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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1974-h.zip b/1974-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..12f8b6e --- /dev/null +++ b/1974-h.zip diff --git a/1974-h/1974-h.htm b/1974-h/1974-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..230b9be --- /dev/null +++ b/1974-h/1974-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2279 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Poetics of Aristotle, by Aristotle + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Poetics, by Aristotle + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Poetics + +Author: Aristotle + +Translator: S. H. Butcher + +Release Date: November 3, 2008 [EBook #1974] +Last Updated: January 22, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POETICS *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Aristotle + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + A Translation By S. H. Butcher + </h3> + <div class="mynote"> + <p> + [Transcriber's Annotations and Conventions: the translator left intact + some Greek words to illustrate a specific point of the original + discourse. In this transcription, in order to retain the accuracy of + this text, those words are rendered by spelling out each Greek letter + individually, such as {alpha beta gamma delta...}. The reader can + distinguish these words by the enclosing braces {}. Where multiple words + occur together, they are separated by the "/" symbol for clarity. + Readers who do not speak or read the Greek language will usually neither + gain nor lose understanding by skipping over these passages. Those who + understand Greek, however, may gain a deeper insight to the original + meaning and distinctions expressed by Aristotle.] + </p> + <br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0002"> <big><b>ARISTOTLE'S POETICS</b></big> </a><br /><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> I </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> II </a><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> III </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> IV + </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> V </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0008"> VI </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> VII </a><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> VIII </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> IX + </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> X </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> + XI </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> XII </a><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0015"> XIII </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0016"> XIV </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0017"> XV </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> XVI + </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0019"> XVII </a><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0020"> XVIII </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0021"> XIX + </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0022"> XX </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0023"> + XXI </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0024"> XXII </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0025"> XXIII </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0026"> XXIV + </a><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0027"> XXV </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0028"> XXVI </a><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + ARISTOTLE'S POETICS + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I + </h2> + <p> + I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various kinds, noting + the essential quality of each; to inquire into the structure of the plot + as requisite to a good poem; into the number and nature of the parts of + which a poem is composed; and similarly into whatever else falls within + the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of nature, let us begin with + the principles which come first. + </p> + <p> + Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and Dithyrambic: poetry, and the + music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms, are all in + their general conception modes of imitation. They differ, however, from + one: another in three respects,—the medium, the objects, the manner + or mode of imitation, being in each case distinct. + </p> + <p> + For as there are persons who, by conscious art or mere habit, imitate and + represent various objects through the medium of colour and form, or again + by the voice; so in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, the + imitation is produced by rhythm, language, or 'harmony,' either singly or + combined. + </p> + <p> + Thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre, 'harmony' and rhythm alone + are employed; also in other arts, such as that of the shepherd's pipe, + which are essentially similar to these. In dancing, rhythm alone is used + without 'harmony'; for even dancing imitates character, emotion, and + action, by rhythmical movement. + </p> + <p> + There is another art which imitates by means of language alone, and that + either in prose or verse—which, verse, again, may either combine + different metres or consist of but one kind—but this has hitherto + been without a name. For there is no common term we could apply to the + mimes of Sophron and Xenarchus and the Socratic dialogues on the one hand; + and, on the other, to poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any similar + metre. People do, indeed, add the word 'maker' or 'poet' to the name of + the metre, and speak of elegiac poets, or epic (that is, hexameter) poets, + as if it were not the imitation that makes the poet, but the verse that + entitles them all indiscriminately to the name. Even when a treatise on + medicine or natural science is brought out in verse, the name of poet is + by custom given to the author; and yet Homer and Empedocles have nothing + in common but the metre, so that it would be right to call the one poet, + the other physicist rather than poet. On the same principle, even if a + writer in his poetic imitation were to combine all metres, as Chaeremon + did in his Centaur, which is a medley composed of metres of all kinds, we + should bring him too under the general term poet. So much then for these + distinctions. + </p> + <p> + There are, again, some arts which employ all the means above mentioned, + namely, rhythm, tune, and metre. Such are Dithyrambic and Nomic poetry, + and also Tragedy and Comedy; but between them the difference is, that in + the first two cases these means are all employed in combination, in the + latter, now one means is employed, now another. + </p> + <p> + Such, then, are the differences of the arts with respect to the medium of + imitation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II + </h2> + <p> + Since the objects of imitation are men in action, and these men must be + either of a higher or a lower type (for moral character mainly answers to + these divisions, goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks of + moral differences), it follows that we must represent men either as better + than in real life, or as worse, or as they are. It is the same in + painting. Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less + noble, Dionysius drew them true to life. + </p> + <p> + Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation above mentioned will + exhibit these differences, and become a distinct kind in imitating objects + that are thus distinct. Such diversities may be found even in dancing, + flute-playing, and lyre-playing. So again in language, whether prose or + verse unaccompanied by music. Homer, for example, makes men better than + they are; Cleophon as they are; Hegemon the Thasian, the inventor of + parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Deiliad, worse than they are. + The same thing holds good of Dithyrambs and Nomes; here too one may + portray different types, as Timotheus and Philoxenus differed in + representing their Cyclopes. The same distinction marks off Tragedy from + Comedy; for Comedy aims at representing men as worse, Tragedy as better + than in actual life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III + </h2> + <p> + There is still a third difference—the manner in which each of these + objects may be imitated. For the medium being the same, and the objects + the same, the poet may imitate by narration—in which case he can + either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, + unchanged—or he may present all his characters as living and moving + before us. + </p> + <p> + These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the three differences which + distinguish artistic imitation,—the medium, the objects, and the + manner. So that from one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the + same kind as Homer—for both imitate higher types of character; from + another point of view, of the same kind as Aristophanes—for both + imitate persons acting and doing. Hence, some say, the name of 'drama' is + given to such poems, as representing action. For the same reason the + Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy. The claim to + Comedy is put forward by the Megarians,—not only by those of Greece + proper, who allege that it originated under their democracy, but also by + the Megarians of Sicily, for the poet Epicharmus, who is much earlier than + Chionides and Magnes, belonged to that country. Tragedy too is claimed by + certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the + evidence of language. The outlying villages, they say, are by them called + {kappa omega mu alpha iota}, by the Athenians {delta eta mu iota}: and + they assume that Comedians were so named not from {kappa omega mu 'alpha + zeta epsilon iota nu}, 'to revel,' but because they wandered from village + to village (kappa alpha tau alpha / kappa omega mu alpha sigma), being + excluded contemptuously from the city. They add also that the Dorian word + for 'doing' is {delta rho alpha nu}, and the Athenian, {pi rho alpha tau + tau epsilon iota nu}. + </p> + <p> + This may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes of + imitation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV + </h2> + <p> + Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them lying + deep in our nature. First, the instinct of imitation is implanted in man + from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being that he + is the most imitative of living creatures, and through imitation learns + his earliest lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things + imitated. We have evidence of this in the facts of experience. Objects + which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when + reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble + animals and of dead bodies. The cause of this again is, that to learn + gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men in + general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more limited. Thus the + reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that in contemplating it they + find themselves learning or inferring, and saying perhaps, 'Ah, that is + he.' For if you happen not to have seen the original, the pleasure will be + due not to the imitation as such, but to the execution, the colouring, or + some such other cause. + </p> + <p> + Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the + instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres being manifestly sections of + rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by + degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth + to Poetry. + </p> + <p> + Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to the individual + character of the writers. The graver spirits imitated noble actions, and + the actions of good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of + meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to the + gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical kind cannot + indeed be put down to any author earlier than Homer; though many such + writers probably there were. But from Homer onward, instances can be + cited,—his own Margites, for example, and other similar + compositions. The appropriate metre was also here introduced; hence the + measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in + which people lampooned one another. Thus the older poets were + distinguished as writers of heroic or of lampooning verse. + </p> + <p> + As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among poets, for he alone + combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation, so he too first laid + down the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead of + writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same relation to Comedy + that the Iliad and Odyssey do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy came + to light, the two classes of poets still followed their natural bent: the + lampooners became writers of Comedy, and the Epic poets were succeeded by + Tragedians, since the drama was a larger and higher form of art. + </p> + <p> + Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types or not; and whether + it is to be judged in itself, or in relation also to the audience,—this + raises another question. Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy—was + at first mere improvisation. The one originated with the authors of the + Dithyramb, the other with those of the phallic songs, which are still in + use in many of our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each new + element that showed itself was in turn developed. Having passed through + many changes, it found its natural form, and there it stopped. + </p> + <p> + Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he diminished the importance of + the Chorus, and assigned the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles + raised the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting. Moreover, + it was not till late that the short plot was discarded for one of greater + compass, and the grotesque diction of the earlier satyric form for the + stately manner of Tragedy. The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic + tetrameter, which was originally employed when the poetry was of the + Satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing. Once dialogue had + come in, Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure. For the iambic + is, of all measures, the most colloquial: we see it in the fact that + conversational speech runs into iambic lines more frequently than into any + other kind of verse; rarely into hexameters, and only when we drop the + colloquial intonation. The additions to the number of 'episodes' or acts, + and the other accessories of which tradition; tells, must be taken as + already described; for to discuss them in detail would, doubtless, be a + large undertaking. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V + </h2> + <p> + Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type, + not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the Ludicrous being + merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness + which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic + mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain. + </p> + <p> + The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, and the authors of + these changes, are well known, whereas Comedy has had no history, because + it was not at first treated seriously. It was late before the Archon + granted a comic chorus to a poet; the performers were till then voluntary. + Comedy had already taken definite shape when comic poets, distinctively so + called, are heard of. Who furnished it with masks, or prologues, or + increased the number of actors,—these and other similar details + remain unknown. As for the plot, it came originally from Sicily; but of + Athenian writers Crates was the first who, abandoning the 'iambic' or + lampooning form, generalised his themes and plots. + </p> + <p> + Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse + of characters of a higher type. They differ, in that Epic poetry admits + but one kind of metre, and is narrative in form. They differ, again, in + their length: for Tragedy endeavours, as far as possible, to confine + itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this + limit; whereas the Epic action has no limits of time. This, then, is a + second point of difference; though at first the same freedom was admitted + in Tragedy as in Epic poetry. + </p> + <p> + Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to + Tragedy, whoever, therefore, knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also + about Epic poetry. All the elements of an Epic poem are found in Tragedy, + but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the Epic poem. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VI + </h2> + <p> + Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and of Comedy, we will + speak hereafter. Let us now discuss Tragedy, resuming its formal + definition, as resulting from what has been already said. + </p> + <p> + Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and + of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic + ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in + the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the + proper purgation of these emotions. By 'language embellished,' I mean + language into which rhythm, 'harmony,' and song enter. By 'the several + kinds in separate parts,' I mean, that some parts are rendered through the + medium of verse alone, others again with the aid of song. + </p> + <p> + Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it necessarily follows, in + the first place, that Spectacular equipment will be a part of Tragedy. + Next, Song and Diction, for these are the medium of imitation. By + 'Diction' I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words: as for + 'Song,' it is a term whose sense every one understands. + </p> + <p> + Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an action implies + personal agents, who necessarily possess certain distinctive qualities + both of character and thought; for it is by these that we qualify actions + themselves, and these—thought and character—are the two + natural causes from which actions spring, and on actions again all success + or failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the imitation of the action: for by + plot I here mean the arrangement of the incidents. By Character I mean + that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to the agents. + Thought is required wherever a statement is proved, or, it may be, a + general truth enunciated. Every Tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, + which parts determine its quality—namely, Plot, Character, Diction, + Thought, Spectacle, Song. Two of the parts constitute the medium of + imitation, one the manner, and three the objects of imitation. And these + complete the list. These elements have been employed, we may say, by the + poets to a man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular elements as well + as Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought. + </p> + <p> + But most important of all is the structure of the incidents. For Tragedy + is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life, and life + consists in action, and its end is a mode of action, not a quality. Now + character determines men's qualities, but it is by their actions that they + are happy or the reverse. Dramatic action, therefore, is not with a view + to the representation of character: character comes in as subsidiary to + the actions. Hence the incidents and the plot are the end of a tragedy; + and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, without action there cannot + be a tragedy; there may be without character. The tragedies of most of our + modern poets fail in the rendering of character; and of poets in general + this is often true. It is the same in painting; and here lies the + difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates character + well: the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality. Again, if you + string together a set of speeches expressive of character, and well + finished in point of diction and thought, you will not produce the + essential tragic effect nearly so well as with a play which, however + deficient in these respects, yet has a plot and artistically constructed + incidents. Besides which, the most powerful elements of emotional: + interest in Tragedy Peripeteia or Reversal of the Situation, and + Recognition scenes—are parts of the plot. A further proof is, that + novices in the art attain to finish: of diction and precision of + portraiture before they can construct the plot. It is the same with almost + all the early poets. + </p> + <p> + The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of a + tragedy: Character holds the second place. A similar fact is seen in + painting. The most beautiful colours, laid on confusedly, will not give as + much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is the + imitation of an action, and of the agents mainly with a view to the + action. + </p> + <p> + Third in order is Thought,—that is, the faculty of saying what is + possible and pertinent in given circumstances. In the case of oratory, + this is the function of the Political art and of the art of rhetoric: and + so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the language of + civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the rhetoricians. + Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of things + a man chooses or avoids. Speeches, therefore, which do not make this + manifest, or in which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything + whatever, are not expressive of character. Thought, on the other hand, is + found where something is proved to be, or not to be, or a general maxim is + enunciated. + </p> + <p> + Fourth among the elements enumerated comes Diction; by which I mean, as + has been already said, the expression of the meaning in words; and its + essence is the same both in verse and prose. + </p> + <p> + Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place among the + embellishments. + </p> + <p> + The Spectacle has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its own, but, of all + the parts, it is the least artistic, and connected least with the art of + poetry. For the power of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt even apart from + representation and actors. Besides, the production of spectacular effects + depends more on the art of the stage machinist than on that of the poet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VII + </h2> + <p> + These principles being established, let us now discuss the proper + structure of the Plot, since this is the first and most important thing in + Tragedy. + </p> + <p> + Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an imitation of an action + that is complete, and whole, and of a certain magnitude; for there may be + a whole that is wanting in magnitude. A whole is that which has a + beginning, a middle, and an end. A beginning is that which does not itself + follow anything by causal necessity, but after which something naturally + is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally + follows some other thing, either by necessity, or as a rule, but has + nothing following it. A middle is that which follows something as some + other thing follows it. A well constructed plot, therefore, must neither + begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to these principles. + </p> + <p> + Again, a beautiful object, whether it be a living organism or any whole + composed of parts, must not only have an orderly arrangement of parts, but + must also be of a certain magnitude; for beauty depends on magnitude and + order. Hence a very small animal organism cannot be beautiful; for the + view of it is confused, the object being seen in an almost imperceptible + moment of time. Nor, again, can one of vast size be beautiful; for as the + eye cannot take it all in at once, the unity and sense of the whole is + lost for the spectator; as for instance if there were one a thousand miles + long. As, therefore, in the case of animate bodies and organisms a certain + magnitude is necessary, and a magnitude which may be easily embraced in + one view; so in the plot, a certain length is necessary, and a length + which can be easily embraced by the memory. The limit of length in + relation to dramatic competition and sensuous presentment, is no part of + artistic theory. For had it been the rule for a hundred tragedies to + compete together, the performance would have been regulated by the + water-clock,—as indeed we are told was formerly done. But the limit + as fixed by the nature of the drama itself is this: the greater the + length, the more beautiful will the piece be by reason of its size, + provided that the whole be perspicuous. And to define the matter roughly, + we may say that the proper magnitude is comprised within such limits, that + the sequence of events, according to the law of probability or necessity, + will admit of a change from bad fortune to good, or from good fortune to + bad. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VIII + </h2> + <p> + Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist in the Unity of the + hero. For infinitely various are the incidents in one man's life which + cannot be reduced to unity; and so, too, there are many actions of one man + out of which we cannot make one action. Hence, the error, as it appears, + of all poets who have composed a Heracleid, a Theseid, or other poems of + the kind. They imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story of Heracles + must also be a unity. But Homer, as in all else he is of surpassing merit, + here too—whether from art or natural genius—seems to have + happily discerned the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not include + all the adventures of Odysseus—such as his wound on Parnassus, or + his feigned madness at the mustering of the host—incidents between + which there was no necessary or probable connection: but he made the + Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to centre round an action that in our + sense of the word is one. As therefore, in the other imitative arts, the + imitation is one when the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an + imitation of an action, must imitate one action and that a whole, the + structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is + displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a + thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an + organic part of the whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IX + </h2> + <p> + It is, moreover, evident from what has been said, that it is not the + function of the poet to relate what has happened, but what may happen,—what + is possible according to the law of probability or necessity. The poet and + the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose. The work of + Herodotus might be put into verse, and it would still be a species of + history, with metre no less than without it. The true difference is that + one relates what has happened, the other what may happen. Poetry, + therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history: for + poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular. By the + universal, I mean how a person of a certain type will on occasion speak or + act, according to the law of probability or necessity; and it is this + universality at which poetry aims in the names she attaches to the + personages. The particular is—for example—what Alcibiades did + or suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here the poet first + constructs the plot on the lines of probability, and then inserts + characteristic names;—unlike the lampooners who write about + particular individuals. But tragedians still keep to real names, the + reason being that what is possible is credible: what has not happened we + do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has happened is + manifestly possible: otherwise it would not have happened. Still there are + even some tragedies in which there are only one or two well known names, + the rest being fictitious. In others, none are well known, as in Agathon's + Antheus, where incidents and names alike are fictitious, and yet they give + none the less pleasure. We must not, therefore, at all costs keep to the + received legends, which are the usual subjects of Tragedy. Indeed, it + would be absurd to attempt it; for even subjects that are known are known + only to a few, and yet give pleasure to all. It clearly follows that the + poet or 'maker' should be the maker of plots rather than of verses; since + he is a poet because he imitates, and what he imitates are actions. And + even if he chances to take an historical subject, he is none the less a + poet; for there is no reason why some events that have actually happened + should not conform to the law of the probable and possible, and in virtue + of that quality in them he is their poet or maker. + </p> + <p> + Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. I call a plot + 'epeisodic' in which the episodes or acts succeed one another without + probable or necessary sequence. Bad poets compose such pieces by their own + fault, good poets, to please the players; for, as they write show pieces + for competition, they stretch the plot beyond its capacity, and are often + forced to break the natural continuity. + </p> + <p> + But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action, but of + events inspiring fear or pity. Such an effect is best produced when the + events come on us by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the + same time, they follow as cause and effect. The tragic wonder will thee be + greater than if they happened of themselves or by accident; for even + coincidences are most striking when they have an air of design. We may + instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his murderer while + he was a spectator at a festival, and killed him. Such events seem not to + be due to mere chance. Plots, therefore, constructed on these principles + are necessarily the best. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + X + </h2> + <p> + Plots are either Simple or Complex, for the actions in real life, of which + the plots are an imitation, obviously show a similar distinction. An + action which is one and continuous in the sense above defined, I call + Simple, when the change of fortune takes place without Reversal of the + Situation and without Recognition. + </p> + <p> + A Complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such + Reversal, or by Recognition, or by both. These last should arise from the + internal structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the + necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It makes all the + difference whether any given event is a case of propter hoc or post hoc. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XI + </h2> + <p> + Reversal of the Situation is a change by which the action veers round to + its opposite, subject always to our rule of probability or necessity. Thus + in the Oedipus, the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus and free him from his + alarms about his mother, but by revealing who he is, he produces the + opposite effect. Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being led away to his + death, and Danaus goes with him, meaning, to slay him; but the outcome of + the preceding incidents is that Danaus is killed and Lynceus saved. + Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change from ignorance to + knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet + for good or bad fortune. The best form of recognition is coincident with a + Reversal of the Situation, as in the Oedipus. There are indeed other + forms. Even inanimate things of the most trivial kind may in a sense be + objects of recognition. Again, we may recognise or discover whether a + person has done a thing or not. But the recognition which is most + intimately connected with the plot and action is, as we have said, the + recognition of persons. This recognition, combined, with Reversal, will + produce either pity or fear; and actions producing these effects are those + which, by our definition, Tragedy represents. Moreover, it is upon such + situations that the issues of good or bad fortune will depend. + Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen that one person + only is recognised by the other-when the latter is already known—or + it may be necessary that the recognition should be on both sides. Thus + Iphigenia is revealed to Orestes by the sending of the letter; but another + act of recognition is required to make Orestes known to Iphigenia. + </p> + <p> + Two parts, then, of the Plot—Reversal of the Situation and + Recognition—turn upon surprises. A third part is the Scene of + Suffering. The Scene of Suffering is a destructive or painful action, such + as death on the stage, bodily agony, wounds and the like. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XII + </h2> + <p> + [The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have + been already mentioned. We now come to the quantitative parts, and the + separate parts into which Tragedy is divided, namely, Prologue, Episode, + Exode, Choric song; this last being divided into Parode and Stasimon. + These are common to all plays: peculiar to some are the songs of actors + from the stage and the Commoi. + </p> + <p> + The Prologue is that entire part of a tragedy which precedes the Parode of + the Chorus. The Episode is that entire part of a tragedy which is between + complete choric songs. The Exode is that entire part of a tragedy which + has no choric song after it. Of the Choric part the Parode is the first + undivided utterance of the Chorus: the Stasimon is a Choric ode without + anapaests or trochaic tetrameters: the Commos is a joint lamentation of + Chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements + of the whole have been already mentioned. The quantitative parts the + separate parts into which it is divided—are here enumerated.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIII + </h2> + <p> + As the sequel to what has already been said, we must proceed to consider + what the poet should aim at, and what he should avoid, in constructing his + plots; and by what means the specific effect of Tragedy will be produced. + </p> + <p> + A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged not on the simple + but on the complex plan. It should, moreover, imitate actions which excite + pity and fear, this being the distinctive mark of tragic imitation. It + follows plainly, in the first place, that the change, of fortune presented + must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to + adversity: for this moves neither pity nor fear; it merely shocks us. Nor, + again, that of a bad man passing from adversity to prosperity: for nothing + can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy; it possesses no single tragic + quality; it neither satisfies the moral sense nor calls forth pity or + fear. Nor, again, should the downfall of the utter villain be exhibited. A + plot of this kind would, doubtless, satisfy the moral sense, but it would + inspire neither pity nor fear; for pity is aroused by unmerited + misfortune, fear by the misfortune of a man like ourselves. Such an event, + therefore, will be neither pitiful nor terrible. There remains, then, the + character between these two extremes,—that of a man who is not + eminently good and just,-yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice + or depravity, but by some error or frailty. He must be one who is highly + renowned and prosperous,—a personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or + other illustrious men of such families. + </p> + <p> + A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single in its issue, rather + than double as some maintain. The change of fortune should be not from bad + to good, but, reversely, from good to bad. It should come about as the + result not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a character + either such as we have described, or better rather than worse. The + practice of the stage bears out our view. At first the poets recounted any + legend that came in their way. Now, the best tragedies are founded on the + story of a few houses, on the fortunes of Alcmaeon, Oedipus, Orestes, + Meleager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those others who have done or suffered + something terrible. A tragedy, then, to be perfect according to the rules + of art should be of this construction. Hence they are in error who censure + Euripides just because he follows this principle in his plays, many of + which end unhappily. It is, as we have said, the right ending. The best + proof is that on the stage and in dramatic competition, such plays, if + well worked out, are the most tragic in effect; and Euripides, faulty + though he may be in the general management of his subject, yet is felt to + be the most tragic of the poets. + </p> + <p> + In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which some place first. Like + the Odyssey, it has a double thread of plot, and also an opposite + catastrophe for the good and for the bad. It is accounted the best because + of the weakness of the spectators; for the poet is guided in what he + writes by the wishes of his audience. The pleasure, however, thence + derived is not the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather to Comedy, + where those who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies—like + Orestes and Aegisthus—quit the stage as friends at the close, and no + one slays or is slain. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0016" id="link2H_4_0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIV + </h2> + <p> + Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means; but they may also + result from the inner structure of the piece, which is the better way, and + indicates a superior poet. For the plot ought to be so constructed that, + even without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will thrill + with horror and melt to pity at what takes place. This is the impression + we should receive from hearing the story of the Oedipus. But to produce + this effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic method, and dependent + on extraneous aids. Those who employ spectacular means to create a sense + not of the terrible but only of the monstrous, are strangers to the + purpose of Tragedy; for we must not demand of Tragedy any and every kind + of pleasure, but only that which is proper to it. And since the pleasure + which the poet should afford is that which comes from pity and fear + through imitation, it is evident that this quality must be impressed upon + the incidents. + </p> + <p> + Let us then determine what are the circumstances which strike us as + terrible or pitiful. + </p> + <p> + Actions capable of this effect must happen between persons who are either + friends or enemies or indifferent to one another. If an enemy kills an + enemy, there is nothing to excite pity either in the act or the intention,—except + so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful. So again with indifferent + persons. But when the tragic incident occurs between those who are near or + dear to one another—if, for example, a brother kills, or intends to + kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother her son, a son his mother, or + any other deed of the kind is done—these are the situations to be + looked for by the poet. He may not indeed destroy the framework of the + received legends—the fact, for instance, that Clytemnestra was slain + by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon but he ought to show invention of his + own, and skilfully handle the traditional material. Let us explain more + clearly what is meant by skilful handling. + </p> + <p> + The action may be done consciously and with knowledge of the persons, in + the manner of the older poets. It is thus too that Euripides makes Medea + slay her children. Or, again, the deed of horror may be done, but done in + ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered afterwards. + The Oedipus of Sophocles is an example. Here, indeed, the incident is + outside the drama proper; but cases occur where it falls within the action + of the play: one may cite the Alcmaeon of Astydamas, or Telegonus in the + Wounded Odysseus. Again, there is a third case,— (to be about to act + with knowledge of the persons and then not to act. The fourth case is) + when some one is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance, and + makes the discovery before it is done. These are the only possible ways. + For the deed must either be done or not done,—and that wittingly or + unwittingly. But of all these ways, to be about to act knowing the + persons, and then not to act, is the worst. It is shocking without being + tragic, for no disaster follows. It is, therefore, never, or very rarely, + found in poetry. One instance, however, is in the Antigone, where Haemon + threatens to kill Creon. The next and better way is that the deed should + be perpetrated. Still better, that it should be perpetrated in ignorance, + and the discovery made afterwards. There is then nothing to shock us, + while the discovery produces a startling effect. The last case is the + best, as when in the Cresphontes Merope is about to slay her son, but, + recognising who he is, spares his life. So in the Iphigenia, the sister + recognises the brother just in time. Again in the Helle, the son + recognises the mother when on the point of giving her up. This, then, is + why a few families only, as has been already observed, furnish the + subjects of tragedy. It was not art, but happy chance, that led the poets + in search of subjects to impress the tragic quality upon their plots. They + are compelled, therefore, to have recourse to those houses whose history + contains moving incidents like these. + </p> + <p> + Enough has now been said concerning the structure of the incidents, and + the right kind of plot. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0017" id="link2H_4_0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XV + </h2> + <p> + In respect of Character there are four things to be aimed at. First, and + most important, it must be good. Now any speech or action that manifests + moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of character: the character + will be good if the purpose is good. This rule is relative to each class. + Even a woman may be good, and also a slave; though the woman may be said + to be an inferior being, and the slave quite worthless. The second thing + to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour; but valour in a + woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is inappropriate. Thirdly, character + must be true to life: for this is a distinct thing from goodness and + propriety, as here described. The fourth point is consistency: for though + the subject of the imitation, who suggested the type, be inconsistent, + still he must be consistently inconsistent. As an example of motiveless + degradation of character, we have Menelaus in the Orestes: of character + indecorous and inappropriate, the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla, and + the speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, the Iphigenia at Aulis,—for + Iphigenia the suppliant in no way resembles her later self. + </p> + <p> + As in the structure of the plot, so too in the portraiture of character, + the poet should always aim either at the necessary or the probable. Thus a + person of a given character should speak or act in a given way, by the + rule either of necessity or of probability; just as this event should + follow that by necessary or probable sequence. It is therefore evident + that the unravelling of the plot, no less than the complication, must + arise out of the plot itself, it must not be brought about by the 'Deus ex + Machina'—as in the Medea, or in the Return of the Greeks in the + Iliad. The 'Deus ex Machina' should be employed only for events external + to the drama,—for antecedent or subsequent events, which lie beyond + the range of human knowledge, and which require to be reported or + foretold; for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things. + Within the action there must be nothing irrational. If the irrational + cannot be excluded, it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is + the irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles. + </p> + <p> + Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the common + level, the example of good portrait-painters should be followed. They, + while reproducing the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness + which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the poet, in + representing men who are irascible or indolent, or have other defects of + character, should preserve the type and yet ennoble it. In this way + Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer. + </p> + <p> + These then are rules the poet should observe. Nor should he neglect those + appeals to the senses, which, though not among the essentials, are the + concomitants of poetry; for here too there is much room for error. But of + this enough has been said in our published treatises. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XVI + </h2> + <p> + What Recognition is has been already explained. We will now enumerate its + kinds. + </p> + <p> + First, the least artistic form, which, from poverty of wit, is most + commonly employed recognition by signs. Of these some are congenital,—such + as 'the spear which the earth-born race bear on their bodies,' or the + stars introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are acquired after + birth; and of these some are bodily marks, as scars; some external tokens, + as necklaces, or the little ark in the Tyro by which the discovery is + effected. Even these admit of more or less skilful treatment. Thus in the + recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the discovery is made in one way by + the nurse, in another by the swineherds. The use of tokens for the express + purpose of proof—and, indeed, any formal proof with or without + tokens—is a less artistic mode of recognition. A better kind is that + which comes about by a turn of incident, as in the Bath Scene in the + Odyssey. + </p> + <p> + Next come the recognitions invented at will by the poet, and on that + account wanting in art. For example, Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals the + fact that he is Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the letter; + but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet, not what the plot + requires. This, therefore, is nearly allied to the fault above mentioned:—for + Orestes might as well have brought tokens with him. Another similar + instance is the 'voice of the shuttle' in the Tereus of Sophocles. + </p> + <p> + The third kind depends on memory when the sight of some object awakens a + feeling: as in the Cyprians of Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into + tears on seeing the picture; or again in the 'Lay of Alcinous,' where + Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls the past and weeps; + and hence the recognition. + </p> + <p> + The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in the Choephori: 'Some + one resembling me has come: no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore + Orestes has come.' Such too is the discovery made by Iphigenia in the play + of Polyidus the Sophist. It was a natural reflection for Orestes to make, + 'So I too must die at the altar like my sister.' So, again, in the Tydeus + of Theodectes, the father says, 'I came to find my son, and I lose my own + life.' So too in the Phineidae: the women, on seeing the place, inferred + their fate:—'Here we are doomed to die, for here we were cast + forth.' Again, there is a composite kind of recognition involving false + inference on the part of one of the characters, as in the Odysseus + Disguised as a Messenger. A said (that no one else was able to bend the + bow;... hence B (the disguised Odysseus) imagined that A would) recognise + the bow which, in fact, he had not seen; and to bring about a recognition + by this means that the expectation A would recognise the bow is false + inference. + </p> + <p> + But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises from the incidents + themselves, where the startling discovery is made by natural means. Such + is that in the Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; for it was + natural that Iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter. These + recognitions alone dispense with the artificial aid of tokens or amulets. + Next come the recognitions by process of reasoning. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0019" id="link2H_4_0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XVII + </h2> + <p> + In constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction, the + poet should place the scene, as far as possible, before his eyes. In this + way, seeing everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a + spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, and + be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies. The need of such a rule is + shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the + temple. This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see the + situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience being + offended at the oversight. + </p> + <p> + Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best of his power, with + appropriate gestures; for those who feel emotion are most convincing + through natural sympathy with the characters they represent; and one who + is agitated storms, one who is angry rages, with the most life-like + reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of + madness. In the one case a man can take the mould of any character; in the + other, he is lifted out of his proper self. + </p> + <p> + As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready made or constructs it + for himself, he should first sketch its general outline, and then fill in + the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan may be illustrated by + the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed; she disappears mysteriously + from the eyes of those who sacrificed her; She is transported to another + country, where the custom is to offer up all strangers to the goddess. To + this ministry she is appointed. Some time later her own brother chances to + arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason ordered him to go there, + is outside the general plan of the play. The purpose, again, of his coming + is outside the action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, and, when + on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is. The mode of + recognition may be either that of Euripides or of Polyidus, in whose play + he exclaims very naturally:—'So it was not my sister only, but I + too, who was doomed to be sacrificed'; and by that remark he is saved. + </p> + <p> + After this, the names being once given, it remains to fill in the + episodes. We must see that they are relevant to the action. In the case of + Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led to his capture, and + his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In the drama, the + episodes are short, but it is these that give extension to Epic poetry. + Thus the story of the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is + absent from home for many years; he is jealously watched by Poseidon, and + left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight—suitors + are wasting his substance and plotting against his son. At length, + tempest-tost, he himself arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted with + him; he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is himself preserved + while he destroys them. This is the essence of the plot; the rest is + episode. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0020" id="link2H_4_0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XVIII + </h2> + <p> + Every tragedy falls into two parts,—Complication and Unravelling or + Denouement. Incidents extraneous to the action are frequently combined + with a portion of the action proper, to form the Complication; the rest is + the Unravelling. By the Complication I mean all that extends from the + beginning of the action to the part which marks the turning-point to good + or bad fortune. The Unravelling is that which extends from the beginning + of the change to the end. Thus, in the Lynceus of Theodectes, the + Complication consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama, the + seizure of the child, and then again, The Unravelling extends from the + accusation of murder to the end. + </p> + <p> + There are four kinds of Tragedy, the Complex, depending entirely on + Reversal of the Situation and Recognition; the Pathetic (where the motive + is passion),—such as the tragedies on Ajax and Ixion; the Ethical + (where the motives are ethical),—such as the Phthiotides and the + Peleus. The fourth kind is the Simple (We here exclude the purely + spectacular element), exemplified by the Phorcides, the Prometheus, and + scenes laid in Hades. The poet should endeavour, if possible, to combine + all poetic elements; or failing that, the greatest number and those the + most important; the more so, in face of the cavilling criticism of the + day. For whereas there have hitherto been good poets, each in his own + branch, the critics now expect one man to surpass all others in their + several lines of excellence. + </p> + <p> + In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different, the best test to take + is the plot. Identity exists where the Complication and Unravelling are + the same. Many poets tie the knot well, but unravel it ill. Both arts, + however, should always be mastered. + </p> + <p> + Again, the poet should remember what has been often said, and not make an + Epic structure into a Tragedy—by an Epic structure I mean one with a + multiplicity of plots—as if, for instance, you were to make a + tragedy out of the entire story of the Iliad. In the Epic poem, owing to + its length, each part assumes its proper magnitude. In the drama the + result is far from answering to the poet's expectation. The proof is that + the poets who have dramatised the whole story of the Fall of Troy, instead + of selecting portions, like Euripides; or who have taken the whole tale of + Niobe, and not a part of her story, like Aeschylus, either fail utterly or + meet with poor success on the stage. Even Agathon has been known to fail + from this one defect. In his Reversals of the Situation, however, he shows + a marvellous skill in the effort to hit the popular taste,—to + produce a tragic effect that satisfies the moral sense. This effect is + produced when the clever rogue, like Sisyphus, is outwitted, or the brave + villain defeated. Such an event is probable in Agathon's sense of the + word: 'it is probable,' he says, 'that many things should happen contrary + to probability.' + </p> + <p> + The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors; it should be an + integral part of the whole, and share in the action, in the manner not of + Euripides but of Sophocles. As for the later poets, their choral songs + pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of any other + tragedy. They are, therefore, sung as mere interludes, a practice first + begun by Agathon. Yet what difference is there between introducing such + choral interludes, and transferring a speech, or even a whole act, from + one play to another? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0021" id="link2H_4_0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIX + </h2> + <p> + It remains to speak of Diction and Thought, the other parts of Tragedy + having been already discussed. Concerning Thought, we may assume what is + said in the Rhetoric, to which inquiry the subject more strictly belongs. + Under Thought is included every effect which has to be produced by speech, + the subdivisions being,—proof and refutation; the excitation of the + feelings, such as pity, fear, anger, and the like; the suggestion of + importance or its opposite. Now, it is evident that the dramatic incidents + must be treated from the same points of view as the dramatic speeches, + when the object is to evoke the sense of pity, fear, importance, or + probability. The only difference is, that the incidents should speak for + themselves without verbal exposition; while the effects aimed at in speech + should be produced by the speaker, and as a result of the speech. For what + were the business of a speaker, if the Thought were revealed quite apart + from what he says? + </p> + <p> + Next, as regards Diction. One branch of the inquiry treats of the Modes of + Utterance. But this province of knowledge belongs to the art of Delivery + and to the masters of that science. It includes, for instance,—what + is a command, a prayer, a statement, a threat, a question, an answer, and + so forth. To know or not to know these things involves no serious censure + upon the poet's art. For who can admit the fault imputed to Homer by + Protagoras,—that in the words, 'Sing, goddess, of the wrath,' he + gives a command under the idea that he utters a prayer? For to tell some + one to do a thing or not to do it is, he says, a command. We may, + therefore, pass this over as an inquiry that belongs to another art, not + to poetry. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0022" id="link2H_4_0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XX + </h2> + <p> + [Language in general includes the following parts:—Letter, Syllable, + Connecting word, Noun, Verb, Inflexion or Case, Sentence or Phrase. + </p> + <p> + A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such sound, but only one + which can form part of a group of sounds. For even brutes utter + indivisible sounds, none of which I call a letter. The sound I mean may be + either a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute. A vowel is that which without + impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound. A semi-vowel, that which + with such impact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute, that which with + such impact has by itself no sound, but joined to a vowel sound becomes + audible, as G and D. These are distinguished according to the form assumed + by the mouth and the place where they are produced; according as they are + aspirated or smooth, long or short; as they are acute, grave, or of an + intermediate tone; which inquiry belongs in detail to the writers on + metre. + </p> + <p> + A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a mute and a vowel: for + GR without A is a syllable, as also with A,—GRA. But the + investigation of these differences belongs also to metrical science. + </p> + <p> + A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which neither causes nor + hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound; it may be + placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a non-significant + sound, which out of several sounds, each of them significant, is capable + of forming one significant sound,—as {alpha mu theta iota}, {pi + epsilon rho iota}, and the like. Or, a non-significant sound, which marks + the beginning, end, or division of a sentence; such, however, that it + cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence, as {mu + epsilon nu}, {eta tau omicron iota}, {delta epsilon}. + </p> + <p> + A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking time, of which no + part is in itself significant: for in double or compound words we do not + employ the separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus in + Theodorus, 'god-given,' the {delta omega rho omicron nu} or 'gift' is not + in itself significant. + </p> + <p> + A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking time, in which, as in the + noun, no part is in itself significant. For 'man,' or 'white' does not + express the idea of 'when'; but 'he walks,' or 'he has walked' does + connote time, present or past. + </p> + <p> + Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and expresses either the + relation 'of,' 'to,' or the like; or that of number, whether one or many, + as 'man' or 'men '; or the modes or tones in actual delivery, e.g. a + question or a command. 'Did he go?' and 'go' are verbal inflexions of this + kind. + </p> + <p> + A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound, some at least of + whose parts are in themselves significant; for not every such group of + words consists of verbs and nouns—'the definition of man,' for + example—but it may dispense even with the verb. Still it will always + have some significant part, as 'in walking,' or 'Cleon son of Cleon.' A + sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways,—either as + signifying one thing, or as consisting of several parts linked together. + Thus the Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition of + man by the unity of the thing signified.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0023" id="link2H_4_0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XXI + </h2> + <p> + Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By simple I mean those composed + of non-significant elements, such as {gamma eta}. By double or compound, + those composed either of a significant and non-significant element (though + within the whole word no element is significant), or of elements that are + both significant. A word may likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in + form, like so many Massilian expressions, e.g. 'Hermo-caico-xanthus who + prayed to Father Zeus>.' + </p> + <p> + Every word is either current, or strange, or metaphorical, or ornamental, + or newly-coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered. + </p> + <p> + By a current or proper word I mean one which is in general use among a + people; by a strange word, one which is in use in another country. + Plainly, therefore, the same word may be at once strange and current, but + not in relation to the same people. The word {sigma iota gamma upsilon nu + omicron nu}, 'lance,' is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a + strange one. + </p> + <p> + Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from + genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or + by analogy, that is, proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: 'There + lies my ship'; for lying at anchor is a species of lying. From species to + genus, as: 'Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought'; for + ten thousand is a species of large number, and is here used for a large + number generally. From species to species, as: 'With blade of bronze drew + away the life,' and 'Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding + bronze.' Here {alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota}, 'to draw away,' is used + for {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu}, 'to cleave,' and {tau alpha mu epsilon + iota nu} again for {alpha rho upsilon alpha iota},—each being a + species of taking away. Analogy or proportion is when the second term is + to the first as the fourth to the third. We may then use the fourth for + the second, or the second for the fourth. Sometimes too we qualify the + metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is relative. Thus the + cup is to Dionysus as the shield to Ares. The cup may, therefore, be + called 'the shield of Dionysus,' and the shield 'the cup of Ares.' Or, + again, as old age is to life, so is evening to day. Evening may therefore + be called 'the old age of the day,' and old age, 'the evening of life,' + or, in the phrase of Empedocles, 'life's setting sun.' For some of the + terms of the proportion there is at times no word in existence; still the + metaphor may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but + the action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this + process bears to the sun the same relation as sowing to the seed. Hence + the expression of the poet 'sowing the god-created light.' There is + another way in which this kind of metaphor may be employed. We may apply + an alien term, and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes; as + if we were to call the shield, not 'the cup of Ares,' but 'the wineless + cup.' + </p> + <p> + {An ornamental word...} + </p> + <p> + A newly-coined word is one which has never been even in local use, but is + adopted by the poet himself. Some such words there appear to be: as + {epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma}, 'sprouters,' for {kappa + epsilon rho alpha tau alpha}, 'horns,' and {alpha rho eta tau eta rho}, + 'supplicator,' for {iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma}, 'priest.' + </p> + <p> + A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer one, or + when a syllable is inserted. A word is contracted when some part of it is + removed. Instances of lengthening are,—{pi omicron lambda eta + omicron sigma} for {pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and {Pi eta + lambda eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega} for {Pi eta lambda epsilon iota + delta omicron upsilon}: of contraction,—{kappa rho iota}, {delta + omega}, and {omicron psi}, as in {mu iota alpha / gamma iota nu epsilon + tau alpha iota / alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu / omicron + psi}. + </p> + <p> + An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left + unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in {delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon + rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha / mu alpha zeta omicron nu}, {delta + epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu} is for {delta epsilon xi iota + omicron nu}. + </p> + <p> + [Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Masculine + are such as end in {nu}, {rho}, {sigma}, or in some letter compounded with + {sigma},—these being two, and {xi}. Feminine, such as end in vowels + that are always long, namely {eta} and {omega}, and—of vowels that + admit of lengthening—those in {alpha}. Thus the number of letters in + which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for {psi} and {xi} are + equivalent to endings in {sigma}. No noun ends in a mute or a vowel short + by nature. Three only end in {iota},—{mu eta lambda iota}, {kappa + omicron mu mu iota}, {pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota}: five end in + {upsilon}. Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also in {nu} and + {sigma}.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0024" id="link2H_4_0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XXII + </h2> + <p> + The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean. The clearest + style is that which uses only current or proper words; at the same time it + is mean:—witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus. That + diction, on the other hand, is lofty and raised above the commonplace + which employs unusual words. By unusual, I mean strange (or rare) words, + metaphorical, lengthened,—anything, in short, that differs from the + normal idiom. Yet a style wholly composed of such words is either a riddle + or a jargon; a riddle, if it consists of metaphors; a jargon, if it + consists of strange (or rare) words. For the essence of a riddle is to + express true facts under impossible combinations. Now this cannot be done + by any arrangement of ordinary words, but by the use of metaphor it can. + Such is the riddle:—'A man I saw who on another man had glued the + bronze by aid of fire,' and others of the same kind. A diction that is + made up of strange (or rare) terms is a jargon. A certain infusion, + therefore, of these elements is necessary to style; for the strange (or + rare) word, the metaphorical, the ornamental, and the other kinds above + mentioned, will raise it above the commonplace and mean, while the use of + proper words will make it perspicuous. But nothing contributes more to + produce a clearness of diction that is remote from commonness than the + lengthening, contraction, and alteration of words. For by deviating in + exceptional cases from the normal idiom, the language will gain + distinction; while, at the same time, the partial conformity with usage + will give perspicuity. The critics, therefore, are in error who censure + these licenses of speech, and hold the author up to ridicule. Thus + Eucleides, the elder, declared that it would be an easy matter to be a + poet if you might lengthen syllables at will. He caricatured the practice + in the very form of his diction, as in the verse: '{Epsilon pi iota chi + alpha rho eta nu / epsilon iota delta omicron nu / Mu alpha rho alpha + theta omega nu alpha delta epsilon / Beta alpha delta iota zeta omicron nu + tau alpha}, or, {omicron upsilon kappa / alpha nu / gamma / epsilon rho + alpha mu epsilon nu omicron sigma / tau omicron nu / epsilon kappa epsilon + iota nu omicron upsilon /epsilon lambda lambda epsilon beta omicron rho + omicron nu}. To employ such license at all obtrusively is, no doubt, + grotesque; but in any mode of poetic diction there must be moderation. + Even metaphors, strange (or rare) words, or any similar forms of speech, + would produce the like effect if used without propriety and with the + express purpose of being ludicrous. How great a difference is made by the + appropriate use of lengthening, may be seen in Epic poetry by the + insertion of ordinary forms in the verse. So, again, if we take a strange + (or rare) word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression, and replace + it by the current or proper term, the truth of our observation will be + manifest. For example Aeschylus and Euripides each composed the same + iambic line. But the alteration of a single word by Euripides, who + employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary one, makes one verse + appear beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes says: + {Phi alpha gamma epsilon delta alpha iota nu alpha / delta / eta / mu + omicron upsilon / sigma alpha rho kappa alpha sigma / epsilon rho theta + iota epsilon iota / pi omicron delta omicron sigma}. + </p> + <p> + Euripides substitutes {Theta omicron iota nu alpha tau alpha iota} 'feasts + on' for {epsilon sigma theta iota epsilon iota} 'feeds on.' Again, in the + line, {nu upsilon nu / delta epsilon / mu /epsilon omega nu / omicron + lambda iota gamma iota gamma upsilon sigma / tau epsilon / kappa alpha + iota / omicron upsilon tau iota delta alpha nu omicron sigma / kappa alpha + iota / alpha epsilon iota kappa eta sigma), the difference will be felt if + we substitute the common words, {nu upsilon nu / delta epsilon / mu / + epsilon omega nu / mu iota kappa rho omicron sigma / tau epsilon / kappa + alpha iota / alpha rho theta epsilon nu iota kappa omicron sigma / kappa + alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota delta gamma sigma}. Or, if for the line, + {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / alpha epsilon iota kappa epsilon lambda + iota omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma / omicron + lambda iota gamma eta nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon iota + sigma / omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi + epsilon zeta alpha nu,} We read, {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / mu + omicron chi theta eta rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon + iota sigma / mu iota kappa rho alpha nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi + epsilon zeta alpha nu}. + </p> + <p> + Or, for {eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma / beta omicron omicron omega + rho iota nu, eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma kappa rho alpha zeta + omicron upsilon rho iota nu} + </p> + <p> + Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using phrases which no one + would employ in ordinary speech: for example, {delta omega mu alpha tau + omega nu / alpha pi omicron} instead of {alpha pi omicron / delta omega mu + alpha tau omega nu}, {rho epsilon theta epsilon nu}, {epsilon gamma omega + / delta epsilon / nu iota nu}, {Alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega + sigma / pi epsilon rho iota} instead of {pi epsilon rho iota / 'Alpha chi + iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and the like. It is precisely + because such phrases are not part of the current idiom that they give + distinction to the style. This, however, he failed to see. + </p> + <p> + It is a great matter to observe propriety in these several modes of + expression, as also in compound words, strange (or rare) words, and so + forth. But the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. + This alone cannot be imparted by another; it is the mark of genius, for to + make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances. + </p> + <p> + Of the various kinds of words, the compound are best adapted to + Dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry, metaphors to iambic. In heroic + poetry, indeed, all these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse, + which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the most appropriate + words are those which are found even in prose. These are,—the + current or proper, the metaphorical, the ornamental. + </p> + <p> + Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of action this may suffice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0025" id="link2H_4_0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XXIII + </h2> + <p> + As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in form and employs a + single metre, the plot manifestly ought, as in a tragedy, to be + constructed on dramatic principles. It should have for its subject a + single action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle, and an end. + It will thus resemble a living organism in all its unity, and produce the + pleasure proper to it. It will differ in structure from historical + compositions, which of necessity present not a single action, but a single + period, and all that happened within that period to one person or to many, + little connected together as the events may be. For as the sea-fight at + Salamis and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily took place at the + same time, but did not tend to any one result, so in the sequence of + events, one thing sometimes follows another, and yet no single result is + thereby produced. Such is the practice, we may say, of most poets. Here + again, then, as has been already observed, the transcendent excellence of + Homer is manifest. He never attempts to make the whole war of Troy the + subject of his poem, though that war had a beginning and an end. It would + have been too vast a theme, and not easily embraced in a single view. If, + again, he had kept it within moderate limits, it must have been + over-complicated by the variety of the incidents. As it is, he detaches a + single portion, and admits as episodes many events from the general story + of the war—such as the Catalogue of the ships and others—thus + diversifying the poem. All other poets take a single hero, a single + period, or an action single indeed, but with a multiplicity of parts. Thus + did the author of the Cypria and of the Little Iliad. For this reason the + Iliad and the Odyssey each furnish the subject of one tragedy, or, at + most, of two; while the Cypria supplies materials for many, and the Little + Iliad for eight—the Award of the Arms, the Philoctetes, the + Neoptolemus, the Eurypylus, the Mendicant Odysseus, the Laconian Women, + the Fall of Ilium, the Departure of the Fleet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0026" id="link2H_4_0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XXIV + </h2> + <p> + Again, Epic poetry must have as many kinds as Tragedy: it must be simple, + or complex, or 'ethical,' or 'pathetic.' The parts also, with the + exception of song and spectacle, are the same; for it requires Reversals + of the Situation, Recognitions, and Scenes of Suffering. Moreover, the + thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all these respects Homer is + our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a twofold + character. The Iliad is at once simple and 'pathetic,' and the Odyssey + complex (for Recognition scenes run through it), and at the same time + 'ethical.' Moreover, in diction and thought they are supreme. + </p> + <p> + Epic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on which it is constructed, + and in its metre. As regards scale or length, we have already laid down an + adequate limit:—the beginning and the end must be capable of being + brought within a single view. This condition will be satisfied by poems on + a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the group + of tragedies presented at a single sitting. + </p> + <p> + Epic poetry has, however, a great—a special—capacity for + enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the reason. In Tragedy we cannot + imitate several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time; we + must confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by + the players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events + simultaneously transacted can be presented; and these, if relevant to the + subject, add mass and dignity to the poem. The Epic has here an advantage, + and one that conduces to grandeur of effect, to diverting the mind of the + hearer, and relieving the story with varying episodes. For sameness of + incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail on the stage. + </p> + <p> + As for the metre, the heroic measure has proved its fitness by the test of + experience. If a narrative poem in any other metre or in many metres were + now composed, it would be found incongruous. For of all measures the + heroic is the stateliest and the most massive; and hence it most readily + admits rare words and metaphors, which is another point in which the + narrative form of imitation stands alone. On the other hand, the iambic + and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring measures, the latter being akin + to dancing, the former expressive of action. Still more absurd would it be + to mix together different metres, as was done by Chaeremon. Hence no one + has ever composed a poem on a great scale in any other than heroic verse. + Nature herself, as we have said, teaches the choice of the proper measure. + </p> + <p> + Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit of being the only + poet who rightly appreciates the part he should take himself. The poet + should speak as little as possible in his own person, for it is not this + that makes him an imitator. Other poets appear themselves upon the scene + throughout, and imitate but little and rarely. Homer, after a few + prefatory words, at once brings in a man, or woman, or other personage; + none of them wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with a + character of his own. + </p> + <p> + The element of the wonderful is required in Tragedy. The irrational, on + which the wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider scope in Epic + poetry, because there the person acting is not seen. Thus, the pursuit of + Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage—the Greeks + standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and Achilles waving them + back. But in the Epic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed. Now the + wonderful is pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that every one + tells a story with some addition of his own, knowing that his hearers like + it. It is Homer who has chiefly taught other poets the art of telling lies + skilfully. The secret of it lies in a fallacy, For, assuming that if one + thing is or becomes, a second is or becomes, men imagine that, if the + second is, the first likewise is or becomes. But this is a false + inference. Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is quite + unnecessary, provided the second be true, to add that the first is or has + become. For the mind, knowing the second to be true, falsely infers the + truth of the first. There is an example of this in the Bath Scene of the + Odyssey. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to improbable + possibilities. The tragic plot must not be composed of irrational parts. + Everything irrational should, if possible, be excluded; or, at all events, + it should lie outside the action of the play (as, in the Oedipus, the + hero's ignorance as to the manner of Laius' death); not within the drama,—as + in the Electra, the messenger's account of the Pythian games; or, as in + the Mysians, the man who has come from Tegea to Mysia and is still + speechless. The plea that otherwise the plot would have been ruined, is + ridiculous; such a plot should not in the first instance be constructed. + But once the irrational has been introduced and an air of likelihood + imparted to it, we must accept it in spite of the absurdity. Take even the + irrational incidents in the Odyssey, where Odysseus is left upon the shore + of Ithaca. How intolerable even these might have been would be apparent if + an inferior poet were to treat the subject. As it is, the absurdity is + veiled by the poetic charm with which the poet invests it. + </p> + <p> + The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action, where there + is no expression of character or thought. For, conversely, character and + thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0027" id="link2H_4_0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XXV + </h2> + <p> + With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions, the number and + nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be thus exhibited. + </p> + <p> + The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any other artist, must of + necessity imitate one of three objects,—things as they were or are, + things as they are said or thought to be, or things as they ought to be. + The vehicle of expression is language,—either current terms or, it + may be, rare words or metaphors. There are also many modifications of + language, which we concede to the poets. Add to this, that the standard of + correctness is not the same in poetry and politics, any more than in + poetry and any other art. Within the art of poetry itself there are two + kinds of faults, those which touch its essence, and those which are + accidental. If a poet has chosen to imitate something, (but has imitated + it incorrectly) through want of capacity, the error is inherent in the + poetry. But if the failure is due to a wrong choice if he has represented + a horse as throwing out both his off legs at once, or introduced technical + inaccuracies in medicine, for example, or in any other art the error is + not essential to the poetry. These are the points of view from which we + should consider and answer the objections raised by the critics. + </p> + <p> + First as to matters which concern the poet's own art. If he describes the + impossible, he is guilty of an error; but the error may be justified, if + the end of the art be thereby attained (the end being that already + mentioned), if, that is, the effect of this or any other part of the poem + is thus rendered more striking. A case in point is the pursuit of Hector. + If, however, the end might have been as well, or better, attained without + violating the special rules of the poetic art, the error is not justified: + for every kind of error should, if possible, be avoided. + </p> + <p> + Again, does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art, or some + accident of it? For example,—not to know that a hind has no horns is + a less serious matter than to paint it inartistically. + </p> + <p> + Further, if it be objected that the description is not true to fact, the + poet may perhaps reply,—'But the objects are as they ought to be': + just as Sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be; Euripides, as + they are. In this way the objection may be met. If, however, the + representation be of neither kind, the poet may answer,—This is how + men say the thing is.' This applies to tales about the gods. It may well + be that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to fact: they + are, very possibly, what Xenophanes says of them. But anyhow, 'this is + what is said.' Again, a description may be no better than the fact: + 'still, it was the fact'; as in the passage about the arms: 'Upright upon + their butt-ends stood the spears.' This was the custom then, as it now is + among the Illyrians. + </p> + <p> + Again, in examining whether what has been said or done by some one is + poetically right or not, we must not look merely to the particular act or + saying, and ask whether it is poetically good or bad. We must also + consider by whom it is said or done, to whom, when, by what means, or for + what end; whether, for instance, it be to secure a greater good, or avert + a greater evil. + </p> + <p> + Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of language. + We may note a rare word, as in {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma / mu + epsilon nu / pi rho omega tau omicron nu}, where the poet perhaps employs + {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma} not in the sense of mules, but of + sentinels. So, again, of Dolon: 'ill-favoured indeed he was to look upon.' + It is not meant that his body was ill-shaped, but that his face was ugly; + for the Cretans use the word {epsilon upsilon epsilon iota delta epsilon + sigma}, 'well-favoured,' to denote a fair face. Again, {zeta omega rho + omicron tau epsilon rho omicron nu / delta epsilon / kappa epsilon rho + alpha iota epsilon}, 'mix the drink livelier,' does not mean `mix it + stronger' as for hard drinkers, but 'mix it quicker.' + </p> + <p> + Sometimes an expression is metaphorical, as 'Now all gods and men were + sleeping through the night,'—while at the same time the poet says: + 'Often indeed as he turned his gaze to the Trojan plain, he marvelled at + the sound of flutes and pipes.' 'All' is here used metaphorically for + 'many,' all being a species of many. So in the verse,—'alone she + hath no part...,' {omicron iota eta}, 'alone,' is metaphorical; for the + best known may be called the only one. + </p> + <p> + Again, the solution may depend upon accent or breathing. Thus Hippias of + Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines,—{delta iota delta + omicron mu epsilon nu (delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu) delta + epsilon / omicron iota,} and { tau omicron / mu epsilon nu / omicron + upsilon (omicron upsilon) kappa alpha tau alpha pi upsilon theta epsilon + tau alpha iota / omicron mu beta rho omega}. + </p> + <p> + Or again, the question may be solved by punctuation, as in Empedocles,—'Of + a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to be immortal, and + things unmixed before mixed.' + </p> + <p> + Or again, by ambiguity of meaning,—as {pi alpha rho omega chi eta + kappa epsilon nu / delta epsilon / pi lambda epsilon omega / nu upsilon + xi}, where the word {pi lambda epsilon omega} is ambiguous. + </p> + <p> + Or by the usage of language. Thus any mixed drink is called {omicron iota + nu omicron sigma}, 'wine.' Hence Ganymede is said 'to pour the wine to + Zeus,' though the gods do not drink wine. So too workers in iron are + called {chi alpha lambda kappa epsilon alpha sigma}, or workers in bronze. + This, however, may also be taken as a metaphor. + </p> + <p> + Again, when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning, we + should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular passage. For + example: 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'—we should ask in how + many ways we may take 'being checked there.' The true mode of + interpretation is the precise opposite of what Glaucon mentions. Critics, + he says, jump at certain groundless conclusions; they pass adverse + judgment and then proceed to reason on it; and, assuming that the poet has + said whatever they happen to think, find fault if a thing is inconsistent + with their own fancy. The question about Icarius has been treated in this + fashion. The critics imagine he was a Lacedaemonian. They think it + strange, therefore, that Telemachus should not have met him when he went + to Lacedaemon. But the Cephallenian story may perhaps be the true one. + They allege that Odysseus took a wife from among themselves, and that her + father was Icadius not Icarius. It is merely a mistake, then, that gives + plausibility to the objection. + </p> + <p> + In general, the impossible must be justified by reference to artistic + requirements, or to the higher reality, or to received opinion. With + respect to the requirements of art, a probable impossibility is to be + preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible. Again, it may be + impossible that there should be men such as Zeuxis painted. 'Yes,' we say, + 'but the impossible is the higher thing; for the ideal type must surpass + the reality.' To justify the irrational, we appeal to what is commonly + said to be. In addition to which, we urge that the irrational sometimes + does not violate reason; just as 'it is probable that a thing may happen + contrary to probability.' + </p> + <p> + Things that sound contradictory should be examined by the same rules as in + dialectical refutation whether the same thing is meant, in the same + relation, and in the same sense. We should therefore solve the question by + reference to what the poet says himself, or to what is tacitly assumed by + a person of intelligence. + </p> + <p> + The element of the irrational, and, similarly, depravity of character, are + justly censured when there is no inner necessity for introducing them. + Such is the irrational element in the introduction of Aegeus by Euripides + and the badness of Menelaus in the Orestes. + </p> + <p> + Thus, there are five sources from which critical objections are drawn. + Things are censured either as impossible, or irrational, or morally + hurtful, or contradictory, or contrary to artistic correctness. The + answers should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0028" id="link2H_4_0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XXVI + </h2> + <p> + The question may be raised whether the Epic or Tragic mode of imitation is + the higher. If the more refined art is the higher, and the more refined in + every case is that which appeals to the better sort of audience, the art + which imitates anything and everything is manifestly most unrefined. The + audience is supposed to be too dull to comprehend unless something of + their own is thrown in by the performers, who therefore indulge in + restless movements. Bad flute-players twist and twirl, if they have to + represent 'the quoit-throw,' or hustle the coryphaeus when they perform + the 'Scylla.' Tragedy, it is said, has this same defect. We may compare + the opinion that the older actors entertained of their successors. + Mynniscus used to call Callippides 'ape' on account of the extravagance of + his action, and the same view was held of Pindarus. Tragic art, then, as a + whole, stands to Epic in the same relation as the younger to the elder + actors. So we are told that Epic poetry is addressed to a cultivated + audience, who do not need gesture; Tragedy, to an inferior public. Being + then unrefined, it is evidently the lower of the two. + </p> + <p> + Now, in the first place, this censure attaches not to the poetic but to + the histrionic art; for gesticulation may be equally overdone in epic + recitation, as by Sosi-stratus, or in lyrical competition, as by + Mnasitheus the Opuntian. Next, all action is not to be condemned any more + than all dancing—but only that of bad performers. Such was the fault + found in Callippides, as also in others of our own day, who are censured + for representing degraded women. Again, Tragedy like Epic poetry produces + its effect even without action; it reveals its power by mere reading. If, + then, in all other respects it is superior, this fault, we say, is not + inherent in it. + </p> + <p> + And superior it is, because it has all the epic elements—it may even + use the epic metre—with the music and spectacular effects as + important accessories; and these produce the most vivid of pleasures. + Further, it has vividness of impression in reading as well as in + representation. Moreover, the art attains its end within narrower limits; + for the concentrated effect is more pleasurable than one which is spread + over a long time and so diluted. What, for example, would be the effect of + the Oedipus of Sophocles, if it were cast into a form as long as the + Iliad? Once more, the Epic imitation has less unity; as is shown by this, + that any Epic poem will furnish subjects for several tragedies. Thus if + the story adopted by the poet has a strict unity, it must either be + concisely told and appear truncated; or, if it conform to the Epic canon + of length, it must seem weak and watery. (Such length implies some loss of + unity,) if, I mean, the poem is constructed out of several actions, like + the Iliad and the Odyssey, which have many such parts, each with a certain + magnitude of its own. Yet these poems are as perfect as possible in + structure; each is, in the highest degree attainable, an imitation of a + single action. + </p> + <p> + If, then, Tragedy is superior to Epic poetry in all these respects, and, + moreover, fulfils its specific function better as an art for each art + ought to produce, not any chance pleasure, but the pleasure proper to it, + as already stated it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, as + attaining its end more perfectly. + </p> + <p> + Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic poetry in general; their + several kinds and parts, with the number of each and their differences; + the causes that make a poem good or bad; the objections of the critics and + the answers to these objections. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poetics, by Aristotle + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POETICS *** + +***** This file should be named 1974-h.htm or 1974-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/7/1974/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Butcher + +Posting Date: November 3, 2008 [EBook #1974] +Release Date: November, 1999 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POETICS *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + +THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE + +By Aristotle + +A Translation By S. H. Butcher + + +[Transcriber's Annotations and Conventions: the translator left +intact some Greek words to illustrate a specific point of the original +discourse. In this transcription, in order to retain the accuracy of +this text, those words are rendered by spelling out each Greek letter +individually, such as {alpha beta gamma delta...}. The reader can +distinguish these words by the enclosing braces {}. Where multiple +words occur together, they are separated by the "/" symbol for clarity. +Readers who do not speak or read the Greek language will usually neither +gain nor lose understanding by skipping over these passages. Those who +understand Greek, however, may gain a deeper insight to the original +meaning and distinctions expressed by Aristotle.] + + + + +Analysis of Contents + + I 'Imitation' the common principle of the Arts of Poetry. + II The Objects of Imitation. + III The Manner of Imitation. + IV The Origin and Development of Poetry. + V Definition of the Ludicrous, and a brief sketch of the rise of + Comedy. + VI Definition of Tragedy. + VII The Plot must be a Whole. + VIII The Plot must be a Unity. + IX (Plot continued.) Dramatic Unity. + X (Plot continued.) Definitions of Simple and Complex Plots. + XI (Plot continued.) Reversal of the Situation, Recognition, and + Tragic or disastrous Incident defined and explained. + XII The 'quantitative parts' of Tragedy defined. + XIII (Plot continued.) What constitutes Tragic Action. + XIV (Plot continued.) The tragic emotions of pity and fear should + spring out of the Plot itself. + XV The element of Character in Tragedy. + XVI (Plot continued.) Recognition: its various kinds, with examples. + XVII Practical rules for the Tragic Poet. + XVIII Further rules for the Tragic Poet. + XIX Thought, or the Intellectual element, and Diction in Tragedy. + XX Diction, or Language in general. + XXI Poetic Diction. + XXII (Poetic Diction continued.) How Poetry combines elevation of + language with perspicuity. + XXIII Epic Poetry. + XXIV (Epic Poetry continued.) Further points of agreement with Tragedy. + XXV Critical Objections brought against Poetry, and the principles on + which they are to be answered. + XXVI A general estimate of the comparative worth of Epic Poetry and + Tragedy. + + + + +ARISTOTLE'S POETICS + + + + +I + +I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various kinds, noting +the essential quality of each; to inquire into the structure of the plot +as requisite to a good poem; into the number and nature of the parts of +which a poem is composed; and similarly into whatever else falls within +the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of nature, let us begin +with the principles which come first. + +Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and Dithyrambic: poetry, and the +music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms, are all in +their general conception modes of imitation. They differ, however, from +one: another in three respects,--the medium, the objects, the manner or +mode of imitation, being in each case distinct. + +For as there are persons who, by conscious art or mere habit, imitate +and represent various objects through the medium of colour and form, or +again by the voice; so in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, +the imitation is produced by rhythm, language, or 'harmony,' either +singly or combined. + +Thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre, 'harmony' and rhythm +alone are employed; also in other arts, such as that of the shepherd's +pipe, which are essentially similar to these. In dancing, rhythm alone +is used without 'harmony'; for even dancing imitates character, emotion, +and action, by rhythmical movement. + +There is another art which imitates by means of language alone, and +that either in prose or verse--which, verse, again, may either combine +different metres or consist of but one kind--but this has hitherto been +without a name. For there is no common term we could apply to the mimes +of Sophron and Xenarchus and the Socratic dialogues on the one hand; +and, on the other, to poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any +similar metre. People do, indeed, add the word 'maker' or 'poet' to +the name of the metre, and speak of elegiac poets, or epic (that is, +hexameter) poets, as if it were not the imitation that makes the poet, +but the verse that entitles them all indiscriminately to the name. Even +when a treatise on medicine or natural science is brought out in verse, +the name of poet is by custom given to the author; and yet Homer and +Empedocles have nothing in common but the metre, so that it would be +right to call the one poet, the other physicist rather than poet. On the +same principle, even if a writer in his poetic imitation were to combine +all metres, as Chaeremon did in his Centaur, which is a medley composed +of metres of all kinds, we should bring him too under the general term +poet. So much then for these distinctions. + +There are, again, some arts which employ all the means above mentioned, +namely, rhythm, tune, and metre. Such are Dithyrambic and Nomic poetry, +and also Tragedy and Comedy; but between them the difference is, that in +the first two cases these means are all employed in combination, in the +latter, now one means is employed, now another. + +Such, then, are the differences of the arts with respect to the medium +of imitation. + + + + +II + +Since the objects of imitation are men in action, and these men must be +either of a higher or a lower type (for moral character mainly answers +to these divisions, goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks +of moral differences), it follows that we must represent men either as +better than in real life, or as worse, or as they are. It is the same +in painting. Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as +less noble, Dionysius drew them true to life. + +Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation above mentioned +will exhibit these differences, and become a distinct kind in imitating +objects that are thus distinct. Such diversities may be found even in +dancing, flute-playing, and lyre-playing. So again in language, whether +prose or verse unaccompanied by music. Homer, for example, makes men +better than they are; Cleophon as they are; Hegemon the Thasian, the +inventor of parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Deiliad, worse +than they are. The same thing holds good of Dithyrambs and Nomes; +here too one may portray different types, as Timotheus and Philoxenus +differed in representing their Cyclopes. The same distinction marks +off Tragedy from Comedy; for Comedy aims at representing men as worse, +Tragedy as better than in actual life. + + + + +III + +There is still a third difference--the manner in which each of these +objects may be imitated. For the medium being the same, and the objects +the same, the poet may imitate by narration--in which case he can either +take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, +unchanged--or he may present all his characters as living and moving +before us. + +These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the three differences +which distinguish artistic imitation,--the medium, the objects, and the +manner. So that from one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the +same kind as Homer--for both imitate higher types of character; from +another point of view, of the same kind as Aristophanes--for both +imitate persons acting and doing. Hence, some say, the name of 'drama' +is given to such poems, as representing action. For the same reason the +Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy. The claim to +Comedy is put forward by the Megarians,--not only by those of Greece +proper, who allege that it originated under their democracy, but also +by the Megarians of Sicily, for the poet Epicharmus, who is much earlier +than Chionides and Magnes, belonged to that country. Tragedy too is +claimed by certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal +to the evidence of language. The outlying villages, they say, are by +them called {kappa omega mu alpha iota}, by the Athenians {delta eta +mu iota}: and they assume that Comedians were so named not from {kappa +omega mu 'alpha zeta epsilon iota nu}, 'to revel,' but because they +wandered from village to village (kappa alpha tau alpha / kappa omega mu +alpha sigma), being excluded contemptuously from the city. They add +also that the Dorian word for 'doing' is {delta rho alpha nu}, and the +Athenian, {pi rho alpha tau tau epsilon iota nu}. + +This may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes of +imitation. + + + + +IV + +Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them +lying deep in our nature. First, the instinct of imitation is implanted +in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals +being that he is the most imitative of living creatures, and through +imitation learns his earliest lessons; and no less universal is the +pleasure felt in things imitated. We have evidence of this in the facts +of experience. Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight +to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms +of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies. The cause of this again +is, that to learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers +but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more +limited. Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that in +contemplating it they find themselves learning or inferring, and saying +perhaps, 'Ah, that is he.' For if you happen not to have seen the +original, the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as such, but to +the execution, the colouring, or some such other cause. + +Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the +instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres being manifestly sections of +rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed +by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave +birth to Poetry. + +Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to the individual +character of the writers. The graver spirits imitated noble actions, and +the actions of good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of +meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to +the gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical kind +cannot indeed be put down to any author earlier than Homer; though many +such writers probably there were. But from Homer onward, instances +can be cited,--his own Margites, for example, and other similar +compositions. The appropriate metre was also here introduced; hence the +measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that +in which people lampooned one another. Thus the older poets were +distinguished as writers of heroic or of lampooning verse. + +As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among poets, for he alone +combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation, so he too first +laid down the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead +of writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same relation to +Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and +Comedy came to light, the two classes of poets still followed their +natural bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy, and the Epic +poets were succeeded by Tragedians, since the drama was a larger and +higher form of art. + +Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types or not; and +whether it is to be judged in itself, or in relation also to the +audience,--this raises another question. Be that as it may, Tragedy--as +also Comedy--was at first mere improvisation. The one originated with +the authors of the Dithyramb, the other with those of the phallic songs, +which are still in use in many of our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow +degrees; each new element that showed itself was in turn developed. +Having passed through many changes, it found its natural form, and there +it stopped. + +Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he diminished the importance +of the Chorus, and assigned the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles +raised the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting. +Moreover, it was not till late that the short plot was discarded for +one of greater compass, and the grotesque diction of the earlier satyric +form for the stately manner of Tragedy. The iambic measure then replaced +the trochaic tetrameter, which was originally employed when the poetry +was of the Satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing. Once +dialogue had come in, Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure. +For the iambic is, of all measures, the most colloquial: we see it +in the fact that conversational speech runs into iambic lines more +frequently than into any other kind of verse; rarely into hexameters, +and only when we drop the colloquial intonation. The additions to +the number of 'episodes' or acts, and the other accessories of which +tradition; tells, must be taken as already described; for to discuss +them in detail would, doubtless, be a large undertaking. + + + + +V + +Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type, +not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the Ludicrous being +merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness +which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the +comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain. + +The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, and the authors +of these changes, are well known, whereas Comedy has had no history, +because it was not at first treated seriously. It was late before the +Archon granted a comic chorus to a poet; the performers were till then +voluntary. Comedy had already taken definite shape when comic poets, +distinctively so called, are heard of. Who furnished it with masks, or +prologues, or increased the number of actors,--these and other similar +details remain unknown. As for the plot, it came originally from +Sicily; but of Athenian writers Crates was the first who, abandoning the +'iambic' or lampooning form, generalised his themes and plots. + +Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse +of characters of a higher type. They differ, in that Epic poetry admits +but one kind of metre, and is narrative in form. They differ, again, +in their length: for Tragedy endeavours, as far as possible, to confine +itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this +limit; whereas the Epic action has no limits of time. This, then, is +a second point of difference; though at first the same freedom was +admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry. + +Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to +Tragedy, whoever, therefore, knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows +also about Epic poetry. All the elements of an Epic poem are found in +Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the Epic +poem. + + + + +VI + +Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and of Comedy, we +will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss Tragedy, resuming its formal +definition, as resulting from what has been already said. + +Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, +and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of +artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of +the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and +fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. By 'language +embellished,' I mean language into which rhythm, 'harmony,' and song +enter. By 'the several kinds in separate parts,' I mean, that some parts +are rendered through the medium of verse alone, others again with the +aid of song. + +Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it necessarily follows, +in the first place, that Spectacular equipment will be a part of +Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction, for these are the medium of imitation. +By 'Diction' I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words: as for +'Song,' it is a term whose sense every one understands. + +Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an action implies +personal agents, who necessarily possess certain distinctive qualities +both of character and thought; for it is by these that we qualify +actions themselves, and these--thought and character--are the two +natural causes from which actions spring, and on actions again all +success or failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the imitation of the +action: for by plot I here mean the arrangement of the incidents. By +Character I mean that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to +the agents. Thought is required wherever a statement is proved, or, it +may be, a general truth enunciated. Every Tragedy, therefore, must have +six parts, which parts determine its quality--namely, Plot, Character, +Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song. Two of the parts constitute the +medium of imitation, one the manner, and three the objects of imitation. +And these complete the list. These elements have been employed, we may +say, by the poets to a man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular +elements as well as Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought. + +But most important of all is the structure of the incidents. For Tragedy +is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life, and life +consists in action, and its end is a mode of action, not a quality. Now +character determines men's qualities, but it is by their actions that +they are happy or the reverse. Dramatic action, therefore, is not with +a view to the representation of character: character comes in as +subsidiary to the actions. Hence the incidents and the plot are the +end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, without +action there cannot be a tragedy; there may be without character. +The tragedies of most of our modern poets fail in the rendering of +character; and of poets in general this is often true. It is the same +in painting; and here lies the difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotus. +Polygnotus delineates character well: the style of Zeuxis is devoid +of ethical quality. Again, if you string together a set of speeches +expressive of character, and well finished in point of diction and +thought, you will not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so well +as with a play which, however deficient in these respects, yet has a +plot and artistically constructed incidents. Besides which, the most +powerful elements of emotional: interest in Tragedy Peripeteia or +Reversal of the Situation, and Recognition scenes--are parts of the +plot. A further proof is, that novices in the art attain to finish: of +diction and precision of portraiture before they can construct the plot. +It is the same with almost all the early poets. + +The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of +a tragedy: Character holds the second place. A similar fact is seen in +painting. The most beautiful colours, laid on confusedly, will not give +as much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is +the imitation of an action, and of the agents mainly with a view to the +action. + +Third in order is Thought,--that is, the faculty of saying what is +possible and pertinent in given circumstances. In the case of oratory, +this is the function of the Political art and of the art of rhetoric: +and so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the language +of civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the rhetoricians. +Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of +things a man chooses or avoids. Speeches, therefore, which do not make +this manifest, or in which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything +whatever, are not expressive of character. Thought, on the other hand, +is found where something is proved to be, or not to be, or a general +maxim is enunciated. + +Fourth among the elements enumerated comes Diction; by which I mean, as +has been already said, the expression of the meaning in words; and its +essence is the same both in verse and prose. + +Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place among the +embellishments. + +The Spectacle has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its own, but, of +all the parts, it is the least artistic, and connected least with the +art of poetry. For the power of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt +even apart from representation and actors. Besides, the production of +spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage machinist than +on that of the poet. + + + + +VII + +These principles being established, let us now discuss the proper +structure of the Plot, since this is the first and most important thing +in Tragedy. + +Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an imitation of an action +that is complete, and whole, and of a certain magnitude; for there may +be a whole that is wanting in magnitude. A whole is that which has a +beginning, a middle, and an end. A beginning is that which does not +itself follow anything by causal necessity, but after which something +naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which +itself naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity, or as +a rule, but has nothing following it. A middle is that which follows +something as some other thing follows it. A well constructed plot, +therefore, must neither begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to these +principles. + +Again, a beautiful object, whether it be a living organism or any whole +composed of parts, must not only have an orderly arrangement of parts, +but must also be of a certain magnitude; for beauty depends on magnitude +and order. Hence a very small animal organism cannot be beautiful; +for the view of it is confused, the object being seen in an almost +imperceptible moment of time. Nor, again, can one of vast size be +beautiful; for as the eye cannot take it all in at once, the unity and +sense of the whole is lost for the spectator; as for instance if there +were one a thousand miles long. As, therefore, in the case of animate +bodies and organisms a certain magnitude is necessary, and a magnitude +which may be easily embraced in one view; so in the plot, a certain +length is necessary, and a length which can be easily embraced by the +memory. The limit of length in relation to dramatic competition and +sensuous presentment, is no part of artistic theory. For had it been the +rule for a hundred tragedies to compete together, the performance would +have been regulated by the water-clock,--as indeed we are told was +formerly done. But the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself +is this: the greater the length, the more beautiful will the piece be +by reason of its size, provided that the whole be perspicuous. And +to define the matter roughly, we may say that the proper magnitude is +comprised within such limits, that the sequence of events, according +to the law of probability or necessity, will admit of a change from bad +fortune to good, or from good fortune to bad. + + + + +VIII + +Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist in the Unity of +the hero. For infinitely various are the incidents in one man's life +which cannot be reduced to unity; and so, too, there are many actions of +one man out of which we cannot make one action. Hence, the error, as it +appears, of all poets who have composed a Heracleid, a Theseid, or other +poems of the kind. They imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story +of Heracles must also be a unity. But Homer, as in all else he is of +surpassing merit, here too--whether from art or natural genius--seems +to have happily discerned the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not +include all the adventures of Odysseus--such as his wound on Parnassus, +or his feigned madness at the mustering of the host--incidents between +which there was no necessary or probable connection: but he made the +Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to centre round an action that in our +sense of the word is one. As therefore, in the other imitative arts, the +imitation is one when the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an +imitation of an action, must imitate one action and that a whole, the +structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is +displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a +thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an +organic part of the whole. + + + + +IX + +It is, moreover, evident from what has been said, that it is not +the function of the poet to relate what has happened, but what may +happen,--what is possible according to the law of probability or +necessity. The poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or +in prose. The work of Herodotus might be put into verse, and it would +still be a species of history, with metre no less than without it. The +true difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what +may happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher +thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history +the particular. By the universal, I mean how a person of a certain type +will on occasion speak or act, according to the law of probability or +necessity; and it is this universality at which poetry aims in the names +she attaches to the personages. The particular is--for example--what +Alcibiades did or suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here +the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of probability, and then +inserts characteristic names;--unlike the lampooners who write about +particular individuals. But tragedians still keep to real names, the +reason being that what is possible is credible: what has not happened +we do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has happened is +manifestly possible: otherwise it would not have happened. Still there +are even some tragedies in which there are only one or two well known +names, the rest being fictitious. In others, none are well known, as in +Agathon's Antheus, where incidents and names alike are fictitious, and +yet they give none the less pleasure. We must not, therefore, at all +costs keep to the received legends, which are the usual subjects of +Tragedy. Indeed, it would be absurd to attempt it; for even subjects +that are known are known only to a few, and yet give pleasure to all. +It clearly follows that the poet or 'maker' should be the maker of plots +rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imitates, and what +he imitates are actions. And even if he chances to take an historical +subject, he is none the less a poet; for there is no reason why some +events that have actually happened should not conform to the law of the +probable and possible, and in virtue of that quality in them he is their +poet or maker. + +Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. I call a plot +'epeisodic' in which the episodes or acts succeed one another without +probable or necessary sequence. Bad poets compose such pieces by their +own fault, good poets, to please the players; for, as they write show +pieces for competition, they stretch the plot beyond its capacity, and +are often forced to break the natural continuity. + +But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action, but of +events inspiring fear or pity. Such an effect is best produced when the +events come on us by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the +same time, they follow as cause and effect. The tragic wonder will thee +be greater than if they happened of themselves or by accident; for even +coincidences are most striking when they have an air of design. We may +instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his murderer +while he was a spectator at a festival, and killed him. Such events seem +not to be due to mere chance. Plots, therefore, constructed on these +principles are necessarily the best. + + + + +X + +Plots are either Simple or Complex, for the actions in real life, of +which the plots are an imitation, obviously show a similar distinction. +An action which is one and continuous in the sense above defined, I call +Simple, when the change of fortune takes place without Reversal of the +Situation and without Recognition. + +A Complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such +Reversal, or by Recognition, or by both. These last should arise from +the internal structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the +necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It makes all the +difference whether any given event is a case of propter hoc or post hoc. + + + + +XI + +Reversal of the Situation is a change by which the action veers round +to its opposite, subject always to our rule of probability or necessity. +Thus in the Oedipus, the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus and free +him from his alarms about his mother, but by revealing who he is, he +produces the opposite effect. Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being led +away to his death, and Danaus goes with him, meaning, to slay him; but +the outcome of the preceding incidents is that Danaus is killed and +Lynceus saved. Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change from +ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons +destined by the poet for good or bad fortune. The best form of +recognition is coincident with a Reversal of the Situation, as in the +Oedipus. There are indeed other forms. Even inanimate things of the most +trivial kind may in a sense be objects of recognition. Again, we may +recognise or discover whether a person has done a thing or not. But the +recognition which is most intimately connected with the plot and action +is, as we have said, the recognition of persons. This recognition, +combined, with Reversal, will produce either pity or fear; and actions +producing these effects are those which, by our definition, Tragedy +represents. Moreover, it is upon such situations that the issues of good +or bad fortune will depend. Recognition, then, being between persons, +it may happen that one person only is recognised by the other-when the +latter is already known--or it may be necessary that the recognition +should be on both sides. Thus Iphigenia is revealed to Orestes by the +sending of the letter; but another act of recognition is required to +make Orestes known to Iphigenia. + +Two parts, then, of the Plot--Reversal of the Situation and +Recognition--turn upon surprises. A third part is the Scene of +Suffering. The Scene of Suffering is a destructive or painful action, +such as death on the stage, bodily agony, wounds and the like. + + + + +XII + +[The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole +have been already mentioned. We now come to the quantitative parts, +and the separate parts into which Tragedy is divided, namely, Prologue, +Episode, Exode, Choric song; this last being divided into Parode and +Stasimon. These are common to all plays: peculiar to some are the songs +of actors from the stage and the Commoi. + +The Prologue is that entire part of a tragedy which precedes the Parode +of the Chorus. The Episode is that entire part of a tragedy which +is between complete choric songs. The Exode is that entire part of a +tragedy which has no choric song after it. Of the Choric part the Parode +is the first undivided utterance of the Chorus: the Stasimon is a Choric +ode without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters: the Commos is a joint +lamentation of Chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which must +be treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned. The +quantitative parts the separate parts into which it is divided--are here +enumerated.] + + + + +XIII + +As the sequel to what has already been said, we must proceed to consider +what the poet should aim at, and what he should avoid, in constructing +his plots; and by what means the specific effect of Tragedy will be +produced. + +A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged not on the simple +but on the complex plan. It should, moreover, imitate actions which +excite pity and fear, this being the distinctive mark of tragic +imitation. It follows plainly, in the first place, that the change, of +fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought +from prosperity to adversity: for this moves neither pity nor fear; it +merely shocks us. Nor, again, that of a bad man passing from adversity +to prosperity: for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy; +it possesses no single tragic quality; it neither satisfies the moral +sense nor calls forth pity or fear. Nor, again, should the downfall of +the utter villain be exhibited. A plot of this kind would, doubtless, +satisfy the moral sense, but it would inspire neither pity nor fear; for +pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear by the misfortune of a man +like ourselves. Such an event, therefore, will be neither pitiful +nor terrible. There remains, then, the character between these two +extremes,--that of a man who is not eminently good and just,-yet whose +misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error +or frailty. He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous,--a +personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such +families. + +A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single in its issue, +rather than double as some maintain. The change of fortune should be not +from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad. It should come about +as the result not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a +character either such as we have described, or better rather than +worse. The practice of the stage bears out our view. At first the poets +recounted any legend that came in their way. Now, the best tragedies +are founded on the story of a few houses, on the fortunes of Alcmaeon, +Oedipus, Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those others who +have done or suffered something terrible. A tragedy, then, to be perfect +according to the rules of art should be of this construction. Hence +they are in error who censure Euripides just because he follows this +principle in his plays, many of which end unhappily. It is, as we have +said, the right ending. The best proof is that on the stage and in +dramatic competition, such plays, if well worked out, are the most +tragic in effect; and Euripides, faulty though he may be in the general +management of his subject, yet is felt to be the most tragic of the +poets. + +In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which some place first. +Like the Odyssey, it has a double thread of plot, and also an opposite +catastrophe for the good and for the bad. It is accounted the best +because of the weakness of the spectators; for the poet is guided in +what he writes by the wishes of his audience. The pleasure, however, +thence derived is not the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather to +Comedy, where those who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies--like +Orestes and Aegisthus--quit the stage as friends at the close, and no +one slays or is slain. + + + + +XIV + +Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means; but they may also +result from the inner structure of the piece, which is the better way, +and indicates a superior poet. For the plot ought to be so constructed +that, even without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will +thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes place. This is the +impression we should receive from hearing the story of the Oedipus. But +to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic method, +and dependent on extraneous aids. Those who employ spectacular means +to create a sense not of the terrible but only of the monstrous, are +strangers to the purpose of Tragedy; for we must not demand of Tragedy +any and every kind of pleasure, but only that which is proper to it. And +since the pleasure which the poet should afford is that which comes from +pity and fear through imitation, it is evident that this quality must be +impressed upon the incidents. + +Let us then determine what are the circumstances which strike us as +terrible or pitiful. + +Actions capable of this effect must happen between persons who are +either friends or enemies or indifferent to one another. If an enemy +kills an enemy, there is nothing to excite pity either in the act or +the intention,--except so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful. +So again with indifferent persons. But when the tragic incident occurs +between those who are near or dear to one another--if, for example, a +brother kills, or intends to kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother +her son, a son his mother, or any other deed of the kind is done--these +are the situations to be looked for by the poet. He may not indeed +destroy the framework of the received legends--the fact, for instance, +that Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon but he +ought to show invention of his own, and skilfully handle the traditional +material. Let us explain more clearly what is meant by skilful handling. + +The action may be done consciously and with knowledge of the persons, in +the manner of the older poets. It is thus too that Euripides makes Medea +slay her children. Or, again, the deed of horror may be done, but +done in ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered +afterwards. The Oedipus of Sophocles is an example. Here, indeed, the +incident is outside the drama proper; but cases occur where it falls +within the action of the play: one may cite the Alcmaeon of Astydamas, +or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus. Again, there is a third case,--<to +be about to act with knowledge of the persons and then not to act. The +fourth case is> when some one is about to do an irreparable deed through +ignorance, and makes the discovery before it is done. These are the only +possible ways. For the deed must either be done or not done,--and that +wittingly or unwittingly. But of all these ways, to be about to act +knowing the persons, and then not to act, is the worst. It is shocking +without being tragic, for no disaster follows. It is, therefore, never, +or very rarely, found in poetry. One instance, however, is in the +Antigone, where Haemon threatens to kill Creon. The next and better way +is that the deed should be perpetrated. Still better, that it should be +perpetrated in ignorance, and the discovery made afterwards. There +is then nothing to shock us, while the discovery produces a startling +effect. The last case is the best, as when in the Cresphontes Merope is +about to slay her son, but, recognising who he is, spares his life. So +in the Iphigenia, the sister recognises the brother just in time. Again +in the Helle, the son recognises the mother when on the point of giving +her up. This, then, is why a few families only, as has been already +observed, furnish the subjects of tragedy. It was not art, but happy +chance, that led the poets in search of subjects to impress the tragic +quality upon their plots. They are compelled, therefore, to have +recourse to those houses whose history contains moving incidents like +these. + +Enough has now been said concerning the structure of the incidents, and +the right kind of plot. + + + + +XV + +In respect of Character there are four things to be aimed at. First, and +most important, it must be good. Now any speech or action that manifests +moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of character: the character +will be good if the purpose is good. This rule is relative to each +class. Even a woman may be good, and also a slave; though the woman +may be said to be an inferior being, and the slave quite worthless. The +second thing to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour; +but valour in a woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is inappropriate. +Thirdly, character must be true to life: for this is a distinct thing +from goodness and propriety, as here described. The fourth point is +consistency: for though the subject of the imitation, who suggested the +type, be inconsistent, still he must be consistently inconsistent. As an +example of motiveless degradation of character, we have Menelaus in +the Orestes: of character indecorous and inappropriate, the lament of +Odysseus in the Scylla, and the speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, +the Iphigenia at Aulis,--for Iphigenia the suppliant in no way resembles +her later self. + +As in the structure of the plot, so too in the portraiture of character, +the poet should always aim either at the necessary or the probable. Thus +a person of a given character should speak or act in a given way, by the +rule either of necessity or of probability; just as this event should +follow that by necessary or probable sequence. It is therefore evident +that the unravelling of the plot, no less than the complication, must +arise out of the plot itself, it must not be brought about by the 'Deus +ex Machina'--as in the Medea, or in the Return of the Greeks in the +Iliad. The 'Deus ex Machina' should be employed only for events external +to the drama,--for antecedent or subsequent events, which lie beyond the +range of human knowledge, and which require to be reported or foretold; +for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things. Within the +action there must be nothing irrational. If the irrational cannot be +excluded, it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is the +irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles. + +Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the common +level, the example of good portrait-painters should be followed. They, +while reproducing the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness +which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the poet, in +representing men who are irascible or indolent, or have other defects +of character, should preserve the type and yet ennoble it. In this way +Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer. + +These then are rules the poet should observe. Nor should he neglect +those appeals to the senses, which, though not among the essentials, are +the concomitants of poetry; for here too there is much room for error. +But of this enough has been said in our published treatises. + + + + +XVI + +What Recognition is has been already explained. We will now enumerate +its kinds. + +First, the least artistic form, which, from poverty of wit, is +most commonly employed recognition by signs. Of these some are +congenital,--such as 'the spear which the earth-born race bear on their +bodies,' or the stars introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are +acquired after birth; and of these some are bodily marks, as scars; some +external tokens, as necklaces, or the little ark in the Tyro by which +the discovery is effected. Even these admit of more or less skilful +treatment. Thus in the recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the +discovery is made in one way by the nurse, in another by the swineherds. +The use of tokens for the express purpose of proof--and, indeed, +any formal proof with or without tokens--is a less artistic mode of +recognition. A better kind is that which comes about by a turn of +incident, as in the Bath Scene in the Odyssey. + +Next come the recognitions invented at will by the poet, and on that +account wanting in art. For example, Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals +the fact that he is Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the +letter; but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet, not what +the plot requires. This, therefore, is nearly allied to the fault above +mentioned:--for Orestes might as well have brought tokens with him. +Another similar instance is the 'voice of the shuttle' in the Tereus of +Sophocles. + +The third kind depends on memory when the sight of some object awakens +a feeling: as in the Cyprians of Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into +tears on seeing the picture; or again in the 'Lay of Alcinous,' where +Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls the past and +weeps; and hence the recognition. + +The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in the Choephori: 'Some +one resembling me has come: no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore +Orestes has come.' Such too is the discovery made by Iphigenia in the +play of Polyidus the Sophist. It was a natural reflection for Orestes to +make, 'So I too must die at the altar like my sister.' So, again, in +the Tydeus of Theodectes, the father says, 'I came to find my son, and +I lose my own life.' So too in the Phineidae: the women, on seeing the +place, inferred their fate:--'Here we are doomed to die, for here +we were cast forth.' Again, there is a composite kind of recognition +involving false inference on the part of one of the characters, as in +the Odysseus Disguised as a Messenger. A said <that no one else was able +to bend the bow;... hence B (the disguised Odysseus) imagined that A +would> recognise the bow which, in fact, he had not seen; and to bring +about a recognition by this means that the expectation A would recognise +the bow is false inference. + +But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises from the +incidents themselves, where the startling discovery is made by natural +means. Such is that in the Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; +for it was natural that Iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter. +These recognitions alone dispense with the artificial aid of tokens or +amulets. Next come the recognitions by process of reasoning. + + + + +XVII + +In constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction, +the poet should place the scene, as far as possible, before his eyes. In +this way, seeing everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a +spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, +and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies. The need of such a +rule is shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way +from the temple. This fact escaped the observation of one who did not +see the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience +being offended at the oversight. + +Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best of his power, with +appropriate gestures; for those who feel emotion are most convincing +through natural sympathy with the characters they represent; and one +who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages, with the most life-like +reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain +of madness. In the one case a man can take the mould of any character; +in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self. + +As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready made or constructs it +for himself, he should first sketch its general outline, and then +fill in the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan may be +illustrated by the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed; she disappears +mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her; She is +transported to another country, where the custom is to offer up all +strangers to the goddess. To this ministry she is appointed. Some time +later her own brother chances to arrive. The fact that the oracle for +some reason ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of the +play. The purpose, again, of his coming is outside the action proper. +However, he comes, he is seized, and, when on the point of being +sacrificed, reveals who he is. The mode of recognition may be either +that of Euripides or of Polyidus, in whose play he exclaims very +naturally:--'So it was not my sister only, but I too, who was doomed to +be sacrificed'; and by that remark he is saved. + +After this, the names being once given, it remains to fill in the +episodes. We must see that they are relevant to the action. In the case +of Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led to his capture, +and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In the drama, the +episodes are short, but it is these that give extension to Epic poetry. +Thus the story of the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is +absent from home for many years; he is jealously watched by Poseidon, +and left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight--suitors +are wasting his substance and plotting against his son. At length, +tempest-tost, he himself arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted +with him; he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is himself +preserved while he destroys them. This is the essence of the plot; the +rest is episode. + + + + +XVIII + +Every tragedy falls into two parts,--Complication and Unravelling or +Denouement. Incidents extraneous to the action are frequently combined +with a portion of the action proper, to form the Complication; the rest +is the Unravelling. By the Complication I mean all that extends from +the beginning of the action to the part which marks the turning-point +to good or bad fortune. The Unravelling is that which extends from the +beginning of the change to the end. Thus, in the Lynceus of Theodectes, +the Complication consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama, the +seizure of the child, and then again, The Unravelling extends from +the accusation of murder to the end. + +There are four kinds of Tragedy, the Complex, depending entirely on +Reversal of the Situation and Recognition; the Pathetic (where the +motive is passion),--such as the tragedies on Ajax and Ixion; the +Ethical (where the motives are ethical),--such as the Phthiotides and +the Peleus. The fourth kind is the Simple <We here exclude the purely +spectacular element>, exemplified by the Phorcides, the Prometheus, and +scenes laid in Hades. The poet should endeavour, if possible, to combine +all poetic elements; or failing that, the greatest number and those the +most important; the more so, in face of the cavilling criticism of the +day. For whereas there have hitherto been good poets, each in his own +branch, the critics now expect one man to surpass all others in their +several lines of excellence. + +In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different, the best test to take +is the plot. Identity exists where the Complication and Unravelling are +the same. Many poets tie the knot well, but unravel it ill. Both arts, +however, should always be mastered. + +Again, the poet should remember what has been often said, and not make +an Epic structure into a Tragedy--by an Epic structure I mean one with +a multiplicity of plots--as if, for instance, you were to make a tragedy +out of the entire story of the Iliad. In the Epic poem, owing to its +length, each part assumes its proper magnitude. In the drama the result +is far from answering to the poet's expectation. The proof is that the +poets who have dramatised the whole story of the Fall of Troy, instead +of selecting portions, like Euripides; or who have taken the whole +tale of Niobe, and not a part of her story, like Aeschylus, either fail +utterly or meet with poor success on the stage. Even Agathon has been +known to fail from this one defect. In his Reversals of the Situation, +however, he shows a marvellous skill in the effort to hit the popular +taste,--to produce a tragic effect that satisfies the moral sense. This +effect is produced when the clever rogue, like Sisyphus, is outwitted, +or the brave villain defeated. Such an event is probable in Agathon's +sense of the word: 'it is probable,' he says, 'that many things should +happen contrary to probability.' + +The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors; it should be an +integral part of the whole, and share in the action, in the manner not +of Euripides but of Sophocles. As for the later poets, their choral +songs pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of any +other tragedy. They are, therefore, sung as mere interludes, a practice +first begun by Agathon. Yet what difference is there between introducing +such choral interludes, and transferring a speech, or even a whole act, +from one play to another? + + + + +XIX + +It remains to speak of Diction and Thought, the other parts of Tragedy +having been already discussed. Concerning Thought, we may assume what +is said in the Rhetoric, to which inquiry the subject more strictly +belongs. Under Thought is included every effect which has to be produced +by speech, the subdivisions being,--proof and refutation; the excitation +of the feelings, such as pity, fear, anger, and the like; the suggestion +of importance or its opposite. Now, it is evident that the dramatic +incidents must be treated from the same points of view as the dramatic +speeches, when the object is to evoke the sense of pity, fear, +importance, or probability. The only difference is, that the incidents +should speak for themselves without verbal exposition; while the effects +aimed at in speech should be produced by the speaker, and as a result of +the speech. For what were the business of a speaker, if the Thought were +revealed quite apart from what he says? + +Next, as regards Diction. One branch of the inquiry treats of the Modes +of Utterance. But this province of knowledge belongs to the art +of Delivery and to the masters of that science. It includes, for +instance,--what is a command, a prayer, a statement, a threat, a +question, an answer, and so forth. To know or not to know these things +involves no serious censure upon the poet's art. For who can admit +the fault imputed to Homer by Protagoras,--that in the words, 'Sing, +goddess, of the wrath,' he gives a command under the idea that he utters +a prayer? For to tell some one to do a thing or not to do it is, he +says, a command. We may, therefore, pass this over as an inquiry that +belongs to another art, not to poetry. + + + + +XX + +[Language in general includes the following parts:--Letter, Syllable, +Connecting word, Noun, Verb, Inflexion or Case, Sentence or Phrase. + +A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such sound, but only +one which can form part of a group of sounds. For even brutes utter +indivisible sounds, none of which I call a letter. The sound I mean +may be either a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute. A vowel is that which +without impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound. A semi-vowel, that +which with such impact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute, that +which with such impact has by itself no sound, but joined to a vowel +sound becomes audible, as G and D. These are distinguished according +to the form assumed by the mouth and the place where they are produced; +according as they are aspirated or smooth, long or short; as they are +acute, grave, or of an intermediate tone; which inquiry belongs in +detail to the writers on metre. + +A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a mute and a +vowel: for GR without A is a syllable, as also with A,--GRA. But the +investigation of these differences belongs also to metrical science. + +A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which neither causes nor +hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound; it may +be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a +non-significant sound, which out of several sounds, each of them +significant, is capable of forming one significant sound,--as {alpha mu +theta iota}, {pi epsilon rho iota}, and the like. Or, a non-significant +sound, which marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence; such, +however, that it cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a +sentence, as {mu epsilon nu}, {eta tau omicron iota}, {delta epsilon}. + +A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking time, of which no +part is in itself significant: for in double or compound words we do not +employ the separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus +in Theodorus, 'god-given,' the {delta omega rho omicron nu} or 'gift' is +not in itself significant. + +A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking time, in which, as in +the noun, no part is in itself significant. For 'man,' or 'white' does +not express the idea of 'when'; but 'he walks,' or 'he has walked' does +connote time, present or past. + +Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and expresses either the +relation 'of,' 'to,' or the like; or that of number, whether one or +many, as 'man' or 'men '; or the modes or tones in actual delivery, e.g. +a question or a command. 'Did he go?' and 'go' are verbal inflexions of +this kind. + +A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound, some at least of +whose parts are in themselves significant; for not every such group +of words consists of verbs and nouns--'the definition of man,' for +example--but it may dispense even with the verb. Still it will always +have some significant part, as 'in walking,' or 'Cleon son of Cleon.' A +sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways,--either as signifying +one thing, or as consisting of several parts linked together. Thus the +Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition of man by +the unity of the thing signified.] + + + + +XXI + +Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By simple I mean those +composed of non-significant elements, such as {gamma eta}. By double +or compound, those composed either of a significant and non-significant +element (though within the whole word no element is significant), or +of elements that are both significant. A word may likewise be triple, +quadruple, or multiple in form, like so many Massilian expressions, e.g. +'Hermo-caico-xanthus who prayed to Father Zeus>.' + +Every word is either current, or strange, or metaphorical, or +ornamental, or newly-coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered. + +By a current or proper word I mean one which is in general use among +a people; by a strange word, one which is in use in another country. +Plainly, therefore, the same word may be at once strange and current, +but not in relation to the same people. The word {sigma iota gamma +upsilon nu omicron nu}, 'lance,' is to the Cyprians a current term but +to us a strange one. + +Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from +genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, +or by analogy, that is, proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: +'There lies my ship'; for lying at anchor is a species of lying. From +species to genus, as: 'Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus +wrought'; for ten thousand is a species of large number, and is here +used for a large number generally. From species to species, as: 'With +blade of bronze drew away the life,' and 'Cleft the water with the +vessel of unyielding bronze.' Here {alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota}, +'to draw away,' is used for {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu}, 'to cleave,' +and {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu} again for {alpha rho upsilon alpha +iota},--each being a species of taking away. Analogy or proportion is +when the second term is to the first as the fourth to the third. We +may then use the fourth for the second, or the second for the fourth. +Sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the term to which the +proper word is relative. Thus the cup is to Dionysus as the shield to +Ares. The cup may, therefore, be called 'the shield of Dionysus,' and +the shield 'the cup of Ares.' Or, again, as old age is to life, so is +evening to day. Evening may therefore be called 'the old age of +the day,' and old age, 'the evening of life,' or, in the phrase +of Empedocles, 'life's setting sun.' For some of the terms of the +proportion there is at times no word in existence; still the metaphor +may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but the +action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this process +bears to the sun the same relation as sowing to the seed. Hence the +expression of the poet 'sowing the god-created light.' There is another +way in which this kind of metaphor may be employed. We may apply an +alien term, and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes; as +if we were to call the shield, not 'the cup of Ares,' but 'the wineless +cup.' + +{An ornamental word...} + +A newly-coined word is one which has never been even in local use, but +is adopted by the poet himself. Some such words there appear to be: as +{epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma}, 'sprouters,' for {kappa +epsilon rho alpha tau alpha}, 'horns,' and {alpha rho eta tau eta rho}, +'supplicator,' for {iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma}, 'priest.' + +A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer one, +or when a syllable is inserted. A word is contracted when some part of +it is removed. Instances of lengthening are,--{pi omicron lambda eta +omicron sigma} for {pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and {Pi eta +lambda eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega} for {Pi eta lambda epsilon +iota delta omicron upsilon}: of contraction,--{kappa rho iota}, {delta +omega}, and {omicron psi}, as in {mu iota alpha / gamma iota nu epsilon +tau alpha iota / alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu / +omicron psi}. + +An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left +unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in {delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon +rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha / mu alpha zeta omicron nu}, +{delta epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu} is for {delta epsilon +xi iota omicron nu}. + +[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, or neuter. +Masculine are such as end in {nu}, {rho}, {sigma}, or in some letter +compounded with {sigma},--these being two, and {xi}. Feminine, such as +end in vowels that are always long, namely {eta} and {omega}, and--of +vowels that admit of lengthening--those in {alpha}. Thus the number of +letters in which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for {psi} +and {xi} are equivalent to endings in {sigma}. No noun ends in a mute +or a vowel short by nature. Three only end in {iota},--{mu eta lambda +iota}, {kappa omicron mu mu iota}, {pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota}: +five end in {upsilon}. Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also +in {nu} and {sigma}.] + + + + +XXII + +The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean. The clearest +style is that which uses only current or proper words; at the same +time it is mean:--witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus. That +diction, on the other hand, is lofty and raised above the commonplace +which employs unusual words. By unusual, I mean strange (or rare) words, +metaphorical, lengthened,--anything, in short, that differs from the +normal idiom. Yet a style wholly composed of such words is either a +riddle or a jargon; a riddle, if it consists of metaphors; a jargon, if +it consists of strange (or rare) words. For the essence of a riddle is +to express true facts under impossible combinations. Now this cannot be +done by any arrangement of ordinary words, but by the use of metaphor it +can. Such is the riddle:--'A man I saw who on another man had glued the +bronze by aid of fire,' and others of the same kind. A diction that +is made up of strange (or rare) terms is a jargon. A certain infusion, +therefore, of these elements is necessary to style; for the strange (or +rare) word, the metaphorical, the ornamental, and the other kinds above +mentioned, will raise it above the commonplace and mean, while the use +of proper words will make it perspicuous. But nothing contributes more +to produce a clearness of diction that is remote from commonness than +the lengthening, contraction, and alteration of words. For by deviating +in exceptional cases from the normal idiom, the language will gain +distinction; while, at the same time, the partial conformity with usage +will give perspicuity. The critics, therefore, are in error who censure +these licenses of speech, and hold the author up to ridicule. Thus +Eucleides, the elder, declared that it would be an easy matter to be +a poet if you might lengthen syllables at will. He caricatured the +practice in the very form of his diction, as in the verse: '{Epsilon pi +iota chi alpha rho eta nu / epsilon iota delta omicron nu / Mu alpha rho +alpha theta omega nu alpha delta epsilon / Beta alpha delta iota zeta +omicron nu tau alpha}, or, {omicron upsilon kappa / alpha nu / gamma / +epsilon rho alpha mu epsilon nu omicron sigma / tau omicron nu / epsilon +kappa epsilon iota nu omicron upsilon /epsilon lambda lambda epsilon +beta omicron rho omicron nu}. To employ such license at all obtrusively +is, no doubt, grotesque; but in any mode of poetic diction there must +be moderation. Even metaphors, strange (or rare) words, or any similar +forms of speech, would produce the like effect if used without propriety +and with the express purpose of being ludicrous. How great a difference +is made by the appropriate use of lengthening, may be seen in Epic +poetry by the insertion of ordinary forms in the verse. So, again, if +we take a strange (or rare) word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of +expression, and replace it by the current or proper term, the truth of +our observation will be manifest. For example Aeschylus and Euripides +each composed the same iambic line. But the alteration of a single word +by Euripides, who employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary one, +makes one verse appear beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus in his +Philoctetes says: {Phi alpha gamma epsilon delta alpha iota nu alpha / +delta / eta / mu omicron upsilon / sigma alpha rho kappa alpha sigma / +epsilon rho theta iota epsilon iota / pi omicron delta omicron sigma}. + +Euripides substitutes {Theta omicron iota nu alpha tau alpha iota} +'feasts on' for {epsilon sigma theta iota epsilon iota} 'feeds on.' +Again, in the line, {nu upsilon nu / delta epsilon / mu /epsilon omega +nu / omicron lambda iota gamma iota gamma upsilon sigma / tau epsilon / +kappa alpha iota / omicron upsilon tau iota delta alpha nu omicron sigma +/ kappa alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota kappa eta sigma), the difference +will be felt if we substitute the common words, {nu upsilon nu / delta +epsilon / mu / epsilon omega nu / mu iota kappa rho omicron sigma / +tau epsilon / kappa alpha iota / alpha rho theta epsilon nu iota kappa +omicron sigma / kappa alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota delta gamma +sigma}. Or, if for the line, {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / alpha +epsilon iota kappa epsilon lambda iota omicron nu / kappa alpha tau +alpha theta epsilon iota sigma / omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu / +tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon iota sigma / omicron lambda iota +gamma eta nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu,} +We read, {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / mu omicron chi theta eta rho +omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma / mu iota +kappa rho alpha nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha +nu}. + +Or, for {eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma / beta omicron omicron omega +rho iota nu, eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma kappa rho alpha zeta +omicron upsilon rho iota nu} + +Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using phrases which no +one would employ in ordinary speech: for example, {delta omega mu alpha +tau omega nu / alpha pi omicron} instead of {alpha pi omicron / delta +omega mu alpha tau omega nu}, {rho epsilon theta epsilon nu}, {epsilon +gamma omega / delta epsilon / nu iota nu}, {Alpha chi iota lambda lambda +epsilon omega sigma / pi epsilon rho iota} instead of {pi epsilon rho +iota / 'Alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and the like. +It is precisely because such phrases are not part of the current idiom +that they give distinction to the style. This, however, he failed to +see. + +It is a great matter to observe propriety in these several modes of +expression, as also in compound words, strange (or rare) words, and so +forth. But the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. +This alone cannot be imparted by another; it is the mark of genius, for +to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances. + +Of the various kinds of words, the compound are best adapted to +Dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry, metaphors to iambic. In heroic +poetry, indeed, all these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic +verse, which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the most +appropriate words are those which are found even in prose. These +are,--the current or proper, the metaphorical, the ornamental. + +Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of action this may suffice. + + + + +XXIII + +As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in form and employs +a single metre, the plot manifestly ought, as in a tragedy, to be +constructed on dramatic principles. It should have for its subject a +single action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle, and +an end. It will thus resemble a living organism in all its unity, and +produce the pleasure proper to it. It will differ in structure from +historical compositions, which of necessity present not a single action, +but a single period, and all that happened within that period to one +person or to many, little connected together as the events may be. For +as the sea-fight at Salamis and the battle with the Carthaginians in +Sicily took place at the same time, but did not tend to any one result, +so in the sequence of events, one thing sometimes follows another, and +yet no single result is thereby produced. Such is the practice, we may +say, of most poets. Here again, then, as has been already observed, the +transcendent excellence of Homer is manifest. He never attempts to make +the whole war of Troy the subject of his poem, though that war had +a beginning and an end. It would have been too vast a theme, and not +easily embraced in a single view. If, again, he had kept it within +moderate limits, it must have been over-complicated by the variety of +the incidents. As it is, he detaches a single portion, and admits as +episodes many events from the general story of the war--such as the +Catalogue of the ships and others--thus diversifying the poem. All other +poets take a single hero, a single period, or an action single indeed, +but with a multiplicity of parts. Thus did the author of the Cypria +and of the Little Iliad. For this reason the Iliad and the Odyssey +each furnish the subject of one tragedy, or, at most, of two; while the +Cypria supplies materials for many, and the Little Iliad for eight--the +Award of the Arms, the Philoctetes, the Neoptolemus, the Eurypylus, the +Mendicant Odysseus, the Laconian Women, the Fall of Ilium, the Departure +of the Fleet. + + + + +XXIV + +Again, Epic poetry must have as many kinds as Tragedy: it must be +simple, or complex, or 'ethical,' or 'pathetic.' The parts also, with +the exception of song and spectacle, are the same; for it requires +Reversals of the Situation, Recognitions, and Scenes of Suffering. +Moreover, the thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all these +respects Homer is our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of +his poems has a twofold character. The Iliad is at once simple and +'pathetic,' and the Odyssey complex (for Recognition scenes run through +it), and at the same time 'ethical.' Moreover, in diction and thought +they are supreme. + +Epic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on which it is +constructed, and in its metre. As regards scale or length, we have +already laid down an adequate limit:--the beginning and the end must be +capable of being brought within a single view. This condition will be +satisfied by poems on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering +in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting. + +Epic poetry has, however, a great--a special--capacity for enlarging +its dimensions, and we can see the reason. In Tragedy we cannot imitate +several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time; we must +confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the +players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events +simultaneously transacted can be presented; and these, if relevant to +the subject, add mass and dignity to the poem. The Epic has here an +advantage, and one that conduces to grandeur of effect, to diverting the +mind of the hearer, and relieving the story with varying episodes. For +sameness of incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail on +the stage. + +As for the metre, the heroic measure has proved its fitness by the test +of experience. If a narrative poem in any other metre or in many metres +were now composed, it would be found incongruous. For of all measures +the heroic is the stateliest and the most massive; and hence it most +readily admits rare words and metaphors, which is another point in which +the narrative form of imitation stands alone. On the other hand, the +iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring measures, the latter +being akin to dancing, the former expressive of action. Still more +absurd would it be to mix together different metres, as was done by +Chaeremon. Hence no one has ever composed a poem on a great scale in any +other than heroic verse. Nature herself, as we have said, teaches the +choice of the proper measure. + +Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit of being the +only poet who rightly appreciates the part he should take himself. The +poet should speak as little as possible in his own person, for it is not +this that makes him an imitator. Other poets appear themselves upon the +scene throughout, and imitate but little and rarely. Homer, after a few +prefatory words, at once brings in a man, or woman, or other personage; +none of them wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with a +character of his own. + +The element of the wonderful is required in Tragedy. The irrational, on +which the wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider scope in +Epic poetry, because there the person acting is not seen. Thus, the +pursuit of Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage--the +Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and Achilles +waving them back. But in the Epic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed. +Now the wonderful is pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that +every one tells a story with some addition of his own, knowing that his +hearers like it. It is Homer who has chiefly taught other poets the +art of telling lies skilfully. The secret of it lies in a fallacy, For, +assuming that if one thing is or becomes, a second is or becomes, men +imagine that, if the second is, the first likewise is or becomes. But +this is a false inference. Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is +quite unnecessary, provided the second be true, to add that the first +is or has become. For the mind, knowing the second to be true, falsely +infers the truth of the first. There is an example of this in the Bath +Scene of the Odyssey. + +Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to +improbable possibilities. The tragic plot must not be composed of +irrational parts. Everything irrational should, if possible, be +excluded; or, at all events, it should lie outside the action of the +play (as, in the Oedipus, the hero's ignorance as to the manner of +Laius' death); not within the drama,--as in the Electra, the messenger's +account of the Pythian games; or, as in the Mysians, the man who +has come from Tegea to Mysia and is still speechless. The plea that +otherwise the plot would have been ruined, is ridiculous; such a plot +should not in the first instance be constructed. But once the irrational +has been introduced and an air of likelihood imparted to it, we must +accept it in spite of the absurdity. Take even the irrational incidents +in the Odyssey, where Odysseus is left upon the shore of Ithaca. How +intolerable even these might have been would be apparent if an inferior +poet were to treat the subject. As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the +poetic charm with which the poet invests it. + +The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action, where +there is no expression of character or thought. For, conversely, +character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over +brilliant. + + + + +XXV + +With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions, the number +and nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be thus +exhibited. + +The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any other artist, must +of necessity imitate one of three objects,--things as they were or are, +things as they are said or thought to be, or things as they ought to be. +The vehicle of expression is language,--either current terms or, it +may be, rare words or metaphors. There are also many modifications of +language, which we concede to the poets. Add to this, that the standard +of correctness is not the same in poetry and politics, any more than in +poetry and any other art. Within the art of poetry itself there are +two kinds of faults, those which touch its essence, and those which are +accidental. If a poet has chosen to imitate something, <but has imitated +it incorrectly> through want of capacity, the error is inherent in +the poetry. But if the failure is due to a wrong choice if he has +represented a horse as throwing out both his off legs at once, or +introduced technical inaccuracies in medicine, for example, or in any +other art the error is not essential to the poetry. These are the points +of view from which we should consider and answer the objections raised +by the critics. + +First as to matters which concern the poet's own art. If he describes +the impossible, he is guilty of an error; but the error may be +justified, if the end of the art be thereby attained (the end being that +already mentioned), if, that is, the effect of this or any other part of +the poem is thus rendered more striking. A case in point is the pursuit +of Hector. If, however, the end might have been as well, or better, +attained without violating the special rules of the poetic art, the +error is not justified: for every kind of error should, if possible, be +avoided. + +Again, does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art, or some +accident of it? For example,--not to know that a hind has no horns is a +less serious matter than to paint it inartistically. + +Further, if it be objected that the description is not true to fact, the +poet may perhaps reply,--'But the objects are as they ought to be': just +as Sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be; Euripides, +as they are. In this way the objection may be met. If, however, the +representation be of neither kind, the poet may answer,--This is how men +say the thing is.' This applies to tales about the gods. It may well be +that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to fact: they +are, very possibly, what Xenophanes says of them. But anyhow, 'this +is what is said.' Again, a description may be no better than the fact: +'still, it was the fact'; as in the passage about the arms: 'Upright +upon their butt-ends stood the spears.' This was the custom then, as it +now is among the Illyrians. + +Again, in examining whether what has been said or done by some one is +poetically right or not, we must not look merely to the particular act +or saying, and ask whether it is poetically good or bad. We must also +consider by whom it is said or done, to whom, when, by what means, or +for what end; whether, for instance, it be to secure a greater good, or +avert a greater evil. + +Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of +language. We may note a rare word, as in {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha +sigma / mu epsilon nu / pi rho omega tau omicron nu}, where the poet +perhaps employs {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma} not in the sense +of mules, but of sentinels. So, again, of Dolon: 'ill-favoured indeed +he was to look upon.' It is not meant that his body was ill-shaped, but +that his face was ugly; for the Cretans use the word {epsilon upsilon +epsilon iota delta epsilon sigma}, 'well-favoured,' to denote a fair +face. Again, {zeta omega rho omicron tau epsilon rho omicron nu / +delta epsilon / kappa epsilon rho alpha iota epsilon}, 'mix the drink +livelier,' does not mean `mix it stronger' as for hard drinkers, but +'mix it quicker.' + +Sometimes an expression is metaphorical, as 'Now all gods and men were +sleeping through the night,'--while at the same time the poet says: +'Often indeed as he turned his gaze to the Trojan plain, he marvelled +at the sound of flutes and pipes.' 'All' is here used metaphorically for +'many,' all being a species of many. So in the verse,--'alone she hath +no part...,' {omicron iota eta}, 'alone,' is metaphorical; for the best +known may be called the only one. + +Again, the solution may depend upon accent or breathing. Thus Hippias of +Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines,--{delta iota delta omicron +mu epsilon nu (delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu) delta epsilon +/ omicron iota,} and { tau omicron / mu epsilon nu / omicron upsilon +(omicron upsilon) kappa alpha tau alpha pi upsilon theta epsilon tau +alpha iota / omicron mu beta rho omega}. + +Or again, the question may be solved by punctuation, as in +Empedocles,--'Of a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to +be immortal, and things unmixed before mixed.' + +Or again, by ambiguity of meaning,--as {pi alpha rho omega chi eta kappa +epsilon nu / delta epsilon / pi lambda epsilon omega / nu upsilon xi}, +where the word {pi lambda epsilon omega} is ambiguous. + +Or by the usage of language. Thus any mixed drink is called {omicron +iota nu omicron sigma}, 'wine.' Hence Ganymede is said 'to pour the wine +to Zeus,' though the gods do not drink wine. So too workers in iron +are called {chi alpha lambda kappa epsilon alpha sigma}, or workers in +bronze. This, however, may also be taken as a metaphor. + +Again, when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning, we +should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular passage. +For example: 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'--we should ask +in how many ways we may take 'being checked there.' The true mode +of interpretation is the precise opposite of what Glaucon mentions. +Critics, he says, jump at certain groundless conclusions; they pass +adverse judgment and then proceed to reason on it; and, assuming that +the poet has said whatever they happen to think, find fault if a thing +is inconsistent with their own fancy. The question about Icarius +has been treated in this fashion. The critics imagine he was a +Lacedaemonian. They think it strange, therefore, that Telemachus should +not have met him when he went to Lacedaemon. But the Cephallenian story +may perhaps be the true one. They allege that Odysseus took a wife from +among themselves, and that her father was Icadius not Icarius. It is +merely a mistake, then, that gives plausibility to the objection. + +In general, the impossible must be justified by reference to artistic +requirements, or to the higher reality, or to received opinion. With +respect to the requirements of art, a probable impossibility is to +be preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible. Again, it may be +impossible that there should be men such as Zeuxis painted. 'Yes,' we +say, 'but the impossible is the higher thing; for the ideal type must +surpass the reality.' To justify the irrational, we appeal to what is +commonly said to be. In addition to which, we urge that the irrational +sometimes does not violate reason; just as 'it is probable that a thing +may happen contrary to probability.' + +Things that sound contradictory should be examined by the same rules as +in dialectical refutation whether the same thing is meant, in the same +relation, and in the same sense. We should therefore solve the question +by reference to what the poet says himself, or to what is tacitly +assumed by a person of intelligence. + +The element of the irrational, and, similarly, depravity of character, +are justly censured when there is no inner necessity for introducing +them. Such is the irrational element in the introduction of Aegeus by +Euripides and the badness of Menelaus in the Orestes. + +Thus, there are five sources from which critical objections are drawn. +Things are censured either as impossible, or irrational, or morally +hurtful, or contradictory, or contrary to artistic correctness. The +answers should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned. + + + + +XXVI + +The question may be raised whether the Epic or Tragic mode of imitation +is the higher. If the more refined art is the higher, and the more +refined in every case is that which appeals to the better sort of +audience, the art which imitates anything and everything is manifestly +most unrefined. The audience is supposed to be too dull to comprehend +unless something of their own is thrown in by the performers, who +therefore indulge in restless movements. Bad flute-players twist and +twirl, if they have to represent 'the quoit-throw,' or hustle the +coryphaeus when they perform the 'Scylla.' Tragedy, it is said, has +this same defect. We may compare the opinion that the older actors +entertained of their successors. Mynniscus used to call Callippides +'ape' on account of the extravagance of his action, and the same view +was held of Pindarus. Tragic art, then, as a whole, stands to Epic in +the same relation as the younger to the elder actors. So we are told +that Epic poetry is addressed to a cultivated audience, who do not need +gesture; Tragedy, to an inferior public. Being then unrefined, it is +evidently the lower of the two. + +Now, in the first place, this censure attaches not to the poetic but to +the histrionic art; for gesticulation may be equally overdone in +epic recitation, as by Sosi-stratus, or in lyrical competition, as by +Mnasitheus the Opuntian. Next, all action is not to be condemned any +more than all dancing--but only that of bad performers. Such was the +fault found in Callippides, as also in others of our own day, who are +censured for representing degraded women. Again, Tragedy like Epic +poetry produces its effect even without action; it reveals its power +by mere reading. If, then, in all other respects it is superior, this +fault, we say, is not inherent in it. + +And superior it is, because it has all the epic elements--it may even +use the epic metre--with the music and spectacular effects as important +accessories; and these produce the most vivid of pleasures. Further, +it has vividness of impression in reading as well as in representation. +Moreover, the art attains its end within narrower limits; for the +concentrated effect is more pleasurable than one which is spread over a +long time and so diluted. What, for example, would be the effect of the +Oedipus of Sophocles, if it were cast into a form as long as the Iliad? +Once more, the Epic imitation has less unity; as is shown by this, that +any Epic poem will furnish subjects for several tragedies. Thus if +the story adopted by the poet has a strict unity, it must either be +concisely told and appear truncated; or, if it conform to the Epic canon +of length, it must seem weak and watery. <Such length implies some loss +of unity,> if, I mean, the poem is constructed out of several actions, +like the Iliad and the Odyssey, which have many such parts, each with a +certain magnitude of its own. Yet these poems are as perfect as possible +in structure; each is, in the highest degree attainable, an imitation of +a single action. + +If, then, Tragedy is superior to Epic poetry in all these respects, and, +moreover, fulfils its specific function better as an art for each art +ought to produce, not any chance pleasure, but the pleasure proper to +it, as already stated it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, +as attaining its end more perfectly. + +Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic poetry in general; +their several kinds and parts, with the number of each and their +differences; the causes that make a poem good or bad; the objections of +the critics and the answers to these objections. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poetics, by Aristotle + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POETICS *** + +***** This file should be named 1974.txt or 1974.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/7/1974/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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In this transcription, in order to retain the accuracy of this +text, those words are rendered by spelling out each Greek letter +individually, such as {alpha beta gamma delta ...}. The reader can +distinguish these words by the enclosing braces {}. Where multiple words +occur together, they are separated by the "/" symbol for clarity. Readers +who do not speak or read the Greek language will usually neither gain nor +lose understanding by skipping over these passages. Those who understand +Greek, however, may gain a deeper insight to the original meaning and +distinctions expressed by Aristotle.] + + + + +Analysis of Contents + +I 'Imitation' the common principle of the Arts of Poetry. +II The Objects of Imitation. +III The Manner of Imitation. +IV The Origin and Development of Poetry. +V Definition of the Ludicrous, and a brief sketch of the rise of + Comedy. +VI Definition of Tragedy. +VII The Plot must be a Whole. +VIII The Plot must be a Unity. +IX (Plot continued.) Dramatic Unity. +X (Plot continued.) Definitions of Simple and Complex Plots. +XI (Plot continued.) Reversal of the Situation, Recognition, and + Tragic or disastrous Incident defined and explained. +XII The 'quantitative parts' of Tragedy defined. +XIII (Plot continued.) What constitutes Tragic Action. +XIV (Plot continued.) The tragic emotions of pity and fear should + spring out of the Plot itself. +XV The element of Character in Tragedy. +XVI (Plot continued.) Recognition: its various kinds, with examples. +XVII Practical rules for the Tragic Poet. +XVIII Further rules for the Tragic Poet. +XIX Thought, or the Intellectual element, and Diction in Tragedy. +XX Diction, or Language in general. +XXI Poetic Diction. +XXII (Poetic Diction continued.) How Poetry combines elevation of + language with perspicuity. +XXIII Epic Poetry. +XXIV (Epic Poetry continued.) Further points of agreement with Tragedy. +XXV Critical Objections brought against Poetry, and the principles on + which they are to be answered. +XXVI A general estimate of the comparative worth of Epic Poetry and + Tragedy. + + + + +ARISTOTLE'S POETICS + +I + +I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various kinds, noting +the essential quality of each; to inquire into the structure of the plot +as requisite to a good poem; into the number and nature of the parts of +which a poem is composed; and similarly into whatever else falls within +the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of nature, let us begin with +the principles which come first. + +Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and Dithyrambic: poetry, and the +music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms, are all in +their general conception modes of imitation. They differ, however, from +one: another in three respects,--the medium, the objects, the manner or +mode of imitation, being in each case distinct. + +For as there are persons who, by conscious art or mere habit, imitate and +represent various objects through the medium of colour and form, or again +by the voice; so in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, the +imitation is produced by rhythm, language, or 'harmony,' either singly or +combined. + +Thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre, 'harmony' and rhythm +alone are employed; also in other arts, such as that of the shepherd's +pipe, which are essentially similar to these. In dancing, rhythm alone is +used without 'harmony'; for even dancing imitates character, emotion, and +action, by rhythmical movement. + +There is another art which imitates by means of language alone, and that +either in prose or verse--which, verse, again, may either combine +different metres or consist of but one kind--but this has hitherto been +without a name. For there is no common term we could apply to the mimes +of Sophron and Xenarchus and the Socratic dialogues on the one hand; and, +on the other, to poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any similar +metre. People do, indeed, add the word 'maker' or 'poet' to the name of +the metre, and speak of elegiac poets, or epic (that is, hexameter) +poets, as if it were not the imitation that makes the poet, but the verse +that entitles them all indiscriminately to the name. Even when a treatise +on medicine or natural science is brought out in verse, the name of poet +is by custom given to the author; and yet Homer and Empedocles have +nothing in common but the metre, so that it would be right to call the +one poet, the other physicist rather than poet. On the same principle, +even if a writer in his poetic imitation were to combine all metres, as +Chaeremon did in his Centaur, which is a medley composed of metres of all +kinds, we should bring him too under the general term poet. So much then +for these distinctions. + +There are, again, some arts which employ all the means above mentioned, +namely, rhythm, tune, and metre. Such are Dithyrambic and Nomic poetry, +and also Tragedy and Comedy; but between them the difference is, that in +the first two cases these means are all employed in combination, in the +latter, now one means is employed, now another. + +Such, then, are the differences of the arts with respect to the medium of +imitation. + + + +II + +Since the objects of imitation are men in action, and these men must be +either of a higher or a lower type (for moral character mainly answers to +these divisions, goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks of +moral differences), it follows that we must represent men either as +better than in real life, or as worse, or as they are. It is the same in +painting. Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less +noble, Dionysius drew them true to life. + +Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation above mentioned +will exhibit these differences, and become a distinct kind in imitating +objects that are thus distinct. Such diversities may be found even in +dancing,: flute-playing, and lyre-playing. So again in language, whether +prose or verse unaccompanied by music. Homer, for example, makes men +better than they are; Cleophon as they are; Hegemon the Thasian, the +inventor of parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Deiliad, worse +than they are. The same thing holds good of Dithyrambs and Nomes; here +too one may portray different types, as Timotheus and Philoxenus differed +in representing their Cyclopes. The same distinction marks off Tragedy +from Comedy; for Comedy aims at representing men as worse, Tragedy as +better than in actual life. + + + +III + +There is still a third difference--the manner in which each of these +objects may be imitated. For the medium being the same, and the objects +the same, the poet may imitate by narration--in which case he can either +take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, +unchanged--or he may present all his characters as living and moving +before us. + +These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the three differences which +distinguish artistic imitation,--the medium, the objects, and the manner. +So that from one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the same kind +as Homer--for both imitate higher types of character; from another point +of view, of the same kind as Aristophanes--for both imitate persons +acting and doing. Hence, some say, the name of 'drama' is given to such +poems, as representing action. For the same reason the Dorians claim the +invention both of Tragedy and Comedy. The claim to Comedy is put forward +by the Megarians,--not only by those of Greece proper, who allege that it +originated under their democracy, but also by the Megarians of Sicily, +for the poet Epicharmus, who is much earlier than Chionides and Magnes, +belonged to that country. Tragedy too is claimed by certain Dorians of +the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the evidence of language. +The outlying villages, they say, are by them called {kappa omega mu alpha +iota}, by the Athenians {delta eta mu iota}: and they assume that +Comedians were so named not from {kappa omega mu 'alpha zeta epsilon iota +nu}, 'to revel,' but because they wandered from village to village (kappa +alpha tau alpha / kappa omega mu alpha sigma), being excluded +contemptuously from the city. They add also that the Dorian word for +'doing' is {delta rho alpha nu}, and the Athenian, {pi rho alpha tau tau +epsilon iota nu}. + +This may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes of +imitation. + + + +IV + +Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them +lying deep in our nature. First, the instinct of imitation is implanted +in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being +that he is the most imitative of living creatures, and through imitation +learns his earliest lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt +in things imitated. We have evidence of this in the facts of experience. +Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate +when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most +ignoble animals and of dead bodies. The cause of this again is, that to +learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men +in general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more limited. Thus +the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that in contemplating it +they find themselves learning or inferring, and saying perhaps, 'Ah, that +is he.' For if you happen not to have seen the original, the pleasure +will be due not to the imitation as such, but to the execution, the +colouring, or some such other cause. + +Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the +instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres being manifestly sections of +rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by +degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave +birth to Poetry. + +Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to the individual +character of the writers. The graver spirits imitated noble actions, and +the actions of good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of +meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to +the gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical kind +cannot indeed be put down to any author earlier than Homer; though many +such writers probably there were. But from Homer onward, instances can be +cited,--his own Margites, for example, and other similar compositions. +The appropriate metre was also here introduced; hence the measure is +still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in which people +lampooned one another. Thus the older poets were distinguished as writers +of heroic or of lampooning verse. + +As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among poets, for he alone +combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation, so he too first laid +down the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead of +writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same relation to Comedy +that the Iliad and Odyssey do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy +came to light, the two classes of poets still followed their natural +bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy, and the Epic poets were +succeeded by Tragedians, since the drama was a larger and higher form of +art. + +Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types or not; and whether +it is to be judged in itself, or in relation also to the audience,--this +raises another question. Be that as it may, Tragedy--as also Comedy --- +was at first mere improvisation. The one originated with the authors of +the Dithyramb, the other with those of the phallic songs, which are still +in use in many of our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each new +element that showed itself was in turn developed. Having passed through +many changes, it found its natural form, and there it stopped. + +Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he diminished the importance +of the Chorus, and assigned the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles +raised the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting. Moreover, +it was not till late that the short plot was discarded for one of greater +compass, and the grotesque diction of the earlier satyric form for the +stately manner of Tragedy. The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic +tetrameter, which was originally employed when the poetry was of the +Satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing. Once dialogue had +come in, Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure. For the +iambic is, of all measures, the most colloquial: we see it in the fact +that conversational speech runs into iambic lines more frequently than +into any other kind of verse; rarely into hexameters, and only when we +drop the colloquial intonation. The additions to the number of 'episodes' +or acts, and the other accessories of which tradition; tells, must be +taken as already described; for to discuss them in detail would, +doubtless, be a large undertaking. + + + +V + +Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type, +not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the Ludicrous being +merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness +which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the +comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain. + +The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, and the authors of +these changes, are well known, whereas Comedy has had no history, because +it was not at first treated seriously. It was late before the Archon +granted a comic chorus to a poet; the performers were till then +voluntary. Comedy had already taken definite shape when comic poets, +distinctively so called, are heard of. Who furnished it with masks, or +prologues, or increased the number of actors,--these and other similar +details remain unknown. As for the plot, it came originally from Sicily; +but of Athenian writers Crates was the first who, abandoning the 'iambic' +or lampooning form, generalised his themes and plots. + +Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse +of characters of a higher type. They differ, in that Epic poetry admits +but one kind of metre, and is narrative in form. They differ, again, in +their length: for Tragedy endeavours, as far as possible, to confine +itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this +limit; whereas the Epic action has no limits of time. This, then, is a +second point of difference; though at first the same freedom was admitted +in Tragedy as in Epic poetry. + +Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to +Tragedy, whoever, therefore, knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows +also about Epic poetry. All the elements of an Epic poem are found in +Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the Epic +poem. + + + +VI + +Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and of Comedy, we will +speak hereafter. Let us now discuss Tragedy, resuming its formal +definition, as resulting from what has been already said. + +Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, +and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of +artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the +play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear +effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. By 'language +embellished,' I mean language into which rhythm, 'harmony,' and song +enter. By 'the several kinds in separate parts,' I mean, that some parts +are rendered through the medium of verse alone, others again with the aid +of song. + +Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it necessarily follows, +in the first place, that Spectacular equipment will be a part of Tragedy. +Next, Song and Diction, for these are the medium of imitation. By +'Diction' I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words: as for +'Song,' it is a term whose sense every one understands. + +Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an action implies +personal agents, who necessarily possess certain distinctive qualities +both of character and thought; for it is by these that we qualify actions +themselves, and these--thought and character--are the two natural causes +from which actions spring, and on actions again all success or failure +depends. Hence, the Plot is the imitation of the action: for by plot I +here mean the arrangement of the incidents. By Character I mean that in +virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to the agents. Thought is +required wherever a statement is proved, or, it may be, a general truth +enunciated. Every Tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, which parts +determine its quality--namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, +Spectacle, Song. Two of the parts constitute the medium of imitation, one +the manner, and three the objects of imitation. And these complete the +list. These elements have been employed, we may say, by the poets to a +man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular elements as well as +Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought. + +But most important of all is the structure of the incidents. For Tragedy +is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life, and life +consists in action, and its end is a mode of action, not a quality. Now +character determines men's qualities, but it is by their actions that +they are happy or the reverse. Dramatic action, therefore, is not with a +view to the representation of character: character comes in as subsidiary +to the actions. Hence the incidents and the plot are the end of a +tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, without action +there cannot be a tragedy; there may be without character. The tragedies +of most of our modern poets fail in the rendering of character; and of +poets in general this is often true. It is the same in painting; and here +lies the difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates +character well: the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality. Again, +if you string together a set of speeches expressive of character, and +well finished in point of diction and thought, you will not produce the +essential tragic effect nearly so well as with a play which, however +deficient in these respects, yet has a plot and artistically constructed +incidents. Besides which, the most powerful elements of emotional: +interest in Tragedy Peripeteia or Reversal of the Situation, and +Recognition scenes--are parts of the plot. A further proof is, that +novices in the art attain to finish: of diction and precision of +portraiture before they can construct the plot. It is the same with +almost all the early poets. + +The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of a +tragedy: Character holds the second place. A similar fact is seen in +painting. The most beautiful colours, laid on confusedly, will not give +as much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is the +imitation of an action, and of the agents mainly with a view to the +action. + +Third in order is Thought,--that is, the faculty of saying what is +possible and pertinent in given circumstances. In the case of oratory, +this is the function of the Political art and of the art of rhetoric: and +so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the language of +civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the rhetoricians. +Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of +things a man chooses or avoids. Speeches, therefore, which do not make +this manifest, or in which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything +whatever, are not expressive of character. Thought, on the other hand, is +found where something is proved to be. or not to be, or a general maxim +is enunciated. + +Fourth among the elements enumerated comes Diction; by which I mean, as +has been already said, the expression of the meaning in words; and its +essence is the same both in verse and prose. + +Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place among the +embellishments. + +The Spectacle has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its own, but, of +all the parts, it is the least artistic, and connected least with the art +of poetry. For the power of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt even apart +from representation and actors. Besides, the production of spectacular +effects depends more on the art of the stage machinist than on that of +the poet. + + + +VII + +These principles being established, let us now discuss the proper +structure of the Plot, since this is the first and most important thing +in Tragedy. + +Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an imitation of an action +that is complete, and whole, and of a certain magnitude; for there may be +a whole that is wanting in magnitude. A whole is that which has a +beginning, a middle, and an end. A beginning is that which does not +itself follow anything by causal necessity, but after which something +naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which +itself naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity, or as a +rule, but has nothing following it. A middle is that which follows +something as some other thing follows it. A well constructed plot, +therefore, must neither begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to these +principles. + +Again, a beautiful object, whether it be a living organism or any whole +composed of parts, must not only have an orderly arrangement of parts, +but must also be of a certain magnitude; for beauty depends on magnitude +and order. Hence a very small animal organism cannot be beautiful; for +the view of it is confused, the object being seen in an almost +imperceptible moment of time. Nor, again, can one of vast size be +beautiful; for as the eye cannot take it all in at once, the unity and +sense of the whole is lost for the spectator; as for instance if there +were one a thousand miles long. As, therefore, in the case of animate +bodies and organisms a certain magnitude is necessary, and a magnitude +which may be easily embraced in one view; so in the plot, a certain +length is necessary, and a length which can be easily embraced by the +memory. The limit of length in relation to dramatic competition and +sensuous presentment, is no part of artistic theory. For had it been the +rule for a hundred tragedies to compete together, the performance would +have been regulated by the water-clock,--as indeed we are told was +formerly done. But the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself +is this: the greater the length, the more beautiful will the piece be by +reason of its size, provided that the whole be perspicuous. And to define +the matter roughly, we may say that the proper magnitude is comprised +within such limits, that the sequence of events, according to the law of +probability or necessity, will admit of a change from bad fortune to +good, or from good fortune to bad. + + + +VIII + +Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist in the Unity of +the hero. For infinitely various are the incidents in one man's life +which cannot be reduced to unity; and so, too, there are many actions of +one man out of which we cannot make one action. Hence, the error, as it +appears, of all poets who have composed a Heracleid, a Theseid, or other +poems of the kind. They imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story +of Heracles must also be a unity. But Homer, as in all else he is of +surpassing merit, here too--whether from art or natural genius--seems to +have happily discerned the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not +include all the adventures of Odysseus--such as his wound on Parnassus, +or his feigned madness at the mustering of the host--incidents between +which there was no necessary or probable connection: but he made the +Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to centre round an action that in our +sense of the word is one. As therefore, in the other imitative arts, the +imitation is one when the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an +imitation of an action, must imitate one action and that a whole, the +structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is +displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a +thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an +organic part of the whole. + + + +IX + +It is, moreover, evident from what has been said, that it is not the +function of the poet to relate what has happened, but what may happen,-- +what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity. The +poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose. The +work of Herodotus might be put into verse, and it would still be a +species of history, with metre no less than without it. The true +difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what may +happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher thing +than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the +particular. By the universal, I mean how a person of a certain type will +on occasion speak or act, according to the law of probability or +necessity; and it is this universality at which poetry aims in the names +she attaches to the personages. The particular is--for example--what +Alcibiades did or suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here +the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of probability, and then +inserts characteristic names;--unlike the lampooners who write about +particular individuals. But tragedians still keep to real names, the +reason being that what is possible is credible: what has not happened we +do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has happened is +manifestly possible: otherwise it would not have happened. Still there +are even some tragedies in which there are only one or two well known +names, the rest being fictitious. In others, none are well known, as in +Agathon's Antheus, where incidents and names alike are fictitious, and +yet they give none the less pleasure. We must not, therefore, at all +costs keep to the received legends, which are the usual subjects of +Tragedy. Indeed, it would be absurd to attempt it; for even subjects that +are known are known only to a few, and yet give pleasure to all. It +clearly follows that the poet or 'maker' should be the maker of plots +rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imitates, and what +he imitates are actions. And even if he chances to take an historical +subject, he is none the less a poet; for there is no reason why some +events that have actually happened should not conform to the law of the +probable and possible, and in virtue of that quality in them he is their +poet or maker. + +Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. I call a plot +'epeisodic' in which the episodes or acts succeed one another without +probable or necessary sequence. Bad poets compose such pieces by their +own fault, good poets, to please the players; for, as they write show +pieces for competition, they stretch the plot beyond its capacity, and +are often forced to break the natural continuity. + +But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action, but of +events inspiring fear or pity. Such an effect is best produced when the +events come on us by sunrise; and the effect is heightened when, at the +same time, they follow as cause and effect. The tragic wonder will thee +be greater than if they happened of themselves or by accident; for even +coincidences are most striking when they have an air of design. We may +instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his murderer while +he was a spectator at a festival, and killed him. Such events seem not to +be due to mere chance. Plots, therefore, constructed on these principles +are necessarily the best. + + + +X + +Plots are either Simple or Complex, for the actions in real life, of +which the plots are an imitation, obviously show a similar distinction. +An action which is one and continuous in the sense above defined, I call +Simple, when the change of fortune takes place without Reversal of the +Situation and without Recognition. + +A Complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such +Reversal, or by Recognition, or by both. These last should arise from the +internal structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the +necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It makes all the +difference whether any given event is a case of propter hoc or post hoc. + + + +XI + +Reversal of the Situation is a change by which the action veers round to +its opposite, subject always to our rule of probability or necessity. +Thus in the Oedipus, the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus and free him +from his alarms about his mother, but by revealing who he is, he produces +the opposite effect. Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being led away to +his death, and Danaus goes with him, meaning, to slay him; but the +outcome of the preceding incidents is that Danaus is killed and Lynceus +saved. Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change from ignorance to +knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the +poet for good or bad fortune. The best form of recognition is coincident +with a Reversal of the Situation, as in the Oedipus. There are indeed +other forms. Even inanimate things of the most trivial kind may in a +sense be objects of recognition. Again, we may recognise or discover +whether a person has done a thing or not. But the recognition which is +most intimately connected with the plot and action is, as we have said, +the recognition of persons. This recognition, combined, with Reversal, +will produce either pity or fear; and actions producing these effects are +those which, by our definition, Tragedy represents. Moreover, it is upon +such situations that the issues of good or bad fortune will depend. +Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen that one person +only is recognised by the other-when the latter is already known--or it +may be necessary that the recognition should be on both sides. Thus +Iphigenia is revealed to Orestes by the sending of the letter; but +another act of recognition is required to make Orestes known to +Iphigenia. + +Two parts, then, of the Plot--Reversal of the Situation and Recognition-- +turn upon surprises. A third part is the Scene of Suffering. The Scene of +Suffering is a destructive or painful action, such as death on the stage, +bodily agony, wounds and the like. + + + +XII + +[The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have +been already mentioned. We now come to the quantitative parts, and the +separate parts into which Tragedy is divided, namely, Prologue, Episode, +Exode, Choric song; this last being divided into Parode and Stasimon. +These are common to all plays: peculiar to some are the songs of actors +from the stage and the Commoi. + +The Prologue is that entire part of a tragedy which precedes the Parode +of the Chorus. The Episode is that entire part of a tragedy which is +between complete choric songs. The Exode is that entire part of a tragedy +which has no choric song after it. Of the Choric part the Parode is the +first undivided utterance of the Chorus: the Stasimon is a Choric ode +without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters: the Commos is a joint +lamentation of Chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which must be +treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned. The +quantitative parts the separate parts into which it is divided--are here +enumerated.] + + + +XIII + +As the sequel to what has already been said, we must proceed to consider +what the poet should aim at, and what he should avoid, in constructing +his plots; and by what means the specific effect of Tragedy will be +produced. + +A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged not on the simple +but on the complex plan. It should, moreover, imitate actions which +excite pity and fear, this being the distinctive mark of tragic +imitation. It follows plainly, in the first place, that the change, of +fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought +from prosperity to adversity: for this moves neither pity nor fear; it +merely shocks us. Nor, again, that of a bad man passing from adversity to +prosperity: for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy; it +possesses no single tragic quality; it neither satisfies the moral sense +nor calls forth pity or fear. Nor, again, should the downfall of the +utter villain be exhibited. A plot of this kind would, doubtless, satisfy +the moral sense, but it would inspire neither pity nor fear; for pity is +aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear by the misfortune of a man like +ourselves. Such an event, therefore, will be neither pitiful nor +terrible. There remains, then, the character between these two extremes,- +-that of a man who is not eminently good and just,-yet whose misfortune +is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty. +He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous,--a personage like +Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such families. + +A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single in its issue, rather +than double as some maintain. The change of fortune should be not from +bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad. It should come about as +the result not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a +character either such as we have described, or better rather than worse. +The practice of the stage bears out our view. At first the poets +recounted any legend that came in their way. Now, the best tragedies are +founded on the story of a few houses, on the fortunes of Alcmaeon, +Oedipus, Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those others who have +done or suffered something terrible. A tragedy, then, to be perfect +according to the rules of art should be of this construction. Hence they +are in error who censure Euripides just because he follows this principle +in his plays, many of which end unhappily. It is, as we have said, the +right ending. The best proof is that on the stage and in dramatic +competition, such plays, if well worked out, are the most tragic in +effect; and Euripides, faulty though he may be in the general management +of his subject, yet is felt to be the most tragic of the poets. + +In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which some place first. Like +the Odyssey, it has a double thread of plot, and also an opposite +catastrophe for the good and for the bad. It is accounted the best +because of the weakness of the spectators; for the poet is guided in what +he writes by the wishes of his audience. The pleasure, however, thence +derived is not the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather to Comedy, +where those who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies---like Orestes +and Aegisthus--quit the stage as friends at the close, and no one slays +or is slain. + + + +XIV + +Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means; but they may also +result from the inner structure of the piece, which is the better way, +and indicates a superior poet. For the plot ought to be so constructed +that, even without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will +thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes place. This is the +impression we should receive from hearing the story of the Oedipus. But +to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic method, +and dependent on extraneous aids. Those who employ spectacular means to +create a sense not of the terrible but only of the monstrous, are +strangers to the purpose of Tragedy; for we must not demand of Tragedy +any and every kind of pleasure, but only that which is proper to it. And +since the pleasure which the poet should afford is that which comes from +pity and fear through imitation, it is evident that this quality must be +impressed upon the incidents. + +Let us then determine what are the circumstances which strike us as +terrible or pitiful. + +Actions capable of this effect must happen between persons who are either +friends or enemies or indifferent to one another. If an enemy kills an +enemy, there is nothing to excite pity either in the act or the +intention, --except so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful. So +again with indifferent persons. But when the tragic incident occurs +between those who are near or dear to one another--if, for example, a +brother kills, or intends to kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother +her son, a son his mother, or any other deed of the kind is done---these +are the situations to be looked for by the poet. He may not indeed +destroy the framework of the received legends--the fact, for instance, +that Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon but he +ought to show invention of his own, and skilfully handle the traditional +material. Let us explain more clearly what is meant by skilful handling. + +The action may be done consciously and with knowledge of the persons, in +the manner of the older poets. It is thus too that Euripides makes Medea +slay her children. Or, again, the deed of horror may be done, but done in +ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered afterwards. +The Oedipus of Sophocles is an example. Here, indeed, the incident is +outside the drama proper; but cases occur where it falls within the +action of the play: one may cite the Alcmaeon of Astydamas, or Telegonus +in the Wounded Odysseus. Again, there is a third case,--<to be about to +act with knowledge of the persons and then not to act. The fourth case +is> when some one is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance, +and makes the discovery before it is done. These are the only possible +ways. For the deed must either be done or not done,--and that wittingly +or unwittingly. But of all these ways, to be about to act knowing the +persons, and then not to act, is the worst. It is shocking without being +tragic, for no disaster follows. It is, therefore, never, or very rarely, +found in poetry. One instance, however, is in the Antigone, where Haemon +threatens to kill Creon. The next and better way is that the deed should +be perpetrated. Still better, that it should be perpetrated in ignorance, +and the discovery made afterwards. There is then nothing to shock us, +while the discovery produces a startling effect. The last case is the +best, as when in the Cresphontes Merope is about to slay her son, but, +recognising who he is, spares his life. So in the Iphigenia, the sister +recognises the brother just in time. Again in the Helle, the son +recognises the mother when on the point of giving her up. This, then, is +why a few families only, as has been already observed, furnish the +subjects of tragedy. It was not art, but happy chance, that led the poets +in search of subjects to impress the tragic quality upon their plots. +They are compelled, therefore, to have recourse to those houses whose +history contains moving incidents like these. + +Enough has now been said concerning the structure of the incidents, and +the right kind of plot. + + + +XV + +In respect of Character there are four things to be aimed at. First, and +most important, it must be good. Now any speech or action that manifests +moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of character: the character +will be good if the purpose is good. This rule is relative to each class. +Even a woman may be good, and also a slave; though the woman may be said +to be an inferior being, and the slave quite worthless. The second thing +to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour; but valour in a +woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is inappropriate. Thirdly, character +must be true to life: for this is a distinct thing from goodness and +propriety, as here described. The fourth point is consistency: for though +the subject of the imitation, who suggested the type, be inconsistent, +still he must be consistently inconsistent. As an example of motiveless +degradation of character, we have Menelaus in the Orestes: of character +indecorous and inappropriate, the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla, and +the speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, the Iphigenia at Aulis,--for +Iphigenia the suppliant in no way resembles her later self. + +As in the structure of the plot, so too in the portraiture of character, +the poet should always aim either at the necessary or the probable. Thus +a person of a given character should speak or act in a given way, by the +rule either of necessity or of probability; just as this event should +follow that by necessary or probable sequence. It is therefore evident +that the unravelling of the plot, no less than the complication, must +arise out of the plot itself, it must not be brought about by the 'Deus +ex Machina'--as in the Medea, or in the Return of the Greeks in the +Iliad. The 'Deus ex Machina' should be employed only for events external +to the drama,--for antecedent or subsequent events, which lie beyond the +range of human knowledge, and which require to be reported or foretold; +for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things. Within the +action there must be nothing irrational. If the irrational cannot be +excluded, it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is the +irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles. + +Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the +common level, the example of good portrait-painters should be followed. +They, while reproducing the distinctive form of the original, make a +likeness which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the poet, +in representing men who are irascible or indolent, or have other defects +of character, should preserve the type and yet ennoble it. In this way +Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer. + +These then are rules the poet should observe. Nor should he neglect those +appeals to the senses, which, though not among the essentials, are the +concomitants of poetry; for here too there is much room for error. But of +this enough has been said in our published treatises. + + + +XVI + +What Recognition is has been already explained. We will now enumerate its +kinds. + +First, the least artistic form, which, from poverty of wit, is most +commonly employed recognition by signs. Of these some are congenital,-- +such as 'the spear which the earth-born race bear on their bodies,' or +the stars introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are acquired +after birth; and of these some are bodily marks, as scars; some external +tokens, as necklaces, or the little ark in the Tyro by which the +discovery is effected. Even these admit of more or less skilful +treatment. Thus in the recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the discovery +is made in one way by the nurse, in another by the swineherds. The use of +tokens for the express purpose of proof --and, indeed, any formal proof +with or without tokens --is a less artistic mode of recognition. A better +kind is that which comes about by a turn of incident, as in the Bath +Scene in the Odyssey. + +Next come the recognitions invented at will by the poet, and on that +account wanting in art. For example, Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals the +fact that he is Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the letter; +but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet, not what the plot +requires. This, therefore, is nearly allied to the fault above +mentioned:--for Orestes might as well have brought tokens with him. +Another similar instance is the 'voice of the shuttle' in the Tereus of +Sophocles. + +The third kind depends on memory when the sight of some object awakens a +feeling: as in the Cyprians of Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into +tears on seeing the picture; or again in the 'Lay of Alcinous,' where +Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls the past and weeps; +and hence the recognition. + +The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in the Choephori: 'Some +one resembling me has come: no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore +Orestes has come.' Such too is the discovery made by Iphigenia in the +play of Polyidus the Sophist. It was a natural reflection for Orestes to +make, 'So I too must die at the altar like my sister.' So, again, in the +Tydeus of Theodectes, the father says, 'I came to find my son, and I lose +my own life.' So too in the Phineidae: the women, on seeing the place, +inferred their fate:--'Here we are doomed to die, for here we were cast +forth.' Again, there is a composite kind of recognition involving false +inference on the part of one of the characters, as in the Odysseus +Disguised as a Messenger. A said <that no one else was able to bend the +bow; . . . hence B (the disguised Odysseus) imagined that A would> +recognise the bow which, in fact, he had not seen; and to bring about a +recognition by this means that the expectation A would recognise the bow +is false inference. + +But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises from the +incidents themselves, where the startling discovery is made by natural +means. Such is that in the Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; +for it was natural that Iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter. These +recognitions alone dispense with the artificial aid of tokens or amulets. +Next come the recognitions by process of reasoning. + + + +XVII + +In constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction, the +poet should place the scene, as far as possible, before his eyes. In this +way, seeing everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a +spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, and +be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies. The need of such a rule is +shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the +temple. This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see the +situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience being +offended at the oversight. + +Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best of his power, with +appropriate gestures; for those who feel emotion are most convincing +through natural sympathy with the characters they represent; and one who +is agitated storms, one who is angry rages, with the most life-like +reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain +of madness. In the one case a man can take the mould of any character; in +the other, he is lifted out of his proper self. + +As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready made or constructs it +for himself, he should first sketch its general outline, and then fill in +the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan may be illustrated +by the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed; she disappears mysteriously +from the eyes of those who sacrificed her; She is transported to another +country, where the custom is to offer up all strangers to the goddess. To +this ministry she is appointed. Some time later her own brother chances +to arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason ordered him to go +there, is outside the general plan of the play. The purpose, again, of +his coming is outside the action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, +and, when on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is. The mode +of recognition may be either that of Euripides or of Polyidus, in whose +play he exclaims very naturally:--'So it was not my sister only, but I +too, who was doomed to be sacrificed'; and by that remark he is saved. + +After this, the names being once given, it remains to fill in the +episodes. We must see that they are relevant to the action. In the case +of Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led to his capture, +and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In the drama, the +episodes are short, but it is these that give extension to Epic poetry. +Thus the story of the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is +absent from home for many years; he is jealously watched by Poseidon, and +left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight---suitors are +wasting his substance and plotting against his son. At length, tempest- +tost, he himself arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted with him; +he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is himself preserved while +he destroys them. This is the essence of the plot; the rest is episode. + + + +XVIII + +Every tragedy falls into two parts,--Complication and Unravelling or +Denouement. Incidents extraneous to the action are frequently combined +with a portion of the action proper, to form the Complication; the rest +is the Unravelling. By the Complication I mean all that extends from the +beginning of the action to the part which marks the turning-point to good +or bad fortune. The Unravelling is that which extends from the beginning +of the change to the end. Thus, in the Lynceus of Theodectes, the +Complication consists of the incidents presupposed in the drama, the +seizure of the child, and then again * * <The Unravelling> extends from +the accusation of murder to the end. + +There are four kinds of Tragedy, the Complex, depending entirely on +Reversal of the Situation and Recognition; the Pathetic (where the motive +is passion),--such as the tragedies on Ajax and Ixion; the Ethical (where +the motives are ethical),--such as the Phthiotides and the Peleus. The +fourth kind is the Simple <We here exclude the purely spectacular +element>, exemplified by the Phorcides, the Prometheus, and scenes laid +in Hades. The poet should endeavour, if possible, to combine all poetic +elements; or failing that, the greatest number and those the most +important; the more so, in face of the cavilling criticism of the day. +For whereas there have hitherto been good poets, each in his own branch, +the critics now expect one man to surpass all others in their several +lines of excellence. + +In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different, the best test to take +is the plot. Identity exists where the Complication and Unravelling are +the same. Many poets tie the knot well, but unravel it ill. Both arts, +however, should always be mastered. + +Again, the poet should remember what has been often said, and not make an +Epic structure into a Tragedy--by an Epic structure I mean one with a +multiplicity of plots--as if, for instance, you were to make a tragedy +out of the entire story of the Iliad. In the Epic poem, owing to its +length, each part assumes its proper magnitude. In the drama the result +is far from answering to the poet's expectation. The proof is that the +poets who have dramatised the whole story of the Fall of Troy, instead of +selecting portions, like Euripides; or who have taken the whole tale of +Niobe, and not a part of her story, like Aeschylus, either fail utterly +or meet with poor success on the stage. Even Agathon has been known to +fail from this one defect. In his Reversals of the Situation, however, he +shows a marvellous skill in the effort to hit the popular taste,--to +produce a tragic effect that satisfies the moral sense. This effect is +produced when the clever rogue, like Sisyphus, is outwitted, or the brave +villain defeated. Such an event is probable in Agathon's sense of the +word: 'it is probable,' he says, 'that many things should happen contrary +to probability.' + +The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors; it should be an +integral part of the whole, and share in the action, in the manner not of +Euripides but of Sophocles. As for the later poets, their choral songs +pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of any other +tragedy. They are, therefore, sung as mere interludes, a practice first +begun by Agathon. Yet what difference is there between introducing such +choral interludes, and transferring a speech, or even a whole act, from +one play to another? + + + +XIX + +It remains to speak of Diction and Thought, the other parts of Tragedy +having been already discussed. Concerning Thought, we may assume what is +said in the Rhetoric, to which inquiry the subject more strictly belongs. +Under Thought is included every effect which has to be produced by +speech, the subdivisions being,-- proof and refutation; the excitation of +the feelings, such as pity, fear, anger, and the like; the suggestion of +importance or its opposite. Now, it is evident that the dramatic +incidents must be treated from the same points of view as the dramatic +speeches, when the object is to evoke the sense of pity, fear, +importance, or probability. The only difference is, that the incidents +should speak for themselves without verbal exposition; while the effects +aimed at in speech should be produced by the speaker, and as a result of +the speech. For what were the business of a speaker, if the Thought were +revealed quite apart from what he says? + +Next, as regards Diction. One branch of the inquiry treats of the Modes +of Utterance. But this province of knowledge belongs to the art of +Delivery and to the masters of that science. It includes, for instance,-- +what is a command, a prayer, a statement, a threat, a question, an +answer, and so forth. To know or not to know these things involves no +serious censure upon the poet's art. For who can admit the fault imputed +to Homer by Protagoras,--that in the words, 'Sing, goddess, of the +wrath,' he gives a command under the idea that he utters a prayer? For to +tell some one to do a thing or not to do it is, he says, a command. We +may, therefore, pass this over as an inquiry that belongs to another art, +not to poetry. + + + +XX + +[Language in general includes the following parts:- Letter, Syllable, +Connecting word, Noun, Verb, Inflexion or Case, Sentence or Phrase. + +A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such sound, but only one +which can form part of a group of sounds. For even brutes utter +indivisible sounds, none of which I call a letter. The sound I mean may +be either a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute. A vowel is that which without +impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound. A semi-vowel, that which +with such impact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute, that which +with such impact has by itself no sound, but joined to a vowel sound +becomes audible, as G and D. These are distinguished according to the +form assumed by the mouth and the place where they are produced; +according as they are aspirated or smooth, long or short; as they are +acute, grave, or of an intermediate tone; which inquiry belongs in detail +to the writers on metre. + +A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a mute and a vowel: +for GR without A is a syllable, as also with A,--GRA. But the +investigation of these differences belongs also to metrical science. + +A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which neither causes nor +hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound; it may be +placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a non- +significant sound, which out of several sounds, each of them significant, +is capable of forming one significant sound,--as {alpha mu theta iota}, +{pi epsilon rho iota}, and the like. Or, a non-significant sound, which +marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence; such, however, that +it cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence, as +{mu epsilon nu}, {eta tau omicron iota}, {delta epsilon}. + +A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking time, of which no +part is in itself significant: for in double or compound words we do not +employ the separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus in +Theodorus, 'god-given,' the {delta omega rho omicron nu} or 'gift' is not +in itself significant. + +A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking time, in which, as in +the noun, no part is in itself significant. For 'man,' or 'white' does +not express the idea of 'when'; but 'he walks,' or 'he has walked' does +connote time, present or past. + +Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and expresses either the +relation 'of,' 'to,' or the like; or that of number, whether one or many, +as 'man' or 'men '; or the modes or tones in actual delivery, e.g. a +question or a command. 'Did he go?' and 'go' are verbal inflexions of +this kind. + +A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound, some at least of +whose parts are in themselves significant; for not every such group of +words consists of verbs and nouns--'the definition of man,' for example - +-but it may dispense even with the verb. Still it will always have some +significant part, as 'in walking,' or 'Cleon son of Cleon.' A sentence or +phrase may form a unity in two ways,--either as signifying one thing, or +as consisting of several parts linked together. Thus the Iliad is one by +the linking together of parts, the definition of man by the unity of the +thing signified.] + + + +XXI + +Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By simple I mean those +composed of non-significant elements, such as {gamma eta}. By double or +compound, those composed either of a significant and non-significant +element (though within the whole word no element is significant), or of +elements that are both significant. A word may likewise be triple, +quadruple, or multiple in form, like so many Massilian expressions, e.g. +'Hermo-caico-xanthus who prayed to Father Zeus>.' + +Every word is either current, or strange, or metaphorical, or ornamental, +or newly-coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered. + +By a current or proper word I mean one which is in general use among a +people; by a strange word, one which is in use in another country. +Plainly, therefore, the same word may be at once strange and current, but +not in relation to the same people. The word {sigma iota gamma upsilon nu +omicron nu}, 'lance,' is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a +strange one. + +Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from +genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, +or by analogy, that is, proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: 'There +lies my ship'; for lying at anchor is a species of lying. From species to +genus, as: 'Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought'; for +ten thousand is a species of large number, and is here used for a large +number generally. From species to species, as: 'With blade of bronze drew +away the life,' and 'Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding +bronze.' Here {alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota}, 'to draw away,' is used +for {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu}, 'to cleave,' and {tau alpha mu +epsilon iota nu} again for {alpha rho upsilon alpha iota},--each being a +species of taking away. Analogy or proportion is when the second term is +to the first as the fourth to the third. We may then use the fourth for +the second, or the second for the fourth. Sometimes too we qualify the +metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is relative. Thus +the cup is to Dionysus as the shield to Ares. The cup may, therefore, be +called 'the shield of Dionysus,' and the shield 'the cup of Ares.' Or, +again, as old age is to life, so is evening to day. Evening may therefore +be called 'the old age of the day,' and old age, 'the evening of life,' +or, in the phrase of Empedocles, 'life's setting sun.' For some of the +terms of the proportion there is at times no word in existence; still the +metaphor may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but +the action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this +process bears to the sun the same relation as sowing to the seed. Hence +the expression of the poet 'sowing the god-created light.' There is +another way in which this kind of metaphor may be employed. We may apply +an alien term, and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes; +as if we were to call the shield, not 'the cup of Ares,' but 'the +wineless cup.' + +<An ornamental word . . .> + +A newly-coined word is one which has never been even in local use, but is +adopted by the poet himself. Some such words there appear to be: as +{epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma}, 'sprouters,' for {kappa +epsilon rho alpha tau alpha}, 'horns,' and {alpha rho eta tau eta rho}, +'supplicator,' for {iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma}, 'priest.' + +A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer one, or +when a syllable is inserted. A word is contracted when some part of it is +removed. Instances of lengthening are,--{pi omicron lambda eta omicron +sigma} for {pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and {Pi eta lambda +eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega} for {Pi eta lambda epsilon iota delta +omicron upsilon}: of contraction,--{kappa rho iota}, {delta omega}, and +{omicron psi}, as in {mu iota alpha / gamma iota nu epsilon tau alpha +iota / alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu / omicron psi}. + +An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left +unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in {delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon +rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha / mu alpha zeta omicron nu}, +{delta epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu} is for {delta epsilon +xi iota omicron nu}. + +[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Masculine +are such as end in {nu}, {rho}, {sigma}, or in some letter compounded +with {sigma},--these being two, and {xi}. Feminine, such as end in vowels +that are always long, namely {eta} and {omega}, and--of vowels that admit +of lengthening--those in {alpha}. Thus the number of letters in which +nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for {psi} and {xi} are +equivalent to endings in {sigma}. No noun ends in a mute or a vowel short +by nature. Three only end in {iota},--{mu eta lambda iota}, {kappa +omicron mu mu iota}, {pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota}: five end in +{upsilon}. Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also in {nu} and +{sigma}.] + + + +XXII + +The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean. The clearest +style is that which uses only current or proper words; at the same time +it is mean:--witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus. That +diction, on the other hand, is lofty and raised above the commonplace +which employs unusual words. By unusual, I mean strange (or rare) words, +metaphorical, lengthened,--anything, in short, that differs from the +normal idiom. Yet a style wholly composed of such words is either a +riddle or a jargon; a riddle, if it consists of metaphors; a jargon, if +it consists of strange (or rare) words. For the essence of a riddle is to +express true facts under impossible combinations. Now this cannot be done +by any arrangement of ordinary words, but by the use of metaphor it can. +Such is the riddle:--'A man I saw who on another man had glued the bronze +by aid of fire,' and others of the same kind. A diction that is made up +of strange (or rare) terms is a jargon. A certain infusion, therefore, of +these elements is necessary to style; for the strange (or rare) word, the +metaphorical, the ornamental, and the other kinds above mentioned, will +raise it above the commonplace and mean, while the use of proper words +will make it perspicuous. But nothing contributes more to produce a +clearness of diction that is remote from commonness than the lengthening, +contraction, and alteration of words. For by deviating in exceptional +cases from the normal idiom, the language will gain distinction; while, +at the same time, the partial conformity with usage will give +perspicuity. The critics, therefore, are in error who censure these +licenses of speech, and hold the author up to ridicule. Thus Eucleides, +the elder, declared that it would be an easy matter to be a poet if you +might lengthen syllables at will. He caricatured the practice in the very +form of his diction, as in the verse: '{Epsilon pi iota chi alpha rho eta +nu / epsilon iota delta omicron nu / Mu alpha rho alpha theta omega nu +alpha delta epsilon / Beta alpha delta iota zeta omicron nu tau alpha}, +or, {omicron upsilon kappa / alpha nu / gamma / epsilon rho alpha mu +epsilon nu omicron sigma / tau omicron nu / epsilon kappa epsilon iota nu +omicron upsilon /epsilon lambda lambda epsilon beta omicron rho omicron +nu}. To employ such license at all obtrusively is, no doubt, grotesque; +but in any mode of poetic diction there must be moderation. Even +metaphors, strange (or rare) words, or any similar forms of speech, would +produce the like effect if used without propriety and with the express +purpose of being ludicrous. How great a difference is made by the +appropriate use of lengthening, may be seen in Epic poetry by the +insertion of ordinary forms in the verse. So, again, if we take a strange +(or rare) word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression, and +replace it by the current or proper term, the truth of our observation +will be manifest. For example Aeschylus and Euripides each composed the +same iambic line. But the alteration of a single word by Euripides, who +employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary one, makes one verse +appear beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes +says: {Phi alpha gamma epsilon delta alpha iota nu alpha / <delta> / eta +/ mu omicron upsilon / sigma alpha rho kappa alpha sigma / epsilon rho +theta iota epsilon iota / pi omicron delta omicron sigma}. + +Euripides substitutes {Theta omicron iota nu alpha tau alpha iota} +'feasts on' for {epsilon sigma theta iota epsilon iota} 'feeds on.' +Again, in the line, {nu upsilon nu / delta epsilon / mu /epsilon omega nu +/ omicron lambda iota gamma iota gamma upsilon sigma / tau epsilon / +kappa alpha iota / omicron upsilon tau iota delta alpha nu omicron sigma +/ kappa alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota kappa eta sigma, the difference +will be felt if we substitute the common words, {nu upsilon nu / delta +epsilon / mu / epsilon omega nu / mu iota kappa rho omicron sigma / tau +epsilon / kappa alpha iota / alpha rho theta epsilon nu iota kappa +omicron sigma / kappa alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota delta gamma sigma}. +Or, if for the line, {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / alpha epsilon iota +kappa epsilon lambda iota omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha theta +epsilon iota sigma / omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu / tau epsilon / tau +rho alpha pi epsilon iota sigma / omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu / tau +epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu),} We read, {delta iota +phi rho omicron nu / mu omicron chi theta eta rho omicron nu / kappa +alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma / mu iota kappa rho alpha nu / +tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu}. + +Or, for {eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma / beta omicron omicron omega +rho iota nu, eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma kappa rho alpha zeta +omicron upsilon rho iota nu} + +Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using phrases which no one +would employ in ordinary speech: for example, {delta omega mu alpha tau +omega nu / alpha pi omicron} instead of {alpha pi omicron / delta omega +mu alpha tau omega nu}, {rho epsilon theta epsilon nu}, {epsilon gamma +omega / delta epsilon / nu iota nu}, {Alpha chi iota lambda lambda +epsilon omega sigma / pi epsilon rho iota} instead of (pi epsilon rho +iota / 'Alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and the like. +It is precisely because such phrases are not part of the current idiom +that they give distinction to the style. This, however, he failed to see. + +It is a great matter to observe propriety in these several modes of +expression, as also in compound words, strange (or rare) words, and so +forth. But the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. +This alone cannot be imparted by another; it is the mark of genius, for +to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances. + +Of the various kinds of words, the compound are best adapted to +Dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry, metaphors to iambic. In heroic +poetry, indeed, all these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse, +which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the most appropriate +words are those which are found even in prose. These are,--the current or +proper, the metaphorical, the ornamental. + +Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of action this may suffice. + + + +XXIII + +As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in form and employs a +single metre, the plot manifestly ought, as in a tragedy, to be +constructed on dramatic principles. It should have for its subject a +single action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle, and an +end. It will thus resemble a living organism in all its unity, and +produce the pleasure proper to it. It will differ in structure from +historical compositions, which of necessity present not a single action, +but a single period, and all that happened within that period to one +person or to many, little connected together as the events may be. For as +the sea-fight at Salamis and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily +took place at the same time, but did not tend to any one result, so in +the sequence of events, one thing sometimes follows another, and yet no +single result is thereby produced. Such is the practice, we may say, of +most poets. Here again, then, as has been already observed, the +transcendent excellence of Homer is manifest. He never attempts to make +the whole war of Troy the subject of his poem, though that war had a +beginning and an end. It would have been too vast a theme, and not easily +embraced in a single view. If, again, he had kept it within moderate +limits, it must have been over-complicated by the variety of the +incidents. As it is, he detaches a single portion, and admits as episodes +many events from the general story of the war--such as the Catalogue of +the ships and others--thus diversifying the poem. All other poets take a +single hero, a single period, or an action single indeed, but with a +multiplicity of parts. Thus did the author of the Cypria and of the +Little Iliad. For this reason the Iliad and the Odyssey each furnish the +subject of one tragedy, or, at most, of two; while the Cypria supplies +materials for many, and the Little Iliad for eight--the Award of the +Arms, the Philoctetes, the Neoptolemus, the Eurypylus, the Mendicant +Odysseus, the Laconian Women, the Fall of Ilium, the Departure of the +Fleet. + + + +XXIV + +Again, Epic poetry must have as many kinds as Tragedy: it must be simple, +or complex, or 'ethical,' or 'pathetic.' The parts also, with the +exception of song and spectacle, are the same; for it requires Reversals +of the Situation, Recognitions, and Scenes of Suffering. Moreover, the +thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all these respects Homer is +our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a twofold +character. The Iliad is at once simple and 'pathetic,' and the Odyssey +complex (for Recognition scenes run through it), and at the same time +'ethical.' Moreover, in diction and thought they are supreme. + +Epic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on which it is constructed, +and in its metre. As regards scale or length, we have already laid down +an adequate limit:--the beginning and the end must be capable of being +brought within a single view. This condition will be satisfied by poems +on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the +group of tragedies presented at a single sitting. + +Epic poetry has, however, a great--a special--capacity for enlarging its +dimensions, and we can see the reason. In Tragedy we cannot imitate +several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time; we must +confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the +players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events +simultaneously transacted can be presented; and these, if relevant to the +subject, add mass and dignity to the poem. The Epic has here an +advantage, and one that conduces to grandeur of effect, to diverting the +mind of the hearer, and relieving the story with varying episodes. For +sameness of incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail on +the stage. + +As for the metre, the heroic measure has proved its fitness by the test +of experience. If a narrative poem in any other metre or in many metres +were now composed, it would be found incongruous. For of all measures the +heroic is the stateliest and the most massive; and hence it most readily +admits rare words and metaphors, which is another point in which the +narrative form of imitation stands alone. On the other hand, the iambic +and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring measures, the latter being akin +to dancing, the former expressive of action. Still more absurd would it +be to mix together different metres, as was done by Chaeremon. Hence no +one has ever composed a poem on a great scale in any other than heroic +verse. Nature herself, as we have said, teaches the choice of the proper +measure. + +Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit of being the only +poet who rightly appreciates the part he should take himself. The poet +should speak as little as possible in his own person, for it is not this +that makes him an imitator. Other poets appear themselves upon +the scene throughout, and imitate but little and rarely. Homer, after a +few prefatory words, at once brings in a man, or woman, or other +personage; none of them wanting in characteristic qualities, but each +with a character of his own. + +The element of the wonderful is required in Tragedy. The irrational, on +which the wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider scope in +Epic poetry, because there the person acting is not seen. Thus, the +pursuit of Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage--the Greeks +standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and Achilles waving them +back. But in the Epic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed. Now the +wonderful is pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that every one +tells a story with some addition of his own, knowing that his hearers +like it. It is Homer who has chiefly taught other poets the art of +telling lies skilfully. The secret of it lies in a fallacy, For, assuming +that if one thing is or becomes, a second is or becomes, men imagine +that, if the second is, the first likewise is or becomes. But this is a +false inference. Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is quite +unnecessary, provided the second be true, to add that the first is or has +become. For the mind, knowing the second to be true, falsely infers the +truth of the first. There is an example of this in the Bath Scene of the +Odyssey. + +Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to +improbable possibilities. The tragic plot must not be composed of +irrational parts. Everything irrational should, if possible, be excluded; +or, at all events, it should lie outside the action of the play (as, in +the Oedipus, the hero's ignorance as to the manner of Laius' death); not +within the drama,--as in the Electra, the messenger's account of the +Pythian games; or, as in the Mysians, the man who has come from Tegea to +Mysia and is still speechless. The plea that otherwise the plot would +have been ruined, is ridiculous; such a plot should not in the first +instance be constructed. But once the irrational has been introduced and +an air of likelihood imparted to it, we must accept it in spite of the +absurdity. Take even the irrational incidents in the Odyssey, where +Odysseus is left upon the shore of Ithaca. How intolerable even these +might have been would be apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the +subject. As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm with which +the poet invests it. + +The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action, where there +is no expression of character or thought. For, conversely, character and +thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant. + + + +XXV + +With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions, the number and +nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be thus exhibited. + +The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any other artist, must of +necessity imitate one of three objects,--things as they were or are, +things as they are said or thought to be, or things as they ought to be. +The vehicle of expression is language,--either current terms or, it may +be, rare words or metaphors. There are also many modifications of +language, which we concede to the poets. Add to this, that the standard +of correctness is not the same in poetry and politics, any more than in +poetry and any other art. Within the art of poetry itself there are two +kinds of faults, those which touch its essence, and those which are +accidental. If a poet has chosen to imitate something, <but has imitated +it incorrectly> through want of capacity, the error is inherent in the +poetry. But if the failure is due to a wrong choice if he has represented +a horse as throwing out both his off legs at once, or introduced +technical inaccuracies in medicine, for example, or in any other art the +error is not essential to the poetry. These are the points of view from +which we should consider and answer the objections raised by the critics. + +First as to matters which concern the poet's own art. If he describes the +impossible, he is guilty of an error; but the error may be justified, if +the end of the art be thereby attained (the end being that already +mentioned), if, that is, the effect of this or any other part of the poem +is thus rendered more striking. A case in point is the pursuit of Hector. +If, however, the end might have been as well, or better, attained without +violating the special rules of the poetic art, the error is not +justified: for every kind of error should, if possible, be avoided. + +Again, does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art, or some +accident of it? For example,--not to know that a hind has no horns is a +less serious matter than to paint it inartistically. + +Further, if it be objected that the description is not true to fact, the +poet may perhaps reply,--'But the objects are as they ought to be': just +as Sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be; Euripides, as +they are. In this way the objection may be met. If, however, the +representation be of neither kind, the poet may answer,--This is how men +say the thing is.' This applies to tales about the gods. It may well be +that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to fact: they +are, very possibly, what Xenophanes says of them. But anyhow, 'this is +what is said.' Again, a description may be no better than the fact: +'still, it was the fact'; as in the passage about the arms: 'Upright upon +their butt-ends stood the spears.' This was the custom then, as it now is +among the Illyrians. + +Again, in examining whether what has been said or done by some one is +poetically right or not, we must not look merely to the particular act or +saying, and ask whether it is poetically good or bad. We must also +consider by whom it is said or done, to whom, when, by what means, or for +what end; whether, for instance, it be to secure a greater good, or avert +a greater evil. + +Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of +language. We may note a rare word, as in {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha +sigma / mu epsilon nu / pi rho omega tau omicron nu}, where the poet +perhaps employs {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma} not in the sense of +mules, but of sentinels. So, again, of Dolon: 'ill-favoured indeed he was +to look upon.' It is not meant that his body was ill-shaped, but that his +face was ugly; for the Cretans use the word {epsilon upsilon epsilon iota +delta epsilon sigma}, 'well-favoured,' to denote a fair face. Again, +{zeta omega rho omicron tau epsilon rho omicron nu / delta epsilon / +kappa epsilon rho alpha iota epsilon}, 'mix the drink livelier,' does not +mean `mix it stronger' as for hard drinkers, but 'mix it quicker.' + +Sometimes an expression is metaphorical, as 'Now all gods and men were +sleeping through the night,'--while at the same time the poet says: +'Often indeed as he turned his gaze to the Trojan plain, he marvelled at +the sound of flutes and pipes.' 'All' is here used metaphorically for +'many,' all being a species of many. So in the verse,--'alone she hath no +part . . ,' {omicron iota eta}, 'alone,' is metaphorical; for the best +known may be called the only one. + +Again, the solution may depend upon accent or breathing. Thus Hippias of +Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines,--{delta iota delta omicron +mu epsilon nu (delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu) delta epsilon / +omicron iota,} and { tau omicron / mu epsilon nu / omicron upsilon +(omicron upsilon) kappa alpha tau alpha pi upsilon theta epsilon tau +alpha iota / omicron mu beta rho omega}. + +Or again, the question may be solved by punctuation, as in Empedocles,-- +'Of a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to be immortal, +and things unmixed before mixed.' + +Or again, by ambiguity of meaning,--as {pi alpha rho omega chi eta kappa +epsilon nu / delta epsilon / pi lambda epsilon omega / nu upsilon xi}, +where the word {pi lambda epsilon omega} is ambiguous. + +Or by the usage of language. Thus any mixed drink is called {omicron iota +nu omicron sigma}, 'wine.' Hence Ganymede is said 'to pour the wine to +Zeus,' though the gods do not drink wine. So too workers in iron are +called {chi alpha lambda kappa epsilon alpha sigma}, or workers in +bronze. This, however, may also be taken as a metaphor. + +Again, when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning, we +should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular passage. +For example: 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'--we should ask in how +many ways we may take 'being checked there.' The true mode of +interpretation is the precise opposite of what Glaucon mentions. Critics, +he says, jump at certain groundless conclusions; they pass adverse +judgment and then proceed to reason on it; and, assuming that the poet +has said whatever they happen to think, find fault if a thing is +inconsistent with their own fancy. The question about Icarius has been +treated in this fashion. The critics imagine he was a Lacedaemonian. They +think it strange, therefore, that Telemachus should not have met him when +he went to Lacedaemon. But the Cephallenian story may perhaps be the true +one. They allege that Odysseus took a wife from among themselves, and +that her father was Icadius not Icarius. It is merely a mistake, then, +that gives plausibility to the objection. + +In general, the impossible must be justified by reference to artistic +requirements, or to the higher reality, or to received opinion. With +respect to the requirements of art, a probable impossibility is to be +preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible. Again, it may be +impossible that there should be men such as Zeuxis painted. 'Yes,' we +say, 'but the impossible is the higher thing; for the ideal type must +surpass the reality.' To justify the irrational, we appeal to what is +commonly said to be. In addition to which, we urge that the irrational +sometimes does not violate reason; just as 'it is probable that a thing +may happen contrary to probability.' + +Things that sound contradictory should be examined by the same rules as +in dialectical refutation whether the same thing is meant, in the same +relation, and in the same sense. We should therefore solve the question +by reference to what the poet says himself, or to what is tacitly assumed +by a person of intelligence. + +The element of the irrational, and, similarly, depravity of character, +are justly censured when there is no inner necessity for introducing +them. Such is the irrational element in the introduction of Aegeus by +Euripides and the badness of Menelaus in the Orestes. + +Thus, there are five sources from which critical objections are drawn. +Things are censured either as impossible, or irrational, or morally +hurtful, or contradictory, or contrary to artistic correctness. The +answers should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned. + + + +XXVI + +The question may be raised whether the Epic or Tragic mode of imitation +is the higher. If the more refined art is the higher, and the more +refined in every case is that which appeals to the better sort of +audience, the art which imitates anything and everything is manifestly +most unrefined. The audience is supposed to be too dull to comprehend +unless something of their own is thrown in by the performers, who +therefore indulge in restless movements. Bad flute-players twist and +twirl, if they have to represent 'the quoit-throw,' or hustle the +coryphaeus when they perform the 'Scylla.' Tragedy, it is said, has this +same defect. We may compare the opinion that the older actors entertained +of their successors. Mynniscus used to call Callippides 'ape' on account +of the extravagance of his action, and the same view was held of +Pindarus. Tragic art, then, as a whole, stands to Epic in the same +relation as the younger to the elder actors. So we are told that Epic +poetry is addressed to a cultivated audience, who do not need gesture; +Tragedy, to an inferior public. Being then unrefined, it is evidently the +lower of the two. + +Now, in the first place, this censure attaches not to the poetic but to +the histrionic art; for gesticulation may be equally overdone in epic +recitation, as by Sosi-stratus, or in lyrical competition, as by +Mnasitheus the Opuntian. Next, all action is not to be condemned any more +than all dancing--but only that of bad performers. Such was the fault +found in Callippides, as also in others of our own day, who are censured +for representing degraded women. Again, Tragedy like Epic poetry produces +its effect even without action; it reveals its power by mere reading. If, +then, in all other respects it is superior, this fault, we say, is not +inherent in it. + +And superior it is, because it has all the epic elements--it may even use +the epic metre--with the music and spectacular effects as important +accessories; and these produce the most vivid of pleasures. Further, it +has vividness of impression in reading as well as in representation. +Moreover, the art attains its end within narrower limits; for the +concentrated effect is more pleasurable than one which is spread over a +long time and so diluted. What, for example, would be the effect of the +Oedipus of Sophocles, if it were cast into a form as long as the Iliad? +Once more, the Epic imitation has less unity; as is shown by this, that +any Epic poem will furnish subjects for several tragedies. Thus if the +story adopted by the poet has a strict unity, it must either be concisely +told and appear truncated; or, if it conform to the Epic canon of length, +it must seem weak and watery. <Such length implies some loss of unity,> +if, I mean, the poem is constructed out of several actions, like the +Iliad and the Odyssey, which have many such parts, each with a certain +magnitude of its own. Yet these poems are as perfect as possible in +structure; each is, in the highest degree attainable, an imitation of a +single action. + +If, then, Tragedy is superior to Epic poetry in all these respects, and, +moreover, fulfils its specific function better as an art for each art +ought to produce, not any chance pleasure, but the pleasure proper to it, +as already stated it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, as +attaining its end more perfectly. + +Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic poetry in general; +their several kinds and parts, with the number of each and their +differences; the causes that make a poem good or bad; the objections of +the critics and the answers to these objections. * * * + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Poetics, by Aristotle + diff --git a/old/poetc10.zip b/old/poetc10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e418aa --- /dev/null +++ b/old/poetc10.zip |