now begin the motion with T at some point R on + AX, and move it along this line to A, round the curve and back to R. Q + will describe the curve DOSBED, if the motion is again made cyclical by + turning QT with T fixed at A. If R is properly selected, the path of Q + will cut itself, and parts of the area will be positive, parts negative, + as marked in the figure, and may therefore be made to vanish. When this + is done the area of the curve will equal twice the area of the sector + RDE. It is therefore equal to the arc DE multiplied by the length QT; if + the latter equals 10 in., then 10 times the number of inches contained in + the arc DE gives the number of square inches contained within the given + figure. If the area is not too large, the arc DE may be replaced by the + straight line DE.</p> + + <p>To use this simple instrument as a planimeter requires the possibility + of selecting the point R. The geometrical theory here given has so far + failed to give any rule. In fact, every line through any point in the + curve contains such a point. The analytical theory of the inventor, which + is very similar to that given by F.W. Hill (<i>Phil. Mag.</i> 1894), is + too complicated to repeat here. The integrals expressing the area + generated by QT have to be expanded in a series. By retaining only the + most important terms a result is obtained which comes to this, that if + the mass-centre of the area be taken as R, then A may be any point on the + curve. This is only approximate. Captain Prytz gives the following + instructions:—Take a point R as near as you can guess to the + mass-centre, put the tracer T on it, the knife-edge Q outside; make a + mark on the paper by pressing the knife-edge into it; guide the tracer + from R along a straight line to a point A on the boundary, round the + boundary, <!-- Page 978 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page978"></a>[v.04 p.0978]</span>and back from A to R; lastly, make + again a mark with the knife-edge, and measure the distance <i>c</i> + between the marks; then the area is nearly <i>cl</i>, where <i>l</i> = + QT. A nearer approximation is obtained by repeating the operation after + turning QT through 180° from the original position, and using the mean of + the two values of c thus obtained. The greatest dimension of the area + should not exceed ½<i>l</i>, otherwise the area must be divided into + parts which are determined separately. This condition being fulfilled, + the instrument gives very satisfactory results, especially if the figures + to be measured, as in the case of indicator diagrams, are much of the + same shape, for in this case the operator soon learns where to put the + point R.</p> + + <p>Integrators serve to evaluate a definite integral + ∫<sub><i>a</i></sub><span class="intlim"><i>b</i></span> + <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>)<i>dx</i>. If we plot out <span + class="sidenote">Integrators.</span> the curve whose equation is <i>y</i> + = <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>), the integral ∫<i>ydx</i> between the proper + limits represents the area of a figure bounded by the curve, the axis of + <i>x</i>, and the ordinates at <i>x</i>=<i>a</i>, <i>x</i>=<i>b</i>. + Hence if the curve is drawn, any planimeter may be used for finding the + value of the integral. In this sense planimeters are integrators. In + fact, a planimeter may often be used with advantage to solve problems + more complicated than the determination of a mere area, by converting the + one problem graphically into the other. We give an example:—</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_18.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_18.png" + alt="Fig. 18.--Use of Planimeter as Integrator." title="Fig. 18.--Use of Planimeter as Integrator." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18. + </div> + <p>Let the problem be to determine for the figure ABG (fig. 18), not only + the area, but also the first and second moment with regard to the axis + XX. At a distance <i>a</i> draw a line, C′D′, parallel to XX. + In the figure draw a number of lines parallel to AB. Let CD be one of + them. Draw C and D vertically upwards to C′D′, join these + points to some point O in XX, and mark the points + C<sub>1</sub>D<sub>1</sub> where OC′ and OD′ cut CD. Do this + for a sufficient number of lines, and join the points + C<sub>1</sub>D<sub>1</sub> thus obtained. This gives a new curve, which + may be called the first derived curve. By the same process get a new + curve from this, the second derived curve. By aid of a planimeter + determine the areas P, P<sub>1</sub>, P<sub>2</sub>, of these three + curves. Then, if <i><span class="over">x</span></i> is the distance of + the mass-centre of the given area from XX; <i><span + class="over">x</span></i><sub>1</sub> the same quantity for the first + derived figure, and I = A<i>k</i>² the moment of inertia of the first + figure, <i>k</i> its radius of gyration, with regard to XX as axis, the + following relations are easily proved:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P<i><span class="over">x</span></i> = <i>a</i>P<sub>1</sub>; P<sub>1</sub><i><span class="over">x</span></i><sub>1</sub> = <i>a</i>P<sub>2</sub>; I = <i>a</i>P<sub>1</sub><i><span class="over">x</span></i><sub>1</sub> = <i>a</i>²P<sub>1</sub>P<sub>2</sub>; <i>k</i>² = <i><span class="over">x</span><span class="over">x</span></i><sub>1</sub>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>which determine P, <i><span class="over">x</span></i> and I or + <i>k</i>. Amsler has constructed an integrator which serves to determine + these quantities by guiding a tracer once round the boundary of the given + figure (see below). Again, it may be required to find the value of an + integral ∫<i>y</i><span class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>)<i>dx</i> + between given limits where <span class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>) is a + simple function like sin <i>nx</i>, and where <i>y</i> is given as the + ordinate of a curve. The harmonic analysers described below are examples + of instruments for evaluating such integrals.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:70%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_19.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_19.png" + alt="Fig. 19.--Amsler's integrator or moment-planimeter." title="Fig. 19.--Amsler's integrator or moment-planimeter." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19. + </div> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_20.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_20.png" + alt="Fig. 20.--." title="Fig. 20.--." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20. + </div> + <p>Amsler has modified his planimeter in such a manner that instead of + the area it gives the first or second moment of a figure about an axis in + its plane. An instrument giving all three quantities simultaneously is + known as Amsler's integrator or moment-planimeter. It has one tracer, but + three recording wheels. It is mounted on a <span + class="sidenote">Amsler's Integrator.</span> carriage which runs on a + straight rail (fig. 19). This carries a horizontal disk A, movable about + a vertical axis Q. Slightly more than half the circumference is circular + with radius 2<i>a</i>, the other part with radius 3<i>a</i>. Against + these gear two disks, B and C, with radii <i>a</i>; their axes are fixed + in the carriage. From the disk A extends to the left a rod OT of length + <i>l</i>, on which a recording wheel W is mounted. The disks B and C have + also recording wheels, W<sub>1</sub> and W<sub>2</sub>, the axis of + W<sub>1</sub> being perpendicular, that of W<sub>2</sub> parallel to OT. + If now T is guided round a figure F, O will move to and fro in a straight + line. This part is therefore a simple planimeter, in which the one end of + the arm moves in a straight line instead of in a circular arc. + Consequently, the "roll" of W will record the area of the figure. Imagine + now that the disks B and C also receive arms of length <i>l</i> from the + centres of the disks to points T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub>, and in + the direction of the axes of the wheels. Then these arms with their + wheels will again be planimeters. As T is guided round the given figure + F, these points T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub> will describe closed + curves, F<sub>1</sub> and F<sub>2</sub>, and the "rolls" of W<sub>1</sub> + and W<sub>2</sub> will give their areas A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. + Let XX (fig. 20) denote the line, parallel to the rail, on which O moves; + then when T lies on this line, the arm BT<sub>1</sub> is perpendicular to + XX, and CT<sub>2</sub> parallel to it. If OT is turned through an angle + <span class="grk">θ</span>, clockwise, BT<sub>1</sub> will turn + counter-clockwise through an angle 2<span class="grk">θ</span>, and + CT<sub>2</sub> through an angle 3<span class="grk">θ</span>, also + counter-clockwise. If in this position T is moved through a distance x + parallel to the axis XX, the points T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub> will + move parallel to it through an equal distance. If now the first arm is + turned through a small angle <i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>, + moved back through a distance <i>x</i>, and lastly turned back through + the angle <i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>, the tracer T will + have described the boundary of a small strip of area. We divide the given + figure into <!-- Page 979 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page979"></a>[v.04 p.0979]</span>such strips. Then to every such + strip will correspond a strip of equal length <i>x</i> of the figures + described by T<sub>1</sub> and T<sub>2</sub>.</p> + + <p>The distances of the points, T, T<sub>1</sub>, T<sub>2</sub>, from the + axis XX may be called <i>y</i>, <i>y</i><sub>1</sub>, + <i>y</i><sub>2</sub>. They have the values</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>y</i> = <i>l</i> sin <span class="grk">θ</span>, <i>y</i><sub>1</sub> = <i>l</i> cos 2<span class="grk">θ</span>, <i>y</i><sub>2</sub> = -<i>l</i> sin 3<span class="grk">θ</span>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>from which</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>dy</i> = <i>l</i> cos <span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>, <i>dy</i><sub>1</sub> = - 2<i>l</i> sin 2<span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>, <i>dy</i><sub>2</sub> = - 3<i>l</i> cos 3<span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The areas of the three strips are respectively</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>d</i>A = <i>xdy</i>, <i>d</i>A<sub>1</sub> = <i>xdy</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>d</i>A<sub>2</sub> = <i>xdy</i><sub>2</sub>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Now <i>dy</i><sub>1</sub> can be written <i>dy</i><sub>1</sub> = - + 4<i>l</i> sin <span class="grk">θ</span> cos <span + class="grk">θ</span><i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span> = - 4 + sin <span class="grk">θ</span><i>dy</i>; therefore</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>d</i>A<sub>1</sub> = - 4 sin <span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>d</i>A = -</td><td>4<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i></td><td><i>yd</i>A;</td></tr></table> + + <p>whence</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>A<sub>1</sub> = -</td><td>4<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i></td><td>∫<i>yd</i>A = -</td><td>4<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i></td><td>A<i><span class="over">y</span></i>,</td></tr></table> + + <p>where A is the area of the given figure, and <i><span + class="over">y</span></i> the distance of its mass-centre from the axis + XX. But A<sub>1</sub> is the area of the second figure F<sub>1</sub>, + which is proportional to the reading of W<sub>1</sub>. Hence we may + say</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A<i><span class="over">y</span></i> = C<sub>1</sub><i>w</i><sub>1</sub>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where C<sub>1</sub> is a constant depending on the dimensions of the + instrument. The negative sign in the expression for A<sub>1</sub> is got + rid of by numbering the wheel W<sub>1</sub> the other way round.</p> + + <p>Again</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>dy</i><sub>2</sub> = - 3<i>l</i> cos <span class="grk">θ</span> {4 cos² <span class="grk">θ</span> - 3} <i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span> = - 3 {4 cos² <span class="grk">θ</span> - 3} <i>dy</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<table class="math"><tr><td>= - 3</td><td><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right brace" /></td><td>4<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i>²</td><td><i>y</i>² - 3</td><td><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left brace" /></td><td><i>dy</i>,</td></tr></table> + + <p>which gives</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>d</i>A<sub>2</sub> = -</td><td>12<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i>²</td><td><i>y</i>²<i>d</i>A + 9<i>d</i>A,</td></tr></table> + + <p>and</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>A<sub>2</sub> = -</td><td>12<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>l</i>²</td><td>∫<i>y</i>²<i>d</i>A + 9A.</td></tr></table> + + <p>But the integral gives the moment of inertia I of the area A about the + axis XX. As A<sub>2</sub> is proportional to the <span class="correction" + title="'roll of w2' in original: W2 is the wheel, w2 is the measure of its roll" + >roll of W<sub>2</sub></span>, A to that of W, we can write</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>I = C<i>w</i> - C<sub>2</sub> <i>w</i><sub>2</sub>,</p> + <p>A<i><span class="over">y</span></i> = C<sub>1</sub> <i>w</i><sub>1</sub>,</p> + <p>A = C<sub><i>c</i></sub> <i>w</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>If a line be drawn parallel to the axis XX at the distance <span + class="over">y</span>, it will pass through the mass-centre of the given + figure. If this represents the section of a beam subject to bending, this + line gives for a proper choice of XX the neutral fibre. The moment of + inertia for it will be I + A<i><span class="over">y</span></i>². Thus the + instrument gives at once all those quantities which are required for + calculating the strength of the beam under bending. One chief use of this + integrator is for the calculation of the displacement and stability of a + ship from the drawings of a number of sections. It will be noticed that + the length of the figure in the direction of XX is only limited by the + length of the rail.</p> + + <p>This integrator is also made in a simplified form without the wheel + W<sub>2</sub>. It then gives the area and first moment of any figure.</p> + + <p>While an integrator determines the value of a definite integral, hence + a <span class="sidenote">Integraphs.</span> mere constant, an integraph + gives the value of an indefinite integral, which is a function of + <i>x</i>. Analytically if <i>y</i> is a given function <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>) + of <i>x</i> and</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Y = ∫<sub><i>c</i></sub><span class="intlim"><i>x</i></span><i>ydx</i> or Y = ∫<i>ydx</i> + const.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>the function Y has to be determined from the condition</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>d</i>Y<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>dx</i></td><td> = <i>y</i>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>Graphically <i>y</i> = <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>) is either given by a curve, + or the graph of the equation is drawn: <i>y</i>, therefore, and similarly + Y, is a length. But <i>d</i>Y/<i>dx</i> is in this case a mere number, + and cannot equal a length <i>y</i>. Hence we introduce an arbitrary + constant length <i>a</i>, the unit to which the integraph draws the + curve, and write</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>d</i>Y<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>dx</i></td><td> = </td><td><i>y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>a</i></td><td> and <i>a</i>Y = ∫<i>ydx</i></td></tr></table> + + <p>Now for the Y-curve <i>d</i>Y/<i>dx</i> = tan <span + class="grk">φ</span>, where <span class="grk">φ</span> is the + angle between the tangent to the curve, and the axis of <i>x</i>. Our + condition therefore becomes</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>tan <span class="grk">φ</span> = </td><td><i>y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>a</i>.</td></tr></table> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_21.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_21.png" + alt="Fig. 21.--Integraph." title="Fig. 21.--Integraph." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21. + </div> + <p>This <span class="grk">φ</span> is easily constructed for any + given point on the y-curve:—From the foot B′ (fig. 21) of the + ordinate <i>y</i> = B′B set off, as in the figure, B′D = + <i>a</i>, then angle BDB′ = <span class="grk">φ</span>. Let now + DB′ with a perpendicular B′B move along the axis of <i>x</i>, + whilst B follows the <i>y</i>-curve, then a pen P on B′B will + describe the Y-curve provided it moves at every moment in a direction + parallel to BD. The object of the integraph is to draw this new curve + when the tracer of the instrument is guided along the <i>y</i>-curve.</p> + + <p>The first to describe such instruments was Abdank-Abakanowicz, who in + 1889 published a book in which a variety of mechanisms to obtain the + object in question are described. Some years later G. Coradi, in Zürich, + carried out his ideas. Before this was done, C.V. Boys, without knowing + of Abdank-Abakanowicz's work, actually made an integraph which was + exhibited at the Physical Society in 1881. Both make use of a sharp edge + wheel. Such a wheel will not slip sideways; it will roll forwards along + the line in which its plane intersects the plane of the paper, and while + rolling will be able to turn gradually about its point of contact. If + then the angle between its direction of rolling and the <i>x</i>-axis be + always equal to <span class="grk">φ</span>, the wheel will roll along + the Y-curve required. The axis of <i>x</i> is fixed only in direction; + shifting it parallel to itself adds a constant to Y, and this gives the + arbitrary constant of integration.</p> + + <p>In fact, if Y shall vanish for <i>x</i> = <i>c</i>, or if</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Y = ∫<sub><i>c</i></sub><span class="intlim"><i>x</i></span><i>ydx</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>then the axis of <i>x</i> has to be drawn through that point on the + <i>y</i>-curve which corresponds to <i>x</i> = <i>c</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_22.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_22.png" + alt="Fig. 22.--Coradi's integraph." title="Fig. 22.--Coradi's integraph." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22. + </div> + <p>In Coradi's integraph a rectangular frame + F<sub>1</sub>F<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub>F<sub>4</sub> (fig. 22) rests with + four rollers R on the drawing board, and can roll freely in the direction + OX, which will be called the axis of the instrument. On the front edge + F<sub>1</sub>F<sub>2</sub> travels a carriage AA′ supported at + A′ on another rail. A bar DB can turn about D, fixed to the frame + in its axis, and slide through a point B fixed in the carriage AA′. + Along it a block K can slide. On the back edge F<sub>3</sub>F<sub>4</sub> + of the frame another carriage C travels. It holds a vertical spindle with + the knife-edge wheel at the bottom. At right angles to the plane of the + wheel, the spindle has an arm GH, which is kept parallel to a <!-- Page + 980 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page980"></a>[v.04 + p.0980]</span>similar arm attached to K perpendicular to DB. The plane of + the knife-edge wheel <i>r</i> is therefore always parallel to DB. If now + the point B is made to follow a curve whose <i>y</i> is measured from OX, + we have in the triangle BDB′, with the angle <span + class="grk">φ</span> at D,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>tan <span class="grk">φ</span> = <i>y</i>/<i>a</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where <i>a</i> = DB′ is the constant base to which the + instrument works. The point of contact of the wheel <i>r</i> or any point + of the carriage C will therefore always move in a direction making an + angle <span class="grk">φ</span> with the axis of <i>x</i>, whilst it + moves in the <i>x</i>-direction through the same distance as the point B + on the <i>y</i>-curve—that is to say, it will trace out the + integral curve required, and so will any point rigidly connected with the + carriage C. A pen P attached to this carriage will therefore draw the + integral curve. Instead of moving B along the <i>y</i>-curve, a tracer T + fixed to the carriage A is guided along it. For using the instrument the + carriage is placed on the drawing-board with the front edge parallel to + the axis of <i>y</i>, the carriage A being clamped in the central + position with A at E and B at B′ on the axis of <i>x</i>. The + tracer is then placed on the <i>x</i>-axis of the <i>y</i>-curve and + clamped to the carriage, and the instrument is ready for use. As it is + convenient to have the integral curve placed directly opposite to the + <i>y</i>-curve so that corresponding values of <i>y</i> or Y are drawn on + the same line, a pen P′ is fixed to C in a line with the + tracer.</p> + + <p>Boys' integraph was invented during a sleepless night, and during the + following days carried out as a working model, which gives highly + satisfactory results. It is ingenious in its simplicity, and a direct + realization as a mechanism of the principles explained in connexion with + fig. 21. The line B′B is represented by the edge of an ordinary + T-square sliding against the edge of a drawing-board. The points B and P + are connected by two rods BE and EP, jointed at E. At B, E and P are + small pulleys of equal diameters. Over these an endless string runs, + ensuring that the pulleys at B and P always turn through equal angles. + The pulley at B is fixed to a rod which passes through the point D, which + itself is fixed in the T-square. The pulley at P carries the knife-edge + wheel. If then B and P are kept on the edge of the T-square, and B is + guided along the curve, the wheel at P will roll along the Y-curve, it + having been originally set parallel to BD. To give the wheel at P + sufficient grip on the paper, a small loaded three-wheeled carriage, the + knife-edge wheel P being one of its wheels, is added. If a piece of + copying paper is inserted between the wheel P and the drawing paper the + Y-curve is drawn very sharply.</p> + + <p>Integraphs have also been constructed, by aid of which ordinary + differential equations, especially linear ones, can be solved, the + solution being given as a curve. The first suggestion in this direction + was made by Lord Kelvin. So far no really useful instrument has been + made, although the ideas seem sufficiently developed to enable a skilful + instrument-maker to produce one should there be sufficient demand for it. + Sometimes a combination of graphical work with an integraph will serve + the purpose. This is the case if the variables are separated, hence if + the equation</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>X<i>dx</i> + Y<i>dy</i> = 0</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>has to be integrated where X = <i>p</i>(<i>x</i>), Y = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>y</i>) are given as curves. If we write</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>au</i> = ∫X<i>dx</i>, <i>av</i> = ∫Y<i>dy</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>then <i>u</i> as a function of <i>x</i>, and <i>v</i> as a function of + <i>y</i> can be graphically found by the integraph. The general solution + is then</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>u</i> + <i>v</i> = <i>c</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>with the condition, for the determination for <i>c</i>, that <i>y</i> + = <i>y</i><sub>0</sub>, for <i>x</i> = <i>x</i><sub>0</sub>. This + determines <i>c</i> = <i>u</i><sub>0</sub> + <i>v</i><sub>0</sub>, where + <i>u</i><sub>0</sub> and <i>v</i><sub>0</sub> are known from the graphs + of <i>u</i> and <i>v</i>. From this the solution as a curve giving + <i>y</i> a function of <i>x</i> can be drawn:—For any <i>x</i> take + <i>u</i> from its graph, and find the <i>y</i> for which <i>v</i> = + <i>c</i> - <i>u</i>, plotting these <i>y</i> against their <i>x</i> gives + the curve required.</p> + + <p>If a periodic function <i>y</i> of <i>x</i> is given by its graph for + one period <i>c</i>, it can, according to the theory of Fourier's Series, + be <span class="sidenote">Harmonic analysers.</span> expanded in a + series.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>y = A<sub>0</sub> + A<sub>1</sub> cos <span class="grk">θ</span> + A<sub>2</sub> cos 2<span class="grk">θ</span> + ... + A<sub><i>n</i></sub> cos <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span> + ...</p> + <p class="i8">+ B<sub>1</sub> sin <span class="grk">θ</span> + B<sub>2</sub> sin 2<span class="grk">θ</span> + ... + B<sub><i>n</i></sub> sin <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span> + ...</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where <span class="grk">θ</span> = 2<span + class="grk">π</span><i>x</i> / <i>c</i>.</p> + + <p>The absolute term A<sub>0</sub> equals the mean ordinate of the curve, + and can therefore be determined by any planimeter. The other + co-efficients are</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>A<sub><i>n</i></sub> =</td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim">2<span class="grk">π</span></span> <i>y</i> cos <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>; B<sub><i>n</i></sub> =</td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim">2<span class="grk">π</span></span> <i>y</i> sin <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>d</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>A harmonic analyser is an instrument which determines these integrals, + and is therefore an integrator. The first instrument of this kind is due + to Lord Kelvin (<i>Proc. Roy Soc.</i>, vol xxiv., 1876). Since then + several others have been invented (see Dyck's <i>Catalogue</i>; Henrici, + <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, July 1894; <i>Phys. Soc.</i>, 9th March; Sharp, + <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, July 1894; <i>Phys. Soc.</i>, 13th April). In Lord + Kelvin's instrument the curve to be analysed is drawn on a cylinder whose + circumference equals the period <i>c</i>, and the sine and cosine terms + of the integral are introduced by aid of simple harmonic motion. + Sommerfeld and Wiechert, of Konigsberg, avoid this motion by turning the + cylinder about an axis perpendicular to that of the cylinder. Both these + machines are large, and practically fixtures in the room where they are + used. The first has done good work in the Meteorological Office in London + in the analysis of meteorological curves. Quite different and simpler + constructions can be used, if the integrals determining + A<sub><i>n</i></sub> and B<sub><i>n</i></sub> be integrated by parts. + This gives</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>n</i>A<sub><i>n</i></sub> = -</td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim">2<span class="grk">π</span></span> sin <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>dy</i>; <i>n</i>B<sub><i>n</i></sub> =</td><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim">2<span class="grk">π</span></span> cos <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>dy</i>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>An analyser presently to be described, based on these forms, has been + constructed by Coradi in Zurich (1894). Lastly, a most powerful analyser + has been invented by Michelson and Stratton (U.S.A.) (<i>Phil Mag.</i>, + 1898), which will also be described.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:85%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_23.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_23.png" + alt="Fig. 23.--Henrici-Coradi analyser." title="Fig. 23.--Henrici-Coradi analyser." /></a> + <p><br style="clear : both" /></p> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23. + </div> + <p>The <i>Henrici-Coradi</i> analyser has to add up the values of + <i>dy</i>.sin <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span> and <i>dy</i>.cos + <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span>. But these are the components of + <i>dy</i> in two directions perpendicular to each other, of which one + makes an angle <i>n</i><span class="grk">θ</span> with the axis of + <i>x</i> or of <span class="grk">θ</span>. This decomposition can + be performed by Amsler's registering wheels. Let two of these be mounted, + perpendicular to each other, in one horizontal frame which can be turned + about a vertical axis, the wheels resting on the paper on which the curve + is drawn. When the tracer is placed on the curve at the point <span + class="grk">θ</span> = 0 the one axis is parallel to the axis of + <span class="grk">θ</span>. As the tracer follows the curve the + frame is made to turn through an angle <i>n</i><span + class="grk">θ</span>. At the same time the frame moves with the + tracer in the direction of <i>y</i>. For a small motion the two wheels + will then register just the components required, and during the continued + motion of the tracer along the curve the wheels will add these + components, and thus give the values of <i>n</i>A<sub><i>n</i></sub> and + <i>n</i>B<sub><i>n</i></sub>. The factors 1/<span class="grk">π</span> + and -1/<span class="grk">π</span> are taken account of in the + graduation of the wheels. The readings have then to be divided by + <i>n</i> to give the coefficients required. Coradi's realization of this + idea will be understood from fig. 23. The frame PP′ of the + instrument rests on three rollers E, E′, and D. The first two drive + an axis with a disk C on it. It is placed parallel to the axis of + <i>x</i> of the curve. The tracer is attached to a carriage WW which runs + on the rail P. As it follows the curve this carriage moves through a + distance <i>x</i> whilst the whole instrument runs forward through a + distance <i>y</i>. The wheel C turns through an angle proportional, + during each small motion, to <i>dy</i>. On it rests a glass sphere which + will therefore also turn about its horizontal axis proportionally, to + <i>dy</i>. The registering frame is suspended by aid of a spindle S, + having a disk H. It is turned by aid of a wire connected with the + carriage WW, and turns <i>n</i> times round as the tracer describes the + whole length of the curve. The registering wheels R, R′ rest + against the glass sphere and give the values <i>n</i>A<sub><i>n</i></sub> + and <i>n</i>B<sub><i>n</i></sub>. The value of <i>n</i> can be altered by + changing the disk H into one of different diameter. It is also possible + to mount on the same frame a number of spindles with registering wheels + and glass spheres, each of the latter resting on a separate disk C. As + many as five have been introduced. One guiding of the tracer over the + curve gives then at once the ten coefficients A<sub><i>n</i></sub> and + B<sub><i>n</i></sub> for <i>n</i> = 1 to 5.</p> + + <p>All the calculating machines and integrators considered so far have + been kinematic. We have now to describe a most remarkable instrument + based on the equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of springs. The + body itself for rigidity's sake is made a hollow <!-- Page 981 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page981"></a>[v.04 p.0981]</span><span + class="sidenote">Michelson and Stratton analyzer</span> cylinder H, shown + in fig. 24 in end view. It can turn about its axis, being supported on + knife-edges O. To it springs are attached at the prolongation of a + horizontal diameter; to the left a series of <i>n</i> small springs + <i>s</i>, all alike, side by side at equal intervals at a distance a from + the axis of the knife-edges; to the right a single spring S at distance + <i>b</i>. These springs are supposed to follow Hooke's law. If the + elongation beyond the natural length of a spring is <span + class="grk">λ</span>, the force asserted by it is <i>p</i> = + <i>k</i><span class="grk">λ</span>. Let for the position of + equilibrium <i>l</i>, L be respectively the elongation of a small and the + large spring, <i>k</i>, K their constants, then</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/calculating_machines_24.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/calculating_machines_24.png" + alt="Fig. 24.--Michelson and Stratton analyzer." title="Fig. 24.--Michelson and Stratton analyzer." /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24. + </div> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>nkla</i> = KL<i>b</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The position now obtained will be called the <i>normal</i> one. Now + let the top ends C of the small springs be raised through distances + <i>y</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>y</i><sub>2</sub>, ... + <i>y</i><sub><i>n</i></sub>. Then the body H will turn; B will move down + through a distance <i>z</i> and A up through a distance + (<i>a</i>/<i>b</i>)<i>z</i>. The new forces thus introduced will be in + equilibrium if</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>ak</i></td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>∑<i>y</i> - <i>n</i></td><td><i>a</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>b</i></td><td><i>z</i></td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td> = <i>b</i>K<i>z</i>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>Or</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>z</i> =<br /> </td><td>∑<i>y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><table class="math0"><tr><td><i>n</i></td><td><i>a</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>b</i></td><td>+</td><td><i>b</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>a</i></td><td>K<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>k</i></td></tr></table></td><td>=<br /> </td><td>∑<i>y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><table class="math0"><tr><td><i>n</i></td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>a</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><i>b</i></td><td>+</td><td><i>l</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />L</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td>.</td></tr></table></td></tr></table> + + <p>This shows that the displacement <i>z</i> of B is proportional to the + sum of the displacements <i>y</i> of the tops of the small springs. The + arrangement can therefore be used for the addition of a number of + displacements. The instrument made has eighty small springs, and the + authors state that from the experience gained there is no impossibility + of increasing their number even to a thousand. The displacement <i>z</i>, + which necessarily must be small, can be enlarged by aid of a lever + OT′. To regulate the displacements <i>y</i> of the points C (fig. + 24) each spring is attached to a lever EC, fulcrum E. To this again a + long rod FG is fixed by aid of a joint at F. The lower end of this rod + rests on another lever GP, fulcrum N, at a changeable distance + <i>y</i>″ = NG from N. The elongation <i>y</i> of any spring + <i>s</i> can thus be produced by a motion of P. If P be raised through a + distance <i>y</i>′, then the displacement <i>y</i> of C will be + proportional to <i>y</i>′<i>y</i>″; it is, say, equal to + <span class="grk">μ</span><i>y</i>′<i>y</i>″ where <span + class="grk">μ</span> is the same for all springs. Now let the points + C, and with it the springs <i>s</i>, the levers, &c., be numbered + C<sub>0</sub>, C<sub>1</sub>, C<sub>2</sub> ... There will be a + zero-position for the points P all in a straight horizontal line. When in + this position the points C will also be in a line, and this we take as + axis of <i>x</i>. On it the points C<sub>0</sub>, C<sub>1</sub>, + C<sub>2</sub> ... follow at equal distances, say each equal to <i>h</i>. + The point C<sub><i>k</i></sub> lies at the distance <i>kh</i> which gives + the <i>x</i> of this point. Suppose now that the rods FG are all set at + unit distance NG from N, and that the points P be raised so as to form + points in a continuous curve <i>y</i>′ = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>), then the points C will lie in a curve + <i>y</i> = <span class="grk">μ</span><span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>). The area of this curve is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="grk">μ</span> ∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim"><i>c</i></span><span class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>)<i>dx</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Approximately this equals ∑<i>hy</i> = <i>h</i>∑<i>y</i>. + Hence we have</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim"><i>c</i></span><span class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>)<i>dx</i> =</td><td><i>h</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">μ</span></td><td>∑<i>y</i> =</td><td><span class="grk">λ</span><i>h</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">μ</span></td><td><i>z</i>,</td></tr></table> + + <p>where <i>z</i> is the displacement of the point B which can be + measured. The curve <i>y</i>′ = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>) may be supposed cut out as a templet. + By putting this under the points P the area of the curve is thus + determined—the instrument is a simple integrator.</p> + + <p>The integral can be made more general by varying the distances NG = + <i>y</i>″. These can be set to form another curve <i>y</i>″ = + <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>). We have now <i>y</i> = <span + class="grk">μ</span><i>y</i>′<i>y</i>″ = <span + class="grk">μ</span> <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>) <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>), and get as before</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim"><i>c</i></span><i>f</i>(<i>x</i>) <span class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>)<i>dx</i> =</td><td><span class="grk">λ</span><i>h</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">μ</span></td><td><i>z</i>,</td></tr></table> + + <p>These integrals are obtained by the addition of ordinates, and + therefore by an approximate method. But the ordinates are numerous, there + being 79 of them, and the results are in consequence very accurate. The + displacement <i>z</i> of B is small, but it can be magnified by taking + the reading of a point T′ on the lever AB. The actual reading is + done at point T connected with T′ by a long vertical rod. At T + either a scale can be placed or a drawing-board, on which a pen at T + marks the displacement.</p> + + <p>If the points G are set so that the distances NG on the different + levers are proportional to the terms of a numerical series</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>u</i><sub>0</sub> + <i>u</i><sub>1</sub> + <i>u</i><sub>2</sub> + ...</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and if all P be moved through the same distance, then <i>z</i> will be + proportional to the sum of this series up to 80 terms. We get an + <i>Addition Machine</i>.</p> + + <p>The use of the machine can, however, be still further extended. Let a + templet with a curve <i>y</i>′ = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<span class="grk">ξ</span>) be set under each + point P at right angles to the axis of <i>x</i> hence parallel to the + plane of the figure. Let these templets form sections of a continuous + surface, then each section parallel to the axis of <i>x</i> will form a + curve like the old <i>y</i>′ = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i>), but with a variable parameter <span + class="grk">ξ</span>, or <i>y</i>′ = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<span class="grk">ξ</span>, <i>x</i>). For + each value of <span class="grk">ξ</span> the displacement of T will + give the integral</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Y = ∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim">c</span> <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>) <span class="grk">φ</span>(<span class="grk">ξ</span><i>x</i>) <i>dx</i> = F(<span class="grk">ξ</span>), . . . (1)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>where Y equals the displacement of T to some scale dependent on the + constants of the instrument.</p> + + <p>If the whole block of templets be now pushed under the points P and if + the drawing-board be moved at the same rate, then the pen T will draw the + curve Y = F(<span class="grk">ξ</span>). The instrument now is an + <i>integraph</i> giving the value of a definite integral as function of a + <i>variable parameter</i>.</p> + + <p>Having thus shown how the lever with its springs can be made to serve + a variety of purposes, we return to the description of the actual + instrument constructed. The machine serves first of all to sum up a + series of harmonic motions or to draw the curve</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Y = <i>a</i><sub>1</sub> cos <i>x</i> + <i>a</i><sub>2</sub> cos 2<i>x</i> + <i>a</i><sub>3</sub> cos 3<i>x</i> + . . . (2)</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The motion of the points P<sub>1</sub>P<sub>2</sub> ... is here made + harmonic by aid of a series of excentric disks arranged so that for one + revolution of the first the other disks complete 2, 3, ... revolutions. + They are all driven by one handle. These disks take the place of the + templets described before. The distances NG are made equal to the + amplitudes <i>a</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>a</i><sub>2</sub>, + <i>a</i><sub>3</sub>, ... The drawing-board, moved forward by the turning + of the handle, now receives a curve of which (2) is the equation. If all + excentrics are turned through a right angle a sine-series can be added + up.</p> + + <p>It is a remarkable fact that the same machine can be used as a + harmonic analyser of a given curve. Let the curve to be analysed be set + off along the levers NG so that in the old notation it is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>y</i>″ = <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>),</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>whilst the curves <i>y</i>′ = <span + class="grk">φ</span>(<i>x</i><span class="grk">ξ</span>) are + replaced by the excentrics, hence <span class="grk">ξ</span> by the + angle <span class="grk">θ</span> through which the first excentric + is turned, so that <i>y</i>′<sub><i>k</i></sub> = cos <i>k</i><span + class="grk">θ</span>. But <i>kh</i> = <i>x</i> and <i>nh</i> = + <span class="grk">π</span>, <i>n</i> being the number of springs + <i>s</i>, and <span class="grk">π</span> taking the place of <i>c</i>. + This makes</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>k</i><span class="grk">θ</span> =</td><td><i>n</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td><span class="grk">θ</span>.<i>x</i>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>Hence our instrument draws a curve which gives the integral (1) in the + form</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>y</i> =</td><td>2<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td>∫<sub>0</sub><span class="intlim"><span class="grk">π</span></span> <i>f</i>(<i>x</i>)cos</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>n</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br /><span class="grk">π</span></td><td><span class="grk">θ</span><i>x</i></td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><i>dx</i></td></tr></table> + + <p>as a function of <span class="grk">θ</span>. But this integral + becomes the coefficient <i>a</i><sub><i>m</i></sub> in the cosine + expansion if we make</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="grk">θ</span><i>n</i>/<span class="grk">π</span> = <i>m</i> or <span class="grk">θ</span> = <i>m</i><span class="grk">π</span>/<i>n</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The ordinates of the curve at the values <span + class="grk">θ</span> = <span class="grk">π</span>/<i>n</i>, + 2<span class="grk">π</span>/<i>n</i>, ... give therefore all + coefficients up to <i>m</i> = 80. The curve shows at a glance which and + how many of the coefficients are of importance.</p> + + <p>The instrument is described in <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, vol. xlv., 1898. A + number of curves drawn by it are given, and also examples of the analysis + of curves for which the coefficients <i>a</i><sub><i>m</i></sub> are + known. These indicate that a remarkable accuracy is obtained.</p> + + <p>(O. H.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_231" href="#FnAnchor_231">[1]</a> For a fuller + description of the manner in which a mere addition machine can be used + for multiplication and division, and even for the extraction of square + roots, see an article by C.V. Boys in <i>Nature</i>, 11th July 1901.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CALCUTTA,</b> the capital of British India and also of the province + of Bengal. It is situated in 22° 34′ N. and 88° 24′ E., on + the left or east bank of the Hugli, about 80 m. from the sea. Including + its suburbs it covers an area of 27,267 acres, and contains a population + (1901) of 949,144. Calcutta and Bombay have long contested the position + of the premier city of India in population and trade; but during the + decade 1891-1901 the prevalence of plague in Bombay gave a considerable + advantage to Calcutta, which was comparatively free from that disease. + Calcutta lies only some 20 ft. above sea-level, and extends about 6 m. + along the Hugli, and is bounded elsewhere by the Circular Canal and the + Salt Lakes, and by suburbs which form separate municipalities. Fort + William stands in its centre.</p> + + <p><i>Public Buildings.</i>—Though Calcutta was called by Macaulay + "the city of palaces," its modern public buildings cannot compare with + those of Bombay. Its chief glory is the Maidan or park, which is large + enough to embrace the area of Fort William and a racecourse. Many + monuments find a place on the Maidan, among them being modern equestrian + statues of Lord Roberts and Lord Lansdowne, which face one another on + each side of the Red Road, where the rank and <!-- Page 982 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page982"></a>[v.04 p.0982]</span>fashion of + Calcutta take their evening drive. In the north-eastern corner of the + Maidan the Indian memorial to Queen Victoria, consisting of a marble + hall, with a statue and historical relics, was opened by the prince of + Wales in January 1906. The government acquired Metcalfe Hall, in order to + convert it into a public library and reading-room worthy of the capital + of India; and also the country-house of Warren Hastings at Alipur, for + the entertainment of Indian princes. Lord Curzon restored, at his own + cost, the monument which formerly commemorated the massacre of the Black + Hole, and a tablet let into the wall of the general post office indicates + the position of the Black Hole in the north-east bastion of Fort William, + now occupied by the roadway. Government House, which is situated near the + Maidan and Eden Gardens, is the residence of the viceroy; it was built by + Lord Wellesley in 1799, and is a fine pile situated in grounds covering + six acres, and modelled upon Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, one of the + Adam buildings. Belvedere House, the official residence of the + lieutenant-governor of Bengal, is situated close to the botanical gardens + in Alipur, the southern suburb of Calcutta. Facing the Maidan for a + couple of miles is the Chowringhee, one of the famous streets of the + world, once a row of palatial residences, but now given up almost + entirely to hotels, clubs and shops.</p> + + <p><i>Commerce.</i>—Calcutta owes its commercial prosperity to the + fact that it is situated near the mouth of the two great river systems of + the Ganges and Brahmaputra. It thus receives the produce of these fertile + river valleys, while the rivers afford a cheaper mode of conveyance than + any railway. In addition Calcutta is situated midway between Europe and + the Far East and thus forms a meeting-place for the commerce and peoples + of the Eastern and Western worlds. The port of Calcutta is one of the + busiest in the world, and the banks of the Hugli rival the port of London + in their show of shipping. The total number of arrivals and departures + during 1904-1905 was 3027 vessels with an average tonnage of 3734. But + though the city is such a busy commercial centre, most of its industries + are carried on outside municipal limits. Howrah, on the opposite side of + the Hugli, is the terminus of three great railway systems, and also the + headquarters of the jute industry and other large factories. It is + connected with Calcutta by an immense floating bridge, 1530 ft. in + length, which was constructed in 1874. Other railways have their terminus + at Sealdah, an eastern suburb. The docks lie outside Calcutta, at + Kidderpur, on the south; and at Alipur are the zoological gardens, the + residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, cantonments for a native + infantry regiment, the central gaol and a government reformatory. The + port of Calcutta stretches about 10 m. along the river. It is under the + control of a port trust, whose jurisdiction extends to the mouth of the + Hugli and also over the floating bridge. New docks were opened in 1892, + which cost upwards of two millions sterling. The figures for the + sea-borne trade of Calcutta are included in those of Bengal. Its inland + trade is carried on by country boat, inland steamer, rail and road, and + amounted in 1904-1905 to about four and three quarter millions sterling. + More than half the total is carried by the East Indian railway, which + serves the United Provinces. Country boats hold their own against inland + steamers, especially in imports.</p> + + <p><i>Municipality.</i>—The municipal government of Calcutta was + reconstituted by an act of the Bengal legislature, passed in 1899. + Previously, the governing body consisted of seventy-five commissioners, + of whom fifty were elected. Under the new system modelled upon that of + the Bombay municipality, this body, styled the corporation, remains + comparatively unaltered; but a large portion of their powers is + transferred to a general committee, composed of twelve members, of whom + one-third are elected by the corporation, one-third by certain public + bodies and one-third are nominated by the government. At the same time, + the authority of the chairman, as supreme executive officer, is + considerably strengthened. The two most important works undertaken by the + old municipality were the provision of a supply of filtered water and the + construction of a main drainage system. The water-supply is derived from + the river Hugli, about 16 m. above Calcutta, where there are large + pumping-stations and settling-tanks. The drainage-system consists of + underground sewers, which are discharged by a pumping-station into a + natural depression to the eastward, called the Salt Lake. Refuse is also + removed to the Salt Lake by means of a municipal railway.</p> + + <p><i>Education.</i>—The Calcutta University was constituted in + 1857, as an examining body, on the model of the university of London. The + chief educational institutions are the Government Presidency College; + three aided missionary colleges, and four unaided native colleges; the + Sanskrit College and the Mahommedan Madrasah; the government medical + college, the government engineering college at Sibpur, on the opposite + bank of the Hugli, the government school of art, high schools for boys, + the Bethune College and high schools for girls.</p> + + <p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Calcutta in 1710 was + estimated at 12,000, from which figure it rose to about 117,000 in 1752. + In the census of 1831 it was 187,000, in 1839 it had become 229,000 and + in 1901, 949,144. Thus in the century between 1801 and 1901 it increased + sixfold, while during the same period London only increased fivefold. Out + of the total population of town and suburbs in 1901, 615,000 were Hindus, + 286,000 Mahommedans and 38,000 Christians.</p> + + <p><i>Climate and Health.</i>—The climate of the city was + originally very unhealthy, but it has improved greatly of recent years + with modern sanitation and drainage. The climate is hot and damp, but has + a pleasant cold season from November to March. April, May and June are + hot; and the monsoon months from June to October are distinguished by + damp heat and malaria. The mean annual temperature is 79° F., with a + range from 85° in the hot season and 83° in the rains to 72° in the cool + season, a mean maximum of 102° in May and a mean minimum of 48° in + January. Calcutta has been comparatively fortunate in escaping the + plague. The disease manifested itself in a sporadic form in April 1898, + but disappeared by September of that year. Many of the Marwari traders + fled the city, and some trouble was experienced in shortage of labour in + the factories and at the docks. The plague returned in 1899 and caused a + heavy mortality during the early months of the following year; but the + population was not demoralized, nor was trade interfered with. A yet more + serious outbreak occurred in the early months of 1901, the number of + deaths being 7884. For three following years the totals were (1902-1903) + 7284; (1903-1904) 8223; and (1904-1905) 4689; but these numbers compared + very favourably with the condition of Bombay at the same time.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The history of Calcutta practically dates from + the 24th of August 1690, when it was founded by Job Charnock + (<i>q.v.</i>) of the English East India Company. In 1596 it had obtained + a brief entry as a rent-paying village in the survey of Bengal executed + by command of the emperor Akbar. But it was not till ninety years later + that it emerged into history. In 1686 the English merchants at Hugli + under Charnock's leadership, finding themselves compelled to quit their + factory in consequence of a rupture with the Mogul authorities, retreated + about 26 m. down the river to Sutanati, a village on the banks of the + Hugli, now within the boundaries of Calcutta. They occupied Sutanati + temporarily in December 1686, again in November 1687 and permanently on + the 24th of August 1690. It was thus only at the third attempt that + Charnock was able to obtain the future capital of India for his centre + and the subsequent prosperity of Calcutta is due entirely to his tenacity + of purpose. The new settlement soon extended itself along the river bank + to the then village of Kalikata, and by degrees the cluster of + neighbouring hamlets grew into the present town. In 1696 the English + built the original Fort William by permission of the nawab, and in 1698 + they formally purchased the three villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and + Govindpur from Prince Azim, son of the emperor Aurangzeb.</p> + + <p>The site thus chosen had an excellent anchorage and was defended by + the river from the Mahrattas, who harried the districts on the other + side. The fort, subsequently rebuilt on the Vauban principle, and a moat, + designed to form a semicircle <!-- Page 983 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page983"></a>[v.04 p.0983]</span>round the town, and to be + connected at both ends with the river, but never completed, combined with + the natural position of Calcutta to render it one of the safest places + for trade in India during the expiring struggles of the Mogul empire. It + grew up without any fixed plan, and with little regard to the sanitary + arrangements required for a town. Some parts of it lay below high-water + mark on the Hugli, and its low level throughout rendered its drainage a + most difficult problem. Until far on in the 18th century the malarial + jungle and paddy fields closely hemmed in the European mansions; the vast + plain (<i>maidán</i>), now covered with gardens and promenades, was then + a swamp during three months of each year; the spacious quadrangle known + as Wellington Square was built upon a filthy creek. A legend relates how + one-fourth of the European inhabitants perished in twelve months, and + during seventy years the mortality was so great that the name of + Calcutta, derived from the village of Kalikata, was identified by + mariners with Golgotha, the place of a skull.</p> + + <p>The chief event in the history of Calcutta is the sack of the town, + and the capture of Fort William in 1756, by Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the nawab of + Bengal. The majority of the English officials took ship and fled to the + mouth of the Hugli river. The Europeans, under John Zephaniah Holwell, + who remained were compelled, after a short resistance, to surrender + themselves to the mercies of the young prince. The prisoners, numbering + 146 persons, were forced into the guard-room, a chamber measuring only 18 + ft. by 14 ft. 10 in., with but two small windows, where they were left + for the night. It was the 20th of June; the heat was intense; and next + morning only 23 were taken out alive, among them Holwell, who left an + account of the awful sufferings endured in the "Black Hole." The site of + the Black Hole is now covered with a black marble slab, and the incident + is commemorated by a monument erected by Lord Curzon in 1902. The + Mahommedans retained possession of Calcutta for about seven months, and + during this brief period the name of the town was changed in official + documents to Alinagar. In January 1757 the expedition despatched from + Madras, under the command of Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive, regained + possession of the city. They found many of the houses of the English + residents demolished and others damaged by fire. The old church of St + John lay in ruins. The native portion of the town had also suffered much. + Everything of value had been swept away, except the merchandise of the + Company within the fort, which had been reserved for the nawab. The + battle of Plassey was fought on the 23rd of June 1757, exactly twelve + months after the capture of Calcutta. Mir Jafar, the nominee of the + English, was created nawab of Bengal, and by the treaty which raised him + to this position he agreed to make restitution to the Calcutta merchants + for their losses. The English received £500,000, the Hindus and + Mahommedans £200,000, and the Armenians £70,000. By another clause in + this treaty the Company was permitted to establish a mint, the visible + sign in India of territorial sovereignty, and the first coin, still + bearing the name of the Delhi emperor, was issued on the 19th of August + 1757. The restitution money was divided among the sufferers by a + committee of the most respectable inhabitants. Commerce rapidly revived + and the ruined city was rebuilt. Modern Calcutta dates from 1757. The old + fort was abandoned, and its site devoted to the custom-house and other + government offices. A new fort, the present Fort William, was begun by + Clive a short distance lower down the river, and is thus the second of + that name. It was not finished till 1773, and is said to have cost two + millions sterling. At this time also the <i>maidán</i>, the park of + Calcutta, was formed; and the healthiness of its position induced the + European inhabitants gradually to shift their dwellings eastward, and to + occupy what is now the Chowringhee quarter.</p> + + <p>Up to 1707, when Calcutta was first declared a presidency, it had been + dependent upon the older English settlement at Madras. From 1707 to 1773 + the presidencies were maintained on a footing of equality; but in the + latter year the act of parliament was passed, which provided that the + presidency of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions + of the Company; that the chief of that presidency should be styled + governor-general; and that a supreme court of judicature should be + established at Calcutta. In the previous year, 1772, Warren Hastings had + taken under the immediate management of the Company's servants the + general administration of Bengal, which had hitherto been left in the + hands of the old Mahommedan officials, and had removed the treasury from + Murshidabad to Calcutta. The latter town thus became the capital of + Bengal and the seat of the supreme government in India. In 1834 the + governor-general of Bengal was created governor-general of India, and was + permitted to appoint a deputy-governor to manage the affairs of Lower + Bengal during his occasional absence. It was not until 1854 that a + separate head was appointed for Bengal, who, under the style of + lieutenant-governor, exercises the same powers in civil matters as those + vested in the governors in council of Madras or Bombay, although subject + to closer supervision by the supreme government. Calcutta is thus at + present the seat both of the supreme and the local government, each with + an independent set of offices. (See <span class="sc">Bengal</span>.)</p> + + <p>See A.K. Ray, <i>A Short History of Calcutta</i> (Indian Census, + 1901); H.B. Hyde, <i>Parochial Annals of Bengal</i> (1901); K. + Blechynden, <i>Calcutta, Past and Present</i> (1905); H.E. Busteed, + <i>Echoes from Old Calcutta</i> (1897); G.W. Forrest, <i>Cities of + India</i> (1903); C.R. Wilson, <i>Early Annals of the English in + Bengal</i> (1895); and <i>Old Fort William in Bengal</i> (1906); + <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), <i>s.v.</i> + "Calcutta."</p> + + <p><b>CALDANI, LEOPOLDO MARCO ANTONIO</b> (1725-1813), Italian anatomist + and physician, was born at Bologna in 1725. After studying under G.B. + Morgagni at Padua, he began to teach practical medicine at Bologna, but + in consequence of the intrigues of which he was the object he returned to + Padua, where in 1771 he succeeded Morgagni in the chair of anatomy. He + continued to lecture until 1805 and died at Padua in 1813. His works + include <i>Institutiones pathologicae</i> (1772), <i>Institutiones + physiologicae</i> (1773) and <i>Icones anatomicae</i> (1801-1813).</p> + + <p>His brother, <span class="sc">Petronio Maria Caldani</span> + (1735-1808), was professor of mathematics at Bologna, and was described + by J. le R. D'Alembert as the "first geometer and algebraist of + Italy."</p> + + <p><b>CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH</b> (1846-1886), English artist and + illustrator, was born at Chester on the 22nd of March 1846. From 1861 to + 1872 he was a bank clerk, first at Whitchurch in Shropshire, afterwards + at Manchester; but devoted all his spare time to the cultivation of a + remarkable artistic faculty. In 1872 he migrated to London, became a + student at the Slade School and finally adopted the artist's profession. + He gained immediately a wide reputation as a prolific and original + illustrator, gifted with a genial, humorous faculty, and he succeeded + also, though in less degree, as a painter and sculptor. His health gave + way in 1876, and after prolonged suffering he died in Florida on the 12th + of February 1886. His chief book illustrations are as + follows:—<i>Old Christmas</i> (1876) and <i>Bracebridge Hall</i> + (1877), both by Washington Irving; <i>North Italian Folk</i> (1877), by + Mrs Comyns Carr; <i>The Harz Mountains</i> (1883); <i>Breton Folk</i> + (1879), by Henry Blackburn; picture-books (<i>John Gilpin, The House that + Jack Built</i>, and other children's favourites) from 1878 onwards; + <i>Some Aesop's Fables with Modern Instances, &c.</i> (1883). He held + a roving commission for the <i>Graphic</i>, and was an occasional + contributor to <i>Punch</i>. He was a member of the Royal Institute of + Painters in Water-colours.</p> + + <p>See Henry Blackburn, <i>Randolph Caldecott, Personal Memoir of his + Early Life</i> (London, 1886).</p> + + <p><b>CALDER, SIR ROBERT,</b> Bart. (1745-1818), British admiral, was + born at Elgin, in Scotland, on the 2nd of July 1745 (o.s.). He belonged + to a very ancient family of Morayshire, and was the second son of Sir + Thomas Calder of Muirton. He was educated at the grammar school of Elgin, + and at the age of fourteen entered the British navy as midshipman. In + 1766 he was serving as lieutenant of the "Essex," under Captain the Hon. + George Faulkner, in the West Indies. Promotion came slowly, and it was + not till 1782 that he attained the rank of post-captain. He acquitted + himself honourably in the various services to which he was called, but + for a long time had no opportunity <!-- Page 984 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page984"></a>[v.04 p.0984]</span>of + distinguishing himself. In 1796 he was named captain of the fleet by Sir + John Jervis, and took part in the great battle off Cape St Vincent + (February 14, 1797). He was selected as bearer of the despatches + announcing the victory, and on that occasion was knighted by George III. + He also received the thanks of parliament, and in the following year was + created a baronet. In 1799 he became rear-admiral; and in 1801 he was + despatched with a small squadron in pursuit of a French force, under + Admiral Gantheaume, conveying supplies to the French in Egypt. In this + pursuit he was not successful, and returning home at the peace he struck + his flag. When the war again broke out he was recalled to service, was + promoted vice-admiral in 1804, and was employed in the following year in + the blockade of the ports of Ferrol and Corunna, in which (amongst other + ports) ships were preparing for the invasion of England by Napoleon I. He + held his position with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy, and + refused to be enticed out to sea. On its becoming known that the first + movement directed by Napoleon was the raising of the blockade of Ferrol, + Rear-Admiral Stirling was ordered to join Sir R. Calder and cruise with + him to intercept the fleets of France and Spain on their passage to + Brest. The approach of the enemy was concealed by a fog; but on the 22nd + of July 1805 their fleet came in sight. It still outnumbered the British + force; but Sir Robert entered into action. After a combat of four hours, + during which he captured two Spanish ships, he gave orders to discontinue + the action. He offered battle again on the two following days, but the + challenge was not accepted. The French admiral Villeneuve, however, did + not pursue his voyage, but took refuge in Ferrol. In the judgment of + Napoleon, his scheme of invasion was baffled by this day's action; but + much indignation was felt in England at the failure of Calder to win a + complete victory. In consequence of the strong feeling against him at + home he demanded a court-martial. This was held on the 23rd of December, + and resulted in a severe reprimand of the vice-admiral for not having + done his utmost to renew the engagement, at the same time acquitting him + of both cowardice and disaffection. False expectations had been raised in + England by the mutilation of his despatches, and of this he indignantly + complained in his defence. The tide of feeling, however, turned again; + and in 1815, by way of public testimony to his services, and of acquittal + of the charge made against him, he was appointed commander of Portsmouth. + He died at Holt, near Bishop's Waltham, in Hampshire, on the 31st of + August 1818.</p> + + <p>See <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, xvii.; James, <i>Naval History</i>, iii. + 356-379 (1860).</p> + + <p><b>CALDER,</b> an ancient district of Midlothian, Scotland. It has + been divided into the parishes of Mid-Calder (pop. in 1901 3132) and + West-Calder (pop. 8092), East-Calder belonging to the parish of + Kirknewton (pop. 3221). The whole locality owes much of its commercial + importance and prosperity to the enormous development of the mineral oil + industry. Coal-mining is also extensively pursued, sandstone and + limestone are worked, and paper-mills flourish. Mid-Calder, a town on the + Almond (pop. 703), has an ancient church, and John Spottiswood + (1510-1585), the Scottish reformer, was for many years minister. His + sons—John, archbishop of St Andrews, and James (1567-1645), bishop + of Clogher—were both born at Mid-Calder. West-Calder is situated on + Breich Water, an affluent of the Almond, 15½ m. S.W. of Edinburgh by the + Caledonian railway, and is the chief centre of the district. Pop. (1901) + 2652. At Addiewell, about 1½ m. S.W., the manufacture of ammonia, + naphtha, paraffin oil and candles is carried on, the village practically + dating from 1866, and having in 1901 a population of 1591. The Highland + and Agricultural Society have an experimental farm at Pumpherston (pop. + 1462). The district contains several tumuli, old ruined castles and a + Roman camp in fair preservation.</p> + + <p><b>CALDERÓN, RODRIGO</b> (d. 1621), <span class="sc">Count of Oliva + and Marques de las Siete Iglesias</span>, Spanish favourite and + adventurer, was born at Antwerp. His father, Francisco Calderón, a member + of a family ennobled by Charles V., was a captain in the army who became + afterwards <i>comendador mayor</i> of Aragon, presumably by the help of + his son. The mother was a Fleming, said by Calderón to have been a lady + by birth and called by him Maria Sandelin. She is said by others to have + been first the mistress and then the wife of Francisco Calderón. Rodrigo + is said to have been born out of wedlock. In 1598 he entered the service + of the duke of Lerma as secretary. The accession of Philip III. in that + year made Lerma, who had unbounded influence over the king, master of + Spain. Calderón, who was active and unscrupulous, made himself the + trusted agent of Lerma. In the general scramble for wealth among the + worthless intriguers who governed in the name of Philip III., Calderón + was conspicuous for greed, audacity and insolence. He was created count + of Oliva, a knight of Santiago, commendador of Ocaña in the order, + secretary to the king (<i>secretario de cámara</i>), was loaded with + plunder, and made an advantageous marriage with Ines de Vargas. As an + insolent upstart he was peculiarly odious to the enemies of Lerma. Two + religious persons, Juan de Santa Mariá, a Franciscan, and Mariana de San + José, prioress of La Encarnacion, worked on the queen Margarita, by whose + influence Calderón was removed from the secretaryship in 1611. He, + however, retained the favour of Lerma, an indolent man to whom Calderón's + activity was indispensable. In 1612 he was sent on a special mission to + Flanders, and on his return was made marques de las Siete Iglesias in + 1614. When the queen Margarita died in that year in childbirth, Calderón + was accused of having used witchcraft against her. Soon after it became + generally known that he had ordered the murder of one Francisco de + Juaras. When Lerma was driven from court in 1618 by the intrigues of his + own son, the duke of Uceda, and the king's confessor, the Dominican + Aliaga, Calderón was seized upon as an expiatory victim to satisfy public + clamour. He was arrested, despoiled, and on the 7th of January 1620 was + savagely tortured to make him confess to the several charges of murder + and witchcraft brought against him. Calderón confessed to the murder of + Juaras, saying that the man was a pander, and adding that he gave the + particular reason by word of mouth since it was more fit to be spoken + than written. He steadfastly denied all the other charges of murder and + the witchcraft. Some hope of pardon seems to have remained in his mind + till he heard the bells tolling for Philip III. in March 1621. "He is + dead, and I too am dead" was his resigned comment. One of the first + measures of the new reign was to order his execution. Calderón met his + fate firmly and with a show of piety on the 21st of October 1621, and + this bearing, together with his broken and prematurely aged appearance, + turned public sentiment in his favour. The magnificent devotion of his + wife helped materially to placate the hatred he had aroused. Lord Lytton + made Rodrigo Calderón the hero of his story <i>Calderon the + Courtier</i>.</p> + + <p>See Modests de la Fuente, <i>Historia General España</i> (Madrid, + 1850-1867), vol. xv. pp. 452 et seq.; Quevedo, <i>Obras</i> (Madrid, + 1794), vol. x.—<i>Grandes Anales de Quince Dias</i>. A curious + contemporary French pamphlet on him, <i>Histoire admirable et declin + pitoyable advenue en la personne d'unfawory de la Cour d'Espagne,</i> is + reprinted by M.E. Fournier in <i>Variétés historiques</i> (Paris, 1855), + vol. i.</p> + + <p>(D. H.)</p> + + <p><b>CALDERÓN DE LA BARCA, PEDRO</b> (1600-1681), Spanish dramatist and + poet, was born at Madrid on the 17th of January 1600. His mother, who was + of Flemish descent, died in 1610; his father, who was secretary to the + treasury, died in 1615. Calderón was educated at the Jesuit College in + Madrid with a view to taking orders and accepting a family living; + abandoning this project, he studied law at Salamanca, and competed with + success at the literary fêtes held in honour of St Isaidore at Madrid + (1620-1632). According to his biographer, Vera Tassis, Calderón served + with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders between 1625 and 1635; but + this statement is contradicted by numerous legal documents which prove + that Calderón resided at Madrid during these years. Early in 1629 his + brother Diego was stabbed by an actor who took sanctuary in the convent + of the Trinitarian nuns; Calderón and his friends broke into the cloister + and attempted to seize the offender. This violation was denounced by the + fashionable preacher, Hortensio Félix Paravicino (<i>q.v.</i>), in a + sermon preached before Philip IV.; <!-- Page 985 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page985"></a>[v.04 p.0985]</span>Calderón + retorted by introducing into <i>El Príncipe constante</i> a mocking + reference (afterwards cancelled) to Paravicino's gongoristic verbiage, + and was committed to prison. He was soon released, grew rapidly in + reputation as a playwright, and, on the death of Lope de Vega in 1635, + was recognized as the foremost Spanish dramatist of the age. A volume of + his plays, edited by his brother José in 1636, contains such celebrated + and diverse productions as <i>La Vida es sueño, El Purgatorío de San + Patricia, La Devoción de la cruz, La Dama duende</i> and <i>Peor está que + estaba</i>. In 1636-1637 he was made a knight of the order of Santiago by + Philip IV., who had already commissioned from him a series of spectacular + plays for the royal theatre in the Buen Retiro. Calderón was almost as + popular with the general public as Lope de Vega had been in his zenith; + he was, moreover, in high favour at court, but this royal patronage did + not help to develop the finer elements of his genius. On the 28th of May + 1640 he joined a company of mounted cuirassiers recently raised by + Olivares, took part in the Catalonian campaign, and distinguished himself + by his gallantry at Tarragona; his health failing, he retired from the + army in November 1642, and three years later was awarded a special + military pension in recognition of his services in the field. The history + of his life during the next few years is obscure. He appears to have been + profoundly affected by the death of his mistress—the mother of his + son Pedro José—about the year 1648-1649; his long connexion with + the theatre had led him into temptations, but it had not diminished his + instinctive spirit of devotion, and he now sought consolation in + religion. He became a tertiary of the order of St Francis in 1650, and + finally reverted to his original intention of joining the priesthood. He + was ordained in 1651, was presented to a living in the parish of San + Salvador at Madrid, and, according to his statement made a year or two + later, determined to give up writing for the stage. He did not adhere to + this resolution after his preferment to a prebend at Toledo in 1653, + though he confined himself as much as possible to the composition of + <i>autos sacramentales</i>—allegorical pieces in which the mystery + of the Eucharist was illustrated dramatically, and which were performed + with great pomp on the feast of Corpus Christi and during the weeks + immediately ensuing. In 1662 two of Calderón's <i>autos</i>—<i>Las + órdenes militares</i> and <i>Místicay real Babilonia</i>—were the + subjects of an inquiry by the Inquisition; the former was censured, the + manuscript copies were confiscated, and the condemnation was not + rescinded till 1671. Calderón was appointed honorary chaplain to Philip + IV, in 1663, and the royal favour was continued to him in the next reign. + In his eighty-first year he wrote his last secular play, <i>Hado y Divisa + de Leonido y Marfisa</i>, in honour of Charles II.'s marriage to + Marie-Louise de Bourbon. Notwithstanding his position at court and his + universal popularity throughout Spain, his closing years seem to have + been passed in poverty. He died on the 25th of May 1681.</p> + + <p>Like most Spanish dramatists, Calderón wrote too much and too + speedily, and he was too often content to recast the productions of his + predecessors. His <i>Saber del mal y del bien</i> is an adaptation of + Lope de Vega's play, <i>Las Mudanzas de la fortuna y sucesos de Don + Beltran de Aragón</i>; his <i>Selva confusa</i> is also adapted from a + play of Lope's which bears the same title; his <i>Encanto sin encanto</i> + derives from Tirso de Molina's <i>Amar par señas</i>, and, to take an + extreme instance, the second act of his <i>Cabellos de Absalón </i>is + transferred almost bodily from the third act of Tirso's <i>Venganza de + Tamar</i>. It would be easy to add other examples of Calderón's lax + methods, but it is simple justice to point out that he committed no + offence against the prevailing code of literary morality. Many of his + contemporaries plagiarized with equal audacity, but with far less + success. Sometimes, as in <i>El Alcalde de Zalamea</i>, the bold + procedure is completely justified by the result; in this case by his + individual treatment he transforms one of Lope de Vega's rapid + improvisations into a finished masterpiece. It was not given to him to + initiate a great dramatic movement; he came at the end of a literary + revolution, was compelled to accept the conventions which Lope de Vega + had imposed on the Spanish stage, and he accepted them all the more + readily since they were peculiarly suitable to the display of his + splendid and varied gifts. Not a master of observation nor an expert in + invention, he showed an unexampled skill in contriving ingenious variants + on existing themes; he had a keen dramatic sense, an unrivalled dexterity + in manipulating the mechanical resources of the stage, and in addition to + these minor indispensable talents he was endowed with a lofty philosophic + imagination and a wealth of poetic diction. Naturally, he had the defects + of his great qualities; his ingenuity is apt to degenerate into futile + embellishment; his employment of theatrical devices is the subject of his + own good-humoured satire in <i>No hay burlas con el amor</i>; his + philosophic intellect is more interested in theological mysteries than in + human passions; and the delicate beauty of his style is tinged with a + wilful preciosity. Excelling Lope de Vega at many points, Calderón falls + below his great predecessor in the delineation of character. Yet in + almost every department of dramatic art Calderón has obtained a series of + triumphs. In the symbolic drama he is best represented by <i>El Principe + constante</i>, by <i>El Mágico prodigioso</i> (familiar to English + readers in Shelley's free translation), and by <i>La Vida es sueño</i>, + perhaps the most profound and original of his works. His tragedies are + more remarkable for their acting qualities than for their convincing + truth, and the fact that in <i>La Niña de Gomez Arias</i> he interpolates + an entire act borrowed from Velez de Guevara's play of the same title + seems to indicate that this kind of composition awakened no great + interest in him; but in <i>El Médico de sa honra</i> and <i>El Mayor + monstruo los celos</i> the theme of jealousy is handled with sombre + power, while <i>El Alcalde de Zalamea</i> is one of the greatest + tragedies in Spanish literature. Calderón is seen to much less advantage + in the spectacular plays—<i>dramas de tramoya</i>—which he + wrote at the command of Philip IV.; the dramatist is subordinated to the + stage-carpenter, but the graceful fancy of the poet preserves even such a + mediocre piece as <i>Los Tres Mayores prodigies</i> (which won him his + knighthood) from complete oblivion. A greater opportunity is afforded in + the more animated <i>comedias palaciegas</i>, or melodramatic pieces + destined to be played before courtly audiences in the royal palace: <i>La + Banda y la flor</i> and <i>El Galán fantasma</i> are charming + illustrations of Calderón's genial conception and refined artistry. His + historical plays (<i>La Gran Cenobia, Las armas de la hermosura</i>, + &c.) are the weakest of all his formal dramatic productions; <i>El + Golfo de la sirenas</i> and <i>La Púrpura de la rosa</i> are typical + <i>zarzuelas</i>, to be judged by the standard of operatic libretti, and + the <i>entremeses</i> are lacking in the lively humour which should + characterize these dramatic interludes. On the other hand, Calderón's + faculty of ingenious stagecraft is seen at its best in his + "cloak-and-sword" plays (<i>comedias de capa y espada</i>) which are + invaluable pictures of contemporary society. They are conventional, no + doubt, in the sense that all representations of a specially artificial + society must be conventional; but they are true to life, and are still as + interesting as when they first appeared. In this kind <i>No siempre lo + peor es cierto, La Dama duende, Una casa con dos puertas mala es de + guardar</i> and <i>Guárdate del agua mansa</i> are almost unsurpassed. + But it is as a writer of <i>autos sacramentales</i> that Calderón defies + rivalry: his intense devotion, his subtle intelligence, his sublime + lyrism all combine to produce such marvels of allegorical poetry as <i>La + Cena del rey Baltasar, La Viña del Senor</i> and <i>La Serpiente de + metal</i>. The <i>autos</i> lingered on in Spain till 1765, but they may + be said to have died with Calderón, for his successors merely imitated + him with a tedious fidelity. Almost alone among Spanish poets, Calderón + had the good fortune to be printed in a fairly correct and readable + edition (1682-1691), thanks to the enlightened zeal of his admirer, Juan + de Vera Tassis y Villaroel, and owing to this happy accident he came to + be regarded generally as the first of Spanish dramatists. The publication + of the plays of Lope de Vega and of Tirso de Molina has affected the + critical estimate of Calderón's work; he is seen to be inferior to Lope + de Vega in creative power, and inferior to Tirso de Molina in variety of + conception. But, setting aside the extravagances of his admirers, he is + admittedly an exquisite poet, an expert in the dramatic form, and a + typical representative of the <!-- Page 986 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page986"></a>[v.04 p.0986]</span>devout, chivalrous, patriotic and + artificial society in which he moved.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—H. Breymann, + <i>Calderon-Studien</i> (München and Berlin, 1905), i. Teil, contains a + fairly exhaustive list of editions, translations and arrangements; + <i>Autos sacramentales</i> (Madrid, 1759-1760, 6 vols.), edited by Juan + Fernandez de Apontes; <i>Comedias</i> (Madrid, 1848-1850, 4 vols.), + edited by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbuch; Max Krenkel, <i>Klassische + Buhnendichtungen der Spanier</i>, containing <i>La Vida es sueño, El + mágico prodigioso</i> and <i>El Alcalde de Zalamca</i> (Leipzig, + 1881-1887, 3 vols.); <i>Teatro selecto</i> (Madrid, 1884, 4 vols.), + edited by M. Menéndez y Pelayo; <i>El Mágico prodigioso</i> (Heilbronn, + 1877), edited by Alfred Morel-Fatio; <i>Select Plays of Calderón</i> + (London, 1888), edited by Norman MacColl; F.W.V. Schmidt, <i>Die + Schauspiele Calderon's</i> (Elberfeld, 1857); E. Günthner, <i>Calderon + und seine Werke</i> (Freiburg i. B., 1888, 2 vols.); Felipe Picatoste y + Rodriguez, <i>Biografia de Don Pedro Calderón de la Barca</i> in + <i>Homenage á Calderón</i> (Madrid, 1881); Antonio Sánchez Moguel, + <i>Memoria acerca de "El Mágico prodigioso"</i> (Madrid, 1881); M. + Menéndez y Pelayo, <i>Calderón y su teatro</i> (Madrid, 1881); Ernest + Martinenche, <i>La Comedia espagnole en France de Hardy á Racine</i> + (Paris, 1900).</p> + + <p>(J. F.-K.)</p> + + <p><b>CALDERWOOD, DAVID</b> (1575-1650), Scottish divine and historian, + was born in 1575. He was educated at Edinburgh, where he took the degree + of M.A. in 1593. About 1604 he became minister of Crailing, near + Jedburgh, where he became conspicuous for his resolute opposition to the + introduction of Episcopacy. In 1617, while James was in Scotland, a + Remonstrance, which had been drawn up by the Presbyterian clergy, was + placed in Calderwood's hands. He was summoned to St Andrews and examined + before the king, but neither threats nor promises could make him deliver + up the roll of signatures to the Remonstrance. He was deprived of his + charge, committed to prison at St Andrews and afterwards removed to + Edinburgh. The privy council ordered him to be banished from the kingdom + for refusing to acknowledge the sentence of the High Commission. He + lingered in Scotland, publishing a few tracts, till the 27th of August + 1619, when he sailed for Holland. During his residence in Holland he + published his <i>Altare Damascenum</i>. Calderwood appears to have + returned to Scotland in 1624, and he was soon afterwards appointed + minister of Pencaitland, in the county of Haddington. He continued to + take an active part in the affairs of the church, and introduced in 1649 + the practice, now confirmed by long usage, of dissenting from the + decision of the Assembly, and requiring the protest to be entered in the + record. His last years were devoted to the preparation of a <i>History of + the Church of Scotland</i>. In 1648 the General Assembly urged him to + complete the work he had designed, and voted him a yearly pension of + £800. He left behind him a historical work of great extent and of great + value as a storehouse of authentic materials for history. An abridgment, + which appears to have been prepared by himself, was published after his + death. An excellent edition of the complete work was published by the + Wodrow Society, 8 vols., 1842-1849. The manuscript, which belonged to + General Calderwood Durham, was presented to the British Museum. + Calderwood died at Jedburgh on the 29th of October 1650.</p> + + <p><b>CALDERWOOD, HENRY</b> (1830-1897), Scottish philosopher and divine, + was born at Peebles on the 10th of May 1830. He was educated at the Royal + High school, and later at the university of Edinburgh. He studied for the + ministry of the United Presbyterian Church, and in 1856 was ordained + pastor of the Greyfriars church, Glasgow. He also examined in mental + philosophy for the university of Glasgow from 1861 to 1864, and from 1866 + conducted the moral philosophy classes at that university, until in 1868 + he became professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He was made LL.D. + of Glasgow in 1865. He died on the 19th of November 1897. His first and + most famous work was <i>The Philosophy of the Infinite</i> (1854), in + which he attacked the statement of Sir William Hamilton that we can have + no knowledge of the Infinite. Calderwood maintained that such knowledge, + though imperfect, is real and ever-increasing; that Faith implies + Knowledge. His moral philosophy is in direct antagonism to Hegelian + doctrine, and endeavours to substantiate the doctrine of divine sanction. + Beside the data of experience, the mind has pure activity of its own + whereby it apprehends the fundamental realities of life and combat. He + wrote in addition <i>A Handbook of Moral Philosophy, On the Relations of + Mind and Brain, Science and Religion, The Evolution of Man's Place in + Nature</i>. Among his religious works the best-known is his <i>Parables + of Our Lord</i>, and just before his death he finished a <i>Life of David + Hume</i> in the "Famous Scots" series. His interests were not confined to + religious and intellectual matters; as the first chairman of the + Edinburgh school board, he worked hard to bring the Education Act into + working order. He published a well-known treatise on education. In the + cause of philanthropy and temperance he was indefatigable. In politics he + was at first a Liberal, but became a Liberal Unionist at the time of the + Home Rule Bill.</p> + + <p>A biography of Calderwood was published in 1900 by his son W.C. + Calderwood and the Rev. David Woodside, with a special chapter on his + philosophy by Professor A.S. Pringle-Pattison.</p> + + <p><b>CALEB</b> (Heb. <i>kēleb</i>, "dog"), in the Bible, one of + the spies sent by Moses from Kadesh in South Palestine to spy out the + land of Canaan. For his courage and confidence he alone was rewarded by + the promise that he and his seed should obtain a possession in it (Num. + xiii. seq.). The later tradition includes Joshua, the hero of the + conquest of the land. Subsequently Caleb settled in Kirjath-Arba + (Hebron), but the account of the occupation is variously recorded. Thus + (<i>a</i>) Caleb by himself drove out the Anakites, giants of Hebron, and + promised to give his daughter Achsah to the hero who could take + Kirjath-Sepher (Debir). This was accomplished by Othniel, the brother of + Caleb (Josh. xv. 14-19). Both are "sons" of Kenaz, and Kenaz is an + Edomite clan (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 42). Elsewhere (<i>b</i>) Caleb the + Kenizzite reminds Joshua of the promise at Kadesh; he asks that he may + have the "mountain whereof Yahweh spake," and hopes to drive out the + giants from its midst. Joshua blesses him and thus Hebron becomes the + inheritance of Caleb (Josh. xiv. 6-15). Further (<i>c</i>) the capture of + Hebron and Debir is ascribed to Judah who gives them to Caleb (Judg. i. + 10 seq. 20); and finally (<i>d</i>) these cities are taken by Joshua + himself in the course of a great and successful campaign against South + Canaan (Josh. x. 36-39). Primarily the clan Caleb was settled in the + south of Judah but formed an independent unit (i Sam. xxv., xxx. 14). Its + seat was at Carmel, and Abigail, the wife of the Calebite Nabal, was + taken by David after her husband's death. Not until later are the small + divisions of the south united under the name Judah, and this result is + reflected in the genealogies where the brothers Caleb and Jerahmeel are + called "sons of Hezron" (the name typifies nomadic life) and become + descendants of <span class="sc">Judah</span>.</p> + + <p>Similarly in Num. xiii. 6, xxxiv. 19 (post-exilic), Caleb becomes the + representative of the tribe of Judah, and also in <i>c</i> (above) + Caleb's enterprise was later regarded as the work of the tribe with which + it became incorporated, <i>b</i> and <i>d</i> are explained in accordance + with the aim of the book to ascribe to the initiation or the achievements + of one man the conquest of the whole of Canaan (see <span + class="sc">Joshua</span>). The mount or hill-country in <i>b</i> appears + to be that which the Israelites unsuccessfully attempted to take (Num. + xiv. 41-45), but according to another old fragment Hormah was the scene + of a victory (Num. xxi. 1-3), and it seems probable that Caleb, at least, + was supposed to have pushed his way northward to Hebron. (See <span + class="sc">Jerahmeel, Kenites, Simeon</span>.)</p> + + <p>The genealogical lists place the earliest seats of Caleb in the south + of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 42 sqq.; Hebron, Maon, &c.). Another list + numbers the more northerly towns of Kirjath-jearim, Bethlehem, &c., + and adds the "families of the scribes," and the Kenites (ii. 50 seq.). + This second move is characteristically expressed by the statements that + Caleb's first wife was Azūbah ("abandoned," desert + region)—Jerīōth ("tent curtains") appears to have been + another—and that after the death of Hezron he united with Ephrath + (p. 24 Bethlehem). On the details in 1 Chron. ii., iv., see further, J. + Wellhausen, <i>De Gent. et Famil. Judaeorum</i> (1869); S. Cook, + <i>Critical Notes on O.T. History, Index</i>, s.v.; E. Meyer, + <i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 400 sqq.; and the commentaries on Chronicles + (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + <p>(S. A. C.)</p> + + <p><b>CALEDON</b> (1) a town of the Cape Province, 81 m. by rail E.S.E. + of Cape Town. Pop. (1904) 3508. The town is 15 m. N. of the sea at Walker + Bay and is built on a spur of the Zwartberg, 800 ft. high. The streets + are lined with blue gums and oaks. From the early day of Dutch settlement + at the Cape Caledon has been noted for the curative value of its mineral + springs, which yield 150,000 gallons daily. There are seven springs, six + with a natural temperature of 120° F., the seventh <!-- Page 987 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page987"></a>[v.04 p.0987]</span>being cold. The + district is rich in flowering heaths and everlasting flowers. The name + Caledon was given to the town and district in honour of the 2nd earl of + Caledon, governor of the Cape 1807-1811. (2) A river of South Africa, + tributary to the Orange (<i>q.v.</i>), also named after Lord Caledon.</p> + + <p><b>CALEDONIA,</b> the Roman name of North Britain, still used + especially in poetry for Scotland. It occurs first in the poet Lucan + (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 64), and then often in Roman literature. + There were (1) a district Caledonia, of which the southern border must + have been on or near the isthmus between the Clyde and the Forth, (2) a + Caledonian Forest (possibly in Perthshire), and (3) a tribe of Caledones + or Calidones, named by the geographer Ptolemy as living within boundaries + which are now unascertainable. The Romans first invaded Caledonia under + Agricola (about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 83). They then fortified + the Forth and Clyde Isthmus with a line of forts, two of which, those at + Camelon and Barhill, have been identified and excavated, penetrated into + Perthshire, and fought the decisive battle of the war (according to + Tacitus) on the slopes of Mons Graupius.<a name="FnAnchor_241" + href="#Footnote_241"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The site—quite as hotly + contested among antiquaries as between Roman and Caledonian—may + have been near the Roman encampment of Inchtuthill (in the policies of + Delvine, 10 m. N. of Perth near the union of Tay and Isla), which is the + most northerly of the ascertained Roman encampments in Scotland and seems + to belong to the age of Agricola. Tacitus represents the result as a + victory. The home government, whether averse to expensive conquests of + barren hills, or afraid of a victorious general, abruptly recalled + Agricola, and his northern conquests—all beyond the Tweed, if not + all beyond Cheviot—were abandoned. The next advance followed more + than fifty years later. About <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 140 the + district up to the Firth of Forth was definitely annexed, and a rampart + with forts along it, the Wall of Antoninus Pius, was drawn from sea to + sea (see <span class="sc">Britain</span>: <i>Roman</i>; and <span + class="sc">Graham's Dyke</span>). At the same time the Roman forts at + Ardoch, north of Dunblane, Carpow near Abernethy, and perhaps one or two + more, were occupied. But the conquest was stubbornly disputed, and after + several risings, the land north of Cheviot seems to have been lost about + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 180-185. About <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 208 the emperor Septimius Severus carried out an + extensive punitive expedition against the northern tribes, but while it + is doubtful how far he penetrated, it is certain that after his death the + Roman writ never again ran north of Cheviot. Rome is said, indeed, to + have recovered the whole land up to the Wall of Pius in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 368 and to have established there a province, + Valentia. A province with that name was certainly organized somewhere. + But its site and extent is quite uncertain and its duration was + exceedingly brief. Throughout, Scotland remained substantially untouched + by Roman influences, and its Celtic art, though perhaps influenced by + Irish, remained free from Mediterranean infusion. Even in the south of + Scotland, where Rome ruled for half a century (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 142-180), the occupation was military and + produced no civilizing effects. Of the actual condition of the land + during the period of Roman rule in Britain, we have yet to learn the + details by excavation. The curious carvings and ramparts, at Burghead on + the coast of Elgin, and the underground stone houses locally called + "wheems," in which Roman fragments have been found, may represent the + native forms of dwelling, &c., and some of the "Late Celtic" + metal-work may belong to this age. But of the political divisions, the + boundaries and capitals of the tribes, and the like, we know nothing. + Ptolemy gives a list of tribe and place-names. But hardly one can be + identified with any approach to certainty, except in the extreme south. + Nor has any certainty been reached about the ethnological problems of the + population, the Aryan or non-Aryan character of the Picts and the like. + That the Caledonians, like the later Scots, sometimes sought their + fortunes in the south, is proved by a curious tablet of about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 220, found at Colchester, dedicated to an + unknown equivalent of Mars, Medocius, by one "Lossio Veda, nepos [ = kin + of] Vepogeni, Caledo." The name Caledonia is said to survive in the + second syllable of Dunkeld and in the mountain name Schiehallion + (Sith-chaillinn).</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Tacitus, <i>Agricola</i>; + Hist. Augusta, <i>Vita Severi</i>; Dio lxxvi.; F. Haverfield, <i>The + Antonine Wall Report</i> (Glasgow, 1899), pp. 154-168; J. Rhys, <i>Celtic + Britain</i> (ed. 3). On Burghead, see H.W. Young, <i>Proc. of Scottish + Antiq.</i> xxv., xxvii.; J. Macdonald, <i>Trans. Glasgow Arch. + Society</i>. The Roman remains of Scotland are described in Rob. Stuart's + <i>Caled. Romana</i> (Edinburgh, 1852), the volumes of the Scottish + Antiq. Society, the <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, vol. vii., and + elsewhere.</p> + + <p>(F. J. H.)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_241" href="#FnAnchor_241">[1]</a> This, not + Grampius, is the proper spelling, though Grampius was at one time + commonly accepted and indeed gave rise to the modern name Grampian.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CALEDONIAN CANAL.</b> The chain of fresh-water lakes—Lochs + Ness, Oich and Lochy—which stretch along the line of the Great Glen + of Scotland in a S.W. direction from Inverness early suggested the idea + of connecting the east and west coasts of Scotland by a canal which would + save ships about 400 m. of coasting voyage round the north of Great + Britain through the stormy Pentland Firth. In 1773 James Watt was + employed by the government to make a survey for such a canal, which again + was the subject of an official report by Thomas Telford in 1801. In 1803 + an act of parliament was passed authorizing the construction of the + canal, which was begun forthwith under Telford's direction, and traffic + was started in 1822. From the northern entrance on Beauly Firth to the + southern, near Fort William, the total length is about 60 m., that of the + artificial portion being about 22 m. The number of locks is 28, and their + standard dimensions are:—length 160 ft, breadth 38 ft., water-depth + 15 ft. Their lift is in general about 8 ft., but some of them are for + regulating purposes only. A flight of 8 at Corpach, with a total lift of + 64 ft., is known as "Neptune's Staircase." The navigation is vested in + and managed by the commissioners of the Caledonian Canal, of whom the + speaker of the House of Commons is <i>ex officio</i> chairman. Usually + the income is between £7000 and £8000 annually, and exceeds the + expenditure by a few hundred pounds; but the commissioners are not + entitled to make a profit, and the credit balances, though sometimes + allowed to accumulate, must be expended on renewals and improvements of + the canal. They have not, however, always proved sufficient for their + purposes, and parliament is occasionally called upon to make special + grants. In the commissioners is also vested the Crinan Canal, which + extends from Ardrishaig on Loch Gilp to Crinan on Loch Crinan. This canal + was made by a company incorporated by act of parliament in 1793, and was + opened for traffic in 1801. At various times it received grants of public + money, and ultimately in respect of these it passed into the hands of the + government. In 1848 it was vested by parliament in the commissioners of + the Caledonian Canal (who had in fact administered it for many years + previously); the act contained a proviso that the company might take back + the undertaking on repayment of the debt within 20 years, but the power + was not exercised. The length of the canal is 9 m., and it saves vessels + sailing from the Clyde a distance of about 85 m. as compared with the + alternative route round the Mull of Kintyre. Its highest reach is 64 ft. + above sea level, and its locks, 15 in number, are 96 ft. long, by 24 ft. + wide, the depth of water being such as to admit vessels up to a draught + of 9½ ft. The revenue is over £6000 a year, and there is usually a small + credit balance which, as with the Caledonian Canal, must be applied to + the purposes of the undertaking.</p> + + <p><b>CALENBERG,</b> or <span class="sc">Kalenberg</span>, the name of a + district, including the town of Hanover, which was formerly part of the + duchy of Brunswick. It received its name from a castle near Schulenburg, + and is traversed by the rivers Weser and Leine, its area being about 1050 + sq. m. The district was given to various cadets of the ruling house of + Brunswick, one of these being Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of + Hanover, and the ancestor of the Hanoverian kings of Great Britain and + Ireland.</p> + + <p><b>CALENDAR,</b> so called from the Roman Calends or Kalends, a method + of distributing time into certain periods adapted to the purposes of + civil life, as hours, days, weeks, months, years, &c.</p> + + <p>Of all the periods marked out by the motions of the celestial bodies, + the most conspicuous, and the most intimately connected with the affairs + of mankind, are the <i>solar day</i>, which is <!-- Page 988 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page988"></a>[v.04 p.0988]</span>distinguished + by the diurnal revolution of the earth and the alternation of light and + darkness, and the <i>solar year</i>, which completes the circle of the + seasons. But in the early ages of the world, when mankind were chiefly + engaged in rural occupations, the phases of the moon must have been + objects of great attention and interest,—hence the <i>month</i>, + and the practice adopted by many nations of reckoning time by the motions + of the moon, as well as the still more general practice of combining + lunar with solar periods. The solar day, the solar year, and the lunar + month, or lunation, may therefore be called the <i>natural</i> divisions + of time. All others, as the hour, the week, and the civil month, though + of the most ancient and general use, are only arbitrary and + conventional.</p> + + <p><i>Day.</i>—The subdivision of the day (<i>q.v.</i>) into + twenty-four parts, or hours, has prevailed since the remotest ages, + though different nations have not agreed either with respect to the epoch + of its commencement or the manner of distributing the hours. Europeans in + general, like the ancient Egyptians, place the commencement of the civil + day at midnight, and reckon twelve morning hours from midnight to midday, + and twelve evening hours from midday to midnight. Astronomers, after the + example of Ptolemy, regard the day as commencing with the sun's + culmination, or noon, and find it most convenient for the purposes of + computation to reckon through the whole twenty-four hours. Hipparchus + reckoned the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight. Some nations, + as the ancient Chaldeans and the modern Greeks, have chosen sunrise for + the commencement of the day; others, again, as the Italians and + Bohemians, suppose it to commence at sunset. In all these cases the + beginning of the day varies with the seasons at all places not under the + equator. In the early ages of Rome, and even down to the middle of the + 5th century after the foundation of the city, no other divisions of the + day were known than sunrise, sunset, and midday, which was marked by the + arrival of the sun between the Rostra and a place called Graecostasis, + where ambassadors from Greece and other countries used to stand. The + Greeks divided the natural day and night into twelve equal parts each, + and the hours thus formed were denominated <i>temporary hours</i>, from + their varying in length according to the seasons of the year. The hours + of the day and night were of course only equal at the time of the + equinoxes. The whole period of day and night they called <span + title="nuchthêmeron" class="grk" + >νυχθήμερον</span>.</p> + + <p><i>Week.</i>—The week is a period of seven days, having no + reference whatever to the celestial motions,—a circumstance to + which it owes its unalterable uniformity. Although it did not enter into + the calendar of the Greeks, and was not introduced at Rome till after the + reign of Theodosius, it has been employed from time immemorial in almost + all eastern countries; and as it forms neither an aliquot part of the + year nor of the lunar month, those who reject the Mosaic recital will be + at a loss, as Delambre remarks, to assign it to an origin having much + semblance of probability. It might have been suggested by the phases of + the moon, or by the number of the planets known in ancient times, an + origin which is rendered more probable from the names universally given + to the different days of which it is composed. In the Egyptian astronomy, + the order of the planets, beginning with the most remote, is Saturn, + Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, the Moon. Now, the day being + divided into twenty-four hours, each hour was consecrated to a particular + planet, namely, one to Saturn, the following to Jupiter, the third to + Mars, and so on according to the above order; and the day received the + name of the planet which presided over its first hour. If, then, the + first hour of a day was consecrated to Saturn, that planet would also + have the 8th, the 15th, and the 22nd hour; the 23rd would fall to + Jupiter, the 24th to Mars, and the 25th, or the first hour of the second + day, would belong to the Sun. In like manner the first hour of the 3rd + day would fall to the Moon, the first of the 4th day to Mars, of the 5th + to Mercury, of the 6th to Jupiter, and of the 7th to Venus. The cycle + being completed, the first hour of the 8th day would return to Saturn, + and all the others succeed in the same order. According to Dio Cassius, + the Egyptian week commenced with Saturday. On their flight from Egypt, + the Jews, from hatred to their ancient oppressors, made Saturday the last + day of the week.</p> + + <p>The English names of the days are derived from the Saxon. The ancient + Saxons had borrowed the week from some Eastern nation, and substituted + the names of their own divinities for those of the gods of Greece. In + legislative and justiciary acts the Latin names are still retained.</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Names of the days" title="Names of the days"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Latin.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>English.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Saxon.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Solis.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sunday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Lunae.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Monday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Moon's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Martis.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tuesday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tiw's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Mercurii.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wednesday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Woden's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Jovis.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thursday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thor's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Veneris.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Friday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frigg's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dies Saturni.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Saturday.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Seterne's day.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Month.</i>—Long before the exact length of the year was + determined, it must have been perceived that the synodic revolution of + the moon is accomplished in about 29½ days. Twelve lunations, therefore, + form a period of 354 days, which differs only by about 11¼ days from the + solar year. From this circumstance has arisen the practice, perhaps + universal, of dividing the year into twelve <i>months</i>. But in the + course of a few years the accumulated difference between the solar year + and twelve lunar months would become considerable, and have the effect of + transporting the commencement of the year to a different season. The + difficulties that arose in attempting to avoid this inconvenience induced + some nations to abandon the moon altogether, and regulate their year by + the course of the sun. The month, however, being a convenient period of + time, has retained its place in the calendars of all nations; but, + instead of denoting a synodic revolution of the moon, it is usually + employed to denote an arbitrary number of days approaching to the twelfth + part of a solar year.</p> + + <p>Among the ancient Egyptians the month consisted of thirty days + invariably; and in order to complete the year, five days were added at + the end, called supplementary days. They made use of no intercalation, + and by losing a fourth of a day every year, the commencement of the year + went back one day in every period of four years, and consequently made a + revolution of the seasons in 1461 years. Hence 1461 Egyptian years are + equal to 1460 Julian years of 365¼ days each. This year is called + <i>vague</i>, by reason of its commencing sometimes at one season of the + year, and sometimes at another.</p> + + <p>The Greeks divided the month into three decades, or periods of ten + days,—a practice which was imitated by the French in their + unsuccessful attempt to introduce a new calendar at the period of the + Revolution. This division offers two advantages: the first is, that the + period is an exact measure of the month of thirty days; and the second + is, that the number of the day of the decade is connected with and + suggests the number of the day of the month. For example, the 5th of the + decade must necessarily be the 5th, the 15th, or the 25th of the month; + so that when the day of the decade is known, that of the month can + scarcely be mistaken. In reckoning by weeks, it is necessary to keep in + mind the day of the week on which each month begins.</p> + + <p>The Romans employed a division of the month and a method of reckoning + the days which appear not a little extraordinary, and must, in practice, + have been exceedingly inconvenient. As frequent allusion is made by + classical writers to this embarrassing method of computation, which is + carefully retained in the ecclesiastical calendar, we here give a table + showing the correspondence of the Roman months with those of modern + Europe.</p> + + <p>Instead of distinguishing the days by the ordinal numbers first, + second, third, &c., the Romans counted <i>backwards</i> from three + fixed epochs, namely, the <i>Calends</i>, the <i>Nones</i> and the + <i>Ides</i>. The Calends (or Kalends) were invariably the first day of + the month, and were so denominated because it had been an ancient custom + of the pontiffs to call the people together on that day, to apprize them + of the festivals, or days that were to be kept sacred during the month. + The Ides (from an obsolete verb <i>iduare</i>, to divide) were at the + middle of the month, either the 13th or the 15th day; and the Nones were + the <i>ninth</i> day before the <!-- Page 989 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page989"></a>[v.04 p.0989]</span>Ides, counting inclusively. From + these three terms the days received their denomination in the following + manner:—Those which were comprised between the Calends and the + Nones were called <i>the days before the Nones</i>; those between the + Nones and the Ides were called <i>the days before the Ides</i>; and, + lastly, all the days after the Ides to the end of the month were called + <i>the days before the Calends</i> of the succeeding month. In the months + of March, May, July and October, the Ides fell on the 15th day, and the + Nones consequently on the 7th; so that each of these months had six days + named from the Nones. In all the other months the Ides were on the 13th + and the Nones on the 5th; consequently there were only four days named + from the Nones. Every month had eight days named from the Ides. The + number of days receiving their denomination from the Calends depended on + the number of days in the month and the day on which the Ides fell. For + example, if the month contained 31 days and the Ides fell on the 13th, as + was the case in January, August and December, there would remain 18 days + after the Ides, which, added to the first of the following month, made 19 + days of Calends. In January, therefore, the 14th day of the month was + called the <i>nineteenth before the Calends of February</i> (counting + inclusively), the 15th was the 18th before the Calends and so on to the + 30th, which was called the third before the Calend (<i>tertio + Calendas</i>), the last being the second of the Calends, or the day + before the Calends (<i>pridie Calendas</i>).</p> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Roman calendar" title="Roman calendar"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Days of<br />the<br />Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>March.<br />May.<br />July.<br />October.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>January.<br />August.<br />December.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>April.<br />June.<br />September.<br />November.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>February.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Calendae.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Calendae.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Calendae.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Calendae.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Nonas.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Nonas.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Nonas.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Nonae.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Nonae.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Nonae.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Nonas.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Nonae.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Idus.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Idus.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Idus.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Idus.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Idus.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Idus.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Idus.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Idus.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Calen.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mart.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Calen.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Calen.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Prid. Calen.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><span class="sc">Year</span>.—The year is either astronomical or + civil. The solar astronomical year is the period of time in which the + earth performs a revolution in its orbit about the sun, or passes from + any point of the ecliptic to the same point again; and consists of 365 + days 5 hours 48 min. and 46 sec. of mean solar time. The civil year is + that which is employed in chronology, and varies among different nations, + both in respect of the season at which it commences and of its + subdivisions. When regard is had to the sun's motion alone, the + regulation of the year, and the distribution of the days into months, may + be effected without much trouble; but the difficulty is greatly increased + when it is sought to reconcile solar and lunar periods, or to make the + subdivisions of the year depend on the moon, and at the same time to + preserve the correspondence between the whole year and the seasons.</p> + + <p><i>Of the Solar Year.</i>—In the arrangement of the civil year, + two objects are sought to be accomplished,—first, the equable + distribution of the days among twelve months; and secondly, the + preservation of the beginning of the year at the same distance from the + solstices or equinoxes. Now, as the year consists of 365 days and a + fraction, and 365 is a number not divisible by 12, it is impossible that + the months can all be of the same length and at the same time include all + the days of the year. By reason also of the fractional excess of the + length of the year above 365 days, it likewise happens that the years + cannot all contain the same number of days if the epoch of their + commencement remains fixed; for the day and the civil year must + necessarily be considered as beginning at the same instant; and therefore + the extra hours cannot be included in the year till they have accumulated + to a whole day. As soon as this has taken place, an additional day must + be given to the year.</p> + + <p>The civil calendar of all European countries has been borrowed from + that of the Romans. Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten + months only, including in all 304 days, and it is not very well known how + the remaining days were disposed of. The ancient Roman year commenced + with March, as is indicated by the names September, October, November, + December, which the last four months still retain. July and August, + likewise, were anciently denominated Quintilis and Sextilis, their + present appellations having been bestowed in compliment to Julius Caesar + and Augustus. In the reign of Numa two months were added to the year, + January at the beginning and February at the end; and this arrangement + continued till the year 452 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, when the + Decemvirs changed the order of the months, and placed February after + January. The months now consisted of twenty-nine and thirty days + alternately, to correspond with the synodic revolution of the moon, so + that the year contained 354 days; but a day was added to make the number + odd, which was considered more fortunate, and the year therefore + consisted of 355 days. This differed from the solar year by ten whole + days and a fraction; but, to restore the coincidence, Numa ordered an + additional or intercalary month to be inserted every second year between + the 23rd and 24th of February, consisting of twenty-two and twenty-three + days alternately, so that four years contained 1465 days, and the mean + length of the year was consequently 366¼ days. The additional month was + called <i>Mercedinus</i> or <i>Mercedonius</i>, from <i>merces</i>, + wages, probably because the wages of workmen and domestics were usually + paid at this season of the year. According to the above arrangement, the + year was too long by one day, which rendered another correction + necessary. As the error amounted to twenty-four days in as many years, it + was ordered that every third period of eight years, instead of containing + four intercalary months, amounting in all to ninety days, should contain + only three of those months, consisting of twenty-two days each. The mean + length of the year was thus reduced to 365¼ days; but it is not certain + at what time the octennial periods, borrowed from the Greeks, were + introduced into the Roman calendar, or whether they were at any time + strictly followed. It does not even appear that the length of the + intercalary month was regulated by any certain principle, for a + discretionary power was left with the pontiffs, to whom the care of the + calendar was committed, to intercalate more or fewer days according as + the year was found to differ more or less from the celestial motions. + This power was quickly abused to serve political objects, and the + calendar consequently thrown into confusion. By giving a greater or less + number of days to the intercalary month, the pontiffs were enabled to + prolong the term of a magistracy or hasten the annual elections; and so + little care had been taken to regulate the year, that, at the time of + Julius Caesar, the civil equinox differed from the astronomical by three + months, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn and the + autumnal into summer.</p> + + <p>In order to put an end to the disorders arising from the negligence or + ignorance of the pontiffs, Caesar abolished the use of the lunar year and + the intercalary month, and regulated the civil year entirely by the sun. + With the advice and assistance of Sosigenes, he fixed the mean length of + the year at 365¼ days, and decreed that every fourth year should have 366 + days, the <!-- Page 990 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page990"></a>[v.04 p.0990]</span>other years having each 365. In + order to restore the vernal equinox to the 25th of March, the place it + occupied in the time of Numa, he ordered two extraordinary months to be + inserted between November and December in the current year, the first to + consist of thirty-three, and the second of thirty-four days. The + intercalary month of twenty-three days fell into the year of course, so + that the ancient year of 355 days received an augmentation of ninety + days; and the year on that occasion contained in all 445 days. This was + called the last year of confusion. The first Julian year commenced with + the 1st of January of the 46th before the birth of Christ, and the 708th + from the foundation of the city.</p> + + <p>In the distribution of the days through the several months, Caesar + adopted a simpler and more commodious arrangement than that which has + since prevailed. He had ordered that the first, third, fifth, seventh, + ninth and eleventh months, that is January, March, May, July, September + and November, should have each thirty-one days, and the other months + thirty, excepting February, which in common years should have only + twenty-nine, but every fourth year thirty days. This order was + interrupted to gratify the vanity of Augustus, by giving the month + bearing his name as many days as July, which was named after the first + Caesar. A day was accordingly taken from February and given to August; + and in order that three months of thirty-one days might not come + together, September and November were reduced to thirty days, and + thirty-one given to October and December. For so frivolous a reason was + the regulation of Caesar abandoned, and a capricious arrangement + introduced, which it requires some attention to remember.</p> + + <p>The additional day which occured every fourth year was given to + February, as being the shortest month, and was inserted in the calendar + between the 24th and 25th day. February having then twenty-nine days, the + 25th was the 6th of the calends of March, <i>sexto calendas</i>; the + preceding, which was the additional or intercalary day, was called + <i>bis-sexto calendas</i>,—hence the term <i>bissextile</i>, which + is still employed to distinguish the year of 366 days. The English + denomination of <i>leap-year</i> would have been more appropriate if that + year had differed from common years in <i>defect</i>, and contained only + 364 days. In the modern calendar the intercalary day is still added to + February, not, however, between the 24th and 25th, but as the 29th.</p> + + <p>The regulations of Caesar were not at first sufficiently understood; + and the pontiffs, by intercalating every third year instead of every + fourth, at the end of thirty-six years had intercalated twelve times, + instead of nine. This mistake having been discovered, Augustus ordered + that all the years from the thirty-seventh of the era to the forty-eighth + inclusive should be common years, by which means the intercalations were + reduced to the proper number of twelve in forty-eight years. No account + is taken of this blunder in chronology; and it is tacitly supposed that + the calendar has been correctly followed from its commencement.</p> + + <p>Although the Julian method of intercalation is perhaps the most + convenient that could be adopted, yet, as it supposes the year too long + by 11 minutes 14 seconds, it could not without correction very long + answer the purpose for which it was devised, namely, that of preserving + always the same interval of time between the commencement of the year and + the equinox. Sosigenes could scarcely fail to know that this year was too + long; for it had been shown long before, by the observations of + Hipparchus, that the excess of 365¼ days above a true solar year would + amount to a day in 300 years. The real error is indeed more than double + of this, and amounts to a day in 128 years; but in the time of Caesar the + length of the year was an astronomical element not very well determined. + In the course of a few centuries, however, the equinox sensibly + retrograded towards the beginning of the year. When the Julian calendar + was introduced, the equinox fell on the 25th of March. At the time of the + council of Nice, which was held in 325, it fell on the 21st; and when the + reformation of the calendar was made in 1582, it had retrograded to the + 11th. In order to restore the equinox to its former place, Pope Gregory + XIII. directed ten days to be suppressed in the calendar; and as the + error of the Julian intercalation was now found to amount to three days + in 400 years, he ordered the intercalations to be omitted on all the + centenary years excepting those which are multiples of 400. According to + the Gregorian rule of intercalation, therefore, every year of which the + number is divisible by four without a remainder is a leap year, excepting + the centurial years, which are only leap years when divisible by four + after omitting the two ciphers. Thus 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800 + and 1900 are common years; 2000 will be a leap year, and so on.</p> + + <p>As the Gregorian method of intercalation has been adopted in all + Christian countries, Russia excepted, it becomes interesting to examine + with what degrees of accuracy it reconciles the civil with the solar + year. According to the best determinations of modern astronomy (Le + Verrier's <i>Solar Tables</i>, Paris, 1858, p. 102), the mean geocentric + motion of the sun in longitude, from the mean equinox during a Julian + year of 365.25 days, the same being brought up to the present date, is + 360° + 27″.685. Thus the mean length of the solar year is found to + be 360°/(360° + 27".685) × 365.25 = 365.2422 days, or 365 days 5 hours 48 + min. 46 sec. Now the Gregorian rule gives 97 intercalations in 400 years; + 400 years therefore contain 365 × 400 + 97, that is, 146,097 days; and + consequently one year contains 365.2425 days, or 365 days 5 hours 49 min. + 12 sec. This exceeds the true solar year by 26 seconds, which amount to a + day in 3323 years. It is perhaps unnecessary to make any formal provision + against an error which can only happen after so long a period of time; + but as 3323 differs little from 4000, it has been proposed to correct the + Gregorian rule by making the year 4000 and all its multiples common + years. With this correction the rule of intercalation is as + follows:—</p> + + <p>Every year the number of which is divisible by 4 is a leap year, + excepting the last year of each century, which is a leap year only when + the number of the century is divisible by 4; but 4000, and its multiples, + 8000, 12,000, 16,000, &c. are common years. Thus the uniformity of + the intercalation, by continuing to depend on the number four, is + preserved, and by adopting the last correction the commencement of the + year would not vary more than a day from its present place in two hundred + centuries.</p> + + <p>In order to discover whether the coincidence of the civil and solar + year could not be restored in shorter periods by a different method of + intercalation, we may proceed as follows:—The fraction 0.2422, + which expresses the excess of the solar year above a whole number of + days, being converted into a continued fraction, becomes</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="The fraction 0.2422 as a continued fraction." title="The fraction 0.2422 as a continued fraction."> + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p><span class="over">4 + 1</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p><span class="over">7 + 1</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + </td> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p><span class="over">1 + 1</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + </td> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p><span class="over">3 + 1</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="4"> + </td> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p><span class="over">4 + 1</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="5"> + </td> + <td class="nspac" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p><span class="over">1 + ,</span> &c.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>which gives the series of approximating fractions,</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td>,</td><td>7<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />29</td><td>,</td><td>8<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />33</td><td>,</td><td>31<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />128</td><td>,</td><td>132<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />545</td><td>,</td><td>163<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />673</td><td>, &c.</td></tr></table> + + <p>The first of these, 1/4, gives the Julian intercalation of one day in + four years, and is considerably too great. It supposes the year to + contain 365 days 6 hours.</p> + + <p>The second, 7/29, gives seven intercalary days in twenty-nine years, + and errs in defect, as it supposes a year of 365 days 5 hours 47 min. 35 + sec.</p> + + <p>The third, 8/33, gives eight intercalations in thirty-three years or + seven successive intercalations at the end of four years respectively, + and the eighth at the end of five years. This supposes the year to + contain 365 days 5 hours 49 min. 5.45 sec.</p> + + <p>The fourth fraction, 31/128 = (24 + 7) / (99 + 29) = (3 × 8 + 7) / (3 + × 33 + 29) combines three periods of thirty-three years with one of + twenty-nine, and would consequently be very convenient in application. It + supposes the year to consist of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. 45 sec., and is + practically exact.</p> + + <p>The fraction 8/33 offers a convenient and very accurate method of + intercalation. It implies a year differing in excess from the true year + only by 19.45 sec., while the Gregorian year is too long by 26 sec. It + produces a much nearer coincidence between the civil and solar years than + the Gregorian method; and, by reason of its shortness of period, confines + the evagations of the mean equinox from the true within much narrower + limits. It has been stated by Scaliger, Weidler, Montucla, and others, + that the modern Persians actually follow this method, and intercalate + eight days in thirty-three <!-- Page 991 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page991"></a>[v.04 p.0991]</span>years. The statement has, however, + been contested on good authority; and it seems proved (see Delambre, + <i>Astronomie Moderne</i>, tom. i. p.81) that the Persian intercalation + combines the two periods 7/29 and 8/33. If they follow the combination (7 + + 3 × 8) / (29 + 3 × 33) = 31/128 their determination of the length of + the tropical year has been extremely exact. The discovery of the period + of thirty-three years is ascribed to Omar Khayyam, one of the eight + astronomers appointed by Jelāl ud-Din Malik Shah, sultan of + Khorasan, to reform or construct a calendar, about the year 1079 of our + era.</p> + + <p>If the commencement of the year, instead of being retained at the same + place in the seasons by a uniform method of intercalation, were made to + depend on astronomical phenomena, the intercalations would succeed each + other in an irregular manner, sometimes after four years and sometimes + after five; and it would occasionally, though rarely indeed, happen, that + it would be impossible to determine the day on which the year ought to + begin. In the calendar, for example, which was attempted to be introduced + in France in 1793, the beginning of the year was fixed at midnight + preceding the day in which the true autumnal equinox falls. But supposing + the instant of the sun's entering into the sign Libra to be very near + midnight, the small errors of the solar tables might render it doubtful + to which day the equinox really belonged; and it would be in vain to have + recourse to observation to obviate the difficulty. It is therefore + infinitely more commodious to determine the commencement of the year by a + fixed rule of intercalation; and of the various methods which might be + employed, no one perhaps is on the whole more easy of application, or + better adapted for the purpose of computation, than the Gregorian now in + use. But a system of 31 intercalations in 128 years would be by far the + most perfect as regards mathematical accuracy. Its adoption upon our + present Gregorian calendar would only require the suppression of the + usual bissextile once in every 128 years, and there would be no necessity + for any further correction, as the error is so insignificant that it + would not amount to a day in 100,000 years.</p> + + <p><i>Of the Lunar Year and Luni-solar Periods.</i>—The lunar year, + consisting of twelve lunar months, contains only 354 days; its + commencement consequently anticipates that of the solar year by eleven + days, and passes through the whole circle of the seasons in about + thirty-four lunar years. It is therefore so obviously ill-adapted to the + computation of time, that, excepting the modern Jews and Mahommedans, + almost all nations who have regulated their months by the moon have + employed some method of intercalation by means of which the beginning of + the year is retained at nearly the same fixed place in the seasons.</p> + + <p>In the early ages of Greece the year was regulated entirely by the + moon. Solon divided the year into twelve months, consisting alternately + of twenty-nine and thirty days, the former of which were called + <i>deficient</i> months, and the latter <i>full</i> months. The lunar + year, therefore, contained 354 days, falling short of the exact time of + twelve lunations by about 8.8 hours. The first expedient adopted to + reconcile the lunar and solar years seems to have been the addition of a + month of thirty days to every second year. Two lunar years would thus + contain 25 months, or 738 days, while two solar years, of 365¼ days each, + contain 730½ days. The difference of 7½ days was still too great to + escape observation; it was accordingly proposed by Cleostratus of + Tenedos, who flourished shortly after the time of Thales, to omit the + biennary intercalation every eighth year. In fact, the 7½ days by which + two lunar years exceeded two solar years, amounted to thirty days, or a + full month, in eight years. By inserting, therefore, three additional + months instead of four in every period of eight years, the coincidence + between the solar and lunar year would have been exactly restored if the + latter had contained only 354 days, inasmuch as the period contains 354 × + 8 + 3 × 30 = 2922 days, corresponding with eight solar years of 365¼ days + each. But the true time of 99 lunations is 2923.528 days, which exceeds + the above period by 1.528 days, or thirty-six hours and a few minutes. At + the end of two periods, or sixteen years, the excess is three days, and + at the end of 160 years, thirty days. It was therefore proposed to employ + a period of 160 years, in which one of the intercalary months should be + omitted; but as this period was too long to be of any practical use, it + was never generally adopted. The common practice was to make occasional + corrections as they became necessary, in order to preserve the relation + between the octennial period and the state of the heavens; but these + corrections being left to the care of incompetent persons, the calendar + soon fell into great disorder, and no certain rule was followed till a + new division of the year was proposed by Meton and Euctemon, which was + immediately adopted in all the states and dependencies of Greece.</p> + + <p>The mean motion of the moon in longitude, from the mean equinox, + during a Julian year of 365.25 days (according to Hansen's <i>Tables de + la Lune</i>, London, 1857, pages 15, 16) is, at the present date, 13 × + 360° + 477644″.409; that of the sun being 360° + 27″.685. + Thus the corresponding relative mean geocentric motion of the moon from + the sun is 12 × 360° + 477616″.724; and the duration of the mean + synodic revolution of the moon, or lunar month, is therefore 360° / (12 × + 360° + 477616″.724) × 365.25 = 29.530588 days, or 29 days, 12 + hours, 44 min. 2.8 sec.</p> + + <p>The <i>Metonic Cycle</i>, which may be regarded as the + <i>chef-d'œuvre</i> of ancient astronomy, is a period of nineteen + solar years, after which the new moons again happen on the same days of + the year. In nineteen solar years there are 235 lunations, a number + which, on being divided by nineteen, gives twelve lunations for each + year, with seven of a remainder, to be distributed among the years of the + period. The period of Meton, therefore, consisted of twelve years + containing twelve months each, and seven years containing thirteen months + each; and these last formed the third, fifth, eighth, eleventh, + thirteenth, sixteenth, and nineteenth years of the cycle. As it had now + been discovered that the exact length of the lunation is a little more + than twenty-nine and a half days, it became necessary to abandon the + alternate succession of full and deficient months; and, in order to + preserve a more accurate correspondence between the civil month and the + lunation, Meton divided the cycle into 125 full months of thirty days, + and 110 deficient months of twenty-nine days each. The number of days in + the period was therefore 6940. In order to distribute the deficient + months through the period in the most equable manner, the whole period + may be regarded as consisting of 235 full months of thirty days, or of + 7050 days, from which 110 days are to be deducted. This gives one day to + be suppressed in sixty-four; so that if we suppose the months to contain + each thirty days, and then omit every sixty-fourth day in reckoning from + the beginning of the period, those months in which the omission takes + place will, of course, be the deficient months.</p> + + <p>The number of days in the period being known, it is easy to ascertain + its accuracy both in respect of the solar and lunar motions. The exact + length of nineteen solar years is 19 × 365.2422 = 6939.6018 days, or 6939 + days 14 hours 26.592 minutes; hence the period, which is exactly 6940 + days, exceeds nineteen revolutions of the sun by nine and a half hours + nearly. On the other hand, the exact time of a synodic revolution of the + moon is 29.530588 days; 235 lunations, therefore, contain 235 × 29.530588 + = 6939.68818 days, or 6939 days 16 hours 31 minutes, so that the period + exceeds 235 lunations by only seven and a half hours.</p> + + <p>After the Metonic cycle had been in use about a century, a correction + was proposed by Calippus. At the end of four cycles, or seventy-six + years, the accumulation of the seven and a half hours of difference + between the cycle and 235 lunations amounts to thirty hours, or one whole + day and six hours. Calippus, therefore, proposed to quadruple the period + of Meton, and deduct one day at the end of that time by changing one of + the full months into a deficient month. The period of Calippus, + therefore, consisted of three Metonic cycles of 6940 days each, and a + period of 6939 days; and its error in respect of the moon, consequently, + amounted only to six hours, or to one day in 304 years. This period + exceeds seventy-six true solar years by fourteen hours and a quarter + nearly, but coincides exactly with seventy-six Julian years; and in the + time of Calippus the length of the solar year was almost universally + supposed to be exactly 365¼ days. The Calippic period is frequently + referred to as a date by Ptolemy.</p> + + <p><i>Ecclesiastical Calendar.</i>—The ecclesiastical calendar, + which is adopted in all the Catholic, and most of the Protestant + countries of Europe, is luni-solar, being regulated partly by the solar, + and partly by the lunar year,—a circumstance which gives rise to + the <!-- Page 992 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page992"></a>[v.04 + p.0992]</span>distinction between the movable and immovable feasts. So + early as the 2nd century of our era, great disputes had arisen among the + Christians respecting the proper time of celebrating Easter, which + governs all the other movable feasts. The Jews celebrated their passover + on the 14th day of <i>the first month</i>, that is to say, the lunar + month of which the fourteenth day either falls on, or next follows, the + day of the vernal equinox. Most Christian sects agreed that Easter should + be celebrated on a Sunday. Others followed the example of the Jews, and + adhered to the 14th of the moon; but these, as usually happened to the + minority, were accounted heretics, and received the appellation of + Quartodecimans. In order to terminate dissensions, which produced both + scandal and schism in the church, the council of Nicaea, which was held + in the year 325, ordained that the celebration of Easter should + thenceforth always take place on the Sunday which immediately follows the + full moon that happens upon, or next after, the day of the vernal + equinox. Should the 14th of the moon, which is regarded as the day of + full moon, happen on a Sunday, the celebration Of Easter was deferred to + the Sunday following, in order to avoid concurrence with the Jews and the + above-mentioned heretics. The observance of this rule renders it + necessary to reconcile three periods which have no common measure, + namely, the week, the lunar month, and the solar year; and as this can + only be done approximately, and within certain limits, the determination + of Easter is an affair of considerable nicety and complication. It is to + be regretted that the reverend fathers who formed the council of Nicaea + did not abandon the moon altogether, and appoint the first or second + Sunday of April for the celebration of the Easter festival. The + ecclesiastical calendar would in that case have possessed all the + simplicity and uniformity of the civil calendar, which only requires the + adjustment of the civil to the solar year; but they were probably not + sufficiently versed in astronomy to be aware of the practical + difficulties which their regulation had to encounter.</p> + + <p><i>Dominical Letter.</i>—The first problem which the + construction of the calendar presents is to connect the week with the + year, or to find the day of the week corresponding to a given day of any + year of the era. As the number of days in the week and the number in the + year are prime to one another, two successive years cannot begin with the + same day; for if a common year begins, for example, with Sunday, the + following year will begin with Monday, and if a leap year begins with + Sunday, the year following will begin with Tuesday. For the sake of + greater generality, the days of the week are denoted by the first seven + letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, which are placed in the + calendar beside the days of the year, so that A stands opposite the first + day of January, B opposite the second, and so on to G, which stands + opposite the seventh; after which A returns to the eighth, and so on + through the 365 days of the year. Now if one of the days of the week, + Sunday for example, is represented by E, Monday will be represented by F, + Tuesday by G, Wednesday by A, and so on; and every Sunday through the + year will have the same character E, every Monday F, and so with regard + to the rest. The letter which denotes Sunday is called the <i>Dominical + Letter</i>, or the <i>Sunday Letter</i>; and when the dominical letter of + the year is known, the letters which respectively correspond to the other + days of the week become known at the same time.</p> + + <p><i>Solar Cycle.</i>—In the Julian calendar the dominical letters + are readily found by means of a short cycle, in which they recut in the + same order without interruption. The number of years in the intercalary + period being four, and the days of the week being seven, their product is + 4 × 7 = 28; twenty-eight years is therefore a period which includes all + the possible combinations of the days of the week with the commencement + of the year. This period is called the <i>Solar Cycle</i>, or the + <i>Cycle of the Sun</i>, and restores the first day of the year to the + same day of the week. At the end of the cycle the dominical letters + return again in the same order on the same days of the month; hence a + table of dominical letters, constructed for twenty-eight years, will + serve to show the dominical letter of any given year from the + commencement of the era to the Reformation. The cycle, though probably + not invented before the time of the council of Nicaea, is regarded as + having commenced nine years before the era, so that the year <i>one</i> + was the tenth of the solar cycle. To find the year of the cycle, we have + therefore the following rule:—<i>Add nine to the date, divide the + sum by twenty-eight; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and + the remainder is the year of the cycle.</i> Should there be no remainder, + the proposed year is the twenty-eighth or last of the cycle. This rule is + conveniently expressed by the formula ((<i>x</i> + 9) / + 28)<sub><i>r</i></sub>, in which <i>x</i> denotes the date, and the + symbol <i>r</i> denotes that the remainder, which arises from the + division of <i>x</i> + 9 by 28, is the number required. Thus, for 1840, + we have (1840 + 9) / 28 = 66-1/28; therefore ((1840 + 9) / + 28)<sub><i>r</i></sub> = 1, and the year 1840 is the first of the solar + cycle. In order to make use of the solar cycle in finding the dominical + letter, it is necessary to know that the first year of the Christian era + began with Saturday. The dominical letter of that year, which was the + tenth of the cycle, was consequently B. The following year, or the 11th + of the cycle, the letter was A; then G. The fourth year was bissextile, + and the dominical letters were F, E; the following year D, and so on. In + this manner it is easy to find the dominical letter belonging to each of + the twenty-eight years of the cycle. But at the end of a century the + order is interrupted in the Gregorian calendar by the secular suppression + of the leap year; hence the cycle can only be employed during a century. + In the reformed calendar the intercalary period is four hundred years, + which number being multiplied by seven, gives two thousand eight hundred + years as the interval in which the coincidence is restored between the + days of the year and the days of the week. This long period, however, may + be reduced to four hundred years; for since the dominical letter goes + back five places every four years, its variation in four hundred years, + in the Julian calendar, was five hundred places, which is equivalent to + only three places (for five hundred divided by seven leaves three); but + the Gregorian calendar suppresses exactly three intercalations in four + hundred years, so that after four hundred years the dominical letters + must again return in the same order. Hence the following table of + dominical letters for four hundred years will serve to show the dominical + letter of any year in the Gregorian calendar for ever. It contains four + columns of letters, each column serving for a century. In order to find + the column from which the letter in any given case is to be taken, strike + off the last two figures of the date, divide the preceding figures by + four, and the remainder will indicate the column. The symbol X, employed + in the formula at the top of the column, denotes the number of centuries, + that is, the figures remaining after the last two have been struck off. + For example, required the dominical letter of the year 1839? In this case + X = 18, therefore (X/4)<sub><i>r</i></sub> = 2; and in the second column + of letters, opposite 39, in the table we find F, which is the letter of + the proposed year.</p> + + <p>It deserves to be remarked, that as the dominical letter of the first + year of the era was B, the first column of the following table will give + the dominical letter of every year from the commencement of the era to + the Reformation. For this purpose divide the date by 28, and the letter + opposite the remainder, in the first column of figures, is the dominical + letter of the year. For example, supposing the date to be 1148. On + dividing by 28, the remainder is 0, or 28; and opposite 28, in the first + column of letters, we find D, C, the dominical letters of the year + 1148.</p> + + <p><i>Lunar Cycle and Golden Number.</i>—In connecting the lunar + month with the solar year, the framers of the ecclesiastical calendar + adopted the period of Meton, or lunar cycle, which they supposed to be + exact. A different arrangement has, however, been followed with respect + to the distribution of the months. The lunations are supposed to consist + of twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, or the lunar year of 354 + days; and in order to make up nineteen solar years, six embolismic or + intercalary months, of thirty days each, are introduced in the course of + the cycle, and one of twenty-nine days is added at the <!-- Page 993 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page993"></a>[v.04 p.0993]</span>end. + This gives 19 × 354 + 6 × 30 + 29 = 6935 days, to be distributed among + 235 lunar months. But every leap year one day must be added to the lunar + month in which the 29th of February is included. Now if leap year happens + on the first, second or third year of the period, there will be five leap + years in the period, but only four when the first leap year falls on the + fourth. In the former case the number of days in the period becomes 6940 + and in the latter 6939. The mean length of the cycle is therefore 6939¾ + days, agreeing exactly with nineteen Julian years.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.—<i>Dominical Letters.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Dominical Letters" title="Dominical Letters"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Years of the<br />Century.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> +<table class="math0"><tr><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>X<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub>r</sub> = 1</td></tr></table> + + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> +<table class="math0"><tr><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>X<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub>r</sub> = 2</td></tr></table> + + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> +<table class="math0"><tr><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>X<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub>r</sub> = 3</td></tr></table> + + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> +<table class="math0"><tr><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>X<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub>r</sub> = 0</td></tr></table> + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B, A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1 29 57 85</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2 30 58 86</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3 31 59 87</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4 32 60 88</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F, E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A, G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C, B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D, C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5 33 61 89</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6 34 62 90</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7 35 63 91</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8 36 64 92</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A, G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C, B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E, D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F, E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9 37 65 93</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10 38 66 94</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11 39 67 95</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12 40 68 96</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C, B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E, D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G, F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A, G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>13 41 69 97</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>14 42 70 98</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>15 43 71 99</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>16 44 72</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E, D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G, F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B, A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C, B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>17 45 73</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>18 46 74</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>19 47 75</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>20 48 76</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G, F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B, A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D, C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E, D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>21 49 77</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>22 50 78</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>23 51 79</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>24 52 80</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B, A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D, C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F, E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G, F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>25 53 81</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>26 54 82</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>27 55 83</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>28 56 84</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D, C</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F, E</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A, G</p> + </td> + <td class=" vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B, A</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.—<i>The Day of the Week.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="The Day of the Week." title="The Day of the Week."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="7"> + <p>Dominical Letter.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>Jan. Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>Feb. Mar. Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>April July</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>August</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>Sept. Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>By means of the lunar cycle the new moons of the calendar were + indicated before the Reformation. As the cycle restores these phenomena + to the same days of the civil month, they will fall on the same days in + any two years which occupy the same place in the cycle; consequently a + table of the moon's phases for 19 years will serve for any year whatever + when we know its number in the cycle. This number is called the <i>Golden + Number</i>, either because it was so termed by the Greeks, or because it + was usual to mark it with red letters in the calendar. The Golden Numbers + were introduced into the calendar about the year 530, but disposed as + they would have been if they had been inserted at the time of the council + of Nicaea. The cycle is supposed to commence with the year in which the + new moon falls on the 1st of January, which took place the year preceding + the commencement of our era. Hence, to find the Golden Number N, for any + year <i>x</i>, we have N = ((<i>x</i> + 1) / 19)<sub><i>r</i></sub>, + which gives the following rule: <i>Add 1 to the date, divide the sum by + 19; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder is + the Golden Number.</i> When the remainder is 0, the proposed year is of + course the last or 19th of the cycle. It ought to be remarked that the + new moons, determined in this manner, may differ from the astronomical + new moons sometimes as much as two days. The reason is that the sum of + the solar and lunar inequalities, which are compensated in the whole + period, may amount in certain cases to 10°, and thereby cause the new + moon to arrive on the second day before or after its mean time.</p> + + <p><i>Dionysian Period.</i>—The cycle of the sun brings back the + days of the month to the same day of the week; the lunar cycle restores + the new moons to the same day of the month; therefore 28 × 19 = 532 + years, includes all the variations in respect of the new moons and the + dominical letters, and is consequently a period after which the new moons + again occur on the same day of the month and the same day of the week. + This is called the <i>Dionysian</i> or Great <i>Paschal Period</i>, from + its having been employed by Dionysius Exiguus, familiarly styled "Denys + the Little," in determining Easter Sunday. It was, however, first + proposed by Victorius of Aquitain, who had been appointed by Pope Hilary + to revise and correct the church calendar. Hence it is also called the + <i>Victorian Period</i>. It continued in use till the Gregorian + reformation.</p> + + <p><i>Cycle of Indiction.</i>—Besides the solar and lunar cycles, + there is a third of 15 years, called the cycle of indiction, frequently + employed in the computations of chronologists. This period is not + astronomical, like the two former, but has reference to certain judicial + acts which took place at stated epochs under the Greek emperors. Its + commencement is referred to the 1st of January of the year 313 of the + common era. By extending it backwards, it will be found that the first of + the era was the fourth of the cycle of indiction. The number of any year + in this cycle will therefore be given by the formula ((<i>x</i> + 3) / + 15)<sub><i>r</i></sub>, that is to say, <i>add 3 to the date, divide the + sum by 15, and the remainder is the year of the indiction</i>. When the + remainder is 0, the proposed year is the fifteenth of the cycle.</p> + + <p><i>Julian Period.</i>—The Julian period, proposed by the + celebrated Joseph Scaliger as an universal measure of chronology, is + formed by taking the continued product of the three cycles of the sun, of + the moon, and of the indiction, and is consequently 28 × 19 × 15 = 7980 + years. In the course of this long period no two years can be expressed by + the same numbers in all the three cycles. Hence, when the number of any + proposed year in each of the cycles is known, its number in the Julian + period can be determined by the resolution of a very simple problem of + the indeterminate analysis. It is unnecessary, however, in the present + case to exhibit the general solution of the problem, because when the + number in the period corresponding to any one year in the era has been + ascertained, it is easy to establish the correspondence for all other + years, without having again recourse to the direct solution of the + problem. We shall therefore find the number of the Julian period + corresponding to the first of our era.</p> + + <p>We have already seen that the year 1 of the era had 10 for its number + in the solar cycle, 2 in the lunar cycle, and 4 in the cycle of + indiction; the question is therefore to find a number such, that <!-- + Page 994 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page994"></a>[v.04 + p.0994]</span>when it is divided by the three numbers 28, 19, and 15 + respectively the three remainders shall be 10, 2, and 4.</p> + + <p>Let <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, and <i>z</i> be the three quotients of the + divisions; the number sought will then be expressed by 28 <i>x</i> + 10, + by 19 <i>y</i> + 2, or by 15 <i>z</i> + 4. Hence the two equations</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>28 <i>x</i> + 10 = 19 <i>y</i> + 2 = 15 <i>z</i> + 4.</p> + </div> + </div> +<table class="math0"><tr><td>To solve the equations 28 <i>x</i> + 10 = 19 <i>y</i> + 2, or <i>y</i> = <i>x</i> + +</td><td>9 <i>x</i> + 8<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />19</td><td>, +let <i>m</i> = </td><td>9 <i>x</i> + 8<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />19</td><td>, +we have then <i>x</i> = 2 <i>m</i> + </td><td><i>m</i> - 8<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />9</td><td>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>Let </td><td><i>m</i> - 8<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />9</td><td>= <i>m</i>′; then <i>m</i> = 9 <i>m</i>′ + 8; hence</td></tr></table> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>x</i> = 18 <i>m</i>′ + 16 + <i>m</i>′ = 19 <i>m</i>′ + 16 . . . (1).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Again, since 28 <i>x</i> + 10 = 15 <i>z</i> + 4, we have</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>15 <i>z</i> = 28 <i>x</i> + 6, or <i>z</i> = 2 <i>x</i> - </td><td>2 <i>x</i> - 6<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />15</td><td>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>Let </td><td>2 <i>x</i> - 6<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />15</td><td>= <i>n</i>; then 2 <i>x</i> = 15 <i>n</i> + 6, and <i>x</i> = 7 <i>n</i> + 3 + </td><td><i>n</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />2</td><td>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>Let </td><td><i>n</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />2</td><td>= <i>n</i>′; then <i>n</i> = 2 <i>n</i>′; consequently</td></tr></table> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>x</i> = 14 <i>n</i>′ + 3 + <i>n</i>′ = 15 <i>n</i>′ + 3 . . . (2).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Equating the above two values of <i>x</i>, we have</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>15 <i>n</i>′ + 3 = 19 <i>m</i>′ + 16; whence <i>n</i>′ = <i>m</i>′ + </td><td>4 <i>m</i>′ + 13<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />15</td><td>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>Let </td><td>4 <i>m</i>′ + 13<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />15</td><td>= <i>p</i>; we have then</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>4 <i>m</i>′ = 15 <i>p</i> - 13, and <i>m</i>′ = 4 <i>p</i> - </td><td><i>p</i> + 13<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>Let </td><td><i>p</i> + 13<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td>= <i>p</i>′; then <i>p</i> = 4 <i>p</i>′ - 13;</td></tr></table> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>whence <i>m</i>′ = 16 <i>p</i>′ - 52 - <i>p</i>′ = 15 <i>p</i>′ - 52.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Now in this equation <i>p</i>′ may be any number whatever, + provided 15 <i>p</i>′ exceed 52. The smallest value of + <i>p</i>′ (which is the one here wanted) is therefore 4; for 15 × 4 + = 60. Assuming therefore <i>p</i>′ = 4, we have <i>m</i>′ = + 60 - 52 = 8; and consequently, since <i>x</i> = 19 <i>m</i>′ + 16, + <i>x</i> = 19 × 8 + 16 = 168. The number required is consequently 28 × + 168 + 10 = 4714.</p> + + <p>Having found the number 4714 for the first of the era, the + correspondence of the years of the era and of the period is as + follows:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Positive years of the era and of the period" title="Positive years of the era and of the period"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3, ...</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p><i>x</i>,</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Period,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4714,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4715,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4716, ...</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4713 + <i>x</i>;</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>from which it is evident, that if we take P to represent the year of + the Julian period, and <i>x</i> the corresponding year of the Christian + era, we shall have</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = 4713 + <i>x</i>, and <i>x</i> = P - 4713.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>With regard to the numeration of the years previous to the + commencement of the era, the practice is not uniform. Chronologists, in + general, reckon the year preceding the first of the era -1, the next + preceding -2, and so on. In this case</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Negative years of the era and of the period (Chronologists reckoning)" title="Negative years of the era and of the period (Chronologists reckoning)"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>-1,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>-2,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>-3, ...</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-<i>x</i>,</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Period,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4713,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4712,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4711, ...</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4714 - <i>x</i>;</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>whence</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = 4714 - <i>x</i>, and <i>x</i> = 4714 - P.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>But astronomers, in order to preserve the uniformity of computation, + make the series of years proceed without interruption, and reckon the + year preceding the first of the era 0. Thus</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Negative years of the era and of the period (Astronomers reckoning)" title="Negative years of the era and of the period (Astronomers reckoning)"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>0,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>-1,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>-2, ...</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>-<i>x</i>,</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Period,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4713,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4712,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4711, ...</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4713 - <i>x</i>;</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>therefore, in this case</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = 4713 - <i>x</i>, and <i>x</i> = 4713 - P.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Reformation of the Calendar.</i>—The ancient church calendar + was founded on two suppositions, both erroneous, namely, that the year + contains 365¼ days, and that 235 lunations are exactly equal to nineteen + solar years. It could not therefore long continue to preserve its + correspondence with the seasons, or to indicate the days of the new moons + with the same accuracy. About the year 730 the venerable Bede had already + perceived the anticipation of the equinoxes, and remarked that these + phenomena then took place about three days earlier than at the time of + the council of Nicaea. Five centuries after the time of Bede, the + divergence of the true equinox from the 21st of March, which now amounted + to seven or eight days, was pointed out by Johannes de Sacro Bosco (John + Holywood, <i>fl.</i> 1230) in his <i>De Anni Ratione</i>; and by Roger + Bacon, in a treatise <i>De Reformatione Calendarii</i>, which, though + never published, was transmitted to the pope. These works were probably + little regarded at the time; but as the errors of the calendar went on + increasing, and the true length of the year, in consequence of the + progress of astronomy, became better known, the project of a reformation + was again revived in the 15th century; and in 1474 Pope Sixtus IV. + invited Regiomontanus, the most celebrated astronomer of the age, to + Rome, to superintend the reconstruction of the calendar. The premature + death of Regiomontanus caused the design to be suspended for the time; + but in the following century numerous memoirs appeared on the subject, + among the authors of which were Stoffler, Albert Pighius, Johann Schöner, + Lucas Gauricus, and other mathematicians of celebrity. At length Pope + Gregory XIII. perceiving that the measure was likely to confer a great + <i>éclat</i> on his pontificate, undertook the long-desired reformation; + and having found the governments of the principal Catholic states ready + to adopt his views, he issued a brief in the month of March 1582, in + which he abolished the use of the ancient calendar, and substituted that + which has since been received in almost all Christian countries under the + name of the <i>Gregorian Calendar</i> or <i>New Style</i> The author of + the system adopted by Gregory was Aloysius Lilius, or Luigi Lilio + Ghiraldi, a learned astronomer and physician of Naples, who died, + however, before its introduction; but the individual who most contributed + to give the ecclesiastical calendar its present form, and who was charged + with all the calculations necessary for its verification, was Clavius, by + whom it was completely developed and explained in a great folio treatise + of 800 pages, published in 1603, the title of which is given at the end + of this article.</p> + + <p>It has already been mentioned that the error of the Julian year was + corrected in the Gregorian calendar by the suppression of three + intercalations in 400 years. In order to restore the beginning of the + year to the same place in the seasons that it had occupied at the time of + the council of Nicaea, Gregory directed the day following the feast of St + Francis, that is to say the 5th of October, to be reckoned the 15th of + that month. By this regulation the vernal equinox which then happened on + the 11th of March was restored to the 21st. From 1582 to 1700 the + difference between the old and new style continued to be ten days; but + 1700 being a leap year in the Julian calendar, and a common year in the + Gregorian, the difference of the styles during the 18th century was + eleven days. The year 1800 was also common in the new calendar, and, + consequently, the difference in the 19th century was twelve days. From + 1900 to 2100 inclusive it is thirteen days.</p> + + <p>The restoration of the equinox to its former place in the year and the + correction of the intercalary period, were attended with no difficulty; + but Lilius had also to adapt the lunar year to the new rule of + intercalation. The lunar cycle contained 6939 days 18 hours, whereas the + exact time of 235 lunations, as we have already seen, is 235 × 29.530588 + = 6939 days 16 hours 31 minutes. The difference, which is 1 hour 29 + minutes, amounts to a day in 308 years, so that at the end of this time + the new moons occur one day earlier than they are indicated by the golden + numbers. During the 1257 years that elapsed between the council of Nicaea + and the Reformation, the error had accumulated to four days, so that the + new moons which were marked in the calendar as happening, for example, on + the 5th of the month, actually fell on the 1st. It would have been easy + to correct this error by placing the golden numbers four lines higher in + the new calendar; and the suppression of the ten days had already + rendered it necessary to place them ten lines lower, and to carry those + which belonged, for example, to the 5th and 6th of the month, to the 15th + and 16th. But, supposing this correction to have been made, it would have + again become necessary, at the end of 308 years, to advance them one line + higher, in consequence of the accumulation of the error of the cycle to a + whole day. On the other hand, as the golden numbers were only adapted to + the Julian calendar, every omission of the centenary intercalation would + require them to be placed one line lower, opposite the 6th, for example, + instead of the 5th of the month; so that, generally speaking, the places + of the golden numbers would have to be changed every century. On this + account Lilius thought fit to reject the golden numbers from the + calendar, and supply their place by another set of numbers called + <i>Epacts</i>, the use of which we shall now proceed to explain.</p> + + <p><i>Epacts.</i>—Epact is a word of Greek origin, employed in the + calendar to signify the moon's age at the beginning of the year. <!-- + Page 995 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page995"></a>[v.04 + p.0995]</span>The common solar year containing 365 days, and the lunar + year only 354 days, the difference is eleven; whence, if a new moon fall + on the 1st of January in any year, the moon will be eleven days old on + the first day of the following year, and twenty-two days on the first of + the third year. The numbers eleven and twenty-two are therefore the + epacts of those years respectively. Another addition of eleven gives + thirty-three for the epact of the fourth year; but in consequence of the + insertion of the intercalary month in each third year of the lunar cycle, + this epact is reduced to three. In like manner the epacts of all the + following years of the cycle are obtained by successively adding eleven + to the epact of the former year, and rejecting thirty as often as the sum + exceeds that number. They are therefore connected with the golden numbers + by the formula (11 <i>n</i> / 30) in which <i>n</i> is any whole number; + and for a whole lunar cycle (supposing the first epact to be 11), they + are as follows:—11, 22, 3, 14, 25, 6, 17, 28, 9, 20, 1, 12, 23, 4, + 15, 26, 7, 18, 29. But the order is interrupted at the end of the cycle; + for the epact of the following year, found in the same manner, would be + 29 + 11 = 40 or 10, whereas it ought again to be 11 to correspond with + the moon's age and the golden number 1. The reason of this is, that the + intercalary month, inserted at the end of the cycle, contains only + twenty-nine days instead of thirty; whence, after 11 has been added to + the epact of the year corresponding to the golden number 19, we must + reject twenty-nine instead of thirty, in order to have the epact of the + succeeding year; or, which comes to the same thing, we must add twelve to + the epact of the last year of the cycle, and then reject thirty as + before.</p> + + <p>This method of forming the epacts might have been continued + indefinitely if the Julian intercalation had been followed without + correction, and the cycle been perfectly exact; but as neither of these + suppositions is true, two equations or corrections must be applied, one + depending on the error of the Julian year, which is called the solar + equation; the other on the error of the lunar cycle, which is called the + lunar equation. The solar equation occurs three times in 400 years, + namely, in every secular year which is not a leap year; for in this case + the omission of the intercalary day causes the new moons to arrive one + day later in all the following months, so that the moon's age at the end + of the month is one day less than it would have been if the intercalation + had been made, and the epacts must accordingly be all diminished by + unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, 14, &c., become 10, 21, 2, 13, + &c. On the other hand, when the time by which the new moons + anticipate the lunar cycle amounts to a whole day, which, as we have + seen, it does in 308 years, the new moons will arrive one day earlier, + and the epacts must consequently be increased by unity. Thus the epacts + 11, 22, 3, 14, &c., in consequence of the lunar equation, become 12, + 23, 4, 15, &c. In order to preserve the uniformity of the calendar, + the epacts are changed only at the commencement of a century; the + correction of the error of the lunar cycle is therefore made at the end + of 300 years. In the Gregorian calendar this error is assumed to amount + to one day in 312½ years or eight days in 2500 years, an assumption which + requires the line of epacts to be changed seven times successively at the + end of each period of 300 years, and once at the end of 400 years; and, + from the manner in which the epacts were disposed at the Reformation, it + was found most correct to suppose one of the periods of 2500 years to + terminate with the year 1800.</p> + + <p>The years in which the solar equation occurs, counting from the + Reformation, are 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2500, &c. Those + in which the lunar equation occurs are 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, + 3300, 3600, 3900, after which, 4300, 4600 and so on. When the solar + equation occurs, the epacts are diminished by unity; when the lunar + equation occurs, the epacts are augmented by unity; and when both + equations occur together, as in 1800, 2100, 2700, &c., they + compensate each other, and the epacts are not changed.</p> + + <p>In consequence of the solar and lunar equations, it is evident that + the epact or moon's age at the beginning of the year, must, in the course + of centuries, have all different values from one to thirty inclusive, + corresponding to the days in a full lunar month. Hence, for the + construction of a perpetual calendar, there must be thirty different sets + or lines of epacts. These are exhibited in the subjoined table (Table + III.) called the <i>Extended Table of Epacts</i>, which is constructed in + the following manner. The series of golden numbers is written in a line + at the top of the table, and under each golden number is a column of + thirty epacts, arranged in the order of the natural numbers, beginning at + the bottom and proceeding to the top of the column. The first column, + under the golden number 1, contains the epacts, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., to + 30 or 0. The second column, corresponding to the following year in the + lunar cycle, must have all its epacts augmented by 11; the lowest number, + therefore, in the column is 12, then 13, 14, 15 and so on. The third + column corresponding to the golden number 3, has for its first epact 12 + + 11 = 23; and in the same manner all the nineteen columns of the table are + formed. Each of the thirty lines of epacts is designated by a letter of + the alphabet, which serves as its index or argument. The order of the + letters, like that of the numbers, is from the bottom of the column + upwards.</p> + + <p>In the tables of the church calendar the epacts are usually printed in + Roman numerals, excepting the last, which is designated by an asterisk + (*), used as an indefinite symbol to denote 30 or 0, and 25, which in the + last eight columns is expressed in Arabic characters, for a reason that + will immediately be explained. In the table here given, this distinction + is made by means of an accent placed over the last figure.</p> + + <p>At the Reformation the epacts were given by the line D. The year 1600 + was a leap year; the intercalation accordingly took place as usual, and + there was no interruption in the order of the epacts; the line D was + employed till 1700. In that year the omission of the intercalary day + rendered it necessary to diminish the epacts by unity, or to pass to the + line C. In 1800 the solar equation again occurred, in consequence of + which it was necessary to descend one line to have the epacts diminished + by unity; but in this year the lunar equation also occurred, the + anticipation of the new moons having amounted to a day; the new moons + accordingly happened a day earlier, which rendered it necessary to take + the epacts in the next higher line. There was, consequently, no + alteration; the two equations destroyed each other. The line of epacts + belonging to the present century is therefore C. In 1900 the solar + equation occurs, after which the line is B. The year 2000 is a leap year, + and there is no alteration. In 2100 the equations again occur together + and destroy each other, so that the line B will serve three centuries, + from 1900 to 2200. From that year to 2300 the line will be A. In this + manner the line of epacts belonging to any given century is easily found, + and the method of proceeding is obvious. When the solar equation occurs + alone, the line of epacts is changed to the next lower in the table; when + the lunar equation occurs alone, the line is changed to the next higher; + when both equations occur together, no change takes place. In order that + it may be perceived at once to what centuries the different lines of + epacts respectively belong, they have been placed in a column on the left + hand side of the table on next page.</p> + + <p>The use of the epacts is to show the days of the new moons, and + consequently the moon's age on any day of the year. For this purpose they + are placed in the calendar (Table IV.) along with the days of the month + and dominical letters, in a retrograde order, so that the asterisk stands + beside the 1st of January, 29 beside the 2nd, 28 beside the 3rd and so on + to 1, which corresponds to the 30th. After this comes the asterisk, which + corresponds to the 31st of January, then 29, which belongs to the 1st of + February, and so on to the end of the year. The reason of this + distribution is evident. If the last lunation of any year ends, for + example, on the 2nd of December, the new moon falls on the 3rd; and the + moon's age on the 31st, or at the end of the year, is twenty-nine days. + The epact of the following year is therefore twenty-nine. Now that + lunation having commenced on the 3rd of December, and consisting of + thirty days, will end on the 1st of January. The 2nd of January is + therefore the day <!-- Page 996 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page996"></a>[v.04 p.0996]</span>of the new moon, which is + indicated by the epact twenty-nine. In like manner, if the new moon fell + on the 4th of December, the epact of the following year would be + twenty-eight, which, to indicate the day of next new moon, must + correspond to the 3rd of January.</p> + + <p>When the epact of the year is known, the days on which the new moons + occur throughout the whole year are shown by Table IV., which is called + the <i>Gregorian Calendar of Epacts</i>. For example, the golden number + of the year 1832 is ((1832 + 1) / 19)<sub><i>r</i></sub> = 9, and the + epact, as found in Table III., is twenty-eight. This epact occurs at the + 3rd of January, the 2nd of February, the 3rd of March, the 2nd of April, + the 1st of May, &c., and these days are consequently the days of the + ecclesiastical new moons in 1832. The astronomical new moons generally + take place one or two days, sometimes even three days, earlier than those + of the calendar.</p> + + <p>There are some artifices employed in the construction of this table, + to which it is necessary to pay attention. The thirty epacts correspond + to the thirty days of a full lunar month; but the lunar months consist of + twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, therefore in six months of the + year the thirty epacts must correspond only to twenty-nine days. For this + reason the epacts twenty-five and twenty-four are placed together, so as + to belong only to one day in the months of February, April, June, August, + September and November, and in the same months another 25′, + distinguished by an accent, or by being printed in a different character, + is placed beside 26, and belongs to the same day. The reason for doubling + the 25 was to prevent the new moons from being indicated in the calendar + as happening twice on the same day in the course of the lunar cycle, a + thing which actually cannot take place. For example, if we observe the + line B in Table III., we shall see that it contains both the epacts + twenty-four and twenty-five, so that if these correspond to the same day + of the month, two new moons would be indicated as happening on that day + within nineteen years. Now the three epacts 24, 25, 26, can never occur + in the same line; therefore in those lines in which 24 and 25 occur, the + 25 is accented, and placed in the calendar beside 26. When 25 and 26 + occur in the same line of epacts, the 25 is not accented, and in the + calendar stands beside 24. The lines of epacts in which 24 and 25 both + occur, are those which are marked by one of the eight letters <i>b</i>, + <i>e</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, B, E, N, in all of which + 25′ stands in a column corresponding to a golden number higher than + 11. There are also eight lines in which 25 and 26 occur, namely, + <i>c</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>s</i>, C, F, P. In the other + 14 lines, 25 either does not occur at all, or it occurs in a line in + which neither 24 nor 26 is found. From this it appears that if the golden + number of the year exceeds 11, the epact 25, in six months of the year, + must correspond to the same day in the calendar as 26; but if the golden + number does not exceed 11, that epact must correspond to the same day as + 24. Hence the reason for distinguishing 25 and 25′. In using the + calendar, if the epact of the year is 25, and the golden number not above + 11, take 25; but if the golden number exceeds 11, take 25′.</p> + + <p>Another peculiarity requires explanation. The epact 19′ (also + distinguished by an accent or different character) is placed in the same + line with 20 at the 31st of December. It is, however, only used in those + years in which the epact 19 concurs with the golden number 19. When the + golden number is 19, that is to say, in the last year of the lunar cycle, + the supplementary month contains only 29 days. Hence, if in that year the + epact should be 19, a new moon would fall on the 2nd of December, and the + lunation would terminate on the 30th, so that the next new moon would + arrive on the 31st. The epact of the year, therefore, or 19, must stand + beside that day, whereas, according to the regular order, the epact + corresponding to the 31st of December is 20; and this is the reason for + the distinction.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> III. <i>Extended Table of Epacts.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbnomar" summary="Extended Table of Epacts." title="Extended Table of Epacts."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" rowspan="2"> + <p>Years.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" rowspan="2"> + <p>Index.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="19"> + <p>Golden Numbers.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1700 1800 8700</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1900 2000 2100</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p><span class="correction" title="'17' in original">19</span></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2200 2400</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p><span class="correction" title="'19' in original">18</span></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2300 2500</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>u</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2600 2700 2800</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>t</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2900 3000</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>s</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3100 3200 3300</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>r</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3400 3600</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>q</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3500 3700</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>p</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3800 3900 4000</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>n</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4100</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>m</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4200 4300 4400</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>l</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4500 4600</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>k</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4700 4800 4900</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>i</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5000 5200</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>h</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5100 5300</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>g</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5400 5500 5600</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>f</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5700 5800</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>e</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5900 6000 6100</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>d</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6200 6400</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>c</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6300 6500</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>b</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6600 6800</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>a</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6700 6900</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>P</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7000 7100 7200</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>N</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7300 7400</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>M</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7500 7600 7700</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>H</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7800 8000</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7900 8100</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>8200 8300 8400</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1500 1600 8500</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>As an example of the use of the preceding tables, suppose it were + required to determine the moon's age on the 10th of April 1832. In 1832 + the golden number is ((1832 + 1) / 19)<sub><i>r</i></sub> = 9 and the + line of epacts belonging to the century is C. In Table III, under 9, and + in the line C, we find the epact 28. In the calendar, Table IV., look for + April, and the epact 28 is found opposite the second day. The 2nd of + April is therefore the first day of the moon, <!-- Page 997 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page997"></a>[v.04 p.0997]</span>and the 10th is + consequently the ninth day of the moon. Again, suppose it were required + to find the moon's age on the 2nd of December in the year 1916. In this + case the golden number is ((1916 + 1) / 19)<sub><i>r</i></sub> = 17, and + in Table III., opposite to 1900, the line of epacts is B. Under 17, in + line B, the epact is 25′. In the calendar this epact first occurs + before the 2nd of December at the 26th of November. The 26th of November + is consequently the first day of the moon, and the 2nd of December is + therefore the seventh day.</p> + + <p><i>Easter.</i>—The next, and indeed the principal use of the + calendar, is to find Easter, which, according to the traditional + regulation of the council of Nice, must be determined from the following + conditions:—<i>1st</i>, Easter must be celebrated on a Sunday; + <i>2nd</i>, this Sunday must <i>follow</i> the 14th day of the paschal + moon, so that if the 14th of the paschal moon falls on a Sunday then + Easter must be celebrated on the Sunday following; <i>3rd</i>, the + paschal moon is that of which the 14th day falls on or next follows the + day of the vernal equinox; <i>4th</i> the equinox is fixed invariably in + the calendar on the 21st of March. Sometimes a misunderstanding has + arisen from not observing that this regulation is to be construed + according to the tabular full moon as determined from the epact, and not + by the true full moon, which, in general, occurs one or two days + earlier.</p> + + <p>From these conditions it follows that the paschal full moon, or the + 14th of the paschal moon, cannot happen before the 21st of March, and + that Easter in consequence cannot happen before the 22nd of March. If the + 14th of the moon falls on the 21st, the new moon must fall on the 8th; + for 21 - 13 = 8; and the paschal new moon cannot happen before the 8th; + for suppose the new moon to fall on the 7th, then the full moon would + arrive on the 20th, or the day before the equinox. The following moon + would be the paschal moon. But the fourteenth of this moon falls at the + latest on the 18th of April, or 29 days after the 20th of March; for by + reason of the double epact that occurs at the 4th and 5th of April, this + lunation has only 29 days. Now, if in this case the 18th of April is + Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated on the following Sunday, or the + 25th of April. Hence Easter Sunday cannot happen earlier than the 22nd of + March, or later than the 25th of April.</p> + + <p>Hence we derive the following rule for finding Easter Sunday from the + tables:—<i>1st</i>, Find the golden number, and, from Table III., + the epact of the proposed year. <i>2nd</i>, Find in the calendar (Table + IV.) the first day after the 7th of March which corresponds to the epact + of the year; this will be the first day of the paschal moon, <i>3rd</i>, + Reckon thirteen days after that of the first of the moon, the following + will be the 14th of the moon or the day of the full paschal moon. + <i>4th</i>, Find from Table I. the dominical letter of the year, and + observe in the calendar the first day, after the fourteenth of the moon, + which corresponds to the dominical letter; this will be Easter + Sunday.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.—<i>Gregorian Calendar.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Gregorian Calendar." title="Gregorian Calendar."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Days.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>March.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>April.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>May.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>June.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + 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class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Days.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>July.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>August.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>October.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>L</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p><span class="correction" title="'25′24' in original: see text - 25 beside 24 should not be accented" + >25 24</span></p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25′26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19′20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Example.</i>—Required the day on which Easter Sunday falls in + the year 1840? <i>1st</i>, For this year the golden number is ((1840 + 1) + / 19)<sub><i>r</i></sub> = 17, and the epact (Table III. line C) is 26. + <i>2nd</i>, After the 7th of March the epact 26 first occurs in Table + III. at the 4th of April, which, therefore, is the day of the new moon. + <i>3rd</i>, Since the new moon falls on the 4th, the full moon is on the + 17th (4 + 13 = 17). <i>4th</i>, The dominical letters of 1840 are E, D + (Table I.), of which D must be taken, as E belongs only to January and + February. After the 17th of April D first occurs in the calendar (Table + IV.) at the 19th. Therefore, in 1840, Easter Sunday falls on the 19th of + April. The operation is in all cases much facilitated by means of the + table on next page.</p> + + <p>Such is the very complicated and artificial, though highly ingenious + method, invented by Lilius, for the determination of Easter and the other + movable feasts. Its principal, though perhaps least obvious advantage, + consists in its being entirely independent of astronomical tables, or + indeed of any celestial phenomena whatever; so that all chances of + disagreement arising from the inevitable errors of tables, or the + uncertainty of observation, are avoided, and Easter determined without + the <!-- Page 998 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page998"></a>[v.04 + p.0998]</span>possibility of mistake. But this advantage is only procured + by the sacrifice of some accuracy; for notwithstanding the cumbersome + apparatus employed, the conditions of the problem are not always exactly + satisfied, nor is it possible that they can be always satisfied by any + similar method of proceeding. The equinox is fixed on the 21st of March, + though the sun enters Aries generally on the 20th of that month, + sometimes even on the 19th. It is accordingly quite possible that a full + moon may arrive after the true equinox, and yet precede the 21st of + March. This, therefore, would not be the paschal moon of the calendar, + though it undoubtedly ought to be so if the intention of the council of + Nice were rigidly followed. The new moons indicated by the epacts also + differ from the astronomical new moons, and even from the mean new moons, + in general by one or two days. In imitation of the Jews, who counted the + time of the new moon, not from the moment of the actual phase, but from + the time the moon first became visible after the conjunction, the + fourteenth day of the moon is regarded as the full moon: but the moon is + in opposition generally on the 16th day; therefore, when the new moons of + the calendar nearly concur with the true new moons, the full moons are + considerably in error. The epacts are also placed so as to indicate the + full moons generally one or two days after the true full moons; but this + was done purposely, to avoid the chance of concurring with the Jewish + passover, which the framers of the calendar seem to have considered a + greater evil than that of celebrating Easter a week too late.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> V.—<i>Perpetual Table, showing Easter.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Perpetual Table, showing Easter." title="Perpetual Table, showing Easter."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p>Epact.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="7"> + <p>Dominical Letter.<br />For Leap Years use the <span + class="scac">SECOND</span> Letter.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>A</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>B</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>C</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>D</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>E</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>F</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>G</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 15</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 8</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 1</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Mar. 25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 25</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>Apr. 22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 22</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>" 15</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>We will now show in what manner this whole apparatus of methods and + tables may be dispensed with, and the Gregorian calendar reduced to a few + simple formulae of easy computation.</p> + + <p>And, first, to find the dominical letter. Let L denote the number of + the dominical letter of any given year of the era. Then, since every year + which is not a leap year ends with the same day as that with which it + began, the dominical letter of the following year must be L - 1, + retrograding one letter every common year. After <i>x</i> years, + therefore, the number of the letter will be L - <i>x</i>. But as L can + never exceed 7, the number <i>x</i> will always exceed L after the first + seven years of the era. In order, therefore, to render the subtraction + possible, L must be increased by some multiple of 7, as 7<i>m</i>, and + the formula then becomes 7<i>m</i> + L - <i>x</i>. In the year preceding + the first of the era, the dominical letter was C; for that year, + therefore, we have L = 3; consequently for any succeeding year <i>x</i>, + L = 7<i>m</i> + 3 - <i>x</i>, the years being all supposed to consist of + 365 days. But every fourth year is a leap year, and the effect of the + intercalation is to throw the dominical letter one place farther back. + The above expression must therefore be diminished by the number of units + in <i>x</i>/4, or by (<i>x</i>/4)<sub><i>w</i></sub> (this notation being + used to denote the quotient, <i>in a whole number</i>, that arises from + dividing <i>x</i> by 4). Hence in the Julian calendar the dominical + letter is given by the equation</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>L = 7<i>m</i> + 3 - <i>x</i> -</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>This equation gives the dominical letter of any year from the + commencement of the era to the Reformation. In order to adapt it to the + Gregorian calendar, we must first add the 10 days that were left out of + the year 1582; in the second place we must add one day for every century + that has elapsed since 1600, in consequence of the secular suppression of + the intercalary day; and lastly we must deduct the units contained in a + fourth of the same number, because every fourth centesimal year is still + a leap year. Denoting, therefore, the number of the century (or the date + after the two right-hand digits have been struck out) by <i>c</i>, the + value of L must be increased by 10 + (<i>c</i> - 16) - ((<i>c</i> - 16) / + 4)<sub><i>w</i></sub> . We have then</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>L = 7<i>m</i> + 3 - <i>x</i> -</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> + 10 + (<i>c</i> - 16) -</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 16<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub>;</td></tr></table> + + <p>that is, since 3 + 10 = 13 or 6 (the 7 days being rejected, as they do + not affect the value of L),</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>L = 7<i>m</i> + 6 - <i>x</i> -</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> + (<i>c</i> - 16) -</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 16<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>This formula is perfectly general, and easily calculated.</p> + + <p>As an example, let us take the year 1839. In this case,</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>x</i> = 1839,</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>x</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> =</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>1839<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> = 459, <i>c</i> = 18, <i>c</i> - 16 = 2, and</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 16<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> = 0.</td></tr></table> + + <p>Hence</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>L = 7<i>m</i> + 6 - 1839 - 459 + 2 - 0</p> + <p>L = 7<i>m</i> - 2290 = 7 × 328 - 2290.</p> + <p>L = 6 = letter F.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The year therefore begins with Tuesday. It will be remembered that in + a leap year there are always two dominical letters, one of which is + employed till the 29th of February, and the other till the end of the + year. In this case, as the formula supposes the intercalation already + made, the resulting letter is that which applies after the 29th of + February. Before the intercalation the dominical letter had retrograded + one place less. Thus for 1840 the formula gives D; during the first two + months, therefore, the dominical letter is E.</p> + + <p>In order to investigate a formula for the epact, let us make</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>E = the true epact of the given year;</p> + + <p>J = the Julian epact, that is to say, the number the epact would + have been if the Julian year had been still in use and the lunar cycle + had been exact;</p> + + <p>S = the correction depending on the solar year;</p> + + <p>M = the correction depending on the lunar cycle;</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>then the equation of the epact will be</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">E = J + S + M;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>so that E will be known when the numbers J, S, and M are + determined.</p> + + <p>The epact J depends on the golden number N, and must be determined + from the fact that in 1582, the first year of the reformed calendar, N + was 6, and J 26. For the following years, then, the golden numbers and + epacts are as follows:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1583, N = 7, J = 26 + 11 - 30 = 7;</p> + <p>1584, N = 8, J = 7 + 11 = 18;</p> + <p>1585, N = 9, J = 18 + 11 = 29;</p> + <p>1586, N = 10, J = 29 + 11 - 30 = 10;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>and, therefore, in general J = ((26 + 11(N - 6)) / + 30)<sub><i>r</i></sub>. But the numerator of this fraction becomes by + reduction 11 N - 40 or 11 N - 10 (the 30 being rejected, as the remainder + only is sought) = N + 10(N - 1); therefore, ultimately,</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>J =</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>N + 10(N - 1)<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>On account of the solar equation S, the epact J must be diminished by + unity every centesimal year, excepting always the fourth. After <i>x</i> + centuries, therefore, it must be diminished by <i>x</i> - + (<i>x</i>/4)<sub><i>w</i></sub>. Now, as 1600 was a leap year, the first + correction of the Julian intercalation took place in 1700; hence, taking + <i>c</i> to denote the number of the century as before, the correction + becomes (<i>c</i> - 16) - ((<i>c</i> - 16) / 4)<sub><i>w</i></sub>, which + <!-- Page 999 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page999"></a>[v.04 + p.0999]</span>must be deducted from J. We have therefore</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>S = - (<i>c</i> - 16) +</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 16<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>With regard to the lunar equation M, we have already stated that in + the Gregorian calendar the epacts are increased by unity at the end of + every period of 300 years seven times successively, and then the increase + takes place once at the end of 400 years. This gives eight to be added in + a period of twenty-five centuries, and <i>x</i>/25 in <i>x</i> centuries. + But 8<i>x</i>/25 = 1/3 (<i>x</i> - <i>x</i>/25). Now, from the manner in + which the intercalation is directed to be made (namely, seven times + successively at the end of 300 years, and once at the end of 400), it is + evident that the fraction <i>x</i>/25 must amount to unity when the + number of centuries amounts to twenty-four. In like manner, when the + number of centuries is 24 + 25 = 49, we must have <i>x</i>/25 = 2; when + the number of centuries is 24 + 2 × 25 = 74, then <i>x</i>/25 = 3; and, + generally, when the number of centuries is 24 + <i>n</i> × 25, then + <i>x</i>/25 = <i>n</i> + 1. Now this is a condition which will evidently + be expressed in general by the formula <i>n</i> - ((<i>n</i> + 1) / + 25)<sub><i>w</i></sub>. Hence the correction of the epact, or the number + of days to be intercalated after <i>x</i> centuries reckoned from the + commencement of one of the periods of twenty-five centuries, is + {(<i>x</i> - ((<i>x</i>+1) / 25)<sub><i>w</i></sub>) / + 3}<sub><i>w</i></sub>. The last period of twenty-five centuries + terminated with 1800; therefore, in any succeeding year, if c be the + number of the century, we shall have <i>x</i> = <i>c</i> - 18 and + <i>x</i> + 1 = <i>c</i> - 17. Let ((<i>c</i> - 17) / + 25)<sub><i>w</i></sub> = <i>a</i>, then for all years after 1800 the + value of M will be given by the formula ((<i>c</i> - 18 - <i>a</i>) / + 3)<sub><i>w</i></sub>; therefore, counting from the beginning of the + calendar in 1582,</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>M =</td><td><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right brace" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 15 - <i>a</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />3</td><td><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left brace" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>By the substitution of these values of J, S and M, the equation of the + epact becomes</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>E =</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>N + 10(N - 1)<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> - (<i>c</i> - 16) +</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 16<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />4</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> +</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>c</i> - 15 - <i>a</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />3</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub>.</td></tr></table> + + <p>It may be remarked, that as <i>a</i> = ((<i>c</i> - 17) / + 25)<sub><i>w</i></sub>, the value of <i>a</i> will be 0 till <i>c</i> - + 17 = 25 or <i>c</i> = 42; therefore, till the year 4200, <i>a</i> may be + neglected in the computation. Had the anticipation of the new moons been + taken, as it ought to have been, at one day in 308 years instead of 312½, + the lunar equation would have occurred only twelve times in 3700 years, + or eleven times successively at the end of 300 years, and then at the end + of 400. In strict accuracy, therefore, <i>a</i> ought to have no value + till <i>c</i> - 17 = 37, or <i>c</i> = 54, that is to say, till the year + 5400. The above formula for the epact is given by Delambre (<i>Hist. de + l'astronomie moderne,</i> t. i. p. 9); it may be exhibited under a + variety of forms, but the above is perhaps the best adapted for + calculation. Another had previously been given by Gauss, but + inaccurately, inasmuch as the correction depending on ''a'' was + omitted.</p> + + <p>Having determined the epact of the year, it only remains to find + Easter Sunday from the conditions already laid down. Let</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>P = the number of days from the 21st of March to the 15th of the + paschal moon, which is the first day on which Easter Sunday can + fall;</p> + + <p><i>p</i> = the number of days from the 21st of March to Easter + Sunday;</p> + + <p>L = the number of the dominical letter of the year;</p> + + <p><i>l</i> = letter belonging to the day on which the 15th of the moon + falls:</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>then, since Easter is the Sunday following the 14th of the moon, we + have</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>p</i> = P + (L - <i>l</i>),</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>which is commonly called the <i>number of direction</i>.</p> + + <p>The value of L is always given by the formula for the dominical + letter, and P and <i>l</i> are easily deduced from the epact, as will + appear from the following considerations.</p> + + <p>When P = 1 the full moon is on the 21st of March, and the new moon on + the 8th (21 - 13 = 8), therefore the moon's age on the 1st of March + (which is the same as on the 1st of January) is twenty-three days; the + epact of the year is consequently twenty-three. When P = 2 the new moon + falls on the ninth, and the epact is consequently twenty-two; and, in + general, when P becomes 1 + <i>x</i>, E becomes 23 - <i>x</i>, therefore + P + E = 1 + <i>x</i> + 23 - <i>x</i> = 24, and P = 24 - E. In like + manner, when P = 1, <i>l</i> = D = 4; for D is the dominical letter of + the calendar belonging to the 22nd of March. But it is evident that when + <i>l</i> is increased by unity, that is to say, when the full moon falls + a day later, the epact of the year is diminished by unity; therefore, in + general, when <i>l</i> = 4 + <i>x</i>, E = 23 - <i>x</i>, whence, + <i>l</i> + E = 27 and <i>l</i> = 27 - E. But P can never be less than 1 + nor <i>l</i> less than 4, and in both cases E = 23. When, therefore, E is + greater than 23, we must add 30 in order that P and <i>l</i> may have + positive values in the formula P = 24 - E and <i>l</i> = 27 - E. Hence + there are two cases.</p> + +<table style="margin-left:10%; vertical-align: middle; text-align:center;"><tr> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="correction" title="'When < 24' in original">When E < 24,</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:7ex; width:0.5em" alt="left brace" /></td> +<td style="text-align:left;" colspan="5">P = 24 - E</td> +</tr><tr style="vertical-align: middle; text-align:center;"><td><i>l</i> = 27 - E, or</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>27 - E<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub>,</td> +</tr><tr> +<td rowspan="2">When E > 23,</td> +<td rowspan="2"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:7ex; width:0.5em" alt="left brace" /></td> +<td style="text-align:left;" colspan="5">P = 54 - E</td> +</tr><tr style="vertical-align: middle; text-align:center;"><td><i>l</i> = 57 - E, or</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>57 - E<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub>.</td> +</tr></table> + + <p>By substituting one or other of these values of P and <i>l</i>, + according as the case may be, in the formula <i>p</i> = P + (L - + <i>l</i>), we shall have <i>p</i>, or the number of days from the 21st of + March to Easter Sunday. It will be remarked, that as L - <i>l</i> cannot + either be 0 or negative, we must add 7 to L as often as may be necessary, + in order that L - <i>l</i> may be a positive whole number.</p> + + <p>By means of the formulae which we have now given for the dominical + letter, the golden number and the epact, Easter Sunday may be computed + for any year after the Reformation, without the assistance of any tables + whatever. As an example, suppose it were required to compute Easter for + the year 1840. By substituting this number in the formula for the + dominical letter, we have <i>x</i> = 1840, <i>c</i> - 16 = 2, ((<i>c</i> + - 16) / 4)<sub><i>w</i></sub> = 0, therefore</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>L = 7<i>m</i> + 6 - 1840 - 460 + 2</p> + <p class="i2">= 7<i>m</i> - 2292</p> + <p class="i2">= 7 × 328 - 2292 = 2296 - 2292 = 4</p> + <p>L = 4 = letter D . . . (1).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>For the golden number we have N = ((1840 + 1) / + 19)<sub><i>r</i></sub>; therefore N = 17 . . . (2).</p> + + <p>For the epact we have</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>N + 10(N - 1)<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = </td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>17 + 160<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = </td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>177<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = 27;</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>likewise <i>c</i> - 16 = 18 - 16 = 2, </td><td><i>c</i> - 15<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />3</td><td> = 1, <i>a</i> = 0; therefore</td></tr></table> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>E = 27 - 2 + 1 = 26 . . . (3).</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Now since E > 23, we have for P and <i>l</i>,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>P = 54 - E = 54 - 26 = 28,</p> + </div> + </div> +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>l</i> =</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>57 - E<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = </td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>57 - 26<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = </td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>31<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = 3;</td></tr></table> + + <p>consequently, since <i>p</i> = P + (L - <i>l</i>),</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>p = 28 + (4 - 3) = 29;</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>that is to say, Easter happens twenty-nine days after the 21st of + March, or on the 19th April, the same result as was before found from the + tables.</p> + + <p>The principal church feasts depending on Easter, and the times of + their celebration are as follows:—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Church feasts depending on Easter." title="Church feasts depending on Easter."> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Septuagesima Sunday</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="3"> + <p><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="vertical-align:middle; + height:7ex; width:0.8em" alt="right brace" /> <span + class="lower">is</span> <img src="images/$lbrace.png" + style="vertical-align:middle; height:7ex; width:0.8em" alt="left + brace" /></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>9 weeks</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="3"> + <p><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="vertical-align:middle; + height:7ex; width:0.8em" alt="right brace" /> <span + class="lower">before Easter.</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>First Sunday in Lent</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>6 weeks</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="botb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ash Wednesday</p> + </td> + <td class="botb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>46 days</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Rogation Sunday</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="4"> + <p><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="vertical-align:middle; + height:10ex; width:0.8em" alt="right brace" /> <span + class="lower">is</span> <img src="images/$lbrace.png" + style="vertical-align:middle; height:10ex; width:0.8em" alt="left + brace" /></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>5 weeks</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:left" rowspan="4"> + <p><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="vertical-align:middle; + height:10ex; width:0.8em" alt="right brace" /> <span + class="lower">after Easter.</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ascension day or Holy Thursday</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>39 days</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Pentecost or Whitsunday</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>7 weeks</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Trinity Sunday</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>8 weeks</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, Portugal and part of + Italy the same day as at Rome. In France it was received in the same year + in the month of December, and by the Catholic states of Germany the year + following. In the Protestant states of Germany the Julian calendar was + adhered to till the year 1700, when it was decreed by the diet of + Regensburg that the new style and the Gregorian correction of the + intercalation should be adopted. Instead, however, of employing the + golden numbers and epacts for the determination of Easter and the movable + feasts, it was resolved that the equinox and the paschal moon should be + found by astronomical computation from the Rudolphine tables. But this + method, though at first view it may appear more accurate, was soon found + to be attended with numerous inconveniences, and was at length in 1774 + abandoned at the instance of Frederick II., king of Prussia. In Denmark + and Sweden the reformed calendar was received about the same time as in + the Protestant states of Germany. It is remarkable that Russia still + adheres to the Julian reckoning.</p> + + <p>In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for a long time + successfully opposed by popular prejudice. The inconvenience, however, of + using a different date from that employed by the greater part of Europe + in matters of history and chronology began to be generally felt; and at + length the Calendar (New <!-- Page 1000 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page1000"></a>[v.04 p.1000]</span>Style) Act 1750 was passed for + the adoption of the new style in all public and legal transactions. The + difference of the two styles, which then amounted to eleven days, was + removed by ordering the day following the 2nd of September of the year + 1752 to be accounted the 14th of that month; and in order to preserve + uniformity in future, the Gregorian rule of intercalation respecting the + secular years was adopted. At the same time, the commencement of the + legal year was changed from the 25th of March to the 1st of January. In + Scotland, January 1st was adopted for New Year's Day from 1600, according + to an act of the privy council in December 1599. This fact is of + importance with reference to the date of legal deeds executed in Scotland + between that period and 1751, when the change was effected in England. + With respect to the movable feasts, Easter is determined by the rule laid + down by the council of Nice; but instead of employing the new moons and + epacts, the golden numbers are prefixed to the days of the <i>full</i> + moons. In those years in which the line of epacts is changed in the + Gregorian calendar, the golden numbers are removed to different days, and + of course a new table is required whenever the solar or lunar equation + occurs. The golden numbers have been placed so that Easter may fall on + the same day as in the Gregorian calendar. The calendar of the church of + England is therefore from century to century the same in form as the old + Roman calendar, excepting that the golden numbers indicate the full moons + instead of the new moons.</p> + + <p><i>Hebrew Calendar.</i>—In the construction of the Jewish + calendar numerous details require attention. The calendar is dated from + the Creation, which is considered to have taken place 3760 years and 3 + months before the commencement of the Christian era. The year is + luni-solar, and, according as it is ordinary or embolismic, consists of + twelve or thirteen lunar months, each of which has 29 or 30 days. Thus + the duration of the ordinary year is 354 days, and that of the embolismic + is 384 days. In either case, it is sometimes made a day more, and + sometimes a day less, in order that certain festivals may fall on proper + days of the week for their due observance. The distribution of the + embolismic years, in each cycle of 19 years, is determined according to + the following rule:—</p> + + <p>The number of the Hebrew year (Y) which has its commencement in a + Gregorian year (<i>x</i>) is obtained by the addition of 3761 years; that + is, Y = <i>x</i> + 3761. Divide the Hebrew year by 19; then the quotient + is the number of the last completed cycle, and the remainder is the year + of the current cycle. If the remainder be 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 or 19 (0), + the year is embolismic; if any other number, it is ordinary. Or, + otherwise, if we find the remainder</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>R=</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>7Y+1<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />19</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub></td></tr></table> + + <p>the year is embolismic when R < 7.</p> + + <p>The calendar is constructed on the assumptions that the mean lunation + is 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 3⅓ sec., and that the year commences + on, or immediately after, the new moon following the autumnal equinox. + The mean solar year is also assumed to be 365 days 5 hours 55 min. + 25-25/57 sec., so that a cycle of nineteen of such years, containing 6939 + days 16 hours 33 min. 3⅓ sec., is the exact measure of 235 of the + assumed lunations. The year 5606 was the first of a cycle, and the mean + new moon, appertaining to the 1st of Tisri for that year, was 1845, + October 1, 15 hours 42 min. 43⅓ sec., as computed by Lindo, and + adopting the civil mode of reckoning from the previous midnight. The + times of all future new moons may consequently be deduced by successively + adding 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 3⅓ sec. to this date.</p> + + <p>To compute the times of the new moons which determine the commencement + of successive years, it must be observed that in passing from an ordinary + year the new moon of the following year is deduced by subtracting the + interval that twelve lunations fall short of the corresponding Gregorian + year of 365 or 366 days; and that, in passing from an embolismic year, it + is to be found by adding the excess of thirteen lunations over the + Gregorian year. Thus to deduce the new moon of Tisri, for the year + immediately following any given year (Y), when Y is</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>ordinary, subtract</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:3.5ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>10<br />11</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:3.5ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td>days 15 hours 11 min. 20 sec.,</td></tr><tr><td> +embolismic, add</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:3.5ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>18<br />17</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:3.5ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td>days 21 hours 32 min. 43½ sec.</td></tr></table> + + <p>the second-mentioned number of days being used, in each case, whenever + the following or new Gregorian year is bissextile.</p> + + <p>Hence, knowing which of the years are embolismic, from their ordinal + position in the cycle, according to the rule before stated, the times of + the commencement of successive years may be thus carried on indefinitely + without any difficulty. But some slight adjustments will occasionally be + needed for the reasons before assigned, viz. to avoid certain festivals + falling on incompatible days of the week. Whenever the computed + conjunction falls on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, the new year is in + such case to be fixed on the day after. It will also be requisite to + attend to the following conditions:—</p> + + <p>If the computed new moon be after 18 hours, the following day is to be + taken, and if that happen to be Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, it must be + further postponed one day. If, for an ordinary year, the new moon falls + on a Tuesday, as late as 9 hours 11 min. 20 sec., it is not to be + observed thereon; and as it may not be held on a Wednesday, it is in such + case to be postponed to Thursday. If, for a year immediately following an + embolismic year, the computed new moon is on Monday, as late as 15 hours + 30 min. 52 sec., the new year is to be fixed on Tuesday.</p> + + <p>After the dates of commencement of the successive Hebrew years are + finally adjusted, conformably with the foregoing directions, an + estimation of the consecutive intervals, by taking the differences, will + show the duration and character of the years that respectively intervene. + According to the number of days thus found to be comprised in the + different years, the days of the several months are distributed as in + Table VI.</p> + + <p>The signs + and - are respectively annexed to Hesvan and Kislev to + indicate that the former of these months may sometimes require to have + one day more, and the latter sometimes one day less, than the number of + days shown in the table—the result, in every case, being at once + determined by the total number of days that the year may happen to + contain. An ordinary year may comprise 353, 354 or 355 days; and an + embolismic year 383, 384 or 385 days. In these cases respectively the + year is said to be imperfect, common or perfect. The intercalary month, + Veadar, is introduced in embolismic years in order that Passover, the + 15th day of Nisan, may be kept at its proper season, which is the full + moon of the vernal equinox, or that which takes place after the sun has + entered the sign Aries. It always precedes the following new year by 163 + days, or 23 weeks and 2 days; and Pentecost always precedes the new year + by 113 days, or 16 weeks and 1 day.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> VI.—<i>Hebrew Months.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Hebrew Months." title="Hebrew Months."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Hebrew Month.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Ordinary<br />Year.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Embolismic<br />Year.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tisri</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hesvan</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29+</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29+</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Kislev</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30-</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30-</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tebet</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sebat</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Adar</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>(Veadar)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(...)</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>(29)</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nisan</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Yiar</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sivan</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tamuz</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ab</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Elul</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Total</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertbotb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The Gregorian epact being the age of the moon of Tebet at the + beginning of the Gregorian year, it represents the day of Tebet which + corresponds to January 1; and thus the approximate date of Tisri 1, the + commencement of the Hebrew year, may be otherwise deduced by subtracting + the epact from</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>Sept. 24<br />Oct. 24</td><td><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left brace" /></td><td>after an</td><td><img src="images/$lbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right brace" /></td><td>ordinary<br />embolismic</td><td><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left brace" /></td><td>Hebrew year.</td></tr></table> + +<p><!-- Page 1001 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1001"></a>[v.04 p.1001]</span></p> + + <p>The result so obtained would in general be more accurate than the + Jewish calculation, from which it may differ a day, as fractions of a day + do not enter alike in these computations. Such difference may also in + part be accounted for by the fact that the assumed duration of the solar + year is 6 min. 39-25/57 sec. in excess of the true astronomical value, + which will cause the dates of commencement of future Jewish years, so + calculated, to advance forward from the equinox a day in error in 216 + years. The lunations are estimated with much greater precision.</p> + + <p>The following table is extracted from Woolhouse's <i>Measures, Weights + and Moneys of all Nations</i>:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> VII.—<i>Hebrew Years.</i></p> + +<table><tr><td valign="top"> + + +<table class="allbnomar" summary="Hebrew Years." title="Hebrew Years."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>296 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Jewish<br />Year</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Number<br />of<br />Days</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> + <p>Commencement<br />(1st of Tisri).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5606</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1845</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1846</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>08</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1847</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>09</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1848</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1849</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1850</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1851</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1852</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1853</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1854</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1855</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1856</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1857</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1858</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p><span class="correction" title="'1858' in original" + >1859</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1860</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1861</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1862</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1863</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>297 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5625</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1864</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1865</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1866</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1867</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1868</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1869</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1870</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>32</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1871</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>33</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1872</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>34</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1873</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>35</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1874</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>36</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1875</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>37</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1876</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>38</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1877</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>39</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1878</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1879</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>41</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1880</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>42</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1881</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>43</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1882</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>298 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5644</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1883</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>45</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1884</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>46</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1885</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>47</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1886</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>48</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1887</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>49</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1888</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1889</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>51</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1890</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>52</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1891</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>53</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1892</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1893</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1894</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>56</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1895</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>57</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1896</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>58</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1897</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>59</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1898</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1899</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>61</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1900</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>62</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1901</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>299 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5663</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1902</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>64</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1903</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>65</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1904</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>66</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1905</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>67</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1906</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>68</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1907</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>69</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1908</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1909</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>71</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1910</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>72</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1911</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>73</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1912</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>74</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1913</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1914</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>76</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1915</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>77</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1916</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>78</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1917</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>79</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1918</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1919</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>81</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1920</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +</td><td valign="top"> + + +<table class="allbnomar" summary="Hebrew Years." title="Hebrew Years."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>300 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Jewish<br />Year</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Number<br />of<br />Days</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> + <p>Commencement<br />(1st of Tisri).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5682</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1921</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1922</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>84</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1923</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1924</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>86</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1925</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>87</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1926</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>88</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1927</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>89</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1928</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1929</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>91</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1930</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>92</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1931</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>93</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1932</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>94</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1933</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1934</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>96</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1935</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>97</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1936</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>98</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1937</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>99</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1938</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5700</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1939</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>301 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5701</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1940</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1941</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>03</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1942</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>04</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1943</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>05</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1944</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>06</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1945</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1946</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>08</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1947</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>09</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1948</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1949</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1950</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1951</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1952</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1953</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1954</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1955</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1956</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1957</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1958</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>302 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5720</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1959</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1960</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1961</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1962</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1963</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1964</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1965</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1966</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1967</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1968</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1969</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1970</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>32</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1971</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>33</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1972</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>34</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1973</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>35</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1974</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>36</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1975</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>37</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1976</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>38</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1977</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>303 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5739</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1978</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>40</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1979</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>41</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1980</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>42</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1981</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>43</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1982</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>44</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1983</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>45</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1984</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>46</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1985</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>47</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1986</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>48</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1987</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>49</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1988</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>50</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1989</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>51</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1990</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>52</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1991</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>53</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1992</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>54</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1993</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>55</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1994</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>56</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1995</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>57</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1996</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +</td><td valign="top"> + + +<table class="allbnomar" summary="Hebrew Years." title="Hebrew Years."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>304 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Jewish<br />Year</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Number<br />of<br />Days</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> + <p>Commencement<br />(1st of Tisri).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5758</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1997</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>59</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1998</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>60</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1999</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>61</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>62</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2001</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>63</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2002</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>64</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2003</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>65</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2004</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>66</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2005</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>67</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2006</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>68</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2007</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>69</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2008</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>70</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2009</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>71</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2010</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>72</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2011</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>73</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2012</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>74</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2013</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>75</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2014</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>76</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2015</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>305 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5777</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2016</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>78</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2017</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>79</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2018</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>80</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2019</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>81</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2020</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>82</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2021</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>83</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2022</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>84</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2023</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>85</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2024</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>86</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2025</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>87</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2026</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>88</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2027</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>89</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2028</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>90</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2029</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>91</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2030</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>92</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2031</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>93</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2032</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>94</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2033</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>95</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2034</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>306 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5796</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2035</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>97</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2036</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>98</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2037</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>99</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2038</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5800</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2039</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>01</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2040</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>02</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2041</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>03</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2042</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>04</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2043</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>05</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2044</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>06</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2045</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>07</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2046</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>08</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2047</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>09</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2048</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2049</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2050</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2051</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2052</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2053</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center" colspan="6"> + <p>307 Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5815</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2054</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2055</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2056</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2057</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2058</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2059</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2060</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2061</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2062</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2063</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>385</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2064</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2065</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2066</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2067</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2068</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2069</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2070</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>32</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>355</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2071</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>33</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2072</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +</td></tr></table> + + <p><i>Mahommedan Calendar.</i>—The Mahommedan era, or era of the + Hegira, used in Turkey, Persia, Arabia, &c., is dated from the first + day of the month preceding the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, + <i>i.e.</i> Thursday the 15th of July <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 622, + and it commenced on the day following. The years of the Hegira are purely + lunar, and always consist of twelve lunar months, commencing with the + approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keep them to the same + season with respect to the sun, so that they retrograde through all the + seasons in about 32½ years. They are also partitioned into cycles of 30 + years, 19 of which are common years of 354 days each, and the other 11 + are intercalary years having an additional day appended to the last + month. The mean length of the year is therefore 354-11/30 days, or 354 + days 8 hours 48 min., which divided by 12 gives 29-191/360 days, or 29 + days 12 hours 44 min., as the time of a mean lunation, and this differs + from the astronomical mean lunation by only 2.8 seconds. This small error + will only amount to a day in about 2400 years.</p> + + <p>To find if a year is intercalary or common, divide it by 30; the + quotient will be the number of completed cycles and the remainder will be + the year of the current cycle; if this last be one of the numbers 2, 5, + 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29, the year is intercalary and consists + of 355 days; if it be any other number, the year is ordinary.</p> + + <p>Or if <i>Y</i> denote the number of the Mahommedan year, and</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>R</i> =</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 14<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub>,</td></tr></table> + + <p>the year is intercalary when <i>R</i> < 11.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 1002 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1002"></a>[v.04 p.1002]</span></p> + + <p>Also the number of intercalary years from the year 1 up to the year + <i>Y</i> inclusive = ((11 <i>Y</i> + 14) / 30)<sub><i>w</i></sub>; and + the same up to the year <i>Y</i> - 1 = (11 <i>Y</i> + 3 / + 30)<sub><i>w</i></sub>.</p> + + <p>To find the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira begins, we + observe that the year 1 began on a Friday, and that after every common + year of 354 days, or 50 weeks and 4 days, the day of the week must + necessarily become postponed 4 days, besides the additional day of each + intercalary year.</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Starting days for Mohammedan Years" title="Starting days for Mohammedan Years"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Hence if <i>w</i> = 1<br />indicate Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2<br />Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3<br />Tue.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4<br />Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5<br />Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6<br />Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>7<br />Sat.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>the day of the week on which the year <i>Y</i> commences will be</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>w</i> = 2 + 4</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>Y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> +</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> (rejecting sevens).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0"><tr><td>But, 30</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> +</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> = 11 <i>Y</i> + 3</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>gives 120</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> = 12 + 44 <i>Y</i> - 4</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub>,</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>or</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>w</i></sub> = 5 + 2 <i>Y</i> + 3</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> (rejecting sevens).</td></tr></table> + + <p>So that</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>w</i> = 6</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>Y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> + 3</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>Y</i> + 3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> (rejecting sevens),</td></tr></table> + + <p>the values of which obviously circulate in a period of 7 times 30 or + 210 years.</p> + + <p>Let <i>C</i> denote the number of completed cycles, and <i>y</i> the + year of the cycle; then <i>Y</i> = 30 <i>C</i> + <i>y</i>, and</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td><i>w</i> = 5</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>C</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> + 6</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td><i>y</i><br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />7</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> + 3</td><td><img src="images/$lbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="left bracket" /></td><td>11 <i>y</i> +3<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />30</td><td><img src="images/$rbracket.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" alt="right bracket" /></td><td><sub><i>r</i></sub> (rejecting sevens).</td></tr></table> + + <p>From this formula the following table has been constructed:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> VIII.</p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="To find the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira commences" title="To find the day of the week on which any year of the Hegira commences"> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" rowspan="2" colspan="4"> + <p>Year of the<br />Current Cycle (<i>y</i>)</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="7"> + <p>Number of the Period of Seven Cycles = + (<i>C</i>/7)<sub><i>r</i></sub></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>0</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>0</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*2</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*10</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*18</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*26</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*5</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*13</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*21</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*29</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*7</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*16</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:right"> + <p>*24</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>To find from this table the day of the week on which any year of the + Hegira commences, the rule to be observed will be as follows:—</p> + + <p><i>Rule.</i>—Divide the year of the Hegira by 30; the quotient + is the number of cycles, and the remainder is the year of the current + cycle. Next divide the number of cycles by 7, and the second remainder + will be the Number of the Period, which being found at the top of the + table, and the year of the cycle on the left hand, the required day of + the week is immediately shown.</p> + + <p>The intercalary years of the cycle are distinguished by an + asterisk.</p> + + <p>For the computation of the Christian date, the ratio of a mean year of + the Hegira to a solar year is</p> + +<table class="math"><tr><td>Year of Hegira<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />Mean solar year</td><td>=</td><td>354-11/30<br /><img src="images/$line.png" style="width:100%; height:1px; line-height:1px;" alt="/" /><br />365.2422</td><td>= 0.970224.</td></tr></table> + + <p>The year 1 began 16 July 622, Old Style, or 19 July 622, according to + the New or Gregorian Style. Now the day of the year answering to the 19th + of July is 200, which, in parts of the solar year, is 0.5476, and the + number of years elapsed = <i>Y</i> - 1. Therefore, as the intercalary + days are distributed with considerable regularity in both calendars, the + date of commencement of the year <i>Y</i> expressed in Gregorian years + is</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>0.970224 (<i>Y</i> - 1) + 622.5476,</p> + <p>or 0.970224 <i>Y</i> + 621.5774.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>This formula gives the following rule for calculating the date of the + commencement of any year of the Hegira, according to the Gregorian or New + Style.</p> + + <p><i>Rule.</i>—Multiply 970224 by the year of the Hegira, cut off + six decimals from the product, and add 621.5774. The sum will be the year + of the Christian era, and the day of the year will be found by + multiplying the decimal figures by 365.</p> + + <p>The result may sometimes differ a day from the truth, as the + intercalary days do not occur simultaneously; but as the day of the week + can always be accurately obtained from the foregoing table, the result + can be readily adjusted.</p> + + <p><i>Example.</i>—Required the date on which the year 1362 of the + Hegira begins.</p> + +<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left:10%; text-align:right"> +<tr><td colspan="11">970224</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="11">1362</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="11">————</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> </td><td>1</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="10">5821344</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="9">2910672</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="8">970224</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="11">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td style="text-align:center">.</td><td colspan="6">445088</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">621</td><td style="text-align:center">.</td><td colspan="4">5774</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="11">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1943</td><td style="text-align:center">.</td><td colspan="4">0225</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="9">365</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="9">——</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="9">1125</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="8">1350</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="7">675</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="9">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">8</td><td style="text-align:center">.</td><td colspan="4">2125</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Thus the date is the 8th day, or the 8th of January, of the year + 1943.</p> + + <p>To find, as a test, the accurate day of the week, the proposed year of + the Hegira, divided by 30, gives 45 cycles, and remainder 12, the year of + the current cycle.</p> + + <p>Also 45, divided by 7, leaves a remainder 3 for the number of the + period.</p> + + <p>Therefore, referring to 3 at the top of the table, and 12 on the left, + the required day is Friday.</p> + + <p>The tables, page 571, show that 8th January 1943 is a Friday, + therefore the date is exact.</p> + + <p>For any other date of the Mahommedan year it is only requisite to know + the names of the consecutive months, and the number of days in each; + these are—</p> + + +<table class="nob" summary="Months of the Mahommedan year" title="Months of the Mahommedan year"> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Muharram</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Saphar</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Rabia I.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Rabia II.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jomada I.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jomada II</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Rajab</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Shaaban</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ramadān</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Shawall (Shawwāl)</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dulkaada (Dhu'l Qa'da)</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dulheggia (Dhu'l Hijja)</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>- and in intercalary years</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>The ninth month, Ramadān, is the month of Abstinence observed by + the Moslems.</p> + + <p>The Moslem calendar may evidently be carried on indefinitely by + successive addition, observing only to allow for the additional day that + occurs in the bissextile and intercalary years; but for any remote date + the computation according to the preceding rules will be most efficient, + and such computation may be usefully employed as a check on the accuracy + of any considerable extension of the calendar by induction alone.</p> + + <p>The following table, taken from Woolhouse's <i>Measures, Weights and + Moneys of all Nations</i>, shows the dates of commencement of Mahommedan + years from 1845 up to 2047, or from the 43rd to the 49th cycle inclusive, + which form the whole of the seventh period of seven cycles. Throughout + the next period of seven cycles, and all other like periods, the days of + the week will recur in exactly the same order. All the tables of this + kind previously published, which extend beyond the year 1900 of the + Christian era, are erroneous, not excepting the celebrated French work, + <i>L'Art de vérifier les dates</i>, so justly regarded as the greatest + authority in chronological matters. The errors have probably arisen from + a continued excess of 10 in the discrimination of the intercalary + years.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> IX.—<i>Mahommedan Years.</i></p> + +<table><tr><td valign="top"> + +<table class="allb" summary="Mahommedan Years." title="Mahommedan Years."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> +43rd Cycle. + + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Year of<br />Hegira.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> + <p>Commencement<br />(1st of Muharram).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1261</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1845</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1262*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1845</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1263</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1846</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1264</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1847</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1265*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1848</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1266</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1849</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1267*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1850</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1268</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1851</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1269</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1852</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1270*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1853</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1271</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1854</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1272</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1855</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1273*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1856</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1274</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1857</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1275</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1858</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1276*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1859</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1277*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1860</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1278*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1861</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1279</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1862</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1280</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1863</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1281*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1864</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1282</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1865</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1283</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1866</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1284*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1867</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1285</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1868</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1286*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1869</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1287</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1870</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1288</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1871</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1289*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1872</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1290</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1873</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>44th Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1291</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1874</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1292*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1875</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1293</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1876</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1294</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1877</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1295*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1878</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1296</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1878</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1297*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1879</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1298</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1880</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1299</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1881</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1300*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1882</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1301</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1883</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1302</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1884</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1303*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1885</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1304</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1886</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1305</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1887</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1306*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1888</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1307</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1889</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1308*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1890</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1309</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1891</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1310</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1892</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1311*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1893</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1312</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1894</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1313</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1895</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1314*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1896</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1315</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1897</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1316*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1898</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1317</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1899</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1318</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1900</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1319*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1901</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1320</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1902</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>45th Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1321</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1903</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1322*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1904</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1323</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1905</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1324</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1906</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1325</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1907</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1326</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1908</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1327*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1909</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1328</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1910</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1329</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1911</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1330*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1911</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +</td><td valign="top"> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Mahommedan Years." title="Mahommedan Years."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>45th Cycle.—<i>continued.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Year of<br />Hegira.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> + <p>Commencement<br />(1st of Muharram).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1331</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1912</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1332</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1913</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1333*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1914</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1334</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1915</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1335</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1916</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1336*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1917</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1337</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1918</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1338*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1919</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1339</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1920</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1340</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1921</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1341*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1922</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1342</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1923</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1343</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1924</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1344*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1925</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1345</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1926</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1346*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1927</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1347</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1928</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1348</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1929</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1349*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1930</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1350</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1931</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>46th Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1351</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1932</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1352*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1933</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1353</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1934</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1354</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1935</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1355*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1936</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1356</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1937</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1357*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1938</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1358</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1939</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1359</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1940</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1360*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1941</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1361</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1942</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1362</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1943</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1363*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1943</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1364</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1944</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1365</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1945</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1366*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1946</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1367</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1947</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1368*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1948</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1369</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1949</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1370</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1950</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1371*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1951</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1372</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1952</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1373</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1953</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1374*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1954</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1375</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1955</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1376*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1956</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1377</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1957</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1378</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1958</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1379*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1959</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1380</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1960</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>47th Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1381</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1961</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1382*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1962</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1383</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1963</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1384</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1964</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1385*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1965</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1386</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1966</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1387*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1967</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1388</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1968</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1389</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1969</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1390*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1970</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1391</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1971</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1392</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1972</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1393*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1973</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1394</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1974</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1395</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1975</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1396*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1976</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1397</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1976</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1398*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1977</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1399</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1978</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1400</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1979</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +</td><td valign="top"> + + +<table class="allb" summary="Mahommedan Years." title="Mahommedan Years."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>47th Cycle.—<i>continued.</i></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Year of<br />Hegira.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> + <p>Commencement<br />(1st of Muharram).</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1401*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1980</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1402</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1981</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1403</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1982</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1404*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1983</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1405</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1984</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1406*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1985</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1407</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1986</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1408</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1987</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1409*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1988</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1410</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1989</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>48th Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1411</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1990</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1412*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1991</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1413</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1992</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1414</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1993</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1415*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1994</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1416</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1995</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1417*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1996</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1418</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1997</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1419</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1998</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1420*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1999</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1421</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2000</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1422</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2001</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1423</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2002</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1424</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2003</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1425</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2004</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1426*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2005</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1427</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2006</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1428*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2007</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1429</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2008</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1430</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2008</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1431*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>18</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2009</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1432</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2010</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1433</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2011</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1434*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2012</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1435</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2013</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1436*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2014</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1437</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2015</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1438</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2016</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1439*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2017</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1440</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2018</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>49th Cycle.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1441</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sept.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2019</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1442*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2020</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1443</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2021</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1444</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2022</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1445*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2023</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1446</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>8</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2024</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1447*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2025</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1448</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2026</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1449</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2027</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1450*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2028</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1451</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2029</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1452</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>May</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2030</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1453*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2031</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1454</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2032</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1455</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2033</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1456*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2034</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1457</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mar.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2035</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1458*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>28</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2036</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1459</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2037</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1460</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2038</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1461*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2039</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1462</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2040</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1463</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Frid.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2041</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1464*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2041</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1465</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sun.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2042</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1466*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Thur.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dec.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2043</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1467</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tues.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2044</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1468</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sat.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2045</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1469*</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Wed.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>31</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2046</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>1470</p> + </td> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mon.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>2047</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> X.—<i>Principal Days of the Hebrew Calendar.</i></p> + + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Principal Days of the Hebrew Calendar." title="Principal Days of the Hebrew Calendar."> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tisri</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>New Year, Feast of Trumpets.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p><a name="FnAnchor_251" href="#Footnote_251"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Fast of Guedaliah.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Fast of Expiation.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Feast of Tabernacles.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>21,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Last Day of the Festival.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>22,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Feast of the 8th Day.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>23,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Rejoicing of the Law.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Kislev</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>25,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Dedication of the Temple.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tebet</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Fast, Siege of Jerusalem.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Adar</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>13,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p><a name="FnAnchor_252" href="#Footnote_252"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Fast of Esther,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p><img src="images/$rbrace.png" style="height:4ex; width:0.5em" + alt="right brace" /></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" rowspan="2"> + <p>In embolismic<br /> years, + Veadar.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Purim,</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nisan</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Passover.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sivan</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>6,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Pentecost.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tamuz</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p><a href="#Footnote_251"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Fast, Taking of Jerusalem.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ab</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>9,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p><a href="#Footnote_251"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="3"> + <p>Fast, Destruction of the Temple.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_251" href="#FnAnchor_251">[1]</a> If Saturday, + substitute Sunday immediately following.</p> + + <p><a name="Footnote_252" href="#FnAnchor_252">[2]</a> If Saturday, + substitute Thursday immediately preceding.</p> + +</div> +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> XI.—<i>Principal Days of the Mahommedan Calendar.</i></p> + + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Principal Days of the Mahommedan Calendar." title="Principal Days of the Mahommedan Calendar."> + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Muharram</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p> 1,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>New Year.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ashura.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Rabia I.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>11,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Birth of Mahomet.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jornada I.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Taking of Constantinople.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Rajab</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Day of Victory.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p> "</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>20,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Exaltation of Mahomet.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Shaaban</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Borak's Night.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left" colspan="2"> + <p>Shawall 1,2,3,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Kutshuk Bairam.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Dulheggia</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>10,</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Qurban Bairam.</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Table</span> XII.—<i>Epochs, Eras, and Periods.</i></p> + + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Epochs, Eras, and Periods." title="Epochs, Eras, and Periods."> + <tr> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center"> + <p>Name.</p> + </td> + <td class="allb" style="text-align:center" colspan="5"> + <p>Christian Date of<br />Commencement.</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Grecian Mundane era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5598</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p><span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Civil era of Constantinople</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5508</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Alexandrian era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>29</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Aug.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5502</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Ecclesiastical era of Antioch</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>5492</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Julian Period</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4713</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mundane era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>4008</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jewish Mundane era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>3761</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of Abraham</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>2015</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of the Olympiads</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>776</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Roman era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>April</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>753</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of Nabonassar</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>26</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>747</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Metonic Cycle</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>15</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>432</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Grecian or Syro-Macedonian era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>312</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Tyrian era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>19</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>125</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sidonian era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Oct.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>110</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Caesarean era of Antioch</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>48</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Julian year</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>45</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Spanish era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>38</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Actian era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>30</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Augustan era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>14</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Feb.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>27</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Vulgar Christian era</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Jan.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p><span class="scac">A.D.</span></p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Destruction of Jerusalem</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>1</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>69</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of Maccabees</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>24</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>166</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of Diocletian</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>17</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Sep.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>284</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of Ascension</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>12</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Nov.</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>295</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Era of the Armenians</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>7</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>552</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Mahommedan era of the Hegira</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>July</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>622</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="vertb" style="text-align:left"> + <p>Persian era of Yezdegird</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>16</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:left"> + <p>June</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:right"> + <p>632</p> + </td> + <td class="nob" style="text-align:center"> + <p>"</p> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + <p>For the Revolutionary Calendar see <span class="sc">French + Revolution</span> <i>ad fin.</i></p> + + <p>The principal works on the calendar are the following:—Clavius, + <i>Romani Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P.M. restituti Explicatio</i> + (Rome, 1603); <i>L'Art de vérifier les dates</i>; Lalande, + <i>Astronomie</i> tome ii.; <i>Traité de la sphère et du calendrier</i>, + par M. Revard (Paris, 1816); Delambre, <i>Traité de l'astronomie + théorique et pratique</i>, tome iii.; <i>Histoire de l'astronomie + moderne; Methodus technica brevis, perfacilis, ac perpetua construendi + Calendarium Ecclesiasticum, Stylo tam novo quam vetere, pro cunctis + Christianis Europae populis, &c.</i>, auctore Paulo Tittel + (Gottingen, 1816); <i>Formole analitiche pel calcolo delta Pasgua, e + correzione di quello di Gauss, con critiche osservazioni sù quanta ha + scritto del calendario il Delambri</i>, di Lodovico Ciccolini (Rome, + 1817); E.H. Lindo, <i>Jewish Calendar for Sixty-four Years</i> (1838); + W.S.B. Woolhouse, <i>Measures, Weights, and Moneys of all Nations</i> + (1869).</p> + + <p>(T. G.; W. S. B. W.)</p> + + <p><b>CALENDER,</b> (1) (Fr. <i>calendre</i>, from the Med. Lat. + <i>calendra</i>, a corruption of the Latinized form of the Gr. <span + title="kulindros" class="grk" + >κύλινδρος</span>, a + cylinder), a machine consisting of two or more rollers or cylinders in + close contact with each other, and often heated, through which are passed + cotton, calico and other fabrics, for the purpose of having a finished + smooth surface given to them; the process flattens the fibres, removes + inequalities, and also gives a glaze to the surface. It is similarly + employed in paper manufacture (<i>q.v.</i>). (2) (From the Arabic + <i>qalandar</i>), an order of dervishes, who separated from the + Baktashite order in the 14th century; they were vowed to perpetual + travelling. Other forms of the name by which they are known are + Kalenderis, Kalenderites, and Qalandarites (see <span + class="sc">Dervish</span>).</p> + + <p><b>CALENUS, QUINTUS FUFIUS,</b> Roman general. As tribune of the + people in 61 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, he wa$ chiefly instrumental + in securing the acquittal of the notorious Publius Clodius when charged + with having profaned the mysteries of Bona Dea (Cicero, <i>Ad. Att.</i> + i. 16). In 59 Calenus was praetor, and brought forward a law that the + senators, knights, and tribuni aerarii, who composed the judices, should + vote separately, so that it might be known how they gave their votes (Dio + Cassius xxxviii. 8). He fought in Gaul (51) and Spain (49) under Caesar, + who, after he had crossed over to Greece (48), sent Calenus from Epirus + to bring over the rest of the troops from Italy. On the passage to Italy, + most of the ships were captured by Bibulus and Calenus himself escaped + with difficulty. In 47 he was raised to the consulship through the + influence of Caesar. After the death of the dictator, he joined Antony, + whose legions he afterwards commanded in the north of Italy. He died in + 41, while stationed with his army at the foot of the Alps, just as he was + on the point of marching against Octavianus.</p> + + <p>Caesar, <i>B.G.</i> viii. 39; <i>B.C.</i> i. 87, iii. 26; Cic. + <i>Philippicae</i>, viii. 4.</p> + + <p><b>CALEPINO, AMBROGIO</b> (1435-1511), Italian lexicographer, born at + Bergamo in 1435, was descended of an old family of Calepio, whence he + took his name. Becoming an Augustinian monk, he devoted his whole life to + the composition of a polyglott dictionary, first printed at Reggio in + 1502. This gigantic work was afterwards augmented by Passerat and others. + The most complete edition, published at Basel in 1590, comprises no fewer + than eleven languages. The best edition is that published at Padua in + seven languages in 1772. Calepino died blind in 1511.</p> + + <p><b>CALES</b> (mod. <i>Calvi</i>), an ancient city of Campania, + belonging Originally to the Aurunci, on the Via Latina, 8 m. N.N.W. of + Casilinum. It was taken by the Romans in 335 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and, a colony with Latin rights of 2500 + citizens having been established there, it was for a long time the centre + of the Roman dominion in Campania, and the seat of the quaestor for + southern Italy even down to the days of Tacitus.<a name="FnAnchor_261" + href="#Footnote_261"><sup>[1]</sup></a> It was an important base in the + war against Hannibal, and at last refused further contributions for the + war. Before 184 more settlers were sent there. After the Social War it + became a <i>municipium</i>. The fertility of its territory and its + manufacture of black glazed pottery, which was even exported to Etruria, + made it prosperous. At the end of the 3rd century it appears as a colony, + and in the 5th century it became an episcopal see, which (jointly with + Teano since 1818) it still is, though it is now a mere village. The + cathedral, of the 12th century, has a carved portal and three apses + decorated with small arches and pilasters, and contains a fine pulpit and + episcopal throne in marble mosaic. Near it are two grottos <!-- Page 1003 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1003"></a>[v.04 p.1003]</span>which + have been used for Christian worship and contain frescoes of the 10th and + 11th centuries (E. Bertaux, <i>L'Art dans l'Italie méridionale</i> + (Paris, 1904), i. 244, &c.). Inscriptions name six gates of the town: + and there are considerable remains of antiquity, especially of an + amphitheatre and theatre, of a supposed temple, and other edifices. A + number of tombs belonging to the Roman necropolis were discovered in + 1883.</p> + + <p>See C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. 1351 + (Stuttgart, 1899).</p> + + <p>(<span class="sc">T. As.</span>)</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Footnote_261" href="#FnAnchor_261">[1]</a> To the period + after 335 belong numerous silver and bronze coins with the legend + <i>Caleno</i>.</p> + +</div> + <p><b>CALF.</b> (1) (A word common in various forms to Teutonic + languages, cf. German <i>Kalb</i>, and Dutch <i>kalf</i>), the young of + the family of <i>Bovidae</i>, and particularly of the domestic cow, also + of the elephant, and of marine mammals, as the whale and seal. The word + is applied to a small island close to a larger one, like a calf close to + its mother's side, as in the "Calf of Man," and to a mass of ice detached + from an iceberg. (2) (Of unknown origin, possibly connected with the + Celtic <i>calpa</i>, a leg), the fleshy hinder part of the leg, between + the knee and the ankle.</p> + + <p><b>CALF, THE GOLDEN,</b> a molten image made by the Israelites when + Moses had ascended the Mount of Yahweh to receive the Law (Ex. xxxii.). + Alarmed at his lengthy absence the people clamoured for "gods" to lead + them, and at the instigation of Aaron, they brought their jewelry and + made the calf out of it. This was celebrated by a sacred festival, and it + was only through the intervention of Moses that the people were saved + from the wrath of Yahweh (cp. Deut. ix. 19 sqq.). Nevertheless 3000 of + them fell at the hands of the Levites who, in answer to the summons of + Moses, declared themselves on the side of Yahweh. The origin of this + particular form of worship can scarcely be sought in Egypt; the Apis + which was worshipped there was a live bull, and image-worship was common + among the Canaanites in connexion with the cult of Baal and Astarte + (<i>qq.v.</i>). In early Israel it was considered natural to worship + Yahweh by means of images (cp. the story of Gideon, Judg. viii. 24 sqq.), + and even to Moses himself was attributed the bronze-serpent whose cult at + Jerusalem was destroyed in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 4, Num. + xxi. 4-9). The condemnation which later writers, particularly those + imbued with the spirit of the Deuteronomic reformation, pass upon all + image-worship, is in harmony with the judgment upon Jeroboam for his + innovations at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings xii. 28 sqq., xvi. 26, &c.). + But neither Elijah nor Elisha raised a voice against the cult; then, as + later, in the time of Amos, it was nominally Yahweh-worship, and Hosea is + the first to regard it as the fundamental cause of Israel's misery.</p> + + <p>See further, W.R. Smith, <i>Prophets of Israel</i>, pp. 175 sqq.; + Kennedy, Hastings' <i>Dict. Bib.</i> i. 342; and <span class="sc">Hebrew + Religion</span>.</p> + + <p>(S. A. C.)</p> + + <p><b>CALGARY,</b> the oldest city in the province of Alberta. Pop. + (1901) 4091; (1907) 21,112. It is situated in 114° 15′ W., and 51° + 4½′ N., on the Bow river, which flows with its crystal waters from + the pass in the Rocky Mountains, by which the main line of the Canadian + Pacific railway crosses the Rocky Mountains. The pass + proper—Kananaskis—penetrates the mountains beginning 40 m. + west of Calgary, and the well-known watering-place, Banff, lies 81 m. + west of it, in the Canadian national park. The streets are wide and laid + out on a rectangular system. The buildings are largely of stone, the + building stone used being the brown Laramie sandstone found in the valley + of the Bow river in the neighbourhood of the city. Calgary is an + important point on the Canadian Pacific railway, which has a general + superintendent resident here. It is an important centre of wholesale + dealers, and also of industrial establishments. Calgary is near the site + of Fort La Jonquiere founded by the French in 1752. Old Bow fort was a + trading post for many years though now in ruins. The present city was + created by the building of the Canadian Pacific railway about 1883.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Part 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 19846-h.htm or 19846-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/8/4/19846/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Keith Edkins and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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