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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical
+Architecture, Elucidated by Question an, by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed.
+
+Author: Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2006 [EBook #19737]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Julia Miller and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+A number of typographical errors found in the original text have been
+maintained in this version. They are marked in the text with a [TN-#].
+A description of each error is found in the complete list at the end of
+the text.
+
+The following less-common characters were used in the original text.
+If they do not display correctly, please change your font.
+
+mÌ…nÌ…  mn with a macron over the two letters
+oÌ…mÌ…  om with a macron over the two letters
+oÌ…nÌ…  on with a macron over the two letters
+rÌ…eÌ…  re with a macron over the two letters
+
+
+
+
+     “Whereby may be discerned that so fervent was the zeal of those
+     elder times to God’s service and honour, that they freely endowed
+     the church with some part of their possessions; and that in those
+     good works even the meaner sort of men, as well as the pious
+     founders, were not backwards.�
+
+     Dugdale’s Antiq. Warwickshire.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                 THE
+
+             PRINCIPLES
+
+                 OF
+
+               GOTHIC
+
+           ECCLESIASTICAL
+
+            ARCHITECTURE,
+
+  ELUCIDATED BY QUESTION AND ANSWER.
+
+
+                 BY
+      MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.
+
+
+           FOURTH EDITION.
+
+               OXFORD:
+         JOHN HENRY PARKER.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In revising this Work for a Fourth Edition several alterations have been
+made, especially in the Concluding Chapter; and the whole has been
+considerably enlarged.
+
+M. H. B.
+
+Rugby,
+April 1841.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                             Page
+  CHAP. I.
+  Definition of Gothic Architecture; its Origin, and Division
+  of it into Styles                                            17
+
+  CHAP. II.
+  Of the different Kinds of Arches                             22
+
+  CHAP. III.
+  Of the Anglo-Saxon Style                                     30
+
+  CHAP. IV.
+  Of the Norman or Anglo-Norman Style                          51
+
+  CHAP. V.
+  Of the Semi-Norman Style                                     74
+
+  CHAP. VI.
+  Of the Early English Style                                   86
+
+  CHAP. VII.
+  Of the Decorated English Style                              102
+
+  CHAP. VIII.
+  Of the Florid or Perpendicular English Style                120
+
+  CHAP. IX.
+  Of the Debased English Style                                145
+
+  CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
+  Of the Internal Arrangement and Decorations of a Church     153
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.
+
+
+Page 41, line 9, _for_ Cambridge, _read_ Lincoln.
+
+Page 49. In addition to the list of churches containing presumed vestiges
+of Anglo-Saxon architecture, Woodstone Church, Huntingdonshire, and
+Miserden Church, Gloucestershire, may be enumerated.
+
+Page 71. The double ogee moulding is here inserted by mistake: it is not
+Norman, but of the fifteenth century.
+
+Page 137. In some copies the wood-cut in this page has been reversed in
+its position.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Two Arches of Roman Masonry, Leicester.]
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+ON THE ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND DECLINE OF GOTHIC OR ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Amongst the vestiges of antiquity which abound in this country, are the
+visible memorials of those nations which have succeeded one another in the
+occupancy of this island. To the age of our Celtic ancestors, the earliest
+possessors of its soil, is ascribed the erection of those altars and
+temples of all but primeval antiquity, the Cromlechs and Stone Circles
+which lie scattered over the land; and these are conceived to have been
+derived from the Phœnicians, whose merchants first introduced amongst
+the aboriginal Britons the arts of incipient civilization. Of these most
+ancient relics the prototypes appear, as described in Holy Writ, in the
+pillar raised at Bethel by Jacob, in the altars erected by the Patriarchs,
+and in the circles of stone set up by Moses at the foot of Mount Sinai,
+and by Joshua at Gilgal. Many of these structures, perhaps from their very
+rudeness, have survived the vicissitudes of time, whilst there scarce
+remains a vestige of the temples erected in this island by the Romans; yet
+it is from Roman edifices that we derive, and can trace by a gradual
+transition, the progress of that peculiar kind of architecture called
+GOTHIC, which presents in its later stages the most striking contrast that
+can be imagined to its original precursor.
+
+The Romans having conquered almost the whole of Britain in the first
+century, retained possession of the southern parts for nearly four hundred
+years; and during their occupancy they not only instructed the natives in
+the arts of civilization, but also with their aid, as we learn from
+Tacitus, began at an early period to erect temples and public edifices,
+though doubtless much inferior to those at Rome, in their municipal towns
+and cities. The Christian religion was also early introduced,[3-*] but for
+a time its progress was slow; nor was it till the conversion of
+Constantine, in the fourth century, that it was openly tolerated by the
+state, and churches were publicly constructed for its worshippers; though
+even before that event, as we are led to infer from the testimony of
+Gildas, the most ancient of our native historians, particular structures
+were appropriated for the performance of its divine mysteries: for that
+historian alludes to the British Christians as reconstructing the churches
+which had, in the Dioclesian persecution, been levelled to the ground. But
+in the fifth century Rome, oppressed on every side by enemies, and
+distracted with the vastness of her conquests, which she was no longer
+able to maintain, recalled her legions from Britain; and the Romanized
+Britons being left without protection, and having, during their subjection
+to the Romans, lost their ancient valour and love of liberty, in a short
+time fell a prey to the Northern Barbarians; in their extremity they
+called over the Saxons to assist them, when the latter perceiving their
+defenceless condition, turned round upon them, and made an easy conquest
+of this country. In the struggle which then took place, the churches were
+again destroyed, the priests were slain at the very altars,[4-*] and
+though the British Church was never annihilated, Paganism for a while
+became triumphant.
+
+Towards the end of the sixth century, when Christianity was again
+propagated in this country by Augustine, Mellitus, and other zealous
+monks, St. Gregory, the head of the Papal church, and the originator of
+this mission, wrote to Mellitus not to suffer the Heathen temples to be
+destroyed, but only the idols found within them. These, and such churches
+built by the Romans as were then, though in a dilapidated state, existing,
+may reasonably be supposed to have been the prototypes of the Christian
+churches afterwards erected in this country.
+
+In the early period of the empire the Romans imitated the Grecians in
+their buildings of magnitude and beauty, forming, however, a style of
+greater richness in detail, though less chaste in effect; and columns of
+the different orders, with their entablatures, were used to support and
+adorn their public structures: but in the fourth century, when the arts
+were declining, the style of architecture became debased, and the
+predominant features consisted of massive square piers or columns, without
+entablatures, from the imposts of which sprung arches of a semicircular
+form; and it was in rude imitation of this latter style that the Saxon
+churches were constructed.
+
+The Roman basilicas, or halls of justice, some of which were subsequently
+converted into churches, to which also their names were given, furnished
+the plan for the internal arrangement of churches of a large size, being
+divided in the interior by rows of columns. From this division the nave
+and aisles of a church were derived; and in the semicircular recess at the
+one end for the tribune, we perceive the origin of the apsis, or
+semicircular east end, which one of the Anglo-Saxon, and many of our
+ancient Norman churches still present.
+
+But independent of examples afforded by some few ancient Roman churches,
+and such of the temples and public buildings of the Romans as were then
+remaining in Britain, the Saxon converts were directed and assisted in the
+science of architecture by those missionaries from Rome who propagated
+Christianity amongst them; and during the Saxon dynasty architects and
+workmen were frequently procured from abroad, to plan and raise
+ecclesiastical structures. The Anglo-Saxon churches were, however, rudely
+built, and, as far as can be ascertained, with some few exceptions, were
+of no great dimensions and almost entirely devoid of ornamental mouldings,
+though in some instances decorative sculpture and mouldings are to be met
+with; but in the repeated incursions of the Danes, in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, so general was the destruction of the monasteries and churches,
+which, when the country became tranquil, were rebuilt by the Normans, that
+we have, in fact, comparatively few churches existing which we may
+reasonably presume, or really know, to have been erected in an Anglo-Saxon
+age. Many of the earlier writers on this subject have, however, caused
+much confusion by applying the term ‘SAXON’ to all churches and other
+edifices contradistinguished from the pointed style by semicircular-headed
+doorways, windows, and arches. But the vestiges of Anglo-Saxon
+architecture have been as yet so little studied or known, as to render it
+difficult to point out, either generally or in detail, in what their
+peculiarities consist: the style may, however, be said to have
+approximated in appearance much nearer to the Debased Roman style of
+masonry than the Norman, and to have been also much ruder: and in the most
+ancient churches, as in that at Dover Castle, and that at Bricksworth, we
+find arches constructed of flat bricks or tiles, set edgewise, which was
+also a Roman fashion. The masonry was chiefly composed of rubble, with
+ashlar or squared blocks of stone at the angles, disposed in courses in a
+peculiar manner.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Arches, Bricksworth Church, Northamptonshire
+(7th. cent.)]
+
+The most common characteristic by which the NORMAN style is distinguished,
+is the semicircular or segmental arch, though this is to be met with also
+in the rare specimens of Anglo-Saxon masonry; but the Norman arches were
+more scientifically constructed: in their early state, indeed, quite
+plain, but generally concentric, or one arch receding within another, and
+in an advanced stage they were frequently ornamented with zig-zag and
+other mouldings. A variety of mouldings were also used in the decoration
+of the Norman portals or doorways, which were besides often enriched with
+a profusion of sculptured ornament. The Norman churches appear to have
+much excelled in size the lowly structures of the Saxons, and the
+cathedral and conventual churches were frequently carried to the height of
+three tiers or rows of arches, one above another; blank arcades were also
+used to ornament the walls.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcade, St. Aldgate, Oxford.]
+
+The Norman style, in which an innumerable number of churches and monastic
+edifices were originally built or entirely reconstructed, continued
+without any striking alteration till about the latter part of the twelfth
+century, when a singular change began to take place: this was no other
+than the introduction of the pointed arch, the origin of which has never
+yet been satisfactorily explained, or the precise period clearly
+ascertained in which it first appeared; but as the lightness and
+simplicity of design to which the Early Pointed style was found to be
+afterwards convertible was in its incipient state unknown, it retained to
+the close of the twelfth century the heavy concomitants of the
+semicircular arch, with which indeed it was often intermixed: and from
+such intermixture it may be designated the SEMI or MIXED NORMAN.
+
+When the original Norman style of building was first broken through, by
+the introduction of the pointed arch, which was often formed by the
+intersection of semicircular arches, the facing of it, or architrave, was
+often ornamented with the zig-zag, billet, and other mouldings, in the
+same manner as the Norman semicircular arches: it also rested on round
+massive piers, and still retained many other features of Norman
+architecture. But from the time of its introduction to the close of the
+twelfth century, the pointed arch was gradually struggling with the
+semicircular arch for the mastery, and with success; for from the
+commencement of the thirteenth century, as nearly as can be ascertained,
+the style of building with semicircular arches was, with very few
+exceptions, altogether discarded, and superseded by its more elegant
+rival.
+
+[Illustration: Canterbury Cathedral.]
+
+The mode of building with semicircular arches, massive piers, and thick
+walls with broad pilaster buttresses, was now laid aside; and the pointed
+arch, supported by more slender piers, with walls strengthened with
+graduating buttresses, of less width but of greater projection, were
+universally substituted in their stead. The windows, one of the most
+apparent marks of distinction, were at first long, narrow, and
+lancet-shaped: the heavy Norman ornaments, the zig-zag and other mouldings
+peculiar to the Norman and Semi-Norman styles, were now discarded; yet we
+often meet with certain decorative ornaments, as the tooth ornament,
+which, though sometimes found in late Norman work, is almost peculiar to
+the Early Pointed style; also the ball-flower, prevalent both in this and
+the style of the succeeding century. Many church towers were also capped
+with spires, which now first appear. This style prevailed generally
+throughout the thirteenth century, and is usually designated as the EARLY
+ENGLISH.
+
+[Illustration: Horsley Ch., Derbyshire.]
+
+Towards the close of the thirteenth century a perceptible, though gradual,
+transition took place to a richer and more ornamental mode of
+architecture. This was the style of the fourteenth century, and is known
+by the name of the DECORATED ENGLISH; but it chiefly flourished during the
+reigns of Edward the Second and Edward the Third, in the latter of which
+it attained a degree of perfection unequalled by preceding or subsequent
+ages. Some of the most prominent and distinctive marks of this style occur
+in the windows, which were greatly enlarged, and divided into many lights
+by mullions or tracery-bars running into various ramifications above, and
+dividing the heads into numerous compartments, forming either geometrical
+or flowing tracery. Triangular or pedimental canopies and pinnacles, more
+enriched than before with crockets and finials, yet without redundancy of
+ornament, also occur in the churches built during this century.
+
+[Illustration: Worstead Church, Norfolk.]
+
+In the latter part of the fourteenth century another transition, or
+gradual change of style, began to be effected, in the discrimination of
+which an obvious distinction again occurs in the composition of the
+windows, some of which are very large: for the mullion-bars, instead of
+branching off in the head, in a number of curved lines, are carried up
+vertically, so as to form _perpendicular_ divisions between the
+window-sill and the head, and do not present that combination of
+geometrical and flowing tracery observable in the style immediately
+preceding.
+
+[Illustration: St. Michael’s, Oxford.]
+
+The frequent occurrence of panelled compartments, and the partial change
+of form in the arches, especially of doorways and windows, which in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century were often obtusely pointed and
+mathematically described from four centres, instead of two, as in the more
+simple pointed arch, and which from the period when this arch began to be
+prevalent was called the TUDOR arch, together with a great profusion of
+minute ornament, mostly of a description not before in use, are the chief
+characteristics of the style of the fifteenth century, which by some of
+the earlier writers was designated as the FLORID; though it has since
+received the more general appellation of the PERPENDICULAR.
+
+This style prevailed till the Reformation, at which period no country
+could vie with our own in the number of religious edifices, which had been
+erected in all the varieties of style that had prevailed for many
+preceding ages. Next to the magnificent cathedrals, the venerable
+monasteries and collegiate establishments, which had been founded and
+sumptuously endowed in every part of the kingdom, might most justly claim
+the preeminence; and many of the churches belonging to them were
+deservedly held in admiration for their grandeur and architectural
+elegance of design.
+
+But the suppression of the monasteries tended in no slight degree to
+hasten the decline and fall of our ancient church architecture, to which
+other causes, such as the revival of the classic orders in Italy, also
+contributed. The churches belonging to the conventual foundations, which
+had been built at different periods by the monks or their benefactors, and
+the charges of erecting and decorating which from time to time in the most
+costly manner, had been defrayed out of the monastic revenues, and from
+private donations, being seized by the crown, were reduced to a state of
+ruin, and the sites on which they stood granted to dependants of the
+court. The former reverential feeling on these matters had greatly
+changed; and as the retention of some few of the ministerial habits, the
+square cap, the cope, the surplice, and hood, which were deemed expedient
+for the decent ministration of public worship, gave great offence to many,
+and was one of the most apparent causes which led to that schism amongst
+the Reformers, on points of discipline, which afterwards ended in the
+subversion, for a time, of the rites and ordinances of the Church of
+England, any attempt towards beautifying and adorning (other than with
+carved pulpits and communion-tables or altars) the places of divine
+worship, which were now stripped of many of their former ornamental
+accessories, would have been regarded and inveighed against as a popish
+and superstitious innovation; and a charge of this kind was at a later
+period preferred against Archbishop Laud. Parochial churches were,
+therefore, now repaired when fallen into a state of dilapidation, in a
+plain and inelegant mode, in complete variance with the richness and
+display observable in the style just preceding this event.
+
+Details, originating from the designs of classic architecture, which had
+been partially revived in Italy, began early in the sixteenth century to
+make their appearance in this country, though as yet, except on tombs and
+in wood-work, we observe few of those peculiar features introduced as
+accessories in church architecture.
+
+Hence many of our country churches, which were repaired or partly rebuilt
+in the century succeeding the Reformation, exhibit the marks of the style
+justly denominated DEBASED, to distinguish it from the former purer
+styles. Depressed and nearly flat arched doorways, with shallow mouldings,
+square-headed windows with perpendicular mullions and obtuse-pointed or
+round-headed lights, without foliations, together with a general
+clumsiness of construction, as compared with more ancient edifices, form
+the predominating features in ecclesiastical buildings of this kind: and
+in the reign of Charles the First an indiscriminate mixture of Debased
+Gothic and Roman architecture prevailing, we lose sight of every true
+feature of our ancient ecclesiastical styles, which were superseded by
+that which sprang more immediately from the Antique, the Roman, or Italian
+mode.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3-*] Tempore, ut scimus, summo Tiberii Cæsaris, &c.--GILDAS.
+
+[4-*] Ruebant ædificia publica simul et privata, passim Sacerdotes inter
+altaria trucibantur.--BEDE, Eccl. Hist. lib. i. c. xv.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Scutcheon from Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, circa A. D. 1450.]
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEFINITION OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; ITS ORIGIN, AND THE DIVISION OF IT INTO
+STYLES.
+
+
+Q. What is meant by the term “Gothic Architecture�?
+
+A. Without entering into the derivation of the word “Gothic,� it may
+suffice to state that it is an expression sometimes used to denote in one
+general term, and distinguish from the Antique, those peculiar modes or
+styles in which most of our ecclesiastical and many of our domestic
+edifices of the middle ages have been built. In a more confined sense, it
+comprehends those styles only in which the pointed arch predominates, and
+it is then often used to distinguish such from the more ancient
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles.
+
+Q. To what can the origin of this kind of architecture be traced?
+
+A. To the classic orders in that state of degeneracy into which they had
+fallen in the age of Constantine, and afterwards; and as the Romans, on
+their voluntary abandonment of Britain in the fifth century, left many of
+their temples and public edifices remaining, together with some Christian
+churches, it was in rude imitation of the Roman structures of the fourth
+century that the most ancient of our Anglo-Saxon churches were
+constructed. This is apparent from an examination and comparison of such
+with the vestiges of Roman buildings we have existing.
+
+Q. Into how many different styles may English ecclesiastical architecture
+be divided?
+
+A. No specific regulation has been adopted, with regard to the
+denomination or division of the several styles, in which all the writers
+on the subject agree: but they may be divided into seven, which, together
+with the periods when they flourished, may be generally defined as
+follows:
+
+The SAXON Or ANGLO-SAXON Style, which prevailed from the mission of
+Augustine, at the close of the sixth, to the middle of the eleventh
+century.
+
+The NORMAN style, which may be said to have prevailed generally from the
+middle of the eleventh to the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+The SEMI-NORMAN, Or TRANSITION style, which appears to have prevailed
+during the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+The EARLY ENGLISH, or general style of the thirteenth century.
+
+The DECORATED ENGLISH, or general style of the fourteenth century.
+
+The FLORID Or PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH, the style of the fifteenth, and early
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+The DEBASED ENGLISH, or general style of the latter part of the sixteenth
+and early part of the seventeenth century, towards the middle of which
+Gothic architecture, even in its debased state, became entirely discarded.
+
+Q. What constitutes the difference of these styles?
+
+A. They may be distinguished partly by the form of the arches, which are
+triangular-headed, semicircular or segmental, simple pointed, and complex
+pointed; though such forms are by no means an invariable criterion of any
+particular style; by the size and shape of the windows, and the manner in
+which they are subdivided or not by transoms, mullions, and tracery; but
+more especially by certain minute details, ornamental accessories and
+mouldings, more or less peculiar to particular styles, and which are
+seldom to be met with in any other.
+
+Q. Are the majority of our ecclesiastical buildings composed only of one
+style?
+
+A. Most of our cathedral and country churches have been built, or had
+additions made to them, at different periods, and therefore seldom exhibit
+an uniformity of design; and many churches have details about them of
+almost every style. There are, however, numerous exceptions, where
+churches have been erected in the same style throughout; and this is more
+particularly observable in the churches of the fifteenth century.
+
+Q. Were they constructed on any regular plan?
+
+A. The general ground plan of cathedral and conventual churches was after
+the form of a cross, and the edifice consisted of a central tower, with
+transepts running north and south; westward of the tower was the nave or
+main body of the structure, with lateral aisles; and the west front
+contained the principal entrance, and was often flanked by towers.
+Eastward of the central tower was the choir, where the principal service
+was performed, with aisles on each side, and beyond this was the lady
+chapel. Sometimes the design also comprehended other chapels. On the north
+or south side was the chapter house, in early times quadrangular, but
+afterwards octagonal in plan; and on the same side, in most instances,
+though not always, were the cloisters, which communicated immediately with
+the church, and surrounded a quadrangular court. The chapter house and
+cloisters we still find remaining as adjuncts to most cathedral churches,
+though the conventual buildings of a domestic nature, with which the
+cloisters formerly also communicated, have generally been destroyed. Mere
+parochial churches have commonly a tower at the west end, a nave with
+lateral aisles, and a chancel. Some churches have transepts; and small
+side chapels or additional aisles have been annexed to many, erected at
+the costs of individuals, to serve for burial and as chantries. The
+smallest class of churches have a nave and chancel only, with a small
+bell-turret formed of wooden shingles, or an open arch of stonework,
+appearing above the roof at the west end.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SEDILIA,
+
+St. Martin’s, Leicester, circa A. D. 1250.]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARCHES.
+
+
+Q. Do the distinctions of the different styles, as they differ from each
+other, depend at all upon the form of the arch?
+
+A. To a certain extent the form of the arch may be considered as a
+criterion of style; too much dependence, however, must not be placed on
+this rule, inasmuch as there are many exceptions.
+
+Q. How are arches divided generally, as to form?
+
+A. Into the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch, the
+round-headed arch, and the curved-pointed arch; and the latter are again
+subdivided.
+
+Q. How is the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch formed, and
+when did it prevail?
+
+A. It may be described as formed by the two upper sides of a triangle,
+more or less obtuse or acute. It is generally considered as one of the
+characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon style, where it is often to be met with
+of plain and rude construction. But instances of this form of arch, though
+they are not frequent, are to be met with in the Norman and subsequent
+styles. Arches, however, of this description, of late date, may be
+generally known by some moulding or other feature peculiar to the style in
+which it is used.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What different kinds of round-headed arches are there?
+
+A. The semicircular arch (fig. 1), the stilted arch (fig. 2), the
+segmental arch (fig. 3), and the horse-shoe arch (fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. How are they formed or described?
+
+A. The semicircular arch is described from a centre in the same line with
+its spring; the stilted arch in the same manner, but the sides are carried
+downwards in a straight line below the spring of the curve till they rest
+upon the imposts; the segmental arch is described from a centre lower than
+its spring; and the horse-shoe arch from a centre placed above its spring.
+
+Q. During what period of time do we find these arches generally in use?
+
+A. The semicircular arch, which is the most common, we find to have
+prevailed from the time of the Romans to the close of the twelfth
+century, when it became generally discarded; and we seldom meet with it
+again, in its simple state, till about the middle of the sixteenth
+century. It is in some degree considered as a characteristic of the
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles. The stilted arch is chiefly found in
+conjunction with the semicircular arch in the construction of Norman
+vaulting over a space in plan that of a parallelogram. The segmental arch
+we meet with in almost all the styles, used as an arch of construction,
+and for doorway and window arches; whilst the form of the horse-shoe arch
+seems, in many instances, to have been occasioned by the settlement and
+inclination of the piers from which it springs.
+
+Q. Into how many classes may the pointed arch be divided?
+
+A. Into two, namely, the simple pointed arch described from two centres,
+and the complex pointed arch described from four centres.
+
+Q. What are the different kinds of simple pointed arches?
+
+A. The LANCET, or acute-pointed arch; the EQUILATERAL pointed arch; and
+the OBTUSE-ANGLED pointed arch.
+
+Q. How is the lancet arch formed and described?
+
+A. It is formed of two segments of a circle, and its centres have a radius
+or line longer than the breadth of the arch, and may be described from an
+acute-angled triangle. (fig. 5.).[TN-1]
+
+Q. How is the equilateral arch formed and described?
+
+A. From two segments of a circle; the centres of it have a radius or line
+equal to the breadth of the arch, and it may be described from an
+equilateral triangle. (fig. 6.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. How is the obtuse-angled arch formed and described?
+
+A. Like the foregoing, it is formed from two segments of a circle, and the
+centres of it have a radius shorter than the breadth of the arch; it is
+described from an obtuse-angled triangle. (fig. 7.)
+
+Q. During what period were these pointed arches in use?
+
+A. They were all gradually introduced in the twelfth century, and
+continued during the thirteenth century; after which the lancet arch
+appears to have been generally discarded, though the other two prevailed
+till a much later period.
+
+Q. What are the different kinds of complex pointed arches?
+
+A. Those commonly called the OGEE, or contrasted arch; and the TUDOR arch.
+
+Q. How is the ogee, or contrasted arch, formed and described?
+
+A. It is formed of four segments of a circle, and is described from four
+centres, two placed within the arch on a level with the spring, and two
+placed on the exterior of the arch, and level with the apex or point (fig.
+8); each side is composed of a double curve, the lowermost convex and the
+uppermost concave.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. When was the ogee arch introduced, and how long did it prevail?
+
+A. It was introduced early in the fourteenth century, and continued till
+the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+Q. How is the Tudor arch described?
+
+A. From four centres; two on a level with the spring, and two at a
+distance from it, and below. (fig. 9.)
+
+Q. When was the Tudor arch introduced, and why is it so called?
+
+A. It was introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, or perhaps
+earlier, but became most prevalent during the reigns of Henry the Seventh
+and Henry the Eighth, under the Tudor dynasty, from which it derives its
+name.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What other kinds of arches are there worthy of notice?
+
+A. Those which are called foiled arches, as the round-headed trefoil (fig.
+10), the pointed trefoil (fig. 11), and the square-headed trefoil (fig.
+12). The first prevailed in the latter part of the twelfth and early part
+of the thirteenth century, chiefly as a heading for niches or blank
+arcades; the second, used for the same purpose, we find to have prevailed
+in the thirteenth century; and the latter is found in doorways of the
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. In all these the
+exterior mouldings follow the same curvatures as the inner mouldings, and
+are thus distinguishable from arches the heads of which are only foliated
+within.
+
+[Illustration: DOORWAY. St. Thomas’s, Oxford, circa 1250.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Doorway, Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire.
+(7th cent.)]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+OF THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE.
+
+
+Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?
+
+A. From the close of the sixth century, when the conversion of the
+Anglo-Saxons commenced, to the middle of the eleventh century.
+
+Q. Whence does this style appear to have derived its origin?
+
+A. From the later Roman edifices; for in the most ancient of the
+Anglo-Saxon remains we find an approximation, more or less, to the Roman
+mode of building, with arches formed of brickwork.
+
+Q. What is peculiar in the constructive features of Roman masonry?
+
+A. Walls of Roman masonry in this country were chiefly constructed of
+stone or flint, according to the part of the country in which the one
+material or other prevailed, embedded in mortar, bonded at certain
+intervals throughout with regular horizontal courses or layers of large
+flat Roman bricks or tiles, which, from the inequality of thickness and
+size, do not appear to have been shaped in any regular mould.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of the Fragment of a Roman Building at Leicester.]
+
+Q. What vestiges of Roman masonry are now existing in Britain?
+
+A. A fragment, apparently that of a Roman temple or basilica, near the
+church of St. Nicholas at Leicester, which contains horizontal courses of
+brick at intervals, and arches constructed of brickwork; the curious
+portion of a wall of similar construction, with remains of brick arches on
+the one side, which indicate it to have formed part of a building, and not
+a mere wall as it now appears, at Wroxeter, Salop; and the polygonal tower
+at Dover Castle, which, notwithstanding an exterior casing of flint, and
+other alterations effected in the fifteenth century, still retains many
+visible features of its original construction of tufa bonded with bricks
+at intervals. Roman masonry, of the mixed description of brick and stone,
+regularly disposed, is found in walls at York, Lincoln, Silchester, and
+elsewhere; and sometimes we meet with bricks or stone arranged
+herring-bone fashion, as in the vestiges of a Roman building at Castor,
+Northamptonshire, and the walls of a Roman villa discovered at Littleton,
+Somersetshire.
+
+Q. Have we any remains of the ancient British churches erected in this
+country in the third, fourth, or fifth centuries?
+
+A. None such have yet been discovered or noticed; for the ruinous
+structure at Perranzabuloe in Cornwall, which some assert to have been an
+ancient British church, is probably not of earlier date than the twelfth
+century; and the church of St. Martin at Canterbury, built in the time of
+the Romans, which Augustine found on his arrival still used for the
+worship of God, was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, but, to all
+appearance, with the same materials of which the original church was
+constructed.
+
+Q. Do any of our churches bear a resemblance to Roman buildings?
+
+A. The church now in ruins within the precincts of the Castle of Dover
+presents features of early work approximating Roman, as a portal and
+window-arches formed of brickwork, which seem to have been copied from
+those in the Roman tower near adjoining; the walls also have much of Roman
+brick worked up into them, but have no such regular horizontal layers as
+Roman masonry displays. The most ancient portions of this church are
+attributed to belong to the middle of the seventh century. The church of
+Brixworth, Northamptonshire, is perhaps the most complete specimen we have
+existing of an early Anglo-Saxon church: it has had side aisles separated
+from the nave by semicircular arches constructed of Roman bricks, with
+wide joints; these arches spring from square and plain massive piers.
+There is also fair recorded evidence to support the inference that this
+church is a structure of the latter part of the seventh century. Roman
+bricks are worked up in the walls, in no regular order, however, but
+indiscriminately, as in the church at Dover Castle.
+
+[Illustration: Pilaster Rib-work Arch, Brigstock Church.]
+
+Q. What peculiarities are observable in masonry of Anglo-Saxon
+construction?
+
+A. From existing vestiges of churches of presumed Anglo-Saxon construction
+it appears that the walls were chiefly formed of rubble or rag-stone,
+covered on the exterior with stucco or plaster, with long and short blocks
+of ashlar or hewn stone, disposed at the angles in alternate courses. We
+also find, projecting a few inches from the surface of the wall, and
+running up vertically, narrow ribs or square-edged strips of stone,
+bearing from their position a rude similarity to pilasters; and these
+strips are generally composed of long and short pieces of stone placed
+alternately. A plain string course of the same description of square-edged
+rib or strip-work often runs horizontally along the walls of Anglo-Saxon
+remains, and the vertical ribs are sometimes set upon such as a basement,
+and sometimes finish under such.
+
+Q. What churches exhibit projecting strips of stonework thus disposed?
+
+A. The towers of the churches of Earls Barton and Barnack,
+Northamptonshire, and the tower of one of the churches at
+Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire, are covered with these narrow projecting
+strips of stonework, in such a manner that the surface of the wall appears
+divided into rudely formed panels; the like disposition of rib-work
+appears, though not to so great extent, on the face of the upper part of
+the tower of Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, of St. Benedict’s Church,
+Cambridge, on the walls of the church of Worth, in Sussex, on the upper
+part of the walls of the chancel of Repton Church, Derbyshire, and on the
+walls of the nave and north transept of Stanton Lacey Church, Salop.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Masonry, Long and Short Work.
+
+Burcombe, Wilts. Wittering, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. Where do we meet with instances where long and short blocks of ashlar
+masonry are disposed in alternate courses at the angles of walls?
+
+A. Such occur at the angles of the chancel of North Burcombe Church,
+Wiltshire; at the angles of the nave and chancel of Wittering Church,
+Northamptonshire; at the angles of the towers of St. Benedict’s Church,
+Cambridge, of Sompting Church, Sussex, and of St. Michael’s Church,
+Oxford, and in other Anglo-Saxon remains. The ashlar masonry forming the
+angles is not, however, invariably thus disposed.
+
+Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?
+
+A. They are either semicircular, or triangular-arched headed, but the
+former are more common. In those, apparently the most ancient, the
+voussoirs or arched heads are faced with large flat bricks or tiles,
+closely resembling Roman work. Doorways of this description are to be met
+with in the old church, Dover Castle; in the church of Brixworth,
+Northamptonshire; and on the south side of Brytford Church, Wiltshire. The
+doorway, however, we most frequently meet with in Anglo-Saxon remains, is
+of simple yet peculiar construction, semicircular-headed, and formed
+entirely of stone, without any admixture of brick; the jambs are
+square-edged, and are sometimes but not always composed of two long blocks
+placed upright, with a short block between them; the arched head of the
+doorway is plain, and springs from square projecting impost blocks, the
+under edges of which are sometimes bevelled and sometimes left square.
+This doorway is contained within a kind of arch of rib-work, projecting
+from the face of the wall, with strips of pilaster rib-work continued down
+to the ground; sometimes this arch springs from plain block imposts, or
+from strips of square-edged rib-work disposed horizontally, and the jambs
+are occasionally constructed of long and short work.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Doorway, St. Peter’s Church,
+Barton-upon-Humber.]
+
+Q. Mention the names of churches in which doorways of this description are
+preserved?
+
+A. The south doorways of the towers of the old church at
+Barton-upon-Humber and of Barnack Church, the west doorway of the tower of
+Earls Barton Church, the north and south doorways of the tower of Wooten
+Wawen Church, Warwickshire, the east doorway of the tower of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, the north doorway of the nave of Brytford Church,
+Wiltshire, and the north doorway of the nave of Stanton Lacey Church,
+Salop, though differing in some respects from each other, bear a general
+similarity of design, and come under the foregoing description.
+
+[Illustration: Belfry Window, north side of the Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.]
+
+Q. How are we able to distinguish the windows of the Anglo-Saxon style?
+
+A. The belfry windows are generally found to consist of two
+semicircular-headed lights, divided by a kind of rude balluster shaft of
+peculiar character, the entasis of which is sometimes encircled with rude
+annulated mouldings; this shaft supports a plain oblong impost or abacus,
+which extends through the whole of the thickness of the wall, or nearly
+so, and from this one side of the arch of each light springs. Double
+windows thus divided appear in the belfry stories of the church towers of
+St. Michael, Oxford; St. Benedict, Cambridge; St. Peter,
+Barton-upon-Humber; Wyckham, Berks; Sompting, Sussex; and Northleigh,
+Oxfordshire. In the belfry of the tower of Earls Barton Church are windows
+of five or six lights, the divisions between which are formed by these
+curious balluster shafts. The semicircular-headed single-light window of
+this style may be distinguished from those of the Norman style by the
+double splay of the jambs, the spaces between which spread or increase in
+width outwardly as well as inwardly, the narrowest part of the window
+being placed on the centre of the thickness of the wall; whereas the jambs
+of windows in the Norman style have only a single splay, and the narrowest
+part of the window is set even with the external face of the wall, or
+nearly so. Single-light windows splayed externally occur in the west
+walls of the towers of Wyckham Church, Berks, and of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, Caversfield Church, Oxfordshire, and on the north side
+of the chancel of Clapham Church, Bedfordshire; but windows without a
+splay occur in the tower of Lavendon Church, Buckinghamshire. Small square
+or oblong-shaped apertures are sometimes met with, as in the tower of St.
+Benedict’s Church, Cambridge; and also triangular-headed windows, which,
+with doorways of the same form, will be presently noticed.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Single-light Window, Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.]
+
+Q. Of what description are the arches which separate the nave from the
+chancel and aisles, and sustain the clerestory walls?
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Arches, St. Michael’s Church, St. Alban’s,
+A. D. 948.]
+
+A. They are very plain, and consist of a single sweep or soffit only,
+without any sub-arch, as in the Norman style; and they spring from square
+piers; with a plain abacus impost on each intervening, which impost has
+sometimes the under edge chamfered, and sometimes left quite plain. Arches
+of this description occur at Brixworth Church, between the nave and
+chancel of Clapham Church, and between the nave and chancel of Wyckham
+Church. The arches in St. Michael’s Church, St. Alban’s, which divide the
+nave from the aisles, have their edges slightly chamfered. There are also
+arches with single soffits, which have over them a kind of hood, similar
+to that over doorways of square-edged rib-work, projecting a few inches
+from the face of the wall, carried round the arch, and either dying into
+the impost or continued straight down to the ground. The chancel arch of
+Worth Church, and arches in the churches of Brigstock and Barnack, and of
+St. Benedict, Cambridge, and the chancel arch, Barrow Church, Salop, are
+of this description. Some arches have round or semicylindrical mouldings
+rudely worked on the face, as in the chancel arch, Wittering Church; or
+under or attached to the soffit, as at the churches of Sompting and St.
+Botulph, Sussex. Rudely sculptured impost blocks also sometimes occur, as
+at Sompting and at St. Botulph; and animals sculptured in low relief
+appear at the springing of the hood over the arch in the tower of St.
+Benedict’s Church, Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: Tower Arch, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Chancel Arch, Wittering Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. How are some of the doorways, windows, arched recesses, and panels of
+Anglo-Saxon architecture constructed?
+
+[Illustration: Doorway in the Tower of Brigstock Church.]
+
+A. In a very rude manner, of two or more long blocks of stone, placed
+slantingly or inclined one towards the other, thus forming a straight
+line, or triangular-headed arch; the lower ends of these sometimes rest on
+plain projecting imposts, which surmount other blocks composing the
+jambs. We find a doorway of this description on the west side of the tower
+of Brigstock Church, forming the entrance into the curious circular-shaped
+turret attached and designed for a staircase to the belfry; an arched
+recess of this description occurs in the tower of Barnack Church, and a
+panel on the exterior of the same tower, and in windows in the tower of
+the old church, Barton-upon-Humber, and in the tower of Sompting Church,
+and St. Michael’s Church, Oxford. The arch thus shaped is not, however,
+peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon style, but may occasionally be traced in most
+if not all of the subsequent styles, but not of such rude or plain
+construction.
+
+[Illustration: Recess in the Tower of Barnack Church.]
+
+Q. Were the Anglo-Saxon architects accustomed to construct crypts beneath
+their churches?
+
+A. There are some subterranean vaults, not easily accessible, the presumed
+remains of Bishop Wilfrid’s work, at Ripon and Hexham, of the latter part
+of the seventh century; but the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton
+Church, Derbyshire, the walls of which are constructed of _hewn_ stone, is
+perhaps the most perfect specimen existing of a crypt in the Anglo-Saxon
+style, and of a stone vaulted roof sustained by piers, which are of
+singular character; the vaulting is without diagonal groins, and bears a
+greater similarity to Roman than to Norman vaulting.
+
+[Illustration: Crypt, Repton Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Q. Are mouldings, or is any kind of sculptured ornament, to be met with in
+Anglo-Saxon work?
+
+A. Although the remains of this style are for the most part plain and
+devoid of ornamental detail, we occasionally meet with mouldings of a
+semicylindrical or roll-like form, on the face or under the soffit of an
+arch, and these are sometimes continued down the sides of the jambs or
+piers. Foliage, knot-work, and other rudely sculptured detail occur on
+the tower of Barnack Church, and some rude sculptures appear in St.
+Benedict’s Church, Cambridge; and the plain and simple cross of the Greek
+form, is represented in relief over a doorway at Stanton Lacey Church, and
+over windows in the tower of Earls Barton Church.
+
+Q. What was the general plan of the Anglo-Saxon churches?
+
+A. We have now but few instances in which the complete ground plan of an
+Anglo-Saxon church can be traced: that of Worth Church, Sussex, is perhaps
+the most perfect, as the original foundation walls do not appear to have
+been disturbed, although insertions of windows of later date have been
+made in the walls of the superstructure. This church is planned in the
+form of a cross, and consists of a nave with transepts, and a chancel,
+terminating at the east end with a semicircular apsis--a rare instance in
+the Anglo-Saxon style, as in general the east end of the chancel is
+rectangular in plan. The towers of Anglo-Saxon churches are generally
+placed at the west end, though sometimes, as at Wotten Wawen, they occur
+between the chancel and nave. No original staircase has yet been found in
+the interior of any. The church at Brixworth, an edifice of the seventh
+century, and that of St. Michael, at St. Alban’s, of the tenth century,
+have aisles. Sometimes the church appears to have consisted of a nave and
+chancel only.
+
+Q. Why have we so few ecclesiastical remains of known or presumed
+Anglo-Saxon architecture now existing?
+
+A. There are probably many examples of this style preserved in churches
+which have hitherto escaped observation[49-*]; still they are,
+comparatively speaking, rarely to be met with: and this may be accounted
+for by the recorded fact, that in the repeated incursions of the Danes in
+this island, during the ninth and tenth centuries, almost all the
+Anglo-Saxon monasteries and churches were set on fire and destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo Saxon Doorway and Window, interior of the tower of
+Brigstock Church, north side.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-*] All the Anglo-Saxon remains noticed in this chapter, except those
+alluded to as supposed to exist at Ripon and Hexham, together with the
+tower of the church of St. Benedict’s, Lincoln, have been inspected by
+the author; and the illustrations of this chapter are, with three
+exceptions, from his sketches made on the spot. Of the remaining three
+vignettes, two are from drawings made whilst the author was present, and
+one only, viz. that of the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton Church,
+has been reduced from a larger engraving. Besides the churches which
+have been referred to, several others which have not been visited by the
+author exhibit vestiges, more or less, of presumed Anglo-Saxon work. Of
+such churches the following is a list, and, with those mentioned in the
+chapter, constitute all which have yet come under his notice:
+
+Caversfield, Oxfordshire. Church Stretton, Salop. Trinity Church,
+Colchester. Deerhurst, Gloucestershire. Daglinworth, Gloucestershire.
+Jarrow, Durham. Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorkshire. Kirkdale, Yorkshire.
+Monkswearmouth, Durham. Ropsley, Lincolnshire. Stoke D’Abernon, Surrey.
+Wittingham, Yorkshire.
+
+Of these, seven are noticed by Mr. Rickman.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Norman Chancel, Darent Church, Kent.]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+OF THE NORMAN OR ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE.
+
+
+Q. To what era may we assign the introduction of the Anglo-Norman style?
+
+A. To the reign of Edward the Confessor, since that monarch is recorded by
+the historians, Matthew Paris and William of Malmesbury, to have rebuilt
+(A. D. 1065) the Abbey Church at Westminster in a new style of
+architectural design, which furnished an example afterwards followed by
+many in the construction of churches.[52-*]
+
+Q. Is any portion of the structure erected by Edward the Confessor
+remaining?
+
+A. A crypt of early Norman work under the present edifice or buildings
+attached to it is supposed to have been part of the church constructed by
+that monarch.
+
+Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?
+
+A. From about A. D. 1065 to the close of the twelfth century.
+
+Q. By what means are we to distinguish this style from the styles of a
+later period?
+
+A. It is distinguished without difficulty by its semicircular arches, its
+massive piers, which are generally square or cylindrical, though sometimes
+multangular in form, and from numerous ornamental details and mouldings
+peculiar to the style.
+
+Q. What part of the original building has generally been preserved in
+those churches that were built by the Normans, when all the rest has been
+demolished and rebuilt in a later style of architecture?
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway, Wolston Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+A. There appears to have been a prevalent custom, among those architects
+who succeeded the Normans, to preserve the doorways of those churches they
+rebuilt or altered; for many such doorways still remain in churches, the
+other portions of which were built at a much later period. Thus in the
+tower of Kenilworth Church, Warwickshire, is a Norman doorway of singular
+design, from the square band or ornamental facia which environs it. This
+is a relic of a more ancient edifice than the structure in which it now
+appears, and which is of the fourteenth century; and the external masonry
+of the doorway is not tied into the walls of more recent construction, but
+exhibits a break all round. The church of Stoneleigh, in the same county,
+contains in the north wall a fine Norman doorway, which has been left
+undisturbed, though the wall on each side of Norman construction, has been
+altered, not by demolition, but by the insertion, in the fourteenth
+century, of decorated windows in lieu of the original small Norman lights.
+
+Q. Were the Norman doorways much ornamented?
+
+A. Many rich doorways were composed of a succession of receding
+semicircular arches springing from rectangular-edged jambs, and detached
+shafts with capitals in the nooks; which shafts, together with the arches,
+were often enriched with the mouldings common to this style. Sometimes the
+sweep of mouldings which faced the architrave was continued without
+intermission down the jambs or sides of the doorway; and in small country
+churches Norman doorways, quite plain in their construction, or with but
+few mouldings, are to be met with. There is, perhaps, a greater variety of
+design in doorways of this than of any other style; and of the numerous
+mouldings with which they in general abound more or less, the chevron, or
+zig-zag, appears to have been the most common.
+
+Q. In what other respect were these doors sometimes ornamented?
+
+A. The semicircular-shaped stone, which we often find in the tympanum at
+the back of the head of the arch, is generally covered with rude sculpture
+in basso relievo, sometimes representing a scriptural subject, as the
+temptation of our first parents on the tympanum of a Norman doorway at
+Thurley Church, Bedfordshire; sometimes a legend, as a curious and very
+early sculpture over the south door of Fordington Church, Dorsetshire,
+representing a scene in the story of St. George; and sometimes symbolical,
+as the representation of fish, serpents, and chimeræ on the north doorway
+of Stoneleigh Church, Warwickshire. The figure of our Saviour in a sitting
+attitude, holding in his left hand a book, and with his right arm and hand
+upheld, in allusion to the saying, _I am the way, and the truth, and the
+life_, and circumscribed by that mystical figure the _Vesica piscis_,
+appears over Norman doorways at Ely Cathedral; Rochester Cathedral;
+Malmesbury Abbey Church; Elstow Church, Bedfordshire; Water Stratford
+Church, Buckinghamshire; and Barfreston Church, Kent; and is not
+uncommon.
+
+Q. Are there many Norman porches?
+
+A. Norman porches occur at Durham Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey Church;
+Sherbourne Abbey Church; and Witney Church, Oxfordshire; but they are not
+very common. The roof of the porch was usually groined with simple cross
+springers and moulded ribs; and in some instances a room over has been
+added at a later period. Numerous portals of the Norman era appear
+constructed within a shallow projecting mass of masonry, similar in
+appearance to the broad projecting buttress, and, like that, finished on
+the upper edge with a plain slope. This was to give a sufficiency of depth
+to the numerous concentric arches successively receding in the thickness
+of the wall, which could not otherwise be well attained.
+
+Q. What kind of windows were those belonging to this style?
+
+A. The windows were mostly small and narrow, seldom of more than one
+light, except belfry windows, which were usually divided into two
+round-headed lights by a shaft, with a capital and abacus. Early in the
+style the windows were quite plain; afterwards they were ornamented in a
+greater or less degree, sometimes with the chevron or zig-zag, and
+sometimes with roll or cylinder mouldings; in many instances, also, shafts
+were inserted at the sides, the window jambs were simply splayed in one
+direction only, and the space between them increased in width inwardly.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window, Ryton Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Q. Do we meet with any circular or wheel-shaped windows of the Norman era?
+
+A. A circular window, with divisions formed by small shafts and
+semicircular or trefoiled arches, disposed so as to converge to a common
+centre, sometimes occurs in the gable at the east end of a Norman church,
+as at Barfreston Church, Kent; and New Shoreham Church, Sussex; and are
+not uncommon.
+
+[Illustration: Early Norman Window, Darent Church, Kent, with incipient
+zig-zag moulding.]
+
+Q. What kinds of piers were the Norman piers?
+
+A. Early in the style they were (with some exceptions, as in the crypts
+beneath the cathedrals of Canterbury and Worcester) very massive, and the
+generality plain and cylindrical; though sometimes they were square, which
+was indeed the most ancient shape; sometimes they appear with rectangular
+nooks or recesses; and, in large churches, Norman piers had frequently one
+or more semicylindrical pier-shafts attached, disposed either in nooks or
+on the face of the pier. We sometimes meet with octagonal piers, as in the
+cathedrals of Oxford and Peterborough, the conventual church at Ely, and
+in the ruined church of Buildwas Abbey, Salop; and also, though rarely,
+with piers covered with spiral flutings, as one is in Norwich Cathedral;
+with the spiral cable moulding, as one is in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral; and encircled with a spiral band, as one appears in the ruined
+chapel at Orford, in Suffolk; sometimes, also, they appear covered with
+ornamental mouldings. Late in the style the piers assume a greater
+lightness in appearance, and are sometimes clustered and banded round with
+mouldings, and approximate in design those of a subsequent style.
+
+Q. How are the capitals distinguished?
+
+A. The general outline and shape of the Norman capital is that of a square
+cubical mass, having the lower part rounded off with a contour resembling
+that of an ovolo moulding; the face on each side of the upper part of the
+capital is flat, and it is often separated from the lower part by an
+escalloped edge; and where such division is formed by more than one
+escallop, the lower part is channelled between each, and the spaces below
+the escalloped edges are worked or moulded so as to resemble inverted and
+truncated semicones.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital, Steetley Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Besides the plain capital thus described, of which instances with the
+single escalloped edge occur in the crypts beneath the cathedrals of
+Canterbury, Winchester, and Worcester, and with a series of escalloped
+edges, or what would be heraldically termed _invected_, in many of the
+capitals of the Norman piers in Norwich Cathedral, an extreme variety of
+design in ornamental accessories prevail, the general form and outline of
+the capital being preserved; and some exhibit imitations of the Ionic
+volute and Corinthian acanthus, whilst many are covered with rude
+sculpture in relief. They are generally finished with a plain square
+abacus moulding, with the under edge simply bevelled or chamfered;
+sometimes a slight angular moulding occurs between the upper face and
+slope of the abacus, and sometimes the abacus alone intervenes between the
+pier and the spring of the arch. There are also many round capitals, as,
+for instance, those in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral, but they are
+mostly late in the style.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcade, St. Augustine’s, Canterbury.]
+
+Q. What is observable in the bases of the piers?
+
+A. The common base moulding resembles in form or contour a quirked ovolo
+reversed; there are, however, many exceptions.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Base, Romsey Church, Hants.]
+
+Q. How are the arches distinguished?
+
+A. By their semicircular form; they are generally double-faced, or formed
+of two concentric divisions, one receding within the other. Early in the
+style they are plain and square-edged; late in the style they are often
+found enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings, or some other
+ornament. Sometimes the curvature of the arch does not immediately spring
+from the capital or impost, but is raised or stilted.
+
+Q. What parts of Norman churches do we generally find vaulted?
+
+A. In cathedral and large conventual churches built in the Norman style we
+find the crypts and aisles vaulted with stone, but not the nave or choir;
+and over the vaulting of the aisles was the triforium. In small Norman
+churches the chancel is generally the only part vaulted; and between the
+vaulting and outer roof is, in some instances, a small loft or chamber.
+Sometimes we find the original design for vaulting to have been commenced
+and left unfinished.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arch and Piers, Melbourne Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Q. Of what description was the Norman vaulting?
+
+A. The bays of vaulting were generally either squares or parallelograms,
+though sometimes not rectangular in shape, and each was divided into four
+concave vaulting cells by diagonal and intersecting groins, thus forming
+what is called a quadripartite vault. Early in the style the diagonal
+edges of the groins appear without ribs or mouldings; at an advanced stage
+they are supported by square-edged ribs of cut stone; and late in the
+style the ribs and groins are faced with roll or cylinder mouldings. They
+are also sometimes profusely covered with the zig-zag moulding and other
+ornamental details.
+
+Q. What is observable with respect to Norman masonry?
+
+A. In general the walls are faced on each side with a thin shell of ashlar
+or cut stone, whilst the intervening space, which is sometimes
+considerable, is filled with grouted rubble. Masses of this grout-work
+masonry, from which the facing of cut stone has been removed, we often
+find amongst ruined edifices of early date.
+
+Q. Were there any buttresses used at this period?
+
+[Illustration: Norman Buttress, Chancel of St. Mary’s, Leicester.]
+
+A. Yes; but the walls being enormously thick, and requiring little
+additional support, those in use are like pilasters, with a broad face
+projecting very little from the building; and they seem to have been
+derived from the pilaster strips of stonework in Anglo-Saxon masonry. They
+are generally of a single stage only, but sometimes of more, and are not
+carried up higher than the cornice, under which they often but not always
+finish with a slope. They appear as if intended rather to relieve the
+plain external surface of the wall than to strengthen it. Norman portals
+not unfrequently occur, formed in the thickness of a broad but shallow
+pilaster buttress, as at Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, and at Stoneleigh and
+Hampton-in-Arden Churches, Warwickshire, and elsewhere. This kind of
+buttress was also used in the next, or Semi-Norman style.
+
+Q. Were there any towers?
+
+A. Yes; they were generally very low and massive; and the exterior,
+especially of the upper story, was often decorated with arcades of blank
+semicircular and intersecting arches; the parapet consisted of a plain
+projecting blocking-course, supported by the corbel table.
+
+Q. Do pinnacles appear to have been known to the Normans?
+
+A. Although some are of opinion that the pinnacle was not introduced till
+after the adoption of the pointed style, many Norman buildings have
+pinnacles of a conical shape, which are apparently part of the original
+design.
+
+Q. What distinction occurs in the construction of the small country
+churches of this style, and the larger buildings of conventual foundation?
+
+A. Small Norman churches consisted of a single story only; cathedral and
+conventual churches were carried up to a great height, and were frequently
+divided into three tiers, the lowest of which consisted of single arches,
+separating the nave from the aisles: above each of these arches in the
+second tier were two smaller arches constructed beneath a larger;
+sometimes the same space was occupied by a single arch; and in this tier
+was the triforium or gallery. In the third tier or clerestory were
+frequently arcades of three arches connected together, the middle one of
+which was higher and broader than the others: and all these three occupied
+a space only equal to the span of the lowest arch. Blank arcades were also
+much used in the exterior walls, as well as in the interior of rich
+Norman buildings; and some of the arches which composed them were often
+pierced for windows.
+
+Q. What were the mouldings principally used in the decoration of Norman
+churches?
+
+A. The chevron, or zig-zag, which is not always single, but often
+duplicated, triplicated, or quadrupled.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The reversed zig-zag.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The indented moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The embattled moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The dovetail moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The beak head.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The nebule, chiefly used for the fascia under a parapet.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The billet.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The square billet, or corbel bole, used for supporting a blocking course.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The cable moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The double cone.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The pellet, or stud.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The hatched, or saw tooth.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The nail head.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The lozenge.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The studded trellis.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The diamond fret.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The medallion.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The star.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The scalloped or invected moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A variety of other mouldings and ornamental accessories are also to be met
+with, but those above described are the most common.
+
+Q. What kind of string-course do we usually find carried along the walls
+of Norman churches, just below the windows?
+
+A. A string-course similar in form to the common Norman abacus, with a
+plain face and the under part bevelled, is of most frequent occurrence; a
+plain semihexagon string-course is also often to be met with. Sometimes
+the string-course is ornamented with the zig-zag moulding.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Mouldings, from Binham Church, Norfolk, and
+Peterborough.]
+
+Q. What difference is there as to their general character and appearance
+between the early and late examples of Norman architecture?
+
+A. The details of those buildings early in the style are characterized by
+their massiveness, simplicity, and plain appearance; the single or
+double-faced semicircular arches, both of doorways and windows, as well as
+the arches supporting the clerestory walls, are generally devoid of
+ornament, and the edges of the jambs and arches are square. The undercroft
+of Canterbury Cathedral, the work of Archbishop Lanfranc, between A. D.
+1073 and A. D. 1080; the crypt and transepts of Winchester Cathedral, built
+by Bishop Walkelyn between A. D. 1079 and A. D. 1093; the plain Norman work
+of the Abbey Church at St. Alban’s, built by Abbot Paul, between
+1077-1093; and the north and south aisles of the choir of Norwich
+Cathedral, the work of Bishop Herbert, between A. D. 1096 and A. D. 1101,
+not to multiply examples, may be enumerated as instances of plain and
+early Norman work. In buildings late in the style we find a profusion of
+ornamental detail of a peculiar character, and numerous semi and
+tripartite cylindrical mouldings on the faces and edges of arches and
+vaulting-ribs. The transepts of Peterborough Cathedral, built by Abbot
+Waterville between A. D. 1155 and A. D. 1175, exhibit vaulting-groins faced
+with roll mouldings, and other details of an advanced stage; whilst the
+Galilee, Durham Cathedral, built by Bishop Pudsey, A. D. 1180, is
+remarkable for the lightness and elongation of the piers, which are formed
+of clustered columns; and the semicircular arches which spring from these
+are enriched both on the face and soffits with the chevron or zig-zag
+moulding. There are many intermediate gradations between the extreme plain
+and massive work of early date, and the enrichments, mouldings, and
+elongated proportions to be found late in the style; and in detail we may
+perceive an almost imperceptible merging into that style which succeeded
+the Norman.
+
+[Illustration: Base. Crypt, St. Peter’s, Oxford, c. 1100.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52-*] Defunctus autem Rex beatissimus in crastino sepultus est Londini,
+in Ecclesia, quam ipse novo compositionis genere construxerat, a qua
+post, multi Ecclesias construentes, exemplum adepti, opus illud expensis
+Å“mulabantur sumptuosis.--MATT. PARIS.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Vesica Piscis in the tympan of the south doorway, Ely
+Cathedral]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+OF THE SEMI-NORMAN STYLE.
+
+
+Q. What is the Semi-Norman style?
+
+A. It is that style of transition which, without superseding the Norman
+style, prevailed more or less, in conjunction with it, during the latter
+part of the twelfth century, and probably even from an earlier period, and
+gradually led to the complete adoption, in the succeeding century, of the
+early pointed style in a pure state, and to the general disuse of the
+semicircular arch.
+
+Q. By what is this style chiefly denoted?
+
+A. By the intersection of semicircular arches, the frequent intermixture
+of the pointed arch in its incipient state with the semicircular arch, and
+the pointed arch with its accompaniments of features, mouldings, and
+ornamental accessories, exactly similar to those of the Norman style, both
+in its earlier and later gradations, and from which it appears to have
+differed only in the contour or form of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: Early specimen of intersecting Arches, St. Botolph’s
+Priory, Colchester. (12th cent.)]
+
+Q. Whence are we to derive the origin of the pointed arch?
+
+A. Many conjectural opinions on this much-contested question have been
+entertained, yet it still remains to be satisfactorily elucidated. Some
+would derive it from the East and ascribe its introduction to the
+Crusaders; some maintain that it was suggested by the intersection of
+semicircular arches, which intersection we frequently find in ornamental
+arcades; others contend that it originated from the mode of quadripartite
+vaulting adopted by the Normans, the segmental groins of which, crossing
+diagonally, produce to appearance the pointed arch; whilst some imagine it
+may have been derived from that mystical figure of a pointed oval form,
+the _Vesica Piscis_[76-*]. But whatever its origin, it appears to have
+been imperceptibly brought into partial use towards the middle of the
+twelfth century.
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman double Piscina, Jesus College Chapel,
+Cambridge.]
+
+Q. What are the characteristics of this style?
+
+A. In large buildings massive cylindrical piers support pointed arches,
+above which we often find round-headed clerestory windows, as at Buildwas
+Abbey Church, Salop; or semicircular arches forming the triforium, as at
+Malmesbury Abbey Church, Wilts. Sometimes we meet with successive tiers
+of arcades, in which the pointed arch is surmounted both by intersecting
+and semicircular arches, as in a portion of the west front of Croyland
+Abbey Church, Lincolnshire, now in ruins. The ornamental details and
+mouldings of this style generally partake of late Norman character; and
+the zig-zag and semicylindrical mouldings on the faces of arches appear to
+predominate, though other Norman mouldings are common; but we also
+frequently meet with specimens in the Semi-Norman style in which extreme
+plainness prevails, and the character is of that nature as to induce us to
+ascribe such buildings to rather an early period. Single and double, and
+sometimes even triple-faced arches, with the edges left square,
+distinguish plain specimens of this style from the plain-pointed
+double-faced arches of the succeeding century, the edges of which are
+splayed or chamfered. In late instances of this, as of the cotemporaneous
+Norman style, we observe in the details a gradual tendency to merge into
+those of the style of the thirteenth century, when the pointed arch had
+attained maturity, and the peculiar features and decorative mouldings and
+sculptures of Norman character had fallen into isuse.[TN-2]
+
+Q. What specimen of this style is there of apparently early date?
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Arch, Abbey Church, Malmesbury.]
+
+A. The church, now in ruins, of Buildwas Abbey, Salop, founded A. D.
+1135[79-*], is an early specimen of the Semi-Norman style, in which, with
+the incipient pointed arch, Norman features and details are blended. The
+nave is divided from the aisles by plain double-faced pointed arches, with
+square edges, and hood mouldings over, which spring from massive
+cylindrical piers with square bases and capitals; whilst the clerestory
+windows above (for there is no triforium) are semicircular-headed. The
+general features of early Norman character, the absence of decorative
+mouldings, and the plain appearance this church exhibits throughout, are
+such as perhaps to warrant the presumption that this church is the same
+structure mentioned in the charter of confirmation granted to this abbey
+by Stephen, A. D. 1138-9.
+
+Q. What other noted specimens are there of this style?
+
+[Illustration: Intersecting Window Arches, St. Cross Church, Winchester.]
+
+A. The church of the Hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, presents an
+interesting combination of semicircular, intersecting, and pointed arches,
+of cotemporaneous date, enriched with the zig-zag and other Norman
+decorative mouldings, and is a structure, in appearance and detail, of
+much later date than the church at Buildwas Abbey, though the same early
+era has been assigned to each.
+
+St. Joseph’s Chapel, Glastonbury, now in ruins, supposed to have been
+erected in the reigns of Henry the Second and Richard the First, is
+perhaps the richest specimen now remaining of the Semi-Norman or
+transition style, and is remarkable for the profusion of sculptured detail
+and combination of round and intersecting arches. In the remains of
+Malmesbury Abbey Church a Norman triforium with semicircular arches is
+supported on pointed arches which are enriched with Norman mouldings, and
+spring from massive cylindrical Norman piers. The interior of Rothwell
+Church, Northamptonshire, has much of Semi-Norman character: the aisles
+are divided from the nave by four lofty, plain, and triple-faced pointed
+arches, with square edges, springing from square piers with attached
+semicylindrical shafts on each side, and banded round midway between the
+bases and capitals; and the latter, which are enriched with sculptured
+foliage, are surmounted by square abaci; the west doorway is also of
+Semi-Norman character, and pointed, and is set within a projecting mass of
+masonry resembling the shallow Norman buttress. The circular part of St.
+Sepulchre’s Church, Northampton, has early pointed arches, plain in
+design, springing from Norman cylindrical piers. In the circular part of
+the Temple Church, London, dedicated A. D. 1185, the piers consist of four
+clustered columns banded round midway between the bases and capitals, and
+approximating the Early English style of the thirteenth century; and these
+support pointed arches, over which and continued round the clerestory wall
+is an arcade of intersecting semicircular arches, and above these are
+round-headed windows.
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Window, Oxford Cathedral.]
+
+Q. What particular specimen of the Semi-Norman style has been noticed by
+any cotemporaneous author, and the date of it clearly defined?
+
+A. The eastern part of Canterbury Cathedral, consisting of Trinity Chapel
+and the circular adjunct called Becket’s Crown. The building of these
+commenced the year following the fire which occurred A. D. 1174, and was
+carried on without intermission for several successive years. Gervase, a
+monk of the cathedral, and an eyewitness of this re-edification, wrote a
+long and detailed description of the work in progress, and a comparison
+between that and the more ancient structure which was burnt; he does not,
+however, notice in any clear and precise terms the general adoption of the
+pointed arch and partial disuse of the round arch in the new building,
+from which we may perhaps infer they were at that period indifferently
+used, or rather that the pointed arch was gradually gaining the
+ascendancy[83-*].
+
+Q. How long does the Semi or Mixed Norman style appear to have prevailed?
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Arch, St. Cross Church, Winchester.]
+
+A. Though we can neither trace satisfactorily the exact period of its
+introduction, or even that of its final extinction, (for it appears to
+have merged gradually into the pure and unmixed pointed style of the
+thirteenth century,) we have perhaps no remains of this kind to which we
+can attribute an earlier date than that included between the years 1130
+and 1140, unless we except the intersecting arches at St. Botulph’s,
+Priory Church, Colchester, which may be a few years earlier; and it
+appears to have prevailed, in conjunction or intermixed with the Norman
+style, from thence to the close of the twelfth century, and probably to a
+somewhat later period.
+
+[Illustration: Arcade, Christ Church, Oxford.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[76-*] The figure of a fish, whence the form _vesica piscis_ originated,
+was one of the most ancient of the Christian symbols, emblematically
+significant of the word ἴχθυς,[TN-3] which contained the initial letters
+of the name and titles of our Saviour. The symbolic representation of a
+fish we find sculptured on some of the sarcophagi of the early
+Christians discovered in the catacombs at Rome; but the actual figure of
+a fish afterwards gave place to an oval-shaped compartment, pointed at
+both extremities, bearing the same mystical signification as the fish
+itself, and formed by two circles intersecting each other in the centre.
+This was the most common symbol used in the middle ages, and thus
+delineated it abounds in Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts. Every
+where we meet with it during the middle ages, in religious sculptures,
+in painted glass, on encaustic tiles, and on seals; and in the latter,
+that is, in those of many of the ecclesiastical courts, the form is yet
+retained. Even with respect to the origin of the pointed arch, that
+_vexata quæstio_ of antiquaries, with what degree of probability may it
+not be attributed to this mystical form? It is indeed in this symbolical
+figure that we see the outline of the pointed arch plainly developed at
+least a century and half before the appearance of it in architectonic
+form. And in that age full of mystical significations, the twelfth
+century, when every part of a church was symbolized, it appears nothing
+strange if this typical form should have had its weight towards
+originating and determining the adoption of the pointed arch.--Internal
+Decorations of English Churches, British Critic, April, 1839.
+
+[79-*] The date of the _foundation_ of an abbey or church must not,
+however, be confounded with that of its actual _erection_, which was
+often many years later, and the only certain guide to which is the date
+of the _Consecration_.
+
+[83-*] In the minute and circumstantial account which Gervase gives of
+the partial destruction of this cathedral by fire, A. D. 1174, and its
+after restoration, he seems to allude, though in obscure language, to
+the altered form of the vaulting in the aisles of the choir (_in
+circuitu extra chorum_); and his comparison, with reference to this
+building, between early and late Norman architecture is altogether so
+curious and exact as to deserve being transcribed:--
+
+“Dictum est in superioribus quod post combustionem illam vetera fere
+omnia chori diruta sunt, et in quandam augustioris formæ transierunt
+novitatem. Nunc autem quæ sit operis utriusque differentia dicendum est.
+Pilariorum igitur tam veterum quam novorum una forma est, una et
+grossitudo, sed longitudo dissimilis. Elongati sunt enim pilarii novi
+longitudine pedum fere duodecim. In capitellis veteribus opus erat
+planum, in novis sculptura subtilis. Ibi in chori ambitu pilarii viginti
+duo, hic autem viginti octo. Ibi arcus et cætera omnia plana utpote
+sculpta secure et non scisello, his in omnibus fere sculptura idonea.
+Ibi columpna nulla marmorea, hic innumeræ. Ibi in circuitu extra chorum
+fornices planæ, hic arcuatæ sunt et clavatæ. Ibi murus super pilarios
+directus cruces a choro sequestrabat, hic vero nullo intersticio cruces
+a choro divisæ in unam clavem quæ in medio fornicis magnæ consistit, quæ
+quatuor pilariis principalibus innititur, convenire videntur. Ibi cœlum
+ligneum egregia pictura decoratum, hic fornix ex lapide et tofo levi
+decenter composita est. Ibi triforium unum, hic duo in choro, et in ala
+ecclesiæ tercium.�--De Combust. et Repar. Cant. Ecclesiæ.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, Paulscray Church, Kent.]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+OF THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. During what era did the Early English style prevail?
+
+A. It may be said to have prevailed generally throughout the thirteenth
+century[86-*].
+
+Q. How is it distinguished from the Norman and Semi-Norman styles?
+
+A. The semicircular-headed arch, with its peculiar mouldings, was almost
+entirely discarded, and superseded by the pointed arch, with plain
+chamfered edges or mouldings of a different character. The segmental arch,
+nearly flat, was still however used in doorways, and occasionally the
+semicircular also, as in the arches of the Retrochoir, Chichester
+Cathedral.
+
+Q. Of what three kinds were the pointed arches of this era?
+
+A. The lancet, the equilateral, and the obtuse-angled arch.
+
+Q. Which of these arches were most in use?
+
+A. In large buildings the lancet and the equilateral-shaped arch were
+prevalent, as appears in Westminster Abbey, where the lancet arch
+predominates, and Salisbury Cathedral, where the equilateral arch is
+principally used; but in small country churches the obtuse-angled arch is
+most frequently found. All these arches are struck from two centres, and
+are formed from segments of a circle. In large buildings the architrave
+is faced with a succession of roll mouldings and deep hollows, in which
+the tooth ornament is sometimes inserted. In small churches the arches,
+which are double-faced, have merely plain chamfered edges.
+
+Q. What was the difference of the piers between this and an earlier era?
+
+A. Instead of the massive Norman, the Early English piers were, in large
+buildings, composed of an insulated column surrounded by slender detached
+shafts, all uniting together under one capital; these shafts were divided
+into parts by horizontal bands or fillets; but in small churches a plain
+octagonal pier, which can, however, scarcely be distinguished from that of
+a later style, predominated.
+
+Q. How are the capitals distinguished?
+
+A. They are simple in comparison with those of a later style, and are
+often bell-shaped, with a bead moulding round the neck, and a capping,
+with a series of mouldings, above; a very elegant and beautiful capital is
+frequently formed of stiffly sculptured foliage. The capital surmounting
+the multangular-shaped pier is also multangular in form, but plain, with a
+neck, and cap mouldings, and is difficult to be discerned from that of
+the succeeding style; the cap mouldings are, however, in general not so
+numerous as those of a later period.
+
+[Illustration: Capital, Chapter House, Southwell.]
+
+Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?
+
+A. The small doorways have generally a single detached shaft on each side,
+with a plain moulded bell-shaped capital, which is sometimes covered with
+foliage; and the architrave mouldings consist of a few simple members,
+with a hood moulding or label over, terminated by heads. We also find
+richer doorways with two or more detached shafts at the sides, and
+architrave mouldings composed of numerous members. Large doorways of the
+Early English style were sometimes double, being divided into two arched
+openings by a shaft, either single or clustered; and above this a
+quatrefoil was generally inserted, but sometimes the head was filled with
+sculptured detail. Examples of the double doorway occur in the cathedrals
+of Ely, Chichester, Wells, Salisbury, Lincoln, and Lichfield; also at
+Christchurch and St. Cross, Hants; Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire; and
+in other large churches in this style.
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, Baginton Church, Warwickshire. (13th cent.)]
+
+Q. What kind of windows were prevalent?
+
+[Illustration: Window, Beverley Minster. (13th cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: St. Giles’s Oxford. Ely cathedral.]
+
+A. In the early stages of this style the lancet arch-headed window, very
+long and narrow, was prevalent; frequently two, three, or more of these
+were connected together by hood mouldings, the middle window rising higher
+than those at the sides; sometimes they were unconnected, and without
+hood mouldings. In the east wall of Early English chancels three lancet
+windows, thus arranged, are frequently displayed. At a later period a
+broader window, divided into two lights by a plain mullion, finished at
+the top with a lozenge or circle, was used; and sometimes a window divided
+into three lights, the middle one higher than the others, and comprised
+under one hood moulding, was in use; windows of four and even five lancet
+lights, thus disposed, are to be met with, but are not common; the sides
+of the windows were in general simply splayed, without mouldings, and
+increased in width inwardly, but slender shafts were sometimes annexed;
+and we also find, in the interior of rich buildings of this style,
+detached shafts standing out in front of the stonework forming the window
+jambs, and supporting the arch of the window. Towards the close of this
+style the windows assumed a more ornamental cast, and became much larger,
+being frequently divided into two or four principal lights, with one or
+three circles in the heads; both the lights and circles are foliated, and
+these evince the transition in progress to the next, or Decorated style.
+Beneath the windows a string-course is generally carried horizontally
+along the wall; and a roll moulding, similar to the upper members of the
+string-course of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is most commonly met with,
+as the string-course.
+
+[Illustration: Interior of Window, St. Giles’s, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How is the buttress of this age distinguished?
+
+A. In general by its plain triangular or pedimental head, its projecting
+more from the building than the Norman buttress, and from its being less
+in breadth. It is also sometimes carried up above the parapet wall. The
+edges of the buttresses are sometimes chamfered; and plain buttresses in
+stages finished with simple slopes are not uncommon. We very rarely find
+buttresses of this style disposed at the angles of buildings, though such
+disposition was common in the succeeding style; but two buttresses placed
+at right angles with each other, and with the face of the wall, generally
+occur at the angles of churches in this style. Flying buttresses were
+sometimes used to strengthen the clerestory walls of large buildings, and
+have a light and elegant effect.
+
+[Illustration: String-Course, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Were the walls differently built?
+
+A. They were not so thick as those of an earlier period, which occasioned
+the want of stronger buttresses to support them.
+
+[Illustration: Pottern, Wilts.]
+
+[Illustration: Hartlepool, Durham.]
+
+Q. Were the Early English roofs of a different construction from those of
+a later style?
+
+[Illustration: Groining Rib, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. The Norman and Early English roofs were high and acutely pointed. The
+original roofs of most of our old churches, from their exposure to the
+weather, have long since fallen to decay, and been replaced by others of a
+more obtuse shape; but in general the height and angular form of the
+original roof may be ascertained by the weather moulding still remaining
+on the side of the tower or steeple. The interior vaulting of stone roofs
+was composed of fewer parts and ribs, which were often not more numerous
+than those of Norman vaulting, and does not present that complexity of
+arrangement which occurs in the vaulting-ribs of subsequent styles. In the
+cathedral of Salisbury also in the nave of Wells Cathedral are simple and
+good examples of Early English vaulting. A curious groined roof, in which
+the ribs are of wood--plain, cut with chamfered edges--and the cells of
+the vaulting are covered with boards, is to be met with in the church of
+Warmington, Northamptonshire, a very rich, perfect, and interesting
+specimen of this style.
+
+Q. Was not the spire introduced at this period?
+
+A. Yes, many spires were then built; among which was that of old St.
+Paul’s Cathedral, more than five hundred feet high, and which was
+destroyed by fire, A. D. 1561. The spire of Oxford Cathedral is also of
+this style. Early English spires are generally what are called Broach
+spires, and spring at once from the external face of the walls of the
+tower, without any intervening parapet.
+
+Q. Whence did the spire take its origin?
+
+A. It appears to have been suggested by the Norman pinnacle, which, at
+first a conical capping, afterwards became polygonal, and ribbed at the
+angles, thus presenting the prototype of the spire.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What ornament is peculiar, or nearly so, to this style?
+
+A. That called the tooth or dog-tooth ornament, a kind of
+pyramidal-shaped flower of four leaves, which is generally inserted in a
+hollow moulding, and, when seen in profile, presents a zig-zag or serrated
+appearance. The tooth moulding appears to have been introduced towards the
+close of the twelfth century; and an early instance where it occurs is on
+a late Norman doorway, at Whitwell Church, Rutlandshire: we do not,
+however, meet with it in buildings of a later style than that of the
+thirteenth century. It is sometimes found used in great profusion in
+doorways, windows, and other ornamental details; but many churches of this
+style are entirely devoid of this ornament. The ball-flower, though
+introduced in the thirteenth century, is not a common ornament until the
+fourteenth, to which era it may be said more particularly to belong; we
+find it in cornice mouldings, and sometimes on capitals.
+
+Q. What may be observed of the sculptured foliage of this style?
+
+A. As applied to capitals, bases, crockets, and other ornamental detail,
+we find the general design and appearance of the sculptured foliage of
+this style to be stiff and formal compared with that of the succeeding
+style, when the arrangement of the foliage more closely approximated
+nature, and a greater freedom both in conception and execution was
+evinced.
+
+[Illustration: Boss of Sculptured Foliage, Warmington Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. How are the parapets distinguished?
+
+A. They are often plain and embattled; but sometimes a simple horizontal
+parapet is used, supported by a corbel table, as in the tower of Haddenham
+Church, Buckinghamshire, and on that of Brize Norton Church, Oxfordshire.
+At Salisbury Cathedral the parapet is relieved by a series of blank
+trefoil headed pannels,[TN-4] sunk in the face.
+
+Q. What may be said in general terms of the style of the thirteenth
+century, in comparing it with the styles which immediately preceded and
+followed it?
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. In comparison with the Norman style, with its heavy concomitants and
+enrichments, the style of the thirteenth century is light and simple, and
+the details possess much elegance of contour. These, in small buildings,
+are generally plain; but in large buildings they exhibit numerous
+mouldings, combined with a certain degree of decorative embellishment.
+This style is, however, far from presenting that extreme beauty of outline
+and tasteful conception, combined with the pure and chaste ornamental
+accessories, which prevail in the designs of the fourteenth century.
+
+Q. What particular structures may be noticed as belonging to this style?
+
+A. Salisbury Cathedral, built by Bishop Poore between A. D. 1220 and 1260,
+is perhaps the most perfect specimen, on a large scale, of this style in
+its early state, with narrow lancet windows; the nave and transepts of
+Westminster Abbey, commenced in 1245, exhibit this style in a more
+advanced stage; whilst Lincoln Cathedral is, for the most part, a rich
+specimen of this style in its late or transition state. The west front of
+Wells Cathedral, erected by the munificence of Bishop Joceline, between
+A. D. 1213 and A. D. 1239, is covered with blank arcades and a number of
+trefoil-headed niches, surmounted by plain pedimental canopies, which
+contain specimens of statuary remarkable for their extreme beauty and
+freedom of design.
+
+[Illustration: Corbel, Wells Cathedral.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[86-*] From the economic principles on which our modern churches are,
+with few exceptions, planned, they are mostly designed after and are
+intended to resemble in style those of the thirteenth century, in which
+more detail can be dispensed with than in any other style. Hence it
+follows that the just proportions and adaptation of the different parts
+and the minutest details and mouldings in ancient churches of this style
+required to be carefully studied, more so perhaps for practical purposes
+than in churches of any other style.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+OF THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When did the Decorated English style commence, and how long did it
+prevail?
+
+A. It may be said to have commenced in the latter part of the thirteenth
+century, or reign of Edward the First, and to have prevailed about a
+century. The transition from the Early English style to this, and again
+from this to the succeeding style, was however so extremely gradual, that
+it is difficult to affix any precise date for the termination of one
+style, or the introduction of another.
+
+[Illustration: Bracket, York Cathedral.]
+
+Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?
+
+A. From there being a greater redundancy of chaste ornament in this than
+in the preceding style; and though it does not exhibit that extreme
+multiplicity of decorative detail as the style of the fifteenth century,
+the general contours and forms which this style presents, and the
+principal lines of composition, which verge pyramidically rather than
+vertically or horizontally, are infinitely more pleasing; and it is justly
+considered as the most beautiful style of English ecclesiastical
+architecture.
+
+Q. What difference is there between the arches of this style, which
+support the clerestory, and those of an earlier period?
+
+A. The lancet arch is seldom seen; the equilateral arch is generally,
+though not always, used. Both this and the obtuse-angled arch are, taken
+exclusively, difficult to be distinguished from those of an earlier
+period. In small buildings the edges of the pier arches are plain and
+chamfered. In large churches a series of quarter-round or roll-mouldings,
+which have often a square-edged fillet attached, are applied to the
+sub-arch, edges, and facing.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Piers rom[TN-5] Grendon Church, Warwickshire,
+and Austrey Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Q. What difference occurs in the piers from which these arches spring?
+
+A. In large buildings piers of this style were composed of a cluster of
+slender cylindrical shafts, not standing detached from each other, as in
+the Early English style, but closely united. A common pier of this kind is
+formed of four shafts thus united, without bands, with a square-edged
+fillet running vertically up the face of each shaft. Sometimes a simple
+cylindrical pier is found. The octagonal pier, with plain sides, is very
+prevalent in small churches, and does not differ materially from the Early
+English pier of the same kind. The capitals are either bell-shaped,
+clustered, or octagonal, to correspond with the shape of the piers; but
+the cap mouldings are more numerous than in the earlier style. Sometimes
+the capitals are sculptured. In the churches of Monkskirby, Warwickshire,
+and of Cropredy, Oxfordshire, the arches which support the clerestory
+spring at once from the piers, without any intervening capitals, a
+practice not uncommon in the style of the fifteenth century, but very rare
+in this.
+
+Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?
+
+A. Of the large stone vaulted roofs each bay is intersected by
+longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal ribs, with shorter ribs springing
+from the bearing shafts intervening; thus forming a series of vaulting
+cells more numerous than are to be met with in the Early English style,
+though not subdivided to the excess observable in the vaulted roofs of the
+fifteenth century. Sculptured bosses often occur at the intersections. In
+the nave of York Cathedral, finished about A. D. 1330, the groining of the
+roof is less complicated than that of the choir of the same cathedral,
+constructed between A. D. 1360 and A. D. 1370[106-*]. Small structures are
+more simply vaulted. In a chantry chapel adjoining the north side of the
+chancel of Willingham Church, Cambridgeshire, is a very acute-pointed
+angular-shaped stone roof, the plain surface of the vaulting of which is
+supported by two pointed arches springing from corbels projecting from the
+walls; and these sustain straight-sided stone vaulting ribs, obliquely
+disposed to conform with the angle of the roof, and which act as
+principals; and above each arch, and between that and the ridge-line of
+the oblique ribs or principals, the space is filled with an open
+quatrefoil and other tracery. The north transept of Limington Church,
+Somersetshire, has a high pitched stone roof supported by groined ribs.
+
+Q. Are there many wooden roofs of this style remaining?
+
+A. We find comparatively few original wooden roofs in structures of the
+fourteenth century, for such have generally been superseded by roofs of a
+later date and of a more obtuse form. The high and acute pitch of the
+original roof is, however, still generally discernible by the weather
+moulding on the east wall of the tower. In the nave of Higham Ferrars
+Church, Northamptonshire, is a wooden roof which apparently belongs to
+this style: the roof is angular-pointed and open to the ridge-line, the
+walls are connected by tie-beams, and under each of these is a wooden arch
+formed of two ribs or beams springing from stone corbels.
+
+Q. In what respect do the doors of this style differ?
+
+[Illustration: Window, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+A. Large doorways of this style have lateral shafts, with capitals, and
+between the shafts architrave mouldings intervene, which run without stop
+into the base tablet: of such the south doorway of St. Martin’s Church,
+Leicester, is an instance. Small doorways are generally without shafts,
+but have a series of quarter-round, semicylindrical, and tripartite roll
+mouldings at the sides, which are continuous with the architrave
+mouldings; and these have sometimes a square-edged fillet on the face. The
+doorways of this style are frequently enriched with pedimental and
+ogee-shaped canopies, ornamented with crockets and finials; of which the
+north doorway of Exeter Cathedral and the south doorway of Everdon Church,
+Northamptonshire, may be cited as examples. Large doorways have sometimes
+a double opening, divided by a clustered shaft, as in the entrance to the
+Chapter House, York Cathedral. In some instances the head of the doorway
+is foliated, and we observe in detail an approximation to the succeeding
+style. The west doorway of Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire, is in this
+stage of transition.
+
+Q. How are the windows of this style known?
+
+[Illustration: Square-headed Decorated Window, Ashby Folville,
+Leicestershire.]
+
+A. In the later stage of the Early English style the windows became
+enlarged, and the heads were filled with foliated circles. To these
+succeeded, in the fourteenth century, windows ornamented with geometrical
+and flowing tracery, peculiarities which exclusively pertain to this
+style, and by which it is most easily known. The windows are of good
+proportions, and are divided into two or more principal lights by
+mullions, which at the spring of the arch form designs of regular
+geometrical construction, or branch out into flowing ramifications
+composing flame-like compartments, which are foliated[109-*]. The variety
+of tracery in windows of this style is very great, and they frequently
+have pedimental and ogee canopies over them, ornamented in the same manner
+as those over doors: examples of this kind may be found at York
+Cathedral. In the south transept of Chichester, and west front of Exeter
+Cathedrals, are two exceeding large and beautiful windows of this style;
+the first filled with geometrical, the other with flowing, tracery. In
+some windows of this style the mullions simply cross in the head, as in a
+later style, but the lights are commonly foliated, and the difference may
+in general be discerned by the mouldings: such windows occur in Stoneleigh
+Church, Warwickshire. There are also many square-headed windows in this
+style, distinguished by the flowing tracery in the heads, and by other
+characteristic marks: of such a window in Ashby Folville Church,
+Leicestershire, is a rich and good example. Circular windows, filled with
+tracery, are not uncommon in large buildings; and we also meet with
+triangular spherical-shaped windows, as in the clerestory of Barton
+Segrave Church, Northamptonshire[111-*].
+
+[Illustration: Window, Barton Segrave Church.]
+
+Q. Of what description are the mouldings which pertain to this style?
+
+[Illustration: Moulding, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Roll Moulding, Chacombe Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+A. They approximate more nearly, in section and appearance, those of the
+thirteenth than those of the fifteenth century, but the members are
+generally more numerous than in those of the former style; quarter-round,
+half, and tripartite cylinder mouldings, often filleted along the face and
+divided by small cavetto mouldings, sometimes deeply cut, are common. The
+string-course under the windows frequently consists, as in the preceding
+style, of a simple roll moulding, the upper member of which overlaps the
+lower. A plain semicylindrical moulding, with a square-edged fillet on the
+face, is also common, and occurs at the church of Orton-on-the-Hill,
+Leicestershire. The hood moulding over the windows often consists of a
+quarter-round or ogee, with a cavetto beneath, and sometimes returns
+horizontally along the walls as a string-course; a disposition, however,
+more frequently observable in the Early English style than in this: of
+such disposition the churches of Harvington, Worcestershire, and of
+Sedgeberrow, Gloucestershire, may be cited as affording examples. In
+decorative work we often meet with the ball-flower, one of the most
+characteristic ornaments of the style, consisting of a ball inclosed
+within three or four leaves, and sometimes bearing a resemblance to the
+rose-bud, inserted at intervals in a cavetto or hollow moulding, with the
+accompaniment, in some instances, of foliage; a four-leaved flower,
+inserted in the same manner, is also not uncommon.
+
+[Illustration: String-Course, Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire.]
+
+[Illustration: Ball-Flower Ornament, Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and York
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Buttress, St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How may the buttresses of this style be distinguished?
+
+[Illustration: Flying Buttress, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. They were worked in stages, and their set-offs have frequently
+triangular heads, sometimes plain but often ornamented with crockets and
+finials of a more decorative character than those of the Early English
+style. Many buttresses have, however, plain slopes as set-offs, and they
+are frequently placed diagonally at the corners of buildings, as at
+Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire. The flying buttresses at Salisbury
+Cathedral, in which the thrust is partly counterpoised by
+pyramidal-headed pinnacles decorated with crockets and finials, are of
+this age.
+
+Q. What parapet is peculiar to this style?
+
+A. Besides the plain embattled parapet, which is not always easy to be
+distinguished from other styles, a horizontal blocking course, pierced
+with foliated or wavy, flowing tracery, which has a rich effect, is
+common. Of this description specimens occur at St. Mary Magdalen Church,
+Oxford, and Brailes Church, Warwickshire.
+
+Q. What is observable in the niches of this style?
+
+A. They are very beautiful, and are generally surmounted by triangular or
+ogee-shaped canopies, enriched with crockets and finials, while the
+interior of the canopies are groined with numerous small rib mouldings.
+The crockets and finials of this style, as decorative embellishments, are
+peculiarly graceful, chaste, and pleasing in contour.
+
+Q. Was the transition from this style to the next gradual?
+
+A. Both the transition from the Early English to the Decorated style, and
+from the Decorated to the Florid or Perpendicular, was so gradual, that
+though many individual details and ornaments were extremely dissimilar,
+and peculiar to each particular style, we are only able to judge from
+examples when a change was generally established.
+
+Q. From what cotemporary writers of the fourteenth century can we collect
+any architectural notices, either general or of detail?
+
+[Illustration: Part of the Altar Screen, Winchester Cathedral.]
+
+A. In Chaucer we find allusions made to _imageries_, _pinnacles_,
+_tabernacles_, (canopied niches for statuary,) and _corbelles_. Lydgate,
+in _The Siege of Troy_, in his description of the buildings, adverts to
+those of his own age, and uses several architectural terms now obsolete or
+little understood, and some which are not so, as _gargoiles_. In Pierce
+Ploughman’s Creed we have a concise but faithful description of a large
+monastic edifice of the fourteenth century, comprising the church or
+minster, cloister, chapter house, and other offices.
+
+Q. What edifices maybe noticed as constructed in this style?
+
+A. In Exeter Cathedral this style may be said generally to prevail,
+although some portions are of earlier and some of later date. Great part
+of Lichfield Cathedral was also built during the fourteenth century. The
+beautiful cloisters adjoining Norwich Cathedral, commenced A. D. 1297, but
+not finished for upwards of a century, although proceeded with by
+different prelates from time to time, rank as the most beautiful of the
+kind we have remaining. Several country churches are wholly or principally
+erected in this style. Broughton Church, Oxfordshire, may be instanced as
+an elegant, pleasing, and complete example of plain decorated work.
+Trumpington Church, Cambridgeshire, is also deserving of notice; and
+Wimington Church, Bedfordshire, built by John Curteys, lord of the manor,
+who died A. D. 1391, is a small but late edifice in the Decorated style.
+Annexations were also made during this century to numerous churches of
+earlier construction, by the erection of additional aisles or chapels as
+chantries. In all these structures we find more or less, in general
+appearance, form, and detail, of that extreme beauty and elegance of
+design which prevailed, as it were, for about a century, and then
+imperceptibly glided away.
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, Magdalen Church, Oxford.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106-*] The allusion is made to the vaulted roofs of the nave and choir
+of this cathedral as they existed previous to the late unfortunate and
+destructive fires.
+
+[109-*] The Flamboyant window, common in France, is not often met with
+in this country. On the north side of Salford Church, Warwickshire, is,
+however, a window of this description, filled with flamboyant tracery.
+
+[111-*] For specimens of Decorated windows with flowing tracery in the
+heads, vide cuts, pp. 12 and 13.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: South Porch of Newbold-upon-Avon Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+OF THE FLORID OR PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When may this style be said to have commenced, and how long did it
+prevail?
+
+A. We find traces of it in buildings erected at the close of the reign of
+Edward the Third (circa A. D. 1375); and it prevailed for about a century
+and half, or rather more, till late in the reign of Henry the Eighth
+(circa A. D. 1539).
+
+Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?
+
+A. From the multiplicity, profusion, and minuteness of its ornamental
+detail, it has by some received the designation of FLORID; by others, from
+the mullions of the windows and the divisions of ornamental panel-work
+running in straight or perpendicular lines up to the head, which is not
+the case in any earlier style, it has been called and is now better known
+by the designation of the PERPENDICULAR[121-*].
+
+Q. In what respects did it differ from the style which immediately
+preceded it?
+
+A. The beautiful flowing contour of the lines of tracery characteristic of
+the Decorated style was superseded by mullions and transoms, and, in
+panel-work, lines of division disposed vertically and horizontally; and in
+lieu of the quarter-round, semi and tripartite roll and small hollow
+mouldings of the fourteenth century, angular-edged mouldings with bold
+cavettos became predominant.
+
+Q. Of what kind are the arches of this style?
+
+A. Although, in this style, pointed arches constructed from almost every
+radius are to be found, the complex four-centred arch, commonly called
+the Tudor arch, was almost peculiar to it; and the cavetto or wide and
+rather shallow hollow moulding, a characteristic feature of this style,
+often appears in the architrave mouldings of pier arches, doorways, and
+windows, and as a cornice moulding under parapets.
+
+[Illustration: Window, St. Mary’s Church, Oxford.]
+
+[Illustration: Mullion, Burford Church, Oxfordshire.]
+
+Q. How are the piers of this style, which support the clerestory arches,
+distinguished from those of an earlier period?
+
+[Illustration: Capital, Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+A. The section of a pier, which is common in this style, may be described
+as formed from a square or parallelogram, with the angles fluted or cut in
+a bold hollow, and on the flat face of each side of the pier a
+semicylindrical shaft is attached. The flat faces or sides of the pier and
+the hollow mouldings at the angles are carried up vertically from the base
+moulding to the spring of the arch, and thence, without the interposition
+of any capital, in a continuous sweep to the apex of the arch; but the
+slender shafts attached to the piers have capitals, the upper members of
+which are angular-shaped. The base mouldings are also polygonal. Piers and
+arches of this description are numerous, and occur, amongst other
+churches, in St. Thomas Church, Salisbury; Cerne Abbas Church, Bradford
+Abbas Church, and Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire; Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire; and Burford Church, Oxfordshire. In some churches a very
+slender shaft with a capital is attached to each angle of the pier, which
+is disposed lozengewise, the main body of the pier presenting continuous
+lines of moulding with those of the arch, unbroken by any capital: as in
+the piers of Bath Abbey Church, rebuilt early in the sixteenth century. In
+small country churches we frequently find the architrave mouldings of the
+arch continued down the piers, which are altogether devoid of any
+horizontal stop by way of capital. The churches of Brinklow and
+Willoughby, in Warwickshire, afford instances of this kind. Piers somewhat
+different to those above described are also to be met with, but are not so
+common.
+
+Q. What else may be noted respecting some of the piers and arches in this
+style?
+
+A. The face of the sub-arch or soffit is sometimes enriched with oblong
+panelled compartments, arched-headed and foliated; and these are
+continued down the inner sides of the piers. The arches of the tower of
+Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, and some of the arches in Sherborne
+Church, in the same county, may be instanced as examples.
+
+[Illustration: Panelled Arch, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+Q. How may we distinguish the doorways and doors of this style?
+
+A. Many doorways of this style, especially during its early progress, were
+surmounted by crocketted ogee-shaped hood mouldings, terminating with
+finials. In the most common doorway of this style, however, the depressed
+four-centred arch appears within a square head, and in general a
+rectangular hood moulding over; and the spandrels or spaces between the
+spring and apex of the arch and angles of the square head over it are
+filled with quatrefoils, panelling, foliage, small shields, or other
+sculptured ornaments. Sometimes the depressed four-centred arch appears
+without any hood moulding, and we occasionally meet with a simple pointed
+arch described from two centres placed within a rectangular compartment.
+Doorways in this style are often profusely ornamented; and it is common to
+see doors covered with panel-work boldly recessed, the compartments of
+which are sometimes filled in the heads with crocketed ogee arches, which
+produce a rich effect.
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, All Souls College, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Are there many fine porches of this style?
+
+A. More than in any other style, and they are often profusely enriched,
+the front and sides being covered with panel-work, tracery, and niches for
+statuary. The interior of the roof is frequently groined, sometimes with
+fan tracery, but generally with simple though numerous ribs; and in many
+instances a room is constructed over the groined entrance or lower story
+of the porch, but so as to be in keeping with and form part of the general
+design. The south porch of Gloucester Cathedral, the south-west porch of
+Canterbury Cathedral, the south porch of St. John’s Church, Cirencester,
+and the south porch of Burford Church, Oxfordshire, may be noticed as
+examples of rich porches of this style; many others might also be
+enumerated, as they are very numerous and various in detail. Some porches
+are comparatively plain, as the south porch of the church of
+Newbold-upon-Avon, Warwickshire.
+
+Q. How are the windows distinguished?
+
+[Illustration: Window, New College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+A. The chief characteristic in the windows of this style, and which
+renders them easily distinguished from those of an earlier era, consists
+in the vertical bearing of the mullions, which, instead of diverging off
+in flowing lines, are carried straight up into the head of the window;
+smaller mullions spring from the heads of the principal lights, and thus
+the upper portion of the window is filled with panel-like compartments.
+The principal as well as the subordinate lights are foliated in the heads;
+and in large windows the lights are often divided horizontally by
+transoms, which are sometimes embattled. From the continued upright
+position of the mullions and tracery-bars is derived the term
+PERPENDICULAR, as applied to this style. The forms of the window-arches
+vary from the simple pointed to the complex four-centred arch, more or
+less depressed. The windows of the clerestory are sometimes arched, but
+oftener square-headed; and some large windows of the latter description
+nearly cover the sides of the clerestory walls of Chipping Norton Church,
+Oxfordshire.
+
+Q. What do we frequently observe in buildings of this style?
+
+A. The interior walls of churches are often completely covered with
+panel-work tracery, arched headed and foliated, from the clerestory
+windows down to the mouldings of the arches below. The walls of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire, present in the interior a surface almost entirely
+covered with panel-work. Several large churches in this style have also
+long ranges of clerestory windows, set so close to each other that the
+whole length of the clerestory wall seems perforated: we may enumerate as
+examples the churches of St. Michael, Coventry; Stratford-upon-Avon,
+Warwickshire; and Lavenham and Melford, Suffolk. Walls covered on the
+exterior with panel-work are also far from uncommon: the Abbots’ Tower,
+Evesham, the tower of the church of St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire, and of
+Wrexham, Denbighshire, and many other rich towers, (especially those of
+the churches in Somersetshire, where rich specimens in this style abound,
+more so perhaps than in any other county,) are thus decorated. The
+exterior of many rich structures in this style are also covered with
+panel-work, as the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, the west front of Winchester
+Cathedral, and Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, St. Peter’s Church, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?
+
+A. They are in detail more complicated than those of earlier styles, and
+in plain as distinguished from fan-tracery vaulting the groining ribs are
+more numerous. The ribs often diverge at different angles, and form
+geometrical-shaped panels or compartments; and the design has, in some
+instances, been assimilated to net-work. Plain vaulting of this style
+occurs in the nave and choir, Norwich Cathedral; the Lady Chapel and
+choir, Gloucester Cathedral; the nave, Winchester Cathedral; the Beauchamp
+Chapel, Warwick; and a very late specimen in the choir, Oxford Cathedral.
+A very rich and peculiar description of vaulting is one composed of
+pendant semicones covered with foliated panel-work, and, from the design
+resembling a fan spread open, called _fan-tracery_. Of this description of
+vaulting an early instance appears in the cloisters, Gloucester Cathedral.
+The roofs of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, and Henry the Seventh’s
+Chapel, Westminster Abbey, are well-known examples; and portions of
+several of our cathedrals and many small chantry and sepulchral chapels
+are thus vaulted.
+
+Q. What may be observed of the wooden roofs of this style?
+
+[Illustration: Wooden Roof, south aisle, St. Mary’s Church, Leicester.]
+
+A. They are far more numerous than those we meet with in all the previous
+styles; and we frequently find churches of early date in which the
+original roofs, having perhaps become decayed, have been removed and
+replaced by roofs designed in that style prevalent during the fifteenth
+century. The slope or pitch of the roof is much lower than before, and the
+form altogether more obtuse, and sometimes approaching nearly to flatness.
+The exterior is on this account often entirely concealed from view by the
+parapet. Many roofs of this style are divided into bays or compartments
+by horizontal tie-beams faced with mouldings, and apparently supported by
+curved ribs springing from corbels, and forming spandrels filled with open
+worked tracery; and the spaces between the tie-beam, the king-post, and
+the sloping rafters of the roof, are filled with pierced or open-work
+tracery. The sloping bays or compartments of the roof are divided by rib
+mouldings into squares or parallelograms of panel-work, which are again
+often subdivided into similar-shaped panels by smaller ribs with carved
+bosses at the intersections. Some roofs are nearly flat, and simply
+panelled. On many roofs traces of painting and gilding may still be
+discerned, more especially in that part which was over an altar, and where
+the roof often bears indications of having been more ornamented than other
+parts. Roofs painted of an azure colour and studded with gilt stars are
+not uncommon. Sometimes the roof is coved, and the boards are painted in
+imitation of clouds. A great variety of wooden roofs is to be met with in
+this style, many of them exceeding rich; whilst the cornice under the roof
+is sometimes elaborately carved and enriched. Some roofs are much plainer
+in construction than others; and it was, during this era, a part of the
+church on the enrichment of which no small expense and attention were
+bestowed.
+
+Q. What may be noted respecting the parapets of this era?
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, St. Peter’s Church, Dorchester.]
+
+A. Many embattled parapets are covered with sunk or pierced panelling, and
+ornamented with quatrefoils or small trefoil-headed arches; and they have
+sometimes triangular-shaped heads, as at King’s College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and at the east end of Peterborough Cathedral. We also find horizontal or
+straight-sided parapets, covered with sunk or pierced quatrefoils in
+circles. A plain embattled parapet, with the horizontal coping moulding
+continued or carried down the sides of the embrasures, and then again
+returning horizontally, as at St. Peter’s Church, Dorchester, Dorsetshire,
+is also common. A bold but shallow cavetto or hollow cornice moulding is
+frequently carried along the wall just under the parapet.
+
+Q. Was the panelled or sunk quatrefoil much used in decorative detail?
+
+A. In rich buildings of this style the base, the parapet, and other
+intermediate portions were decorated with rows or bands of sunk
+quatrefoils, sometimes inclosed in circles, sometimes in squares, and
+sometimes in lozenge-shaped compartments.
+
+[Illustration: Rose and Foliage, Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.]
+
+Q. What other ornamental detail is peculiar to this style?
+
+A. The rose, which, differing only in colour, was the badge both of the
+houses of York and Lancaster, and as such is often to be met with. Rows of
+a trefoil or lozenge-shaped leaf, somewhat like an oak or strawberry leaf,
+with a smaller trefoil more simple in design intervening between two
+larger, was frequently used as a finish to the cornice of rich
+screen-work, and is known under the designation of _the Tudor Flower_. It
+is also common to find the tendrils, leaves, and fruit of the vine carved
+or sculptured in great profusion in the hollow of rich cornice mouldings,
+especially on screen-work in the interior of a church.
+
+[Illustration: Vine Leaves and Fruit, Whitchurch Church, Somersetshire.]
+
+Q. In what respect do the mouldings of this style differ from those of
+earlier styles?
+
+A. In a greater prevalence of angular forms, which may be observed in
+noticing the section of a series of mouldings, and in the bases and
+capitals of cylindrical shafts. A large and bold but shallow hollow
+moulding or cavetto, in which, when forming part of a horizontal fascia or
+cornice, flowers, leaves, and other sculptured details are often inserted
+at intervals, is a common feature; and such moulding, without any
+insertion, is frequent in doorway and window jambs. A kind of double ogee
+moulding with little projection, is, in conjunction with other mouldings,
+also of common occurrence.
+
+[Illustration: Window, St. Peter’s Church, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Of what particular description of work do we find the existing remains
+to be almost entirely designed and executed in this style of
+ecclesiastical art?
+
+A. Of the numerous specimens of rich wooden screens, composed as to the
+lower part of sunk panelling, with open work above, which we often find
+separating the chancel from the body of the church, supporting the
+rood-loft, and inclosing chantry chapels in side aisles, comparatively few
+now remaining are of an earlier date than the fifteenth century[137-*].
+
+Q. What do we find in large buildings erected late in this style?
+
+A. Octagonal turrets, plain or covered with sunk panelling, and surmounted
+with ogee-headed cupolas, which are adorned with crockets and finials. In
+Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, Westminster, they are used as buttresses. We
+also find them at King’s College Chapel, Cambridge; at St. George’s
+Chapel, Windsor; and at Winchester Cathedral.
+
+Q. Have we any coeval documents which contain particulars relating to the
+erection of churches?
+
+A. The contract entered into A. D. 1412, for the building of Catterick
+Church, Yorkshire, and the contract entered into A. D. 1435, for
+rebuilding, as it now stands, the collegiate church of Fotheringhay in
+Northamptonshire, or copies of such, have been preserved; as have
+particulars also from the contracts entered into A. D. 1450, for the
+fitting up of the Beauchamp Chapel, St. Mary’s Church, Warwick. In the
+will of King Henry the Sixth, dated A. D. 1447, we find specific directions
+given for the size and arrangement of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge;
+and no less than five different indentures are preserved, (the earliest
+dated A. D. 1513, the latest A. D. 1527,) containing contracts for the
+execution of different parts of that celebrated structure. The will of
+King Henry the Seventh, dated A. D. 1509, contains several orders and
+directions relating to the completion of the splendid chapel adjoining the
+abbey church, Westminster.
+
+Q. Mention some of the earliest buildings of this style, the dates of the
+erection of which have been clearly ascertained?
+
+A. The tower of St. Michael’s Church, Coventry, the building of which
+commenced A. D. 1373 and was finished A. D. 1395[140-*], is an early and
+fine specimen; the beautiful and lofty spire was, however, an after
+addition, like that at Salisbury Cathedral, and was not commenced till
+A. D. 1432. Westminster Hall[140-†], the reparation or reconstruction of
+the greater part of which by King Richard the Second was commenced A. D.
+1397 and finished A. D. 1399, has a fine groined porch, the front of which
+exhibits the square head over the arch of entrance; and the spandrels are
+filled with quatrefoils, inclosing shields and sunk panel-work. The large
+window above the porch, and that at the west end, are divided into
+panel-like compartments by vertical mullions, and a transom divides the
+principal lights horizontally. The wooden roof is of a more acute pitch
+than we usually find in buildings of this style, and is remarkable as a
+specimen of constructive art and display. The spaces between the arches
+and rafters are filled up to the ridge-piece with open panel-work
+ornamentally designed; and this is perhaps the earliest specimen we
+possess of the perpendicular wooden roof.
+
+Q. What complete structures are there in this style of a late date, the
+periods of the erection of which are ascertained?
+
+A. The design for the rebuilding of the Abbey Church, Bath, was planned
+and the reconstruction thereof commenced, by Bishop King, A. D. 1500; and
+after his death the works were carried on by Priors Bird and Hollowaye;
+but the church was not completed when the surrender of the monastery took
+place, A. D. 1539. The foundation of Henry the Seventh’s Chapel,
+Westminster Abbey, was laid A. D. 1502, but the chapel was not completed
+till the reign of Henry the Eighth. It is the richest specimen, on a large
+scale, of this style of architecture, and is completely covered, both
+internally and externally, with panel-work, niches, statuary, heraldic
+devices, cognizances, and other decorative embellishment. The church at
+St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire, is a fine large parochial edifice, all built
+apparently after one regular design, and consists of a tower covered with
+panel-work and ornament, with crocketed pinnacles at the angles and in
+front of each side; a nave, north and south aisles and chancel, and two
+chantry chapels, forming a continuation eastward of each aisle. It has a
+fine wooden roof, the cornice under which is in different parts curiously
+carved in relief. This church is said to have been erected A. D. 1507. But
+one of the most perfect specimens of a late date, on a smaller scale, is
+the church of Whiston, Northamptonshire, built A. D. 1534, by Anthony
+Catesby, esquire, lord of the manor, Isabel his wife, and John their son:
+it consists of a tower encircled with rows of quatrefoils and other
+decorative embellishment, and finished with crocketed pinnacles at the
+angles; a nave divided from the north and south aisles by arches within
+rectangular compartments, the spandrels of which are filled with sunk
+quatrefoils and foliated panels; these arches spring from piers disposed
+lozengewise with semicylindrical shafts at the angles; there are no
+clerestory windows, and the windows of the aisles and chancel have
+obtusely-pointed four-centred arches. The wooden roof is a good example of
+the kind.
+
+Q. What district is noted for the number of rich churches in this style?
+
+[Illustration: St. Stephen’s Church, Bristol.]
+
+A. Somersetshire contains a number of fine churches, erected apparently
+towards the close of the fifteenth or very early in the sixteenth
+century; and many of these churches have much of carved woodwork in
+screens, rood-lofts, pulpits, and in pewing. The towers are, in
+particular, remarkable for their general style of design, and are often
+divided into stages by bands of quatrefoils; the sides are more or less
+ornamented with projecting canopied niches for statuary, and in many of
+these niches the statues have been preserved from the iconoclastic zeal
+which has elsewhere prevailed. The belfry windows are partly pierced,
+sometimes in quatrefoils, and partly filled with sunk panel-work. The
+parapets, whether embattled or straight-sided, are pierced with open work;
+and at each angle of the tower, at which buttresses are disposed
+rectangular-wise, is finished with a crocketed pinnacle, which is also
+often to be met with rising from the middle of the parapet. Towers similar
+in general design to those which may be said to prevail in Somersetshire
+are not unfrequently met with in other counties, but do not exhibit that
+provincialism which is the case in that particular county.
+
+[Illustration: King Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[121-*] Mr. Rickman, from whom this appellation is derived, has been
+since generally followed in his nomenclature.
+
+[137-*] In Compton Church, Surrey, is, or until recently was, the
+remains of a wooden screen of late Norman character. Between the chancel
+and nave of Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire, is an early wooden
+screen in the style of the thirteenth century: the lower division is of
+plain panel-work, whilst the upper division consists of a series of
+open-pointed arches, trefoiled in the heads, and supported by slender
+cylindrical shafts with moulded bases and capitals, and an annulated
+moulding encircles each shaft midway up. In Northfleet Church, Kent, is
+a wooden screen which approximates in general design that at Stanton
+Harcourt, but is in a more advanced stage of art, being of the Early
+Decorated style: the lower portion of this is of plain panelling, while
+the open work forming the upper division above consists of a series of
+pointed arches, with tracery and foliations in and between the heads,
+supported by slender cylindrical shafts banded round midway with moulded
+bases and capitals, and these arches support a horizontal cornice.
+Specimens of decorated screen-work, some much mutilated, others in a
+more perfect state, are existing in the churches of King’s Sutton,
+Northamptonshire; Croperdy, Oxfordshire; Beaudesert, Warwickshire; and
+in St. John’s Church, Winchester. A characteristic distinction between
+screen-work of an earlier date than the fifteenth century and
+screen-work of that period will be found to consist in the slender
+cylindrical shafts, often annulated, sometimes not, with moulded bases
+and capitals which pertain to early work of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries, and the mullion-like and angular-edged bars, often
+faced with small buttresses, which form the principal vertical divisions
+in screen-work of the fifteenth century.
+
+[140-*] This stately monument of private munificence was erected at the
+sole charges of two brothers, Adam and William Botnor: it was twenty-one
+years in building, and cost each year 100_l._
+
+[140-†] Though not an ecclesiastical structure, it is here noticed as an
+example of the style in an early stage.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Window, Duffield Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+OF THE DEBASED ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When did this style commence, and how long did it prevail or continue?
+
+A. It may be said to have commenced about the year 1540, and to have
+continued to about the middle of the seventeenth century; but it is
+difficult to assign a precise date either for its introduction or
+discontinuance.
+
+Q. Why is this style called the DEBASED?
+
+A. From the general inferiority of design compared with the style it
+succeeded, from the meagre and clumsy execution of sculptured and other
+ornamental work, from the intermixture of detail founded on an entirely
+different school of art, and the consequent subversion of the purity of
+style.
+
+Q. What may be considered as one great cause of this falling off?
+
+A. The devastation of the monasteries, religious houses, and chantries,
+which followed their suppression, discouraged the study of ecclesiastical
+architecture, (which had been much followed by the members of the
+conventual foundations, who were now dispersed, in their seclusion,) and
+gave a fatal blow to that spirit of erecting and enriching churches which
+this country had for many ages possessed.
+
+Q. How could this be the cause?
+
+A. The expenses of erecting many of our ecclesiastical structures, or
+different portions of them, from time to time, in the most costly and
+beautiful manner, according to the style of the age in which such were
+built, were defrayed, some out of the immense revenues of the monasteries,
+which at their suppression were granted away by the crown, and others by
+the private munificence of individuals who frequently built an aisle, with
+a chantry chapel at the east end, partly inclosed by screen-work, or
+annexed to a church, a transept, or an additional chapel, endowed as a
+chantry, in order that remembrance might be specially and continually made
+of them in the offices of the church, according to the then prevailing
+usage; which chantries having been abolished, one motive for
+church-building was gone.
+
+Q. What concurrent causes may also be assigned for this change?
+
+A. The almost imperceptible introduction and advance, about this period,
+of a fantastic mode of architectural design and decoration, which is very
+apparent in the costly though in many respects inelegant monuments of this
+age, and in which details of ancient classic architecture were
+incorporated with others of fanciful design peculiar to the latter part of
+the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries.
+
+Q. What are the characteristics of this style?
+
+A. A general heaviness and inelegance of detail, doorways with
+pointed-arched heads exceedingly depressed in form, and also plain
+round-headed doorways, with key stones after the Roman or Italian
+semi-classic style now beginning to prevail; square-headed windows with
+plain vertical mullions, and the heads of the lights either round or
+obtusely arched, and generally without foliations; pointed windows
+clumsily formed, with plain mullion bars simply intersecting each other in
+the head, or filled with tracery miserably designed, and an almost total
+absence of ornamental mouldings. Indications of this style may be found in
+many country churches which have been repaired or partly rebuilt since the
+Reformation. In the interior of churches specimens of the wood-work of
+this style are very common, and may be perceived by the shallow and flat
+carved panelling, with round arches, arabesques, scroll-work, and other
+nondescript ornament peculiar to the age, with which the pews,
+reading-desks, and pulpits are often adorned. The screens of this period
+are constructed in a semi-classic style of design, with features and
+details of English growth, and are often surmounted with scroll-work,
+shields, and other accessories. Of this description of work the screen in
+the south aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, constructed A. D. 1611, may
+be instanced as a curious specimen.
+
+[Illustration: Arabesque.]
+
+Q. What peculiarity may be noted in the alterations and additions of this
+era?
+
+A. A very common practice prevailed, from about the middle of the
+sixteenth century, when any alteration or addition was made in or to a
+church, of affixing a stone in the masonry, with the date of such in
+figures. Thus over the east window of Hillmorton Church, Warwickshire,
+(which is a pointed window of four lights, formed by three plain mullions
+curving and intersecting each other in the head, which is filled with
+nearly lozenge-shaped lights, but all without foliations,) is a stone
+bearing the date of 1640. In the south wall of the tower of the same
+church (which is low, heavy, and clumsily built, without any pretension to
+architectural design) is a stone to denote the period of its erection,
+which bears the date of 1655. Pulpits, communion-tables, church chests,
+poor-boxes, and pewing of the latter part of the sixteenth and of the
+seventeenth century, also very frequently exhibit, in figures carved on
+them, the precise periods of their construction.
+
+Q. What specimens are there of this style of late or debased and mixed
+Gothic?
+
+A. Annexed to Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, is a singular porch or
+building, sexagonal in form, at the angles of which are projecting columns
+of the Ionic order supporting an entablature. On each side of this
+building, except that by which it communicates with the church, and that
+in which the doorway is contained, is a plain window of the Debased Gothic
+style, of one light, with a square head and hood moulding over. The
+doorway is nondescript, neither Roman or Gothic. This building is supposed
+to have been erected by Bishop Jewell. The chapel of St. Peter’s College,
+Cambridge, finished in 1632, exhibits in the east wall a large pointed
+window, clumsily designed, in the Debased style, and divided by mullions
+into five principal lights, round-headed, but trefoiled within; three
+series of smaller lights, rising one above the other, all of which are
+round-headed and trefoiled, fill the head of the window, the composition
+of which, though comparatively rude, is illustrative of the taste of the
+age. On each side of the window, on the exterior, is a kind of
+semi-classic niche. In Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, are a number of
+windows inserted at a general reparation of the church in 1639; these are
+square-headed, and have a label or hood moulding over, and are mostly
+divided into three obtusely pointed-arched lights, without foliations.
+Under the windows of the south aisle is a string-course, more of a
+semi-classic contour than Gothic. On the south side is a plain
+round-headed doorway, inserted at the same period. The tower and south
+aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, erected by Sir Thomas Spencer, A. D.
+1611, have the same kind of square-headed window, with arched lights
+without foliations, as those of Stow. Stanton-Harold Church,
+Leicestershire, erected A. D. 1653, is perhaps the latest complete specimen
+of the Debased Gothic style. Towards the end of this century Gothic
+mouldings appear not to have been understood, as in the attempt to
+reconstruct portions of churches in that style we find mouldings of
+classic art to prevail. Such is the case with respect to the tower of
+Eynesbury Church, St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire, rebuilt in a kind of
+Debased Gothic and mixed Roman style, in 1687. Other instances of the
+kind might also be enumerated. At the commencement of the eighteenth
+century the Roman or Italian mode appears to have prevailed generally in
+the churches then erected, without any admixture even of the Debased
+Gothic style.
+
+[Illustration: Window, Ladbrook Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Stoup, South Door, Oakham Church, Rutlandshire.]
+
+CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
+
+ON THE INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT AND DECORATIONS OF A CHURCH.
+
+
+The churches of this country were anciently so constructed as to display,
+in their internal arrangement, certain appendages designed with
+architectonic skill, and adapted purposely for the celebration of mass and
+other religious offices.
+
+At the Reformation, when the ritual was changed and many of the
+formularies of the church of Rome were discarded, some of such appendages
+were destroyed; whilst others, though suffered to exist, more or less in a
+mutilated condition, were no longer appropriated to the particular uses
+for which they had been originally designed.
+
+On entering a church through the porch on the north or south side, or at
+the west end, we sometimes perceive on the right hand side of the door, at
+a convenient height from the ground, often beneath a niche, and partly
+projecting from the wall, a stone basin: this was the _stoup_, or
+receptacle for holy water, called also the _aspersorium_, into which each
+individual dipped his finger and crossed himself when passing the
+threshold of the sacred edifice. The custom of aspersion at the church
+door appears to have been derived from an ancient usage of the heathens,
+amongst whom, according to Sozomen[154-*], the priest was accustomed to
+sprinkle such as entered into a temple with moist branches of olive. The
+stoup is sometimes found inside the church, close by the door; but the
+stone appendage appears to have been by no means general, and probably in
+most cases a movable vessel of metal was provided for the purpose; and in
+an inventory of ancient church goods at St. Dunstan’s, Canterbury, taken
+A. D. 1500, we find mentioned “a stope off lede for the holy wat^r atte
+the church dore.� We do not often find the stoup of so ancient a date as
+the twelfth century; one much mutilated, but apparently of that era, may
+however be met with inside the little Norman church of Beaudesert,
+Warwickshire, near to the south door.
+
+The porch was often of a considerable size, and had frequently a groined
+ceiling, with an apartment above; it was anciently used for a variety of
+religious rites, for before the Reformation considerable portions of the
+marriage and baptismal services, and also much of that relating to the
+churching of women, were here performed, being commenced “ante ostium
+ecclesiæ,� and concluded in the church; and these are set forth in the
+rubric of the Manual or service-book, according to the use of Sarum,
+containing those and other occasional offices.
+
+Having entered the church, the font is generally discovered towards the
+west end of the nave, or north or south aisle, and near the principal
+door; such, at least, was in most cases its original and appropriate
+position: this was for the convenience of the sacramental rite there
+administered; part of the baptismal service (that of making the infant a
+catechumen) having been performed in the porch or outside the door[156-*],
+he was introduced by the priest into the church, with the invitation,
+_Ingredere in templum Dei, ut habeas vitam æternam et vivas in sæcula
+sæculorum_; and after certain other rites and prayers the infant was
+carried to the font and immersed therein thrice by the priest, in the
+names of the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. By an ancient
+ecclesiastical constitution a font of stone or other durable material,
+with a fitting cover, was required to be placed in every church in which
+baptism could be administered[156-†]; and it was, as Lyndwood informs us,
+to be capacious enough for total immersion. Some ancient fonts are of
+lead, as that in Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, and that in Childrey
+Church, Berkshire; both of these are cylindrical in shape, and of the
+Norman era, encircled with figures in relief; those on the font at
+Dorchester representing the twelve apostles, whilst those on that of
+Childrey are of bishops. Leaden fonts are also to be met with in the
+churches of Brookland, Kent; Wareham, Dorsetshire; and Walmsford,
+Northamptonshire. Square and cylindrical or truncated cone-like shaped
+fonts, of Norman design, supported on a basement by one or more shafts,
+and either plain or sculptured, are numerous; we sometimes find on them
+figures of the twelve apostles, sculptured in low relief; the baptism of
+our Saviour also was no uncommon representation. Fonts subsequent to the
+Norman era are not so frequently covered with sculptured figures, though
+such sometimes occur; they are sexagonal, septagonal, or octagonal in
+shape; and the different styles are easily ascertained by the
+architectural decorations, mouldings, tracery, and panel-work, with which
+they are more or less covered. On the sides of rich fonts of the fifteenth
+century representations of the seven sacraments were not unfrequently
+sculptured, as on that in Farningham Church, Kent. The covers to some rich
+fonts, especially to some of those of the fifteenth century, were very
+splendid, in shape somewhat resembling that of a spire, but the sides
+were covered with tabernacle-work, and decorated at the angles with small
+buttresses and crockets. Fonts with rich covers of this description are to
+be found in the churches of Ewelme, Oxfordshire; of North Walsham and of
+Worstead, Norfolk; and of Sudbury and of Ufford, Suffolk.[158-*]
+
+The general situation of the tower or campanile is at the west end of the
+nave; it is sometimes, however, found in a different position, as at the
+west end of a side aisle, which is the case with respect to the churches
+of Monkskirby and Withybrooke, Warwickshire; or on one side of the church,
+as at Eynesbury Church, Huntingdonshire, and Alderbury Church, Salop; and
+the tower of the latter church is covered with what is called the
+saddle-back roof, having two gables--a peculiarity to be found in some few
+other churches. In cross churches the tower was generally, though not
+always, erected at the intersection of the transept, and between the nave
+and chancel. In the towers the church bells were hung, with the exception
+of one; without these no church was accounted complete; they were
+anciently consecrated with great ceremony, named and inscribed in honour
+of some saint, and the sound issuing from them was supposed to be of
+efficacy in averting the influence of evil spirits. Bells appear to have
+been introduced into this country in the latter part of the seventh
+century, but comparatively few bells are now remaining in our churches of
+an earlier date than the seventeenth century, since the commencement of
+which century most of our present church bells have been cast. Towers were
+also occasionally used, up to the fourteenth century, as parochial
+fortresses, to which in time of sudden and unforeseen danger the
+inhabitants of the parish resorted for awhile. The tower of Rugby Church,
+Warwickshire, a very singular structure built in the reign of Henry the
+Third, appears to have been erected for this purpose; it is of a square
+form, very lofty, and plain in construction, and is without a single
+buttress to support it; the lower windows are very narrow, and at a
+considerable distance from the ground; some of them are, in fact, mere
+loop-holes; the belfry windows are _square-headed_, of two lights, simply
+trefoiled in the head, and divided by a plain mullion; the only entrance
+was through the church; it has also a fire-place, the funnel for the
+conveyance of smoke being carried up through the thickness of the wall to
+a perforated battlement, and it altogether seems well calculated to resist
+a sudden attack. Other church towers of early date appear to have been
+erected for a double purpose: that of a campanile, as well as to afford
+temporary security. The towers of Newton Arlosh Church, of the Church of
+Burgh on the Sands, and of Great Salkeld Church, Cumberland, appear to
+have been constructed with a view to afford protection to the inhabitants
+of those villages upon any sudden invasion from the borders of Scotland,
+and for that purpose were strongly fortified[160-*]. Some church towers,
+especially in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, are round and batter,
+or gradually decrease in diameter as they rise upwards; most of these are
+of the Norman, though some are in the Early English, style; that at Little
+Saxham Church, Suffolk, may be adduced as a specimen. Spires in some
+instances appear to have served as landmarks, to guide travellers through
+woody districts and over barren downs. The spire of Astley Church,
+Warwickshire, now destroyed, was so conspicuous an object at a distance,
+that it was denominated the lantern of Arden. The spires of the churches
+of Monkskirby and Clifton, in the same county, now also destroyed, were
+formerly noticed as eminent landmarks.
+
+[Illustration: Little Saxham Church Tower, Suffolk.]
+
+[Illustration: Open Seat, Culworth Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Anciently the body of the church appears to have contained no other fixed
+seats for the congregation than a solid mass of masonry raised against the
+wall, and forming a long stone bench or seat. A bench of this description
+runs along great part of the north, west, and south sides of the Norman
+church of Parranforth, Cornwall. In the Norman conventual church of Romsey
+plain stone benches of this description occur; they are likewise to be met
+with in Salisbury and other cathedrals; also in some of our ancient
+parish churches, as in the south aisle of Kidlington Church, Oxfordshire.
+Seats for the use of the congregation are noticed in the synod of Exeter,
+held A. D. 1287. Open wooden benches or pew-work are rarely, if at all, met
+with of an earlier era than the fifteenth century, when the practice of
+pewing the body of the church with open wooden seats, if not then
+introduced, began to prevail. In 1458 we meet with a testamentary bequest
+of money “to make seats called puying,� and several of our churches still
+retain considerable remains of the ancient open seats of the fifteenth
+century. At Finedon, in Northamptonshire, the body of the church and
+aisles are almost entirely filled with low open seats, with carved tracery
+at the ends, disposed in four distinct rows; so that the whole of the
+congregation might sit facing the east. Similar seats occur in Culworth
+Church, in the same county, and these are likewise of the fifteenth
+century. The pulpit was anciently disposed towards the eastern part of the
+body of the church, but not in the centre of the aisle. Pulpits are now
+rarely to be found of an earlier date than the fifteenth century, when
+they appear to have been introduced into many churches, though not to have
+become a general appendage. Ancient pulpits of that era, whether of wood
+or stone, are covered with panel-work tracery and mouldings; and some
+exhibit signs of having been once elaborately painted and gilt. Mention,
+however, is made of pulpits at a much earlier period; for in the year 1187
+one was set up in the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund’s, from which, we are
+told, the abbot was accustomed to preach to the people in the vulgar
+tongue and provincial dialect[164-*]. The most ancient pulpit, perhaps,
+existing in this country, is that in the refectory of the abbey (now in
+ruins) of Beaulieu, Hampshire: it is of stone, and partly projects from
+the wall, and is ornamented with mouldings, sculptured foliage, and a
+series of blank trefoiled pointed arches, in the style of the thirteenth
+century. The church of the Holy Trinity, at Coventry, contains a fine
+specimen of a stone pulpit of the fifteenth century. In Rowington Church,
+in the county of Warwick, is a stone pulpit of the same age as that at
+Coventry, but much plainer in design. At Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden pulpit of the fifteenth century,
+painted and gilt; and the sides are covered with ogee-headed niches, with
+angular-shaped buttresses between; but the pulpits of this era may be
+distinguished without difficulty by the peculiar architectural designs
+they exhibit.
+
+We now approach the division between the nave or body of the church and
+the chancel or choir: this was formed by a beautiful and highly decorated
+screen, sometimes of stone, but generally of wood, panel and open-work
+tracery, painted and gilt: above this was a cross-beam, which formed a
+main support to the rood-loft, a gallery in which the crucifix or rood and
+the accompanying images of the blessed Virgin and St. John were placed so
+as to be seen by the parishioners in the body of the church, and also in
+accordance with the traditional belief that the position of our Saviour
+whilst suspended on the cross was facing the west. The passage to the
+rood-loft was generally up a flight of stone steps in the north or south
+wall of the nave; but as the rood-loft frequently extended across the
+aisles, we sometimes meet with a small turret annexed to the east end of
+one of the aisles for the approach. Though the introduction of the
+lattice-work division between the chancel and nave may be traced in the
+eastern church to the fourth century, we possess in our own churches few
+remains of screen-work of earlier date than the fifteenth century; and it
+appears probable that wooden screen-work before that period was not
+common, and that in most instances a curtain or veil was used for the
+purpose of division. The rood-loft generally projected in front, so as to
+form a kind of groined cove, the ribs of which sprang or diverged from the
+principal uprights of the screen beneath. In Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden rood-loft, elaborately carved,
+painted, and gilt, which extends across the whole breadth of the church,
+and is approached by means of a staircase turret on the south side of the
+church. In the churches of Great Handborough, Enstone, Great Rollwright,
+and Hook Norton, Oxfordshire, are considerable remains of the ancient
+rood-loft, and numerous other instances where it is still retained could
+be adduced. Sometimes this gallery was so small as to admit of the rood
+and two attendant images only, and had no apparent access to it, as that
+in Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire. Hardly a rood-loft is, however,
+remaining of earlier date than the fifteenth century; prior to that
+period, and in many instances even during it, the crucifix or rood and its
+attendant images appear to have been affixed to a transverse beam
+extending horizontally across the chancel arch; this was sometimes richly
+carved, and a beam of this description still exists in the chancel of
+Little Malvern Church, Worcestershire. An earlier date than the eleventh
+century can hardly be assigned for the introduction of the rood, with the
+figures of St. Mary and St. John, into our churches, though in illuminated
+manuscripts somewhat before that period we find such figures pourtrayed
+with the crucifix[167-*]. In the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund’s, the rood
+and the figures of St. Mary and St. John, which were placed over the high
+altar, were (as we are informed by Joceline, who wrote his Chronicle in
+the twelfth century) the gift of Archbishop Stigand[167-†]. Gervase, in
+describing the work of Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral, as it appeared
+before the fire, A. D. 1174, notices the rood-beam, which sustained a
+large crucifix and the images of St. Mary and St. John, as extended across
+the church between the nave and central tower[168-*].
+
+[Illustration: Rood, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+All the carved wooden roods appear to have been destroyed at the
+Reformation in compliance with the injunctions issued for that purpose.
+We occasionally meet, however, with bas relief sculptures of our Saviour
+extended on the cross, with a figure on each side representing the Virgin
+and St. John, but in a mutilated condition. On the outside of the west
+wall of the south transept of Romsey Church, Hants, and close to the
+entrance from the cloisters into the church, is a large stone rood or
+crucifix sculptured in relief, with a hand above emerging from a
+cloud[169-*]: this is apparently of the twelfth century. Small sculptured
+representations of the rood, with the figures of St. Mary and St. John,
+still exist on one of the buttresses near the west door of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire; over a south doorway of Burford Church, Oxfordshire;
+and in the wall of the tower of the church of St. Lawrence, Evesham.
+
+[Illustration: Sanctus Bell, Long Compton Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Outside the roof of some churches, on the apex of the eastern gable of the
+nave, is a small open arch or turret, in which formerly a single bell was
+suspended: this was the _sanctus_ or _sacringe_ bell, thus placed that,
+being near the altar, it might be the more readily rung, when, in
+concluding the ordinary of the mass, the priest pronounced the
+_Ter-sanctus_, to draw attention to that more solemn office, the canon of
+the mass, which he was now about to commence; it was also rung at a
+subsequent part of the service, on the elevation and adoration of the host
+and chalice, after consecration[171-*]; but though the arch remains on
+the gable of the nave of many churches, the bell thus suspended is
+retained in few; amongst which may be mentioned those of Long Compton,
+Whichford, and Brailes, in Warwickshire, where this bell is still
+preserved hung in an arch at the apex of the nave, with the rope hanging
+down between the chancel and nave[171-†]. Mention of this bell is thus
+made in the Survey of the Priory of Sandwell, in the county of Stafford,
+taken at the time of the Reformation: “Itm the belframe standyng betw: the
+chauncell and the church, w^t. a litle _sanct_^m bell in the same.�
+Generally, however, a small hand-bell was carried and rung at the proper
+times in the service, by the acolyte; and in inventories of ancient church
+furniture we find it often noticed as “_a sacringe bell_;� but in an
+inventory of goods belonging to the chapel of Thorp, Northamptonshire, it
+is described as “a litle _sanctus bell_.� A small sacringe bell, of
+bell-metal, with the exception of the clapper, which was of iron, was in
+1819 discovered on the removal of some rubbish from the ruins of St.
+Margaret’s Priory, Barnstable; and within the last few years a small
+sanctus bell was found on the site of a religious house at Warwick[172-*].
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Sanctus Bell, found at Warwick.]
+
+Passing under the rood-loft, we enter the chancel: this was so called from
+the screen or lattice-work (cancelli) of stone or wood by which it was
+separated from the nave, and which succeeded the curtain or veil which
+anciently formed this division of the church[173-*].
+
+[Illustration: Stalls and Desk, St. Margaret’s Church, Leicester.]
+
+We often perceive in the choirs of conventual churches, as in our
+cathedrals, on either side of the entrance, facing the east, and also on
+the north and south sides, a range of wooden stalls divided into single
+seats, peculiarly constructed, the _formulæ_ or forms of which were
+movable, and carved on the _subselliæ_ or under-sides with grotesque,
+satirical, and often irreverend devices: these were appropriated to the
+monks or canons of the monastery or college to which the church was
+attached. The form of each stall, when turned up so as to exhibit the
+carved work on the under-part, furnished a small kind of seat or ledge,
+constructed for the purpose of inclining against rather than sitting on;
+and this was called the _misericorde_ or _miserere_. The _formulæ_ or
+forms when down, and the misericordes when the forms were turned up, were
+used as the season required for penitential inclinations[174-*]. In front
+of these stalls was a desk, ornamented on the exterior with panelled
+tracery; and over the stalls, especially of those of cathedral churches,
+canopies of tabernacle work richly carved were sometimes disposed. In
+Winchester Cathedral we have perhaps the most early, chaste, and beautiful
+example of the canons’ stalls, with canopies over, that are to be met
+with, although a greater excess of minute carved ornament may be found in
+the canopies which overhang the stalls in other cathedrals. In old
+conventual churches, now no longer used as such, the stalls have been
+often removed from their original position to other parts of the church,
+and they appear to have varied in number according to that of the
+fraternity.
+
+[Illustration: Misericorde, All Souls’ College, Oxford.]
+
+[Illustration: Brass Reading Desk, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+In the choirs of cathedral and conventual churches, and in the chancels of
+some other churches, a movable desk, at which the epistle and gospel were
+read, was placed: this was often called the eagle desk, from its being
+frequently sustained on a brazen eagle with expanded wings, elevated on a
+stand, emblematic of St. John the evangelist. Eagle desks are generally
+found either of the fifteenth or seventeenth century; notices of them
+occur, however, much earlier. In the Louterell Psalter, written circa A. D.
+1300, an eagle desk supported on a cylindrical shaft, banded midway down
+by an annulated moulding in the style of the thirteenth century, is
+represented; and in an account of ornaments belonging to Salisbury
+Cathedral, A. D. 1214, we find mentioned _Tuellia una ad Lectricum Aquilæ_.
+Besides the brass eagle desks which still remain in use in several of our
+cathedrals, and in the chapels of some of the colleges at Oxford and
+Cambridge, fine specimens are preserved in Redcliffe Church, Bristol, of
+the date 1638; in Croydon Church, Surrey; and in the church of the Holy
+Trinity at Coventry; other instances might also be enumerated. Sometimes
+we meet with ancient brass reading-desks which have not the eagle in
+front, but both the sides are sloped so as to form a double desk: of
+these, examples of the fifteenth century may be found in Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire, and in the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. Ancient wooden
+reading-desks, either single or double, are also occasionally found; some
+of these are richly carved, others are comparatively plain, but all
+partake more or less of the architectonic style of the age in which they
+were severally constructed, and from which their probable dates may be
+ascertained. In Bury Church, Huntingdonshire, is a wooden desk with a
+single slope, and the vertical face presented in front is covered with
+arches and other carved ornaments: this perhaps may be referable to the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. A rich double desk, of somewhat
+later date, with the shaft supported by buttresses of open-work tracery,
+is preserved in Ramsey Church, Huntingdonshire. In Aldbury Church,
+Hertfordshire, is an ancient double lecturn or reading desk, of wood, of
+the fifteenth century, much plainer in design than those at Bury and
+Ramsey; the shaft is angular, with small buttresses at the angles, and
+with a plain angular-shaped moulded capital and base, which latter is set
+on a cross-tree. In Hawstead Church, Suffolk, is a wooden desk with little
+ornament, supported on an angular shaft with an embattled capital, and
+moulded base with leaves carved in relief: this is apparently of the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. The ancient wooden desks found in
+some of our churches must not, however, be confounded with a more numerous
+class constructed and used subsequent to the Reformation.
+
+Proceeding up the chancel or choir, we ascend by three steps to the
+platform, on which the high altar anciently stood: this was so called to
+distinguish it from other altars, of which there were often several, in
+the same church; high mass was celebrated at it, whereas the other altars
+were chiefly used for the performance of low or private masses. The most
+ancient altars were of wood, afterwards they were constructed of stone;
+those of the primitive British churches are spoken of by St. Chrysostom.
+By a decree of the council of Paris, held A. D. 509, no altar was to be
+built but of stone. Amongst the excerptions of Ecgbert, archbishop of York
+A. D. 750, was one that no altars should be consecrated with chrism but
+such as were made of stone; and by the council of Winchester, held under
+Lanfranc A. D. 1076, altars were enjoined to be of stone. The customary
+form of such was a mass of stone supporting an altar table or slab, and
+resembling the tombs of the martyrs, at which the primitive Christians
+held their meetings; from which circumstance it became customary to
+enclose in every altar relics of some saint, and without such relics an
+altar was esteemed incomplete.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Pix, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.]
+
+Pertaining to the high altar, which was covered with a frontal and cloths,
+and anciently enclosed at the sides with curtains suspended on rods of
+iron projecting from the wall, was a crucifix, which succeeded to the
+simple cross placed on the altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches; a
+pair[180-*] of candlesticks, generally with spikes instead of sockets, on
+which lights or tapers were fixed; a pix, in which the host was kept
+reserved for the sick; a pair of cruets, of metal, in which were contained
+the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in the eucharistic cup;
+a sacring bell; a pax table, of silver or other metal, for the kiss of
+peace, which took place shortly before the host was received in communion;
+a stoup or stok, of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water; a censer or
+thurible[181-*], and a ship, (a vessel so called,) to hold frankincense; a
+chrismatory[181-†], an offering basin, a basin which was used when the
+priest washed his hands, and a chalice and paten. Costly specimens of the
+ancient pix, containing small patens for the reception of the host, are
+preserved amongst the plate belonging to New College and Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford. A pix of a much plainer description, but without its
+cover, of the metal called latten, was until recently preserved in the
+church of Enstone, Oxfordshire: the body of this was of a semi-globular
+form, supported on an angular stem, with a knob in the midst, and in
+appearance not unlike a chalice. The monstrance, in which the host was
+exhibited to the people, and which has been sometimes confounded with the
+pix[182-*], does not appear to have been introduced into our churches
+before the fifteenth century; on the suppression of the monasteries and
+chantries we find it noticed in the inventories then taken of church
+furniture, as in that of the Priory of Ely, where it is called “a stonding
+monstral for the sacrament;� and in that of St. Augustine’s Monastery,
+Canterbury, where it is described as “one monstrance, silver gilt, with
+four glasses.�
+
+[Illustration: Sedilia, Crick Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Near the high altar we frequently find, in the south wall of the chancel,
+a series of stone seats, sometimes without but generally beneath plain or
+enriched arched canopies, often supported by slender piers which serve to
+divide the seats. In most instances these seats are three in number, but
+they vary from one to five, and are the _sedilia_ or seats formerly
+appropriated during high mass to the use of the officiating priest and his
+attendant ministers, the deacon and sub-deacon, who retired thither
+during the chanting of the _Gloria in excelsis_, and some other parts of
+the service[183-*]. The sedilia sometimes preserve the same level, but
+generally they graduate or rise one above another, and that nearest the
+altar, being the highest, was occupied by the priest; the other two by the
+deacon and sub-deacon in succession[183-†]. We do not often meet with
+sedilia of so early an era as the twelfth century; there are, however,
+instances of such, as in the church of St. Mary, at Leicester, where is a
+fine Norman triple sedile, divided into graduating seats by double
+cylindrical piers with sculptured capitals, and the recessed arches they
+support are enriched on the face with a profusion of the zigzag moulding.
+In the south wall of the choir of Broadwater Church, Sussex, is a stone
+bench beneath a large semicircular Norman arch, the face of which is
+enriched with the chevron or zigzag moulding. In Avington Church,
+Berkshire, is a stone beneath a plain segmental arch. Norman sedilia also
+occur in the churches of Earls Barton, Northamptonshire, and of
+Wellingore, Lincolnshire. From the commencement of the thirteenth century
+up to the Reformation sedilia became a common appendage to a church, and
+the styles are easily distinguished by their peculiar architectonic
+features. Some are without canopies, and are excessively plain. On the
+south side of the chancel of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, is a
+stone bench without a canopy or division, and plain stone benches thus
+disposed are found in the chancel of Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and of
+Rowington Church, Warwickshire. In Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire,
+are two sedilia without canopies; and in Standlake Church, Oxfordshire,
+the sedilia, three in number, are without canopies or ornament. In
+Spratten Church, Northamptonshire, is a stone bench for three persons
+under a plain recessed pointed arch. In Priors Hardwick Church,
+Warwickshire, is a sedile for the priest, and below that one double the
+size for the deacon and sub-deacon; both are under recessed arched
+canopies. Quadruple sedilia occur in the churches of Turvey and Luton,
+Bedfordshire; in the Mayor’s Chapel, Bristol; in Gloucester Cathedral; in
+the church of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire; and in Rothwell Church,
+Northamptonshire: these are beneath canopies, and most of them are highly
+enriched. Quintuple sedilia sometimes occur, but are very rare; in the
+conventual church of Southwell, Nottinghamshire, are, however, five
+sedilia beneath ogee-headed canopies richly ornamented. A single sedile
+for one person only is occasionally met with, but not often.
+
+[Illustration: Double Piscina, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+Eastward of the sedilia, in the same wall, is a _fenestella_ or niche,
+sometimes plain, but often enriched with a crocketed ogee or pedimental
+hood moulding in front, over the arch, which is trefoiled or cinquefoiled
+in the head. This niche contains a hollow perforated basin or stone drain,
+called the _piscina_ or _lavacrum_[186-*], into which it appears that
+after the priest had washed his hands, which he was accustomed to do
+before the consecration of the elements and again after the communion,
+the water was poured, as also that with which the chalice was rinsed. The
+usage of washing the hands before the communion is one of very high
+antiquity, and is expressly noticed in the Clementine Liturgy, and by St.
+Cyril in his mystical Catechesis[187-*]; we do not, however, find the
+piscina in our churches of an era earlier than the twelfth century, and
+even then it was of uncommon occurrence; but in the thirteenth century the
+general introduction is observable. In Romsey Church, Hampshire, is the
+shaft and basin (the latter cushion-shaped) of a curious Norman piscina:
+this is now lying loose, in a dilapidated state. In the south apsis of the
+same church is another Norman piscina, consisting of a quadrangular-shaped
+basin projecting from the south wall; and on the south side of the chancel
+of Avington Church, Berkshire, is a plain Norman piscina within a simple
+semicircular arched recess. The churches of Kilpeck, Herefordshire,
+Keelby, Lincolnshire, and Bapchild, Kent, also contain Norman piscinæ.
+Those of all the various styles of later date are common; they exhibit,
+however, an interesting variety in design and ornamental detail. The drain
+of the piscina communicated with a perforated stone shaft, commonly
+enclosed in the wall, through which the water was lost in the earth; as in
+the case of the piscina with its shaft taken out of the south wall of the
+chancel of the now destroyed church of Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.
+Sometimes a piscina was a subsequent addition to a structure of early
+date, as in the old and now demolished church of Stretton-upon-Dunsmore,
+Warwickshire, in the south wall of the Norman chancel of which a piscina
+of the latter part of the thirteenth century had been inserted.
+
+[Illustration: Piscina, Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.]
+
+The piscina is very common in churches even where the sedilia or stone
+seats are wanting, and not only in the chancel, but also in the south
+walls at the east end of the north and south aisles, and in mortuary
+chapels, as will be presently noticed; it appears, in short, to have been
+an indispensable appendage to an altar.
+
+Sometimes the piscina is double, and contains two basins with drains, the
+one for receiving the water in which the hands had been washed, the other
+for the reception of the water with which the chalice was rinsed after the
+communion[189-*]. In Rothwell Church, Northamptonshire, on the south side
+of the chancel, are the vestiges of a triple piscina; the fenestella has
+been destroyed, but the three basins with their drains remain.
+
+Across the _fenestella_, or niche which contains the piscina, a shelf of
+stone or wood may be frequently found: this was the _credence_[190-*], or
+table on which the chalice, paten, ampullæ, and other things necessary for
+the celebration of mass were, before consecration, placed in a state of
+readiness on a clean linen cloth; and this originated from the π�όθεσις,
+or side table of preparation, used in the early church; a recurrence to
+which ancient and primitive custom by some of the divines of the
+Anglican church, after the Reformation, occasioned great offence to be
+taken by the Puritan seceders. In some instances a side table of stone
+or wood was used for this purpose; and a fine credence table of stone,
+the sides of which are covered with panelled compartments, is still
+remaining on the south side of the choir, St. Cross Church, near
+Winchester[190-†].
+
+[Illustration: Ambrie or Locker, Chaddesden Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+The credence table, or shelf above the piscina, must not be confounded
+with the _ambrie_ or _locker_, a small square and plain recess usually
+contained in the east or north wall, near the altar. In this the chalice,
+paten, and other articles pertaining to the altar were kept when not in
+use. The wooden doors formerly affixed to these ambries have for the most
+part either fallen into decay or been removed, but traces of the hinges
+may be frequently perceived; and a locker in the north wall of the chancel
+of Aston Church, Northamptonshire, still retains the two-leaved wooden
+door. Sometimes shelves are set across the lockers. In the east wall of
+Earls Barton Church, Northamptonshire, is a large locker divided into two
+unequal parts by a stone shelf inserted in it; and in the north aisle of
+Salisbury Cathedral are two large triangular-headed lockers or ambries,
+each which[TN-6] contains two shelves.
+
+Within the north wall of the chancel, near the altar, a large arch, like
+that of a tomb, may often be perceived; within this the _holy sepulchre_,
+generally a wooden and movable structure, was set up at Easter, when
+certain rites commemorative of the burial and resurrection of our Lord
+were anciently performed with great solemnity; for on Good Friday the
+crucifix and host were here deposited, and watched the following day and
+nights; and early on Easter morning they were removed from thence with
+great ceremony, and replaced on the altar by the priest. In the accounts
+of churchwardens of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century
+we meet with frequent notices of payments made for watching the sepulchre
+at Easter[192-*]. Sometimes the sepulchre was altogether of stone, and a
+fixture, and enriched with architectural and sculptured detail, as in the
+well-known specimen at Heckington, Lincolnshire, and the fine specimen of
+tabernacle-work in Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire.
+
+At the back of the high altar was affixed a reredos, or screen of
+tabernacle-work, costly specimens of which contained small images set on
+brackets under projecting canopies; an alabaster table or sculptured bas
+relief, placed just over the altar, was also common. The high altar
+reredos is still remaining, though in a mutilated condition, in the Abbey
+Church, St. Alban’s; it was erected A. D. 1480, and is perhaps the most
+splendid specimen we have; and in Bristol Cathedral a portion of the high
+altar reredos is also left. The chantry altar reredos is more frequently
+remaining, even where the altar and alabaster table[193-*] above have been
+destroyed; rarely, however, in a perfect state. In the seventeenth century
+the rich tabernacle-work was sometimes plastered over, probably to
+preserve it from iconoclastic violence. In many of our cathedrals, as at
+Gloucester, Bristol, Wells, and Worcester, and in some of the chantries
+attached to Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, Westminster, specimens of the
+chantry reredos screen, which appear to have abounded more or less with
+sculptured and architectural detail, are to be met with; and remains of
+the painting and gilding with which they were anciently covered may in
+some instances be traced. In a Survey of the Priory Church, Bridlington,
+taken at the suppression, we find noticed, “The Reredose at the highe
+alter representyng Criste at the assumpcyon of our Lady and the XII.
+appostells, w^t. dyvers other great imagys, beyng of a great heyght, ys
+excellently well wrought, and as well gylted.� Five small chapels are also
+mentioned, “w^t. fyve alters and small tables of alleblaster and imag’s.�
+Sometimes, however, the space behind the altar was occupied by a painted
+altar-piece, on wood or panel; a curious but mutilated specimen of which,
+of the latter part of the fifteenth century, is still preserved in the
+conventual church, Romsey.
+
+Over the high altar was the great east window of the church, glazed with
+painted glass; other windows in the church were also thus filled. The
+subjects pourtrayed on the glass were sometimes scriptural, sometimes
+legendary. Single figures of saints, distinguished by their peculiar
+symbols, are common; figures of crowned heads, prelates, and warriors also
+frequently occur; and on some windows are depicted the arms and sometimes
+even the portraits of different benefactors to the church, with scrolls
+bearing inscriptions. We have, perhaps, few remains of ancient stained
+glass in our churches of a period antecedent to the thirteenth century: of
+this era, probably, are those curious circular designs which fill the
+greater portion of the lights at the back of the sedilia in Dorchester
+Church, Oxfordshire: one representing St. Augustine and St. Birinus, the
+first bishop of that ancient see; another, a priest and deacon, the former
+with the host, the latter bearing the ampullæ. Of this period also is some
+ancient stained glass in Chetwood Church, Bucks, the ground of which is
+covered with a kind of mosaic pattern, a usual feature in the more ancient
+stained glass, and the borders partake of a tendril foliage; whilst in
+pointed oval-shaped compartments, forming the well-known symbol _vesica
+piscis_, are single figures of saints and crowned heads, each clad in a
+vest and mantle of two different colours. In the fourteenth century single
+figures under rich canopies are common, but we begin to lose sight of the
+mosaic pattern as a back-ground. The stained glass in the windows of the
+choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is either very early in this, or
+of a late period in the preceding century, and exhibits single figures
+under rich canopies: over the head of one of these, (the kneeling figure
+of a monk in his cowl,) is a scroll inscribed “_Magister Henricus de
+Mammesfeld me fecit_.� In the windows of Tewkesbury Abbey Church are
+several single figures of this period, some of knights in armour. In the
+chancel of Stanford Church, Northamptonshire, are single figures of the
+apostles in painted glass, each appearing within an ogee-headed canopy,
+cinquefoiled within the head and crocketed externally, and the sides of
+the canopy are flanked by pinnacled buttresses in stages. Specimens of
+stained glass of the fifteenth century are numerous in comparison with
+those of an earlier period; we find such in the east window of Langport
+Church, Somersetshire, where single figures occur of St. Clemens, St.
+Catherine, St. Elizabeth, and of many other saints. Some splendid remains
+of painted glass of the fifteenth century are likewise preserved in the
+windows of the choir of Ludlow Church, Salop, mostly in single figures;
+amongst them is the representation of St. George in armour, of the reign
+of Henry the Seventh; the figures of the Virgin and infant Christ may also
+be noticed. Towards the close of this century kneeling figures, not
+merely disposed single, but also in groups, formally arranged, may be
+observed. As a composition, wherein a better display of grouping and
+aerial perspective is evinced, the splendid window in St. Margaret’s
+Church, Westminster, of the crucifixion between the two thieves, and
+numerous figures in the foreground, not grouped formally but with
+artistical feeling, with the figures of St. George and St. Catherine on
+each side of the principal design, and the portraits of Henry the Seventh
+and his consort Elizabeth in separate compartments beneath, each kneeling
+before a faldstool, may be noticed. This window, which in some of the
+details exhibits an approach to the renaissance style, was presented to
+Henry the Seventh by the magistrates of Dort in Holland, to adorn his
+chapel at Westminster. The era of the various specimens of ancient stained
+glass we meet with in our churches may generally be ascertained by the
+costume and disposition of the figures, the form of the shields, the
+mosaic pattern or other back-ground, and architectural designs of the
+canopies.
+
+The pavement beneath the high altar was frequently composed of small
+square encaustic bricks or tiles, whereon the arms of founders and
+benefactors, interspersed with figures, flowers, and emblematic devices,
+were impressed, painted, and glazed; other parts of the church were also
+paved with these tiles.
+
+The walls of the church were covered with fresco paintings of the day of
+judgment, legendary stories, portraits of saints, and scriptural,
+allegorical, and historical subjects, in the conventional styles of the
+different ages in which such were executed, the costume and details being
+according to the fashion then prevailing. These paintings have in most
+churches been obliterated by repeated coats of whitewash, so that few
+perfect specimens now remain; traces of such are, however, occasionally
+brought to light in the alteration and reparation of our ancient churches.
+The subject of the judgment-day was commonly represented on the west wall
+of the nave, or over the chancel arch; and in the contract for the
+erection of the Lady Chapel, St. Mary’s Church, Warwick, A. D. 1454, is a
+covenant “to paint fine and curiously, to make on the west wall the dome
+of our Lord God Jesus, and all manner of devises and imagery thereto
+belonging.� The west front of the wall over the chancel arch, Trinity
+Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon, was some years back found to be thus covered;
+but this painting, with others in the same chapel, was afterwards again
+obliterated[199-*]. A curious fresco painting of the last judgment,
+discovered a few years ago on the west face of the wall over the chancel
+arch, Trinity Church, Coventry, has, however, been very carefully
+preserved, and the coat of whitewash which tended to conceal it probably
+ever since the Reformation has been judiciously removed. The legend of St.
+Christopher, represented by a colossal figure with a beam-like
+walking-staff, carrying the infant Christ on his shoulders through the
+water, was generally painted on the north wall of the nave or body of the
+church. A fresco painting of this subject, half obliterated, is still
+apparent on the north wall of the nave of Burford Church, Oxfordshire; and
+other instances might be adduced. The murder of Archbishop Becket was also
+a very favourite subject: an early pictorial representation of the
+thirteenth century, of this event, is still visible on one of the walls of
+Preston Church, Sussex; it formed, likewise, one of the subjects
+represented on the walls of Trinity Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon; and a
+painting of the same subject on panel, executed in the middle of the
+fifteenth century, was formerly suspended over or near the tomb of Henry
+the Fourth in Canterbury Cathedral[200-*]. Several vestiges of ancient
+fresco wall-paintings, more or less obliterated, are still preserved in
+Winchester Cathedral. The walls of our churches were even in the
+Anglo-Saxon era embellished with paintings; and such are described as
+decorating the walls of the church of Hexham in the seventh century. By
+the synod of Calcuith, held A. D. 816, a representation of the saint to
+whom a church was dedicated was required to be painted either on the wall
+of the church or on a tablet suspended in the church.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Stone Reliquary or Shrine, Brixworth Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+In most of the large conventual churches, and also in some of the smaller
+parochial churches, shrines containing relics of the patron or other
+saints were exhibited; these were either fixed and immovable, of
+tabernacle-work, of stone or wood, or partly of both, or were small
+movable feretories, which could be carried on festivals in procession. Of
+the fixed shrines, that in Hereford Cathedral of Bishop Cantelupe, of the
+date A. D. 1287, is a fine and early specimen, in very fair preservation.
+In the north aisle of the abbey church, Shrewsbury, are some remains of a
+stone shrine, which from the workmanship may be considered as a production
+of the early part of the fifteenth century: this is much mutilated: but
+the shrine of St. Frideswide, in Oxford Cathedral, the lower part of which
+is composed of a stone tomb, the upper part of rich tabernacle-work of
+wood, is still tolerably perfect: this is also of the fifteenth century.
+Of the small movable feretories, one apparently of the workmanship of the
+twelfth century, seven inches long and six high, formed of wood, enamelled
+and gilt, with figures on the sides representing the crucifixion, is still
+preserved in Shipley Church, Sussex; and a small stone reliquary or shrine
+of the fourteenth century was discovered a few years ago, and is now
+preserved in the church of Brixworth, Northamptonshire.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Organ.]
+
+The organ, as a solemn musical instrument, may claim a very early origin,
+and has been in use in our churches from the Anglo-Saxon era. The ancient
+organs were small, and all the pipes were exposed. The phrase “_a pair of
+organs_,� so frequently met with in old inventories and church accounts,
+may probably have answered to the great and choir organ of a subsequent
+period--one instrument in two divisions. The mechanism of the old organs
+was rude and simple, compared with the improvements of modern times, and
+the cost was small; they were generally placed in the rood-loft.
+
+The church chest is often an ancient and interesting object: sometimes we
+find it rudely formed, or hollowed out of the solid trunk of a tree, with
+a plain or barrel-shaped lid of considerable thickness. The churches of
+Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; Long Sutton, Somersetshire; and Ensham,
+Oxfordshire; contain chests thus rudely constructed. Sometimes they are
+strongly banded about with iron. The fronts and sides of these chests are
+not unfrequently embellished more or less richly with carved tracery,
+panel-work, and other detail in the style prevalent at the period of their
+construction. In Clemping Church, Sussex, is an early chest of the
+thirteenth century, the front of which exhibits a series of plain pointed
+arches trefoiled in the head, and other carved work. In Haconby Church,
+Lincolnshire, and in Chevington Church, Suffolk, are very rich chests
+covered with tracery and detail in the decorated style of the fourteenth
+century. In Brailes Church, Warwickshire, is an ancient chest of the
+fifteenth century covered with panel-work compartments, with plain pointed
+arches foliated in the heads. Panelled chests of this century are
+numerous. In Shanklin Church, Isle of Wight, is a chest bearing the date
+of 1519, on which no architectural ornament is displayed, but the initials
+T. S. (Thomas Selkstead) are fancifully designed, and are separated by the
+lock, and a coat of arms beneath.
+
+In the south wall of each aisle, near the east end, and also in other
+parts of the church, we frequently find the same kind of fenestella or
+niche containing a piscina, and sometimes a credence shelf, as that before
+described as being in the chancel: this is a plain indication that an
+altar has been erected in this part of the church; and this end of the
+aisle was generally separated from the rest of the church by a screen, the
+lower part of panel, the upper part of open-work tracery, of stone or
+wood, similar to that forming the division between the chancel and nave;
+and the space thus enclosed was converted into or became a private chapel
+or chantry; for it was anciently the custom, especially during the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, for lords of manors and persons of
+wealth and local importance to build or annex small chapels or side
+aisles to their parish churches, and these were endowed by license from
+the crown with land sufficient for the maintenance, either wholly or in
+part, of one or more priests, who were to celebrate private masses daily
+or otherwise, as the endowment expressed, at the altar erected therein,
+and dedicated to some saint, for the souls of the founder, his ancestors
+and posterity, for whose remains these chantry chapels frequently served
+as burial-places. At this service, however, no congregation was required
+to be present, but merely the priest, and an acolyte to assist him; and it
+was in allusion to the low or private masses thus performed, that Bishop
+Jewell, whilst condemning the practice as untenable, observes, “And even
+suche be their private masses, for the most part sayde in side iles,
+alone, without companye of people, onely with one boye to make answer.�
+
+The screens by which these chapels were enclosed have in numerous
+instances been destroyed; still many have been preserved, and chantry
+chapels parted off the church by screen-work of stone may be found in the
+churches of Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; and Aldbury, Hertfordshire; in
+which latter church is a very perfect specimen of a mortuary chapel, with
+a monument and recumbent effigies in the midst of it. Chantry chapels
+enclosed on two of the sides by wooden screen-work are more common.
+
+Although no ancient high altar of stone is known to exist, some of the
+ancient chantry altars have been preserved: these are composed either of a
+solid mass of masonry, covered with a thick slab or table of stone, as in
+the north aisle of Bengeworth Church, near Evesham, and in the south aisle
+of Enstone Church, Oxfordshire; or of a thick stone slab or table, with a
+cross at each angle and in the centre, supported merely on brackets or
+trusses built into and projecting from the wall, as in a chantry chapel in
+Warmington Church, Warwickshire; or partly on brackets and partly
+sustained on shafts or slender piers, as in a chantry chapel,
+Chipping-Norton Church, Oxfordshire. Sometimes a chamber containing a
+fire-place was constructed over a chantry, apparently for the residence,
+either occasional or permanent, of a priest: such a chamber occurs over
+the chantry chapel containing the altar in Chipping-Norton Church; and
+such also, with the exception of the flooring, which has decayed or been
+removed, may be seen in the chantry chapel which contains the altar in
+Warmington Church. In both of these chambers are windows or apertures in
+the walls which divide them from the church, through which the priest was
+enabled to observe unseen any thing passing within the church.
+
+[Illustration: Chantry Altar, Warmington Church, Warwickshire]
+
+We often find an opening or aperture obliquely disposed, carried through
+the thickness of the wall at the north-east angle of the south, and the
+south-east angle of the north aisle: this was the _hagioscope_, through
+which at high mass the elevation of the host at the high altar, and other
+ceremonies, might be viewed from the chantry chapel situate at the east
+end of each aisle. In general, these apertures are mere narrow oblong
+slits; sometimes, however, they partake of a more ornamental character, as
+in a chantry chapel on the south side of Irthlingborough Church,
+Northamptonshire, where the head of an aperture of this kind is arched,
+cinquefoiled within, and finished above with an embattled moulding. In the
+north and south transepts of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, are
+oblique openings, arched-headed and foliated; and in the north aisle of
+Chipping-Norton Church, in the same county, is a singular hagioscope,
+obliquely disposed, not unlike a square-headed window of three foliated
+arched lights, with a quatrefoil beneath each light.
+
+We sometimes meet with one or more brackets, with plain mouldings or
+sculptured, projecting from the east wall of a chancel aisle or chantry
+chapel; and on these, lamps or lights were formerly set, and kept
+continually burning in honour of the Virgin or of some other saint; and we
+also meet with rich projecting canopies or recessed niches, with brackets
+beneath, on which images of saints were formerly placed.
+
+The use of the low side window, common in some districts, near the
+south-west angle of the chancel, and sometimes, but not so frequently,
+near the north-west angle, and occasionally even in the aisle, has not
+been correctly ascertained; it has, however, been conjectured to have
+served for the purpose of a confessional; and on minute examination
+indications of its formerly having had a wooden shutter, which opened on
+the inside, are sometimes visible; and on the south side of Kenilworth
+Church, Warwickshire, is an iron-barred window of this description, on
+which the wooden shutter is still retained.[209-*]
+
+The sedilia or stone seats, so frequently found in the south wall of the
+chancel, are occasionally, though not often, to be met with in the south
+walls of side aisles or chantry chapels: when this is the case it is
+presumed the endowment was for more priests than one.
+
+Such, not to digress into more minute particulars, may suffice to convey a
+general idea of the manner in which our churches were internally
+decorated, and how they were fitted up, with reference to the ceremonial
+rites of the church of Rome, in and before the year 1535. The walls were
+covered with fresco paintings, the windows were glazed with stained glass;
+the rood-loft and the pulpit, where the latter existed, were richly
+carved, painted, and gilt; and the altars were garnished with plate and
+sumptuous hangings. Altar-tombs with cumbent effigies were painted so as
+to correspond in tone with the colours displayed on the walls; the
+pavement of encaustic tiles, of different devices, was interspersed with
+sepulchral slabs and inlaid brasses; and screen-work, niches for statuary,
+mouldings, and sculpture of different degrees of excellence, abounded.
+Suspended from aloft hung the funeral achievement; at a later period, even
+more common, the banner, helme, crest, gauntlets, spurs, sword, targe, and
+cote armour.[210-*] In addition to these were, in some churches, shrines
+and reliquaries, enriched by the lavish donations of devotees, and wooden
+images excessively decked out and appareled[211-*]--objects of
+superstition, to which pilgrimages and offerings were made. And if in the
+review of the conceptions of a prior age, viz. of the fourteenth century,
+we find a higher rank of art to be evinced, and the style and combination
+of architectural and sculptured detail to be more severe and pure, at no
+period were our churches adorned to greater excess than on the eve of that
+in which all were about to undergo spoliation, and many of them wanton
+destruction.
+
+For on the suppression of the monasteries and colleges, to the number of
+700 and upwards, and of the chantries, in number more than 2300, effected
+between the years 1535 and 1540, the abbey churches were not only
+despoiled of their costly vestments, altar plate and furniture, and
+shrines enriched with silver, gold, and jewels, but many of them were
+entirely dismantled, and the sites with the materials granted to
+individuals by whom they were soon reduced to a state of ruin. Some were
+even, either then or in after-times, converted into dwelling-houses; and
+others, or some portion of such, were allowed to be preserved as parochial
+churches; but the private chantry altars, though left bare and forsaken,
+were not as yet ordered to be destroyed.
+
+By the royal injunctions exhibited A. D. 1538, such feigned images as were
+known to be abused of pilgrimages, or offerings of any kind made
+thereunto, were, for the avoiding of idolatry, to be forthwith taken down
+without delay, and no candles, tapers, or images of wax were from
+thenceforth to be set before any image or picture, “but onelie the light
+that commonlie goeth about the crosse of the church by the rood-loft, the
+light afore the sacrament of the altar, and the light about the
+sepulchre;� which, for the adorning of the church and divine service, were
+for the present suffered to remain. By the same injunctions a Bible of the
+largest volume, in English, was directed to be set up in some convenient
+place in every church, that the parishioners might resort to the same and
+read it; and a register-book was ordered to be kept, for the recording of
+christenings, marriages, and burials.
+
+But beyond the suppression of the monasteries and chantries, an act the
+effect of secular rather than religious motives, little alteration was
+made during the reign of Henry the Eighth in the ceremonies and services
+of the church, although the minds of many were becoming prepared for the
+change which afterwards ensued. And in the reign of his successor, Edward
+the Sixth, a striking difference was effected in the internal appearance
+of our churches; for many appendages were, not all at once, but by
+degrees, and under the authority of successive injunctions, discarded.
+Thus, by the king’s injunctions published in 1547, all images which had
+been abused with pilgrimage, or offering of any thing made thereunto,
+were, for the avoiding of the detestable offence of idolatry, by
+ecclesiastical authority, but not by that of private persons, to be taken
+down and destroyed; and no torches or candles, tapers or images of wax,
+were to be thenceforth suffered to be set before any image or picture,
+“but only two lights upon the high altar before the sacrament, which, for
+the signification that Christ is the very true light of the world, they
+shall suffer to remain still.� And as to such images which had not been
+abused, and which as yet were suffered to remain, the parishioners were to
+be admonished by the clergy that they served for no other purpose but to
+be a remembrance. The Bible in English, and the Paraphrases of Erasmus
+upon the Gospels, also in English, were ordered to be provided and set up
+in every church for the use of the parishioners. It was also enjoined that
+at every high mass the gospel and epistle should be read in English, and
+not in Latin, in the pulpit or in some other convenient place, so that the
+people might hear the same. Processions about the church and churchyard
+were now ordered to be disused, and the priests and clerks were to kneel
+in the midst of the church immediately before high mass, and there sing or
+read the Litany in English set forth by the authority of King Henry the
+Eighth. By the same injunctions all shrines, covering of shrines, all
+tables, candlesticks, trindles or rolls of wax, pictures, paintings, and
+all other monuments of feigned miracles, pilgrimages, idolatry, and
+superstition, were directed to be utterly taken away and destroyed; so
+that there should remain no memory of the same in walls, glass windows, or
+elsewhere within churches; and in every church “a comely and honest
+pulpit� was to be provided at the cost of the parishioners, to be set in
+a convenient place for the preaching of God’s word; and a strong chest,
+having three keys, with a hole in the upper part thereof, was to be set
+and fastened near unto the high altar, to the intent the parishioners
+should put into it their oblation and alms for their poor
+neighbours[215-*].
+
+Hence the primary introduction of desks with divinity books, the litany
+stool, and the charity box, yet retained in some of our churches. But as
+much contention arose respecting the taking down of images, also as to
+whether they had been idolatrously abused or not, all images without
+exception were shortly afterwards, by royal authority, ordered to be
+removed and taken away.
+
+In the ritual the first formal change appears to have been the order of
+the communion set forth in 1547 as a temporary measure only, until other
+order should be provided for the true and right manner of administering
+the sacrament according to the rule of the scriptures of God, and first
+usage of the primitive church. In this the term _altar_ is alone made use
+of; but in the first Liturgy of King Edward the Sixth, published in 1549,
+the altar or table whereupon the Lord’s Supper was ministered is
+indifferently called _the altar_, _the Lord’s table_, _God’s board_.
+Ridley, bishop of London, by his diocesan injunctions issued in 1550,
+after noticing that in divers places some used the Lord’s board after the
+form of a table, and some as an altar, exhorted the curates,
+churchwardens, and questmen to erect and set up the Lord’s board after the
+form of an honest table, decently covered, in such place of the quire or
+chancel as should be thought most meet, so that the ministers with the
+communicants might have their place separated from the rest of the people;
+and to take down and abolish all other by-altars or tables. Soon after
+this, orders of council were sent to the bishops, in which, after noticing
+that the altars in most churches of the realm had been taken down, but
+that there yet remained altars standing in divers other churches, by
+occasion whereof much variance and contention arose, they were commanded,
+for the avoiding of all matters of further contention and strife about the
+standing or taking away of the said altars[216-*], to give substantial
+order that all the altars in every church should be taken down, and
+instead of them that a table should be set up in some convenient part of
+the chancel, to serve for the ministration of the blessed communion; and
+reasons were at the same time published why the Lord’s board should rather
+be after the form of a table than of an altar, expressing however in what
+sense it might be called an altar. In the second Liturgy of King Edward
+the Sixth, amongst other important changes both of doctrine and
+discipline, the word _altar_, as denoting the communion-table, was
+purposely omitted.
+
+The peculiar formation, frequently observable, of the old
+communion-tables, seems to have originated from the diversity of opinion
+held by many in the Anglican church, as to whether or not there was in the
+sacrament of the Lord’s Supper a memorative sacrifice; for by those who
+held the negative they were so constructed, not merely that they might be
+moved from one part of the church to another, but the slab, board, or
+table, properly so called, was purposely not fastened or fixed to the
+frame-work or stand on which it was supported, but left loose, so as to be
+set on or taken off; and in 1555, on the accession of Queen Mary, when the
+stone altars were restored and the communion-tables taken down, we find it
+recorded of one John Austen, at Adesham Church, Kent, that “he with other
+tooke up the table, and laid it on a chest in the chancel, and set the
+tressels by it[218-*].�
+
+It appears that texts of scripture were painted on the walls of some
+churches in the reign of Edward the Sixth; for Bonner, bishop of London,
+by a mandate issued to his diocese in 1554, after noticing that some had
+procured certain scriptures wrongly applied to be painted on church walls,
+charged that such scriptures should be razed, abolished, and extinguished,
+so that in no means they could be either read or heard.
+
+In the articles set forth by Cardinal Pole in 1557, to be inquired of in
+his diocese of Canterbury, were the following: “Whether the churches be
+sufficiently garnished and adorned with all ornaments and books
+necessary; and whether they have a rood in their church of a decent
+stature, with Mary and John, and an image of the patron of the same
+church?� Also, “Whether the altars of the church be consecrated or no?�
+
+But in 1559, the first year of the reign of Elizabeth, many of the
+injunctions set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth, as to the mode of
+saying the Litany without procession, the removal and destruction of
+shrines and monuments of superstition, the setting up of a pulpit, and of
+the poor-box or chest, which latter was however “to be set and fastened in
+a most convenient place,� were re-established. By these injunctions it
+appears that in many parts of the realm the altars of the churches had
+been removed, and tables placed for the administration of the holy
+sacrament; that in some other places the altars had not yet been removed:
+in the order whereof, as the injunctions express, save for an uniformity,
+there seemed to be no matter of great moment, so that the sacrament was
+duly and reverently ministered; and it was so ordered that no altar should
+be taken down but by oversight of the curate and churchwardens, or one of
+them, and that the holy table in every church should be decently made and
+set in the place where the altar stood, and there commonly covered, and so
+to stand, saving when the communion of the sacrament was to be
+distributed; at which time the same was to be so placed within the chancel
+in such manner that the minister might be the more conveniently heard of
+the communicants in his prayer and ministration.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Communion Table, Sunningwell Church, Berkshire.]
+
+Many of the old communion-tables set up in the reign of Elizabeth are yet
+remaining in our churches, and are sustained by a stand or frame, the
+bulging pillar-legs of which are often fantastically carved, with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail according to the taste of the age.
+The communion-table in Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, probably set up
+during the time Bishop Jewell was pastor of that church, is a rich and
+interesting specimen. Communion-tables of the same era, designed in the
+same general style, with carved bulging legs, are preserved in the
+churches of Lapworth, Rowington, and Knowle, Warwickshire; in St. Thomas’s
+Church, Oxford; and in many other churches. Sometimes the bulging
+pillar-legs are turned plain, and are not covered with carving: such occur
+in Broadwas Church, Worcestershire; in the churches of St. Nicholas and
+St. Helen, at Abingdon; and in the north aisle of Dorchester Church,
+Oxfordshire. The table or slab of the communion-table in Knowle Church is
+not fixed or fastened to the frame or stand on which it is placed, but
+lies loose; and this is also the case with an old communion-table of the
+sixteenth century, now disused, in Northleigh Church, Oxfordshire. In an
+inventory of church goods, taken in 1646, occurs the following: “Item, one
+_short table and frame_, commonly called the communion-table.� On
+examining the old communion-tables, the movability of the slab from the
+frame-work is of such frequent occurrence as to corroborate the
+supposition that some esoteric meaning was attached to its unfixed state,
+which meaning has been attempted to be explained.
+
+Under the colour of removing monuments of idolatry and false feigned
+images in the churches, much wanton spoliation and needless injury was
+effected; and this to such excess that in 1560 a royal proclamation was
+issued, commanding all persons to forbear the breaking or defacing of any
+monument or tomb, or any image of kings, princes, or nobles, or the
+breaking down and defacing of any image in glass windows, in any churches,
+without consent of the ordinary. And in the same year, in a letter from
+the queen to the commissioners for causes ecclesiastical, occasion is
+taken to remark that “in sundry churches and chappells where divine
+service, as prayer, preaching, and ministration of the sacraments be used,
+there is such negligence and lacke of convenient reverence used towardes
+the comelye keeping and order of the said churches, and especially of the
+upper parte called the chauncels, that it breedeth no small offence and
+slaunder to see and consider on the one part the curiositie and costes
+bestowed by all sortes of men upon there private houses, and the other
+part, the unclean or negligent order or sparekeeping of the house of
+prayer, by permitting open decaies, and ruines of coveringes, walls, and
+wyndowes, and by appointing unmeet and unseemly tables, with fowle
+clothes, for the communion of the sacraments, and generally leavynge the
+place of prayers desolate of all cleanlynes, and of meet ornaments for
+such a place, whereby it might be known a place provided for divine
+service.� And the commissioners were required to consider the same, and in
+their discretion to determine upon some good and speedy means of
+reformation; and, amongst other things, to order that the tables of the
+commandments might be comely set or hung up in the east end of the
+chancel, to be not only read for edification, but also to give some comely
+ornament and demonstration that the same was a place of religion and
+prayer[223-*].
+
+An ancient table, apparently of this period, of the commandments painted
+on panel, but in language somewhat abbreviated, is still hung up against
+the east wall of the south transept of Ludlow Church, Salop[224-*].
+
+By the articles issued by royal authority in 1564, for administration of
+prayer and sacraments, each parish was to provide a decent table, standing
+on a frame, for the communion-table; this was to be decently covered with
+carpet, silk, or other decent covering, and with a fair linen cloth (at
+the time of the ministration); the ten commandments were to be set upon
+the east wall, over the table; the font was not to be removed, nor was the
+curate to baptize in parish churches in any basins.
+
+In the Visitation Articles of Archbishop Parker, A. D. 1569, we find
+inquiries were to be made whether there was in each parish church a
+convenient pulpit well placed, a comely and decent table for the holy
+communion, covered decently and set in the place prescribed; and whether
+the altars had been taken down; also whether images and all other
+monuments of idolatry and superstition were destroyed and abolished;
+whether the rood-loft was pulled down, according to the order prescribed;
+and if the partition between the chancel and church was kept.
+
+The latter inquiry is explanatory of the fact why, when the rood-lofts in
+many churches were taken down, the screens beneath them, separating the
+chancel from the nave, were left undisturbed.
+
+By the injunctions of Grindal, archbishop of York, A. D. 1571, all altars
+were ordered to be pulled down to the ground, and the altar stones to be
+defaced and bestowed to some common use.
+
+Pulpits of the reign of Edward the Sixth are rare, nor are those of the
+reign of Elizabeth very common. The pulpit in Fordington Church,
+Dorsetshire, of the latter period, is of stone, the upper part worked in
+plain oblong panels; and a kind of escutcheon within one of these bears
+the date 1592; the lower part or basement of this pulpit is circular in
+form.
+
+The richly embroidered and costly vestments and antependia or frontals, of
+a period antecedent to the Reformation, were in some instances converted
+into coverings for the altar or communion table, or into hangings for the
+pulpit and reading desk. In Little Dean Church, Gloucestershire, the
+covering for the reading desk is formed out of an ancient sacerdotal
+vestment, probably a cope, of velvet, embroidered with portraits of
+saints. The cushion of the pulpit of East Langdon Church, near Dover, is
+made out of either an ancient antependium or vestment; the material
+consists of very thick crimson silk, embroidered with sprigs, and in the
+centre of the hanging are two figures supposed to represent the salutation
+of the Virgin, who is kneeling before a faldstool.
+
+We occasionally, though rarely, meet with ancient charity-boxes of a date
+anterior to the Reformation: the churches of Wickmere, Loddon, and
+Causton, in Norfolk, still retain such[226-*]. At the Reformation,
+however, they were first required to be set up in churches. The ancient
+poor-box in Trinity Church, Coventry, is an excellent specimen of the
+Elizabethan era, and the shaft which supports it is of stone, covered with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail peculiar to that age; but most of
+the old charity-boxes are of the seventeenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Charity-box, Trinity Church, Coventry.]
+
+Towards the close of the sixteenth century the practice of preaching by an
+hour-glass, set in an iron frame affixed to the pulpit or projecting from
+the wall near it, began to prevail; and in the succeeding century this
+practice became quite common. In the churchwardens’ accounts for St.
+Mary’s Church, Lambeth, occurs the following: “A. 1579, Payde to Yorke for
+the frame on which the hower standeth,--..1..4;� and in the churchwardens’
+accounts of St. Helen’s Church, Abingdon, is an item, “Anno MDXCI. payde
+for an houre glass for the pilpit, 4_d._� In the parochial accounts for
+St. Mary’s, Shrewsbury, A. D. 1597, is a charge “for removing the desk and
+other necessaries about the pulpit, and for makeinge a thing for the hower
+glasse, 9_d._� In Shawell Church, Isle of Wight, the old iron stand for
+the hour-glass still remains affixed to a pier adjoining the pulpit; it is
+composed of two flat circular hoops or rings, one at some distance above
+the other, annexed or attached and kept in position by four vertical bars
+of iron, and the lower ring has cross-bars to sustain the glass. In
+Cassington Church, Oxfordshire, projecting from the wall by the side of
+the pulpit, is an iron stand for the hour-glass, consisting of two
+circular hoops or rings of iron, connected by four wrought iron bars,
+worked in the middle; and across the lower ring or hoop is an iron bar or
+stay. In High Laver Church, Essex, the iron stand for the glass still
+remains, and is in fashion not unlike a cresset, having only one hoop or
+ring encircling the top, and supported on four iron bars, which cross in
+curves at the bottom. Many other churches might be enumerated in which the
+stand for the hour-glass is still preserved; and the hour-glass itself,
+together with its frame, is said to be retained in South Burlingham
+Church, Norfolk. An hour-glass within a rich and peculiar frame, supported
+on a spiral column, and apparently of the latter part of the seventeenth
+century, is yet preserved in St. Alban’s Church, Wood Street, London.
+
+[Illustration: Hour-glass Frame, Shawell Church, Isle of Wight.]
+
+To the close of the sixteenth century the mode of pewing with open
+low-backed seats continued to prevail; the ends of these seats were not
+covered with tracery or arched panel-work, but were plain, though they
+sometimes terminated with a finial. In the nave of Stanton St. John
+Church, Oxfordshire, are some old open pews or seats, apparently of the
+reign of Henry the Eighth, the backs of which are divided diamond-wise,
+and form a kind of lattice-work, and the ends terminate in grotesque
+heads. In Harrington Church, Worcestershire, are some open seats of plain
+workmanship, bearing the date of 1582. The church of Sunningwell,
+Berkshire, is fitted up with a range of open seats on each side of the
+nave, without any ornament, with the exception of a large carved finial at
+the end of each seat. In Cowley Church, near Oxford, are open seats of the
+date of 1632, which have at the ends finials carved in the shallow angular
+designs of that period. All these seats are appropriately placed, or
+disposed facing the east, and none are turned with the backs towards the
+altar[230-*]. About the commencement of the seventeenth century our
+churches began to be disfigured by the introduction of high pews, an
+innovation which did not escape censure; for, as Weaver observes, “Many
+monuments of the dead in churches in and about this citie of London, as
+also in some places in the countrey, are covered with seates or pewes,
+made high and easie for the parishioners to sit or sleepe in; a fashion of
+no long continuance, and worthy of reformation[231-*].� The high pews set
+up in the early part of this century are easily distinguished by the flat
+and shallow carved scroll and arabesque work with which the sides and
+doors are covered. In the directions given on the primary visitation of
+Wren, bishop of Norwich, A. D. 1636, we find an order “that the chancels
+and alleys in the church be not encroached upon by building of seats; and
+if any be so built, the same to be removed and taken away; and that no
+pews be made over high, so that they which be in them cannot be seen how
+they behave themselves, or the prospect of the church or chancel be
+hindered; and therefore that all pews which within do much exceed a yard
+in height be taken down near to that scantling, unless the bishop by his
+own inspection, or by the view of some special commissioner, shall
+otherwise allow.�
+
+From a paper found among secretary Cecil’s MSS.[232-*], it appears that in
+1564 some ministers performed divine service and prayers in the chancel,
+others in the body of the church, and some _in a seat made in the church_;
+and in the parochial accounts of St. Mary’s Church, Shrewsbury, A. D.
+1577, is an entry “for coloringe the curate’s pew and dask;� but no public
+notice of the modern reading desk, or, as it was called, the “reading
+pew,� occurs till 1603, when, in the ecclesiastical canons then framed, it
+was enjoined that besides the pulpit a fitting or convenient seat should
+be constructed for the minister to read service in; and in allusion to the
+reading desk, Bishop Sparrow, in his Rationale of the Book of Common
+Prayer, observes, “This was the ancient custom of the church of England,
+that the priest who did officiate in all those parts of the service which
+were directed to the people turned himself towards them, as in the
+absolution; but in those parts of the office which were directed to God
+immediately, as prayers, hymns, lauds, confessions of faith or sins, he
+turned from the people; and for that purpose, in many parish churches of
+late, the reading pew had one desk for the Bible, looking towards the
+people to the body of the church, another for the prayer-book, looking
+towards the east or upper end of the chancel. And very reasonable was this
+usage; for when the people was spoken to it was fit to look towards them,
+but when God was spoken to it was fit to turn from the people.� And so he
+goes on to explain the custom of turning to the east in public prayer.
+
+In Bishop Wren’s directions it was enjoined that the minister’s reading
+desk should not stand with the back towards the chancel, nor too remote
+or far from it.
+
+The double reading desk is still occasionally met with, as in East Ilsley
+Church, Berkshire, where is a kind of double reading desk so that the
+minister can turn himself either towards the west or south. In Priors
+Salford Church, Warwickshire, is an old carved reading pew bearing the
+date of its construction, 1616; and in St. Peter’s Church, Dorchester,
+Dorsetshire, and in Sherbourne Church, in the same county, are reading
+pews which evidently, from the style and the carved work with which they
+are covered, were constructed in the early part of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+The enclosing of the communion table in the church of Stow, in the county
+of Norfolk, by rails, about the year 1622, is noticed by Weaver, who
+states that the vicar and churchwardens pulled down a tomb to make room
+for the rail.
+
+In Bishop Wren’s diocesan directions it was ordered that the communion
+table in every church should always stand close under the east wall of the
+chancel, the ends thereof north and south, and that the rail should be
+made before it, reaching up from the north wall to the south wall, near
+one yard in height, so thick with pillars that dogs might not get in.
+
+But we find the situation of the altar or communion table, and the reason
+of its severance by means of rails, more particularly noticed in the
+canons entertained by the convocation held in 1640. In these (after an
+allusion to the fact that many had been misled against the rites and
+ceremonies of the church of England, and had taken offence at the same
+upon an unjust supposal that they were introductive unto popish
+superstitions, whereas they had been duly and ordinarily practised by the
+whole church during a great part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and that
+though since that time they had by subtle practices begun to fall into
+disuse, and in place thereof other foreign and unfitting usages by little
+and little to creep in, yet in the royal chapels and many other churches
+most of them had been ever constantly used and observed) it was declared
+that the standing of the communion table sideway under the east window of
+every chancel was in its own nature indifferent[235-*]; yet as it had
+been ordered by the injunctions of Queen Elizabeth that the holy tables
+should stand in the places where the altars stood, it was judged fit and
+convenient that all churches should conform themselves in this particular
+to the example of the cathedral and mother churches; and it was declared
+that this situation of the holy table did not imply that it was or ought
+to be esteemed a true and proper altar, whereon Christ was again really
+sacrificed; but that it was and might be called an altar, in that sense in
+which the primitive church called it an altar, and in no other. And
+because experience had shewn how irreverent the behaviour of many people
+was in many places, (some leaning, others casting their hats, and some
+sitting upon, some standing, and others sitting under the communion table,
+in time of divine service,) for the avoiding of which and like abuses it
+was thought meet and convenient that the communion tables in all churches
+should be decently severed with rails, to preserve them from such or worse
+profanations.
+
+Communion rails carved in the nondescript style, almost peculiar to the
+reign of Charles the First, are preserved in St. Giles’s Church, Oxford;
+in the Lady Chapel, Winchester Cathedral; in the Church of St. Cross, near
+Winchester; in the choir of Worcester Cathedral; and in Andover Church,
+Hants: in which last instance the rails are composed of open semicircular
+arches, supported on baluster columns, with pendants similar to hip knobs
+hanging from the arches; but specimens of altar rails of a period
+antecedent to the Restoration are not often to be met with, the reason for
+which will be adduced.
+
+By the canons of 1603 the churchwardens or questmen were to provide in
+every church a comely and decent pulpit, to be set in a convenient place
+within the same, and there to be seemly kept for the preaching of God’s
+word. Carved pulpits set up between the years 1603 and 1640 are numerous,
+and the sides are more or less embellished with circular-arched panels,
+flat and shallow scroll-work, and other decorative detail in fashion at
+that period; and not a few bear the precise date of their construction.
+
+In the nave of Bristol Cathedral is a stone pulpit, ascended to by means
+of a circular flight of steps; the sides are panelled and ornamented with
+escutcheons surrounded by scroll-work, and it bears the date of 1624.
+
+In Ashington Church, Somersetshire, is a pulpit with the date 1627.
+
+In Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a fine carved wooden pulpit and
+sounding-board, and on it appears the date 1632.
+
+The date of 1625 appears on a fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of
+which are covered with semicircular-headed panels, in Huish Episcopi
+Church, Somersetshire.
+
+In one of the churches at Wells is a fine wooden pulpit, of the date 1636;
+at the angles are columns of semi-classic design, fantastically carved;
+the panels are curiously ornamented with figures in relief, and it is
+supported on a stand composed of a square and four detached columns, above
+which are represented a number of birds with large beaks; the
+sounding-board over corresponds in design with the pulpit.
+
+A very fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of which are embellished with
+circular-arched panel and scroll-work, with the date 1640, and a
+sounding-board over, is contained in Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire.
+
+Many carved pulpits of this era have, however, no assigned date; they are
+commonly placed at the north or south-east angle of the nave, but never
+in the middle of the aisle, so as to obstruct the view of the communion
+table.
+
+The commandments were again, by the canons of 1603, ordered to be set upon
+the east end of every church, where the people might best see and read the
+same; and other chosen sentences were to be written upon the walls of the
+churches in places convenient.
+
+On the south wall of Rowington Church, Warwickshire, are sentences painted
+with a border of scroll-work; the like also occur at Astley Church, in the
+same county; and on the walls of Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, are
+sentences of scripture painted in black-lettered characters within panels
+surrounded by scroll-work.
+
+By the same canons the churchwardens were required to provide, if such had
+not been already provided, a strong chest, with a hole in the upper part
+thereof, having three keys, of which one was to remain in the custody of
+the minister, and the other two in the custody of the churchwardens; which
+chest was to be set and fastened in the most convenient place, to the
+intent the parishioners might put into it their alms for their poor
+neighbours.
+
+In the retro-choir, Sherbourne Church, Dorsetshire, is a poor-box with
+three locks; and a carved poor-box, of the early part of the seventeenth
+century, is preserved in Harlow Church, Essex. In Elstow Church,
+Bedfordshire, are the remains of a poor-box of the same period. In Clapham
+Church, in the same county, is an old poor-box, the cover of which is
+gone, on which are the initials I. W., and the date 1626: this is fixed on
+a plain wooden pillar near the south door; and in the south aisle of
+Bletchley Church, Buckinghamshire, is an oak pillar or shaft surmounted by
+a poor-box, with an inscription carved on it of “Remember the Pore,� and
+the date 1637[240-*].
+
+The communion tables of the early part of this century were not so richly
+carved as those of the reign of Elizabeth, and in general the pillar-legs
+were plain and not so bulging; but the frieze or upper part of the
+frame-work, on which the table rested, was often covered with shallow and
+flat carved panel and scroll-work, and sometimes with the date of its
+construction.
+
+In the church of St. Lawrence, at Evesham, the communion table bears the
+date of 1610; and round the frieze is carved an inscription, stating by
+whom it was given. In Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a carved
+communion table, bearing the date of 1638. The communion table in Godshill
+Church, Isle of Wight, is supported on four carved bulging pillar-legs;
+and round the frieze, below the ledge of the table, is the following
+inscription:
+
+     “Lancelot Coleman & Edward Britwel, Churchwardens, Anno Dom. 1631.�
+
+In Whitwell Church, Isle of Wight, the communion table stands on plain
+bulging pillar-legs; and on the frieze round the ledge is carved in relief
+an arm holding a chalice, with the following inscription:
+
+     “I will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the
+     Lord. Psa. 116. v. 53. Anno Dom. 1632.�
+
+As the rubric of the church enjoined that at the communion the priest
+should himself place the elements upon the holy table, the custom of
+having a side table, called the credence table, for the elements to be set
+on previous to their removal by the priest to the communion table for
+consecration, was observed in some churches in the latter part of the
+sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth century. Such table appears
+to have been introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, by Andrews, bishop of
+Norwich, whose model Archbishop Laud is said to have followed[242-*]; and
+it originated from the π�όθεσις, or side table of preparation,
+used in the early church; it was likewise, as we have seen, used at the
+sacramentals of the church of Rome, and on that account was strongly
+objected to by the Puritans.
+
+[Illustration: Table, (temp. Charles I.,) Chipping-Warden Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+In the chancel of Chipping-Warden Church, Northamptonshire, on the north
+side of the communion table, is a semicircular oak table, apparently of
+the reign of Charles the First, standing on a frame supported by three
+plain pillar-legs, like those of the communion tables of the same period,
+and enriched with carved arched frieze-work similar to the arched
+panel-work on pulpits of the same period.
+
+A plain credence table of black oak, which from the style and make was
+evidently set up after the Restoration, still continues to be used as such
+in St. Michael’s Church, Oxford, being placed on the north side of the
+communion table.
+
+The objections of the Puritans against many of the usages of the Anglican
+church, and their refusal to conform to such under the pretence of their
+being superstitious, had no slight effect in altering the internal
+appearance of our churches in the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+during the period their party had obtained the ascendancy, and had
+succeeded for a while in abolishing in this country episcopal church
+government; for among the “innovations in discipline,� as they were called
+by the Puritan committee of the House of Lords in 1641, we find the
+following usages complained of: the turning of the holy table altarwise,
+and most commonly calling it an altar; the bowing towards it or towards
+the east many times; advancing candlesticks in many churches upon the
+altar, so called; the making of canopies over the altar, so called, with
+traverses and curtains on each side and before it; the compelling all
+communicants to come up to the rails, and there to receive; the advancing
+crucifixes and images upon the parafront or altar cloth, so called; the
+reading some part of the morning prayer at the holy table, when there was
+no communion celebrated; the minister’s turning his back to the west, and
+his face to the east, when he pronounced the Creed or read prayers; the
+reading the Litany in the midst of the body of the church in many of the
+parochial churches; the having a _credentia_ or side table, besides the
+Lord’s table, for divers uses in the Lord’s Supper; and the taking down
+galleries in churches, or restraining the building of galleries where the
+parishes were very populous[244-*].
+
+In August, 1643, an Ordinance of the Lords and Commons was published, for
+the taking away and demolishing of all altars and tables of stone, and for
+the removal of all communion tables from the east end of every church and
+chancel; and it was prescribed that such should be placed in some other
+fit and convenient place in the body of the church or in the body of the
+chancel; and that all rails whatsoever which had been erected near to,
+before, or about any altar or communion table, should be likewise taken
+away; and that the chancel-ground which had been raised within twenty
+years then last past, for any altar or communion table to stand on, should
+be laid down and levelled, as the same had formerly been; and that all
+tapers, candlesticks, and basins should be removed and taken away from the
+communion table, and not again used about the same; and that all
+crucifixes, crosses, and all images and pictures of any one or more
+Persons of the Trinity, or of the Virgin Mary, and all other images and
+pictures of saints, or superstitious inscriptions belonging to any
+churches, should be taken away and defaced before the first day of
+November, 1643: but it was provided that such ordinances should not extend
+to any image, picture, or coat of arms, in glass, stone, or otherwise, set
+up or graven only for a monument of any dead person not reputed for a
+saint, but that all such might stand and continue.
+
+By a subsequent ordinance, passed in May, 1644, it was prescribed that no
+rood-loft or holy water fonts should be any more used in any church; and
+that all organs, and the frames or cases in which they stood, in all
+churches, should be taken away and utterly defaced.
+
+Under colour of these ordinances the beauty of the cathedrals and churches
+was injured to an extent hardly credible; the monuments of the dead were
+defaced, and brasses torn away, in the iconoclastic fury which then raged;
+the very tombs were violated; and the havoc made of church ornaments, and
+destruction of the fine painted glass with which most church windows then
+abounded, may in some degree be estimated from the account given by one
+Dowsing, a parliamentary visitor appointed under a warrant from the Earl
+of Manchester for demolishing the so called superstitious pictures and
+ornaments of churches within the county of Suffolk, who kept a journal,
+with the particulars of his transactions, in the years 1643 and 1644:
+these were chiefly comprised in the demolition of numerous windows filled
+with painted glass, in the breaking down of altar rails and organ cases,
+in levelling the steps in the chancels, in removing crucifixes, in taking
+down the stone crosses from the exterior of the churches, in defacing
+crosses on the fonts, and in the taking up (under the pretence of their
+being superstitious) of numerous sepulchral inscriptions in brass. Nor
+did the churches in other parts of the country, with some exceptions,
+escape from a like fanatical warfare; and, in this, many of our cathedrals
+suffered most. But this was not enough: our sacred edifices were profaned
+and polluted in the most irreverent and disgraceful manner; and with the
+exception of the destruction which took place on the dissolution of the
+monastic establishments in the previous century, more devastation was
+committed at this time by the party hostile to the Anglican church than
+had ever before been effected since the ravages of the ancient Danish
+invaders.
+
+But as to other alterations at this time effected. In January, 1644, an
+ordinance of parliament was published for the taking away of the Book of
+Common Prayer, which was forbid to be used any longer in any church,
+chapel, or place of public worship. In lieu of this the “Directory for the
+Publike Worship of God� was established: this contained no stated forms of
+prayer, but general instructions only for extemporaneous praying and
+preaching, and for the administration of the sacraments of Baptism and the
+Lord’s Supper; the former of which was to be administered in the place of
+public worship and in the face of the congregation, but “not,� as the
+Directory expresses, “in the places where fonts in the time of popery were
+unfitly and superstitiously placed.� And at the administration of the
+Lord’s Supper the table was to be so placed that the communicants might
+sit orderly about it or at it; but all liturgical form was abolished, and
+the prayers even at this sacrament were such as the minister might
+spontaneously offer.
+
+At Brill Church, in Buckinghamshire, the communion table, on an elevation
+of one step, is inclosed with rails, within an area of eight feet by six
+feet and a half, and a bench is fixed to the wall on each side; an
+innovation made at this period, in order that the communicants might
+receive the sacrament sitting. The communion table in Wooten Wawen Church,
+Warwickshire, though perfectly plain in construction, is unusually long
+and large, and appears to have been set up by the Puritans at this period,
+so that they might sit round or at it.
+
+To the removal of the communion table from the east end of the chancel may
+be attributed the usage which, in the middle of the seventeenth century,
+began to prevail of constructing close and high seats or pews, without
+regard to that uniformity of arrangement which had hitherto been
+observed; and many seats were now so constructed that those who occupied
+them necessarily turned their backs on the east during the ministration of
+prayer and public service. The erection of unseemly galleries, which have
+greatly tended to disfigure our churches, was another consequence of the
+innovation on the ancient arrangement of pewing.
+
+After the Restoration the communion tables were again restored to their
+former position at the east end of the chancel; and in Evelyn’s Diary for
+1661-2, we find the change of position in his parish church thus noticed:
+“6 April. Being of the vestry in the afternoone, we order’d that the
+communion table should be set as usual altarwise, with a decent raile in
+front, as before the rebellion.�
+
+The altar rails were now generally restored, and in most instances we find
+those in our churches to be of a period subsequent to the Restoration, as
+the details in the workmanship evince. In the church accounts of St.
+Mary’s, Shrewsbury, for 1662, we find a “memorandum that this year the
+rayles about the communion table wer new sett up, and the surplice was
+made.� In Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire, the altar rails have on them
+the date of 1664; and the communion table, which is quite plain, is of
+the same character and era.
+
+But a return, after the Restoration, to the former usages of the Anglican
+church was not made without great opposition; and accordingly we find
+objections stated to the bowing to the altar and to the east, to the
+preaching by book, to the railing in of the altar, to the candles,
+cushion, and book thereon, to the bowing at the name of Jesus, and to the
+organs as “popish-like music, and too much superstition[250-*].�
+
+When the rood was taken down at the Reformation, a custom began to prevail
+of fixing up in its stead or place, against the arch leading into the
+chancel, the upper part of which was in consequence blocked up by it, and
+facing the congregation, so as to be seen by them, the royal arms, with
+proper heraldic supporters; but it does not clearly appear that this was
+done in consequence of any express law or injunction to that effect,
+though it may perhaps have served to denote the king’s supremacy. We
+seldom, however, find the royal arms of earlier date than the Restoration,
+in the twenty years previous to which they appear to have been generally
+taken down. In Brixton Church, Isle of Wight, on some plain wooden
+panelling between the tower and a gallery at the west end are the remains
+of the royal arms, which, from the style in which they have been painted
+with the rose and thistle, appear coeval with the reign of James the
+First; they are surmounted by a crown, below which is an open six-barred
+helme. These arms appear to have been removed from their original position
+against the chancel-arch, and are now much mutilated. In the church
+accounts, St. Mary’s, Shrewsbury, for 1651, is a charge of 1_l._ 8_s._
+“for making the states armes.� In Anstey Church, Warwickshire, the arms of
+the commonwealth, put up during the inter-regnum, were taken down not many
+years back. The little church of St. Lawrence, in the Isle of Wight, still
+retains the royal arms put up at the Restoration in 1660.
+
+Excepting the rood-loft galleries, we have few galleries in our churches
+of a period antecedent to the latter part of the seventeenth century. At
+the west end of Worstead Church, Norfolk, over the west door, is a gallery
+erected in 1550, at the cost of the candle called the Bachelor’s Light. At
+the west end of the nave in Leighton Buzzard Church is a gallery erected
+in 1634; and at the west end of Piddletown Church, Dorsetshire, is a
+gallery with the date of its erection, 1635.
+
+From about the period of the Revolution, in 1688, we may trace the
+commencement of a custom, still partially prevailing, of setting up the
+pulpit and reading-pew in the middle aisle, in front of the communion
+table; so that during the whole of the service the back of the minister
+was turned to the east, and the view of the communion table obstructed;
+but we have not found any pulpit thus placed of an earlier period.
+
+We still retain, in the Anglican church, the usage of placing two
+candlesticks and candles upon the communion table, in compliance with the
+injunctions of King Edward the Sixth, together also with an offertory
+dish; of reading the lessons from the eagle desk, and of saying the Litany
+at the litany-stool. These practices are, however, more particularly
+observed in our cathedrals and college chapels than in our parochial
+churches, in most of which they have fallen into desuetude.
+
+To conclude, in the language of the synod held in 1640: “Whereas the
+church is the house of God, dedicated to his holy worship, and therefore
+ought to remind us both of the greatness and goodness of his Divine
+Majesty; certain it is that the acknowledgment thereof, not only inwardly
+in our hearts, but also outwardly with our bodies, must needs be pious in
+itself, profitable unto us, and edifying unto others: we therefore think
+it meet and behoveful, and heartily commend it to all good and
+well-affected people, members of this church, that they be ready to tender
+unto the Lord the said acknowledgment, by doing reverence and obeisance,
+both at their coming in and going out of the said churches, chancels, or
+chapels, according to the most ancient custom of the primitive church in
+the purest times, and of this church also for many years of the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth.
+
+“The reviving, therefore, of this ancient and laudable custom we heartily
+recommend to the serious consideration of all good people, not with any
+intention to exhibit any religious worship to the communion table, the
+east, or church, or any thing therein contained, in so doing; or to
+perform the said gesture in the celebration of the holy eucharist, upon
+any opinion of a corporal presence of the body of Jesus Christ on the holy
+table or in the mystical elements, but only for the advancement of God’s
+majesty, and to give him alone that honour and glory that is due unto
+him, and no otherwise; and in the practice or omission of this rite we
+desire that the rule of charity prescribed by the apostle may be observed,
+which is, that they which use this rite despise not them who use it not,
+and that they who use it not condemn not those that use it.�
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          “... a bloodie crosse he bore,
+  The deare remembrance of his dying Lord,
+    For whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore,
+  And dead, as living, ever him ador’d:
+  Upon his shield the like was also scor’d.�
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[154-*] Hist. Eccles. lib. vi. c. 6. Durantus, however, assigns a
+different origin. “In veteri testamento non nisi lotus templum
+ingrediebatur.� De Labro, seu Vase Aquæ Benedictæ, c. 21.
+
+[156-*] “Ad valvas ecclesiæ,�--Ordo ad Faciendum Catechumenum, Manuale.
+
+[156-†] Constitutions of Edmund Archbishop of Canterbury, A. D. 1236.
+[TN-7]De Baptismo et eius Effectu.�
+
+[158-*] It is much to be regretted that of late years many ancient fonts
+have been cast out of our churches, and earthenware and pewter basins
+substituted in their stead for the administration of the holy sacrament
+of baptism: a practice not authorized by the Anglican church, but rather
+condemned; for in the canons set forth by authority, A. D. 1571, it is
+provided that “Curabunt (Œditui) ut in singulis ecclesiis sit sacer
+fons, _non pelvis_, in quo baptismus ministretur, isque ut decenter et
+munde conservetur.� And in the canons of 1603, after alluding to the
+foregoing constitution, and observing that it was too much neglected in
+many places, it is appointed “That there shall be a font of stone in
+every church and chapel where baptism is to be ministered; the same to
+be set in the _ancient usual places_.� In the orders and directions
+given by Bishop Wren, A. D. 1636, to be observed in his diocese of
+Norwich, we find it enjoined, “That the font at baptism be filled with
+clear water, and no dishes, pails, or basins be used in it or instead of
+it.�
+
+[160-*] The 28th decree of a foreign council, that of Wirtzburgh, held
+A. D. 1278, prohibits the fortifying of churches in order to make use of
+them as castles.
+
+[164-*] Anglice sermocinari solebat (Abbas Samson) populo, sed secundum
+Linguam Norfolchie ... unde et pulpitum jussit fieri in ecclesia et ad
+utilitatem audiencium et ad decorem ecclesie.--Cronica Jocelini de
+Brakelonda, sub anno 1187.
+
+[167-*] Cottonian MS. Titus D. xxvii. 10th sæc.
+
+[167-†] “Crux que erat super magnum altare, et Mariola, et Johannes,
+quas imagines Stigandus archiepiscopus magno pondere auri et argenti
+ornaverat, et sancto Ædmundo dederat.�--Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda,
+p. 4.
+
+[168-*] “Supra pulpitum trabes erat, per tranversum ecclesiæ posita, quæ
+crucem grandem et duo cherubin et imagines Sanctæ _Mariæ_ et Sancti
+_Johannis_ apostoli sustentabat.�--Gervasius de Combustione, &c.
+
+[169-*] “Superest exponere, quod manus illa e nubibus erumpens indicet:
+Quæ procul dubio omnipotentis Dei dexteram designat.�--Ciampini Vetera
+Monimenta, vol. ii. pp. 22, 81.
+
+[171-*] “In elevatione atque utriusque squilla pulsatur.�--Durandi
+Rationale, lib. iv.
+
+[171-†] In Yeovil Church Accounts, A. D. 1457, is an item, “_In una
+cordul empt p le salsyngbelle ijd_.�--Collectanea Topographica, vol.
+iii. p. 130.
+
+[172-*] It is now in the possession of William Staunton, esq., of
+Longbridge House, near Warwick.
+
+[173-*] Durandus, in his description of a church, makes no mention of
+screen-work, but observes, “Notandum est quod triplex genus _veli_
+suspenditur in ecclesia videlicet quod sacra operit, quod sanctuarium a
+clero dividit, _et quod clerum a populo secernit_;� evidently alluding
+in the latter to the curtain extended across the chancel arch.
+
+[174-*] “Item tunc stent in sedibus suis versa facie ad altare donec ad
+_misericordias_ vel super _formulas_ prout tempus postulat
+inclinent.�--Monasticon, 1st ed. vol. i. p. 951.
+
+[180-*] The placing of more than two lights on the altar seems never to
+have been practised in the churches of this country; at least I have not
+met with any ancient illumination in which more than two are
+represented.
+
+[181-*] The cover of an ancient thurible of latten was lately discovered
+in the chest of Ashbury Church, Berkshire: the lower part is of a
+semi-globular or domical form, from which issues an embattled turret or
+lantern in the form of a pentagon, which is finished by a quadrangular
+spire; the sides both of the lantern and spire are partly of open work,
+and round the domical part is inscribed _Gloria Tibi Domine_.
+
+[181-†] A small ampulla of brass or latten, supposed to have been an
+ancient chrismatory for the consecrated oil used in the sacrament of
+extreme unction, has been within the last few years discovered in the
+castle ditch, Pulford, Cheshire: this curious little relic is not more
+than two inches high; the body is semi-globular, or bulges in front,
+with a plain Greek cross engraved on it, and is flattened at the back;
+and at the neck are two bowed handles, by chains attached to which it
+appears to have hung suspended from the shoulders.
+
+[182-*] Harding, in his controversy with Bishop Jewell, mentions “the
+monstrance or pixe� as if one and the same article.--Defence of the
+Apology, &c., p. 343.
+
+[183-*] Quo finito sacerdos cum suis ministris in sedibus ad hos paratis
+se recipiant et expectent usque ad orationem dicendam vel alio tempore
+usque ad _Gloria in excelsis_.--MS. Rituale pen. Auc.
+
+[183-†] This arrangement was different to that directed by the rubrical
+orders of the Roman missals, on their revision after the council of
+Trent, by which the celebrant was to be seated between the deacon and
+sub-deacon: “In missa item solemni celebrans medius inter diaconum et
+sub-diaconum sedere potest a cornu epistolæ juxta altare cum cantatur
+_Kyrie eleison, Gloria in excelsis_, et _Credo_.�--Missale Romanum,
+Antverpiæ, MDCXXXI.; Rubricæ Generales, &c. One of the queries published
+by Le Brun, whilst composing his liturgical work, was, “Si le prêtre
+s’assied au dessus du diacre et du soudiacre, ou au milieu d’eux.�
+
+[186-*] Prope altare collocatur Piscina seu Lavacrum in quo manus
+lavantur.--Durandi Rat. de Ecclesia, &c. In ancient church contracts the
+term _Lavatorie_ was sometimes used for the Piscina, as in that for
+Catterick Church. In the Roman Missal subsequent to the Tridentine
+council the word _Sacrarium_ is used.
+
+[187-*] At Alvechurch, Worcestershire, the custom prevails of the priest
+washing his hands in the vestry before the administration of the
+sacrament, and napkins are brought to dry his hands.
+
+[189-*] “Il y avoit pour cet effet en chaque piscine, comme en peut voir
+encore à une infinité d’autels, deux conduits, ou canaux, pour faire
+écouler l’eau, l’un pour recevoir l’eau qui avoit servi au lavement des
+mains, l’autre pour celle qui avoit servi au purification ou perfusion
+du chalice.�--De Vert, Explication des Cérémonies de l’Eglise, vol. iii.
+p. 193.
+
+[190-*] In “Le Parfaict Ecclesiastique, par M. Claude de la Croix,� (a
+curious work published A. D. 1666, and containing full instructions for
+the clergy of the Gallican church, and an exposition of the rites and
+ceremonies,) amongst appendages to an altar is enumerated “une credance
+ou niche dans le mur a poser les burettes et le bassin,� p. 536. And in
+another place, “au costé de l’Autel il y faut une petite niche à poser
+les burettes et le bassin, et y faire un trou en facon de piscine a fin
+que l’eau se perde en terre.� p. 568.
+
+[190-†] “In cornu Epistolæ ... ampullæ vitreæ vini et aquæ cum pelvicula
+et manutergio mundo in fenestella seu in parva mensa ad hæc
+praeparata�--Missale Romanum ex Decreto, &c. 1631.
+
+“Calix vero et alia necessaria praeparentur in credentia cooperta
+linteo, antequam sacerdos veniat ad altare.�--Ibid.
+
+[192-*] The earliest account of the sepulchre thus set up that I have
+yet met with occurs in an inventory of church furniture, A. D. 1214, in
+which is mentioned “_velum unum de serico supra sepulchrum_.�
+
+[193-*] “Table� was a word used to express any sculptured basso relievo,
+more especially that inserted in the wall over an altar.
+
+[199-*] A series of coloured engravings from the paintings on the walls
+of this chapel, which were evidently executed at the close of the
+fifteenth century, was published in 1807 by the late Mr. Thomas Fisher.
+
+[200-*] By an injunction set forth by royal authority, A. D. 1539, it was
+ordered, “That from henceforth the said Thomas Becket shall not be
+esteemed, named, reputed, and called a saint, but Bishop Becket; and
+that his images and pictures thorow the whole realme shal be pluckt
+downe and avoided out of all churches, chapel, and other places.�--Fox’s
+Martyrology.
+
+[209-*] The locality, character, and construction of the confessional in
+our ancient churches are not yet clearly elucidated. Du Cange described
+the confessional, “_confessio_,� simply as “cellula in qua presbyteri
+fidelium confessiones excipiebant;� whilst according to De la Croix, in
+his remarks on those of the Gallican churches in the middle of the
+seventeenth century, “Les confessionaux doiuent estre à l’entrée des
+Eglises, et non pas auprés des Autels, ny dans le Chœur, ny en lieu
+caché, et tousieurs vne ouuerture pour écouter le Penitent, avec vn
+treillis de bois ou autre estoffe, et vn volet pour le fermer, quand on
+écoute de l’vn des costez ouuert.�
+
+[210-*] The tabard or heraldic coat worn over the body armour, and still
+worn by the heralds on state occasions.
+
+[211-*] “Our churches stand full of such great puppets, wondrously
+decked and adorned; garlands and coronets be set on their heads,
+precious pearls hanging about their necks; their fingers shine with
+rings set with precious stones; their dead and stiff bodies are clothed
+with garments stiff with gold.�--Homily against Peril of Idolatry.
+
+[215-*] In the injunctions given by Bishop Ridley, in the visitation of
+his diocese A. D. 1550, occurs the following: “Item that the minister in
+the time of the communion, immediately after the offertory, shall monish
+the communicants, saying these words, or such like, ‘Now is the time, if
+it please you, to remember the poor men’s chest with your charitable
+alms.’�
+
+[216-*] Dr. Cardwell, in his editorial preface to the reprint of the two
+Books of Common Prayer set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth,
+observes, “The communion service of the first liturgy contained a prayer
+for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the bread and wine, and a
+following prayer of oblation, which, together with the form of words
+addressed to the communicants, were designed to represent a sacrifice,
+and appeared to undiscriminating minds to denote the sacrifice of the
+mass. Numerous, therefore, and urgent were the objections against this
+portion of the service. Combined with a large class of objectors, whose
+theology consisted merely in an undefined dread of Romanism, were all
+those, however differing among themselves, who believed the holy
+communion to be a feast and not a sacrifice, and that larger class of
+persons who, placing the solemn duty upon its proper religious basis,
+were contented to worship without waiting to refine.�
+
+[218-*] Fox’s Martyrology.
+
+[223-*] In compliance with the queen’s letter, the following directions
+were sent by the commissioners to the dean and chapter of Bristol:
+
+“After our hartie comendaco̅n̅s.--Whereas we are credibly informed that
+there are divers tabernacles for Images, as well in the fronture of the
+roodeloft of the cath^l church of Bristol, as also in the frontures,
+back, and ends of the walles wheare the comÌ…nÌ… table standeth, for
+asmoch as the same churche shoulde be a light and good example to th’
+ole citie and dioc. we have thought good to direct these our lrÌ…eÌ…s
+unto you, and to require youe to cause the said tabernacles to be
+defaced & hewen downe, and afterwards to be made a playne walle, w^th
+morter, plast^r, or otherways, & some scriptures to be written in the
+places, & namely that upon the walle on the east end of the quier wheare
+the comÌ…nÌ… table usually doth stande, the table of the coÌ…mÌ…and^ts to
+be painted in large caracters, with convenient speed, and furniture
+according to the orders latly set furthe by vertue of the quenes ma^ts
+coÌ…mÌ…ission for causes ecclesiasticall, at the coste and chardges of
+the said churche; whereof we require you not to faile. And so we bed you
+farewell. From London, the xxi. of December, 1561.�--Britton’s Bristol
+Cath. p. 52.
+
+[224-*] In the chancel of Bengeworth Church, Gloucestershire, is a table
+of the commandments, with the letters cut in box-wood. This has the date
+of 1591 upon it.
+
+[226-*] These are engraved in vol. xx. of the Archæologia, and, from the
+general style and mouldings, appear to have been constructed in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century.
+
+[230-*] The symbolical turning towards the east whilst pronouncing the
+Creed is adverted to by St. Cyril. In the Apostolical Constitutions,
+book ii. sect. xxviii., the attendants at public worship are enjoined to
+pray to God eastward. The custom of turning to the east at prayer is
+noticed by many of the early fathers of the church, and among them by
+St. Basil, who remarks, “As to the doctrines and preachings which are
+preserved in the church, we have some of them from the written doctrine;
+others we have received as delivered from the tradition of the apostles
+in a mystery. For, to begin with the mention of what is first and most
+common, who has taught us by writing that those that hope in the name of
+our Lord should be signed with the sign of the cross? what written law
+has taught us that we should turn towards the east in our prayers?....
+Is not all this derived from this concealed and mystical tradition?....
+We all, indeed, look towards the east in our prayers.�--Basil, Epist. ad
+Amphiloc. de Spiritu S. Whiston’s translation in Essay on the
+Apostolical Constitutions.
+
+[231-*] Funeral Monuments, A. D. 1631, p. 701.
+
+[232-*] Printed in Strype’s Life of Parker. In the same paper the
+communion table is noticed as standing in the body of the church in some
+places, in others standing in the chancel; in some places standing
+altarwise, distant from the wall a yard, in others in the middle of the
+chancel, north and south; in some places _the table was joined, in
+others it stood upon tressels_; in some the table had a carpet, in
+others none.
+
+[235-*] “The position of the table had now become the token of a
+distinct and solemn belief as to the nature of the eucharist, and was
+therefore treated as a question of conscience and an article of
+faith.�--Cardwell’s Documentary Annals, vol. ii. p. 186, note. The
+extracts given from the injunctions have been principally taken from
+this work.
+
+[240-*] The unostentatious and laudable practice of bestowing alms to
+the charity-box has long fallen into disuse in most churches; but within
+the last few years charity-boxes have been set up in some of our
+churches, and this commendable custom is again gradually reviving.
+
+[242-*] Neal’s History of the Puritans, vol. iii. p. 170.
+
+[244-*] Cardwell’s Conferences, p. 272.
+
+[250-*] Hickeringill’s Ceremony-Monger, (pub. 1689,) p. 63.
+
+
+OXFORD: Printed by T. Combe, Printer to the University.--May 10, 1841
+
+
+
+
+         _Published by J. H. Parker, Oxford._
+
+
+                   SECOND EDITION.
+
+    In the Press, with many additional Wood-Cuts,
+
+                      A GLIMPSE
+                        AT THE
+               MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE
+                         AND
+             SCULPTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN,
+
+  FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+             By MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.
+
+
+
+               THIRD EDITION, ENLARGED.
+               2 Vols. 8vo. 1_l._ 4_s._
+
+                 A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
+                       USED IN
+               GRECIAN, ROMAN, ITALIAN,
+                         AND
+                 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+       Exemplified by Seven Hundred Wood-Cuts.
+
+
+
+         _Published by J. H. Parker, Oxford._
+
+
+              PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION.
+
+             A COMPANION TO THE GLOSSARY
+                          OF
+                     ARCHITECTURE,
+
+        FORTY PLATES ENGRAVED BY JOHN LE KEUX;
+
+  Containing Four Hundred additional Examples, with
+      descriptive Letter-Press, a Chronological
+             Table, and Index of Places.
+
+
+
+      PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, IN 2 VOLS. 8vo.
+
+                      SOME ACCOUNT
+                        OF THE
+           DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of ENGLAND
+
+            FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE
+                     REFORMATION.
+
+                BY R. C. HUSSEY, Esq.
+
+  Illustrated by numerous Engravings, from original
+            drawings, of EXISTING REMAINS.
+
+
+
+  3 Vols. 8vo, 2_l._ 18_s._ 3 Vols. 4to, 5_l._ 10_s._
+
+                 MEMORIALS OF OXFORD.
+
+                BY JAMES INGRAM, D.D.
+            President of Trinity College.
+
+           THE ENGRAVINGS BY JOHN LE KEUX.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.
+
+Misspelled words and typographical errors:
+
+       Page   Error
+  TN-1   26  (fig. 5.). has an extra . following the )
+  TN-2   79  isuse should read disuse
+  TN-3   76, fn *  ἴχθυς should read ἰχθύς
+  TN-4  104  rom should read from
+  TN-5  106  pannels should read panels
+  TN-6  156, fn †  1236. De Baptismo should have an open quote mark
+             before De
+  TN-7  192  each which should read each of which. The word “of� did
+             not print in the original text, although a space is present
+             for it.
+
+The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:
+
+  wood-work / woodwork
+  zig-zag / zigzag
+
+The following words had inconsistent spelling:
+
+  Botolph / Botulph
+  Higham Ferrars / Higham Ferrers
+  Sherbourne / Sherborne
+  Wooten Wawen / Wotten Wawen
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic
+Ecclesiastical Architect, by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19737-0.txt or 19737-0.zip *****
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical
+Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed., by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed.
+
+Author: Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2006 [EBook #19737]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Julia Miller and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors found in the original text have been
+maintained in this version. They are marked in the text with a [TN-#].
+A description of each error is found in the complete list at the end of
+the text.
+
+The oe ligatures used in the original text have been expanded to "oe"
+in this version.
+
+The following codes are used for characters which cannot be represented
+in the character set used for this version of the book.
+
+[=mn]  mn with a macron over the two letters
+[=om]  om with a macron over the two letters
+[=on]  on with a macron over the two letters
+[=re]  re with a macron over the two letters
+
+Some footnotes in the original were marked with a dagger. The dagger
+is represented by a + in this version of the text.
+
+
+
+
+     "Whereby may be discerned that so fervent was the zeal of those
+     elder times to God's service and honour, that they freely endowed
+     the church with some part of their possessions; and that in those
+     good works even the meaner sort of men, as well as the pious
+     founders, were not backwards."
+
+     Dugdale's Antiq. Warwickshire.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                 THE
+
+             PRINCIPLES
+
+                 OF
+
+               GOTHIC
+
+           ECCLESIASTICAL
+
+            ARCHITECTURE,
+
+  ELUCIDATED BY QUESTION AND ANSWER.
+
+
+                 BY
+      MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.
+
+
+           FOURTH EDITION.
+
+               OXFORD:
+         JOHN HENRY PARKER.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In revising this Work for a Fourth Edition several alterations have been
+made, especially in the Concluding Chapter; and the whole has been
+considerably enlarged.
+
+M. H. B.
+
+Rugby,
+April 1841.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                             Page
+  CHAP. I.
+  Definition of Gothic Architecture; its Origin, and Division
+  of it into Styles                                            17
+
+  CHAP. II.
+  Of the different Kinds of Arches                             22
+
+  CHAP. III.
+  Of the Anglo-Saxon Style                                     30
+
+  CHAP. IV.
+  Of the Norman or Anglo-Norman Style                          51
+
+  CHAP. V.
+  Of the Semi-Norman Style                                     74
+
+  CHAP. VI.
+  Of the Early English Style                                   86
+
+  CHAP. VII.
+  Of the Decorated English Style                              102
+
+  CHAP. VIII.
+  Of the Florid or Perpendicular English Style                120
+
+  CHAP. IX.
+  Of the Debased English Style                                145
+
+  CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
+  Of the Internal Arrangement and Decorations of a Church     153
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.
+
+
+Page 41, line 9, _for_ Cambridge, _read_ Lincoln.
+
+Page 49. In addition to the list of churches containing presumed vestiges
+of Anglo-Saxon architecture, Woodstone Church, Huntingdonshire, and
+Miserden Church, Gloucestershire, may be enumerated.
+
+Page 71. The double ogee moulding is here inserted by mistake: it is not
+Norman, but of the fifteenth century.
+
+Page 137. In some copies the wood-cut in this page has been reversed in
+its position.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Two Arches of Roman Masonry, Leicester.]
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+ON THE ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND DECLINE OF GOTHIC OR ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Amongst the vestiges of antiquity which abound in this country, are the
+visible memorials of those nations which have succeeded one another in the
+occupancy of this island. To the age of our Celtic ancestors, the earliest
+possessors of its soil, is ascribed the erection of those altars and
+temples of all but primeval antiquity, the Cromlechs and Stone Circles
+which lie scattered over the land; and these are conceived to have been
+derived from the Phoenicians, whose merchants first introduced amongst
+the aboriginal Britons the arts of incipient civilization. Of these most
+ancient relics the prototypes appear, as described in Holy Writ, in the
+pillar raised at Bethel by Jacob, in the altars erected by the Patriarchs,
+and in the circles of stone set up by Moses at the foot of Mount Sinai,
+and by Joshua at Gilgal. Many of these structures, perhaps from their very
+rudeness, have survived the vicissitudes of time, whilst there scarce
+remains a vestige of the temples erected in this island by the Romans; yet
+it is from Roman edifices that we derive, and can trace by a gradual
+transition, the progress of that peculiar kind of architecture called
+GOTHIC, which presents in its later stages the most striking contrast that
+can be imagined to its original precursor.
+
+The Romans having conquered almost the whole of Britain in the first
+century, retained possession of the southern parts for nearly four hundred
+years; and during their occupancy they not only instructed the natives in
+the arts of civilization, but also with their aid, as we learn from
+Tacitus, began at an early period to erect temples and public edifices,
+though doubtless much inferior to those at Rome, in their municipal towns
+and cities. The Christian religion was also early introduced,[3-*] but for
+a time its progress was slow; nor was it till the conversion of
+Constantine, in the fourth century, that it was openly tolerated by the
+state, and churches were publicly constructed for its worshippers; though
+even before that event, as we are led to infer from the testimony of
+Gildas, the most ancient of our native historians, particular structures
+were appropriated for the performance of its divine mysteries: for that
+historian alludes to the British Christians as reconstructing the churches
+which had, in the Dioclesian persecution, been levelled to the ground. But
+in the fifth century Rome, oppressed on every side by enemies, and
+distracted with the vastness of her conquests, which she was no longer
+able to maintain, recalled her legions from Britain; and the Romanized
+Britons being left without protection, and having, during their subjection
+to the Romans, lost their ancient valour and love of liberty, in a short
+time fell a prey to the Northern Barbarians; in their extremity they
+called over the Saxons to assist them, when the latter perceiving their
+defenceless condition, turned round upon them, and made an easy conquest
+of this country. In the struggle which then took place, the churches were
+again destroyed, the priests were slain at the very altars,[4-*] and
+though the British Church was never annihilated, Paganism for a while
+became triumphant.
+
+Towards the end of the sixth century, when Christianity was again
+propagated in this country by Augustine, Mellitus, and other zealous
+monks, St. Gregory, the head of the Papal church, and the originator of
+this mission, wrote to Mellitus not to suffer the Heathen temples to be
+destroyed, but only the idols found within them. These, and such churches
+built by the Romans as were then, though in a dilapidated state, existing,
+may reasonably be supposed to have been the prototypes of the Christian
+churches afterwards erected in this country.
+
+In the early period of the empire the Romans imitated the Grecians in
+their buildings of magnitude and beauty, forming, however, a style of
+greater richness in detail, though less chaste in effect; and columns of
+the different orders, with their entablatures, were used to support and
+adorn their public structures: but in the fourth century, when the arts
+were declining, the style of architecture became debased, and the
+predominant features consisted of massive square piers or columns, without
+entablatures, from the imposts of which sprung arches of a semicircular
+form; and it was in rude imitation of this latter style that the Saxon
+churches were constructed.
+
+The Roman basilicas, or halls of justice, some of which were subsequently
+converted into churches, to which also their names were given, furnished
+the plan for the internal arrangement of churches of a large size, being
+divided in the interior by rows of columns. From this division the nave
+and aisles of a church were derived; and in the semicircular recess at the
+one end for the tribune, we perceive the origin of the apsis, or
+semicircular east end, which one of the Anglo-Saxon, and many of our
+ancient Norman churches still present.
+
+But independent of examples afforded by some few ancient Roman churches,
+and such of the temples and public buildings of the Romans as were then
+remaining in Britain, the Saxon converts were directed and assisted in the
+science of architecture by those missionaries from Rome who propagated
+Christianity amongst them; and during the Saxon dynasty architects and
+workmen were frequently procured from abroad, to plan and raise
+ecclesiastical structures. The Anglo-Saxon churches were, however, rudely
+built, and, as far as can be ascertained, with some few exceptions, were
+of no great dimensions and almost entirely devoid of ornamental mouldings,
+though in some instances decorative sculpture and mouldings are to be met
+with; but in the repeated incursions of the Danes, in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, so general was the destruction of the monasteries and churches,
+which, when the country became tranquil, were rebuilt by the Normans, that
+we have, in fact, comparatively few churches existing which we may
+reasonably presume, or really know, to have been erected in an Anglo-Saxon
+age. Many of the earlier writers on this subject have, however, caused
+much confusion by applying the term 'SAXON' to all churches and other
+edifices contradistinguished from the pointed style by semicircular-headed
+doorways, windows, and arches. But the vestiges of Anglo-Saxon
+architecture have been as yet so little studied or known, as to render it
+difficult to point out, either generally or in detail, in what their
+peculiarities consist: the style may, however, be said to have
+approximated in appearance much nearer to the Debased Roman style of
+masonry than the Norman, and to have been also much ruder: and in the most
+ancient churches, as in that at Dover Castle, and that at Bricksworth, we
+find arches constructed of flat bricks or tiles, set edgewise, which was
+also a Roman fashion. The masonry was chiefly composed of rubble, with
+ashlar or squared blocks of stone at the angles, disposed in courses in a
+peculiar manner.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Arches, Bricksworth Church, Northamptonshire
+(7th. cent.)]
+
+The most common characteristic by which the NORMAN style is distinguished,
+is the semicircular or segmental arch, though this is to be met with also
+in the rare specimens of Anglo-Saxon masonry; but the Norman arches were
+more scientifically constructed: in their early state, indeed, quite
+plain, but generally concentric, or one arch receding within another, and
+in an advanced stage they were frequently ornamented with zig-zag and
+other mouldings. A variety of mouldings were also used in the decoration
+of the Norman portals or doorways, which were besides often enriched with
+a profusion of sculptured ornament. The Norman churches appear to have
+much excelled in size the lowly structures of the Saxons, and the
+cathedral and conventual churches were frequently carried to the height of
+three tiers or rows of arches, one above another; blank arcades were also
+used to ornament the walls.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcade, St. Aldgate, Oxford.]
+
+The Norman style, in which an innumerable number of churches and monastic
+edifices were originally built or entirely reconstructed, continued
+without any striking alteration till about the latter part of the twelfth
+century, when a singular change began to take place: this was no other
+than the introduction of the pointed arch, the origin of which has never
+yet been satisfactorily explained, or the precise period clearly
+ascertained in which it first appeared; but as the lightness and
+simplicity of design to which the Early Pointed style was found to be
+afterwards convertible was in its incipient state unknown, it retained to
+the close of the twelfth century the heavy concomitants of the
+semicircular arch, with which indeed it was often intermixed: and from
+such intermixture it may be designated the SEMI or MIXED NORMAN.
+
+When the original Norman style of building was first broken through, by
+the introduction of the pointed arch, which was often formed by the
+intersection of semicircular arches, the facing of it, or architrave, was
+often ornamented with the zig-zag, billet, and other mouldings, in the
+same manner as the Norman semicircular arches: it also rested on round
+massive piers, and still retained many other features of Norman
+architecture. But from the time of its introduction to the close of the
+twelfth century, the pointed arch was gradually struggling with the
+semicircular arch for the mastery, and with success; for from the
+commencement of the thirteenth century, as nearly as can be ascertained,
+the style of building with semicircular arches was, with very few
+exceptions, altogether discarded, and superseded by its more elegant
+rival.
+
+[Illustration: Canterbury Cathedral.]
+
+The mode of building with semicircular arches, massive piers, and thick
+walls with broad pilaster buttresses, was now laid aside; and the pointed
+arch, supported by more slender piers, with walls strengthened with
+graduating buttresses, of less width but of greater projection, were
+universally substituted in their stead. The windows, one of the most
+apparent marks of distinction, were at first long, narrow, and
+lancet-shaped: the heavy Norman ornaments, the zig-zag and other mouldings
+peculiar to the Norman and Semi-Norman styles, were now discarded; yet we
+often meet with certain decorative ornaments, as the tooth ornament,
+which, though sometimes found in late Norman work, is almost peculiar to
+the Early Pointed style; also the ball-flower, prevalent both in this and
+the style of the succeeding century. Many church towers were also capped
+with spires, which now first appear. This style prevailed generally
+throughout the thirteenth century, and is usually designated as the EARLY
+ENGLISH.
+
+[Illustration: Horsley Ch., Derbyshire.]
+
+Towards the close of the thirteenth century a perceptible, though gradual,
+transition took place to a richer and more ornamental mode of
+architecture. This was the style of the fourteenth century, and is known
+by the name of the DECORATED ENGLISH; but it chiefly flourished during the
+reigns of Edward the Second and Edward the Third, in the latter of which
+it attained a degree of perfection unequalled by preceding or subsequent
+ages. Some of the most prominent and distinctive marks of this style occur
+in the windows, which were greatly enlarged, and divided into many lights
+by mullions or tracery-bars running into various ramifications above, and
+dividing the heads into numerous compartments, forming either geometrical
+or flowing tracery. Triangular or pedimental canopies and pinnacles, more
+enriched than before with crockets and finials, yet without redundancy of
+ornament, also occur in the churches built during this century.
+
+[Illustration: Worstead Church, Norfolk.]
+
+In the latter part of the fourteenth century another transition, or
+gradual change of style, began to be effected, in the discrimination of
+which an obvious distinction again occurs in the composition of the
+windows, some of which are very large: for the mullion-bars, instead of
+branching off in the head, in a number of curved lines, are carried up
+vertically, so as to form _perpendicular_ divisions between the
+window-sill and the head, and do not present that combination of
+geometrical and flowing tracery observable in the style immediately
+preceding.
+
+[Illustration: St. Michael's, Oxford.]
+
+The frequent occurrence of panelled compartments, and the partial change
+of form in the arches, especially of doorways and windows, which in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century were often obtusely pointed and
+mathematically described from four centres, instead of two, as in the more
+simple pointed arch, and which from the period when this arch began to be
+prevalent was called the TUDOR arch, together with a great profusion of
+minute ornament, mostly of a description not before in use, are the chief
+characteristics of the style of the fifteenth century, which by some of
+the earlier writers was designated as the FLORID; though it has since
+received the more general appellation of the PERPENDICULAR.
+
+This style prevailed till the Reformation, at which period no country
+could vie with our own in the number of religious edifices, which had been
+erected in all the varieties of style that had prevailed for many
+preceding ages. Next to the magnificent cathedrals, the venerable
+monasteries and collegiate establishments, which had been founded and
+sumptuously endowed in every part of the kingdom, might most justly claim
+the preeminence; and many of the churches belonging to them were
+deservedly held in admiration for their grandeur and architectural
+elegance of design.
+
+But the suppression of the monasteries tended in no slight degree to
+hasten the decline and fall of our ancient church architecture, to which
+other causes, such as the revival of the classic orders in Italy, also
+contributed. The churches belonging to the conventual foundations, which
+had been built at different periods by the monks or their benefactors, and
+the charges of erecting and decorating which from time to time in the most
+costly manner, had been defrayed out of the monastic revenues, and from
+private donations, being seized by the crown, were reduced to a state of
+ruin, and the sites on which they stood granted to dependants of the
+court. The former reverential feeling on these matters had greatly
+changed; and as the retention of some few of the ministerial habits, the
+square cap, the cope, the surplice, and hood, which were deemed expedient
+for the decent ministration of public worship, gave great offence to many,
+and was one of the most apparent causes which led to that schism amongst
+the Reformers, on points of discipline, which afterwards ended in the
+subversion, for a time, of the rites and ordinances of the Church of
+England, any attempt towards beautifying and adorning (other than with
+carved pulpits and communion-tables or altars) the places of divine
+worship, which were now stripped of many of their former ornamental
+accessories, would have been regarded and inveighed against as a popish
+and superstitious innovation; and a charge of this kind was at a later
+period preferred against Archbishop Laud. Parochial churches were,
+therefore, now repaired when fallen into a state of dilapidation, in a
+plain and inelegant mode, in complete variance with the richness and
+display observable in the style just preceding this event.
+
+Details, originating from the designs of classic architecture, which had
+been partially revived in Italy, began early in the sixteenth century to
+make their appearance in this country, though as yet, except on tombs and
+in wood-work, we observe few of those peculiar features introduced as
+accessories in church architecture.
+
+Hence many of our country churches, which were repaired or partly rebuilt
+in the century succeeding the Reformation, exhibit the marks of the style
+justly denominated DEBASED, to distinguish it from the former purer
+styles. Depressed and nearly flat arched doorways, with shallow mouldings,
+square-headed windows with perpendicular mullions and obtuse-pointed or
+round-headed lights, without foliations, together with a general
+clumsiness of construction, as compared with more ancient edifices, form
+the predominating features in ecclesiastical buildings of this kind: and
+in the reign of Charles the First an indiscriminate mixture of Debased
+Gothic and Roman architecture prevailing, we lose sight of every true
+feature of our ancient ecclesiastical styles, which were superseded by
+that which sprang more immediately from the Antique, the Roman, or Italian
+mode.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3-*] Tempore, ut scimus, summo Tiberii Cæsaris, &c.--GILDAS.
+
+[4-*] Ruebant ædificia publica simul et privata, passim Sacerdotes inter
+altaria trucibantur.--BEDE, Eccl. Hist. lib. i. c. xv.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Scutcheon from Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, circa A. D. 1450.]
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEFINITION OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; ITS ORIGIN, AND THE DIVISION OF IT INTO
+STYLES.
+
+
+Q. What is meant by the term "Gothic Architecture"?
+
+A. Without entering into the derivation of the word "Gothic," it may
+suffice to state that it is an expression sometimes used to denote in one
+general term, and distinguish from the Antique, those peculiar modes or
+styles in which most of our ecclesiastical and many of our domestic
+edifices of the middle ages have been built. In a more confined sense, it
+comprehends those styles only in which the pointed arch predominates, and
+it is then often used to distinguish such from the more ancient
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles.
+
+Q. To what can the origin of this kind of architecture be traced?
+
+A. To the classic orders in that state of degeneracy into which they had
+fallen in the age of Constantine, and afterwards; and as the Romans, on
+their voluntary abandonment of Britain in the fifth century, left many of
+their temples and public edifices remaining, together with some Christian
+churches, it was in rude imitation of the Roman structures of the fourth
+century that the most ancient of our Anglo-Saxon churches were
+constructed. This is apparent from an examination and comparison of such
+with the vestiges of Roman buildings we have existing.
+
+Q. Into how many different styles may English ecclesiastical architecture
+be divided?
+
+A. No specific regulation has been adopted, with regard to the
+denomination or division of the several styles, in which all the writers
+on the subject agree: but they may be divided into seven, which, together
+with the periods when they flourished, may be generally defined as
+follows:
+
+The SAXON Or ANGLO-SAXON Style, which prevailed from the mission of
+Augustine, at the close of the sixth, to the middle of the eleventh
+century.
+
+The NORMAN style, which may be said to have prevailed generally from the
+middle of the eleventh to the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+The SEMI-NORMAN, Or TRANSITION style, which appears to have prevailed
+during the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+The EARLY ENGLISH, or general style of the thirteenth century.
+
+The DECORATED ENGLISH, or general style of the fourteenth century.
+
+The FLORID Or PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH, the style of the fifteenth, and early
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+The DEBASED ENGLISH, or general style of the latter part of the sixteenth
+and early part of the seventeenth century, towards the middle of which
+Gothic architecture, even in its debased state, became entirely discarded.
+
+Q. What constitutes the difference of these styles?
+
+A. They may be distinguished partly by the form of the arches, which are
+triangular-headed, semicircular or segmental, simple pointed, and complex
+pointed; though such forms are by no means an invariable criterion of any
+particular style; by the size and shape of the windows, and the manner in
+which they are subdivided or not by transoms, mullions, and tracery; but
+more especially by certain minute details, ornamental accessories and
+mouldings, more or less peculiar to particular styles, and which are
+seldom to be met with in any other.
+
+Q. Are the majority of our ecclesiastical buildings composed only of one
+style?
+
+A. Most of our cathedral and country churches have been built, or had
+additions made to them, at different periods, and therefore seldom exhibit
+an uniformity of design; and many churches have details about them of
+almost every style. There are, however, numerous exceptions, where
+churches have been erected in the same style throughout; and this is more
+particularly observable in the churches of the fifteenth century.
+
+Q. Were they constructed on any regular plan?
+
+A. The general ground plan of cathedral and conventual churches was after
+the form of a cross, and the edifice consisted of a central tower, with
+transepts running north and south; westward of the tower was the nave or
+main body of the structure, with lateral aisles; and the west front
+contained the principal entrance, and was often flanked by towers.
+Eastward of the central tower was the choir, where the principal service
+was performed, with aisles on each side, and beyond this was the lady
+chapel. Sometimes the design also comprehended other chapels. On the north
+or south side was the chapter house, in early times quadrangular, but
+afterwards octagonal in plan; and on the same side, in most instances,
+though not always, were the cloisters, which communicated immediately with
+the church, and surrounded a quadrangular court. The chapter house and
+cloisters we still find remaining as adjuncts to most cathedral churches,
+though the conventual buildings of a domestic nature, with which the
+cloisters formerly also communicated, have generally been destroyed. Mere
+parochial churches have commonly a tower at the west end, a nave with
+lateral aisles, and a chancel. Some churches have transepts; and small
+side chapels or additional aisles have been annexed to many, erected at
+the costs of individuals, to serve for burial and as chantries. The
+smallest class of churches have a nave and chancel only, with a small
+bell-turret formed of wooden shingles, or an open arch of stonework,
+appearing above the roof at the west end.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SEDILIA,
+
+St. Martin's, Leicester, circa A. D. 1250.]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARCHES.
+
+
+Q. Do the distinctions of the different styles, as they differ from each
+other, depend at all upon the form of the arch?
+
+A. To a certain extent the form of the arch may be considered as a
+criterion of style; too much dependence, however, must not be placed on
+this rule, inasmuch as there are many exceptions.
+
+Q. How are arches divided generally, as to form?
+
+A. Into the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch, the
+round-headed arch, and the curved-pointed arch; and the latter are again
+subdivided.
+
+Q. How is the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch formed, and
+when did it prevail?
+
+A. It may be described as formed by the two upper sides of a triangle,
+more or less obtuse or acute. It is generally considered as one of the
+characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon style, where it is often to be met with
+of plain and rude construction. But instances of this form of arch, though
+they are not frequent, are to be met with in the Norman and subsequent
+styles. Arches, however, of this description, of late date, may be
+generally known by some moulding or other feature peculiar to the style in
+which it is used.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What different kinds of round-headed arches are there?
+
+A. The semicircular arch (fig. 1), the stilted arch (fig. 2), the
+segmental arch (fig. 3), and the horse-shoe arch (fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. How are they formed or described?
+
+A. The semicircular arch is described from a centre in the same line with
+its spring; the stilted arch in the same manner, but the sides are carried
+downwards in a straight line below the spring of the curve till they rest
+upon the imposts; the segmental arch is described from a centre lower than
+its spring; and the horse-shoe arch from a centre placed above its spring.
+
+Q. During what period of time do we find these arches generally in use?
+
+A. The semicircular arch, which is the most common, we find to have
+prevailed from the time of the Romans to the close of the twelfth
+century, when it became generally discarded; and we seldom meet with it
+again, in its simple state, till about the middle of the sixteenth
+century. It is in some degree considered as a characteristic of the
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles. The stilted arch is chiefly found in
+conjunction with the semicircular arch in the construction of Norman
+vaulting over a space in plan that of a parallelogram. The segmental arch
+we meet with in almost all the styles, used as an arch of construction,
+and for doorway and window arches; whilst the form of the horse-shoe arch
+seems, in many instances, to have been occasioned by the settlement and
+inclination of the piers from which it springs.
+
+Q. Into how many classes may the pointed arch be divided?
+
+A. Into two, namely, the simple pointed arch described from two centres,
+and the complex pointed arch described from four centres.
+
+Q. What are the different kinds of simple pointed arches?
+
+A. The LANCET, or acute-pointed arch; the EQUILATERAL pointed arch; and
+the OBTUSE-ANGLED pointed arch.
+
+Q. How is the lancet arch formed and described?
+
+A. It is formed of two segments of a circle, and its centres have a radius
+or line longer than the breadth of the arch, and may be described from an
+acute-angled triangle. (fig. 5.).[TN-1]
+
+Q. How is the equilateral arch formed and described?
+
+A. From two segments of a circle; the centres of it have a radius or line
+equal to the breadth of the arch, and it may be described from an
+equilateral triangle. (fig. 6.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. How is the obtuse-angled arch formed and described?
+
+A. Like the foregoing, it is formed from two segments of a circle, and the
+centres of it have a radius shorter than the breadth of the arch; it is
+described from an obtuse-angled triangle. (fig. 7.)
+
+Q. During what period were these pointed arches in use?
+
+A. They were all gradually introduced in the twelfth century, and
+continued during the thirteenth century; after which the lancet arch
+appears to have been generally discarded, though the other two prevailed
+till a much later period.
+
+Q. What are the different kinds of complex pointed arches?
+
+A. Those commonly called the OGEE, or contrasted arch; and the TUDOR arch.
+
+Q. How is the ogee, or contrasted arch, formed and described?
+
+A. It is formed of four segments of a circle, and is described from four
+centres, two placed within the arch on a level with the spring, and two
+placed on the exterior of the arch, and level with the apex or point (fig.
+8); each side is composed of a double curve, the lowermost convex and the
+uppermost concave.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. When was the ogee arch introduced, and how long did it prevail?
+
+A. It was introduced early in the fourteenth century, and continued till
+the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+Q. How is the Tudor arch described?
+
+A. From four centres; two on a level with the spring, and two at a
+distance from it, and below. (fig. 9.)
+
+Q. When was the Tudor arch introduced, and why is it so called?
+
+A. It was introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, or perhaps
+earlier, but became most prevalent during the reigns of Henry the Seventh
+and Henry the Eighth, under the Tudor dynasty, from which it derives its
+name.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What other kinds of arches are there worthy of notice?
+
+A. Those which are called foiled arches, as the round-headed trefoil (fig.
+10), the pointed trefoil (fig. 11), and the square-headed trefoil (fig.
+12). The first prevailed in the latter part of the twelfth and early part
+of the thirteenth century, chiefly as a heading for niches or blank
+arcades; the second, used for the same purpose, we find to have prevailed
+in the thirteenth century; and the latter is found in doorways of the
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. In all these the
+exterior mouldings follow the same curvatures as the inner mouldings, and
+are thus distinguishable from arches the heads of which are only foliated
+within.
+
+[Illustration: DOORWAY. St. Thomas's, Oxford, circa 1250.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Doorway, Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire.
+(7th cent.)]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+OF THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE.
+
+
+Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?
+
+A. From the close of the sixth century, when the conversion of the
+Anglo-Saxons commenced, to the middle of the eleventh century.
+
+Q. Whence does this style appear to have derived its origin?
+
+A. From the later Roman edifices; for in the most ancient of the
+Anglo-Saxon remains we find an approximation, more or less, to the Roman
+mode of building, with arches formed of brickwork.
+
+Q. What is peculiar in the constructive features of Roman masonry?
+
+A. Walls of Roman masonry in this country were chiefly constructed of
+stone or flint, according to the part of the country in which the one
+material or other prevailed, embedded in mortar, bonded at certain
+intervals throughout with regular horizontal courses or layers of large
+flat Roman bricks or tiles, which, from the inequality of thickness and
+size, do not appear to have been shaped in any regular mould.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of the Fragment of a Roman Building at Leicester.]
+
+Q. What vestiges of Roman masonry are now existing in Britain?
+
+A. A fragment, apparently that of a Roman temple or basilica, near the
+church of St. Nicholas at Leicester, which contains horizontal courses of
+brick at intervals, and arches constructed of brickwork; the curious
+portion of a wall of similar construction, with remains of brick arches on
+the one side, which indicate it to have formed part of a building, and not
+a mere wall as it now appears, at Wroxeter, Salop; and the polygonal tower
+at Dover Castle, which, notwithstanding an exterior casing of flint, and
+other alterations effected in the fifteenth century, still retains many
+visible features of its original construction of tufa bonded with bricks
+at intervals. Roman masonry, of the mixed description of brick and stone,
+regularly disposed, is found in walls at York, Lincoln, Silchester, and
+elsewhere; and sometimes we meet with bricks or stone arranged
+herring-bone fashion, as in the vestiges of a Roman building at Castor,
+Northamptonshire, and the walls of a Roman villa discovered at Littleton,
+Somersetshire.
+
+Q. Have we any remains of the ancient British churches erected in this
+country in the third, fourth, or fifth centuries?
+
+A. None such have yet been discovered or noticed; for the ruinous
+structure at Perranzabuloe in Cornwall, which some assert to have been an
+ancient British church, is probably not of earlier date than the twelfth
+century; and the church of St. Martin at Canterbury, built in the time of
+the Romans, which Augustine found on his arrival still used for the
+worship of God, was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, but, to all
+appearance, with the same materials of which the original church was
+constructed.
+
+Q. Do any of our churches bear a resemblance to Roman buildings?
+
+A. The church now in ruins within the precincts of the Castle of Dover
+presents features of early work approximating Roman, as a portal and
+window-arches formed of brickwork, which seem to have been copied from
+those in the Roman tower near adjoining; the walls also have much of Roman
+brick worked up into them, but have no such regular horizontal layers as
+Roman masonry displays. The most ancient portions of this church are
+attributed to belong to the middle of the seventh century. The church of
+Brixworth, Northamptonshire, is perhaps the most complete specimen we have
+existing of an early Anglo-Saxon church: it has had side aisles separated
+from the nave by semicircular arches constructed of Roman bricks, with
+wide joints; these arches spring from square and plain massive piers.
+There is also fair recorded evidence to support the inference that this
+church is a structure of the latter part of the seventh century. Roman
+bricks are worked up in the walls, in no regular order, however, but
+indiscriminately, as in the church at Dover Castle.
+
+[Illustration: Pilaster Rib-work Arch, Brigstock Church.]
+
+Q. What peculiarities are observable in masonry of Anglo-Saxon
+construction?
+
+A. From existing vestiges of churches of presumed Anglo-Saxon construction
+it appears that the walls were chiefly formed of rubble or rag-stone,
+covered on the exterior with stucco or plaster, with long and short blocks
+of ashlar or hewn stone, disposed at the angles in alternate courses. We
+also find, projecting a few inches from the surface of the wall, and
+running up vertically, narrow ribs or square-edged strips of stone,
+bearing from their position a rude similarity to pilasters; and these
+strips are generally composed of long and short pieces of stone placed
+alternately. A plain string course of the same description of square-edged
+rib or strip-work often runs horizontally along the walls of Anglo-Saxon
+remains, and the vertical ribs are sometimes set upon such as a basement,
+and sometimes finish under such.
+
+Q. What churches exhibit projecting strips of stonework thus disposed?
+
+A. The towers of the churches of Earls Barton and Barnack,
+Northamptonshire, and the tower of one of the churches at
+Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire, are covered with these narrow projecting
+strips of stonework, in such a manner that the surface of the wall appears
+divided into rudely formed panels; the like disposition of rib-work
+appears, though not to so great extent, on the face of the upper part of
+the tower of Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, of St. Benedict's Church,
+Cambridge, on the walls of the church of Worth, in Sussex, on the upper
+part of the walls of the chancel of Repton Church, Derbyshire, and on the
+walls of the nave and north transept of Stanton Lacey Church, Salop.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Masonry, Long and Short Work.
+
+Burcombe, Wilts. Wittering, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. Where do we meet with instances where long and short blocks of ashlar
+masonry are disposed in alternate courses at the angles of walls?
+
+A. Such occur at the angles of the chancel of North Burcombe Church,
+Wiltshire; at the angles of the nave and chancel of Wittering Church,
+Northamptonshire; at the angles of the towers of St. Benedict's Church,
+Cambridge, of Sompting Church, Sussex, and of St. Michael's Church,
+Oxford, and in other Anglo-Saxon remains. The ashlar masonry forming the
+angles is not, however, invariably thus disposed.
+
+Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?
+
+A. They are either semicircular, or triangular-arched headed, but the
+former are more common. In those, apparently the most ancient, the
+voussoirs or arched heads are faced with large flat bricks or tiles,
+closely resembling Roman work. Doorways of this description are to be met
+with in the old church, Dover Castle; in the church of Brixworth,
+Northamptonshire; and on the south side of Brytford Church, Wiltshire. The
+doorway, however, we most frequently meet with in Anglo-Saxon remains, is
+of simple yet peculiar construction, semicircular-headed, and formed
+entirely of stone, without any admixture of brick; the jambs are
+square-edged, and are sometimes but not always composed of two long blocks
+placed upright, with a short block between them; the arched head of the
+doorway is plain, and springs from square projecting impost blocks, the
+under edges of which are sometimes bevelled and sometimes left square.
+This doorway is contained within a kind of arch of rib-work, projecting
+from the face of the wall, with strips of pilaster rib-work continued down
+to the ground; sometimes this arch springs from plain block imposts, or
+from strips of square-edged rib-work disposed horizontally, and the jambs
+are occasionally constructed of long and short work.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Doorway, St. Peter's Church,
+Barton-upon-Humber.]
+
+Q. Mention the names of churches in which doorways of this description are
+preserved?
+
+A. The south doorways of the towers of the old church at
+Barton-upon-Humber and of Barnack Church, the west doorway of the tower of
+Earls Barton Church, the north and south doorways of the tower of Wooten
+Wawen Church, Warwickshire, the east doorway of the tower of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, the north doorway of the nave of Brytford Church,
+Wiltshire, and the north doorway of the nave of Stanton Lacey Church,
+Salop, though differing in some respects from each other, bear a general
+similarity of design, and come under the foregoing description.
+
+[Illustration: Belfry Window, north side of the Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.]
+
+Q. How are we able to distinguish the windows of the Anglo-Saxon style?
+
+A. The belfry windows are generally found to consist of two
+semicircular-headed lights, divided by a kind of rude balluster shaft of
+peculiar character, the entasis of which is sometimes encircled with rude
+annulated mouldings; this shaft supports a plain oblong impost or abacus,
+which extends through the whole of the thickness of the wall, or nearly
+so, and from this one side of the arch of each light springs. Double
+windows thus divided appear in the belfry stories of the church towers of
+St. Michael, Oxford; St. Benedict, Cambridge; St. Peter,
+Barton-upon-Humber; Wyckham, Berks; Sompting, Sussex; and Northleigh,
+Oxfordshire. In the belfry of the tower of Earls Barton Church are windows
+of five or six lights, the divisions between which are formed by these
+curious balluster shafts. The semicircular-headed single-light window of
+this style may be distinguished from those of the Norman style by the
+double splay of the jambs, the spaces between which spread or increase in
+width outwardly as well as inwardly, the narrowest part of the window
+being placed on the centre of the thickness of the wall; whereas the jambs
+of windows in the Norman style have only a single splay, and the narrowest
+part of the window is set even with the external face of the wall, or
+nearly so. Single-light windows splayed externally occur in the west
+walls of the towers of Wyckham Church, Berks, and of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, Caversfield Church, Oxfordshire, and on the north side
+of the chancel of Clapham Church, Bedfordshire; but windows without a
+splay occur in the tower of Lavendon Church, Buckinghamshire. Small square
+or oblong-shaped apertures are sometimes met with, as in the tower of St.
+Benedict's Church, Cambridge; and also triangular-headed windows, which,
+with doorways of the same form, will be presently noticed.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Single-light Window, Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.]
+
+Q. Of what description are the arches which separate the nave from the
+chancel and aisles, and sustain the clerestory walls?
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Arches, St. Michael's Church, St. Alban's, A. D.
+948.]
+
+A. They are very plain, and consist of a single sweep or soffit only,
+without any sub-arch, as in the Norman style; and they spring from square
+piers; with a plain abacus impost on each intervening, which impost has
+sometimes the under edge chamfered, and sometimes left quite plain. Arches
+of this description occur at Brixworth Church, between the nave and
+chancel of Clapham Church, and between the nave and chancel of Wyckham
+Church. The arches in St. Michael's Church, St. Alban's, which divide the
+nave from the aisles, have their edges slightly chamfered. There are also
+arches with single soffits, which have over them a kind of hood, similar
+to that over doorways of square-edged rib-work, projecting a few inches
+from the face of the wall, carried round the arch, and either dying into
+the impost or continued straight down to the ground. The chancel arch of
+Worth Church, and arches in the churches of Brigstock and Barnack, and of
+St. Benedict, Cambridge, and the chancel arch, Barrow Church, Salop, are
+of this description. Some arches have round or semicylindrical mouldings
+rudely worked on the face, as in the chancel arch, Wittering Church; or
+under or attached to the soffit, as at the churches of Sompting and St.
+Botulph, Sussex. Rudely sculptured impost blocks also sometimes occur, as
+at Sompting and at St. Botulph; and animals sculptured in low relief
+appear at the springing of the hood over the arch in the tower of St.
+Benedict's Church, Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: Tower Arch, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Chancel Arch, Wittering Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. How are some of the doorways, windows, arched recesses, and panels of
+Anglo-Saxon architecture constructed?
+
+[Illustration: Doorway in the Tower of Brigstock Church.]
+
+A. In a very rude manner, of two or more long blocks of stone, placed
+slantingly or inclined one towards the other, thus forming a straight
+line, or triangular-headed arch; the lower ends of these sometimes rest on
+plain projecting imposts, which surmount other blocks composing the
+jambs. We find a doorway of this description on the west side of the tower
+of Brigstock Church, forming the entrance into the curious circular-shaped
+turret attached and designed for a staircase to the belfry; an arched
+recess of this description occurs in the tower of Barnack Church, and a
+panel on the exterior of the same tower, and in windows in the tower of
+the old church, Barton-upon-Humber, and in the tower of Sompting Church,
+and St. Michael's Church, Oxford. The arch thus shaped is not, however,
+peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon style, but may occasionally be traced in most
+if not all of the subsequent styles, but not of such rude or plain
+construction.
+
+[Illustration: Recess in the Tower of Barnack Church.]
+
+Q. Were the Anglo-Saxon architects accustomed to construct crypts beneath
+their churches?
+
+A. There are some subterranean vaults, not easily accessible, the presumed
+remains of Bishop Wilfrid's work, at Ripon and Hexham, of the latter part
+of the seventh century; but the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton
+Church, Derbyshire, the walls of which are constructed of _hewn_ stone, is
+perhaps the most perfect specimen existing of a crypt in the Anglo-Saxon
+style, and of a stone vaulted roof sustained by piers, which are of
+singular character; the vaulting is without diagonal groins, and bears a
+greater similarity to Roman than to Norman vaulting.
+
+[Illustration: Crypt, Repton Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Q. Are mouldings, or is any kind of sculptured ornament, to be met with in
+Anglo-Saxon work?
+
+A. Although the remains of this style are for the most part plain and
+devoid of ornamental detail, we occasionally meet with mouldings of a
+semicylindrical or roll-like form, on the face or under the soffit of an
+arch, and these are sometimes continued down the sides of the jambs or
+piers. Foliage, knot-work, and other rudely sculptured detail occur on
+the tower of Barnack Church, and some rude sculptures appear in St.
+Benedict's Church, Cambridge; and the plain and simple cross of the Greek
+form, is represented in relief over a doorway at Stanton Lacey Church, and
+over windows in the tower of Earls Barton Church.
+
+Q. What was the general plan of the Anglo-Saxon churches?
+
+A. We have now but few instances in which the complete ground plan of an
+Anglo-Saxon church can be traced: that of Worth Church, Sussex, is perhaps
+the most perfect, as the original foundation walls do not appear to have
+been disturbed, although insertions of windows of later date have been
+made in the walls of the superstructure. This church is planned in the
+form of a cross, and consists of a nave with transepts, and a chancel,
+terminating at the east end with a semicircular apsis--a rare instance in
+the Anglo-Saxon style, as in general the east end of the chancel is
+rectangular in plan. The towers of Anglo-Saxon churches are generally
+placed at the west end, though sometimes, as at Wotten Wawen, they occur
+between the chancel and nave. No original staircase has yet been found in
+the interior of any. The church at Brixworth, an edifice of the seventh
+century, and that of St. Michael, at St. Alban's, of the tenth century,
+have aisles. Sometimes the church appears to have consisted of a nave and
+chancel only.
+
+Q. Why have we so few ecclesiastical remains of known or presumed
+Anglo-Saxon architecture now existing?
+
+A. There are probably many examples of this style preserved in churches
+which have hitherto escaped observation[49-*]; still they are,
+comparatively speaking, rarely to be met with: and this may be accounted
+for by the recorded fact, that in the repeated incursions of the Danes in
+this island, during the ninth and tenth centuries, almost all the
+Anglo-Saxon monasteries and churches were set on fire and destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo Saxon Doorway and Window, interior of the tower of
+Brigstock Church, north side.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-*] All the Anglo-Saxon remains noticed in this chapter, except those
+alluded to as supposed to exist at Ripon and Hexham, together with the
+tower of the church of St. Benedict's, Lincoln, have been inspected by the
+author; and the illustrations of this chapter are, with three exceptions,
+from his sketches made on the spot. Of the remaining three vignettes, two
+are from drawings made whilst the author was present, and one only, viz.
+that of the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton Church, has been reduced
+from a larger engraving. Besides the churches which have been referred to,
+several others which have not been visited by the author exhibit vestiges,
+more or less, of presumed Anglo-Saxon work. Of such churches the following
+is a list, and, with those mentioned in the chapter, constitute all which
+have yet come under his notice:
+
+Caversfield, Oxfordshire. Church Stretton, Salop. Trinity Church,
+Colchester. Deerhurst, Gloucestershire. Daglinworth, Gloucestershire.
+Jarrow, Durham. Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorkshire. Kirkdale, Yorkshire.
+Monkswearmouth, Durham. Ropsley, Lincolnshire. Stoke D'Abernon, Surrey.
+Wittingham, Yorkshire.
+
+Of these, seven are noticed by Mr. Rickman.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Norman Chancel, Darent Church, Kent.]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+OF THE NORMAN OR ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE.
+
+
+Q. To what era may we assign the introduction of the Anglo-Norman style?
+
+A. To the reign of Edward the Confessor, since that monarch is recorded by
+the historians, Matthew Paris and William of Malmesbury, to have rebuilt
+(A. D. 1065) the Abbey Church at Westminster in a new style of
+architectural design, which furnished an example afterwards followed by
+many in the construction of churches.[52-*]
+
+Q. Is any portion of the structure erected by Edward the Confessor
+remaining?
+
+A. A crypt of early Norman work under the present edifice or buildings
+attached to it is supposed to have been part of the church constructed by
+that monarch.
+
+Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?
+
+A. From about A. D. 1065 to the close of the twelfth century.
+
+Q. By what means are we to distinguish this style from the styles of a
+later period?
+
+A. It is distinguished without difficulty by its semicircular arches, its
+massive piers, which are generally square or cylindrical, though sometimes
+multangular in form, and from numerous ornamental details and mouldings
+peculiar to the style.
+
+Q. What part of the original building has generally been preserved in
+those churches that were built by the Normans, when all the rest has been
+demolished and rebuilt in a later style of architecture?
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway, Wolston Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+A. There appears to have been a prevalent custom, among those architects
+who succeeded the Normans, to preserve the doorways of those churches they
+rebuilt or altered; for many such doorways still remain in churches, the
+other portions of which were built at a much later period. Thus in the
+tower of Kenilworth Church, Warwickshire, is a Norman doorway of singular
+design, from the square band or ornamental facia which environs it. This
+is a relic of a more ancient edifice than the structure in which it now
+appears, and which is of the fourteenth century; and the external masonry
+of the doorway is not tied into the walls of more recent construction, but
+exhibits a break all round. The church of Stoneleigh, in the same county,
+contains in the north wall a fine Norman doorway, which has been left
+undisturbed, though the wall on each side of Norman construction, has been
+altered, not by demolition, but by the insertion, in the fourteenth
+century, of decorated windows in lieu of the original small Norman lights.
+
+Q. Were the Norman doorways much ornamented?
+
+A. Many rich doorways were composed of a succession of receding
+semicircular arches springing from rectangular-edged jambs, and detached
+shafts with capitals in the nooks; which shafts, together with the arches,
+were often enriched with the mouldings common to this style. Sometimes the
+sweep of mouldings which faced the architrave was continued without
+intermission down the jambs or sides of the doorway; and in small country
+churches Norman doorways, quite plain in their construction, or with but
+few mouldings, are to be met with. There is, perhaps, a greater variety of
+design in doorways of this than of any other style; and of the numerous
+mouldings with which they in general abound more or less, the chevron, or
+zig-zag, appears to have been the most common.
+
+Q. In what other respect were these doors sometimes ornamented?
+
+A. The semicircular-shaped stone, which we often find in the tympanum at
+the back of the head of the arch, is generally covered with rude sculpture
+in basso relievo, sometimes representing a scriptural subject, as the
+temptation of our first parents on the tympanum of a Norman doorway at
+Thurley Church, Bedfordshire; sometimes a legend, as a curious and very
+early sculpture over the south door of Fordington Church, Dorsetshire,
+representing a scene in the story of St. George; and sometimes symbolical,
+as the representation of fish, serpents, and chimeræ on the north doorway
+of Stoneleigh Church, Warwickshire. The figure of our Saviour in a sitting
+attitude, holding in his left hand a book, and with his right arm and hand
+upheld, in allusion to the saying, _I am the way, and the truth, and the
+life_, and circumscribed by that mystical figure the _Vesica piscis_,
+appears over Norman doorways at Ely Cathedral; Rochester Cathedral;
+Malmesbury Abbey Church; Elstow Church, Bedfordshire; Water Stratford
+Church, Buckinghamshire; and Barfreston Church, Kent; and is not
+uncommon.
+
+Q. Are there many Norman porches?
+
+A. Norman porches occur at Durham Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey Church;
+Sherbourne Abbey Church; and Witney Church, Oxfordshire; but they are not
+very common. The roof of the porch was usually groined with simple cross
+springers and moulded ribs; and in some instances a room over has been
+added at a later period. Numerous portals of the Norman era appear
+constructed within a shallow projecting mass of masonry, similar in
+appearance to the broad projecting buttress, and, like that, finished on
+the upper edge with a plain slope. This was to give a sufficiency of depth
+to the numerous concentric arches successively receding in the thickness
+of the wall, which could not otherwise be well attained.
+
+Q. What kind of windows were those belonging to this style?
+
+A. The windows were mostly small and narrow, seldom of more than one
+light, except belfry windows, which were usually divided into two
+round-headed lights by a shaft, with a capital and abacus. Early in the
+style the windows were quite plain; afterwards they were ornamented in a
+greater or less degree, sometimes with the chevron or zig-zag, and
+sometimes with roll or cylinder mouldings; in many instances, also, shafts
+were inserted at the sides, the window jambs were simply splayed in one
+direction only, and the space between them increased in width inwardly.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window, Ryton Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Q. Do we meet with any circular or wheel-shaped windows of the Norman era?
+
+A. A circular window, with divisions formed by small shafts and
+semicircular or trefoiled arches, disposed so as to converge to a common
+centre, sometimes occurs in the gable at the east end of a Norman church,
+as at Barfreston Church, Kent; and New Shoreham Church, Sussex; and are
+not uncommon.
+
+[Illustration: Early Norman Window, Darent Church, Kent, with incipient
+zig-zag moulding.]
+
+Q. What kinds of piers were the Norman piers?
+
+A. Early in the style they were (with some exceptions, as in the crypts
+beneath the cathedrals of Canterbury and Worcester) very massive, and the
+generality plain and cylindrical; though sometimes they were square, which
+was indeed the most ancient shape; sometimes they appear with rectangular
+nooks or recesses; and, in large churches, Norman piers had frequently one
+or more semicylindrical pier-shafts attached, disposed either in nooks or
+on the face of the pier. We sometimes meet with octagonal piers, as in the
+cathedrals of Oxford and Peterborough, the conventual church at Ely, and
+in the ruined church of Buildwas Abbey, Salop; and also, though rarely,
+with piers covered with spiral flutings, as one is in Norwich Cathedral;
+with the spiral cable moulding, as one is in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral; and encircled with a spiral band, as one appears in the ruined
+chapel at Orford, in Suffolk; sometimes, also, they appear covered with
+ornamental mouldings. Late in the style the piers assume a greater
+lightness in appearance, and are sometimes clustered and banded round with
+mouldings, and approximate in design those of a subsequent style.
+
+Q. How are the capitals distinguished?
+
+A. The general outline and shape of the Norman capital is that of a square
+cubical mass, having the lower part rounded off with a contour resembling
+that of an ovolo moulding; the face on each side of the upper part of the
+capital is flat, and it is often separated from the lower part by an
+escalloped edge; and where such division is formed by more than one
+escallop, the lower part is channelled between each, and the spaces below
+the escalloped edges are worked or moulded so as to resemble inverted and
+truncated semicones.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital, Steetley Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Besides the plain capital thus described, of which instances with the
+single escalloped edge occur in the crypts beneath the cathedrals of
+Canterbury, Winchester, and Worcester, and with a series of escalloped
+edges, or what would be heraldically termed _invected_, in many of the
+capitals of the Norman piers in Norwich Cathedral, an extreme variety of
+design in ornamental accessories prevail, the general form and outline of
+the capital being preserved; and some exhibit imitations of the Ionic
+volute and Corinthian acanthus, whilst many are covered with rude
+sculpture in relief. They are generally finished with a plain square
+abacus moulding, with the under edge simply bevelled or chamfered;
+sometimes a slight angular moulding occurs between the upper face and
+slope of the abacus, and sometimes the abacus alone intervenes between the
+pier and the spring of the arch. There are also many round capitals, as,
+for instance, those in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral, but they are
+mostly late in the style.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcade, St. Augustine's, Canterbury.]
+
+Q. What is observable in the bases of the piers?
+
+A. The common base moulding resembles in form or contour a quirked ovolo
+reversed; there are, however, many exceptions.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Base, Romsey Church, Hants.]
+
+Q. How are the arches distinguished?
+
+A. By their semicircular form; they are generally double-faced, or formed
+of two concentric divisions, one receding within the other. Early in the
+style they are plain and square-edged; late in the style they are often
+found enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings, or some other
+ornament. Sometimes the curvature of the arch does not immediately spring
+from the capital or impost, but is raised or stilted.
+
+Q. What parts of Norman churches do we generally find vaulted?
+
+A. In cathedral and large conventual churches built in the Norman style we
+find the crypts and aisles vaulted with stone, but not the nave or choir;
+and over the vaulting of the aisles was the triforium. In small Norman
+churches the chancel is generally the only part vaulted; and between the
+vaulting and outer roof is, in some instances, a small loft or chamber.
+Sometimes we find the original design for vaulting to have been commenced
+and left unfinished.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arch and Piers, Melbourne Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Q. Of what description was the Norman vaulting?
+
+A. The bays of vaulting were generally either squares or parallelograms,
+though sometimes not rectangular in shape, and each was divided into four
+concave vaulting cells by diagonal and intersecting groins, thus forming
+what is called a quadripartite vault. Early in the style the diagonal
+edges of the groins appear without ribs or mouldings; at an advanced stage
+they are supported by square-edged ribs of cut stone; and late in the
+style the ribs and groins are faced with roll or cylinder mouldings. They
+are also sometimes profusely covered with the zig-zag moulding and other
+ornamental details.
+
+Q. What is observable with respect to Norman masonry?
+
+A. In general the walls are faced on each side with a thin shell of ashlar
+or cut stone, whilst the intervening space, which is sometimes
+considerable, is filled with grouted rubble. Masses of this grout-work
+masonry, from which the facing of cut stone has been removed, we often
+find amongst ruined edifices of early date.
+
+Q. Were there any buttresses used at this period?
+
+[Illustration: Norman Buttress, Chancel of St. Mary's, Leicester.]
+
+A. Yes; but the walls being enormously thick, and requiring little
+additional support, those in use are like pilasters, with a broad face
+projecting very little from the building; and they seem to have been
+derived from the pilaster strips of stonework in Anglo-Saxon masonry. They
+are generally of a single stage only, but sometimes of more, and are not
+carried up higher than the cornice, under which they often but not always
+finish with a slope. They appear as if intended rather to relieve the
+plain external surface of the wall than to strengthen it. Norman portals
+not unfrequently occur, formed in the thickness of a broad but shallow
+pilaster buttress, as at Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, and at Stoneleigh and
+Hampton-in-Arden Churches, Warwickshire, and elsewhere. This kind of
+buttress was also used in the next, or Semi-Norman style.
+
+Q. Were there any towers?
+
+A. Yes; they were generally very low and massive; and the exterior,
+especially of the upper story, was often decorated with arcades of blank
+semicircular and intersecting arches; the parapet consisted of a plain
+projecting blocking-course, supported by the corbel table.
+
+Q. Do pinnacles appear to have been known to the Normans?
+
+A. Although some are of opinion that the pinnacle was not introduced till
+after the adoption of the pointed style, many Norman buildings have
+pinnacles of a conical shape, which are apparently part of the original
+design.
+
+Q. What distinction occurs in the construction of the small country
+churches of this style, and the larger buildings of conventual foundation?
+
+A. Small Norman churches consisted of a single story only; cathedral and
+conventual churches were carried up to a great height, and were frequently
+divided into three tiers, the lowest of which consisted of single arches,
+separating the nave from the aisles: above each of these arches in the
+second tier were two smaller arches constructed beneath a larger;
+sometimes the same space was occupied by a single arch; and in this tier
+was the triforium or gallery. In the third tier or clerestory were
+frequently arcades of three arches connected together, the middle one of
+which was higher and broader than the others: and all these three occupied
+a space only equal to the span of the lowest arch. Blank arcades were also
+much used in the exterior walls, as well as in the interior of rich
+Norman buildings; and some of the arches which composed them were often
+pierced for windows.
+
+Q. What were the mouldings principally used in the decoration of Norman
+churches?
+
+A. The chevron, or zig-zag, which is not always single, but often
+duplicated, triplicated, or quadrupled.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The reversed zig-zag.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The indented moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The embattled moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The dovetail moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The beak head.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The nebule, chiefly used for the fascia under a parapet.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The billet.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The square billet, or corbel bole, used for supporting a blocking course.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The cable moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The double cone.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The pellet, or stud.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The hatched, or saw tooth.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The nail head.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The lozenge.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The studded trellis.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The diamond fret.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The medallion.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The star.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The scalloped or invected moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A variety of other mouldings and ornamental accessories are also to be met
+with, but those above described are the most common.
+
+Q. What kind of string-course do we usually find carried along the walls
+of Norman churches, just below the windows?
+
+A. A string-course similar in form to the common Norman abacus, with a
+plain face and the under part bevelled, is of most frequent occurrence; a
+plain semihexagon string-course is also often to be met with. Sometimes
+the string-course is ornamented with the zig-zag moulding.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Mouldings, from Binham Church, Norfolk, and
+Peterborough.]
+
+Q. What difference is there as to their general character and appearance
+between the early and late examples of Norman architecture?
+
+A. The details of those buildings early in the style are characterized by
+their massiveness, simplicity, and plain appearance; the single or
+double-faced semicircular arches, both of doorways and windows, as well as
+the arches supporting the clerestory walls, are generally devoid of
+ornament, and the edges of the jambs and arches are square. The undercroft
+of Canterbury Cathedral, the work of Archbishop Lanfranc, between A. D.
+1073 and A. D. 1080; the crypt and transepts of Winchester Cathedral, built
+by Bishop Walkelyn between A. D. 1079 and A. D. 1093; the plain Norman work
+of the Abbey Church at St. Alban's, built by Abbot Paul, between
+1077-1093; and the north and south aisles of the choir of Norwich
+Cathedral, the work of Bishop Herbert, between A. D. 1096 and A. D. 1101,
+not to multiply examples, may be enumerated as instances of plain and
+early Norman work. In buildings late in the style we find a profusion of
+ornamental detail of a peculiar character, and numerous semi and
+tripartite cylindrical mouldings on the faces and edges of arches and
+vaulting-ribs. The transepts of Peterborough Cathedral, built by Abbot
+Waterville between A. D. 1155 and A. D. 1175, exhibit vaulting-groins faced
+with roll mouldings, and other details of an advanced stage; whilst the
+Galilee, Durham Cathedral, built by Bishop Pudsey, A. D. 1180, is
+remarkable for the lightness and elongation of the piers, which are formed
+of clustered columns; and the semicircular arches which spring from these
+are enriched both on the face and soffits with the chevron or zig-zag
+moulding. There are many intermediate gradations between the extreme plain
+and massive work of early date, and the enrichments, mouldings, and
+elongated proportions to be found late in the style; and in detail we may
+perceive an almost imperceptible merging into that style which succeeded
+the Norman.
+
+[Illustration: Base. Crypt, St. Peter's, Oxford, c. 1100.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52-*] Defunctus autem Rex beatissimus in crastino sepultus est Londini,
+in Ecclesia, quam ipse novo compositionis genere construxerat, a qua post,
+multi Ecclesias construentes, exemplum adepti, opus illud expensis
+oemulabantur sumptuosis.--MATT. PARIS.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Vesica Piscis in the tympan of the south doorway, Ely
+Cathedral]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+OF THE SEMI-NORMAN STYLE.
+
+
+Q. What is the Semi-Norman style?
+
+A. It is that style of transition which, without superseding the Norman
+style, prevailed more or less, in conjunction with it, during the latter
+part of the twelfth century, and probably even from an earlier period, and
+gradually led to the complete adoption, in the succeeding century, of the
+early pointed style in a pure state, and to the general disuse of the
+semicircular arch.
+
+Q. By what is this style chiefly denoted?
+
+A. By the intersection of semicircular arches, the frequent intermixture
+of the pointed arch in its incipient state with the semicircular arch, and
+the pointed arch with its accompaniments of features, mouldings, and
+ornamental accessories, exactly similar to those of the Norman style, both
+in its earlier and later gradations, and from which it appears to have
+differed only in the contour or form of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: Early specimen of intersecting Arches, St. Botolph's
+Priory, Colchester. (12th cent.)]
+
+Q. Whence are we to derive the origin of the pointed arch?
+
+A. Many conjectural opinions on this much-contested question have been
+entertained, yet it still remains to be satisfactorily elucidated. Some
+would derive it from the East and ascribe its introduction to the
+Crusaders; some maintain that it was suggested by the intersection of
+semicircular arches, which intersection we frequently find in ornamental
+arcades; others contend that it originated from the mode of quadripartite
+vaulting adopted by the Normans, the segmental groins of which, crossing
+diagonally, produce to appearance the pointed arch; whilst some imagine it
+may have been derived from that mystical figure of a pointed oval form,
+the _Vesica Piscis_[76-*]. But whatever its origin, it appears to have
+been imperceptibly brought into partial use towards the middle of the
+twelfth century.
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman double Piscina, Jesus College Chapel,
+Cambridge.]
+
+Q. What are the characteristics of this style?
+
+A. In large buildings massive cylindrical piers support pointed arches,
+above which we often find round-headed clerestory windows, as at Buildwas
+Abbey Church, Salop; or semicircular arches forming the triforium, as at
+Malmesbury Abbey Church, Wilts. Sometimes we meet with successive tiers
+of arcades, in which the pointed arch is surmounted both by intersecting
+and semicircular arches, as in a portion of the west front of Croyland
+Abbey Church, Lincolnshire, now in ruins. The ornamental details and
+mouldings of this style generally partake of late Norman character; and
+the zig-zag and semicylindrical mouldings on the faces of arches appear to
+predominate, though other Norman mouldings are common; but we also
+frequently meet with specimens in the Semi-Norman style in which extreme
+plainness prevails, and the character is of that nature as to induce us to
+ascribe such buildings to rather an early period. Single and double, and
+sometimes even triple-faced arches, with the edges left square,
+distinguish plain specimens of this style from the plain-pointed
+double-faced arches of the succeeding century, the edges of which are
+splayed or chamfered. In late instances of this, as of the cotemporaneous
+Norman style, we observe in the details a gradual tendency to merge into
+those of the style of the thirteenth century, when the pointed arch had
+attained maturity, and the peculiar features and decorative mouldings and
+sculptures of Norman character had fallen into isuse.[TN-2]
+
+Q. What specimen of this style is there of apparently early date?
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Arch, Abbey Church, Malmesbury.]
+
+A. The church, now in ruins, of Buildwas Abbey, Salop, founded A. D.
+1135[79-*], is an early specimen of the Semi-Norman style, in which, with
+the incipient pointed arch, Norman features and details are blended. The
+nave is divided from the aisles by plain double-faced pointed arches, with
+square edges, and hood mouldings over, which spring from massive
+cylindrical piers with square bases and capitals; whilst the clerestory
+windows above (for there is no triforium) are semicircular-headed. The
+general features of early Norman character, the absence of decorative
+mouldings, and the plain appearance this church exhibits throughout, are
+such as perhaps to warrant the presumption that this church is the same
+structure mentioned in the charter of confirmation granted to this abbey
+by Stephen, A. D. 1138-9.
+
+Q. What other noted specimens are there of this style?
+
+[Illustration: Intersecting Window Arches, St. Cross Church, Winchester.]
+
+A. The church of the Hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, presents an
+interesting combination of semicircular, intersecting, and pointed arches,
+of cotemporaneous date, enriched with the zig-zag and other Norman
+decorative mouldings, and is a structure, in appearance and detail, of
+much later date than the church at Buildwas Abbey, though the same early
+era has been assigned to each.
+
+St. Joseph's Chapel, Glastonbury, now in ruins, supposed to have been
+erected in the reigns of Henry the Second and Richard the First, is
+perhaps the richest specimen now remaining of the Semi-Norman or
+transition style, and is remarkable for the profusion of sculptured detail
+and combination of round and intersecting arches. In the remains of
+Malmesbury Abbey Church a Norman triforium with semicircular arches is
+supported on pointed arches which are enriched with Norman mouldings, and
+spring from massive cylindrical Norman piers. The interior of Rothwell
+Church, Northamptonshire, has much of Semi-Norman character: the aisles
+are divided from the nave by four lofty, plain, and triple-faced pointed
+arches, with square edges, springing from square piers with attached
+semicylindrical shafts on each side, and banded round midway between the
+bases and capitals; and the latter, which are enriched with sculptured
+foliage, are surmounted by square abaci; the west doorway is also of
+Semi-Norman character, and pointed, and is set within a projecting mass of
+masonry resembling the shallow Norman buttress. The circular part of St.
+Sepulchre's Church, Northampton, has early pointed arches, plain in
+design, springing from Norman cylindrical piers. In the circular part of
+the Temple Church, London, dedicated A. D. 1185, the piers consist of four
+clustered columns banded round midway between the bases and capitals, and
+approximating the Early English style of the thirteenth century; and these
+support pointed arches, over which and continued round the clerestory wall
+is an arcade of intersecting semicircular arches, and above these are
+round-headed windows.
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Window, Oxford Cathedral.]
+
+Q. What particular specimen of the Semi-Norman style has been noticed by
+any cotemporaneous author, and the date of it clearly defined?
+
+A. The eastern part of Canterbury Cathedral, consisting of Trinity Chapel
+and the circular adjunct called Becket's Crown. The building of these
+commenced the year following the fire which occurred A. D. 1174, and was
+carried on without intermission for several successive years. Gervase, a
+monk of the cathedral, and an eyewitness of this re-edification, wrote a
+long and detailed description of the work in progress, and a comparison
+between that and the more ancient structure which was burnt; he does not,
+however, notice in any clear and precise terms the general adoption of the
+pointed arch and partial disuse of the round arch in the new building,
+from which we may perhaps infer they were at that period indifferently
+used, or rather that the pointed arch was gradually gaining the
+ascendancy[83-*].
+
+Q. How long does the Semi or Mixed Norman style appear to have prevailed?
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Arch, St. Cross Church, Winchester.]
+
+A. Though we can neither trace satisfactorily the exact period of its
+introduction, or even that of its final extinction, (for it appears to
+have merged gradually into the pure and unmixed pointed style of the
+thirteenth century,) we have perhaps no remains of this kind to which we
+can attribute an earlier date than that included between the years 1130
+and 1140, unless we except the intersecting arches at St. Botulph's,
+Priory Church, Colchester, which may be a few years earlier; and it
+appears to have prevailed, in conjunction or intermixed with the Norman
+style, from thence to the close of the twelfth century, and probably to a
+somewhat later period.
+
+[Illustration: Arcade, Christ Church, Oxford.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[76-*] The figure of a fish, whence the form _vesica piscis_ originated,
+was one of the most ancient of the Christian symbols, emblematically
+significant of the word ichthys, which contained the initial letters of
+the name and titles of our Saviour. The symbolic representation of a fish
+we find sculptured on some of the sarcophagi of the early Christians
+discovered in the catacombs at Rome; but the actual figure of a fish
+afterwards gave place to an oval-shaped compartment, pointed at both
+extremities, bearing the same mystical signification as the fish itself,
+and formed by two circles intersecting each other in the centre. This was
+the most common symbol used in the middle ages, and thus delineated it
+abounds in Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts. Every where we meet with
+it during the middle ages, in religious sculptures, in painted glass, on
+encaustic tiles, and on seals; and in the latter, that is, in those of
+many of the ecclesiastical courts, the form is yet retained. Even with
+respect to the origin of the pointed arch, that _vexata quæstio_ of
+antiquaries, with what degree of probability may it not be attributed to
+this mystical form? It is indeed in this symbolical figure that we see the
+outline of the pointed arch plainly developed at least a century and half
+before the appearance of it in architectonic form. And in that age full of
+mystical significations, the twelfth century, when every part of a church
+was symbolized, it appears nothing strange if this typical form should
+have had its weight towards originating and determining the adoption of
+the pointed arch.--Internal Decorations of English Churches, British
+Critic, April, 1839.
+
+[79-*] The date of the _foundation_ of an abbey or church must not,
+however, be confounded with that of its actual _erection_, which was often
+many years later, and the only certain guide to which is the date of the
+_Consecration_.
+
+[83-*] In the minute and circumstantial account which Gervase gives of the
+partial destruction of this cathedral by fire, A. D. 1174, and its after
+restoration, he seems to allude, though in obscure language, to the
+altered form of the vaulting in the aisles of the choir (_in circuitu
+extra chorum_); and his comparison, with reference to this building,
+between early and late Norman architecture is altogether so curious and
+exact as to deserve being transcribed:--
+
+"Dictum est in superioribus quod post combustionem illam vetera fere omnia
+chori diruta sunt, et in quandam augustioris formæ transierunt novitatem.
+Nunc autem quæ sit operis utriusque differentia dicendum est. Pilariorum
+igitur tam veterum quam novorum una forma est, una et grossitudo, sed
+longitudo dissimilis. Elongati sunt enim pilarii novi longitudine pedum
+fere duodecim. In capitellis veteribus opus erat planum, in novis
+sculptura subtilis. Ibi in chori ambitu pilarii viginti duo, hic autem
+viginti octo. Ibi arcus et cætera omnia plana utpote sculpta secure et non
+scisello, his in omnibus fere sculptura idonea. Ibi columpna nulla
+marmorea, hic innumeræ. Ibi in circuitu extra chorum fornices planæ, hic
+arcuatæ sunt et clavatæ. Ibi murus super pilarios directus cruces a choro
+sequestrabat, hic vero nullo intersticio cruces a choro divisæ in unam
+clavem quæ in medio fornicis magnæ consistit, quæ quatuor pilariis
+principalibus innititur, convenire videntur. Ibi coelum ligneum egregia
+pictura decoratum, hic fornix ex lapide et tofo levi decenter composita
+est. Ibi triforium unum, hic duo in choro, et in ala ecclesiæ
+tercium."--De Combust. et Repar. Cant. Ecclesiæ.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, Paulscray Church, Kent.]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+OF THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. During what era did the Early English style prevail?
+
+A. It may be said to have prevailed generally throughout the thirteenth
+century[86-*].
+
+Q. How is it distinguished from the Norman and Semi-Norman styles?
+
+A. The semicircular-headed arch, with its peculiar mouldings, was almost
+entirely discarded, and superseded by the pointed arch, with plain
+chamfered edges or mouldings of a different character. The segmental arch,
+nearly flat, was still however used in doorways, and occasionally the
+semicircular also, as in the arches of the Retrochoir, Chichester
+Cathedral.
+
+Q. Of what three kinds were the pointed arches of this era?
+
+A. The lancet, the equilateral, and the obtuse-angled arch.
+
+Q. Which of these arches were most in use?
+
+A. In large buildings the lancet and the equilateral-shaped arch were
+prevalent, as appears in Westminster Abbey, where the lancet arch
+predominates, and Salisbury Cathedral, where the equilateral arch is
+principally used; but in small country churches the obtuse-angled arch is
+most frequently found. All these arches are struck from two centres, and
+are formed from segments of a circle. In large buildings the architrave
+is faced with a succession of roll mouldings and deep hollows, in which
+the tooth ornament is sometimes inserted. In small churches the arches,
+which are double-faced, have merely plain chamfered edges.
+
+Q. What was the difference of the piers between this and an earlier era?
+
+A. Instead of the massive Norman, the Early English piers were, in large
+buildings, composed of an insulated column surrounded by slender detached
+shafts, all uniting together under one capital; these shafts were divided
+into parts by horizontal bands or fillets; but in small churches a plain
+octagonal pier, which can, however, scarcely be distinguished from that of
+a later style, predominated.
+
+Q. How are the capitals distinguished?
+
+A. They are simple in comparison with those of a later style, and are
+often bell-shaped, with a bead moulding round the neck, and a capping,
+with a series of mouldings, above; a very elegant and beautiful capital is
+frequently formed of stiffly sculptured foliage. The capital surmounting
+the multangular-shaped pier is also multangular in form, but plain, with a
+neck, and cap mouldings, and is difficult to be discerned from that of
+the succeeding style; the cap mouldings are, however, in general not so
+numerous as those of a later period.
+
+[Illustration: Capital, Chapter House, Southwell.]
+
+Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?
+
+A. The small doorways have generally a single detached shaft on each side,
+with a plain moulded bell-shaped capital, which is sometimes covered with
+foliage; and the architrave mouldings consist of a few simple members,
+with a hood moulding or label over, terminated by heads. We also find
+richer doorways with two or more detached shafts at the sides, and
+architrave mouldings composed of numerous members. Large doorways of the
+Early English style were sometimes double, being divided into two arched
+openings by a shaft, either single or clustered; and above this a
+quatrefoil was generally inserted, but sometimes the head was filled with
+sculptured detail. Examples of the double doorway occur in the cathedrals
+of Ely, Chichester, Wells, Salisbury, Lincoln, and Lichfield; also at
+Christchurch and St. Cross, Hants; Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire; and
+in other large churches in this style.
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, Baginton Church, Warwickshire. (13th cent.)]
+
+Q. What kind of windows were prevalent?
+
+[Illustration: Window, Beverley Minster. (13th cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: St. Giles's Oxford. Ely cathedral.]
+
+A. In the early stages of this style the lancet arch-headed window, very
+long and narrow, was prevalent; frequently two, three, or more of these
+were connected together by hood mouldings, the middle window rising higher
+than those at the sides; sometimes they were unconnected, and without
+hood mouldings. In the east wall of Early English chancels three lancet
+windows, thus arranged, are frequently displayed. At a later period a
+broader window, divided into two lights by a plain mullion, finished at
+the top with a lozenge or circle, was used; and sometimes a window divided
+into three lights, the middle one higher than the others, and comprised
+under one hood moulding, was in use; windows of four and even five lancet
+lights, thus disposed, are to be met with, but are not common; the sides
+of the windows were in general simply splayed, without mouldings, and
+increased in width inwardly, but slender shafts were sometimes annexed;
+and we also find, in the interior of rich buildings of this style,
+detached shafts standing out in front of the stonework forming the window
+jambs, and supporting the arch of the window. Towards the close of this
+style the windows assumed a more ornamental cast, and became much larger,
+being frequently divided into two or four principal lights, with one or
+three circles in the heads; both the lights and circles are foliated, and
+these evince the transition in progress to the next, or Decorated style.
+Beneath the windows a string-course is generally carried horizontally
+along the wall; and a roll moulding, similar to the upper members of the
+string-course of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is most commonly met with,
+as the string-course.
+
+[Illustration: Interior of Window, St. Giles's, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How is the buttress of this age distinguished?
+
+A. In general by its plain triangular or pedimental head, its projecting
+more from the building than the Norman buttress, and from its being less
+in breadth. It is also sometimes carried up above the parapet wall. The
+edges of the buttresses are sometimes chamfered; and plain buttresses in
+stages finished with simple slopes are not uncommon. We very rarely find
+buttresses of this style disposed at the angles of buildings, though such
+disposition was common in the succeeding style; but two buttresses placed
+at right angles with each other, and with the face of the wall, generally
+occur at the angles of churches in this style. Flying buttresses were
+sometimes used to strengthen the clerestory walls of large buildings, and
+have a light and elegant effect.
+
+[Illustration: String-Course, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Were the walls differently built?
+
+A. They were not so thick as those of an earlier period, which occasioned
+the want of stronger buttresses to support them.
+
+[Illustration: Pottern, Wilts.]
+
+[Illustration: Hartlepool, Durham.]
+
+Q. Were the Early English roofs of a different construction from those of
+a later style?
+
+[Illustration: Groining Rib, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. The Norman and Early English roofs were high and acutely pointed. The
+original roofs of most of our old churches, from their exposure to the
+weather, have long since fallen to decay, and been replaced by others of a
+more obtuse shape; but in general the height and angular form of the
+original roof may be ascertained by the weather moulding still remaining
+on the side of the tower or steeple. The interior vaulting of stone roofs
+was composed of fewer parts and ribs, which were often not more numerous
+than those of Norman vaulting, and does not present that complexity of
+arrangement which occurs in the vaulting-ribs of subsequent styles. In the
+cathedral of Salisbury also in the nave of Wells Cathedral are simple and
+good examples of Early English vaulting. A curious groined roof, in which
+the ribs are of wood--plain, cut with chamfered edges--and the cells of
+the vaulting are covered with boards, is to be met with in the church of
+Warmington, Northamptonshire, a very rich, perfect, and interesting
+specimen of this style.
+
+Q. Was not the spire introduced at this period?
+
+A. Yes, many spires were then built; among which was that of old St.
+Paul's Cathedral, more than five hundred feet high, and which was
+destroyed by fire, A. D. 1561. The spire of Oxford Cathedral is also of
+this style. Early English spires are generally what are called Broach
+spires, and spring at once from the external face of the walls of the
+tower, without any intervening parapet.
+
+Q. Whence did the spire take its origin?
+
+A. It appears to have been suggested by the Norman pinnacle, which, at
+first a conical capping, afterwards became polygonal, and ribbed at the
+angles, thus presenting the prototype of the spire.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What ornament is peculiar, or nearly so, to this style?
+
+A. That called the tooth or dog-tooth ornament, a kind of
+pyramidal-shaped flower of four leaves, which is generally inserted in a
+hollow moulding, and, when seen in profile, presents a zig-zag or serrated
+appearance. The tooth moulding appears to have been introduced towards the
+close of the twelfth century; and an early instance where it occurs is on
+a late Norman doorway, at Whitwell Church, Rutlandshire: we do not,
+however, meet with it in buildings of a later style than that of the
+thirteenth century. It is sometimes found used in great profusion in
+doorways, windows, and other ornamental details; but many churches of this
+style are entirely devoid of this ornament. The ball-flower, though
+introduced in the thirteenth century, is not a common ornament until the
+fourteenth, to which era it may be said more particularly to belong; we
+find it in cornice mouldings, and sometimes on capitals.
+
+Q. What may be observed of the sculptured foliage of this style?
+
+A. As applied to capitals, bases, crockets, and other ornamental detail,
+we find the general design and appearance of the sculptured foliage of
+this style to be stiff and formal compared with that of the succeeding
+style, when the arrangement of the foliage more closely approximated
+nature, and a greater freedom both in conception and execution was
+evinced.
+
+[Illustration: Boss of Sculptured Foliage, Warmington Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. How are the parapets distinguished?
+
+A. They are often plain and embattled; but sometimes a simple horizontal
+parapet is used, supported by a corbel table, as in the tower of Haddenham
+Church, Buckinghamshire, and on that of Brize Norton Church, Oxfordshire.
+At Salisbury Cathedral the parapet is relieved by a series of blank
+trefoil headed pannels,[TN-3] sunk in the face.
+
+Q. What may be said in general terms of the style of the thirteenth
+century, in comparing it with the styles which immediately preceded and
+followed it?
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. In comparison with the Norman style, with its heavy concomitants and
+enrichments, the style of the thirteenth century is light and simple, and
+the details possess much elegance of contour. These, in small buildings,
+are generally plain; but in large buildings they exhibit numerous
+mouldings, combined with a certain degree of decorative embellishment.
+This style is, however, far from presenting that extreme beauty of outline
+and tasteful conception, combined with the pure and chaste ornamental
+accessories, which prevail in the designs of the fourteenth century.
+
+Q. What particular structures may be noticed as belonging to this style?
+
+A. Salisbury Cathedral, built by Bishop Poore between A. D. 1220 and 1260,
+is perhaps the most perfect specimen, on a large scale, of this style in
+its early state, with narrow lancet windows; the nave and transepts of
+Westminster Abbey, commenced in 1245, exhibit this style in a more
+advanced stage; whilst Lincoln Cathedral is, for the most part, a rich
+specimen of this style in its late or transition state. The west front of
+Wells Cathedral, erected by the munificence of Bishop Joceline, between
+A. D. 1213 and A. D. 1239, is covered with blank arcades and a number of
+trefoil-headed niches, surmounted by plain pedimental canopies, which
+contain specimens of statuary remarkable for their extreme beauty and
+freedom of design.
+
+[Illustration: Corbel, Wells Cathedral.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[86-*] From the economic principles on which our modern churches are, with
+few exceptions, planned, they are mostly designed after and are intended
+to resemble in style those of the thirteenth century, in which more
+detail can be dispensed with than in any other style. Hence it follows
+that the just proportions and adaptation of the different parts and the
+minutest details and mouldings in ancient churches of this style required
+to be carefully studied, more so perhaps for practical purposes than in
+churches of any other style.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+OF THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When did the Decorated English style commence, and how long did it
+prevail?
+
+A. It may be said to have commenced in the latter part of the thirteenth
+century, or reign of Edward the First, and to have prevailed about a
+century. The transition from the Early English style to this, and again
+from this to the succeeding style, was however so extremely gradual, that
+it is difficult to affix any precise date for the termination of one
+style, or the introduction of another.
+
+[Illustration: Bracket, York Cathedral.]
+
+Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?
+
+A. From there being a greater redundancy of chaste ornament in this than
+in the preceding style; and though it does not exhibit that extreme
+multiplicity of decorative detail as the style of the fifteenth century,
+the general contours and forms which this style presents, and the
+principal lines of composition, which verge pyramidically rather than
+vertically or horizontally, are infinitely more pleasing; and it is justly
+considered as the most beautiful style of English ecclesiastical
+architecture.
+
+Q. What difference is there between the arches of this style, which
+support the clerestory, and those of an earlier period?
+
+A. The lancet arch is seldom seen; the equilateral arch is generally,
+though not always, used. Both this and the obtuse-angled arch are, taken
+exclusively, difficult to be distinguished from those of an earlier
+period. In small buildings the edges of the pier arches are plain and
+chamfered. In large churches a series of quarter-round or roll-mouldings,
+which have often a square-edged fillet attached, are applied to the
+sub-arch, edges, and facing.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Piers rom[TN-4] Grendon Church, Warwickshire,
+and Austrey Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Q. What difference occurs in the piers from which these arches spring?
+
+A. In large buildings piers of this style were composed of a cluster of
+slender cylindrical shafts, not standing detached from each other, as in
+the Early English style, but closely united. A common pier of this kind is
+formed of four shafts thus united, without bands, with a square-edged
+fillet running vertically up the face of each shaft. Sometimes a simple
+cylindrical pier is found. The octagonal pier, with plain sides, is very
+prevalent in small churches, and does not differ materially from the Early
+English pier of the same kind. The capitals are either bell-shaped,
+clustered, or octagonal, to correspond with the shape of the piers; but
+the cap mouldings are more numerous than in the earlier style. Sometimes
+the capitals are sculptured. In the churches of Monkskirby, Warwickshire,
+and of Cropredy, Oxfordshire, the arches which support the clerestory
+spring at once from the piers, without any intervening capitals, a
+practice not uncommon in the style of the fifteenth century, but very rare
+in this.
+
+Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?
+
+A. Of the large stone vaulted roofs each bay is intersected by
+longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal ribs, with shorter ribs springing
+from the bearing shafts intervening; thus forming a series of vaulting
+cells more numerous than are to be met with in the Early English style,
+though not subdivided to the excess observable in the vaulted roofs of the
+fifteenth century. Sculptured bosses often occur at the intersections. In
+the nave of York Cathedral, finished about A. D. 1330, the groining of the
+roof is less complicated than that of the choir of the same cathedral,
+constructed between A. D. 1360 and A. D. 1370[106-*]. Small structures are
+more simply vaulted. In a chantry chapel adjoining the north side of the
+chancel of Willingham Church, Cambridgeshire, is a very acute-pointed
+angular-shaped stone roof, the plain surface of the vaulting of which is
+supported by two pointed arches springing from corbels projecting from the
+walls; and these sustain straight-sided stone vaulting ribs, obliquely
+disposed to conform with the angle of the roof, and which act as
+principals; and above each arch, and between that and the ridge-line of
+the oblique ribs or principals, the space is filled with an open
+quatrefoil and other tracery. The north transept of Limington Church,
+Somersetshire, has a high pitched stone roof supported by groined ribs.
+
+Q. Are there many wooden roofs of this style remaining?
+
+A. We find comparatively few original wooden roofs in structures of the
+fourteenth century, for such have generally been superseded by roofs of a
+later date and of a more obtuse form. The high and acute pitch of the
+original roof is, however, still generally discernible by the weather
+moulding on the east wall of the tower. In the nave of Higham Ferrars
+Church, Northamptonshire, is a wooden roof which apparently belongs to
+this style: the roof is angular-pointed and open to the ridge-line, the
+walls are connected by tie-beams, and under each of these is a wooden arch
+formed of two ribs or beams springing from stone corbels.
+
+Q. In what respect do the doors of this style differ?
+
+[Illustration: Window, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+A. Large doorways of this style have lateral shafts, with capitals, and
+between the shafts architrave mouldings intervene, which run without stop
+into the base tablet: of such the south doorway of St. Martin's Church,
+Leicester, is an instance. Small doorways are generally without shafts,
+but have a series of quarter-round, semicylindrical, and tripartite roll
+mouldings at the sides, which are continuous with the architrave
+mouldings; and these have sometimes a square-edged fillet on the face. The
+doorways of this style are frequently enriched with pedimental and
+ogee-shaped canopies, ornamented with crockets and finials; of which the
+north doorway of Exeter Cathedral and the south doorway of Everdon Church,
+Northamptonshire, may be cited as examples. Large doorways have sometimes
+a double opening, divided by a clustered shaft, as in the entrance to the
+Chapter House, York Cathedral. In some instances the head of the doorway
+is foliated, and we observe in detail an approximation to the succeeding
+style. The west doorway of Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire, is in this
+stage of transition.
+
+Q. How are the windows of this style known?
+
+[Illustration: Square-headed Decorated Window, Ashby Folville,
+Leicestershire.]
+
+A. In the later stage of the Early English style the windows became
+enlarged, and the heads were filled with foliated circles. To these
+succeeded, in the fourteenth century, windows ornamented with geometrical
+and flowing tracery, peculiarities which exclusively pertain to this
+style, and by which it is most easily known. The windows are of good
+proportions, and are divided into two or more principal lights by
+mullions, which at the spring of the arch form designs of regular
+geometrical construction, or branch out into flowing ramifications
+composing flame-like compartments, which are foliated[109-*]. The variety
+of tracery in windows of this style is very great, and they frequently
+have pedimental and ogee canopies over them, ornamented in the same manner
+as those over doors: examples of this kind may be found at York
+Cathedral. In the south transept of Chichester, and west front of Exeter
+Cathedrals, are two exceeding large and beautiful windows of this style;
+the first filled with geometrical, the other with flowing, tracery. In
+some windows of this style the mullions simply cross in the head, as in a
+later style, but the lights are commonly foliated, and the difference may
+in general be discerned by the mouldings: such windows occur in Stoneleigh
+Church, Warwickshire. There are also many square-headed windows in this
+style, distinguished by the flowing tracery in the heads, and by other
+characteristic marks: of such a window in Ashby Folville Church,
+Leicestershire, is a rich and good example. Circular windows, filled with
+tracery, are not uncommon in large buildings; and we also meet with
+triangular spherical-shaped windows, as in the clerestory of Barton
+Segrave Church, Northamptonshire[111-*].
+
+[Illustration: Window, Barton Segrave Church.]
+
+Q. Of what description are the mouldings which pertain to this style?
+
+[Illustration: Moulding, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Roll Moulding, Chacombe Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+[Illustration: String-Course, Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire.]
+
+[Illustration: Ball-Flower Ornament, Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and York
+Cathedral.]
+
+A. They approximate more nearly, in section and appearance, those of the
+thirteenth than those of the fifteenth century, but the members are
+generally more numerous than in those of the former style; quarter-round,
+half, and tripartite cylinder mouldings, often filleted along the face and
+divided by small cavetto mouldings, sometimes deeply cut, are common. The
+string-course under the windows frequently consists, as in the preceding
+style, of a simple roll moulding, the upper member of which overlaps the
+lower. A plain semicylindrical moulding, with a square-edged fillet on the
+face, is also common, and occurs at the church of Orton-on-the-Hill,
+Leicestershire. The hood moulding over the windows often consists of a
+quarter-round or ogee, with a cavetto beneath, and sometimes returns
+horizontally along the walls as a string-course; a disposition, however,
+more frequently observable in the Early English style than in this: of
+such disposition the churches of Harvington, Worcestershire, and of
+Sedgeberrow, Gloucestershire, may be cited as affording examples. In
+decorative work we often meet with the ball-flower, one of the most
+characteristic ornaments of the style, consisting of a ball inclosed
+within three or four leaves, and sometimes bearing a resemblance to the
+rose-bud, inserted at intervals in a cavetto or hollow moulding, with the
+accompaniment, in some instances, of foliage; a four-leaved flower,
+inserted in the same manner, is also not uncommon.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Buttress, St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How may the buttresses of this style be distinguished?
+
+[Illustration: Flying Buttress, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. They were worked in stages, and their set-offs have frequently
+triangular heads, sometimes plain but often ornamented with crockets and
+finials of a more decorative character than those of the Early English
+style. Many buttresses have, however, plain slopes as set-offs, and they
+are frequently placed diagonally at the corners of buildings, as at
+Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire. The flying buttresses at Salisbury
+Cathedral, in which the thrust is partly counterpoised by
+pyramidal-headed pinnacles decorated with crockets and finials, are of
+this age.
+
+Q. What parapet is peculiar to this style?
+
+A. Besides the plain embattled parapet, which is not always easy to be
+distinguished from other styles, a horizontal blocking course, pierced
+with foliated or wavy, flowing tracery, which has a rich effect, is
+common. Of this description specimens occur at St. Mary Magdalen Church,
+Oxford, and Brailes Church, Warwickshire.
+
+Q. What is observable in the niches of this style?
+
+A. They are very beautiful, and are generally surmounted by triangular or
+ogee-shaped canopies, enriched with crockets and finials, while the
+interior of the canopies are groined with numerous small rib mouldings.
+The crockets and finials of this style, as decorative embellishments, are
+peculiarly graceful, chaste, and pleasing in contour.
+
+Q. Was the transition from this style to the next gradual?
+
+A. Both the transition from the Early English to the Decorated style, and
+from the Decorated to the Florid or Perpendicular, was so gradual, that
+though many individual details and ornaments were extremely dissimilar,
+and peculiar to each particular style, we are only able to judge from
+examples when a change was generally established.
+
+Q. From what cotemporary writers of the fourteenth century can we collect
+any architectural notices, either general or of detail?
+
+[Illustration: Part of the Altar Screen, Winchester Cathedral.]
+
+A. In Chaucer we find allusions made to _imageries_, _pinnacles_,
+_tabernacles_, (canopied niches for statuary,) and _corbelles_. Lydgate,
+in _The Siege of Troy_, in his description of the buildings, adverts to
+those of his own age, and uses several architectural terms now obsolete or
+little understood, and some which are not so, as _gargoiles_. In Pierce
+Ploughman's Creed we have a concise but faithful description of a large
+monastic edifice of the fourteenth century, comprising the church or
+minster, cloister, chapter house, and other offices.
+
+Q. What edifices maybe noticed as constructed in this style?
+
+A. In Exeter Cathedral this style may be said generally to prevail,
+although some portions are of earlier and some of later date. Great part
+of Lichfield Cathedral was also built during the fourteenth century. The
+beautiful cloisters adjoining Norwich Cathedral, commenced A. D. 1297, but
+not finished for upwards of a century, although proceeded with by
+different prelates from time to time, rank as the most beautiful of the
+kind we have remaining. Several country churches are wholly or principally
+erected in this style. Broughton Church, Oxfordshire, may be instanced as
+an elegant, pleasing, and complete example of plain decorated work.
+Trumpington Church, Cambridgeshire, is also deserving of notice; and
+Wimington Church, Bedfordshire, built by John Curteys, lord of the manor,
+who died A. D. 1391, is a small but late edifice in the Decorated style.
+Annexations were also made during this century to numerous churches of
+earlier construction, by the erection of additional aisles or chapels as
+chantries. In all these structures we find more or less, in general
+appearance, form, and detail, of that extreme beauty and elegance of
+design which prevailed, as it were, for about a century, and then
+imperceptibly glided away.
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, Magdalen Church, Oxford.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106-*] The allusion is made to the vaulted roofs of the nave and choir of
+this cathedral as they existed previous to the late unfortunate and
+destructive fires.
+
+[109-*] The Flamboyant window, common in France, is not often met with in
+this country. On the north side of Salford Church, Warwickshire, is,
+however, a window of this description, filled with flamboyant tracery.
+
+[111-*] For specimens of Decorated windows with flowing tracery in the
+heads, vide cuts, pp. 12 and 13.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: South Porch of Newbold-upon-Avon Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+OF THE FLORID OR PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When may this style be said to have commenced, and how long did it
+prevail?
+
+A. We find traces of it in buildings erected at the close of the reign of
+Edward the Third (circa A. D. 1375); and it prevailed for about a century
+and half, or rather more, till late in the reign of Henry the Eighth
+(circa A. D. 1539).
+
+Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?
+
+A. From the multiplicity, profusion, and minuteness of its ornamental
+detail, it has by some received the designation of FLORID; by others, from
+the mullions of the windows and the divisions of ornamental panel-work
+running in straight or perpendicular lines up to the head, which is not
+the case in any earlier style, it has been called and is now better known
+by the designation of the PERPENDICULAR[121-*].
+
+Q. In what respects did it differ from the style which immediately
+preceded it?
+
+A. The beautiful flowing contour of the lines of tracery characteristic of
+the Decorated style was superseded by mullions and transoms, and, in
+panel-work, lines of division disposed vertically and horizontally; and in
+lieu of the quarter-round, semi and tripartite roll and small hollow
+mouldings of the fourteenth century, angular-edged mouldings with bold
+cavettos became predominant.
+
+Q. Of what kind are the arches of this style?
+
+A. Although, in this style, pointed arches constructed from almost every
+radius are to be found, the complex four-centred arch, commonly called
+the Tudor arch, was almost peculiar to it; and the cavetto or wide and
+rather shallow hollow moulding, a characteristic feature of this style,
+often appears in the architrave mouldings of pier arches, doorways, and
+windows, and as a cornice moulding under parapets.
+
+[Illustration: Window, St. Mary's Church, Oxford.]
+
+[Illustration: Mullion, Burford Church, Oxfordshire.]
+
+Q. How are the piers of this style, which support the clerestory arches,
+distinguished from those of an earlier period?
+
+[Illustration: Capital, Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+A. The section of a pier, which is common in this style, may be described
+as formed from a square or parallelogram, with the angles fluted or cut in
+a bold hollow, and on the flat face of each side of the pier a
+semicylindrical shaft is attached. The flat faces or sides of the pier and
+the hollow mouldings at the angles are carried up vertically from the base
+moulding to the spring of the arch, and thence, without the interposition
+of any capital, in a continuous sweep to the apex of the arch; but the
+slender shafts attached to the piers have capitals, the upper members of
+which are angular-shaped. The base mouldings are also polygonal. Piers and
+arches of this description are numerous, and occur, amongst other
+churches, in St. Thomas Church, Salisbury; Cerne Abbas Church, Bradford
+Abbas Church, and Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire; Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire; and Burford Church, Oxfordshire. In some churches a very
+slender shaft with a capital is attached to each angle of the pier, which
+is disposed lozengewise, the main body of the pier presenting continuous
+lines of moulding with those of the arch, unbroken by any capital: as in
+the piers of Bath Abbey Church, rebuilt early in the sixteenth century. In
+small country churches we frequently find the architrave mouldings of the
+arch continued down the piers, which are altogether devoid of any
+horizontal stop by way of capital. The churches of Brinklow and
+Willoughby, in Warwickshire, afford instances of this kind. Piers somewhat
+different to those above described are also to be met with, but are not so
+common.
+
+Q. What else may be noted respecting some of the piers and arches in this
+style?
+
+A. The face of the sub-arch or soffit is sometimes enriched with oblong
+panelled compartments, arched-headed and foliated; and these are
+continued down the inner sides of the piers. The arches of the tower of
+Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, and some of the arches in Sherborne
+Church, in the same county, may be instanced as examples.
+
+[Illustration: Panelled Arch, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+Q. How may we distinguish the doorways and doors of this style?
+
+A. Many doorways of this style, especially during its early progress, were
+surmounted by crocketted ogee-shaped hood mouldings, terminating with
+finials. In the most common doorway of this style, however, the depressed
+four-centred arch appears within a square head, and in general a
+rectangular hood moulding over; and the spandrels or spaces between the
+spring and apex of the arch and angles of the square head over it are
+filled with quatrefoils, panelling, foliage, small shields, or other
+sculptured ornaments. Sometimes the depressed four-centred arch appears
+without any hood moulding, and we occasionally meet with a simple pointed
+arch described from two centres placed within a rectangular compartment.
+Doorways in this style are often profusely ornamented; and it is common to
+see doors covered with panel-work boldly recessed, the compartments of
+which are sometimes filled in the heads with crocketed ogee arches, which
+produce a rich effect.
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, All Souls College, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Are there many fine porches of this style?
+
+A. More than in any other style, and they are often profusely enriched,
+the front and sides being covered with panel-work, tracery, and niches for
+statuary. The interior of the roof is frequently groined, sometimes with
+fan tracery, but generally with simple though numerous ribs; and in many
+instances a room is constructed over the groined entrance or lower story
+of the porch, but so as to be in keeping with and form part of the general
+design. The south porch of Gloucester Cathedral, the south-west porch of
+Canterbury Cathedral, the south porch of St. John's Church, Cirencester,
+and the south porch of Burford Church, Oxfordshire, may be noticed as
+examples of rich porches of this style; many others might also be
+enumerated, as they are very numerous and various in detail. Some porches
+are comparatively plain, as the south porch of the church of
+Newbold-upon-Avon, Warwickshire.
+
+Q. How are the windows distinguished?
+
+[Illustration: Window, New College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+A. The chief characteristic in the windows of this style, and which
+renders them easily distinguished from those of an earlier era, consists
+in the vertical bearing of the mullions, which, instead of diverging off
+in flowing lines, are carried straight up into the head of the window;
+smaller mullions spring from the heads of the principal lights, and thus
+the upper portion of the window is filled with panel-like compartments.
+The principal as well as the subordinate lights are foliated in the heads;
+and in large windows the lights are often divided horizontally by
+transoms, which are sometimes embattled. From the continued upright
+position of the mullions and tracery-bars is derived the term
+PERPENDICULAR, as applied to this style. The forms of the window-arches
+vary from the simple pointed to the complex four-centred arch, more or
+less depressed. The windows of the clerestory are sometimes arched, but
+oftener square-headed; and some large windows of the latter description
+nearly cover the sides of the clerestory walls of Chipping Norton Church,
+Oxfordshire.
+
+Q. What do we frequently observe in buildings of this style?
+
+A. The interior walls of churches are often completely covered with
+panel-work tracery, arched headed and foliated, from the clerestory
+windows down to the mouldings of the arches below. The walls of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire, present in the interior a surface almost entirely
+covered with panel-work. Several large churches in this style have also
+long ranges of clerestory windows, set so close to each other that the
+whole length of the clerestory wall seems perforated: we may enumerate as
+examples the churches of St. Michael, Coventry; Stratford-upon-Avon,
+Warwickshire; and Lavenham and Melford, Suffolk. Walls covered on the
+exterior with panel-work are also far from uncommon: the Abbots' Tower,
+Evesham, the tower of the church of St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire, and of
+Wrexham, Denbighshire, and many other rich towers, (especially those of
+the churches in Somersetshire, where rich specimens in this style abound,
+more so perhaps than in any other county,) are thus decorated. The
+exterior of many rich structures in this style are also covered with
+panel-work, as the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, the west front of Winchester
+Cathedral, and Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster Abbey.
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, St. Peter's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?
+
+A. They are in detail more complicated than those of earlier styles, and
+in plain as distinguished from fan-tracery vaulting the groining ribs are
+more numerous. The ribs often diverge at different angles, and form
+geometrical-shaped panels or compartments; and the design has, in some
+instances, been assimilated to net-work. Plain vaulting of this style
+occurs in the nave and choir, Norwich Cathedral; the Lady Chapel and
+choir, Gloucester Cathedral; the nave, Winchester Cathedral; the Beauchamp
+Chapel, Warwick; and a very late specimen in the choir, Oxford Cathedral.
+A very rich and peculiar description of vaulting is one composed of
+pendant semicones covered with foliated panel-work, and, from the design
+resembling a fan spread open, called _fan-tracery_. Of this description of
+vaulting an early instance appears in the cloisters, Gloucester Cathedral.
+The roofs of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and Henry the Seventh's
+Chapel, Westminster Abbey, are well-known examples; and portions of
+several of our cathedrals and many small chantry and sepulchral chapels
+are thus vaulted.
+
+Q. What may be observed of the wooden roofs of this style?
+
+[Illustration: Wooden Roof, south aisle, St. Mary's Church, Leicester.]
+
+A. They are far more numerous than those we meet with in all the previous
+styles; and we frequently find churches of early date in which the
+original roofs, having perhaps become decayed, have been removed and
+replaced by roofs designed in that style prevalent during the fifteenth
+century. The slope or pitch of the roof is much lower than before, and the
+form altogether more obtuse, and sometimes approaching nearly to flatness.
+The exterior is on this account often entirely concealed from view by the
+parapet. Many roofs of this style are divided into bays or compartments
+by horizontal tie-beams faced with mouldings, and apparently supported by
+curved ribs springing from corbels, and forming spandrels filled with open
+worked tracery; and the spaces between the tie-beam, the king-post, and
+the sloping rafters of the roof, are filled with pierced or open-work
+tracery. The sloping bays or compartments of the roof are divided by rib
+mouldings into squares or parallelograms of panel-work, which are again
+often subdivided into similar-shaped panels by smaller ribs with carved
+bosses at the intersections. Some roofs are nearly flat, and simply
+panelled. On many roofs traces of painting and gilding may still be
+discerned, more especially in that part which was over an altar, and where
+the roof often bears indications of having been more ornamented than other
+parts. Roofs painted of an azure colour and studded with gilt stars are
+not uncommon. Sometimes the roof is coved, and the boards are painted in
+imitation of clouds. A great variety of wooden roofs is to be met with in
+this style, many of them exceeding rich; whilst the cornice under the roof
+is sometimes elaborately carved and enriched. Some roofs are much plainer
+in construction than others; and it was, during this era, a part of the
+church on the enrichment of which no small expense and attention were
+bestowed.
+
+Q. What may be noted respecting the parapets of this era?
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, St. Peter's Church, Dorchester.]
+
+A. Many embattled parapets are covered with sunk or pierced panelling, and
+ornamented with quatrefoils or small trefoil-headed arches; and they have
+sometimes triangular-shaped heads, as at King's College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and at the east end of Peterborough Cathedral. We also find horizontal or
+straight-sided parapets, covered with sunk or pierced quatrefoils in
+circles. A plain embattled parapet, with the horizontal coping moulding
+continued or carried down the sides of the embrasures, and then again
+returning horizontally, as at St. Peter's Church, Dorchester, Dorsetshire,
+is also common. A bold but shallow cavetto or hollow cornice moulding is
+frequently carried along the wall just under the parapet.
+
+Q. Was the panelled or sunk quatrefoil much used in decorative detail?
+
+A. In rich buildings of this style the base, the parapet, and other
+intermediate portions were decorated with rows or bands of sunk
+quatrefoils, sometimes inclosed in circles, sometimes in squares, and
+sometimes in lozenge-shaped compartments.
+
+[Illustration: Rose and Foliage, Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.]
+
+Q. What other ornamental detail is peculiar to this style?
+
+A. The rose, which, differing only in colour, was the badge both of the
+houses of York and Lancaster, and as such is often to be met with. Rows of
+a trefoil or lozenge-shaped leaf, somewhat like an oak or strawberry leaf,
+with a smaller trefoil more simple in design intervening between two
+larger, was frequently used as a finish to the cornice of rich
+screen-work, and is known under the designation of _the Tudor Flower_. It
+is also common to find the tendrils, leaves, and fruit of the vine carved
+or sculptured in great profusion in the hollow of rich cornice mouldings,
+especially on screen-work in the interior of a church.
+
+[Illustration: Vine Leaves and Fruit, Whitchurch Church, Somersetshire.]
+
+Q. In what respect do the mouldings of this style differ from those of
+earlier styles?
+
+A. In a greater prevalence of angular forms, which may be observed in
+noticing the section of a series of mouldings, and in the bases and
+capitals of cylindrical shafts. A large and bold but shallow hollow
+moulding or cavetto, in which, when forming part of a horizontal fascia or
+cornice, flowers, leaves, and other sculptured details are often inserted
+at intervals, is a common feature; and such moulding, without any
+insertion, is frequent in doorway and window jambs. A kind of double ogee
+moulding with little projection, is, in conjunction with other mouldings,
+also of common occurrence.
+
+[Illustration: Window, St. Peter's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Of what particular description of work do we find the existing remains
+to be almost entirely designed and executed in this style of
+ecclesiastical art?
+
+A. Of the numerous specimens of rich wooden screens, composed as to the
+lower part of sunk panelling, with open work above, which we often find
+separating the chancel from the body of the church, supporting the
+rood-loft, and inclosing chantry chapels in side aisles, comparatively few
+now remaining are of an earlier date than the fifteenth century[137-*].
+
+Q. What do we find in large buildings erected late in this style?
+
+A. Octagonal turrets, plain or covered with sunk panelling, and surmounted
+with ogee-headed cupolas, which are adorned with crockets and finials. In
+Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, they are used as buttresses. We
+also find them at King's College Chapel, Cambridge; at St. George's
+Chapel, Windsor; and at Winchester Cathedral.
+
+Q. Have we any coeval documents which contain particulars relating to the
+erection of churches?
+
+A. The contract entered into A. D. 1412, for the building of Catterick
+Church, Yorkshire, and the contract entered into A. D. 1435, for
+rebuilding, as it now stands, the collegiate church of Fotheringhay in
+Northamptonshire, or copies of such, have been preserved; as have
+particulars also from the contracts entered into A. D. 1450, for the
+fitting up of the Beauchamp Chapel, St. Mary's Church, Warwick. In the
+will of King Henry the Sixth, dated A. D. 1447, we find specific directions
+given for the size and arrangement of King's College Chapel, Cambridge;
+and no less than five different indentures are preserved, (the earliest
+dated A. D. 1513, the latest A. D. 1527,) containing contracts for the
+execution of different parts of that celebrated structure. The will of
+King Henry the Seventh, dated A. D. 1509, contains several orders and
+directions relating to the completion of the splendid chapel adjoining the
+abbey church, Westminster.
+
+Q. Mention some of the earliest buildings of this style, the dates of the
+erection of which have been clearly ascertained?
+
+A. The tower of St. Michael's Church, Coventry, the building of which
+commenced A. D. 1373 and was finished A. D. 1395[140-*], is an early and
+fine specimen; the beautiful and lofty spire was, however, an after
+addition, like that at Salisbury Cathedral, and was not commenced till
+A. D. 1432. Westminster Hall[140-+], the reparation or reconstruction of
+the greater part of which by King Richard the Second was commenced A. D.
+1397 and finished A. D. 1399, has a fine groined porch, the front of which
+exhibits the square head over the arch of entrance; and the spandrels are
+filled with quatrefoils, inclosing shields and sunk panel-work. The large
+window above the porch, and that at the west end, are divided into
+panel-like compartments by vertical mullions, and a transom divides the
+principal lights horizontally. The wooden roof is of a more acute pitch
+than we usually find in buildings of this style, and is remarkable as a
+specimen of constructive art and display. The spaces between the arches
+and rafters are filled up to the ridge-piece with open panel-work
+ornamentally designed; and this is perhaps the earliest specimen we
+possess of the perpendicular wooden roof.
+
+Q. What complete structures are there in this style of a late date, the
+periods of the erection of which are ascertained?
+
+A. The design for the rebuilding of the Abbey Church, Bath, was planned
+and the reconstruction thereof commenced, by Bishop King, A. D. 1500; and
+after his death the works were carried on by Priors Bird and Hollowaye;
+but the church was not completed when the surrender of the monastery took
+place, A. D. 1539. The foundation of Henry the Seventh's Chapel,
+Westminster Abbey, was laid A. D. 1502, but the chapel was not completed
+till the reign of Henry the Eighth. It is the richest specimen, on a large
+scale, of this style of architecture, and is completely covered, both
+internally and externally, with panel-work, niches, statuary, heraldic
+devices, cognizances, and other decorative embellishment. The church at
+St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire, is a fine large parochial edifice, all built
+apparently after one regular design, and consists of a tower covered with
+panel-work and ornament, with crocketed pinnacles at the angles and in
+front of each side; a nave, north and south aisles and chancel, and two
+chantry chapels, forming a continuation eastward of each aisle. It has a
+fine wooden roof, the cornice under which is in different parts curiously
+carved in relief. This church is said to have been erected A. D. 1507. But
+one of the most perfect specimens of a late date, on a smaller scale, is
+the church of Whiston, Northamptonshire, built A. D. 1534, by Anthony
+Catesby, esquire, lord of the manor, Isabel his wife, and John their son:
+it consists of a tower encircled with rows of quatrefoils and other
+decorative embellishment, and finished with crocketed pinnacles at the
+angles; a nave divided from the north and south aisles by arches within
+rectangular compartments, the spandrels of which are filled with sunk
+quatrefoils and foliated panels; these arches spring from piers disposed
+lozengewise with semicylindrical shafts at the angles; there are no
+clerestory windows, and the windows of the aisles and chancel have
+obtusely-pointed four-centred arches. The wooden roof is a good example of
+the kind.
+
+Q. What district is noted for the number of rich churches in this style?
+
+[Illustration: St. Stephen's Church, Bristol.]
+
+A. Somersetshire contains a number of fine churches, erected apparently
+towards the close of the fifteenth or very early in the sixteenth
+century; and many of these churches have much of carved woodwork in
+screens, rood-lofts, pulpits, and in pewing. The towers are, in
+particular, remarkable for their general style of design, and are often
+divided into stages by bands of quatrefoils; the sides are more or less
+ornamented with projecting canopied niches for statuary, and in many of
+these niches the statues have been preserved from the iconoclastic zeal
+which has elsewhere prevailed. The belfry windows are partly pierced,
+sometimes in quatrefoils, and partly filled with sunk panel-work. The
+parapets, whether embattled or straight-sided, are pierced with open work;
+and at each angle of the tower, at which buttresses are disposed
+rectangular-wise, is finished with a crocketed pinnacle, which is also
+often to be met with rising from the middle of the parapet. Towers similar
+in general design to those which may be said to prevail in Somersetshire
+are not unfrequently met with in other counties, but do not exhibit that
+provincialism which is the case in that particular county.
+
+[Illustration: King Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[121-*] Mr. Rickman, from whom this appellation is derived, has been since
+generally followed in his nomenclature.
+
+[137-*] In Compton Church, Surrey, is, or until recently was, the remains
+of a wooden screen of late Norman character. Between the chancel and nave
+of Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire, is an early wooden screen in the
+style of the thirteenth century: the lower division is of plain
+panel-work, whilst the upper division consists of a series of open-pointed
+arches, trefoiled in the heads, and supported by slender cylindrical
+shafts with moulded bases and capitals, and an annulated moulding
+encircles each shaft midway up. In Northfleet Church, Kent, is a wooden
+screen which approximates in general design that at Stanton Harcourt, but
+is in a more advanced stage of art, being of the Early Decorated style:
+the lower portion of this is of plain panelling, while the open work
+forming the upper division above consists of a series of pointed arches,
+with tracery and foliations in and between the heads, supported by slender
+cylindrical shafts banded round midway with moulded bases and capitals,
+and these arches support a horizontal cornice. Specimens of decorated
+screen-work, some much mutilated, others in a more perfect state, are
+existing in the churches of King's Sutton, Northamptonshire; Croperdy,
+Oxfordshire; Beaudesert, Warwickshire; and in St. John's Church,
+Winchester. A characteristic distinction between screen-work of an earlier
+date than the fifteenth century and screen-work of that period will be
+found to consist in the slender cylindrical shafts, often annulated,
+sometimes not, with moulded bases and capitals which pertain to early work
+of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and the mullion-like and
+angular-edged bars, often faced with small buttresses, which form the
+principal vertical divisions in screen-work of the fifteenth century.
+
+[140-*] This stately monument of private munificence was erected at the
+sole charges of two brothers, Adam and William Botnor: it was twenty-one
+years in building, and cost each year 100_l._
+
+[140-+] Though not an ecclesiastical structure, it is here noticed as an
+example of the style in an early stage.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Window, Duffield Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+OF THE DEBASED ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When did this style commence, and how long did it prevail or continue?
+
+A. It may be said to have commenced about the year 1540, and to have
+continued to about the middle of the seventeenth century; but it is
+difficult to assign a precise date either for its introduction or
+discontinuance.
+
+Q. Why is this style called the DEBASED?
+
+A. From the general inferiority of design compared with the style it
+succeeded, from the meagre and clumsy execution of sculptured and other
+ornamental work, from the intermixture of detail founded on an entirely
+different school of art, and the consequent subversion of the purity of
+style.
+
+Q. What may be considered as one great cause of this falling off?
+
+A. The devastation of the monasteries, religious houses, and chantries,
+which followed their suppression, discouraged the study of ecclesiastical
+architecture, (which had been much followed by the members of the
+conventual foundations, who were now dispersed, in their seclusion,) and
+gave a fatal blow to that spirit of erecting and enriching churches which
+this country had for many ages possessed.
+
+Q. How could this be the cause?
+
+A. The expenses of erecting many of our ecclesiastical structures, or
+different portions of them, from time to time, in the most costly and
+beautiful manner, according to the style of the age in which such were
+built, were defrayed, some out of the immense revenues of the monasteries,
+which at their suppression were granted away by the crown, and others by
+the private munificence of individuals who frequently built an aisle, with
+a chantry chapel at the east end, partly inclosed by screen-work, or
+annexed to a church, a transept, or an additional chapel, endowed as a
+chantry, in order that remembrance might be specially and continually made
+of them in the offices of the church, according to the then prevailing
+usage; which chantries having been abolished, one motive for
+church-building was gone.
+
+Q. What concurrent causes may also be assigned for this change?
+
+A. The almost imperceptible introduction and advance, about this period,
+of a fantastic mode of architectural design and decoration, which is very
+apparent in the costly though in many respects inelegant monuments of this
+age, and in which details of ancient classic architecture were
+incorporated with others of fanciful design peculiar to the latter part of
+the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries.
+
+Q. What are the characteristics of this style?
+
+A. A general heaviness and inelegance of detail, doorways with
+pointed-arched heads exceedingly depressed in form, and also plain
+round-headed doorways, with key stones after the Roman or Italian
+semi-classic style now beginning to prevail; square-headed windows with
+plain vertical mullions, and the heads of the lights either round or
+obtusely arched, and generally without foliations; pointed windows
+clumsily formed, with plain mullion bars simply intersecting each other in
+the head, or filled with tracery miserably designed, and an almost total
+absence of ornamental mouldings. Indications of this style may be found in
+many country churches which have been repaired or partly rebuilt since the
+Reformation. In the interior of churches specimens of the wood-work of
+this style are very common, and may be perceived by the shallow and flat
+carved panelling, with round arches, arabesques, scroll-work, and other
+nondescript ornament peculiar to the age, with which the pews,
+reading-desks, and pulpits are often adorned. The screens of this period
+are constructed in a semi-classic style of design, with features and
+details of English growth, and are often surmounted with scroll-work,
+shields, and other accessories. Of this description of work the screen in
+the south aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, constructed A. D. 1611, may
+be instanced as a curious specimen.
+
+[Illustration: Arabesque.]
+
+Q. What peculiarity may be noted in the alterations and additions of this
+era?
+
+A. A very common practice prevailed, from about the middle of the
+sixteenth century, when any alteration or addition was made in or to a
+church, of affixing a stone in the masonry, with the date of such in
+figures. Thus over the east window of Hillmorton Church, Warwickshire,
+(which is a pointed window of four lights, formed by three plain mullions
+curving and intersecting each other in the head, which is filled with
+nearly lozenge-shaped lights, but all without foliations,) is a stone
+bearing the date of 1640. In the south wall of the tower of the same
+church (which is low, heavy, and clumsily built, without any pretension to
+architectural design) is a stone to denote the period of its erection,
+which bears the date of 1655. Pulpits, communion-tables, church chests,
+poor-boxes, and pewing of the latter part of the sixteenth and of the
+seventeenth century, also very frequently exhibit, in figures carved on
+them, the precise periods of their construction.
+
+Q. What specimens are there of this style of late or debased and mixed
+Gothic?
+
+A. Annexed to Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, is a singular porch or
+building, sexagonal in form, at the angles of which are projecting columns
+of the Ionic order supporting an entablature. On each side of this
+building, except that by which it communicates with the church, and that
+in which the doorway is contained, is a plain window of the Debased Gothic
+style, of one light, with a square head and hood moulding over. The
+doorway is nondescript, neither Roman or Gothic. This building is supposed
+to have been erected by Bishop Jewell. The chapel of St. Peter's College,
+Cambridge, finished in 1632, exhibits in the east wall a large pointed
+window, clumsily designed, in the Debased style, and divided by mullions
+into five principal lights, round-headed, but trefoiled within; three
+series of smaller lights, rising one above the other, all of which are
+round-headed and trefoiled, fill the head of the window, the composition
+of which, though comparatively rude, is illustrative of the taste of the
+age. On each side of the window, on the exterior, is a kind of
+semi-classic niche. In Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, are a number of
+windows inserted at a general reparation of the church in 1639; these are
+square-headed, and have a label or hood moulding over, and are mostly
+divided into three obtusely pointed-arched lights, without foliations.
+Under the windows of the south aisle is a string-course, more of a
+semi-classic contour than Gothic. On the south side is a plain
+round-headed doorway, inserted at the same period. The tower and south
+aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, erected by Sir Thomas Spencer, A. D.
+1611, have the same kind of square-headed window, with arched lights
+without foliations, as those of Stow. Stanton-Harold Church,
+Leicestershire, erected A. D. 1653, is perhaps the latest complete specimen
+of the Debased Gothic style. Towards the end of this century Gothic
+mouldings appear not to have been understood, as in the attempt to
+reconstruct portions of churches in that style we find mouldings of
+classic art to prevail. Such is the case with respect to the tower of
+Eynesbury Church, St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire, rebuilt in a kind of
+Debased Gothic and mixed Roman style, in 1687. Other instances of the
+kind might also be enumerated. At the commencement of the eighteenth
+century the Roman or Italian mode appears to have prevailed generally in
+the churches then erected, without any admixture even of the Debased
+Gothic style.
+
+[Illustration: Window, Ladbrook Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Stoup, South Door, Oakham Church, Rutlandshire.]
+
+CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
+
+ON THE INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT AND DECORATIONS OF A CHURCH.
+
+
+The churches of this country were anciently so constructed as to display,
+in their internal arrangement, certain appendages designed with
+architectonic skill, and adapted purposely for the celebration of mass and
+other religious offices.
+
+At the Reformation, when the ritual was changed and many of the
+formularies of the church of Rome were discarded, some of such appendages
+were destroyed; whilst others, though suffered to exist, more or less in a
+mutilated condition, were no longer appropriated to the particular uses
+for which they had been originally designed.
+
+On entering a church through the porch on the north or south side, or at
+the west end, we sometimes perceive on the right hand side of the door, at
+a convenient height from the ground, often beneath a niche, and partly
+projecting from the wall, a stone basin: this was the _stoup_, or
+receptacle for holy water, called also the _aspersorium_, into which each
+individual dipped his finger and crossed himself when passing the
+threshold of the sacred edifice. The custom of aspersion at the church
+door appears to have been derived from an ancient usage of the heathens,
+amongst whom, according to Sozomen[154-*], the priest was accustomed to
+sprinkle such as entered into a temple with moist branches of olive. The
+stoup is sometimes found inside the church, close by the door; but the
+stone appendage appears to have been by no means general, and probably in
+most cases a movable vessel of metal was provided for the purpose; and in
+an inventory of ancient church goods at St. Dunstan's, Canterbury, taken
+A. D. 1500, we find mentioned "a stope off lede for the holy wat^r atte the
+church dore." We do not often find the stoup of so ancient a date as the
+twelfth century; one much mutilated, but apparently of that era, may
+however be met with inside the little Norman church of Beaudesert,
+Warwickshire, near to the south door.
+
+The porch was often of a considerable size, and had frequently a groined
+ceiling, with an apartment above; it was anciently used for a variety of
+religious rites, for before the Reformation considerable portions of the
+marriage and baptismal services, and also much of that relating to the
+churching of women, were here performed, being commenced "ante ostium
+ecclesiæ," and concluded in the church; and these are set forth in the
+rubric of the Manual or service-book, according to the use of Sarum,
+containing those and other occasional offices.
+
+Having entered the church, the font is generally discovered towards the
+west end of the nave, or north or south aisle, and near the principal
+door; such, at least, was in most cases its original and appropriate
+position: this was for the convenience of the sacramental rite there
+administered; part of the baptismal service (that of making the infant a
+catechumen) having been performed in the porch or outside the door[156-*],
+he was introduced by the priest into the church, with the invitation,
+_Ingredere in templum Dei, ut habeas vitam æternam et vivas in sæcula
+sæculorum_; and after certain other rites and prayers the infant was
+carried to the font and immersed therein thrice by the priest, in the
+names of the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. By an ancient
+ecclesiastical constitution a font of stone or other durable material,
+with a fitting cover, was required to be placed in every church in which
+baptism could be administered[156-+]; and it was, as Lyndwood informs us,
+to be capacious enough for total immersion. Some ancient fonts are of
+lead, as that in Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, and that in Childrey
+Church, Berkshire; both of these are cylindrical in shape, and of the
+Norman era, encircled with figures in relief; those on the font at
+Dorchester representing the twelve apostles, whilst those on that of
+Childrey are of bishops. Leaden fonts are also to be met with in the
+churches of Brookland, Kent; Wareham, Dorsetshire; and Walmsford,
+Northamptonshire. Square and cylindrical or truncated cone-like shaped
+fonts, of Norman design, supported on a basement by one or more shafts,
+and either plain or sculptured, are numerous; we sometimes find on them
+figures of the twelve apostles, sculptured in low relief; the baptism of
+our Saviour also was no uncommon representation. Fonts subsequent to the
+Norman era are not so frequently covered with sculptured figures, though
+such sometimes occur; they are sexagonal, septagonal, or octagonal in
+shape; and the different styles are easily ascertained by the
+architectural decorations, mouldings, tracery, and panel-work, with which
+they are more or less covered. On the sides of rich fonts of the fifteenth
+century representations of the seven sacraments were not unfrequently
+sculptured, as on that in Farningham Church, Kent. The covers to some rich
+fonts, especially to some of those of the fifteenth century, were very
+splendid, in shape somewhat resembling that of a spire, but the sides
+were covered with tabernacle-work, and decorated at the angles with small
+buttresses and crockets. Fonts with rich covers of this description are to
+be found in the churches of Ewelme, Oxfordshire; of North Walsham and of
+Worstead, Norfolk; and of Sudbury and of Ufford, Suffolk.[158-*]
+
+The general situation of the tower or campanile is at the west end of the
+nave; it is sometimes, however, found in a different position, as at the
+west end of a side aisle, which is the case with respect to the churches
+of Monkskirby and Withybrooke, Warwickshire; or on one side of the church,
+as at Eynesbury Church, Huntingdonshire, and Alderbury Church, Salop; and
+the tower of the latter church is covered with what is called the
+saddle-back roof, having two gables--a peculiarity to be found in some few
+other churches. In cross churches the tower was generally, though not
+always, erected at the intersection of the transept, and between the nave
+and chancel. In the towers the church bells were hung, with the exception
+of one; without these no church was accounted complete; they were
+anciently consecrated with great ceremony, named and inscribed in honour
+of some saint, and the sound issuing from them was supposed to be of
+efficacy in averting the influence of evil spirits. Bells appear to have
+been introduced into this country in the latter part of the seventh
+century, but comparatively few bells are now remaining in our churches of
+an earlier date than the seventeenth century, since the commencement of
+which century most of our present church bells have been cast. Towers were
+also occasionally used, up to the fourteenth century, as parochial
+fortresses, to which in time of sudden and unforeseen danger the
+inhabitants of the parish resorted for awhile. The tower of Rugby Church,
+Warwickshire, a very singular structure built in the reign of Henry the
+Third, appears to have been erected for this purpose; it is of a square
+form, very lofty, and plain in construction, and is without a single
+buttress to support it; the lower windows are very narrow, and at a
+considerable distance from the ground; some of them are, in fact, mere
+loop-holes; the belfry windows are _square-headed_, of two lights, simply
+trefoiled in the head, and divided by a plain mullion; the only entrance
+was through the church; it has also a fire-place, the funnel for the
+conveyance of smoke being carried up through the thickness of the wall to
+a perforated battlement, and it altogether seems well calculated to resist
+a sudden attack. Other church towers of early date appear to have been
+erected for a double purpose: that of a campanile, as well as to afford
+temporary security. The towers of Newton Arlosh Church, of the Church of
+Burgh on the Sands, and of Great Salkeld Church, Cumberland, appear to
+have been constructed with a view to afford protection to the inhabitants
+of those villages upon any sudden invasion from the borders of Scotland,
+and for that purpose were strongly fortified[160-*]. Some church towers,
+especially in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, are round and batter,
+or gradually decrease in diameter as they rise upwards; most of these are
+of the Norman, though some are in the Early English, style; that at Little
+Saxham Church, Suffolk, may be adduced as a specimen. Spires in some
+instances appear to have served as landmarks, to guide travellers through
+woody districts and over barren downs. The spire of Astley Church,
+Warwickshire, now destroyed, was so conspicuous an object at a distance,
+that it was denominated the lantern of Arden. The spires of the churches
+of Monkskirby and Clifton, in the same county, now also destroyed, were
+formerly noticed as eminent landmarks.
+
+[Illustration: Little Saxham Church Tower, Suffolk.]
+
+[Illustration: Open Seat, Culworth Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Anciently the body of the church appears to have contained no other fixed
+seats for the congregation than a solid mass of masonry raised against the
+wall, and forming a long stone bench or seat. A bench of this description
+runs along great part of the north, west, and south sides of the Norman
+church of Parranforth, Cornwall. In the Norman conventual church of Romsey
+plain stone benches of this description occur; they are likewise to be met
+with in Salisbury and other cathedrals; also in some of our ancient
+parish churches, as in the south aisle of Kidlington Church, Oxfordshire.
+Seats for the use of the congregation are noticed in the synod of Exeter,
+held A. D. 1287. Open wooden benches or pew-work are rarely, if at all, met
+with of an earlier era than the fifteenth century, when the practice of
+pewing the body of the church with open wooden seats, if not then
+introduced, began to prevail. In 1458 we meet with a testamentary bequest
+of money "to make seats called puying," and several of our churches still
+retain considerable remains of the ancient open seats of the fifteenth
+century. At Finedon, in Northamptonshire, the body of the church and
+aisles are almost entirely filled with low open seats, with carved tracery
+at the ends, disposed in four distinct rows; so that the whole of the
+congregation might sit facing the east. Similar seats occur in Culworth
+Church, in the same county, and these are likewise of the fifteenth
+century. The pulpit was anciently disposed towards the eastern part of the
+body of the church, but not in the centre of the aisle. Pulpits are now
+rarely to be found of an earlier date than the fifteenth century, when
+they appear to have been introduced into many churches, though not to have
+become a general appendage. Ancient pulpits of that era, whether of wood
+or stone, are covered with panel-work tracery and mouldings; and some
+exhibit signs of having been once elaborately painted and gilt. Mention,
+however, is made of pulpits at a much earlier period; for in the year 1187
+one was set up in the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund's, from which, we are
+told, the abbot was accustomed to preach to the people in the vulgar
+tongue and provincial dialect[164-*]. The most ancient pulpit, perhaps,
+existing in this country, is that in the refectory of the abbey (now in
+ruins) of Beaulieu, Hampshire: it is of stone, and partly projects from
+the wall, and is ornamented with mouldings, sculptured foliage, and a
+series of blank trefoiled pointed arches, in the style of the thirteenth
+century. The church of the Holy Trinity, at Coventry, contains a fine
+specimen of a stone pulpit of the fifteenth century. In Rowington Church,
+in the county of Warwick, is a stone pulpit of the same age as that at
+Coventry, but much plainer in design. At Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden pulpit of the fifteenth century,
+painted and gilt; and the sides are covered with ogee-headed niches, with
+angular-shaped buttresses between; but the pulpits of this era may be
+distinguished without difficulty by the peculiar architectural designs
+they exhibit.
+
+We now approach the division between the nave or body of the church and
+the chancel or choir: this was formed by a beautiful and highly decorated
+screen, sometimes of stone, but generally of wood, panel and open-work
+tracery, painted and gilt: above this was a cross-beam, which formed a
+main support to the rood-loft, a gallery in which the crucifix or rood and
+the accompanying images of the blessed Virgin and St. John were placed so
+as to be seen by the parishioners in the body of the church, and also in
+accordance with the traditional belief that the position of our Saviour
+whilst suspended on the cross was facing the west. The passage to the
+rood-loft was generally up a flight of stone steps in the north or south
+wall of the nave; but as the rood-loft frequently extended across the
+aisles, we sometimes meet with a small turret annexed to the east end of
+one of the aisles for the approach. Though the introduction of the
+lattice-work division between the chancel and nave may be traced in the
+eastern church to the fourth century, we possess in our own churches few
+remains of screen-work of earlier date than the fifteenth century; and it
+appears probable that wooden screen-work before that period was not
+common, and that in most instances a curtain or veil was used for the
+purpose of division. The rood-loft generally projected in front, so as to
+form a kind of groined cove, the ribs of which sprang or diverged from the
+principal uprights of the screen beneath. In Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden rood-loft, elaborately carved,
+painted, and gilt, which extends across the whole breadth of the church,
+and is approached by means of a staircase turret on the south side of the
+church. In the churches of Great Handborough, Enstone, Great Rollwright,
+and Hook Norton, Oxfordshire, are considerable remains of the ancient
+rood-loft, and numerous other instances where it is still retained could
+be adduced. Sometimes this gallery was so small as to admit of the rood
+and two attendant images only, and had no apparent access to it, as that
+in Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire. Hardly a rood-loft is, however,
+remaining of earlier date than the fifteenth century; prior to that
+period, and in many instances even during it, the crucifix or rood and its
+attendant images appear to have been affixed to a transverse beam
+extending horizontally across the chancel arch; this was sometimes richly
+carved, and a beam of this description still exists in the chancel of
+Little Malvern Church, Worcestershire. An earlier date than the eleventh
+century can hardly be assigned for the introduction of the rood, with the
+figures of St. Mary and St. John, into our churches, though in illuminated
+manuscripts somewhat before that period we find such figures pourtrayed
+with the crucifix[167-*]. In the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund's, the rood
+and the figures of St. Mary and St. John, which were placed over the high
+altar, were (as we are informed by Joceline, who wrote his Chronicle in
+the twelfth century) the gift of Archbishop Stigand[167-+]. Gervase, in
+describing the work of Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral, as it appeared
+before the fire, A. D. 1174, notices the rood-beam, which sustained a
+large crucifix and the images of St. Mary and St. John, as extended across
+the church between the nave and central tower[168-*].
+
+[Illustration: Rood, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+All the carved wooden roods appear to have been destroyed at the
+Reformation in compliance with the injunctions issued for that purpose.
+We occasionally meet, however, with bas relief sculptures of our Saviour
+extended on the cross, with a figure on each side representing the Virgin
+and St. John, but in a mutilated condition. On the outside of the west
+wall of the south transept of Romsey Church, Hants, and close to the
+entrance from the cloisters into the church, is a large stone rood or
+crucifix sculptured in relief, with a hand above emerging from a
+cloud[169-*]: this is apparently of the twelfth century. Small sculptured
+representations of the rood, with the figures of St. Mary and St. John,
+still exist on one of the buttresses near the west door of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire; over a south doorway of Burford Church, Oxfordshire;
+and in the wall of the tower of the church of St. Lawrence, Evesham.
+
+[Illustration: Sanctus Bell, Long Compton Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Outside the roof of some churches, on the apex of the eastern gable of the
+nave, is a small open arch or turret, in which formerly a single bell was
+suspended: this was the _sanctus_ or _sacringe_ bell, thus placed that,
+being near the altar, it might be the more readily rung, when, in
+concluding the ordinary of the mass, the priest pronounced the
+_Ter-sanctus_, to draw attention to that more solemn office, the canon of
+the mass, which he was now about to commence; it was also rung at a
+subsequent part of the service, on the elevation and adoration of the host
+and chalice, after consecration[171-*]; but though the arch remains on
+the gable of the nave of many churches, the bell thus suspended is
+retained in few; amongst which may be mentioned those of Long Compton,
+Whichford, and Brailes, in Warwickshire, where this bell is still
+preserved hung in an arch at the apex of the nave, with the rope hanging
+down between the chancel and nave[171-+]. Mention of this bell is thus
+made in the Survey of the Priory of Sandwell, in the county of Stafford,
+taken at the time of the Reformation: "Itm the belframe standyng betw: the
+chauncell and the church, w^t. a litle _sanct_^m bell in the same."
+Generally, however, a small hand-bell was carried and rung at the proper
+times in the service, by the acolyte; and in inventories of ancient church
+furniture we find it often noticed as "_a sacringe bell_;" but in an
+inventory of goods belonging to the chapel of Thorp, Northamptonshire, it
+is described as "a litle _sanctus bell_." A small sacringe bell, of
+bell-metal, with the exception of the clapper, which was of iron, was in
+1819 discovered on the removal of some rubbish from the ruins of St.
+Margaret's Priory, Barnstable; and within the last few years a small
+sanctus bell was found on the site of a religious house at Warwick[172-*].
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Sanctus Bell, found at Warwick.]
+
+Passing under the rood-loft, we enter the chancel: this was so called from
+the screen or lattice-work (cancelli) of stone or wood by which it was
+separated from the nave, and which succeeded the curtain or veil which
+anciently formed this division of the church[173-*].
+
+[Illustration: Stalls and Desk, St. Margaret's Church, Leicester.]
+
+We often perceive in the choirs of conventual churches, as in our
+cathedrals, on either side of the entrance, facing the east, and also on
+the north and south sides, a range of wooden stalls divided into single
+seats, peculiarly constructed, the _formulæ_ or forms of which were
+movable, and carved on the _subselliæ_ or under-sides with grotesque,
+satirical, and often irreverend devices: these were appropriated to the
+monks or canons of the monastery or college to which the church was
+attached. The form of each stall, when turned up so as to exhibit the
+carved work on the under-part, furnished a small kind of seat or ledge,
+constructed for the purpose of inclining against rather than sitting on;
+and this was called the _misericorde_ or _miserere_. The _formulæ_ or
+forms when down, and the misericordes when the forms were turned up, were
+used as the season required for penitential inclinations[174-*]. In front
+of these stalls was a desk, ornamented on the exterior with panelled
+tracery; and over the stalls, especially of those of cathedral churches,
+canopies of tabernacle work richly carved were sometimes disposed. In
+Winchester Cathedral we have perhaps the most early, chaste, and beautiful
+example of the canons' stalls, with canopies over, that are to be met
+with, although a greater excess of minute carved ornament may be found in
+the canopies which overhang the stalls in other cathedrals. In old
+conventual churches, now no longer used as such, the stalls have been
+often removed from their original position to other parts of the church,
+and they appear to have varied in number according to that of the
+fraternity.
+
+[Illustration: Misericorde, All Souls' College, Oxford.]
+
+[Illustration: Brass Reading Desk, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+In the choirs of cathedral and conventual churches, and in the chancels of
+some other churches, a movable desk, at which the epistle and gospel were
+read, was placed: this was often called the eagle desk, from its being
+frequently sustained on a brazen eagle with expanded wings, elevated on a
+stand, emblematic of St. John the evangelist. Eagle desks are generally
+found either of the fifteenth or seventeenth century; notices of them
+occur, however, much earlier. In the Louterell Psalter, written circa A. D.
+1300, an eagle desk supported on a cylindrical shaft, banded midway down
+by an annulated moulding in the style of the thirteenth century, is
+represented; and in an account of ornaments belonging to Salisbury
+Cathedral, A. D. 1214, we find mentioned _Tuellia una ad Lectricum Aquilæ_.
+Besides the brass eagle desks which still remain in use in several of our
+cathedrals, and in the chapels of some of the colleges at Oxford and
+Cambridge, fine specimens are preserved in Redcliffe Church, Bristol, of
+the date 1638; in Croydon Church, Surrey; and in the church of the Holy
+Trinity at Coventry; other instances might also be enumerated. Sometimes
+we meet with ancient brass reading-desks which have not the eagle in
+front, but both the sides are sloped so as to form a double desk: of
+these, examples of the fifteenth century may be found in Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire, and in the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. Ancient wooden
+reading-desks, either single or double, are also occasionally found; some
+of these are richly carved, others are comparatively plain, but all
+partake more or less of the architectonic style of the age in which they
+were severally constructed, and from which their probable dates may be
+ascertained. In Bury Church, Huntingdonshire, is a wooden desk with a
+single slope, and the vertical face presented in front is covered with
+arches and other carved ornaments: this perhaps may be referable to the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. A rich double desk, of somewhat
+later date, with the shaft supported by buttresses of open-work tracery,
+is preserved in Ramsey Church, Huntingdonshire. In Aldbury Church,
+Hertfordshire, is an ancient double lecturn or reading desk, of wood, of
+the fifteenth century, much plainer in design than those at Bury and
+Ramsey; the shaft is angular, with small buttresses at the angles, and
+with a plain angular-shaped moulded capital and base, which latter is set
+on a cross-tree. In Hawstead Church, Suffolk, is a wooden desk with little
+ornament, supported on an angular shaft with an embattled capital, and
+moulded base with leaves carved in relief: this is apparently of the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. The ancient wooden desks found in
+some of our churches must not, however, be confounded with a more numerous
+class constructed and used subsequent to the Reformation.
+
+Proceeding up the chancel or choir, we ascend by three steps to the
+platform, on which the high altar anciently stood: this was so called to
+distinguish it from other altars, of which there were often several, in
+the same church; high mass was celebrated at it, whereas the other altars
+were chiefly used for the performance of low or private masses. The most
+ancient altars were of wood, afterwards they were constructed of stone;
+those of the primitive British churches are spoken of by St. Chrysostom.
+By a decree of the council of Paris, held A. D. 509, no altar was to be
+built but of stone. Amongst the excerptions of Ecgbert, archbishop of York
+A. D. 750, was one that no altars should be consecrated with chrism but
+such as were made of stone; and by the council of Winchester, held under
+Lanfranc A. D. 1076, altars were enjoined to be of stone. The customary
+form of such was a mass of stone supporting an altar table or slab, and
+resembling the tombs of the martyrs, at which the primitive Christians
+held their meetings; from which circumstance it became customary to
+enclose in every altar relics of some saint, and without such relics an
+altar was esteemed incomplete.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Pix, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.]
+
+Pertaining to the high altar, which was covered with a frontal and cloths,
+and anciently enclosed at the sides with curtains suspended on rods of
+iron projecting from the wall, was a crucifix, which succeeded to the
+simple cross placed on the altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches; a
+pair[180-*] of candlesticks, generally with spikes instead of sockets, on
+which lights or tapers were fixed; a pix, in which the host was kept
+reserved for the sick; a pair of cruets, of metal, in which were contained
+the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in the eucharistic cup;
+a sacring bell; a pax table, of silver or other metal, for the kiss of
+peace, which took place shortly before the host was received in communion;
+a stoup or stok, of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water; a censer or
+thurible[181-*], and a ship, (a vessel so called,) to hold frankincense; a
+chrismatory[181-+], an offering basin, a basin which was used when the
+priest washed his hands, and a chalice and paten. Costly specimens of the
+ancient pix, containing small patens for the reception of the host, are
+preserved amongst the plate belonging to New College and Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford. A pix of a much plainer description, but without its
+cover, of the metal called latten, was until recently preserved in the
+church of Enstone, Oxfordshire: the body of this was of a semi-globular
+form, supported on an angular stem, with a knob in the midst, and in
+appearance not unlike a chalice. The monstrance, in which the host was
+exhibited to the people, and which has been sometimes confounded with the
+pix[182-*], does not appear to have been introduced into our churches
+before the fifteenth century; on the suppression of the monasteries and
+chantries we find it noticed in the inventories then taken of church
+furniture, as in that of the Priory of Ely, where it is called "a stonding
+monstral for the sacrament;" and in that of St. Augustine's Monastery,
+Canterbury, where it is described as "one monstrance, silver gilt, with
+four glasses."
+
+[Illustration: Sedilia, Crick Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Near the high altar we frequently find, in the south wall of the chancel,
+a series of stone seats, sometimes without but generally beneath plain or
+enriched arched canopies, often supported by slender piers which serve to
+divide the seats. In most instances these seats are three in number, but
+they vary from one to five, and are the _sedilia_ or seats formerly
+appropriated during high mass to the use of the officiating priest and his
+attendant ministers, the deacon and sub-deacon, who retired thither
+during the chanting of the _Gloria in excelsis_, and some other parts of
+the service[183-*]. The sedilia sometimes preserve the same level, but
+generally they graduate or rise one above another, and that nearest the
+altar, being the highest, was occupied by the priest; the other two by the
+deacon and sub-deacon in succession[183-+]. We do not often meet with
+sedilia of so early an era as the twelfth century; there are, however,
+instances of such, as in the church of St. Mary, at Leicester, where is a
+fine Norman triple sedile, divided into graduating seats by double
+cylindrical piers with sculptured capitals, and the recessed arches they
+support are enriched on the face with a profusion of the zigzag moulding.
+In the south wall of the choir of Broadwater Church, Sussex, is a stone
+bench beneath a large semicircular Norman arch, the face of which is
+enriched with the chevron or zigzag moulding. In Avington Church,
+Berkshire, is a stone beneath a plain segmental arch. Norman sedilia also
+occur in the churches of Earls Barton, Northamptonshire, and of
+Wellingore, Lincolnshire. From the commencement of the thirteenth century
+up to the Reformation sedilia became a common appendage to a church, and
+the styles are easily distinguished by their peculiar architectonic
+features. Some are without canopies, and are excessively plain. On the
+south side of the chancel of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, is a
+stone bench without a canopy or division, and plain stone benches thus
+disposed are found in the chancel of Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and of
+Rowington Church, Warwickshire. In Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire,
+are two sedilia without canopies; and in Standlake Church, Oxfordshire,
+the sedilia, three in number, are without canopies or ornament. In
+Spratten Church, Northamptonshire, is a stone bench for three persons
+under a plain recessed pointed arch. In Priors Hardwick Church,
+Warwickshire, is a sedile for the priest, and below that one double the
+size for the deacon and sub-deacon; both are under recessed arched
+canopies. Quadruple sedilia occur in the churches of Turvey and Luton,
+Bedfordshire; in the Mayor's Chapel, Bristol; in Gloucester Cathedral; in
+the church of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire; and in Rothwell Church,
+Northamptonshire: these are beneath canopies, and most of them are highly
+enriched. Quintuple sedilia sometimes occur, but are very rare; in the
+conventual church of Southwell, Nottinghamshire, are, however, five
+sedilia beneath ogee-headed canopies richly ornamented. A single sedile
+for one person only is occasionally met with, but not often.
+
+[Illustration: Double Piscina, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+Eastward of the sedilia, in the same wall, is a _fenestella_ or niche,
+sometimes plain, but often enriched with a crocketed ogee or pedimental
+hood moulding in front, over the arch, which is trefoiled or cinquefoiled
+in the head. This niche contains a hollow perforated basin or stone drain,
+called the _piscina_ or _lavacrum_[186-*], into which it appears that
+after the priest had washed his hands, which he was accustomed to do
+before the consecration of the elements and again after the communion,
+the water was poured, as also that with which the chalice was rinsed. The
+usage of washing the hands before the communion is one of very high
+antiquity, and is expressly noticed in the Clementine Liturgy, and by St.
+Cyril in his mystical Catechesis[187-*]; we do not, however, find the
+piscina in our churches of an era earlier than the twelfth century, and
+even then it was of uncommon occurrence; but in the thirteenth century the
+general introduction is observable. In Romsey Church, Hampshire, is the
+shaft and basin (the latter cushion-shaped) of a curious Norman piscina:
+this is now lying loose, in a dilapidated state. In the south apsis of the
+same church is another Norman piscina, consisting of a quadrangular-shaped
+basin projecting from the south wall; and on the south side of the chancel
+of Avington Church, Berkshire, is a plain Norman piscina within a simple
+semicircular arched recess. The churches of Kilpeck, Herefordshire,
+Keelby, Lincolnshire, and Bapchild, Kent, also contain Norman piscinæ.
+Those of all the various styles of later date are common; they exhibit,
+however, an interesting variety in design and ornamental detail. The drain
+of the piscina communicated with a perforated stone shaft, commonly
+enclosed in the wall, through which the water was lost in the earth; as in
+the case of the piscina with its shaft taken out of the south wall of the
+chancel of the now destroyed church of Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.
+Sometimes a piscina was a subsequent addition to a structure of early
+date, as in the old and now demolished church of Stretton-upon-Dunsmore,
+Warwickshire, in the south wall of the Norman chancel of which a piscina
+of the latter part of the thirteenth century had been inserted.
+
+[Illustration: Piscina, Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.]
+
+The piscina is very common in churches even where the sedilia or stone
+seats are wanting, and not only in the chancel, but also in the south
+walls at the east end of the north and south aisles, and in mortuary
+chapels, as will be presently noticed; it appears, in short, to have been
+an indispensable appendage to an altar.
+
+Sometimes the piscina is double, and contains two basins with drains, the
+one for receiving the water in which the hands had been washed, the other
+for the reception of the water with which the chalice was rinsed after the
+communion[189-*]. In Rothwell Church, Northamptonshire, on the south side
+of the chancel, are the vestiges of a triple piscina; the fenestella has
+been destroyed, but the three basins with their drains remain.
+
+Across the _fenestella_, or niche which contains the piscina, a shelf of
+stone or wood may be frequently found: this was the _credence_[190-*], or
+table on which the chalice, paten, ampullæ, and other things necessary for
+the celebration of mass were, before consecration, placed in a state of
+readiness on a clean linen cloth; and this originated from the prothesis,
+or side table of preparation, used in the early church; a recurrence to
+which ancient and primitive custom by some of the divines of the Anglican
+church, after the Reformation, occasioned great offence to be taken by the
+Puritan seceders. In some instances a side table of stone or wood was used
+for this purpose; and a fine credence table of stone, the sides of which
+are covered with panelled compartments, is still remaining on the south
+side of the choir, St. Cross Church, near Winchester[190-+].
+
+[Illustration: Ambrie or Locker, Chaddesden Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+The credence table, or shelf above the piscina, must not be confounded
+with the _ambrie_ or _locker_, a small square and plain recess usually
+contained in the east or north wall, near the altar. In this the chalice,
+paten, and other articles pertaining to the altar were kept when not in
+use. The wooden doors formerly affixed to these ambries have for the most
+part either fallen into decay or been removed, but traces of the hinges
+may be frequently perceived; and a locker in the north wall of the chancel
+of Aston Church, Northamptonshire, still retains the two-leaved wooden
+door. Sometimes shelves are set across the lockers. In the east wall of
+Earls Barton Church, Northamptonshire, is a large locker divided into two
+unequal parts by a stone shelf inserted in it; and in the north aisle of
+Salisbury Cathedral are two large triangular-headed lockers or ambries,
+each which[TN-5] contains two shelves.
+
+Within the north wall of the chancel, near the altar, a large arch, like
+that of a tomb, may often be perceived; within this the _holy sepulchre_,
+generally a wooden and movable structure, was set up at Easter, when
+certain rites commemorative of the burial and resurrection of our Lord
+were anciently performed with great solemnity; for on Good Friday the
+crucifix and host were here deposited, and watched the following day and
+nights; and early on Easter morning they were removed from thence with
+great ceremony, and replaced on the altar by the priest. In the accounts
+of churchwardens of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century
+we meet with frequent notices of payments made for watching the sepulchre
+at Easter[192-*]. Sometimes the sepulchre was altogether of stone, and a
+fixture, and enriched with architectural and sculptured detail, as in the
+well-known specimen at Heckington, Lincolnshire, and the fine specimen of
+tabernacle-work in Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire.
+
+At the back of the high altar was affixed a reredos, or screen of
+tabernacle-work, costly specimens of which contained small images set on
+brackets under projecting canopies; an alabaster table or sculptured bas
+relief, placed just over the altar, was also common. The high altar
+reredos is still remaining, though in a mutilated condition, in the Abbey
+Church, St. Alban's; it was erected A. D. 1480, and is perhaps the most
+splendid specimen we have; and in Bristol Cathedral a portion of the high
+altar reredos is also left. The chantry altar reredos is more frequently
+remaining, even where the altar and alabaster table[193-*] above have been
+destroyed; rarely, however, in a perfect state. In the seventeenth century
+the rich tabernacle-work was sometimes plastered over, probably to
+preserve it from iconoclastic violence. In many of our cathedrals, as at
+Gloucester, Bristol, Wells, and Worcester, and in some of the chantries
+attached to Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, specimens of the
+chantry reredos screen, which appear to have abounded more or less with
+sculptured and architectural detail, are to be met with; and remains of
+the painting and gilding with which they were anciently covered may in
+some instances be traced. In a Survey of the Priory Church, Bridlington,
+taken at the suppression, we find noticed, "The Reredose at the highe
+alter representyng Criste at the assumpcyon of our Lady and the XII.
+appostells, w^t. dyvers other great imagys, beyng of a great heyght, ys
+excellently well wrought, and as well gylted." Five small chapels are also
+mentioned, "w^t. fyve alters and small tables of alleblaster and imag's."
+Sometimes, however, the space behind the altar was occupied by a painted
+altar-piece, on wood or panel; a curious but mutilated specimen of which,
+of the latter part of the fifteenth century, is still preserved in the
+conventual church, Romsey.
+
+Over the high altar was the great east window of the church, glazed with
+painted glass; other windows in the church were also thus filled. The
+subjects pourtrayed on the glass were sometimes scriptural, sometimes
+legendary. Single figures of saints, distinguished by their peculiar
+symbols, are common; figures of crowned heads, prelates, and warriors also
+frequently occur; and on some windows are depicted the arms and sometimes
+even the portraits of different benefactors to the church, with scrolls
+bearing inscriptions. We have, perhaps, few remains of ancient stained
+glass in our churches of a period antecedent to the thirteenth century: of
+this era, probably, are those curious circular designs which fill the
+greater portion of the lights at the back of the sedilia in Dorchester
+Church, Oxfordshire: one representing St. Augustine and St. Birinus, the
+first bishop of that ancient see; another, a priest and deacon, the former
+with the host, the latter bearing the ampullæ. Of this period also is some
+ancient stained glass in Chetwood Church, Bucks, the ground of which is
+covered with a kind of mosaic pattern, a usual feature in the more ancient
+stained glass, and the borders partake of a tendril foliage; whilst in
+pointed oval-shaped compartments, forming the well-known symbol _vesica
+piscis_, are single figures of saints and crowned heads, each clad in a
+vest and mantle of two different colours. In the fourteenth century single
+figures under rich canopies are common, but we begin to lose sight of the
+mosaic pattern as a back-ground. The stained glass in the windows of the
+choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is either very early in this, or
+of a late period in the preceding century, and exhibits single figures
+under rich canopies: over the head of one of these, (the kneeling figure
+of a monk in his cowl,) is a scroll inscribed "_Magister Henricus de
+Mammesfeld me fecit_." In the windows of Tewkesbury Abbey Church are
+several single figures of this period, some of knights in armour. In the
+chancel of Stanford Church, Northamptonshire, are single figures of the
+apostles in painted glass, each appearing within an ogee-headed canopy,
+cinquefoiled within the head and crocketed externally, and the sides of
+the canopy are flanked by pinnacled buttresses in stages. Specimens of
+stained glass of the fifteenth century are numerous in comparison with
+those of an earlier period; we find such in the east window of Langport
+Church, Somersetshire, where single figures occur of St. Clemens, St.
+Catherine, St. Elizabeth, and of many other saints. Some splendid remains
+of painted glass of the fifteenth century are likewise preserved in the
+windows of the choir of Ludlow Church, Salop, mostly in single figures;
+amongst them is the representation of St. George in armour, of the reign
+of Henry the Seventh; the figures of the Virgin and infant Christ may also
+be noticed. Towards the close of this century kneeling figures, not
+merely disposed single, but also in groups, formally arranged, may be
+observed. As a composition, wherein a better display of grouping and
+aerial perspective is evinced, the splendid window in St. Margaret's
+Church, Westminster, of the crucifixion between the two thieves, and
+numerous figures in the foreground, not grouped formally but with
+artistical feeling, with the figures of St. George and St. Catherine on
+each side of the principal design, and the portraits of Henry the Seventh
+and his consort Elizabeth in separate compartments beneath, each kneeling
+before a faldstool, may be noticed. This window, which in some of the
+details exhibits an approach to the renaissance style, was presented to
+Henry the Seventh by the magistrates of Dort in Holland, to adorn his
+chapel at Westminster. The era of the various specimens of ancient stained
+glass we meet with in our churches may generally be ascertained by the
+costume and disposition of the figures, the form of the shields, the
+mosaic pattern or other back-ground, and architectural designs of the
+canopies.
+
+The pavement beneath the high altar was frequently composed of small
+square encaustic bricks or tiles, whereon the arms of founders and
+benefactors, interspersed with figures, flowers, and emblematic devices,
+were impressed, painted, and glazed; other parts of the church were also
+paved with these tiles.
+
+The walls of the church were covered with fresco paintings of the day of
+judgment, legendary stories, portraits of saints, and scriptural,
+allegorical, and historical subjects, in the conventional styles of the
+different ages in which such were executed, the costume and details being
+according to the fashion then prevailing. These paintings have in most
+churches been obliterated by repeated coats of whitewash, so that few
+perfect specimens now remain; traces of such are, however, occasionally
+brought to light in the alteration and reparation of our ancient churches.
+The subject of the judgment-day was commonly represented on the west wall
+of the nave, or over the chancel arch; and in the contract for the
+erection of the Lady Chapel, St. Mary's Church, Warwick, A. D. 1454, is a
+covenant "to paint fine and curiously, to make on the west wall the dome
+of our Lord God Jesus, and all manner of devises and imagery thereto
+belonging." The west front of the wall over the chancel arch, Trinity
+Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon, was some years back found to be thus covered;
+but this painting, with others in the same chapel, was afterwards again
+obliterated[199-*]. A curious fresco painting of the last judgment,
+discovered a few years ago on the west face of the wall over the chancel
+arch, Trinity Church, Coventry, has, however, been very carefully
+preserved, and the coat of whitewash which tended to conceal it probably
+ever since the Reformation has been judiciously removed. The legend of St.
+Christopher, represented by a colossal figure with a beam-like
+walking-staff, carrying the infant Christ on his shoulders through the
+water, was generally painted on the north wall of the nave or body of the
+church. A fresco painting of this subject, half obliterated, is still
+apparent on the north wall of the nave of Burford Church, Oxfordshire; and
+other instances might be adduced. The murder of Archbishop Becket was also
+a very favourite subject: an early pictorial representation of the
+thirteenth century, of this event, is still visible on one of the walls of
+Preston Church, Sussex; it formed, likewise, one of the subjects
+represented on the walls of Trinity Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon; and a
+painting of the same subject on panel, executed in the middle of the
+fifteenth century, was formerly suspended over or near the tomb of Henry
+the Fourth in Canterbury Cathedral[200-*]. Several vestiges of ancient
+fresco wall-paintings, more or less obliterated, are still preserved in
+Winchester Cathedral. The walls of our churches were even in the
+Anglo-Saxon era embellished with paintings; and such are described as
+decorating the walls of the church of Hexham in the seventh century. By
+the synod of Calcuith, held A. D. 816, a representation of the saint to
+whom a church was dedicated was required to be painted either on the wall
+of the church or on a tablet suspended in the church.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Stone Reliquary or Shrine, Brixworth Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+In most of the large conventual churches, and also in some of the smaller
+parochial churches, shrines containing relics of the patron or other
+saints were exhibited; these were either fixed and immovable, of
+tabernacle-work, of stone or wood, or partly of both, or were small
+movable feretories, which could be carried on festivals in procession. Of
+the fixed shrines, that in Hereford Cathedral of Bishop Cantelupe, of the
+date A. D. 1287, is a fine and early specimen, in very fair preservation.
+In the north aisle of the abbey church, Shrewsbury, are some remains of a
+stone shrine, which from the workmanship may be considered as a production
+of the early part of the fifteenth century: this is much mutilated: but
+the shrine of St. Frideswide, in Oxford Cathedral, the lower part of which
+is composed of a stone tomb, the upper part of rich tabernacle-work of
+wood, is still tolerably perfect: this is also of the fifteenth century.
+Of the small movable feretories, one apparently of the workmanship of the
+twelfth century, seven inches long and six high, formed of wood, enamelled
+and gilt, with figures on the sides representing the crucifixion, is still
+preserved in Shipley Church, Sussex; and a small stone reliquary or shrine
+of the fourteenth century was discovered a few years ago, and is now
+preserved in the church of Brixworth, Northamptonshire.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Organ.]
+
+The organ, as a solemn musical instrument, may claim a very early origin,
+and has been in use in our churches from the Anglo-Saxon era. The ancient
+organs were small, and all the pipes were exposed. The phrase "_a pair of
+organs_," so frequently met with in old inventories and church accounts,
+may probably have answered to the great and choir organ of a subsequent
+period--one instrument in two divisions. The mechanism of the old organs
+was rude and simple, compared with the improvements of modern times, and
+the cost was small; they were generally placed in the rood-loft.
+
+The church chest is often an ancient and interesting object: sometimes we
+find it rudely formed, or hollowed out of the solid trunk of a tree, with
+a plain or barrel-shaped lid of considerable thickness. The churches of
+Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; Long Sutton, Somersetshire; and Ensham,
+Oxfordshire; contain chests thus rudely constructed. Sometimes they are
+strongly banded about with iron. The fronts and sides of these chests are
+not unfrequently embellished more or less richly with carved tracery,
+panel-work, and other detail in the style prevalent at the period of their
+construction. In Clemping Church, Sussex, is an early chest of the
+thirteenth century, the front of which exhibits a series of plain pointed
+arches trefoiled in the head, and other carved work. In Haconby Church,
+Lincolnshire, and in Chevington Church, Suffolk, are very rich chests
+covered with tracery and detail in the decorated style of the fourteenth
+century. In Brailes Church, Warwickshire, is an ancient chest of the
+fifteenth century covered with panel-work compartments, with plain pointed
+arches foliated in the heads. Panelled chests of this century are
+numerous. In Shanklin Church, Isle of Wight, is a chest bearing the date
+of 1519, on which no architectural ornament is displayed, but the initials
+T. S. (Thomas Selkstead) are fancifully designed, and are separated by the
+lock, and a coat of arms beneath.
+
+In the south wall of each aisle, near the east end, and also in other
+parts of the church, we frequently find the same kind of fenestella or
+niche containing a piscina, and sometimes a credence shelf, as that before
+described as being in the chancel: this is a plain indication that an
+altar has been erected in this part of the church; and this end of the
+aisle was generally separated from the rest of the church by a screen, the
+lower part of panel, the upper part of open-work tracery, of stone or
+wood, similar to that forming the division between the chancel and nave;
+and the space thus enclosed was converted into or became a private chapel
+or chantry; for it was anciently the custom, especially during the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, for lords of manors and persons of
+wealth and local importance to build or annex small chapels or side
+aisles to their parish churches, and these were endowed by license from
+the crown with land sufficient for the maintenance, either wholly or in
+part, of one or more priests, who were to celebrate private masses daily
+or otherwise, as the endowment expressed, at the altar erected therein,
+and dedicated to some saint, for the souls of the founder, his ancestors
+and posterity, for whose remains these chantry chapels frequently served
+as burial-places. At this service, however, no congregation was required
+to be present, but merely the priest, and an acolyte to assist him; and it
+was in allusion to the low or private masses thus performed, that Bishop
+Jewell, whilst condemning the practice as untenable, observes, "And even
+suche be their private masses, for the most part sayde in side iles,
+alone, without companye of people, onely with one boye to make answer."
+
+The screens by which these chapels were enclosed have in numerous
+instances been destroyed; still many have been preserved, and chantry
+chapels parted off the church by screen-work of stone may be found in the
+churches of Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; and Aldbury, Hertfordshire; in
+which latter church is a very perfect specimen of a mortuary chapel, with
+a monument and recumbent effigies in the midst of it. Chantry chapels
+enclosed on two of the sides by wooden screen-work are more common.
+
+Although no ancient high altar of stone is known to exist, some of the
+ancient chantry altars have been preserved: these are composed either of a
+solid mass of masonry, covered with a thick slab or table of stone, as in
+the north aisle of Bengeworth Church, near Evesham, and in the south aisle
+of Enstone Church, Oxfordshire; or of a thick stone slab or table, with a
+cross at each angle and in the centre, supported merely on brackets or
+trusses built into and projecting from the wall, as in a chantry chapel in
+Warmington Church, Warwickshire; or partly on brackets and partly
+sustained on shafts or slender piers, as in a chantry chapel,
+Chipping-Norton Church, Oxfordshire. Sometimes a chamber containing a
+fire-place was constructed over a chantry, apparently for the residence,
+either occasional or permanent, of a priest: such a chamber occurs over
+the chantry chapel containing the altar in Chipping-Norton Church; and
+such also, with the exception of the flooring, which has decayed or been
+removed, may be seen in the chantry chapel which contains the altar in
+Warmington Church. In both of these chambers are windows or apertures in
+the walls which divide them from the church, through which the priest was
+enabled to observe unseen any thing passing within the church.
+
+[Illustration: Chantry Altar, Warmington Church, Warwickshire]
+
+We often find an opening or aperture obliquely disposed, carried through
+the thickness of the wall at the north-east angle of the south, and the
+south-east angle of the north aisle: this was the _hagioscope_, through
+which at high mass the elevation of the host at the high altar, and other
+ceremonies, might be viewed from the chantry chapel situate at the east
+end of each aisle. In general, these apertures are mere narrow oblong
+slits; sometimes, however, they partake of a more ornamental character, as
+in a chantry chapel on the south side of Irthlingborough Church,
+Northamptonshire, where the head of an aperture of this kind is arched,
+cinquefoiled within, and finished above with an embattled moulding. In the
+north and south transepts of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, are
+oblique openings, arched-headed and foliated; and in the north aisle of
+Chipping-Norton Church, in the same county, is a singular hagioscope,
+obliquely disposed, not unlike a square-headed window of three foliated
+arched lights, with a quatrefoil beneath each light.
+
+We sometimes meet with one or more brackets, with plain mouldings or
+sculptured, projecting from the east wall of a chancel aisle or chantry
+chapel; and on these, lamps or lights were formerly set, and kept
+continually burning in honour of the Virgin or of some other saint; and we
+also meet with rich projecting canopies or recessed niches, with brackets
+beneath, on which images of saints were formerly placed.
+
+The use of the low side window, common in some districts, near the
+south-west angle of the chancel, and sometimes, but not so frequently,
+near the north-west angle, and occasionally even in the aisle, has not
+been correctly ascertained; it has, however, been conjectured to have
+served for the purpose of a confessional; and on minute examination
+indications of its formerly having had a wooden shutter, which opened on
+the inside, are sometimes visible; and on the south side of Kenilworth
+Church, Warwickshire, is an iron-barred window of this description, on
+which the wooden shutter is still retained.[209-*]
+
+The sedilia or stone seats, so frequently found in the south wall of the
+chancel, are occasionally, though not often, to be met with in the south
+walls of side aisles or chantry chapels: when this is the case it is
+presumed the endowment was for more priests than one.
+
+Such, not to digress into more minute particulars, may suffice to convey
+a general idea of the manner in which our churches were internally
+decorated, and how they were fitted up, with reference to the ceremonial
+rites of the church of Rome, in and before the year 1535. The walls were
+covered with fresco paintings, the windows were glazed with stained glass;
+the rood-loft and the pulpit, where the latter existed, were richly
+carved, painted, and gilt; and the altars were garnished with plate and
+sumptuous hangings. Altar-tombs with cumbent effigies were painted so as
+to correspond in tone with the colours displayed on the walls; the
+pavement of encaustic tiles, of different devices, was interspersed with
+sepulchral slabs and inlaid brasses; and screen-work, niches for statuary,
+mouldings, and sculpture of different degrees of excellence, abounded.
+Suspended from aloft hung the funeral achievement; at a later period, even
+more common, the banner, helme, crest, gauntlets, spurs, sword, targe, and
+cote armour.[210-*] In addition to these were, in some churches, shrines
+and reliquaries, enriched by the lavish donations of devotees, and wooden
+images excessively decked out and appareled[211-*]--objects of
+superstition, to which pilgrimages and offerings were made. And if in the
+review of the conceptions of a prior age, viz. of the fourteenth century,
+we find a higher rank of art to be evinced, and the style and combination
+of architectural and sculptured detail to be more severe and pure, at no
+period were our churches adorned to greater excess than on the eve of that
+in which all were about to undergo spoliation, and many of them wanton
+destruction.
+
+For on the suppression of the monasteries and colleges, to the number of
+700 and upwards, and of the chantries, in number more than 2300, effected
+between the years 1535 and 1540, the abbey churches were not only
+despoiled of their costly vestments, altar plate and furniture, and
+shrines enriched with silver, gold, and jewels, but many of them were
+entirely dismantled, and the sites with the materials granted to
+individuals by whom they were soon reduced to a state of ruin. Some were
+even, either then or in after-times, converted into dwelling-houses; and
+others, or some portion of such, were allowed to be preserved as parochial
+churches; but the private chantry altars, though left bare and forsaken,
+were not as yet ordered to be destroyed.
+
+By the royal injunctions exhibited A. D. 1538, such feigned images as were
+known to be abused of pilgrimages, or offerings of any kind made
+thereunto, were, for the avoiding of idolatry, to be forthwith taken down
+without delay, and no candles, tapers, or images of wax were from
+thenceforth to be set before any image or picture, "but onelie the light
+that commonlie goeth about the crosse of the church by the rood-loft, the
+light afore the sacrament of the altar, and the light about the
+sepulchre;" which, for the adorning of the church and divine service, were
+for the present suffered to remain. By the same injunctions a Bible of the
+largest volume, in English, was directed to be set up in some convenient
+place in every church, that the parishioners might resort to the same and
+read it; and a register-book was ordered to be kept, for the recording of
+christenings, marriages, and burials.
+
+But beyond the suppression of the monasteries and chantries, an act the
+effect of secular rather than religious motives, little alteration was
+made during the reign of Henry the Eighth in the ceremonies and services
+of the church, although the minds of many were becoming prepared for the
+change which afterwards ensued. And in the reign of his successor, Edward
+the Sixth, a striking difference was effected in the internal appearance
+of our churches; for many appendages were, not all at once, but by
+degrees, and under the authority of successive injunctions, discarded.
+Thus, by the king's injunctions published in 1547, all images which had
+been abused with pilgrimage, or offering of any thing made thereunto,
+were, for the avoiding of the detestable offence of idolatry, by
+ecclesiastical authority, but not by that of private persons, to be taken
+down and destroyed; and no torches or candles, tapers or images of wax,
+were to be thenceforth suffered to be set before any image or picture,
+"but only two lights upon the high altar before the sacrament, which, for
+the signification that Christ is the very true light of the world, they
+shall suffer to remain still." And as to such images which had not been
+abused, and which as yet were suffered to remain, the parishioners were to
+be admonished by the clergy that they served for no other purpose but to
+be a remembrance. The Bible in English, and the Paraphrases of Erasmus
+upon the Gospels, also in English, were ordered to be provided and set up
+in every church for the use of the parishioners. It was also enjoined that
+at every high mass the gospel and epistle should be read in English, and
+not in Latin, in the pulpit or in some other convenient place, so that the
+people might hear the same. Processions about the church and churchyard
+were now ordered to be disused, and the priests and clerks were to kneel
+in the midst of the church immediately before high mass, and there sing or
+read the Litany in English set forth by the authority of King Henry the
+Eighth. By the same injunctions all shrines, covering of shrines, all
+tables, candlesticks, trindles or rolls of wax, pictures, paintings, and
+all other monuments of feigned miracles, pilgrimages, idolatry, and
+superstition, were directed to be utterly taken away and destroyed; so
+that there should remain no memory of the same in walls, glass windows, or
+elsewhere within churches; and in every church "a comely and honest
+pulpit" was to be provided at the cost of the parishioners, to be set in a
+convenient place for the preaching of God's word; and a strong chest,
+having three keys, with a hole in the upper part thereof, was to be set
+and fastened near unto the high altar, to the intent the parishioners
+should put into it their oblation and alms for their poor
+neighbours[215-*].
+
+Hence the primary introduction of desks with divinity books, the litany
+stool, and the charity box, yet retained in some of our churches. But as
+much contention arose respecting the taking down of images, also as to
+whether they had been idolatrously abused or not, all images without
+exception were shortly afterwards, by royal authority, ordered to be
+removed and taken away.
+
+In the ritual the first formal change appears to have been the order of
+the communion set forth in 1547 as a temporary measure only, until other
+order should be provided for the true and right manner of administering
+the sacrament according to the rule of the scriptures of God, and first
+usage of the primitive church. In this the term _altar_ is alone made use
+of; but in the first Liturgy of King Edward the Sixth, published in 1549,
+the altar or table whereupon the Lord's Supper was ministered is
+indifferently called _the altar_, _the Lord's table_, _God's board_.
+Ridley, bishop of London, by his diocesan injunctions issued in 1550,
+after noticing that in divers places some used the Lord's board after the
+form of a table, and some as an altar, exhorted the curates,
+churchwardens, and questmen to erect and set up the Lord's board after the
+form of an honest table, decently covered, in such place of the quire or
+chancel as should be thought most meet, so that the ministers with the
+communicants might have their place separated from the rest of the people;
+and to take down and abolish all other by-altars or tables. Soon after
+this, orders of council were sent to the bishops, in which, after noticing
+that the altars in most churches of the realm had been taken down, but
+that there yet remained altars standing in divers other churches, by
+occasion whereof much variance and contention arose, they were commanded,
+for the avoiding of all matters of further contention and strife about the
+standing or taking away of the said altars[216-*], to give substantial
+order that all the altars in every church should be taken down, and
+instead of them that a table should be set up in some convenient part of
+the chancel, to serve for the ministration of the blessed communion; and
+reasons were at the same time published why the Lord's board should rather
+be after the form of a table than of an altar, expressing however in what
+sense it might be called an altar. In the second Liturgy of King Edward
+the Sixth, amongst other important changes both of doctrine and
+discipline, the word _altar_, as denoting the communion-table, was
+purposely omitted.
+
+The peculiar formation, frequently observable, of the old
+communion-tables, seems to have originated from the diversity of opinion
+held by many in the Anglican church, as to whether or not there was in the
+sacrament of the Lord's Supper a memorative sacrifice; for by those who
+held the negative they were so constructed, not merely that they might be
+moved from one part of the church to another, but the slab, board, or
+table, properly so called, was purposely not fastened or fixed to the
+frame-work or stand on which it was supported, but left loose, so as to be
+set on or taken off; and in 1555, on the accession of Queen Mary, when the
+stone altars were restored and the communion-tables taken down, we find it
+recorded of one John Austen, at Adesham Church, Kent, that "he with other
+tooke up the table, and laid it on a chest in the chancel, and set the
+tressels by it[218-*]."
+
+It appears that texts of scripture were painted on the walls of some
+churches in the reign of Edward the Sixth; for Bonner, bishop of London,
+by a mandate issued to his diocese in 1554, after noticing that some had
+procured certain scriptures wrongly applied to be painted on church walls,
+charged that such scriptures should be razed, abolished, and extinguished,
+so that in no means they could be either read or heard.
+
+In the articles set forth by Cardinal Pole in 1557, to be inquired of in
+his diocese of Canterbury, were the following: "Whether the churches be
+sufficiently garnished and adorned with all ornaments and books
+necessary; and whether they have a rood in their church of a decent
+stature, with Mary and John, and an image of the patron of the same
+church?" Also, "Whether the altars of the church be consecrated or no?"
+
+But in 1559, the first year of the reign of Elizabeth, many of the
+injunctions set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth, as to the mode of
+saying the Litany without procession, the removal and destruction of
+shrines and monuments of superstition, the setting up of a pulpit, and of
+the poor-box or chest, which latter was however "to be set and fastened in
+a most convenient place," were re-established. By these injunctions it
+appears that in many parts of the realm the altars of the churches had
+been removed, and tables placed for the administration of the holy
+sacrament; that in some other places the altars had not yet been removed:
+in the order whereof, as the injunctions express, save for an uniformity,
+there seemed to be no matter of great moment, so that the sacrament was
+duly and reverently ministered; and it was so ordered that no altar should
+be taken down but by oversight of the curate and churchwardens, or one of
+them, and that the holy table in every church should be decently made and
+set in the place where the altar stood, and there commonly covered, and so
+to stand, saving when the communion of the sacrament was to be
+distributed; at which time the same was to be so placed within the chancel
+in such manner that the minister might be the more conveniently heard of
+the communicants in his prayer and ministration.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Communion Table, Sunningwell Church, Berkshire.]
+
+Many of the old communion-tables set up in the reign of Elizabeth are yet
+remaining in our churches, and are sustained by a stand or frame, the
+bulging pillar-legs of which are often fantastically carved, with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail according to the taste of the age.
+The communion-table in Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, probably set up
+during the time Bishop Jewell was pastor of that church, is a rich and
+interesting specimen. Communion-tables of the same era, designed in the
+same general style, with carved bulging legs, are preserved in the
+churches of Lapworth, Rowington, and Knowle, Warwickshire; in St. Thomas's
+Church, Oxford; and in many other churches. Sometimes the bulging
+pillar-legs are turned plain, and are not covered with carving: such occur
+in Broadwas Church, Worcestershire; in the churches of St. Nicholas and
+St. Helen, at Abingdon; and in the north aisle of Dorchester Church,
+Oxfordshire. The table or slab of the communion-table in Knowle Church is
+not fixed or fastened to the frame or stand on which it is placed, but
+lies loose; and this is also the case with an old communion-table of the
+sixteenth century, now disused, in Northleigh Church, Oxfordshire. In an
+inventory of church goods, taken in 1646, occurs the following: "Item, one
+_short table and frame_, commonly called the communion-table." On
+examining the old communion-tables, the movability of the slab from the
+frame-work is of such frequent occurrence as to corroborate the
+supposition that some esoteric meaning was attached to its unfixed state,
+which meaning has been attempted to be explained.
+
+Under the colour of removing monuments of idolatry and false feigned
+images in the churches, much wanton spoliation and needless injury was
+effected; and this to such excess that in 1560 a royal proclamation was
+issued, commanding all persons to forbear the breaking or defacing of any
+monument or tomb, or any image of kings, princes, or nobles, or the
+breaking down and defacing of any image in glass windows, in any churches,
+without consent of the ordinary. And in the same year, in a letter from
+the queen to the commissioners for causes ecclesiastical, occasion is
+taken to remark that "in sundry churches and chappells where divine
+service, as prayer, preaching, and ministration of the sacraments be used,
+there is such negligence and lacke of convenient reverence used towardes
+the comelye keeping and order of the said churches, and especially of the
+upper parte called the chauncels, that it breedeth no small offence and
+slaunder to see and consider on the one part the curiositie and costes
+bestowed by all sortes of men upon there private houses, and the other
+part, the unclean or negligent order or sparekeeping of the house of
+prayer, by permitting open decaies, and ruines of coveringes, walls, and
+wyndowes, and by appointing unmeet and unseemly tables, with fowle
+clothes, for the communion of the sacraments, and generally leavynge the
+place of prayers desolate of all cleanlynes, and of meet ornaments for
+such a place, whereby it might be known a place provided for divine
+service." And the commissioners were required to consider the same, and in
+their discretion to determine upon some good and speedy means of
+reformation; and, amongst other things, to order that the tables of the
+commandments might be comely set or hung up in the east end of the
+chancel, to be not only read for edification, but also to give some comely
+ornament and demonstration that the same was a place of religion and
+prayer[223-*].
+
+An ancient table, apparently of this period, of the commandments painted
+on panel, but in language somewhat abbreviated, is still hung up against
+the east wall of the south transept of Ludlow Church, Salop[224-*].
+
+By the articles issued by royal authority in 1564, for administration of
+prayer and sacraments, each parish was to provide a decent table, standing
+on a frame, for the communion-table; this was to be decently covered with
+carpet, silk, or other decent covering, and with a fair linen cloth (at
+the time of the ministration); the ten commandments were to be set upon
+the east wall, over the table; the font was not to be removed, nor was the
+curate to baptize in parish churches in any basins.
+
+In the Visitation Articles of Archbishop Parker, A. D. 1569, we find
+inquiries were to be made whether there was in each parish church a
+convenient pulpit well placed, a comely and decent table for the holy
+communion, covered decently and set in the place prescribed; and whether
+the altars had been taken down; also whether images and all other
+monuments of idolatry and superstition were destroyed and abolished;
+whether the rood-loft was pulled down, according to the order prescribed;
+and if the partition between the chancel and church was kept.
+
+The latter inquiry is explanatory of the fact why, when the rood-lofts in
+many churches were taken down, the screens beneath them, separating the
+chancel from the nave, were left undisturbed.
+
+By the injunctions of Grindal, archbishop of York, A. D. 1571, all altars
+were ordered to be pulled down to the ground, and the altar stones to be
+defaced and bestowed to some common use.
+
+Pulpits of the reign of Edward the Sixth are rare, nor are those of the
+reign of Elizabeth very common. The pulpit in Fordington Church,
+Dorsetshire, of the latter period, is of stone, the upper part worked in
+plain oblong panels; and a kind of escutcheon within one of these bears
+the date 1592; the lower part or basement of this pulpit is circular in
+form.
+
+The richly embroidered and costly vestments and antependia or frontals, of
+a period antecedent to the Reformation, were in some instances converted
+into coverings for the altar or communion table, or into hangings for the
+pulpit and reading desk. In Little Dean Church, Gloucestershire, the
+covering for the reading desk is formed out of an ancient sacerdotal
+vestment, probably a cope, of velvet, embroidered with portraits of
+saints. The cushion of the pulpit of East Langdon Church, near Dover, is
+made out of either an ancient antependium or vestment; the material
+consists of very thick crimson silk, embroidered with sprigs, and in the
+centre of the hanging are two figures supposed to represent the salutation
+of the Virgin, who is kneeling before a faldstool.
+
+We occasionally, though rarely, meet with ancient charity-boxes of a date
+anterior to the Reformation: the churches of Wickmere, Loddon, and
+Causton, in Norfolk, still retain such[226-*]. At the Reformation,
+however, they were first required to be set up in churches. The ancient
+poor-box in Trinity Church, Coventry, is an excellent specimen of the
+Elizabethan era, and the shaft which supports it is of stone, covered with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail peculiar to that age; but most of
+the old charity-boxes are of the seventeenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Charity-box, Trinity Church, Coventry.]
+
+Towards the close of the sixteenth century the practice of preaching by an
+hour-glass, set in an iron frame affixed to the pulpit or projecting from
+the wall near it, began to prevail; and in the succeeding century this
+practice became quite common. In the churchwardens' accounts for St.
+Mary's Church, Lambeth, occurs the following: "A. 1579, Payde to Yorke for
+the frame on which the hower standeth,--..1..4;" and in the churchwardens'
+accounts of St. Helen's Church, Abingdon, is an item, "Anno MDXCI. payde
+for an houre glass for the pilpit, 4_d._" In the parochial accounts for
+St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, A. D. 1597, is a charge "for removing the desk and
+other necessaries about the pulpit, and for makeinge a thing for the hower
+glasse, 9_d._" In Shawell Church, Isle of Wight, the old iron stand for
+the hour-glass still remains affixed to a pier adjoining the pulpit; it is
+composed of two flat circular hoops or rings, one at some distance above
+the other, annexed or attached and kept in position by four vertical bars
+of iron, and the lower ring has cross-bars to sustain the glass. In
+Cassington Church, Oxfordshire, projecting from the wall by the side of
+the pulpit, is an iron stand for the hour-glass, consisting of two
+circular hoops or rings of iron, connected by four wrought iron bars,
+worked in the middle; and across the lower ring or hoop is an iron bar or
+stay. In High Laver Church, Essex, the iron stand for the glass still
+remains, and is in fashion not unlike a cresset, having only one hoop or
+ring encircling the top, and supported on four iron bars, which cross in
+curves at the bottom. Many other churches might be enumerated in which the
+stand for the hour-glass is still preserved; and the hour-glass itself,
+together with its frame, is said to be retained in South Burlingham
+Church, Norfolk. An hour-glass within a rich and peculiar frame, supported
+on a spiral column, and apparently of the latter part of the seventeenth
+century, is yet preserved in St. Alban's Church, Wood Street, London.
+
+[Illustration: Hour-glass Frame, Shawell Church, Isle of Wight.]
+
+To the close of the sixteenth century the mode of pewing with open
+low-backed seats continued to prevail; the ends of these seats were not
+covered with tracery or arched panel-work, but were plain, though they
+sometimes terminated with a finial. In the nave of Stanton St. John
+Church, Oxfordshire, are some old open pews or seats, apparently of the
+reign of Henry the Eighth, the backs of which are divided diamond-wise,
+and form a kind of lattice-work, and the ends terminate in grotesque
+heads. In Harrington Church, Worcestershire, are some open seats of plain
+workmanship, bearing the date of 1582. The church of Sunningwell,
+Berkshire, is fitted up with a range of open seats on each side of the
+nave, without any ornament, with the exception of a large carved finial at
+the end of each seat. In Cowley Church, near Oxford, are open seats of the
+date of 1632, which have at the ends finials carved in the shallow angular
+designs of that period. All these seats are appropriately placed, or
+disposed facing the east, and none are turned with the backs towards the
+altar[230-*]. About the commencement of the seventeenth century our
+churches began to be disfigured by the introduction of high pews, an
+innovation which did not escape censure; for, as Weaver observes, "Many
+monuments of the dead in churches in and about this citie of London, as
+also in some places in the countrey, are covered with seates or pewes,
+made high and easie for the parishioners to sit or sleepe in; a fashion of
+no long continuance, and worthy of reformation[231-*]." The high pews set
+up in the early part of this century are easily distinguished by the flat
+and shallow carved scroll and arabesque work with which the sides and
+doors are covered. In the directions given on the primary visitation of
+Wren, bishop of Norwich, A. D. 1636, we find an order "that the chancels
+and alleys in the church be not encroached upon by building of seats; and
+if any be so built, the same to be removed and taken away; and that no
+pews be made over high, so that they which be in them cannot be seen how
+they behave themselves, or the prospect of the church or chancel be
+hindered; and therefore that all pews which within do much exceed a yard
+in height be taken down near to that scantling, unless the bishop by his
+own inspection, or by the view of some special commissioner, shall
+otherwise allow."
+
+From a paper found among secretary Cecil's MSS.[232-*], it appears that in
+1564 some ministers performed divine service and prayers in the chancel,
+others in the body of the church, and some _in a seat made in the church_;
+and in the parochial accounts of St. Mary's Church, Shrewsbury, A. D. 1577,
+is an entry "for coloringe the curate's pew and dask;" but no public
+notice of the modern reading desk, or, as it was called, the "reading
+pew," occurs till 1603, when, in the ecclesiastical canons then framed, it
+was enjoined that besides the pulpit a fitting or convenient seat should
+be constructed for the minister to read service in; and in allusion to the
+reading desk, Bishop Sparrow, in his Rationale of the Book of Common
+Prayer, observes, "This was the ancient custom of the church of England,
+that the priest who did officiate in all those parts of the service which
+were directed to the people turned himself towards them, as in the
+absolution; but in those parts of the office which were directed to God
+immediately, as prayers, hymns, lauds, confessions of faith or sins, he
+turned from the people; and for that purpose, in many parish churches of
+late, the reading pew had one desk for the Bible, looking towards the
+people to the body of the church, another for the prayer-book, looking
+towards the east or upper end of the chancel. And very reasonable was this
+usage; for when the people was spoken to it was fit to look towards them,
+but when God was spoken to it was fit to turn from the people." And so he
+goes on to explain the custom of turning to the east in public prayer.
+
+In Bishop Wren's directions it was enjoined that the minister's reading
+desk should not stand with the back towards the chancel, nor too remote
+or far from it.
+
+The double reading desk is still occasionally met with, as in East Ilsley
+Church, Berkshire, where is a kind of double reading desk so that the
+minister can turn himself either towards the west or south. In Priors
+Salford Church, Warwickshire, is an old carved reading pew bearing the
+date of its construction, 1616; and in St. Peter's Church, Dorchester,
+Dorsetshire, and in Sherbourne Church, in the same county, are reading
+pews which evidently, from the style and the carved work with which they
+are covered, were constructed in the early part of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+The enclosing of the communion table in the church of Stow, in the county
+of Norfolk, by rails, about the year 1622, is noticed by Weaver, who
+states that the vicar and churchwardens pulled down a tomb to make room
+for the rail.
+
+In Bishop Wren's diocesan directions it was ordered that the communion
+table in every church should always stand close under the east wall of the
+chancel, the ends thereof north and south, and that the rail should be
+made before it, reaching up from the north wall to the south wall, near
+one yard in height, so thick with pillars that dogs might not get in.
+
+But we find the situation of the altar or communion table, and the reason
+of its severance by means of rails, more particularly noticed in the
+canons entertained by the convocation held in 1640. In these (after an
+allusion to the fact that many had been misled against the rites and
+ceremonies of the church of England, and had taken offence at the same
+upon an unjust supposal that they were introductive unto popish
+superstitions, whereas they had been duly and ordinarily practised by the
+whole church during a great part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and that
+though since that time they had by subtle practices begun to fall into
+disuse, and in place thereof other foreign and unfitting usages by little
+and little to creep in, yet in the royal chapels and many other churches
+most of them had been ever constantly used and observed) it was declared
+that the standing of the communion table sideway under the east window of
+every chancel was in its own nature indifferent[235-*]; yet as it had
+been ordered by the injunctions of Queen Elizabeth that the holy tables
+should stand in the places where the altars stood, it was judged fit and
+convenient that all churches should conform themselves in this particular
+to the example of the cathedral and mother churches; and it was declared
+that this situation of the holy table did not imply that it was or ought
+to be esteemed a true and proper altar, whereon Christ was again really
+sacrificed; but that it was and might be called an altar, in that sense in
+which the primitive church called it an altar, and in no other. And
+because experience had shewn how irreverent the behaviour of many people
+was in many places, (some leaning, others casting their hats, and some
+sitting upon, some standing, and others sitting under the communion table,
+in time of divine service,) for the avoiding of which and like abuses it
+was thought meet and convenient that the communion tables in all churches
+should be decently severed with rails, to preserve them from such or worse
+profanations.
+
+Communion rails carved in the nondescript style, almost peculiar to the
+reign of Charles the First, are preserved in St. Giles's Church, Oxford;
+in the Lady Chapel, Winchester Cathedral; in the Church of St. Cross, near
+Winchester; in the choir of Worcester Cathedral; and in Andover Church,
+Hants: in which last instance the rails are composed of open semicircular
+arches, supported on baluster columns, with pendants similar to hip knobs
+hanging from the arches; but specimens of altar rails of a period
+antecedent to the Restoration are not often to be met with, the reason for
+which will be adduced.
+
+By the canons of 1603 the churchwardens or questmen were to provide in
+every church a comely and decent pulpit, to be set in a convenient place
+within the same, and there to be seemly kept for the preaching of God's
+word. Carved pulpits set up between the years 1603 and 1640 are numerous,
+and the sides are more or less embellished with circular-arched panels,
+flat and shallow scroll-work, and other decorative detail in fashion at
+that period; and not a few bear the precise date of their construction.
+
+In the nave of Bristol Cathedral is a stone pulpit, ascended to by means
+of a circular flight of steps; the sides are panelled and ornamented with
+escutcheons surrounded by scroll-work, and it bears the date of 1624.
+
+In Ashington Church, Somersetshire, is a pulpit with the date 1627.
+
+In Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a fine carved wooden pulpit and
+sounding-board, and on it appears the date 1632.
+
+The date of 1625 appears on a fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of
+which are covered with semicircular-headed panels, in Huish Episcopi
+Church, Somersetshire.
+
+In one of the churches at Wells is a fine wooden pulpit, of the date 1636;
+at the angles are columns of semi-classic design, fantastically carved;
+the panels are curiously ornamented with figures in relief, and it is
+supported on a stand composed of a square and four detached columns, above
+which are represented a number of birds with large beaks; the
+sounding-board over corresponds in design with the pulpit.
+
+A very fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of which are embellished with
+circular-arched panel and scroll-work, with the date 1640, and a
+sounding-board over, is contained in Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire.
+
+Many carved pulpits of this era have, however, no assigned date; they are
+commonly placed at the north or south-east angle of the nave, but never
+in the middle of the aisle, so as to obstruct the view of the communion
+table.
+
+The commandments were again, by the canons of 1603, ordered to be set upon
+the east end of every church, where the people might best see and read the
+same; and other chosen sentences were to be written upon the walls of the
+churches in places convenient.
+
+On the south wall of Rowington Church, Warwickshire, are sentences painted
+with a border of scroll-work; the like also occur at Astley Church, in the
+same county; and on the walls of Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, are
+sentences of scripture painted in black-lettered characters within panels
+surrounded by scroll-work.
+
+By the same canons the churchwardens were required to provide, if such had
+not been already provided, a strong chest, with a hole in the upper part
+thereof, having three keys, of which one was to remain in the custody of
+the minister, and the other two in the custody of the churchwardens; which
+chest was to be set and fastened in the most convenient place, to the
+intent the parishioners might put into it their alms for their poor
+neighbours.
+
+In the retro-choir, Sherbourne Church, Dorsetshire, is a poor-box with
+three locks; and a carved poor-box, of the early part of the seventeenth
+century, is preserved in Harlow Church, Essex. In Elstow Church,
+Bedfordshire, are the remains of a poor-box of the same period. In Clapham
+Church, in the same county, is an old poor-box, the cover of which is
+gone, on which are the initials I. W., and the date 1626: this is fixed on
+a plain wooden pillar near the south door; and in the south aisle of
+Bletchley Church, Buckinghamshire, is an oak pillar or shaft surmounted by
+a poor-box, with an inscription carved on it of "Remember the Pore," and
+the date 1637[240-*].
+
+The communion tables of the early part of this century were not so richly
+carved as those of the reign of Elizabeth, and in general the pillar-legs
+were plain and not so bulging; but the frieze or upper part of the
+frame-work, on which the table rested, was often covered with shallow and
+flat carved panel and scroll-work, and sometimes with the date of its
+construction.
+
+In the church of St. Lawrence, at Evesham, the communion table bears the
+date of 1610; and round the frieze is carved an inscription, stating by
+whom it was given. In Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a carved
+communion table, bearing the date of 1638. The communion table in Godshill
+Church, Isle of Wight, is supported on four carved bulging pillar-legs;
+and round the frieze, below the ledge of the table, is the following
+inscription:
+
+     "Lancelot Coleman & Edward Britwel, Churchwardens, Anno Dom. 1631."
+
+In Whitwell Church, Isle of Wight, the communion table stands on plain
+bulging pillar-legs; and on the frieze round the ledge is carved in relief
+an arm holding a chalice, with the following inscription:
+
+     "I will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the
+     Lord. Psa. 116. v. 53. Anno Dom. 1632."
+
+As the rubric of the church enjoined that at the communion the priest
+should himself place the elements upon the holy table, the custom of
+having a side table, called the credence table, for the elements to be set
+on previous to their removal by the priest to the communion table for
+consecration, was observed in some churches in the latter part of the
+sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth century. Such table appears
+to have been introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, by Andrews, bishop of
+Norwich, whose model Archbishop Laud is said to have followed[242-*]; and
+it originated from the prothesis, or side table of preparation, used in
+the early church; it was likewise, as we have seen, used at the
+sacramentals of the church of Rome, and on that account was strongly
+objected to by the Puritans.
+
+[Illustration: Table, (temp. Charles I.,) Chipping-Warden Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+In the chancel of Chipping-Warden Church, Northamptonshire, on the north
+side of the communion table, is a semicircular oak table, apparently of
+the reign of Charles the First, standing on a frame supported by three
+plain pillar-legs, like those of the communion tables of the same period,
+and enriched with carved arched frieze-work similar to the arched
+panel-work on pulpits of the same period.
+
+A plain credence table of black oak, which from the style and make was
+evidently set up after the Restoration, still continues to be used as such
+in St. Michael's Church, Oxford, being placed on the north side of the
+communion table.
+
+The objections of the Puritans against many of the usages of the Anglican
+church, and their refusal to conform to such under the pretence of their
+being superstitious, had no slight effect in altering the internal
+appearance of our churches in the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+during the period their party had obtained the ascendancy, and had
+succeeded for a while in abolishing in this country episcopal church
+government; for among the "innovations in discipline," as they were called
+by the Puritan committee of the House of Lords in 1641, we find the
+following usages complained of: the turning of the holy table altarwise,
+and most commonly calling it an altar; the bowing towards it or towards
+the east many times; advancing candlesticks in many churches upon the
+altar, so called; the making of canopies over the altar, so called, with
+traverses and curtains on each side and before it; the compelling all
+communicants to come up to the rails, and there to receive; the advancing
+crucifixes and images upon the parafront or altar cloth, so called; the
+reading some part of the morning prayer at the holy table, when there was
+no communion celebrated; the minister's turning his back to the west, and
+his face to the east, when he pronounced the Creed or read prayers; the
+reading the Litany in the midst of the body of the church in many of the
+parochial churches; the having a _credentia_ or side table, besides the
+Lord's table, for divers uses in the Lord's Supper; and the taking down
+galleries in churches, or restraining the building of galleries where the
+parishes were very populous[244-*].
+
+In August, 1643, an Ordinance of the Lords and Commons was published, for
+the taking away and demolishing of all altars and tables of stone, and for
+the removal of all communion tables from the east end of every church and
+chancel; and it was prescribed that such should be placed in some other
+fit and convenient place in the body of the church or in the body of the
+chancel; and that all rails whatsoever which had been erected near to,
+before, or about any altar or communion table, should be likewise taken
+away; and that the chancel-ground which had been raised within twenty
+years then last past, for any altar or communion table to stand on, should
+be laid down and levelled, as the same had formerly been; and that all
+tapers, candlesticks, and basins should be removed and taken away from the
+communion table, and not again used about the same; and that all
+crucifixes, crosses, and all images and pictures of any one or more
+Persons of the Trinity, or of the Virgin Mary, and all other images and
+pictures of saints, or superstitious inscriptions belonging to any
+churches, should be taken away and defaced before the first day of
+November, 1643: but it was provided that such ordinances should not extend
+to any image, picture, or coat of arms, in glass, stone, or otherwise, set
+up or graven only for a monument of any dead person not reputed for a
+saint, but that all such might stand and continue.
+
+By a subsequent ordinance, passed in May, 1644, it was prescribed that no
+rood-loft or holy water fonts should be any more used in any church; and
+that all organs, and the frames or cases in which they stood, in all
+churches, should be taken away and utterly defaced.
+
+Under colour of these ordinances the beauty of the cathedrals and churches
+was injured to an extent hardly credible; the monuments of the dead were
+defaced, and brasses torn away, in the iconoclastic fury which then raged;
+the very tombs were violated; and the havoc made of church ornaments, and
+destruction of the fine painted glass with which most church windows then
+abounded, may in some degree be estimated from the account given by one
+Dowsing, a parliamentary visitor appointed under a warrant from the Earl
+of Manchester for demolishing the so called superstitious pictures and
+ornaments of churches within the county of Suffolk, who kept a journal,
+with the particulars of his transactions, in the years 1643 and 1644:
+these were chiefly comprised in the demolition of numerous windows filled
+with painted glass, in the breaking down of altar rails and organ cases,
+in levelling the steps in the chancels, in removing crucifixes, in taking
+down the stone crosses from the exterior of the churches, in defacing
+crosses on the fonts, and in the taking up (under the pretence of their
+being superstitious) of numerous sepulchral inscriptions in brass. Nor
+did the churches in other parts of the country, with some exceptions,
+escape from a like fanatical warfare; and, in this, many of our cathedrals
+suffered most. But this was not enough: our sacred edifices were profaned
+and polluted in the most irreverent and disgraceful manner; and with the
+exception of the destruction which took place on the dissolution of the
+monastic establishments in the previous century, more devastation was
+committed at this time by the party hostile to the Anglican church than
+had ever before been effected since the ravages of the ancient Danish
+invaders.
+
+But as to other alterations at this time effected. In January, 1644, an
+ordinance of parliament was published for the taking away of the Book of
+Common Prayer, which was forbid to be used any longer in any church,
+chapel, or place of public worship. In lieu of this the "Directory for the
+Publike Worship of God" was established: this contained no stated forms of
+prayer, but general instructions only for extemporaneous praying and
+preaching, and for the administration of the sacraments of Baptism and the
+Lord's Supper; the former of which was to be administered in the place of
+public worship and in the face of the congregation, but "not," as the
+Directory expresses, "in the places where fonts in the time of popery were
+unfitly and superstitiously placed." And at the administration of the
+Lord's Supper the table was to be so placed that the communicants might
+sit orderly about it or at it; but all liturgical form was abolished, and
+the prayers even at this sacrament were such as the minister might
+spontaneously offer.
+
+At Brill Church, in Buckinghamshire, the communion table, on an elevation
+of one step, is inclosed with rails, within an area of eight feet by six
+feet and a half, and a bench is fixed to the wall on each side; an
+innovation made at this period, in order that the communicants might
+receive the sacrament sitting. The communion table in Wooten Wawen Church,
+Warwickshire, though perfectly plain in construction, is unusually long
+and large, and appears to have been set up by the Puritans at this period,
+so that they might sit round or at it.
+
+To the removal of the communion table from the east end of the chancel may
+be attributed the usage which, in the middle of the seventeenth century,
+began to prevail of constructing close and high seats or pews, without
+regard to that uniformity of arrangement which had hitherto been
+observed; and many seats were now so constructed that those who occupied
+them necessarily turned their backs on the east during the ministration of
+prayer and public service. The erection of unseemly galleries, which have
+greatly tended to disfigure our churches, was another consequence of the
+innovation on the ancient arrangement of pewing.
+
+After the Restoration the communion tables were again restored to their
+former position at the east end of the chancel; and in Evelyn's Diary for
+1661-2, we find the change of position in his parish church thus noticed:
+"6 April. Being of the vestry in the afternoone, we order'd that the
+communion table should be set as usual altarwise, with a decent raile in
+front, as before the rebellion."
+
+The altar rails were now generally restored, and in most instances we find
+those in our churches to be of a period subsequent to the Restoration, as
+the details in the workmanship evince. In the church accounts of St.
+Mary's, Shrewsbury, for 1662, we find a "memorandum that this year the
+rayles about the communion table wer new sett up, and the surplice was
+made." In Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire, the altar rails have on them
+the date of 1664; and the communion table, which is quite plain, is of
+the same character and era.
+
+But a return, after the Restoration, to the former usages of the Anglican
+church was not made without great opposition; and accordingly we find
+objections stated to the bowing to the altar and to the east, to the
+preaching by book, to the railing in of the altar, to the candles,
+cushion, and book thereon, to the bowing at the name of Jesus, and to the
+organs as "popish-like music, and too much superstition[250-*]."
+
+When the rood was taken down at the Reformation, a custom began to prevail
+of fixing up in its stead or place, against the arch leading into the
+chancel, the upper part of which was in consequence blocked up by it, and
+facing the congregation, so as to be seen by them, the royal arms, with
+proper heraldic supporters; but it does not clearly appear that this was
+done in consequence of any express law or injunction to that effect,
+though it may perhaps have served to denote the king's supremacy. We
+seldom, however, find the royal arms of earlier date than the Restoration,
+in the twenty years previous to which they appear to have been generally
+taken down. In Brixton Church, Isle of Wight, on some plain wooden
+panelling between the tower and a gallery at the west end are the remains
+of the royal arms, which, from the style in which they have been painted
+with the rose and thistle, appear coeval with the reign of James the
+First; they are surmounted by a crown, below which is an open six-barred
+helme. These arms appear to have been removed from their original position
+against the chancel-arch, and are now much mutilated. In the church
+accounts, St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, for 1651, is a charge of 1_l._ 8_s._
+"for making the states armes." In Anstey Church, Warwickshire, the arms of
+the commonwealth, put up during the inter-regnum, were taken down not many
+years back. The little church of St. Lawrence, in the Isle of Wight, still
+retains the royal arms put up at the Restoration in 1660.
+
+Excepting the rood-loft galleries, we have few galleries in our churches
+of a period antecedent to the latter part of the seventeenth century. At
+the west end of Worstead Church, Norfolk, over the west door, is a gallery
+erected in 1550, at the cost of the candle called the Bachelor's Light. At
+the west end of the nave in Leighton Buzzard Church is a gallery erected
+in 1634; and at the west end of Piddletown Church, Dorsetshire, is a
+gallery with the date of its erection, 1635.
+
+From about the period of the Revolution, in 1688, we may trace the
+commencement of a custom, still partially prevailing, of setting up the
+pulpit and reading-pew in the middle aisle, in front of the communion
+table; so that during the whole of the service the back of the minister
+was turned to the east, and the view of the communion table obstructed;
+but we have not found any pulpit thus placed of an earlier period.
+
+We still retain, in the Anglican church, the usage of placing two
+candlesticks and candles upon the communion table, in compliance with the
+injunctions of King Edward the Sixth, together also with an offertory
+dish; of reading the lessons from the eagle desk, and of saying the Litany
+at the litany-stool. These practices are, however, more particularly
+observed in our cathedrals and college chapels than in our parochial
+churches, in most of which they have fallen into desuetude.
+
+To conclude, in the language of the synod held in 1640: "Whereas the
+church is the house of God, dedicated to his holy worship, and therefore
+ought to remind us both of the greatness and goodness of his Divine
+Majesty; certain it is that the acknowledgment thereof, not only inwardly
+in our hearts, but also outwardly with our bodies, must needs be pious in
+itself, profitable unto us, and edifying unto others: we therefore think
+it meet and behoveful, and heartily commend it to all good and
+well-affected people, members of this church, that they be ready to tender
+unto the Lord the said acknowledgment, by doing reverence and obeisance,
+both at their coming in and going out of the said churches, chancels, or
+chapels, according to the most ancient custom of the primitive church in
+the purest times, and of this church also for many years of the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth.
+
+"The reviving, therefore, of this ancient and laudable custom we heartily
+recommend to the serious consideration of all good people, not with any
+intention to exhibit any religious worship to the communion table, the
+east, or church, or any thing therein contained, in so doing; or to
+perform the said gesture in the celebration of the holy eucharist, upon
+any opinion of a corporal presence of the body of Jesus Christ on the holy
+table or in the mystical elements, but only for the advancement of God's
+majesty, and to give him alone that honour and glory that is due unto
+him, and no otherwise; and in the practice or omission of this rite we
+desire that the rule of charity prescribed by the apostle may be observed,
+which is, that they which use this rite despise not them who use it not,
+and that they who use it not condemn not those that use it."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          "... a bloodie crosse he bore,
+  The deare remembrance of his dying Lord,
+    For whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore,
+  And dead, as living, ever him ador'd:
+  Upon his shield the like was also scor'd."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[154-*] Hist. Eccles. lib. vi. c. 6. Durantus, however, assigns a
+different origin. "In veteri testamento non nisi lotus templum
+ingrediebatur." De Labro, seu Vase Aquæ Benedictæ, c. 21.
+
+[156-*] "Ad valvas ecclesiæ,"--Ordo ad Faciendum Catechumenum, Manuale.
+
+[156-+] Constitutions of Edmund Archbishop of Canterbury, A. D. 1236.
+[TN-6]De Baptismo et eius Effectu."
+
+[158-*] It is much to be regretted that of late years many ancient fonts
+have been cast out of our churches, and earthenware and pewter basins
+substituted in their stead for the administration of the holy sacrament of
+baptism: a practice not authorized by the Anglican church, but rather
+condemned; for in the canons set forth by authority, A. D. 1571, it is
+provided that "Curabunt (OEditui) ut in singulis ecclesiis sit sacer
+fons, _non pelvis_, in quo baptismus ministretur, isque ut decenter et
+munde conservetur." And in the canons of 1603, after alluding to the
+foregoing constitution, and observing that it was too much neglected in
+many places, it is appointed "That there shall be a font of stone in every
+church and chapel where baptism is to be ministered; the same to be set in
+the _ancient usual places_." In the orders and directions given by Bishop
+Wren, A. D. 1636, to be observed in his diocese of Norwich, we find it
+enjoined, "That the font at baptism be filled with clear water, and no
+dishes, pails, or basins be used in it or instead of it."
+
+[160-*] The 28th decree of a foreign council, that of Wirtzburgh, held A.
+D. 1278, prohibits the fortifying of churches in order to make use of them
+as castles.
+
+[164-*] Anglice sermocinari solebat (Abbas Samson) populo, sed secundum
+Linguam Norfolchie ... unde et pulpitum jussit fieri in ecclesia et ad
+utilitatem audiencium et ad decorem ecclesie.--Cronica Jocelini de
+Brakelonda, sub anno 1187.
+
+[167-*] Cottonian MS. Titus D. xxvii. 10th sæc.
+
+[167-+] "Crux que erat super magnum altare, et Mariola, et Johannes, quas
+imagines Stigandus archiepiscopus magno pondere auri et argenti ornaverat,
+et sancto Ædmundo dederat."--Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda, p. 4.
+
+[168-*] "Supra pulpitum trabes erat, per tranversum ecclesiæ posita, quæ
+crucem grandem et duo cherubin et imagines Sanctæ _Mariæ_ et Sancti
+_Johannis_ apostoli sustentabat."--Gervasius de Combustione, &c.
+
+[169-*] "Superest exponere, quod manus illa e nubibus erumpens indicet:
+Quæ procul dubio omnipotentis Dei dexteram designat."--Ciampini Vetera
+Monimenta, vol. ii. pp. 22, 81.
+
+[171-*] "In elevatione atque utriusque squilla pulsatur."--Durandi
+Rationale, lib. iv.
+
+[171-+] In Yeovil Church Accounts, A. D. 1457, is an item, "_In una cordul
+empt p le salsyngbelle ijd_."--Collectanea Topographica, vol. iii. p. 130.
+
+[172-*] It is now in the possession of William Staunton, esq., of
+Longbridge House, near Warwick.
+
+[173-*] Durandus, in his description of a church, makes no mention of
+screen-work, but observes, "Notandum est quod triplex genus _veli_
+suspenditur in ecclesia videlicet quod sacra operit, quod sanctuarium a
+clero dividit, _et quod clerum a populo secernit_;" evidently alluding in
+the latter to the curtain extended across the chancel arch.
+
+[174-*] "Item tunc stent in sedibus suis versa facie ad altare donec ad
+_misericordias_ vel super _formulas_ prout tempus postulat
+inclinent."--Monasticon, 1st ed. vol. i. p. 951.
+
+[180-*] The placing of more than two lights on the altar seems never to
+have been practised in the churches of this country; at least I have not
+met with any ancient illumination in which more than two are represented.
+
+[181-*] The cover of an ancient thurible of latten was lately discovered
+in the chest of Ashbury Church, Berkshire: the lower part is of a
+semi-globular or domical form, from which issues an embattled turret or
+lantern in the form of a pentagon, which is finished by a quadrangular
+spire; the sides both of the lantern and spire are partly of open work,
+and round the domical part is inscribed _Gloria Tibi Domine_.
+
+[181-+] A small ampulla of brass or latten, supposed to have been an
+ancient chrismatory for the consecrated oil used in the sacrament of
+extreme unction, has been within the last few years discovered in the
+castle ditch, Pulford, Cheshire: this curious little relic is not more
+than two inches high; the body is semi-globular, or bulges in front, with
+a plain Greek cross engraved on it, and is flattened at the back; and at
+the neck are two bowed handles, by chains attached to which it appears to
+have hung suspended from the shoulders.
+
+[182-*] Harding, in his controversy with Bishop Jewell, mentions "the
+monstrance or pixe" as if one and the same article.--Defence of the
+Apology, &c., p. 343.
+
+[183-*] Quo finito sacerdos cum suis ministris in sedibus ad hos paratis
+se recipiant et expectent usque ad orationem dicendam vel alio tempore
+usque ad _Gloria in excelsis_.--MS. Rituale pen. Auc.
+
+[183-+] This arrangement was different to that directed by the rubrical
+orders of the Roman missals, on their revision after the council of Trent,
+by which the celebrant was to be seated between the deacon and sub-deacon:
+"In missa item solemni celebrans medius inter diaconum et sub-diaconum
+sedere potest a cornu epistolæ juxta altare cum cantatur _Kyrie eleison,
+Gloria in excelsis_, et _Credo_."--Missale Romanum, Antverpiæ, MDCXXXI.;
+Rubricæ Generales, &c. One of the queries published by Le Brun, whilst
+composing his liturgical work, was, "Si le prêtre s'assied au dessus du
+diacre et du soudiacre, ou au milieu d'eux."
+
+[186-*] Prope altare collocatur Piscina seu Lavacrum in quo manus
+lavantur.--Durandi Rat. de Ecclesia, &c. In ancient church contracts the
+term _Lavatorie_ was sometimes used for the Piscina, as in that for
+Catterick Church. In the Roman Missal subsequent to the Tridentine council
+the word _Sacrarium_ is used.
+
+[187-*] At Alvechurch, Worcestershire, the custom prevails of the priest
+washing his hands in the vestry before the administration of the
+sacrament, and napkins are brought to dry his hands.
+
+[189-*] "Il y avoit pour cet effet en chaque piscine, comme en peut voir
+encore à une infinité d'autels, deux conduits, ou canaux, pour faire
+écouler l'eau, l'un pour recevoir l'eau qui avoit servi au lavement des
+mains, l'autre pour celle qui avoit servi au purification ou perfusion du
+chalice."--De Vert, Explication des Cérémonies de l'Eglise, vol. iii. p.
+193.
+
+[190-*] In "Le Parfaict Ecclesiastique, par M. Claude de la Croix," (a
+curious work published A. D. 1666, and containing full instructions for
+the clergy of the Gallican church, and an exposition of the rites and
+ceremonies,) amongst appendages to an altar is enumerated "une credance ou
+niche dans le mur a poser les burettes et le bassin," p. 536. And in
+another place, "au costé de l'Autel il y faut une petite niche à poser les
+burettes et le bassin, et y faire un trou en facon de piscine a fin que
+l'eau se perde en terre." p. 568.
+
+[190-+] "In cornu Epistolæ ... ampullæ vitreæ vini et aquæ cum pelvicula
+et manutergio mundo in fenestella seu in parva mensa ad hæc
+praeparata"--Missale Romanum ex Decreto, &c. 1631.
+
+"Calix vero et alia necessaria praeparentur in credentia cooperta linteo,
+antequam sacerdos veniat ad altare."--Ibid.
+
+[192-*] The earliest account of the sepulchre thus set up that I have yet
+met with occurs in an inventory of church furniture, A. D. 1214, in which
+is mentioned "_velum unum de serico supra sepulchrum_."
+
+[193-*] "Table" was a word used to express any sculptured basso relievo,
+more especially that inserted in the wall over an altar.
+
+[199-*] A series of coloured engravings from the paintings on the walls of
+this chapel, which were evidently executed at the close of the fifteenth
+century, was published in 1807 by the late Mr. Thomas Fisher.
+
+[200-*] By an injunction set forth by royal authority, A. D. 1539, it was
+ordered, "That from henceforth the said Thomas Becket shall not be
+esteemed, named, reputed, and called a saint, but Bishop Becket; and that
+his images and pictures thorow the whole realme shal be pluckt downe and
+avoided out of all churches, chapel, and other places."--Fox's
+Martyrology.
+
+[209-*] The locality, character, and construction of the confessional in
+our ancient churches are not yet clearly elucidated. Du Cange described
+the confessional, "_confessio_," simply as "cellula in qua presbyteri
+fidelium confessiones excipiebant;" whilst according to De la Croix, in
+his remarks on those of the Gallican churches in the middle of the
+seventeenth century, "Les confessionaux doiuent estre à l'entrée des
+Eglises, et non pas auprés des Autels, ny dans le Choeur, ny en lieu
+caché, et tousieurs vne ouuerture pour écouter le Penitent, avec vn
+treillis de bois ou autre estoffe, et vn volet pour le fermer, quand on
+écoute de l'vn des costez ouuert."
+
+[210-*] The tabard or heraldic coat worn over the body armour, and still
+worn by the heralds on state occasions.
+
+[211-*] "Our churches stand full of such great puppets, wondrously decked
+and adorned; garlands and coronets be set on their heads, precious pearls
+hanging about their necks; their fingers shine with rings set with
+precious stones; their dead and stiff bodies are clothed with garments
+stiff with gold."--Homily against Peril of Idolatry.
+
+[215-*] In the injunctions given by Bishop Ridley, in the visitation of
+his diocese A. D. 1550, occurs the following: "Item that the minister in
+the time of the communion, immediately after the offertory, shall monish
+the communicants, saying these words, or such like, 'Now is the time, if
+it please you, to remember the poor men's chest with your charitable
+alms.'"
+
+[216-*] Dr. Cardwell, in his editorial preface to the reprint of the two
+Books of Common Prayer set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth,
+observes, "The communion service of the first liturgy contained a prayer
+for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the bread and wine, and a
+following prayer of oblation, which, together with the form of words
+addressed to the communicants, were designed to represent a sacrifice, and
+appeared to undiscriminating minds to denote the sacrifice of the mass.
+Numerous, therefore, and urgent were the objections against this portion
+of the service. Combined with a large class of objectors, whose theology
+consisted merely in an undefined dread of Romanism, were all those,
+however differing among themselves, who believed the holy communion to be
+a feast and not a sacrifice, and that larger class of persons who, placing
+the solemn duty upon its proper religious basis, were contented to worship
+without waiting to refine."
+
+[218-*] Fox's Martyrology.
+
+[223-*] In compliance with the queen's letter, the following directions
+were sent by the commissioners to the dean and chapter of Bristol:
+
+"After our hartie comendac[=on]s.--Whereas we are credibly informed that
+there are divers tabernacles for Images, as well in the fronture of the
+roodeloft of the cath^l church of Bristol, as also in the frontures, back,
+and ends of the walles wheare the co[=mn] table standeth, for asmoch as
+the same churche shoulde be a light and good example to th' ole citie and
+dioc. we have thought good to direct these our l[=re]s unto you, and to
+require youe to cause the said tabernacles to be defaced & hewen downe,
+and afterwards to be made a playne walle, w^th morter, plast^r, or
+otherways, & some scriptures to be written in the places, & namely that
+upon the walle on the east end of the quier wheare the co[=mn] table
+usually doth stande, the table of the c[=om]and^ts to be painted in large
+caracters, with convenient speed, and furniture according to the orders
+latly set furthe by vertue of the quenes ma^ts c[=om]ission for causes
+ecclesiasticall, at the coste and chardges of the said churche; whereof we
+require you not to faile. And so we bed you farewell. From London, the
+xxi. of December, 1561."--Britton's Bristol Cath. p. 52.
+
+[224-*] In the chancel of Bengeworth Church, Gloucestershire, is a table
+of the commandments, with the letters cut in box-wood. This has the date
+of 1591 upon it.
+
+[226-*] These are engraved in vol. xx. of the Archæologia, and, from the
+general style and mouldings, appear to have been constructed in the latter
+part of the fifteenth century.
+
+[230-*] The symbolical turning towards the east whilst pronouncing the
+Creed is adverted to by St. Cyril. In the Apostolical Constitutions, book
+ii. sect. xxviii., the attendants at public worship are enjoined to pray
+to God eastward. The custom of turning to the east at prayer is noticed by
+many of the early fathers of the church, and among them by St. Basil, who
+remarks, "As to the doctrines and preachings which are preserved in the
+church, we have some of them from the written doctrine; others we have
+received as delivered from the tradition of the apostles in a mystery.
+For, to begin with the mention of what is first and most common, who has
+taught us by writing that those that hope in the name of our Lord should
+be signed with the sign of the cross? what written law has taught us that
+we should turn towards the east in our prayers?.... Is not all this
+derived from this concealed and mystical tradition?.... We all, indeed,
+look towards the east in our prayers."--Basil, Epist. ad Amphiloc. de
+Spiritu S. Whiston's translation in Essay on the Apostolical
+Constitutions.
+
+[231-*] Funeral Monuments, A. D. 1631, p. 701.
+
+[232-*] Printed in Strype's Life of Parker. In the same paper the
+communion table is noticed as standing in the body of the church in some
+places, in others standing in the chancel; in some places standing
+altarwise, distant from the wall a yard, in others in the middle of the
+chancel, north and south; in some places _the table was joined, in others
+it stood upon tressels_; in some the table had a carpet, in others none.
+
+[235-*] "The position of the table had now become the token of a distinct
+and solemn belief as to the nature of the eucharist, and was therefore
+treated as a question of conscience and an article of faith."--Cardwell's
+Documentary Annals, vol. ii. p. 186, note. The extracts given from the
+injunctions have been principally taken from this work.
+
+[240-*] The unostentatious and laudable practice of bestowing alms to the
+charity-box has long fallen into disuse in most churches; but within the
+last few years charity-boxes have been set up in some of our churches, and
+this commendable custom is again gradually reviving.
+
+[242-*] Neal's History of the Puritans, vol. iii. p. 170.
+
+[244-*] Cardwell's Conferences, p. 272.
+
+[250-*] Hickeringill's Ceremony-Monger, (pub. 1689,) p. 63.
+
+
+OXFORD: Printed by T. Combe, Printer to the University.--May 10, 1841
+
+
+
+
+         _Published by J. H. Parker, Oxford._
+
+
+                   SECOND EDITION.
+
+    In the Press, with many additional Wood-Cuts,
+
+                      A GLIMPSE
+                        AT THE
+               MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE
+                         AND
+             SCULPTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN,
+
+  FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+             By MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.
+
+
+
+               THIRD EDITION, ENLARGED.
+               2 Vols. 8vo. 1_l._ 4_s._
+
+                 A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
+                       USED IN
+               GRECIAN, ROMAN, ITALIAN,
+                         AND
+                 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+       Exemplified by Seven Hundred Wood-Cuts.
+
+
+
+         _Published by J. H. Parker, Oxford._
+
+
+              PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION.
+
+             A COMPANION TO THE GLOSSARY
+                          OF
+                     ARCHITECTURE,
+
+        FORTY PLATES ENGRAVED BY JOHN LE KEUX;
+
+  Containing Four Hundred additional Examples, with
+      descriptive Letter-Press, a Chronological
+             Table, and Index of Places.
+
+
+
+      PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, IN 2 VOLS. 8vo.
+
+                      SOME ACCOUNT
+                        OF THE
+           DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of ENGLAND
+
+            FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE
+                     REFORMATION.
+
+                BY R. C. HUSSEY, Esq.
+
+  Illustrated by numerous Engravings, from original
+            drawings, of EXISTING REMAINS.
+
+
+
+  3 Vols. 8vo, 2_l._ 18_s._ 3 Vols. 4to, 5_l._ 10_s._
+
+                 MEMORIALS OF OXFORD.
+
+                BY JAMES INGRAM, D.D.
+            President of Trinity College.
+
+           THE ENGRAVINGS BY JOHN LE KEUX.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.
+
+Misspelled words and typographical errors:
+      Page  Error
+  TN-1  26  (fig. 5.). has an extra . following the )
+  TN-2  79  isuse should read disuse
+  TN-3 104  rom should read from
+  TN-4 106  pannels should read panels
+  TN-5 156, fn +  1236. De Baptismo should have an open quote mark before
+            De
+  TN-6 192  each which should read each of which. The word "of" did
+            not print in the original text, although a space is present
+            for it.
+
+The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:
+
+  wood-work / woodwork
+  zig-zag / zigzag
+
+The following words had inconsistent spelling:
+
+  Botolph / Botulph
+  Higham Ferrars / Higham Ferrers
+  Sherbourne / Sherborne
+  Wooten Wawen / Wotten Wawen
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic
+Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed., by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical
+Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed., by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed.
+
+Author: Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2006 [EBook #19737]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Julia Miller and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained
+in the current version of this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins>
+and the corrected text is shown in the popup. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a> of these
+errors is found at the end of this book.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following less common characters were used. If they do not display properly,
+please try changing your font.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left: 0" summary="less common characters">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">m&#773;n&#773; </td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">mn with a macron over both letters</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">o&#773;m&#773; </td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">om with a macron over both letters</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">o&#773;n&#773; </td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">on with a macron over both letters</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">r&#773;e&#773; </td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom;">re with a macron over both letters</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Whereby may be discerned that so fervent was the zeal of those
+elder times to God&#8217;s service and honour, that they freely endowed
+the church with some part of their possessions; and that in those
+good works even the meaner sort of men, as well as the pious
+founders, were not backwards.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="right">Dugdale&#8217;s Antiq. Warwickshire.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="titlepage">THE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 130%">PRINCIPLES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">OF</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 130%">GOTHIC</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">ECCLESIASTICAL</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 160%">ARCHITECTURE,</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">ELUCIDATED BY QUESTION AND ANSWER.</p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage">BY<br />
+MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;">FOURTH EDITION.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;">OXFORD:<br />
+  JOHN HENRY PARKER.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/image001-full.jpg"><img src="images/image001.jpg" width="400" height="692" alt="The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture" title="The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p>In revising this Work for a Fourth Edition several alterations have been
+made, especially in the Concluding Chapter; and the whole has been
+considerably enlarged.</p>
+
+<p class="right">M. H. B.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Rugby,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">April 1841.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<div class="toc" style="margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;">
+
+<p class="chaptoc" style="margin-bottom: 0em;"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAP. I.</a></p>
+
+<p class="right" style="margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;">Page</p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc" style="margin-top: 0em;">Definition of Gothic Architecture; its Origin, and Division
+of it into <span class="chapword">Styles</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">17</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAP. II.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the different Kinds of <span class="chapword">Arches</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">22</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAP. III.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Anglo-Saxon <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">30</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAP. IV.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Norman or Anglo-Norman <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">51</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAP. V.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Semi-Norman <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">74</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAP. VI.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Early English <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">86</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAP. VII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Decorated English <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">102</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAP. VIII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Florid or Perpendicular English <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">120</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAP. IX.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Debased English <span class="chapword">Style</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">145</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="chaptoc"><a href="#CONCLUDING_CHAPTER">CONCLUDING CHAPTER.</a></p>
+
+<p class="chapdesc">Of the Internal Arrangement and Decorations of a <span class="chapword">Church</span> <span class="chappg"><a href="#CONCLUDING_CHAPTER">153</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CORRECTIONS_AND_ADDITIONS" id="CORRECTIONS_AND_ADDITIONS"></a>CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p><a href="#Page_41">Page 41</a>, line 9, <i>for</i> Cambridge, <i>read</i> Lincoln.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_49">Page 49.</a> In addition to the list of churches containing presumed vestiges
+of Anglo-Saxon architecture, Woodstone Church, Huntingdonshire, and
+Miserden Church, Gloucestershire, may be enumerated.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_71">Page 71.</a> The double ogee moulding is here inserted by mistake: it is not
+Norman, but of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_137">Page 137.</a> In some copies the wood-cut in this page has been reversed in
+its position.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<a href="images/image002-full.jpg"><img src="images/image002.jpg" width="399" height="326" alt="Two Arches of Roman Masonry, Leicester." title="Two Arches of Roman Masonry, Leicester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Two Arches of Roman Masonry, Leicester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">ON THE ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND DECLINE OF GOTHIC OR ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL
+ARCHITECTURE.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Amongst</span> the vestiges of antiquity which abound in this country, are the
+visible memorials of those nations which have succeeded one another in the
+occupancy of this island. To the age of our Celtic ancestors, the earliest
+possessors of its soil, is ascribed the erection of those altars and
+temples<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> of all but primeval antiquity, the Cromlechs and Stone Circles
+which lie scattered over the land; and these are conceived to have been
+derived from the Ph&oelig;nicians, whose merchants first introduced amongst
+the aboriginal Britons the arts of incipient civilization. Of these most
+ancient relics the prototypes appear, as described in Holy Writ, in the
+pillar raised at Bethel by Jacob, in the altars erected by the Patriarchs,
+and in the circles of stone set up by Moses at the foot of Mount Sinai,
+and by Joshua at Gilgal. Many of these structures, perhaps from their very
+rudeness, have survived the vicissitudes of time, whilst there scarce
+remains a vestige of the temples erected in this island by the Romans; yet
+it is from Roman edifices that we derive, and can trace by a gradual
+transition, the progress of that peculiar kind of architecture called
+<span class="smcap">Gothic</span>, which presents in its later stages the most striking contrast that
+can be imagined to its original precursor.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans having conquered almost the whole of Britain in the first
+century, retained possession of the southern parts for nearly four hundred
+years; and during their occupancy they not only instructed the natives in
+the arts of civilization, but also with their aid, as we learn from
+Tacitus, began at an early period to erect temples and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> public edifices,
+though doubtless much inferior to those at Rome, in their municipal towns
+and cities. The Christian religion was also early <span class="nowrap">introduced,<a name="FNanchor_3-A_1" id="FNanchor_3-A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_3-A_1" class="fnanchor">3-*</a></span> but for
+a time its progress was slow; nor was it till the conversion of
+Constantine, in the fourth century, that it was openly tolerated by the
+state, and churches were publicly constructed for its worshippers; though
+even before that event, as we are led to infer from the testimony of
+Gildas, the most ancient of our native historians, particular structures
+were appropriated for the performance of its divine mysteries: for that
+historian alludes to the British Christians as reconstructing the churches
+which had, in the Dioclesian persecution, been levelled to the ground. But
+in the fifth century Rome, oppressed on every side by enemies, and
+distracted with the vastness of her conquests, which she was no longer
+able to maintain, recalled her legions from Britain; and the Romanized
+Britons being left without protection, and having, during their subjection
+to the Romans, lost their ancient valour and love of liberty, in a short
+time fell a prey to the Northern Barbarians; in their extremity they
+called over the Saxons to assist them, when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> the latter perceiving their
+defenceless condition, turned round upon them, and made an easy conquest
+of this country. In the struggle which then took place, the churches were
+again destroyed, the priests were slain at the very <span class="nowrap">altars,<a name="FNanchor_4-A_2" id="FNanchor_4-A_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_4-A_2" class="fnanchor">4-*</a></span> and
+though the British Church was never annihilated, Paganism for a while
+became triumphant.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the sixth century, when Christianity was again
+propagated in this country by Augustine, Mellitus, and other zealous
+monks, St. Gregory, the head of the Papal church, and the originator of
+this mission, wrote to Mellitus not to suffer the Heathen temples to be
+destroyed, but only the idols found within them. These, and such churches
+built by the Romans as were then, though in a dilapidated state, existing,
+may reasonably be supposed to have been the prototypes of the Christian
+churches afterwards erected in this country.</p>
+
+<p>In the early period of the empire the Romans imitated the Grecians in
+their buildings of magnitude and beauty, forming, however, a style of
+greater richness in detail, though less chaste in effect; and columns of
+the different orders, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> their entablatures, were used to support and
+adorn their public structures: but in the fourth century, when the arts
+were declining, the style of architecture became debased, and the
+predominant features consisted of massive square piers or columns, without
+entablatures, from the imposts of which sprung arches of a semicircular
+form; and it was in rude imitation of this latter style that the Saxon
+churches were constructed.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman basilicas, or halls of justice, some of which were subsequently
+converted into churches, to which also their names were given, furnished
+the plan for the internal arrangement of churches of a large size, being
+divided in the interior by rows of columns. From this division the nave
+and aisles of a church were derived; and in the semicircular recess at the
+one end for the tribune, we perceive the origin of the apsis, or
+semicircular east end, which one of the Anglo-Saxon, and many of our
+ancient Norman churches still present.</p>
+
+<p>But independent of examples afforded by some few ancient Roman churches,
+and such of the temples and public buildings of the Romans as were then
+remaining in Britain, the Saxon converts were directed and assisted in the
+science of architecture by those missionaries from Rome who propagated
+Christianity amongst them; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> during the Saxon dynasty architects and
+workmen were frequently procured from abroad, to plan and raise
+ecclesiastical structures. The Anglo-Saxon churches were, however, rudely
+built, and, as far as can be ascertained, with some few exceptions, were
+of no great dimensions and almost entirely devoid of ornamental mouldings,
+though in some instances decorative sculpture and mouldings are to be met
+with; but in the repeated incursions of the Danes, in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, so general was the destruction of the monasteries and churches,
+which, when the country became tranquil, were rebuilt by the Normans, that
+we have, in fact, comparatively few churches existing which we may
+reasonably presume, or really know, to have been erected in an Anglo-Saxon
+age. Many of the earlier writers on this subject have, however, caused
+much confusion by applying the term &#8216;<span class="smcap">Saxon</span>&#8217; to all churches and other
+edifices contradistinguished from the pointed style by semicircular-headed
+doorways, windows, and arches. But the vestiges of Anglo-Saxon
+architecture have been as yet so little studied or known, as to render it
+difficult to point out, either generally or in detail, in what their
+peculiarities consist: the style may, however, be said to have
+approximated in appearance much nearer to the Debased<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> Roman style of
+masonry than the Norman, and to have been also much ruder: and in the most
+ancient churches, as in that at Dover Castle, and that at Bricksworth, we
+find arches constructed of flat bricks or tiles, set edgewise, which was
+also a Roman fashion. The masonry was chiefly composed of rubble, with
+ashlar or squared blocks of stone at the angles, disposed in courses in a
+peculiar manner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;">
+<a href="images/image003-full.jpg"><img src="images/image003.jpg" width="403" height="213" alt="Anglo-Saxon Arches, Bricksworth Church, Northamptonshire
+ (7th. cent.)" title="Anglo-Saxon Arches, Bricksworth Church, Northamptonshire
+(7th. cent.)" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Anglo-Saxon Arches, Bricksworth Church, Northamptonshire
+ (7th. cent.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most common characteristic by which the <span class="smcap">Norman</span> style is distinguished,
+is the semicircular or segmental arch, though this is to be met with also
+in the rare specimens of Anglo-Saxon masonry; but the Norman arches were
+more scientifically constructed: in their early state, indeed, quite
+plain, but generally concentric, or one arch receding within another, and
+in an advanced stage they were frequently ornamented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> with zig-zag and
+other mouldings. A variety of mouldings were also used in the decoration
+of the Norman portals or doorways, which were besides often enriched with
+a profusion of sculptured ornament. The Norman churches appear to have
+much excelled in size the lowly structures of the Saxons, and the
+cathedral and conventual churches were frequently carried to the height of
+three tiers or rows of arches, one above another; blank arcades were also
+used to ornament the walls.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<a href="images/image004-full.jpg"><img src="images/image004.jpg" width="286" height="194" alt="Norman Arcade, St. Aldgate, Oxford." title="Norman Arcade, St. Aldgate, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Arcade, St. Aldgate, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Norman style, in which an innumerable number of churches and monastic
+edifices were originally built or entirely reconstructed, continued
+without any striking alteration till about the latter part of the twelfth
+century, when a singular change began to take place: this was no other
+than the introduction of the pointed arch, the origin of which has never
+yet been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> satisfactorily explained, or the precise period clearly
+ascertained in which it first appeared; but as the lightness and
+simplicity of design to which the Early Pointed style was found to be
+afterwards convertible was in its incipient state unknown, it retained to
+the close of the twelfth century the heavy concomitants of the
+semicircular arch, with which indeed it was often intermixed: and from
+such intermixture it may be designated the <span class="smcap">Semi</span> or <span class="smcap">Mixed Norman</span>.</p>
+
+<p>When the original Norman style of building was first broken through, by
+the introduction of the pointed arch, which was often formed by the
+intersection of semicircular arches, the facing of it, or architrave, was
+often ornamented with the zig-zag, billet, and other mouldings, in the
+same manner as the Norman semicircular arches: it also rested on round
+massive piers, and still retained many other features of Norman
+architecture. But from the time of its introduction to the close of the
+twelfth century, the pointed arch was gradually struggling with the
+semicircular arch for the mastery, and with success; for from the
+commencement of the thirteenth century, as nearly as can be ascertained,
+the style of building with semicircular arches was, with very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> few
+exceptions, altogether discarded, and superseded by its more elegant
+rival.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;">
+<a href="images/image005-full.jpg"><img src="images/image005.jpg" width="218" height="236" alt="Canterbury Cathedral." title="Canterbury Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Canterbury Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mode of building with semicircular arches, massive piers, and thick
+walls with broad pilaster buttresses, was now laid aside; and the pointed
+arch, supported by more slender piers, with walls strengthened with
+graduating buttresses, of less width but of greater projection, were
+universally substituted in their stead. The windows, one of the most
+apparent marks of distinction, were at first long, narrow, and
+lancet-shaped: the heavy Norman ornaments, the zig-zag and other mouldings
+peculiar to the Norman and Semi-Norman styles, were now discarded; yet we
+often meet with certain decorative ornaments, as the tooth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> ornament,
+which, though sometimes found in late Norman work, is almost peculiar to
+the Early Pointed style; also the ball-flower, prevalent both in this and
+the style of the succeeding century. Many church towers were also capped
+with spires, which now first appear. This style prevailed generally
+throughout the thirteenth century, and is usually designated as the <span class="smcap">Early
+English</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;">
+<a href="images/image006-full.jpg"><img src="images/image006.jpg" width="96" height="229" alt="Horsley Ch., Derbyshire." title="Horsley Ch., Derbyshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Horsley Ch., Derbyshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the thirteenth century a perceptible, though gradual,
+transition took place to a richer and more ornamental mode of
+architecture. This was the style of the fourteenth century, and is known
+by the name of the <span class="smcap">Decorated English</span>; but it chiefly flourished during the
+reigns of Edward the Second and Edward the Third, in the latter of which
+it attained a degree of perfection unequalled by preceding or subsequent
+ages. Some of the most prominent and distinctive marks of this style occur
+in the windows, which were greatly enlarged, and divided into many lights
+by mullions or tracery-bars running into various ramifications above, and
+dividing the heads into numerous compartments, forming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> either geometrical
+or flowing tracery. Triangular or pedimental canopies and pinnacles, more
+enriched than before with crockets and finials, yet without redundancy of
+ornament, also occur in the churches built during this century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/image007-full.jpg"><img src="images/image007.jpg" width="194" height="324" alt="Worstead Church, Norfolk." title="Worstead Church, Norfolk." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Worstead Church, Norfolk.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the fourteenth century another transition, or
+gradual change of style, began to be effected, in the discrimination of
+which an obvious distinction again occurs in the composition of the
+windows, some of which are very large: for the mullion-bars, instead of
+branching off in the head, in a number of curved lines, are carried up
+vertically, so as to form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> <i>perpendicular</i> divisions between the
+window-sill and the head, and do not present that combination of
+geometrical and flowing tracery observable in the style immediately
+preceding.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/image008-full.jpg"><img src="images/image008.jpg" width="188" height="260" alt="St. Michael&#39;s, Oxford." title="St. Michael&#39;s, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">St. Michael&#39;s, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frequent occurrence of panelled compartments, and the partial change
+of form in the arches, especially of doorways and windows, which in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century were often obtusely pointed and
+mathematically described from four centres, instead of two, as in the more
+simple pointed arch, and which from the period when this arch began to be
+prevalent was called the <span class="smcap">Tudor</span> arch, together with a great profusion of
+minute ornament, mostly of a description not before in use, are the chief
+characteristics of the style of the fifteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> century, which by some of
+the earlier writers was designated as the <span class="smcap">Florid</span>; though it has since
+received the more general appellation of the <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span>.</p>
+
+<p>This style prevailed till the Reformation, at which period no country
+could vie with our own in the number of religious edifices, which had been
+erected in all the varieties of style that had prevailed for many
+preceding ages. Next to the magnificent cathedrals, the venerable
+monasteries and collegiate establishments, which had been founded and
+sumptuously endowed in every part of the kingdom, might most justly claim
+the preeminence; and many of the churches belonging to them were
+deservedly held in admiration for their grandeur and architectural
+elegance of design.</p>
+
+<p>But the suppression of the monasteries tended in no slight degree to
+hasten the decline and fall of our ancient church architecture, to which
+other causes, such as the revival of the classic orders in Italy, also
+contributed. The churches belonging to the conventual foundations, which
+had been built at different periods by the monks or their benefactors, and
+the charges of erecting and decorating which from time to time in the most
+costly manner, had been defrayed out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> monastic revenues, and from
+private donations, being seized by the crown, were reduced to a state of
+ruin, and the sites on which they stood granted to dependants of the
+court. The former reverential feeling on these matters had greatly
+changed; and as the retention of some few of the ministerial habits, the
+square cap, the cope, the surplice, and hood, which were deemed expedient
+for the decent ministration of public worship, gave great offence to many,
+and was one of the most apparent causes which led to that schism amongst
+the Reformers, on points of discipline, which afterwards ended in the
+subversion, for a time, of the rites and ordinances of the Church of
+England, any attempt towards beautifying and adorning (other than with
+carved pulpits and communion-tables or altars) the places of divine
+worship, which were now stripped of many of their former ornamental
+accessories, would have been regarded and inveighed against as a popish
+and superstitious innovation; and a charge of this kind was at a later
+period preferred against Archbishop Laud. Parochial churches were,
+therefore, now repaired when fallen into a state of dilapidation, in a
+plain and inelegant mode, in complete variance with the richness and
+display observable in the style just preceding this event.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Details, originating from the designs of classic architecture, which had
+been partially revived in Italy, began early in the sixteenth century to
+make their appearance in this country, though as yet, except on tombs and
+in wood-work, we observe few of those peculiar features introduced as
+accessories in church architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Hence many of our country churches, which were repaired or partly rebuilt
+in the century succeeding the Reformation, exhibit the marks of the style
+justly denominated <span class="smcap">Debased</span>, to distinguish it from the former purer
+styles. Depressed and nearly flat arched doorways, with shallow mouldings,
+square-headed windows with perpendicular mullions and obtuse-pointed or
+round-headed lights, without foliations, together with a general
+clumsiness of construction, as compared with more ancient edifices, form
+the predominating features in ecclesiastical buildings of this kind: and
+in the reign of Charles the First an indiscriminate mixture of Debased
+Gothic and Roman architecture prevailing, we lose sight of every true
+feature of our ancient ecclesiastical styles, which were superseded by
+that which sprang more immediately from the Antique, the Roman, or Italian
+mode.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3-A_1" id="Footnote_3-A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3-A_1"><span class="label">3-*</span></a> Tempore, ut scimus, summo Tiberii C&aelig;saris, &amp;c.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gildas.</span></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4-A_2" id="Footnote_4-A_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4-A_2"><span class="label">4-*</span></a> Ruebant &aelig;dificia publica simul et privata, passim
+Sacerdotes inter altaria trucibantur.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bede</span>, Eccl. Hist. lib. i. c. xv.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;">
+<a href="images/image009-full.jpg"><img src="images/image009.jpg" width="282" height="293" alt="Scutcheon from Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, circa A.&nbsp;D. 1450." title="Scutcheon from Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, circa A.&nbsp;D. 1450." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Scutcheon from Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, circa A.&nbsp;D. 1450.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">DEFINITION OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; ITS ORIGIN, AND THE DIVISION OF IT INTO
+STYLES.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. What</span> is meant by the term &#8220;Gothic Architecture&#8221;?</p>
+
+<p>A. Without entering into the derivation of the word &#8220;Gothic,&#8221; it may
+suffice to state that it is an expression sometimes used to denote in one
+general term, and distinguish from the Antique, those pecu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>liar modes or
+styles in which most of our ecclesiastical and many of our domestic
+edifices of the middle ages have been built. In a more confined sense, it
+comprehends those styles only in which the pointed arch predominates, and
+it is then often used to distinguish such from the more ancient
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles.</p>
+
+<p>Q. To what can the origin of this kind of architecture be traced?</p>
+
+<p>A. To the classic orders in that state of degeneracy into which they had
+fallen in the age of Constantine, and afterwards; and as the Romans, on
+their voluntary abandonment of Britain in the fifth century, left many of
+their temples and public edifices remaining, together with some Christian
+churches, it was in rude imitation of the Roman structures of the fourth
+century that the most ancient of our Anglo-Saxon churches were
+constructed. This is apparent from an examination and comparison of such
+with the vestiges of Roman buildings we have existing.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Into how many different styles may English ecclesiastical architecture
+be divided?</p>
+
+<p>A. No specific regulation has been adopted, with regard to the
+denomination or division of the several styles, in which all the writers
+on the subject agree: but they may be divided into seven,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> which, together
+with the periods when they flourished, may be generally defined as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Saxon</span> Or <span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon</span> Style, which prevailed from the mission of
+Augustine, at the close of the sixth, to the middle of the eleventh
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Norman</span> style, which may be said to have prevailed generally from the
+middle of the eleventh to the latter part of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Semi-Norman</span>, Or <span class="smcap">Transition</span> style, which appears to have prevailed
+during the latter part of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Early English</span>, or general style of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Decorated English</span>, or general style of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Florid</span> Or <span class="smcap">Perpendicular English</span>, the style of the fifteenth, and early
+part of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Debased English</span>, or general style of the latter part of the sixteenth
+and early part of the seventeenth century, towards the middle of which
+Gothic architecture, even in its debased state, became entirely discarded.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What constitutes the difference of these styles?</p>
+
+<p>A. They may be distinguished partly by the form of the arches, which are
+triangular-headed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> semicircular or segmental, simple pointed, and complex
+pointed; though such forms are by no means an invariable criterion of any
+particular style; by the size and shape of the windows, and the manner in
+which they are subdivided or not by transoms, mullions, and tracery; but
+more especially by certain minute details, ornamental accessories and
+mouldings, more or less peculiar to particular styles, and which are
+seldom to be met with in any other.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Are the majority of our ecclesiastical buildings composed only of one
+style?</p>
+
+<p>A. Most of our cathedral and country churches have been built, or had
+additions made to them, at different periods, and therefore seldom exhibit
+an uniformity of design; and many churches have details about them of
+almost every style. There are, however, numerous exceptions, where
+churches have been erected in the same style throughout; and this is more
+particularly observable in the churches of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Were they constructed on any regular plan?</p>
+
+<p>A. The general ground plan of cathedral and conventual churches was after
+the form of a cross, and the edifice consisted of a central tower, with
+transepts running north and south; westward of the tower was the nave or
+main body of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> structure, with lateral aisles; and the west front
+contained the principal entrance, and was often flanked by towers.
+Eastward of the central tower was the choir, where the principal service
+was performed, with aisles on each side, and beyond this was the lady
+chapel. Sometimes the design also comprehended other chapels. On the north
+or south side was the chapter house, in early times quadrangular, but
+afterwards octagonal in plan; and on the same side, in most instances,
+though not always, were the cloisters, which communicated immediately with
+the church, and surrounded a quadrangular court. The chapter house and
+cloisters we still find remaining as adjuncts to most cathedral churches,
+though the conventual buildings of a domestic nature, with which the
+cloisters formerly also communicated, have generally been destroyed. Mere
+parochial churches have commonly a tower at the west end, a nave with
+lateral aisles, and a chancel. Some churches have transepts; and small
+side chapels or additional aisles have been annexed to many, erected at
+the costs of individuals, to serve for burial and as chantries. The
+smallest class of churches have a nave and chancel only, with a small
+bell-turret formed of wooden shingles, or an open arch of stonework,
+appearing above the roof at the west end.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 351px;">
+<a href="images/image010-full.jpg"><img src="images/image010.jpg" width="351" height="312" alt="St. Martin&#39;s, Leicester, circa A.&nbsp;D. 1250." title="St. Martin&#39;s, Leicester, circa A.&nbsp;D. 1250." /></a>
+<span class="caption">St. Martin&#39;s, Leicester, circa A.&nbsp;D. 1250.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARCHES.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. Do</span> the distinctions of the different styles, as they differ from each
+other, depend at all upon the form of the arch?</p>
+
+<p>A. To a certain extent the form of the arch may be considered as a
+criterion of style; too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> much dependence, however, must not be placed on
+this rule, inasmuch as there are many exceptions.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are arches divided generally, as to form?</p>
+
+<p>A. Into the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch, the
+round-headed arch, and the curved-pointed arch; and the latter are again
+subdivided.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How is the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch formed, and
+when did it prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. It may be described as formed by the two upper sides of a triangle,
+more or less obtuse or acute. It is generally considered as one of the
+characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon style, where it is often to be met with
+of plain and rude construction. But instances of this form of arch, though
+they are not frequent, are to be met with in the Norman and subsequent
+styles. Arches, however, of this description, of late date, may be
+generally known by some moulding or other feature peculiar to the style in
+which it is used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 122px;">
+<a href="images/image011-full.jpg"><img src="images/image011.jpg" width="122" height="121" alt="Triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch" title="Triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. What different kinds of round-headed arches are there?</p>
+
+<p>A. The semicircular arch (fig. 1), the stilted arch (fig. 2), the
+segmental arch (fig. 3), and the horse-shoe arch (fig. 4).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a href="images/image012-full.jpg"><img src="images/image012.jpg" width="279" height="203" alt="Figs. 1-4" title="Figs. 1-4" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How are they formed or described?</p>
+
+<p>A. The semicircular arch is described from a centre in the same line with
+its spring; the stilted arch in the same manner, but the sides are carried
+downwards in a straight line below the spring of the curve till they rest
+upon the imposts; the segmental arch is described from a centre lower than
+its spring; and the horse-shoe arch from a centre placed above its spring.</p>
+
+<p>Q. During what period of time do we find these arches generally in use?</p>
+
+<p>A. The semicircular arch, which is the most common, we find to have
+prevailed from the time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> of the Romans to the close of the twelfth
+century, when it became generally discarded; and we seldom meet with it
+again, in its simple state, till about the middle of the sixteenth
+century. It is in some degree considered as a characteristic of the
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles. The stilted arch is chiefly found in
+conjunction with the semicircular arch in the construction of Norman
+vaulting over a space in plan that of a parallelogram. The segmental arch
+we meet with in almost all the styles, used as an arch of construction,
+and for doorway and window arches; whilst the form of the horse-shoe arch
+seems, in many instances, to have been occasioned by the settlement and
+inclination of the piers from which it springs.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Into how many classes may the pointed arch be divided?</p>
+
+<p>A. Into two, namely, the simple pointed arch described from two centres,
+and the complex pointed arch described from four centres.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What are the different kinds of simple pointed arches?</p>
+
+<p>A. The <span class="smcap">Lancet</span>, or acute-pointed arch; the <span class="smcap">Equilateral</span> pointed arch; and
+the <span class="smcap">Obtuse-angled</span> pointed arch.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How is the lancet arch formed and described?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. It is formed of two segments of a circle, and its centres have a radius
+or line longer than the breadth of the arch, and may be described from an
+acute-angled triangle. <a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><ins class="correction" title="(fig. 5.)">(fig. 5.).</ins></p>
+
+<p>Q. How is the equilateral arch formed and described?</p>
+
+<p>A. From two segments of a circle; the centres of it have a radius or line
+equal to the breadth of the arch, and it may be described from an
+equilateral triangle. (fig. 6.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/image013-full.jpg"><img src="images/image013.jpg" width="369" height="120" alt="Figs. 5-7" title="Figs. 5-7" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How is the obtuse-angled arch formed and described?</p>
+
+<p>A. Like the foregoing, it is formed from two segments of a circle, and the
+centres of it have a radius shorter than the breadth of the arch; it is
+described from an obtuse-angled triangle. (fig. 7.)</p>
+
+<p>Q. During what period were these pointed arches in use?</p>
+
+<p>A. They were all gradually introduced in the twelfth century, and
+continued during the thirteenth century; after which the lancet arch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+appears to have been generally discarded, though the other two prevailed
+till a much later period.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What are the different kinds of complex pointed arches?</p>
+
+<p>A. Those commonly called the <span class="smcap">Ogee</span>, or contrasted arch; and the <span class="smcap">Tudor</span> arch.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How is the ogee, or contrasted arch, formed and described?</p>
+
+<p>A. It is formed of four segments of a circle, and is described from four
+centres, two placed within the arch on a level with the spring, and two
+placed on the exterior of the arch, and level with the apex or point (fig.
+8); each side is composed of a double curve, the lowermost convex and the
+uppermost concave.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/image014-full.jpg"><img src="images/image014.jpg" width="281" height="110" alt="Figs. 8, 9" title="Figs. 8, 9" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. When was the ogee arch introduced, and how long did it prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. It was introduced early in the fourteenth century, and continued till
+the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How is the Tudor arch described?</p>
+
+<p>A. From four centres; two on a level with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> the spring, and two at a
+distance from it, and below. (fig. 9.)</p>
+
+<p>Q. When was the Tudor arch introduced, and why is it so called?</p>
+
+<p>A. It was introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, or perhaps
+earlier, but became most prevalent during the reigns of Henry the Seventh
+and Henry the Eighth, under the Tudor dynasty, from which it derives its
+name.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/image015-full.jpg"><img src="images/image015.jpg" width="369" height="123" alt="Figs. 10 to 12" title="Figs. 10 to 12" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What other kinds of arches are there worthy of notice?</p>
+
+<p>A. Those which are called foiled arches, as the round-headed trefoil (fig.
+10), the pointed trefoil (fig. 11), and the square-headed trefoil (fig.
+12). The first prevailed in the latter part of the twelfth and early part
+of the thirteenth century, chiefly as a heading for niches or blank
+arcades; the second, used for the same purpose, we find to have prevailed
+in the thirteenth century; and the latter is found in doorways of the
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. In all these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> the
+exterior mouldings follow the same curvatures as the inner mouldings, and
+are thus distinguishable from arches the heads of which are only foliated
+within.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 166px;">
+<a href="images/image016-full.jpg"><img src="images/image016.jpg" width="166" height="316" alt="DOORWAY. St. Thomas&#39;s, Oxford, circa 1250." title="DOORWAY. St. Thomas&#39;s, Oxford, circa 1250." /></a>
+<span class="caption">St. Thomas&#39;s, Oxford, circa 1250.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 215px;">
+<a href="images/image017-full.jpg"><img src="images/image017.jpg" width="215" height="222" alt="Anglo-Saxon Doorway, Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire.
+(7th cent.)" title="Anglo-Saxon Doorway, Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire.
+(7th cent.)" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Anglo-Saxon Doorway, Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire.
+(7th cent.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. During</span> what period of time did this style prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. From the close of the sixth century, when the conversion of the
+Anglo-Saxons commenced, to the middle of the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Whence does this style appear to have derived its origin?</p>
+
+<p>A. From the later Roman edifices; for in the most ancient of the
+Anglo-Saxon remains we find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> an approximation, more or less, to the Roman
+mode of building, with arches formed of brickwork.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What is peculiar in the constructive features of Roman masonry?</p>
+
+<p>A. Walls of Roman masonry in this country were chiefly constructed of
+stone or flint, according to the part of the country in which the one
+material or other prevailed, embedded in mortar, bonded at certain
+intervals throughout with regular horizontal courses or layers of large
+flat Roman bricks or tiles, which, from the inequality of thickness and
+size, do not appear to have been shaped in any regular mould.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/image018-full.jpg"><img src="images/image018.jpg" width="280" height="285" alt="Portion of the Fragment of a Roman Building at Leicester." title="Portion of the Fragment of a Roman Building at Leicester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Portion of the Fragment of a Roman Building at Leicester.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. What vestiges of Roman masonry are now existing in Britain?</p>
+
+<p>A. A fragment, apparently that of a Roman temple or basilica, near the
+church of St. Nicholas at Leicester, which contains horizontal courses of
+brick at intervals, and arches constructed of brickwork; the curious
+portion of a wall of similar construction, with remains of brick arches on
+the one side, which indicate it to have formed part of a building, and not
+a mere wall as it now appears, at Wroxeter, Salop; and the polygonal tower
+at Dover Castle, which, notwithstanding an exterior casing of flint, and
+other alterations effected in the fifteenth century, still retains many
+visible features of its original construction of tufa bonded with bricks
+at intervals. Roman masonry, of the mixed description of brick and stone,
+regularly disposed, is found in walls at York, Lincoln, Silchester, and
+elsewhere; and sometimes we meet with bricks or stone arranged
+herring-bone fashion, as in the vestiges of a Roman building at Castor,
+Northamptonshire, and the walls of a Roman villa discovered at Littleton,
+Somersetshire.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Have we any remains of the ancient British churches erected in this
+country in the third, fourth, or fifth centuries?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. None such have yet been discovered or noticed; for the ruinous
+structure at Perranzabuloe in Cornwall, which some assert to have been an
+ancient British church, is probably not of earlier date than the twelfth
+century; and the church of St. Martin at Canterbury, built in the time of
+the Romans, which Augustine found on his arrival still used for the
+worship of God, was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, but, to all
+appearance, with the same materials of which the original church was
+constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Do any of our churches bear a resemblance to Roman buildings?</p>
+
+<p>A. The church now in ruins within the precincts of the Castle of Dover
+presents features of early work approximating Roman, as a portal and
+window-arches formed of brickwork, which seem to have been copied from
+those in the Roman tower near adjoining; the walls also have much of Roman
+brick worked up into them, but have no such regular horizontal layers as
+Roman masonry displays. The most ancient portions of this church are
+attributed to belong to the middle of the seventh century. The church of
+Brixworth, Northamptonshire, is perhaps the most complete specimen we have
+existing of an early Anglo-Saxon church: it has had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> side aisles separated
+from the nave by semicircular arches constructed of Roman bricks, with
+wide joints; these arches spring from square and plain massive piers.
+There is also fair recorded evidence to support the inference that this
+church is a structure of the latter part of the seventh century. Roman
+bricks are worked up in the walls, in no regular order, however, but
+indiscriminately, as in the church at Dover Castle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/image019-full.jpg"><img src="images/image019.jpg" width="258" height="288" alt="Pilaster Rib-work Arch, Brigstock Church." title="Pilaster Rib-work Arch, Brigstock Church." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Pilaster Rib-work Arch, Brigstock Church.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What peculiarities are observable in masonry of Anglo-Saxon
+construction?</p>
+
+<p>A. From existing vestiges of churches of presumed Anglo-Saxon construction
+it appears that the walls were chiefly formed of rubble or rag-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>stone,
+covered on the exterior with stucco or plaster, with long and short blocks
+of ashlar or hewn stone, disposed at the angles in alternate courses. We
+also find, projecting a few inches from the surface of the wall, and
+running up vertically, narrow ribs or square-edged strips of stone,
+bearing from their position a rude similarity to pilasters; and these
+strips are generally composed of long and short pieces of stone placed
+alternately. A plain string course of the same description of square-edged
+rib or strip-work often runs horizontally along the walls of Anglo-Saxon
+remains, and the vertical ribs are sometimes set upon such as a basement,
+and sometimes finish under such.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What churches exhibit projecting strips of stonework thus disposed?</p>
+
+<p>A. The towers of the churches of Earls Barton and Barnack,
+Northamptonshire, and the tower of one of the churches at
+Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire, are covered with these narrow projecting
+strips of stonework, in such a manner that the surface of the wall appears
+divided into rudely formed panels; the like disposition of rib-work
+appears, though not to so great extent, on the face of the upper part of
+the tower of Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, of St. Benedict&#8217;s<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> Church,
+Cambridge, on the walls of the church of Worth, in Sussex, on the upper
+part of the walls of the chancel of Repton Church, Derbyshire, and on the
+walls of the nave and north transept of Stanton Lacey Church, Salop.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;">
+<span class="caption">Anglo-Saxon Masonry, Long and Short Work.</span>
+<a href="images/image020-full.jpg"><img src="images/image020.jpg" width="345" height="367" alt="Anglo-Saxon Masonry, Long and Short Work." title="Anglo-Saxon Masonry, Long and Short Work." /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Where do we meet with instances where long and short blocks of ashlar
+masonry are disposed in alternate courses at the angles of walls?</p>
+
+<p>A. Such occur at the angles of the chancel of North Burcombe Church,
+Wiltshire; at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> angles of the nave and chancel of Wittering Church,
+Northamptonshire; at the angles of the towers of St. Benedict&#8217;s Church,
+Cambridge, of Sompting Church, Sussex, and of St. Michael&#8217;s Church,
+Oxford, and in other Anglo-Saxon remains. The ashlar masonry forming the
+angles is not, however, invariably thus disposed.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. They are either semicircular, or triangular-arched headed, but the
+former are more common. In those, apparently the most ancient, the
+voussoirs or arched heads are faced with large flat bricks or tiles,
+closely resembling Roman work. Doorways of this description are to be met
+with in the old church, Dover Castle; in the church of Brixworth,
+Northamptonshire; and on the south side of Brytford Church, Wiltshire. The
+doorway, however, we most frequently meet with in Anglo-Saxon remains, is
+of simple yet peculiar construction, semicircular-headed, and formed
+entirely of stone, without any admixture of brick; the jambs are
+square-edged, and are sometimes but not always composed of two long blocks
+placed upright, with a short block between them; the arched head of the
+doorway is plain, and springs from square projecting impost blocks, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+under edges of which are sometimes bevelled and sometimes left square.
+This doorway is contained within a kind of arch of rib-work, projecting
+from the face of the wall, with strips of pilaster rib-work continued down
+to the ground; sometimes this arch springs from plain block imposts, or
+from strips of square-edged rib-work disposed horizontally, and the jambs
+are occasionally constructed of long and short work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;">
+<a href="images/image021-full.jpg"><img src="images/image021.jpg" width="309" height="334" alt="Anglo-Saxon Doorway, St. Peter&#39;s Church,
+Barton-upon-Humber." title="Anglo-Saxon Doorway, St. Peter&#39;s Church,
+Barton-upon-Humber." />
+</a><span class="caption">Anglo-Saxon Doorway, St. Peter&#39;s Church,
+Barton-upon-Humber.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Mention the names of churches in which doorways of this description are
+preserved?</p>
+
+<p>A. The south doorways of the towers of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> old church at
+Barton-upon-Humber and of Barnack Church, the west doorway of the tower of
+Earls Barton Church, the north and south doorways of the tower of Wooten
+Wawen Church, Warwickshire, the east doorway of the tower of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, the north doorway of the nave of Brytford Church,
+Wiltshire, and the north doorway of the nave of Stanton Lacey Church,
+Salop, though differing in some respects from each other, bear a general
+similarity of design, and come under the foregoing description.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/image022-full.jpg"><img src="images/image022.jpg" width="222" height="245" alt="Belfry Window, north side of the Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks." title="Belfry Window, north side of the Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Belfry Window, north side of the Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How are we able to distinguish the windows of the Anglo-Saxon style?</p>
+
+<p>A. The belfry windows are generally found to consist of two
+semicircular-headed lights, divided<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> by a kind of rude balluster shaft of
+peculiar character, the entasis of which is sometimes encircled with rude
+annulated mouldings; this shaft supports a plain oblong impost or abacus,
+which extends through the whole of the thickness of the wall, or nearly
+so, and from this one side of the arch of each light springs. Double
+windows thus divided appear in the belfry stories of the church towers of
+St. Michael, Oxford; St. Benedict, Cambridge; St. Peter,
+Barton-upon-Humber; Wyckham, Berks; Sompting, Sussex; and Northleigh,
+Oxfordshire. In the belfry of the tower of Earls Barton Church are windows
+of five or six lights, the divisions between which are formed by these
+curious balluster shafts. The semicircular-headed single-light window of
+this style may be distinguished from those of the Norman style by the
+double splay of the jambs, the spaces between which spread or increase in
+width outwardly as well as inwardly, the narrowest part of the window
+being placed on the centre of the thickness of the wall; whereas the jambs
+of windows in the Norman style have only a single splay, and the narrowest
+part of the window is set even with the external face of the wall, or
+nearly so. Single-light windows splayed externally occur in the west
+walls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> of the towers of Wyckham Church, Berks, and of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, Caversfield Church, Oxfordshire, and on the north side
+of the chancel of Clapham Church, Bedfordshire; but windows without a
+splay occur in the tower of Lavendon Church, Buckinghamshire. Small square
+or oblong-shaped apertures are sometimes met with, as in the tower of St.
+Benedict&#8217;s Church, Cambridge; and also triangular-headed windows, which,
+with doorways of the same form, will be presently noticed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;">
+<a href="images/image023-full.jpg"><img src="images/image023.jpg" width="180" height="253" alt="Anglo-Saxon Single-light Window, Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks." title="Anglo-Saxon Single-light Window, Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Anglo-Saxon Single-light Window, Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Of what description are the arches which separate the nave from the
+chancel and aisles, and sustain the clerestory walls?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<a href="images/image024-full.jpg"><img src="images/image024.jpg" width="381" height="260" alt="Anglo-Saxon Arches, St. Michael&#39;s Church, St. Alban&#39;s, A.&nbsp;D.
+948." title="Anglo-Saxon Arches, St. Michael&#39;s Church, St. Alban&#39;s, A.&nbsp;D.
+948." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Anglo-Saxon Arches, St. Michael&#39;s Church, St. Alban&#39;s, A.&nbsp;D.
+948.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. They are very plain, and consist of a single<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> sweep or soffit only,
+without any sub-arch, as in the Norman style; and they spring from square
+piers; with a plain abacus impost on each intervening, which impost has
+sometimes the under edge chamfered, and sometimes left quite plain. Arches
+of this description occur at Brixworth Church, between the nave and
+chancel of Clapham Church, and between the nave and chancel of Wyckham
+Church. The arches in St. Michael&#8217;s Church, St. Alban&#8217;s, which divide the
+nave from the aisles, have their edges slightly chamfered. There are also
+arches with single soffits, which have over them a kind of hood, similar
+to that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> over doorways of square-edged rib-work, projecting a few inches
+from the face of the wall, carried round the arch, and either dying into
+the impost or continued straight down to the ground. The chancel arch of
+Worth Church, and arches in the churches of Brigstock and Barnack, and of
+St. Benedict, Cambridge, and the chancel arch, Barrow Church, Salop, are
+of this description. Some arches have round or semicylindrical mouldings
+rudely worked on the face, as in the chancel arch, Wittering Church; or
+under or attached to the soffit, as at the churches of Sompting and St.
+Botulph, Sussex.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> Rudely sculptured impost blocks also sometimes occur, as
+at Sompting and at St. Botulph; and animals sculptured in low relief
+appear at the springing of the hood over the arch in the tower of St.
+Benedict&#8217;s Church, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<a href="images/image025-full.jpg"><img src="images/image025.jpg" width="266" height="293" alt="Tower Arch, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire." title="Tower Arch, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Tower Arch, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;">
+<a href="images/image026-full.jpg"><img src="images/image026.jpg" width="312" height="321" alt="Chancel Arch, Wittering Church, Northamptonshire." title="Chancel Arch, Wittering Church, Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Chancel Arch, Wittering Church, Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How are some of the doorways, windows, arched recesses, and panels of
+Anglo-Saxon architecture constructed?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;">
+<a href="images/image027-full.jpg"><img src="images/image027.jpg" width="240" height="325" alt="Doorway in the Tower of Brigstock Church." title="Doorway in the Tower of Brigstock Church." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Doorway in the Tower of Brigstock Church.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. In a very rude manner, of two or more long blocks of stone, placed
+slantingly or inclined one towards the other, thus forming a straight
+line, or triangular-headed arch; the lower ends of these sometimes rest on
+plain projecting im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>posts, which surmount other blocks composing the
+jambs. We find a doorway of this description on the west side of the tower
+of Brigstock Church, forming the entrance into the curious circular-shaped
+turret attached and designed for a staircase to the belfry; an arched
+recess of this description occurs in the tower of Barnack Church, and a
+panel on the exterior of the same tower, and in windows in the tower of
+the old church, Barton-upon-Humber, and in the tower of Sompting Church,
+and St. Michael&#8217;s Church,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> Oxford. The arch thus shaped is not, however,
+peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon style, but may occasionally be traced in most
+if not all of the subsequent styles, but not of such rude or plain
+construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;">
+<a href="images/image028-full.jpg"><img src="images/image028.jpg" width="232" height="262" alt="Recess in the Tower of Barnack Church." title="Recess in the Tower of Barnack Church." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Recess in the Tower of Barnack Church.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Were the Anglo-Saxon architects accustomed to construct crypts beneath
+their churches?</p>
+
+<p>A. There are some subterranean vaults, not easily accessible, the presumed
+remains of Bishop Wilfrid&#8217;s work, at Ripon and Hexham, of the latter part
+of the seventh century; but the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton
+Church, Derbyshire, the walls of which are constructed of <i>hewn</i> stone, is
+perhaps the most perfect specimen exist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>ing of a crypt in the Anglo-Saxon
+style, and of a stone vaulted roof sustained by piers, which are of
+singular character; the vaulting is without diagonal groins, and bears a
+greater similarity to Roman than to Norman vaulting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/image029-full.jpg"><img src="images/image029.jpg" width="357" height="269" alt="Crypt, Repton Church, Derbyshire." title="Crypt, Repton Church, Derbyshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Crypt, Repton Church, Derbyshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Are mouldings, or is any kind of sculptured ornament, to be met with in
+Anglo-Saxon work?</p>
+
+<p>A. Although the remains of this style are for the most part plain and
+devoid of ornamental detail, we occasionally meet with mouldings of a
+semicylindrical or roll-like form, on the face or under the soffit of an
+arch, and these are sometimes continued down the sides of the jambs or
+piers. Foliage, knot-work, and other rudely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> sculptured detail occur on
+the tower of Barnack Church, and some rude sculptures appear in St.
+Benedict&#8217;s Church, Cambridge; and the plain and simple cross of the Greek
+form, is represented in relief over a doorway at Stanton Lacey Church, and
+over windows in the tower of Earls Barton Church.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What was the general plan of the Anglo-Saxon churches?</p>
+
+<p>A. We have now but few instances in which the complete ground plan of an
+Anglo-Saxon church can be traced: that of Worth Church, Sussex, is perhaps
+the most perfect, as the original foundation walls do not appear to have
+been disturbed, although insertions of windows of later date have been
+made in the walls of the superstructure. This church is planned in the
+form of a cross, and consists of a nave with transepts, and a chancel,
+terminating at the east end with a semicircular apsis&mdash;a rare instance in
+the Anglo-Saxon style, as in general the east end of the chancel is
+rectangular in plan. The towers of Anglo-Saxon churches are generally
+placed at the west end, though sometimes, as at Wotten Wawen, they occur
+between the chancel and nave. No original staircase has yet been found in
+the interior of any. The church at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> Brixworth, an edifice of the seventh
+century, and that of St. Michael, at St. Alban&#8217;s, of the tenth century,
+have aisles. Sometimes the church appears to have consisted of a nave and
+chancel only.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Why have we so few ecclesiastical remains of known or presumed
+Anglo-Saxon architecture now existing?</p>
+
+<p>A. There are probably many examples of this style preserved in churches
+which have hitherto escaped <span class="nowrap">observation<a name="FNanchor_49-A_3" id="FNanchor_49-A_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-A_3" class="fnanchor">49-*</a>;</span> still they are,
+compara<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>tively speaking, rarely to be met with: and this may be accounted
+for by the recorded fact, that in the repeated incursions of the Danes in
+this island, during the ninth and tenth centuries, almost all the
+Anglo-Saxon monasteries and churches were set on fire and destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/image030-full.jpg"><img src="images/image030.jpg" width="222" height="333" alt="Anglo Saxon Doorway and Window, interior of the tower of
+Brigstock Church, north side." title="Anglo Saxon Doorway and Window, interior of the tower of
+Brigstock Church, north side." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Anglo Saxon Doorway and Window, interior of the tower of
+Brigstock Church, north side.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49-A_3" id="Footnote_49-A_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-A_3"><span class="label">49-*</span></a> All the Anglo-Saxon remains noticed in this chapter,
+except those alluded to as supposed to exist at Ripon and Hexham, together
+with the tower of the church of St. Benedict&#8217;s, Lincoln, have been
+inspected by the author; and the illustrations of this chapter are, with
+three exceptions, from his sketches made on the spot. Of the remaining
+three vignettes, two are from drawings made whilst the author was present,
+and one only, viz. that of the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton Church,
+has been reduced from a larger engraving. Besides the churches which have
+been referred to, several others which have not been visited by the author
+exhibit vestiges, more or less, of presumed Anglo-Saxon work. Of such
+churches the following is a list, and, with those mentioned in the
+chapter, constitute all which have yet come under his notice:
+</p>
+
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li>Caversfield, Oxfordshire.</li>
+  <li>Church Stretton, Salop.</li>
+  <li>Trinity Church, Colchester.</li>
+  <li>Deerhurst, Gloucestershire.</li>
+  <li>Daglinworth, Gloucestershire.</li>
+  <li>Jarrow, Durham.</li>
+  <li>Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorkshire.</li>
+  <li>Kirkdale, Yorkshire.</li>
+  <li>Monkswearmouth, Durham.</li>
+  <li>Ropsley, Lincolnshire.</li>
+  <li>Stoke D&#8217;Abernon, Surrey.</li>
+  <li>Wittingham, Yorkshire.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Of these, seven are noticed by Mr. Rickman.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<a href="images/image031-full.jpg"><img src="images/image031.jpg" width="278" height="341" alt="Norman Chancel, Darent Church, Kent." title="Norman Chancel, Darent Church, Kent." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Chancel, Darent Church, Kent.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE NORMAN OR ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. To</span> what era may we assign the introduction of the Anglo-Norman style?</p>
+
+<p>A. To the reign of Edward the Confessor, since that monarch is recorded by
+the historians, Matthew Paris and William of Malmesbury, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> have rebuilt
+(A.&nbsp;D. 1065) the Abbey Church at Westminster in a new style of
+architectural design, which furnished an example afterwards followed by
+many in the construction of <span class="nowrap">churches.<a name="FNanchor_52-A_4" id="FNanchor_52-A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_52-A_4" class="fnanchor">52-*</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. Is any portion of the structure erected by Edward the Confessor
+remaining?</p>
+
+<p>A. A crypt of early Norman work under the present edifice or buildings
+attached to it is supposed to have been part of the church constructed by
+that monarch.</p>
+
+<p>Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. From about A.&nbsp;D. 1065 to the close of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>Q. By what means are we to distinguish this style from the styles of a
+later period?</p>
+
+<p>A. It is distinguished without difficulty by its semicircular arches, its
+massive piers, which are generally square or cylindrical, though sometimes
+multangular in form, and from numerous ornamental details and mouldings
+peculiar to the style.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What part of the original building has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> generally been preserved in
+those churches that were built by the Normans, when all the rest has been
+demolished and rebuilt in a later style of architecture?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 215px;">
+<a href="images/image032-full.jpg"><img src="images/image032.jpg" width="215" height="223" alt="Norman Doorway, Wolston Church, Warwickshire." title="Norman Doorway, Wolston Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Doorway, Wolston Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. There appears to have been a prevalent custom, among those architects
+who succeeded the Normans, to preserve the doorways of those churches they
+rebuilt or altered; for many such doorways still remain in churches, the
+other portions of which were built at a much later period. Thus in the
+tower of Kenilworth Church, Warwickshire, is a Norman doorway of singular
+design, from the square band or ornamental facia which environs it. This
+is a relic of a more ancient edifice than the structure in which it now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+appears, and which is of the fourteenth century; and the external masonry
+of the doorway is not tied into the walls of more recent construction, but
+exhibits a break all round. The church of Stoneleigh, in the same county,
+contains in the north wall a fine Norman doorway, which has been left
+undisturbed, though the wall on each side of Norman construction, has been
+altered, not by demolition, but by the insertion, in the fourteenth
+century, of decorated windows in lieu of the original small Norman lights.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Were the Norman doorways much ornamented?</p>
+
+<p>A. Many rich doorways were composed of a succession of receding
+semicircular arches springing from rectangular-edged jambs, and detached
+shafts with capitals in the nooks; which shafts, together with the arches,
+were often enriched with the mouldings common to this style. Sometimes the
+sweep of mouldings which faced the architrave was continued without
+intermission down the jambs or sides of the doorway; and in small country
+churches Norman doorways, quite plain in their construction, or with but
+few mouldings, are to be met with. There is, perhaps, a greater variety of
+design in doorways of this than of any other style; and of the nume<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>rous
+mouldings with which they in general abound more or less, the chevron, or
+zig-zag, appears to have been the most common.</p>
+
+<p>Q. In what other respect were these doors sometimes ornamented?</p>
+
+<p>A. The semicircular-shaped stone, which we often find in the tympanum at
+the back of the head of the arch, is generally covered with rude sculpture
+in basso relievo, sometimes representing a scriptural subject, as the
+temptation of our first parents on the tympanum of a Norman doorway at
+Thurley Church, Bedfordshire; sometimes a legend, as a curious and very
+early sculpture over the south door of Fordington Church, Dorsetshire,
+representing a scene in the story of St. George; and sometimes symbolical,
+as the representation of fish, serpents, and chimer&aelig; on the north doorway
+of Stoneleigh Church, Warwickshire. The figure of our Saviour in a sitting
+attitude, holding in his left hand a book, and with his right arm and hand
+upheld, in allusion to the saying, <i>I am the way, and the truth, and the
+life</i>, and circumscribed by that mystical figure the <i>Vesica piscis</i>,
+appears over Norman doorways at Ely Cathedral; Rochester Cathedral;
+Malmesbury Abbey Church; Elstow Church, Bedfordshire; Water Stratford
+Church, Buckinghamshire;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> and Barfreston Church, Kent; and is not
+uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Are there many Norman porches?</p>
+
+<p>A. Norman porches occur at Durham Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey Church;
+Sherbourne Abbey Church; and Witney Church, Oxfordshire; but they are not
+very common. The roof of the porch was usually groined with simple cross
+springers and moulded ribs; and in some instances a room over has been
+added at a later period. Numerous portals of the Norman era appear
+constructed within a shallow projecting mass of masonry, similar in
+appearance to the broad projecting buttress, and, like that, finished on
+the upper edge with a plain slope. This was to give a sufficiency of depth
+to the numerous concentric arches successively receding in the thickness
+of the wall, which could not otherwise be well attained.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What kind of windows were those belonging to this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. The windows were mostly small and narrow, seldom of more than one
+light, except belfry windows, which were usually divided into two
+round-headed lights by a shaft, with a capital and abacus. Early in the
+style the windows were quite plain; afterwards they were orna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>mented in a
+greater or less degree, sometimes with the chevron or zig-zag, and
+sometimes with roll or cylinder mouldings; in many instances, also, shafts
+were inserted at the sides, the window jambs were simply splayed in one
+direction only, and the space between them increased in width inwardly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 138px;">
+<a href="images/image033-full.jpg"><img src="images/image033.jpg" width="138" height="273" alt="Norman Window, Ryton Church, Warwickshire." title="Norman Window, Ryton Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Window, Ryton Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Do we meet with any circular or wheel-shaped windows of the Norman era?</p>
+
+<p>A. A circular window, with divisions formed by small shafts and
+semicircular or trefoiled arches, disposed so as to converge to a common
+centre, sometimes occurs in the gable at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> east end of a Norman church,
+as at Barfreston Church, Kent; and New Shoreham Church, Sussex; and are
+not uncommon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 217px;">
+<a href="images/image034-full.jpg"><img src="images/image034.jpg" width="217" height="268" alt="Early Norman Window, Darent Church, Kent, with incipient
+zig-zag moulding." title="Early Norman Window, Darent Church, Kent, with incipient
+zig-zag moulding." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early Norman Window, Darent Church, Kent, with incipient
+zig-zag moulding.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What kinds of piers were the Norman piers?</p>
+
+<p>A. Early in the style they were (with some exceptions, as in the crypts
+beneath the cathedrals of Canterbury and Worcester) very massive, and the
+generality plain and cylindrical; though sometimes they were square, which
+was indeed the most ancient shape; sometimes they appear with rectangular
+nooks or recesses; and, in large churches, Norman piers had frequently one
+or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> more semicylindrical pier-shafts attached, disposed either in nooks or
+on the face of the pier. We sometimes meet with octagonal piers, as in the
+cathedrals of Oxford and Peterborough, the conventual church at Ely, and
+in the ruined church of Buildwas Abbey, Salop; and also, though rarely,
+with piers covered with spiral flutings, as one is in Norwich Cathedral;
+with the spiral cable moulding, as one is in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral; and encircled with a spiral band, as one appears in the ruined
+chapel at Orford, in Suffolk; sometimes, also, they appear covered with
+ornamental mouldings. Late in the style the piers assume a greater
+lightness in appearance, and are sometimes clustered and banded round with
+mouldings, and approximate in design those of a subsequent style.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the capitals distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. The general outline and shape of the Norman capital is that of a square
+cubical mass, having the lower part rounded off with a contour resembling
+that of an ovolo moulding; the face on each side of the upper part of the
+capital is flat, and it is often separated from the lower part by an
+escalloped edge; and where such division is formed by more than one
+escallop, the lower part is channelled between each, and the spaces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> below
+the escalloped edges are worked or moulded so as to resemble inverted and
+truncated semicones.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/image035-full.jpg"><img src="images/image035.jpg" width="169" height="195" alt="Norman Capital, Steetley Church, Derbyshire." title="Norman Capital, Steetley Church, Derbyshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Capital, Steetley Church, Derbyshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the plain capital thus described, of which instances with the
+single escalloped edge occur in the crypts beneath the cathedrals of
+Canterbury, Winchester, and Worcester, and with a series of escalloped
+edges, or what would be heraldically termed <i>invected</i>, in many of the
+capitals of the Norman piers in Norwich Cathedral, an extreme variety of
+design in ornamental accessories prevail, the general form and outline of
+the capital being preserved; and some exhibit imitations of the Ionic
+volute and Corinthian acanthus, whilst many are covered with rude
+sculpture in relief. They are generally finished with a plain square
+abacus moulding, with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> under edge simply bevelled or chamfered;
+sometimes a slight angular moulding occurs between the upper face and
+slope of the abacus, and sometimes the abacus alone intervenes between the
+pier and the spring of the arch. There are also many round capitals, as,
+for instance, those in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral, but they are
+mostly late in the style.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;">
+<a href="images/image036-full.jpg"><img src="images/image036.jpg" width="299" height="305" alt="Norman Arcade, St. Augustine&#39;s, Canterbury." title="Norman Arcade, St. Augustine&#39;s, Canterbury." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Arcade, St. Augustine&#39;s, Canterbury.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What is observable in the bases of the piers?</p>
+
+<p>A. The common base moulding resembles in form or contour a quirked ovolo
+reversed; there are, however, many exceptions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 173px;">
+<a href="images/image037-full.jpg"><img src="images/image037.jpg" width="173" height="210" alt="Norman Base, Romsey Church, Hants." title="Norman Base, Romsey Church, Hants." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Base, Romsey Church, Hants.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How are the arches distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. By their semicircular form; they are generally double-faced, or formed
+of two concentric divisions, one receding within the other. Early in the
+style they are plain and square-edged; late in the style they are often
+found enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings, or some other
+ornament. Sometimes the curvature of the arch does not immediately spring
+from the capital or impost, but is raised or stilted.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What parts of Norman churches do we generally find vaulted?</p>
+
+<p>A. In cathedral and large conventual churches built in the Norman style we
+find the crypts and aisles vaulted with stone, but not the nave or choir;
+and over the vaulting of the aisles was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> the triforium. In small Norman
+churches the chancel is generally the only part vaulted; and between the
+vaulting and outer roof is, in some instances, a small loft or chamber.
+Sometimes we find the original design for vaulting to have been commenced
+and left unfinished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/image038-full.jpg"><img src="images/image038.jpg" width="219" height="220" alt="Norman Arch and Piers, Melbourne Church, Derbyshire." title="Norman Arch and Piers, Melbourne Church, Derbyshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Arch and Piers, Melbourne Church, Derbyshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Of what description was the Norman vaulting?</p>
+
+<p>A. The bays of vaulting were generally either squares or parallelograms,
+though sometimes not rectangular in shape, and each was divided into four
+concave vaulting cells by diagonal and intersecting groins, thus forming
+what is called a quadripartite vault. Early in the style the diagonal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+edges of the groins appear without ribs or mouldings; at an advanced stage
+they are supported by square-edged ribs of cut stone; and late in the
+style the ribs and groins are faced with roll or cylinder mouldings. They
+are also sometimes profusely covered with the zig-zag moulding and other
+ornamental details.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What is observable with respect to Norman masonry?</p>
+
+<p>A. In general the walls are faced on each side with a thin shell of ashlar
+or cut stone, whilst the intervening space, which is sometimes
+considerable, is filled with grouted rubble. Masses of this grout-work
+masonry, from which the facing of cut stone has been removed, we often
+find amongst ruined edifices of early date.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Were there any buttresses used at this period?</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 140px;">
+<a href="images/image039-full.jpg"><img src="images/image039.jpg" width="140" height="442" alt="Norman Buttress, Chancel of St. Mary&#39;s, Leicester." title="Norman Buttress, Chancel of St. Mary&#39;s, Leicester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Buttress, Chancel of St. Mary&#39;s, Leicester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. Yes; but the walls being enormously thick, and requiring little
+additional support, those in use are like pilasters, with a broad face
+projecting very little from the building; and they seem to have been
+derived from the pilaster strips of stonework in Anglo-Saxon masonry. They
+are generally of a single stage only, but sometimes of more, and are not
+carried up higher than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> the cornice, under which they often but not always
+finish with a slope. They appear as if intended rather to relieve the
+plain external surface of the wall than to strengthen it. Norman portals
+not unfrequently occur, formed in the thickness of a broad but shallow
+pilaster buttress, as at Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, and at Stoneleigh and
+Hampton-in-Arden Churches, Warwickshire, and elsewhere. This kind of
+buttress was also used in the next, or Semi-Norman style.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Were there any towers?</p>
+
+<p>A. Yes; they were generally very low and massive; and the exterior,
+especially of the upper story, was often decorated with arcades of blank
+semicircular and intersecting arches; the parapet consisted of a plain
+projecting blocking-course, supported by the corbel table.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. Do pinnacles appear to have been known to the Normans?</p>
+
+<p>A. Although some are of opinion that the pinnacle was not introduced till
+after the adoption of the pointed style, many Norman buildings have
+pinnacles of a conical shape, which are apparently part of the original
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What distinction occurs in the construction of the small country
+churches of this style, and the larger buildings of conventual foundation?</p>
+
+<p>A. Small Norman churches consisted of a single story only; cathedral and
+conventual churches were carried up to a great height, and were frequently
+divided into three tiers, the lowest of which consisted of single arches,
+separating the nave from the aisles: above each of these arches in the
+second tier were two smaller arches constructed beneath a larger;
+sometimes the same space was occupied by a single arch; and in this tier
+was the triforium or gallery. In the third tier or clerestory were
+frequently arcades of three arches connected together, the middle one of
+which was higher and broader than the others: and all these three occupied
+a space only equal to the span of the lowest arch. Blank arcades were also
+much used in the exterior walls, as well as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> in the interior of rich
+Norman buildings; and some of the arches which composed them were often
+pierced for windows.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What were the mouldings principally used in the decoration of Norman
+churches?</p>
+
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="mouldings">
+<tr>
+  <td>A. The chevron, or zig-zag, which is not always single, but often
+duplicated, triplicated, or quadrupled.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image040-full.jpg"><img src="images/image040.jpg" width="224" height="87" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image041-full.jpg"><img src="images/image041.jpg" width="225" height="91" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The reversed zig-zag.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image042-full.jpg"><img src="images/image042.jpg" width="223" height="77" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The indented moulding.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image043-full.jpg"><img src="images/image043.jpg" width="222" height="97" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>The embattled moulding.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image044-full.jpg"><img src="images/image044.jpg" width="232" height="92" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The dovetail moulding.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image045-full.jpg"><img src="images/image045.jpg" width="234" height="96" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The beak head.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image046-full.jpg"><img src="images/image046.jpg" width="230" height="98" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The nebule, chiefly used for the fascia under a parapet.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image047-full.jpg"><img src="images/image047.jpg" width="234" height="106" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The billet.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image048-full.jpg"><img src="images/image048.jpg" width="233" height="105" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The square billet, or corbel bole, used for supporting a blocking course.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image049-full.jpg"><img src="images/image049.jpg" width="234" height="99" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>The cable moulding.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image050-full.jpg"><img src="images/image050.jpg" width="248" height="86" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The double cone.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image051-full.jpg"><img src="images/image051.jpg" width="225" height="99" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The pellet, or stud.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image052-full.jpg"><img src="images/image052.jpg" width="235" height="88" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The hatched, or saw tooth.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image053-full.jpg"><img src="images/image053.jpg" width="229" height="96" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The nail head.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image054-full.jpg"><img src="images/image054.jpg" width="233" height="100" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The lozenge.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image055-full.jpg"><img src="images/image055.jpg" width="234" height="100" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>The studded trellis.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image056-full.jpg"><img src="images/image056.jpg" width="227" height="107" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The diamond fret.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image057-full.jpg"><img src="images/image057.jpg" width="227" height="103" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The medallion.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image058-full.jpg"><img src="images/image058.jpg" width="227" height="92" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The star.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image059-full.jpg"><img src="images/image059.jpg" width="223" height="96" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>The scalloped or invected moulding.</td>
+  <td><a href="images/image060-full.jpg"><img src="images/image060.jpg" width="227" height="97" alt="Mouldings" title="Mouldings" /></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A variety of other mouldings and ornamental accessories are also to be met
+with, but those above described are the most common.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. What kind of string-course do we usually find carried along the walls
+of Norman churches, just below the windows?</p>
+
+<p>A. A string-course similar in form to the common Norman abacus, with a
+plain face and the under part bevelled, is of most frequent occurrence; a
+plain semihexagon string-course is also often to be met with. Sometimes
+the string-course is ornamented with the zig-zag moulding.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;">
+<a href="images/image061-full.jpg"><img src="images/image061.jpg" width="298" height="167" alt="Norman Mouldings, from Binham Church, Norfolk, and
+Peterborough." title="Norman Mouldings, from Binham Church, Norfolk, and
+Peterborough." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Mouldings, from Binham Church, Norfolk, and
+Peterborough.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What difference is there as to their general character and appearance
+between the early and late examples of Norman architecture?</p>
+
+<p>A. The details of those buildings early in the style are characterized by
+their massiveness, simplicity, and plain appearance; the single or
+double-faced semicircular arches, both of doorways and windows, as well as
+the arches sup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>porting the clerestory walls, are generally devoid of
+ornament, and the edges of the jambs and arches are square. The undercroft
+of Canterbury Cathedral, the work of Archbishop Lanfranc, between A.&nbsp;D.
+1073 and A.&nbsp;D. 1080; the crypt and transepts of Winchester Cathedral, built
+by Bishop Walkelyn between A.&nbsp;D. 1079 and A.&nbsp;D. 1093; the plain Norman work
+of the Abbey Church at St. Alban&#8217;s, built by Abbot Paul, between
+1077-1093; and the north and south aisles of the choir of Norwich
+Cathedral, the work of Bishop Herbert, between A.&nbsp;D. 1096 and A.&nbsp;D. 1101,
+not to multiply examples, may be enumerated as instances of plain and
+early Norman work. In buildings late in the style we find a profusion of
+ornamental detail of a peculiar character, and numerous semi and
+tripartite cylindrical mouldings on the faces and edges of arches and
+vaulting-ribs. The transepts of Peterborough Cathedral, built by Abbot
+Waterville between A.&nbsp;D. 1155 and A.&nbsp;D. 1175, exhibit vaulting-groins faced
+with roll mouldings, and other details of an advanced stage; whilst the
+Galilee, Durham Cathedral, built by Bishop Pudsey, A.&nbsp;D. 1180, is
+remarkable for the lightness and elongation of the piers, which are formed
+of clustered columns; and the semicircular arches which spring from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> these
+are enriched both on the face and soffits with the chevron or zig-zag
+moulding. There are many intermediate gradations between the extreme plain
+and massive work of early date, and the enrichments, mouldings, and
+elongated proportions to be found late in the style; and in detail we may
+perceive an almost imperceptible merging into that style which succeeded
+the Norman.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 308px;">
+<a href="images/image062-full.jpg"><img src="images/image062.jpg" width="308" height="219" alt="Base. Crypt, St. Peter&#39;s, Oxford, c. 1100." title="Base. Crypt, St. Peter&#39;s, Oxford, c. 1100." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Base. Crypt, St. Peter&#39;s, Oxford, c. 1100.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_52-A_4" id="Footnote_52-A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52-A_4"><span class="label">52-*</span></a> Defunctus autem Rex beatissimus in crastino sepultus est
+Londini, in Ecclesia, quam ipse novo compositionis genere construxerat, a
+qua post, multi Ecclesias construentes, exemplum adepti, opus illud
+expensis &oelig;mulabantur sumptuosis.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Matt. Paris.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;">
+<a href="images/image063-full.jpg"><img src="images/image063.jpg" width="180" height="304" alt="Vesica Piscis in the tympan of the south doorway, Ely
+Cathedral" title="Vesica Piscis in the tympan of the south doorway, Ely
+Cathedral" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Vesica Piscis in the tympan of the south doorway, Ely
+Cathedral</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE SEMI-NORMAN STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. What</span> is the Semi-Norman style?</p>
+
+<p>A. It is that style of transition which, without superseding the Norman
+style, prevailed more or less, in conjunction with it, during the latter
+part of the twelfth century, and probably even from an earlier period, and
+gradually led to the complete adoption, in the succeeding century, of the
+early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> pointed style in a pure state, and to the general disuse of the
+semicircular arch.</p>
+
+<p>Q. By what is this style chiefly denoted?</p>
+
+<p>A. By the intersection of semicircular arches, the frequent intermixture
+of the pointed arch in its incipient state with the semicircular arch, and
+the pointed arch with its accompaniments of features, mouldings, and
+ornamental accessories, exactly similar to those of the Norman style, both
+in its earlier and later gradations, and from which it appears to have
+differed only in the contour or form of the arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/image064-full.jpg"><img src="images/image064.jpg" width="243" height="261" alt="Early specimen of intersecting Arches, St. Botolph&#39;s
+Priory, Colchester. (12th cent.)" title="Early specimen of intersecting Arches, St. Botolph&#39;s
+Priory, Colchester. (12th cent.)" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early specimen of intersecting Arches, St. Botolph&#39;s
+Priory, Colchester. (12th cent.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Whence are we to derive the origin of the pointed arch?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. Many conjectural opinions on this much-contested question have been
+entertained, yet it still remains to be satisfactorily elucidated. Some
+would derive it from the East and ascribe its introduction to the
+Crusaders; some maintain that it was suggested by the intersection of
+semicircular arches, which intersection we frequently find in ornamental
+arcades; others contend that it originated from the mode of quadripartite
+vaulting adopted by the Normans, the segmental groins of which, crossing
+diagonally, produce to appearance the pointed arch; whilst some imagine it
+may have been derived from that mystical figure of a pointed oval form,
+the <i>Vesica </i><span class="nowrap"><i>Piscis</i><a name="FNanchor_76-A_5" id="FNanchor_76-A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_76-A_5" class="fnanchor">76-*</a>.</span> But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> whatever its origin, it appears to have
+been imperceptibly brought into partial use towards the middle of the
+twelfth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 210px;">
+<a href="images/image065-full.jpg"><img src="images/image065.jpg" width="210" height="252" alt="Semi-Norman double Piscina, Jesus College Chapel,
+Cambridge." title="Semi-Norman double Piscina, Jesus College Chapel,
+Cambridge." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Semi-Norman double Piscina, Jesus College Chapel,
+Cambridge.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What are the characteristics of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. In large buildings massive cylindrical piers support pointed arches,
+above which we often find round-headed clerestory windows, as at Buildwas
+Abbey Church, Salop; or semicircular arches forming the triforium, as at
+Malmesbury<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> Abbey Church, Wilts. Sometimes we meet with successive tiers
+of arcades, in which the pointed arch is surmounted both by intersecting
+and semicircular arches, as in a portion of the west front of Croyland
+Abbey Church, Lincolnshire, now in ruins. The ornamental details and
+mouldings of this style generally partake of late Norman character; and
+the zig-zag and semicylindrical mouldings on the faces of arches appear to
+predominate, though other Norman mouldings are common; but we also
+frequently meet with specimens in the Semi-Norman style in which extreme
+plainness prevails, and the character is of that nature as to induce us to
+ascribe such buildings to rather an early period. Single and double, and
+sometimes even triple-faced arches, with the edges left square,
+distinguish plain specimens of this style from the plain-pointed
+double-faced arches of the succeeding century, the edges of which are
+splayed or chamfered. In late instances of this, as of the cotemporaneous
+Norman style, we observe in the details a gradual tendency to merge into
+those of the style of the thirteenth century, when the pointed arch had
+attained maturity, and the peculiar features and decorative mouldings and
+sculptures of Norman character had fallen into <a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="disuse.">isuse.</ins></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>Q. What specimen of this style is there of apparently early date?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 237px;">
+<a href="images/image066-full.jpg"><img src="images/image066.jpg" width="237" height="233" alt="Semi-Norman Arch, Abbey Church, Malmesbury." title="Semi-Norman Arch, Abbey Church, Malmesbury." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Semi-Norman Arch, Abbey Church, Malmesbury.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. The church, now in ruins, of Buildwas Abbey, Salop, founded A.&nbsp;D.
+<span class="nowrap">1135<a name="FNanchor_79-A_6" id="FNanchor_79-A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_79-A_6" class="fnanchor">79-*</a>,</span> is an early specimen of the Semi-Norman style, in which, with
+the incipient pointed arch, Norman features and details are blended. The
+nave is divided from the aisles by plain double-faced pointed arches, with
+square edges, and hood mouldings over, which spring from massive
+cylindrical piers with square bases and capitals; whilst the clerestory
+windows above (for there is no triforium)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> are semicircular-headed. The
+general features of early Norman character, the absence of decorative
+mouldings, and the plain appearance this church exhibits throughout, are
+such as perhaps to warrant the presumption that this church is the same
+structure mentioned in the charter of confirmation granted to this abbey
+by Stephen, A.&nbsp;D. 1138-9.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What other noted specimens are there of this style?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;">
+<a href="images/image067-full.jpg"><img src="images/image067.jpg" width="302" height="234" alt="Intersecting Window Arches, St. Cross Church, Winchester." title="Intersecting Window Arches, St. Cross Church, Winchester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Intersecting Window Arches, St. Cross Church, Winchester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. The church of the Hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, presents an
+interesting combination of semicircular, intersecting, and pointed arches,
+of cotemporaneous date, enriched with the zig-zag and other Norman
+decorative mould<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>ings, and is a structure, in appearance and detail, of
+much later date than the church at Buildwas Abbey, though the same early
+era has been assigned to each.</p>
+
+<p>St. Joseph&#8217;s Chapel, Glastonbury, now in ruins, supposed to have been
+erected in the reigns of Henry the Second and Richard the First, is
+perhaps the richest specimen now remaining of the Semi-Norman or
+transition style, and is remarkable for the profusion of sculptured detail
+and combination of round and intersecting arches. In the remains of
+Malmesbury Abbey Church a Norman triforium with semicircular arches is
+supported on pointed arches which are enriched with Norman mouldings, and
+spring from massive cylindrical Norman piers. The interior of Rothwell
+Church, Northamptonshire, has much of Semi-Norman character: the aisles
+are divided from the nave by four lofty, plain, and triple-faced pointed
+arches, with square edges, springing from square piers with attached
+semicylindrical shafts on each side, and banded round midway between the
+bases and capitals; and the latter, which are enriched with sculptured
+foliage, are surmounted by square abaci; the west doorway is also of
+Semi-Norman character, and pointed, and is set within a projecting mass of
+masonry resembling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> the shallow Norman buttress. The circular part of St.
+Sepulchre&#8217;s Church, Northampton, has early pointed arches, plain in
+design, springing from Norman cylindrical piers. In the circular part of
+the Temple Church, London, dedicated A.&nbsp;D. 1185, the piers consist of four
+clustered columns banded round midway between the bases and capitals, and
+approximating the Early English style of the thirteenth century; and these
+support pointed arches, over which and continued round the clerestory wall
+is an arcade of intersecting semicircular arches, and above these are
+round-headed windows.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 206px;">
+<a href="images/image068-full.jpg"><img src="images/image068.jpg" width="206" height="276" alt="Semi-Norman Window, Oxford Cathedral." title="Semi-Norman Window, Oxford Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Semi-Norman Window, Oxford Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What particular specimen of the Semi-Norman style has been noticed by
+any cotem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>poraneous author, and the date of it clearly defined?</p>
+
+<p>A. The eastern part of Canterbury Cathedral, consisting of Trinity Chapel
+and the circular adjunct called Becket&#8217;s Crown. The building of these
+commenced the year following the fire which occurred A.&nbsp;D. 1174, and was
+carried on without intermission for several successive years. Gervase, a
+monk of the cathedral, and an eyewitness of this re-edification, wrote a
+long and detailed description of the work in progress, and a comparison
+between that and the more ancient structure which was burnt; he does not,
+however, notice in any clear and precise terms the general adoption of the
+pointed arch and partial disuse of the round arch in the new building,
+from which we may perhaps infer they were at that period indifferently
+used, or rather that the pointed arch was gradually gaining the
+<span class="nowrap">ascendancy<a name="FNanchor_83-A_7" id="FNanchor_83-A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_83-A_7" class="fnanchor">83-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>Q. How long does the Semi or Mixed Norman style appear to have prevailed?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;">
+<a href="images/image069-full.jpg"><img src="images/image069.jpg" width="204" height="233" alt="Semi-Norman Arch, St. Cross Church, Winchester." title="Semi-Norman Arch, St. Cross Church, Winchester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Semi-Norman Arch, St. Cross Church, Winchester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. Though we can neither trace satisfactorily the exact period of its
+introduction, or even that of its final extinction, (for it appears to
+have merged gradually into the pure and unmixed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> pointed style of the
+thirteenth century,) we have perhaps no remains of this kind to which we
+can attribute an earlier date than that included between the years 1130
+and 1140, unless we except the intersecting arches at St. Botulph&#8217;s,
+Priory Church, Colchester, which may be a few years earlier; and it
+appears to have prevailed, in conjunction or intermixed with the Norman
+style, from thence to the close of the twelfth century, and probably to a
+somewhat later period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 257px;">
+<a href="images/image070-full.jpg"><img src="images/image070.jpg" width="257" height="310" alt="Arcade, Christ Church, Oxford." title="Arcade, Christ Church, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Arcade, Christ Church, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_76-A_5" id="Footnote_76-A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76-A_5"><span class="label">76-*</span></a> The figure of a fish, whence the form <i>vesica piscis</i>
+originated, was one of the most ancient of the Christian symbols,
+emblematically significant of the word <a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="&#7984;&#967;&#952;&#8059;&#962;,">&#7988;&#967;&#952;&#965;&#962;,</ins> which contained
+the initial letters of the name and titles of our Saviour. The symbolic
+representation of a fish we find sculptured on some of the sarcophagi of
+the early Christians discovered in the catacombs at Rome; but the actual
+figure of a fish afterwards gave place to an oval-shaped compartment,
+pointed at both extremities, bearing the same mystical signification as
+the fish itself, and formed by two circles intersecting each other in the
+centre. This was the most common symbol used in the middle ages, and thus
+delineated it abounds in Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts. Every where
+we meet with it during the middle ages, in religious sculptures, in
+painted glass, on encaustic tiles, and on seals; and in the latter, that
+is, in those of many of the ecclesiastical courts, the form is yet
+retained. Even with respect to the origin of the pointed arch, that
+<i>vexata qu&aelig;stio</i> of antiquaries, with what degree of probability may it
+not be attributed to this mystical form? It is indeed in this symbolical
+figure that we see the outline of the pointed arch plainly developed at
+least a century and half before the appearance of it in architectonic
+form. And in that age full of mystical significations, the twelfth
+century, when every part of a church was symbolized, it appears nothing
+strange if this typical form should have had its weight towards
+originating and determining the adoption of the pointed arch.&mdash;Internal
+Decorations of English Churches, British Critic, April, 1839.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_79-A_6" id="Footnote_79-A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79-A_6"><span class="label">79-*</span></a> The date of the <i>foundation</i> of an abbey or church must
+not, however, be confounded with that of its actual <i>erection</i>, which was
+often many years later, and the only certain guide to which is the date of
+the <i>Consecration</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_83-A_7" id="Footnote_83-A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83-A_7"><span class="label">83-*</span></a> In the minute and circumstantial account which Gervase
+gives of the partial destruction of this cathedral by fire, A.&nbsp;D. 1174, and
+its after restoration, he seems to allude, though in obscure language, to
+the altered form of the vaulting in the aisles of the choir (<i>in circuitu
+extra chorum</i>); and his comparison, with reference to this building,
+between early and late Norman architecture is altogether so curious and
+exact as to deserve being transcribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Dictum est in superioribus quod post combustionem illam vetera fere omnia
+chori diruta sunt, et in quandam augustioris form&aelig; transierunt novitatem.
+Nunc autem qu&aelig; sit operis utriusque differentia dicendum est. Pilariorum
+igitur tam veterum quam novorum una forma est, una et grossitudo, sed
+longitudo dissimilis. Elongati sunt enim pilarii novi longitudine pedum
+fere duodecim. In capitellis veteribus opus erat planum, in novis
+sculptura subtilis. Ibi in chori ambitu pilarii viginti duo, hic autem
+viginti octo. Ibi arcus et c&aelig;tera omnia plana utpote sculpta secure et non
+scisello, his in omnibus fere sculptura idonea. Ibi columpna nulla
+marmorea, hic innumer&aelig;. Ibi in circuitu extra chorum fornices plan&aelig;, hic
+arcuat&aelig; sunt et clavat&aelig;. Ibi murus super pilarios directus cruces a choro
+sequestrabat, hic vero nullo intersticio cruces a choro divis&aelig; in unam
+clavem qu&aelig; in medio fornicis magn&aelig; consistit, qu&aelig; quatuor pilariis
+principalibus innititur, convenire videntur. Ibi c&oelig;lum ligneum egregia
+pictura decoratum, hic fornix ex lapide et tofo levi decenter composita
+est. Ibi triforium unum, hic duo in choro, et in ala ecclesi&aelig;
+tercium.&#8221;&mdash;De Combust. et Repar. Cant. Ecclesi&aelig;.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;">
+<a href="images/image071-full.jpg"><img src="images/image071.jpg" width="233" height="303" alt="Doorway, Paulscray Church, Kent." title="Doorway, Paulscray Church, Kent." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Doorway, Paulscray Church, Kent.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. During</span> what era did the Early English style prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. It may be said to have prevailed generally throughout the thirteenth
+<span class="nowrap">century<a name="FNanchor_86-A_8" id="FNanchor_86-A_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_86-A_8" class="fnanchor">86-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>Q. How is it distinguished from the Norman and Semi-Norman styles?</p>
+
+<p>A. The semicircular-headed arch, with its peculiar mouldings, was almost
+entirely discarded, and superseded by the pointed arch, with plain
+chamfered edges or mouldings of a different character. The segmental arch,
+nearly flat, was still however used in doorways, and occasionally the
+semicircular also, as in the arches of the Retrochoir, Chichester
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Of what three kinds were the pointed arches of this era?</p>
+
+<p>A. The lancet, the equilateral, and the obtuse-angled arch.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Which of these arches were most in use?</p>
+
+<p>A. In large buildings the lancet and the equilateral-shaped arch were
+prevalent, as appears in Westminster Abbey, where the lancet arch
+predominates, and Salisbury Cathedral, where the equilateral arch is
+principally used; but in small country churches the obtuse-angled arch is
+most frequently found. All these arches are struck from two centres, and
+are formed from segments <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>of a circle. In large buildings the architrave
+is faced with a succession of roll mouldings and deep hollows, in which
+the tooth ornament is sometimes inserted. In small churches the arches,
+which are double-faced, have merely plain chamfered edges.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What was the difference of the piers between this and an earlier era?</p>
+
+<p>A. Instead of the massive Norman, the Early English piers were, in large
+buildings, composed of an insulated column surrounded by slender detached
+shafts, all uniting together under one capital; these shafts were divided
+into parts by horizontal bands or fillets; but in small churches a plain
+octagonal pier, which can, however, scarcely be distinguished from that of
+a later style, predominated.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the capitals distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. They are simple in comparison with those of a later style, and are
+often bell-shaped, with a bead moulding round the neck, and a capping,
+with a series of mouldings, above; a very elegant and beautiful capital is
+frequently formed of stiffly sculptured foliage. The capital surmounting
+the multangular-shaped pier is also multangular in form, but plain, with a
+neck, and cap mouldings, and is difficult to be discerned from that of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> succeeding style; the cap mouldings are, however, in general not so
+numerous as those of a later period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 184px;">
+<a href="images/image072-full.jpg"><img src="images/image072.jpg" width="184" height="168" alt="Capital, Chapter House, Southwell." title="Capital, Chapter House, Southwell." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Capital, Chapter House, Southwell.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. The small doorways have generally a single detached shaft on each side,
+with a plain moulded bell-shaped capital, which is sometimes covered with
+foliage; and the architrave mouldings consist of a few simple members,
+with a hood moulding or label over, terminated by heads. We also find
+richer doorways with two or more detached shafts at the sides, and
+architrave mouldings composed of numerous members. Large doorways of the
+Early English style were sometimes double, being divided into two arched
+openings by a shaft, either single or clustered; and above<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> this a
+quatrefoil was generally inserted, but sometimes the head was filled with
+sculptured detail. Examples of the double doorway occur in the cathedrals
+of Ely, Chichester, Wells, Salisbury, Lincoln, and Lichfield; also at
+Christchurch and St. Cross, Hants; Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire; and
+in other large churches in this style.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/image073-full.jpg"><img src="images/image073.jpg" width="188" height="243" alt="Doorway, Baginton Church, Warwickshire. (13th cent.)" title="Doorway, Baginton Church, Warwickshire. (13th cent.)" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Doorway, Baginton Church, Warwickshire. (13th cent.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What kind of windows were prevalent?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<a href="images/image074-full.jpg"><img src="images/image074.jpg" width="286" height="263" alt="Window, Beverley Minster. (13th cent.)" title="Window, Beverley Minster. (13th cent.)" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, Beverley Minster. (13th cent.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" summary="Windows">
+<tr>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: center;"><a href="images/image075-full.jpg"><img src="images/image075.jpg" width="186" height="256" alt="St. Giles&#39;s Oxford." title="St. Giles&#39;s Oxford." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">St. Giles&#39;s Oxford.</span></td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: center;"><a href="images/image076-full.jpg"><img src="images/image076.jpg" width="174" height="273" alt="Ely cathedral." title="Ely cathedral." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"> Ely cathedral.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A. In the early stages of this style the lancet arch-headed window, very
+long and narrow, was prevalent; frequently two, three, or more of these
+were connected together by hood mouldings, the middle window rising higher
+than those at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> sides; sometimes they were unconnected, and without
+hood mouldings. In the east wall of Early English chancels three lancet
+windows, thus arranged, are frequently displayed. At a later period a
+broader window, divided into two lights by a plain mullion, finished at
+the top with a lozenge or circle, was used; and sometimes a window divided
+into three lights, the middle one higher than the others, and comprised
+under one hood moulding, was in use; windows of four and even five lancet
+lights, thus disposed, are to be met with, but are not common; the sides
+of the windows were in general simply splayed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> without mouldings, and
+increased in width inwardly, but slender shafts were sometimes annexed;
+and we also find, in the interior of rich buildings of this style,
+detached shafts standing out in front of the stonework forming the window
+jambs, and supporting the arch of the window. Towards the close of this
+style the windows assumed a more ornamental cast, and became much larger,
+being frequently divided into two or four principal lights, with one or
+three circles in the heads; both the lights and circles are foliated, and
+these evince the transition in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> progress to the next, or Decorated style.
+Beneath the windows a string-course is generally carried horizontally
+along the wall; and a roll moulding, similar to the upper members of the
+string-course of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is most commonly met with,
+as the string-course.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 234px;">
+<a href="images/image077-full.jpg"><img src="images/image077.jpg" width="234" height="320" alt="Interior of Window, St. Giles&#39;s, Oxford." title="Interior of Window, St. Giles&#39;s, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Interior of Window, St. Giles&#39;s, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How is the buttress of this age distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. In general by its plain triangular or pedimental head, its projecting
+more from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> building than the Norman buttress, and from its being less
+in breadth. It is also sometimes carried up above the parapet wall. The
+edges of the buttresses are sometimes chamfered; and plain buttresses in
+stages finished with simple slopes are not uncommon. We very rarely find
+buttresses of this style disposed at the angles of buildings, though such
+disposition was common in the succeeding style; but two buttresses placed
+at right angles with each other, and with the face of the wall, generally
+occur at the angles of churches in this style. Flying buttresses were
+sometimes used to strengthen the clerestory walls of large buildings, and
+have a light and elegant effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/image078-full.jpg"><img src="images/image078.jpg" width="243" height="164" alt="String-Course, Merton College Chapel, Oxford." title="String-Course, Merton College Chapel, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">String-Course, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Were the walls differently built?</p>
+
+<p>A. They were not so thick as those of an ear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>lier period, which occasioned
+the want of stronger buttresses to support them.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" summary="Windows">
+<tr>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: center;"><a href="images/image079-full.jpg"><img src="images/image079.jpg" width="171" height="453" alt="Pottern, Wilts." title="Pottern, Wilts." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">Pottern, Wilts.</span></td>
+  <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: center;"><a href="images/image080-full.jpg"><img src="images/image080.jpg" width="165" height="449" alt="Hartlepool, Durham." title="Hartlepool, Durham." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">Hartlepool, Durham.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Q. Were the Early English roofs of a different construction from those of
+a later style?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 158px;">
+<a href="images/image081-full.jpg"><img src="images/image081.jpg" width="158" height="233" alt="Groining Rib, Salisbury Cathedral." title="Groining Rib, Salisbury Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Groining Rib, Salisbury Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. The Norman and Early English roofs were high and acutely pointed. The
+original roofs of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> most of our old churches, from their exposure to the
+weather, have long since fallen to decay, and been replaced by others of a
+more obtuse shape; but in general the height and angular form of the
+original roof may be ascertained by the weather moulding still remaining
+on the side of the tower or steeple. The interior vaulting of stone roofs
+was composed of fewer parts and ribs, which were often not more numerous
+than those of Norman vaulting, and does not present that complexity of
+arrangement which occurs in the vaulting-ribs of subsequent styles. In the
+cathedral of Salisbury also in the nave of Wells Cathedral are simple and
+good examples of Early English vaulting. A curious groined roof, in which
+the ribs are of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> wood&mdash;plain, cut with chamfered edges&mdash;and the cells of
+the vaulting are covered with boards, is to be met with in the church of
+Warmington, Northamptonshire, a very rich, perfect, and interesting
+specimen of this style.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Was not the spire introduced at this period?</p>
+
+<p>A. Yes, many spires were then built; among which was that of old St.
+Paul&#8217;s Cathedral, more than five hundred feet high, and which was
+destroyed by fire, A.&nbsp;D. 1561. The spire of Oxford Cathedral is also of
+this style. Early English spires are generally what are called Broach
+spires, and spring at once from the external face of the walls of the
+tower, without any intervening parapet.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Whence did the spire take its origin?</p>
+
+<p>A. It appears to have been suggested by the Norman pinnacle, which, at
+first a conical capping, afterwards became polygonal, and ribbed at the
+angles, thus presenting the prototype of the spire.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 222px;">
+<a href="images/image082-full.jpg"><img src="images/image082.jpg" width="222" height="99" alt="Dog-tooth ornament" title="Dog-tooth ornament" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What ornament is peculiar, or nearly so, to this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. That called the tooth or dog-tooth ornament, a kind of
+pyramidal-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>shaped flower of four leaves, which is generally inserted in a
+hollow moulding, and, when seen in profile, presents a zig-zag or serrated
+appearance. The tooth moulding appears to have been introduced towards the
+close of the twelfth century; and an early instance where it occurs is on
+a late Norman doorway, at Whitwell Church, Rutlandshire: we do not,
+however, meet with it in buildings of a later style than that of the
+thirteenth century. It is sometimes found used in great profusion in
+doorways, windows, and other ornamental details; but many churches of this
+style are entirely devoid of this ornament. The ball-flower, though
+introduced in the thirteenth century, is not a common ornament until the
+fourteenth, to which era it may be said more particularly to belong; we
+find it in cornice mouldings, and sometimes on capitals.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What may be observed of the sculptured foliage of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. As applied to capitals, bases, crockets, and other ornamental detail,
+we find the general design and appearance of the sculptured foliage of
+this style to be stiff and formal compared with that of the succeeding
+style, when the arrangement of the foliage more closely approximated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+nature, and a greater freedom both in conception and execution was
+evinced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<a href="images/image083-full.jpg"><img src="images/image083.jpg" width="235" height="234" alt="Boss of Sculptured Foliage, Warmington Church,
+Northamptonshire." title="Boss of Sculptured Foliage, Warmington Church,
+Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Boss of Sculptured Foliage, Warmington Church,
+Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How are the parapets distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. They are often plain and embattled; but sometimes a simple horizontal
+parapet is used, supported by a corbel table, as in the tower of Haddenham
+Church, Buckinghamshire, and on that of Brize Norton Church, Oxfordshire.
+At Salisbury Cathedral the parapet is relieved by a series of blank
+trefoil headed <a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="panels">pannels,</ins> sunk in the face.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What may be said in general terms of the style of the thirteenth
+century, in comparing it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> with the styles which immediately preceded and
+followed it?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/image084-full.jpg"><img src="images/image084.jpg" width="280" height="166" alt="Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral." title="Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. In comparison with the Norman style, with its heavy concomitants and
+enrichments, the style of the thirteenth century is light and simple, and
+the details possess much elegance of contour. These, in small buildings,
+are generally plain; but in large buildings they exhibit numerous
+mouldings, combined with a certain degree of decorative embellishment.
+This style is, however, far from presenting that extreme beauty of outline
+and tasteful conception, combined with the pure and chaste ornamental
+accessories, which prevail in the designs of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What particular structures may be noticed as belonging to this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. Salisbury Cathedral, built by Bishop Poore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> between A.&nbsp;D. 1220 and 1260,
+is perhaps the most perfect specimen, on a large scale, of this style in
+its early state, with narrow lancet windows; the nave and transepts of
+Westminster Abbey, commenced in 1245, exhibit this style in a more
+advanced stage; whilst Lincoln Cathedral is, for the most part, a rich
+specimen of this style in its late or transition state. The west front of
+Wells Cathedral, erected by the munificence of Bishop Joceline, between
+A.&nbsp;D. 1213 and A.&nbsp;D. 1239, is covered with blank arcades and a number of
+trefoil-headed niches, surmounted by plain pedimental canopies, which
+contain specimens of statuary remarkable for their extreme beauty and
+freedom of design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 213px;">
+<a href="images/image085-full.jpg"><img src="images/image085.jpg" width="213" height="212" alt="Corbel, Wells Cathedral." title="Corbel, Wells Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Corbel, Wells Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_86-A_8" id="Footnote_86-A_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86-A_8"><span class="label">86-*</span></a> From the economic principles on which our modern churches
+are, with few exceptions, planned, they are mostly designed after and are
+intended to resemble in style those of the thirteenth century, in which
+more detail can be dispensed with than in any other style. Hence it
+follows that the just proportions and adaptation of the different parts
+and the minutest details and mouldings in ancient churches of this style
+required to be carefully studied, more so perhaps for practical purposes
+than in churches of any other style.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a href="images/image086-full.jpg"><img src="images/image086.jpg" width="321" height="303" alt="Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire." title="Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. When</span> did the Decorated English style commence, and how long did it
+prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. It may be said to have commenced in the latter part of the thirteenth
+century, or reign of Edward the First, and to have prevailed about a
+century. The transition from the Early English style to this, and again
+from this to the succeeding style, was however so extremely gradual, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+it is difficult to affix any precise date for the termination of one
+style, or the introduction of another.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/image087-full.jpg"><img src="images/image087.jpg" width="181" height="250" alt="Bracket, York Cathedral." title="Bracket, York Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Bracket, York Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?</p>
+
+<p>A. From there being a greater redundancy of chaste ornament in this than
+in the preceding style; and though it does not exhibit that extreme
+multiplicity of decorative detail as the style of the fifteenth century,
+the general contours and forms which this style presents, and the
+principal lines of composition, which verge pyramidically rather than
+vertically or horizontally, are infinitely more pleasing; and it is justly
+considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> as the most beautiful style of English ecclesiastical
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What difference is there between the arches of this style, which
+support the clerestory, and those of an earlier period?</p>
+
+<p>A. The lancet arch is seldom seen; the equilateral arch is generally,
+though not always, used. Both this and the obtuse-angled arch are, taken
+exclusively, difficult to be distinguished from those of an earlier
+period. In small buildings the edges of the pier arches are plain and
+chamfered. In large churches a series of quarter-round or roll-mouldings,
+which have often a square-edged fillet attached, are applied to the
+sub-arch, edges, and facing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 389px;">
+<a href="images/image088-full.jpg"><img src="images/image088.jpg" width="389" height="199" alt="Section of Piers from Grendon Church, Warwickshire,
+and Austrey Church, Warwickshire." title="Section of Piers from Grendon Church, Warwickshire,
+and Austrey Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Piers <a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="from">rom</ins> Grendon Church, Warwickshire,
+and Austrey Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What difference occurs in the piers from which these arches spring?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. In large buildings piers of this style were composed of a cluster of
+slender cylindrical shafts, not standing detached from each other, as in
+the Early English style, but closely united. A common pier of this kind is
+formed of four shafts thus united, without bands, with a square-edged
+fillet running vertically up the face of each shaft. Sometimes a simple
+cylindrical pier is found. The octagonal pier, with plain sides, is very
+prevalent in small churches, and does not differ materially from the Early
+English pier of the same kind. The capitals are either bell-shaped,
+clustered, or octagonal, to correspond with the shape of the piers; but
+the cap mouldings are more numerous than in the earlier style. Sometimes
+the capitals are sculptured. In the churches of Monkskirby, Warwickshire,
+and of Cropredy, Oxfordshire, the arches which support the clerestory
+spring at once from the piers, without any intervening capitals, a
+practice not uncommon in the style of the fifteenth century, but very rare
+in this.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. Of the large stone vaulted roofs each bay is intersected by
+longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal ribs, with shorter ribs springing
+from the bearing shafts intervening; thus forming a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> series of vaulting
+cells more numerous than are to be met with in the Early English style,
+though not subdivided to the excess observable in the vaulted roofs of the
+fifteenth century. Sculptured bosses often occur at the intersections. In
+the nave of York Cathedral, finished about A.&nbsp;D. 1330, the groining of the
+roof is less complicated than that of the choir of the same cathedral,
+constructed between A.&nbsp;D. 1360 and A.&nbsp;D. <span class="nowrap">1370<a name="FNanchor_106-A_9" id="FNanchor_106-A_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_106-A_9" class="fnanchor">106-*</a>.</span> Small structures are
+more simply vaulted. In a chantry chapel adjoining the north side of the
+chancel of Willingham Church, Cambridgeshire, is a very acute-pointed
+angular-shaped stone roof, the plain surface of the vaulting of which is
+supported by two pointed arches springing from corbels projecting from the
+walls; and these sustain straight-sided stone vaulting ribs, obliquely
+disposed to conform with the angle of the roof, and which act as
+principals; and above each arch, and between that and the ridge-line of
+the oblique ribs or principals, the space is filled with an open
+quatrefoil and other tracery. The north transept of Limington Church,
+Somersetshire, has a high pitched stone roof supported by groined ribs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. Are there many wooden roofs of this style remaining?</p>
+
+<p>A. We find comparatively few original wooden roofs in structures of the
+fourteenth century, for such have generally been superseded by roofs of a
+later date and of a more obtuse form. The high and acute pitch of the
+original roof is, however, still generally discernible by the weather
+moulding on the east wall of the tower. In the nave of Higham Ferrars
+Church, Northamptonshire, is a wooden roof which apparently belongs to
+this style: the roof is angular-pointed and open to the ridge-line, the
+walls are connected by tie-beams, and under each of these is a wooden arch
+formed of two ribs or beams springing from stone corbels.</p>
+
+<p>Q. In what respect do the doors of this style differ?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 229px;">
+<a href="images/image089-full.jpg"><img src="images/image089.jpg" width="229" height="396" alt="Window, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire." title="Window, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. Large doorways of this style have lateral shafts, with capitals, and
+between the shafts architrave mouldings intervene, which run without stop
+into the base tablet: of such the south doorway of St. Martin&#8217;s Church,
+Leicester, is an instance. Small doorways are generally without shafts,
+but have a series of quarter-round, semicylindrical, and tripartite roll
+mouldings at the sides, which are continuous with the architrave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+mouldings; and these have sometimes a square-edged fillet on the face. The
+doorways of this style are frequently enriched with pedimental and
+ogee-shaped canopies, ornamented with crockets and finials; of which the
+north doorway of Exeter Cathedral and the south doorway of Everdon Church,
+Northamptonshire, may be cited as examples. Large doorways have sometimes
+a double opening, divided by a clustered shaft, as in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> entrance to the
+Chapter House, York Cathedral. In some instances the head of the doorway
+is foliated, and we observe in detail an approximation to the succeeding
+style. The west doorway of Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire, is in this
+stage of transition.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the windows of this style known?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
+<a href="images/image090-full.jpg"><img src="images/image090.jpg" width="245" height="315" alt="Square-headed Decorated Window, Ashby Folville,
+Leicestershire." title="Square-headed Decorated Window, Ashby Folville,
+Leicestershire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Square-headed Decorated Window, Ashby Folville,
+Leicestershire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. In the later stage of the Early English style the windows became
+enlarged, and the heads were filled with foliated circles. To these
+succeeded, in the fourteenth century, windows ornamented with geometrical
+and flowing tracery, peculiarities which exclusively pertain to this
+style, and by which it is most easily known. The windows are of good
+proportions, and are divided into two or more principal lights by
+mullions, which at the spring of the arch form designs of regular
+geometrical construction, or branch out into flowing ramifications
+composing flame-like compartments, which are <span class="nowrap">foliated<a name="FNanchor_109-A_10" id="FNanchor_109-A_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_109-A_10" class="fnanchor">109-*</a>.</span> The variety
+of tracery in windows of this style is very great, and they frequently
+have pedimental and ogee canopies over them, ornamented in the same manner
+as those over doors: examples of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> kind may be found at York
+Cathedral. In the south transept of Chichester, and west front of Exeter
+Cathedrals, are two exceeding large and beautiful windows of this style;
+the first filled with geometrical, the other with flowing, tracery. In
+some windows of this style the mullions simply cross in the head, as in a
+later style, but the lights are commonly foliated, and the difference may
+in general be discerned by the mouldings: such windows occur in Stoneleigh
+Church, Warwickshire. There are also many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> square-headed windows in this
+style, distinguished by the flowing tracery in the heads, and by other
+characteristic marks: of such a window in Ashby Folville Church,
+Leicestershire, is a rich and good example. Circular windows, filled with
+tracery, are not uncommon in large buildings; and we also meet with
+triangular spherical-shaped windows, as in the clerestory of Barton
+Segrave Church, <span class="nowrap">Northamptonshire<a name="FNanchor_111-A_11" id="FNanchor_111-A_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_111-A_11" class="fnanchor">111-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<a href="images/image091-full.jpg"><img src="images/image091.jpg" width="251" height="202" alt="Window, Barton Segrave Church." title="Window, Barton Segrave Church." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, Barton Segrave Church.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Of what description are the mouldings which pertain to this style?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/image092-full.jpg"><img src="images/image092.jpg" width="243" height="113" alt="Moulding, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire." title="Moulding, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Moulding, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 140px;">
+<a href="images/image093-full.jpg"><img src="images/image093.jpg" width="140" height="86" alt="Roll Moulding, Chacombe Church, Northamptonshire." title="Roll Moulding, Chacombe Church, Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Roll Moulding, Chacombe Church, Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 238px;">
+<a href="images/image094-full.jpg"><img src="images/image094.jpg" width="238" height="105" alt="String-Course, Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire." title="String-Course, Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">String-Course, Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/image095-full.jpg"><img src="images/image095.jpg" width="243" height="182" alt="Ball-Flower Ornament, Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and York
+Cathedral." title="Ball-Flower Ornament, Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and York
+Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ball-Flower Ornament, Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and York
+Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. They approximate more nearly, in section<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> and appearance, those of the
+thirteenth than those of the fifteenth century, but the members are
+generally more numerous than in those of the former style; quarter-round,
+half, and tripartite cylinder mouldings, often filleted along the face and
+divided by small cavetto mouldings, sometimes deeply cut, are common. The
+string-course under the windows frequently consists, as in the preceding
+style, of a simple roll moulding, the upper member of which overlaps the
+lower. A plain semicylindrical moulding, with a square-edged fillet on the
+face, is also common, and occurs at the church of Orton-on-the-Hill,
+Leicestershire. The hood moulding over the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> windows often consists of a
+quarter-round or ogee, with a cavetto beneath, and sometimes returns
+horizontally along the walls as a string-course; a disposition, however,
+more frequently observable in the Early English style than in this: of
+such disposition the churches of Harvington, Worcestershire, and of
+Sedgeberrow, Gloucestershire, may be cited as affording examples. In
+decorative work we often meet with the ball-flower, one of the most
+characteristic ornaments of the style, consisting of a ball inclosed
+within three or four leaves, and sometimes bearing a resemblance to the
+rose-bud, inserted at inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>vals in a cavetto or hollow moulding, with the
+accompaniment, in some instances, of foliage; a four-leaved flower,
+inserted in the same manner, is also not uncommon.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 98px;">
+<a href="images/image096-full.jpg"><img src="images/image096.jpg" width="98" height="66" alt="Foliage" title="Foliage" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 152px;">
+<a href="images/image097-full.jpg"><img src="images/image097.jpg" width="152" height="456" alt="Decorated Buttress, St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford." title="Decorated Buttress, St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Decorated Buttress, St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How may the buttresses of this style be distinguished?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 202px;">
+<a href="images/image098-full.jpg"><img src="images/image098.jpg" width="202" height="355" alt="Flying Buttress, Salisbury Cathedral." title="Flying Buttress, Salisbury Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Flying Buttress, Salisbury Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. They were worked in stages, and their set-offs have frequently
+triangular heads, sometimes plain but often ornamented with crockets and
+finials of a more decorative character than those of the Early English
+style. Many buttresses have, however, plain slopes as set-offs, and they
+are frequently placed diagonally at the corners of buildings, as at
+Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire. The flying buttresses at Salisbury
+Cathedral, in which the thrust is partly coun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>terpoised by
+pyramidal-headed pinnacles decorated with crockets and finials, are of
+this age.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What parapet is peculiar to this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. Besides the plain embattled parapet, which is not always easy to be
+distinguished from other styles, a horizontal blocking course, pierced
+with foliated or wavy, flowing tracery, which has a rich effect, is
+common. Of this description specimens occur at St. Mary Magdalen Church,
+Oxford, and Brailes Church, Warwickshire.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What is observable in the niches of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. They are very beautiful, and are generally surmounted by triangular or
+ogee-shaped canopies, enriched with crockets and finials, while the
+interior of the canopies are groined with numerous small rib mouldings.
+The crockets and finials of this style, as decorative embellishments, are
+peculiarly graceful, chaste, and pleasing in contour.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Was the transition from this style to the next gradual?</p>
+
+<p>A. Both the transition from the Early English to the Decorated style, and
+from the Decorated to the Florid or Perpendicular, was so gradual, that
+though many individual details and ornaments were extremely dissimilar,
+and peculiar to each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> particular style, we are only able to judge from
+examples when a change was generally established.</p>
+
+<p>Q. From what cotemporary writers of the fourteenth century can we collect
+any architectural notices, either general or of detail?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<a href="images/image099-full.jpg"><img src="images/image099.jpg" width="269" height="321" alt="Part of the Altar Screen, Winchester Cathedral." title="Part of the Altar Screen, Winchester Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Part of the Altar Screen, Winchester Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. In Chaucer we find allusions made to <i>imageries</i>, <i>pinnacles</i>,
+<i>tabernacles</i>, (canopied niches for statuary,) and <i>corbelles</i>. Lydgate,
+in <i>The Siege of Troy</i>, in his description of the buildings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> adverts to
+those of his own age, and uses several architectural terms now obsolete or
+little understood, and some which are not so, as <i>gargoiles</i>. In Pierce
+Ploughman&#8217;s Creed we have a concise but faithful description of a large
+monastic edifice of the fourteenth century, comprising the church or
+minster, cloister, chapter house, and other offices.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What edifices maybe noticed as constructed in this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. In Exeter Cathedral this style may be said generally to prevail,
+although some portions are of earlier and some of later date. Great part
+of Lichfield Cathedral was also built during the fourteenth century. The
+beautiful cloisters adjoining Norwich Cathedral, commenced A.&nbsp;D. 1297, but
+not finished for upwards of a century, although proceeded with by
+different prelates from time to time, rank as the most beautiful of the
+kind we have remaining. Several country churches are wholly or principally
+erected in this style. Broughton Church, Oxfordshire, may be instanced as
+an elegant, pleasing, and complete example of plain decorated work.
+Trumpington Church, Cambridgeshire, is also deserving of notice; and
+Wimington Church, Bedfordshire, built by John Curteys, lord of the manor,
+who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> died A.&nbsp;D. 1391, is a small but late edifice in the Decorated style.
+Annexations were also made during this century to numerous churches of
+earlier construction, by the erection of additional aisles or chapels as
+chantries. In all these structures we find more or less, in general
+appearance, form, and detail, of that extreme beauty and elegance of
+design which prevailed, as it were, for about a century, and then
+imperceptibly glided away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/image100-full.jpg"><img src="images/image100.jpg" width="280" height="168" alt="Parapet, Magdalen Church, Oxford." title="Parapet, Magdalen Church, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Parapet, Magdalen Church, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_106-A_9" id="Footnote_106-A_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106-A_9"><span class="label">106-*</span></a> The allusion is made to the vaulted roofs of the nave and
+choir of this cathedral as they existed previous to the late unfortunate
+and destructive fires.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_109-A_10" id="Footnote_109-A_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109-A_10"><span class="label">109-*</span></a> The Flamboyant window, common in France, is not often met
+with in this country. On the north side of Salford Church, Warwickshire,
+is, however, a window of this description, filled with flamboyant
+tracery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_111-A_11" id="Footnote_111-A_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111-A_11"><span class="label">111-*</span></a> For specimens of Decorated windows with flowing tracery
+in the heads, vide cuts, pp. 12 and 13.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;">
+<a href="images/image101-full.jpg"><img src="images/image101.jpg" width="340" height="287" alt="South Porch of Newbold-upon-Avon Church, Warwickshire." title="South Porch of Newbold-upon-Avon Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">South Porch of Newbold-upon-Avon Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE FLORID OR PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Q. When</span> may this style be said to have commenced, and how long did it
+prevail?</p>
+
+<p>A. We find traces of it in buildings erected at the close of the reign of
+Edward the Third (circa A.&nbsp;D. 1375); and it prevailed for about a century
+and half, or rather more, till late in the reign of Henry the Eighth
+(circa A.&nbsp;D. 1539).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?</p>
+
+<p>A. From the multiplicity, profusion, and minuteness of its ornamental
+detail, it has by some received the designation of <span class="smcap">Florid</span>; by others, from
+the mullions of the windows and the divisions of ornamental panel-work
+running in straight or perpendicular lines up to the head, which is not
+the case in any earlier style, it has been called and is now better known
+by the designation of the <span class="smcap nowrap">Perpendicular<a name="FNanchor_121-A_12" id="FNanchor_121-A_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_121-A_12" class="fnanchor">121-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Q. In what respects did it differ from the style which immediately
+preceded it?</p>
+
+<p>A. The beautiful flowing contour of the lines of tracery characteristic of
+the Decorated style was superseded by mullions and transoms, and, in
+panel-work, lines of division disposed vertically and horizontally; and in
+lieu of the quarter-round, semi and tripartite roll and small hollow
+mouldings of the fourteenth century, angular-edged mouldings with bold
+cavettos became predominant.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Of what kind are the arches of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. Although, in this style, pointed arches constructed from almost every
+radius are to be found, the complex four-centred arch, commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> called
+the Tudor arch, was almost peculiar to it; and the cavetto or wide and
+rather shallow hollow moulding, a characteristic feature of this style,
+often appears in the architrave mouldings of pier arches, doorways, and
+windows, and as a cornice moulding under parapets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/image102-full.jpg"><img src="images/image102.jpg" width="261" height="174" alt="Window, St. Mary&#39;s Church, Oxford." title="Window, St. Mary&#39;s Church, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, St. Mary&#39;s Church, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 134px;">
+<a href="images/image103-full.jpg"><img src="images/image103.jpg" width="134" height="267" alt="Mullion, Burford Church, Oxfordshire." title="Mullion, Burford Church, Oxfordshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Mullion, Burford Church, Oxfordshire.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the piers of this style, which support the clerestory arches,
+distinguished from those of an earlier period?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 242px;">
+<a href="images/image104-full.jpg"><img src="images/image104.jpg" width="242" height="272" alt="Capital, Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire." title="Capital, Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Capital, Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. The section of a pier, which is common in this style, may be described
+as formed from a square or parallelogram, with the angles fluted or cut in
+a bold hollow, and on the flat face of each side of the pier a
+semicylindrical shaft is attached. The flat faces or sides of the pier and
+the hollow mouldings at the angles are carried up vertically from the base
+moulding to the spring of the arch, and thence, without the interposition
+of any capital, in a continuous sweep to the apex of the arch; but the
+slender shafts attached to the piers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> have capitals, the upper members of
+which are angular-shaped. The base mouldings are also polygonal. Piers and
+arches of this description are numerous, and occur, amongst other
+churches, in St. Thomas Church, Salisbury; Cerne Abbas Church, Bradford
+Abbas Church, and Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire; Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire; and Burford Church, Oxfordshire. In some churches a very
+slender shaft with a capital is attached to each angle of the pier, which
+is disposed lozengewise, the main body of the pier presenting continuous
+lines of moulding with those of the arch, unbroken by any capital: as in
+the piers of Bath Abbey Church, rebuilt early in the sixteenth century. In
+small country churches we frequently find the architrave mouldings of the
+arch continued down the piers, which are altogether devoid of any
+horizontal stop by way of capital. The churches of Brinklow and
+Willoughby, in Warwickshire, afford instances of this kind. Piers somewhat
+different to those above described are also to be met with, but are not so
+common.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What else may be noted respecting some of the piers and arches in this
+style?</p>
+
+<p>A. The face of the sub-arch or soffit is sometimes enriched with oblong
+panelled compart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>ments, arched-headed and foliated; and these are
+continued down the inner sides of the piers. The arches of the tower of
+Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, and some of the arches in Sherborne
+Church, in the same county, may be instanced as examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 295px;">
+<a href="images/image105-full.jpg"><img src="images/image105.jpg" width="295" height="446" alt="Panelled Arch, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire." title="Panelled Arch, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Panelled Arch, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. How may we distinguish the doorways and doors of this style?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. Many doorways of this style, especially during its early progress, were
+surmounted by crocketted ogee-shaped hood mouldings, terminating with
+finials. In the most common doorway of this style, however, the depressed
+four-centred arch appears within a square head, and in general a
+rectangular hood moulding over; and the spandrels or spaces between the
+spring and apex of the arch and angles of the square head over it are
+filled with quatrefoils, panelling, foliage, small shields, or other
+sculptured ornaments. Sometimes the depressed four-centred arch appears
+without any hood moulding, and we occasionally meet with a simple pointed
+arch described from two centres placed within a rectangular compart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>ment.
+Doorways in this style are often profusely ornamented; and it is common to
+see doors covered with panel-work boldly recessed, the compartments of
+which are sometimes filled in the heads with crocketed ogee arches, which
+produce a rich effect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 188px;">
+<a href="images/image106-full.jpg"><img src="images/image106.jpg" width="188" height="256" alt="Doorway, All Souls College, Oxford." title="Doorway, All Souls College, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Doorway, All Souls College, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Are there many fine porches of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. More than in any other style, and they are often profusely enriched,
+the front and sides being covered with panel-work, tracery, and niches for
+statuary. The interior of the roof is frequently groined, sometimes with
+fan tracery, but generally with simple though numerous ribs; and in many
+instances a room is constructed over the groined entrance or lower story
+of the porch, but so as to be in keeping with and form part of the general
+design. The south porch of Gloucester Cathedral, the south-west porch of
+Canterbury Cathedral, the south porch of St. John&#8217;s Church, Cirencester,
+and the south porch of Burford Church, Oxfordshire, may be noticed as
+examples of rich porches of this style; many others might also be
+enumerated, as they are very numerous and various in detail. Some porches
+are comparatively plain, as the south porch of the church of
+Newbold-upon-Avon, Warwickshire.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the windows distinguished?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/image107-full.jpg"><img src="images/image107.jpg" width="219" height="421" alt="Window, New College Chapel, Oxford." title="Window, New College Chapel, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, New College Chapel, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. The chief characteristic in the windows of this style, and which
+renders them easily distinguished from those of an earlier era, consists
+in the vertical bearing of the mullions, which, instead of diverging off
+in flowing lines, are carried straight up into the head of the window;
+smaller mullions spring from the heads of the principal lights, and thus
+the upper portion of the window is filled with panel-like compart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>ments.
+The principal as well as the subordinate lights are foliated in the heads;
+and in large windows the lights are often divided horizontally by
+transoms, which are sometimes embattled. From the continued upright
+position of the mullions and tracery-bars is derived the term
+<span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span>, as applied to this style. The forms of the window-arches
+vary from the simple pointed to the complex four-centred arch, more or
+less depressed. The windows of the clerestory are sometimes arched, but
+oftener square-headed; and some large windows of the latter description
+nearly cover the sides of the clerestory walls of Chipping Norton Church,
+Oxfordshire.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What do we frequently observe in buildings of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. The interior walls of churches are often completely covered with
+panel-work tracery, arched headed and foliated, from the clerestory
+windows down to the mouldings of the arches below. The walls of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire, present in the interior a surface almost entirely
+covered with panel-work. Several large churches in this style have also
+long ranges of clerestory windows, set so close to each other that the
+whole length of the clerestory wall seems<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> perforated: we may enumerate as
+examples the churches of St. Michael, Coventry; Stratford-upon-Avon,
+Warwickshire; and Lavenham and Melford, Suffolk. Walls covered on the
+exterior with panel-work are also far from uncommon: the Abbots&#8217; Tower,
+Evesham, the tower of the church of St. Neot&#8217;s, Huntingdonshire, and of
+Wrexham, Denbighshire, and many other rich towers, (especially those of
+the churches in Somersetshire, where rich specimens in this style abound,
+more so perhaps than in any other county,) are thus decorated. The
+exterior of many rich structures in this style are also covered with
+panel-work, as the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, the west front of Winchester
+Cathedral, and Henry the Seventh&#8217;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a href="images/image108-full.jpg"><img src="images/image108.jpg" width="283" height="173" alt="Parapet, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Oxford." title="Parapet, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Parapet, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Oxford.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?</p>
+
+<p>A. They are in detail more complicated than those of earlier styles, and
+in plain as distinguished from fan-tracery vaulting the groining ribs are
+more numerous. The ribs often diverge at different angles, and form
+geometrical-shaped panels or compartments; and the design has, in some
+instances, been assimilated to net-work. Plain vaulting of this style
+occurs in the nave and choir, Norwich Cathedral; the Lady Chapel and
+choir, Gloucester Cathedral; the nave, Winchester Cathedral; the Beauchamp
+Chapel, Warwick; and a very late specimen in the choir, Oxford Cathedral.
+A very rich and peculiar description of vaulting is one composed of
+pendant semicones covered with foliated panel-work, and, from the design
+resembling a fan spread open, called <i>fan-tracery</i>. Of this description of
+vaulting an early instance appears in the cloisters, Gloucester Cathedral.
+The roofs of King&#8217;s College Chapel, Cambridge, and Henry the Seventh&#8217;s
+Chapel, Westminster Abbey, are well-known examples; and portions of
+several of our cathedrals and many small chantry and sepulchral chapels
+are thus vaulted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. What may be observed of the wooden roofs of this style?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;">
+<a href="images/image109-full.jpg"><img src="images/image109.jpg" width="441" height="254" alt="Wooden Roof, south aisle, St. Mary&#39;s Church, Leicester." title="Wooden Roof, south aisle, St. Mary&#39;s Church, Leicester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Wooden Roof, south aisle, St. Mary&#39;s Church, Leicester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. They are far more numerous than those we meet with in all the previous
+styles; and we frequently find churches of early date in which the
+original roofs, having perhaps become decayed, have been removed and
+replaced by roofs designed in that style prevalent during the fifteenth
+century. The slope or pitch of the roof is much lower than before, and the
+form altogether more obtuse, and sometimes approaching nearly to flatness.
+The exterior is on this account often entirely concealed from view by the
+parapet. Many roofs of this style are divided into bays<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> or compartments
+by horizontal tie-beams faced with mouldings, and apparently supported by
+curved ribs springing from corbels, and forming spandrels filled with open
+worked tracery; and the spaces between the tie-beam, the king-post, and
+the sloping rafters of the roof, are filled with pierced or open-work
+tracery. The sloping bays or compartments of the roof are divided by rib
+mouldings into squares or parallelograms of panel-work, which are again
+often subdivided into similar-shaped panels by smaller ribs with carved
+bosses at the intersections. Some roofs are nearly flat, and simply
+panelled. On many roofs traces of painting and gilding may still be
+discerned, more especially in that part which was over an altar, and where
+the roof often bears indications of having been more ornamented than other
+parts. Roofs painted of an azure colour and studded with gilt stars are
+not uncommon. Sometimes the roof is coved, and the boards are painted in
+imitation of clouds. A great variety of wooden roofs is to be met with in
+this style, many of them exceeding rich; whilst the cornice under the roof
+is sometimes elaborately carved and enriched. Some roofs are much plainer
+in construction than others; and it was, during this era, a part of the
+church on the enrichment of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> which no small expense and attention were
+bestowed.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What may be noted respecting the parapets of this era?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;">
+<a href="images/image110-full.jpg"><img src="images/image110.jpg" width="288" height="157" alt="Parapet, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Dorchester." title="Parapet, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Dorchester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Parapet, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Dorchester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A. Many embattled parapets are covered with sunk or pierced panelling, and
+ornamented with quatrefoils or small trefoil-headed arches; and they have
+sometimes triangular-shaped heads, as at King&#8217;s College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and at the east end of Peterborough Cathedral. We also find horizontal or
+straight-sided parapets, covered with sunk or pierced quatrefoils in
+circles. A plain embattled parapet, with the horizontal coping moulding
+continued or carried down the sides of the embrasures, and then again
+returning horizontally, as at St. Peter&#8217;s Church, Dorchester, Dorsetshire,
+is also common. A bold but shallow cavetto or hollow cornice moulding is
+frequently carried along the wall just under the parapet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. Was the panelled or sunk quatrefoil much used in decorative detail?</p>
+
+<p>A. In rich buildings of this style the base, the parapet, and other
+intermediate portions were decorated with rows or bands of sunk
+quatrefoils, sometimes inclosed in circles, sometimes in squares, and
+sometimes in lozenge-shaped compartments.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 212px;">
+<a href="images/image111-full.jpg"><img src="images/image111.jpg" width="212" height="255" alt="Rose and Foliage, Henry VII.&#39;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey." title="Rose and Foliage, Henry VII.&#39;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Rose and Foliage, Henry VII.&#39;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What other ornamental detail is peculiar to this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. The rose, which, differing only in colour, was the badge both of the
+houses of York and Lancaster, and as such is often to be met with. Rows of
+a trefoil or lozenge-shaped leaf, somewhat like an oak or strawberry leaf,
+with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> smaller trefoil more simple in design intervening between two
+larger, was frequently used as a finish to the cornice of rich
+screen-work, and is known under the designation of <i>the Tudor Flower</i>. It
+is also common to find the tendrils, leaves, and fruit of the vine carved
+or sculptured in great profusion in the hollow of rich cornice mouldings,
+especially on screen-work in the interior of a church.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/image112-full.jpg"><img src="images/image112.jpg" width="263" height="120" alt="Vine Leaves and Fruit, Whitchurch Church, Somersetshire." title="Vine Leaves and Fruit, Whitchurch Church, Somersetshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Vine Leaves and Fruit, Whitchurch Church, Somersetshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. In what respect do the mouldings of this style differ from those of
+earlier styles?</p>
+
+<p>A. In a greater prevalence of angular forms, which may be observed in
+noticing the section of a series of mouldings, and in the bases and
+capitals of cylindrical shafts. A large and bold but shallow hollow
+moulding or cavetto, in which, when forming part of a horizontal fascia or
+cornice, flowers, leaves, and other sculptured details are often inserted
+at intervals, is a common feature; and such moulding, without any
+inser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>tion, is frequent in doorway and window jambs. A kind of double ogee
+moulding with little projection, is, in conjunction with other mouldings,
+also of common occurrence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<a href="images/image113-full.jpg"><img src="images/image113.jpg" width="266" height="196" alt="Window, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Oxford." title="Window, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, St. Peter&#39;s Church, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. Of what particular description of work do we find the existing remains
+to be almost entirely designed and executed in this style of
+ecclesiastical art?</p>
+
+<p>A. Of the numerous specimens of rich wooden screens, composed as to the
+lower part of sunk panelling, with open work above, which we often find
+separating the chancel from the body of the church, supporting the
+rood-loft, and inclosing chantry chapels in side aisles, comparatively few
+now remaining are of an earlier date than the fifteenth <span class="nowrap">century<a name="FNanchor_137-A_13" id="FNanchor_137-A_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_137-A_13" class="fnanchor">137-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>Q. What do we find in large buildings erected late in this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. Octagonal turrets, plain or covered with sunk panelling, and surmounted
+with ogee-headed cupolas, which are adorned with crockets and finials. In
+Henry the Seventh&#8217;s Chapel, Westminster, they are used as buttresses. We
+also find them at King&#8217;s College Chapel, Cambridge; at St. George&#8217;s
+Chapel, Windsor; and at Winchester Cathedral.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Q. Have we any coeval documents which contain particulars relating to the
+erection of churches?</p>
+
+<p>A. The contract entered into A.&nbsp;D. 1412, for the building of Catterick
+Church, Yorkshire, and the contract entered into A.&nbsp;D. 1435, for
+rebuilding, as it now stands, the collegiate church of Fotheringhay in
+Northamptonshire, or copies of such, have been preserved; as have
+particulars also from the contracts entered into A.&nbsp;D. 1450, for the
+fitting up of the Beauchamp Chapel, St. Mary&#8217;s Church, Warwick. In the
+will of King Henry the Sixth, dated A.&nbsp;D. 1447, we find specific directions
+given for the size and arrangement of King&#8217;s College Chapel, Cambridge;
+and no less than five different indentures are preserved, (the earliest
+dated A.&nbsp;D. 1513, the latest A.&nbsp;D. 1527,) containing contracts for the
+execution of different parts of that celebrated structure. The will of
+King Henry the Seventh, dated A.&nbsp;D. 1509, contains several orders and
+directions relating to the completion of the splendid chapel adjoining the
+abbey church, Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Mention some of the earliest buildings of this style, the dates of the
+erection of which have been clearly ascertained?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. The tower of St. Michael&#8217;s Church, Coventry, the building of which
+commenced A.&nbsp;D. 1373 and was finished A.&nbsp;D. <span class="nowrap">1395<a name="FNanchor_140-A_14" id="FNanchor_140-A_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_140-A_14" class="fnanchor">140-*</a>,</span> is an early and
+fine specimen; the beautiful and lofty spire was, however, an after
+addition, like that at Salisbury Cathedral, and was not commenced till
+A.&nbsp;D. 1432. Westminster <span class="nowrap">Hall<a name="FNanchor_140-B_15" id="FNanchor_140-B_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_140-B_15" class="fnanchor">140-&#8224;</a>,</span> the reparation or reconstruction of
+the greater part of which by King Richard the Second was commenced A.&nbsp;D.
+1397 and finished A.&nbsp;D. 1399, has a fine groined porch, the front of which
+exhibits the square head over the arch of entrance; and the spandrels are
+filled with quatrefoils, inclosing shields and sunk panel-work. The large
+window above the porch, and that at the west end, are divided into
+panel-like compartments by vertical mullions, and a transom divides the
+principal lights horizontally. The wooden roof is of a more acute pitch
+than we usually find in buildings of this style, and is remarkable as a
+specimen of constructive art and display. The spaces between the arches
+and rafters are filled up to the ridge-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>piece with open panel-work
+ornamentally designed; and this is perhaps the earliest specimen we
+possess of the perpendicular wooden roof.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What complete structures are there in this style of a late date, the
+periods of the erection of which are ascertained?</p>
+
+<p>A. The design for the rebuilding of the Abbey Church, Bath, was planned
+and the reconstruction thereof commenced, by Bishop King, A.&nbsp;D. 1500; and
+after his death the works were carried on by Priors Bird and Hollowaye;
+but the church was not completed when the surrender of the monastery took
+place, A.&nbsp;D. 1539. The foundation of Henry the Seventh&#8217;s Chapel,
+Westminster Abbey, was laid A.&nbsp;D. 1502, but the chapel was not completed
+till the reign of Henry the Eighth. It is the richest specimen, on a large
+scale, of this style of architecture, and is completely covered, both
+internally and externally, with panel-work, niches, statuary, heraldic
+devices, cognizances, and other decorative embellishment. The church at
+St. Neot&#8217;s, Huntingdonshire, is a fine large parochial edifice, all built
+apparently after one regular design, and consists of a tower covered with
+panel-work and ornament, with crocketed pinnacles at the angles and in
+front of each side; a nave, north and south aisles and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> chancel, and two
+chantry chapels, forming a continuation eastward of each aisle. It has a
+fine wooden roof, the cornice under which is in different parts curiously
+carved in relief. This church is said to have been erected A.&nbsp;D. 1507. But
+one of the most perfect specimens of a late date, on a smaller scale, is
+the church of Whiston, Northamptonshire, built A.&nbsp;D. 1534, by Anthony
+Catesby, esquire, lord of the manor, Isabel his wife, and John their son:
+it consists of a tower encircled with rows of quatrefoils and other
+decorative embellishment, and finished with crocketed pinnacles at the
+angles; a nave divided from the north and south aisles by arches within
+rectangular compartments, the spandrels of which are filled with sunk
+quatrefoils and foliated panels; these arches spring from piers disposed
+lozengewise with semicylindrical shafts at the angles; there are no
+clerestory windows, and the windows of the aisles and chancel have
+obtusely-pointed four-centred arches. The wooden roof is a good example of
+the kind.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;">
+<a href="images/image114-full.jpg"><img src="images/image114.jpg" width="201" height="525" alt="St. Stephen&#39;s Church, Bristol." title="St. Stephen&#39;s Church, Bristol." /></a>
+<span class="caption">St. Stephen&#39;s Church, Bristol.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What district is noted for the number of rich churches in this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. Somersetshire contains a number of fine churches, erected apparently
+towards the close of the fifteenth or very early in the sixteenth
+cen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>tury; and many of these churches have much of carved woodwork in
+screens, rood-lofts, pulpits, and in pewing. The towers are, in
+particular, remarkable for their general style of design, and are often
+divided into stages by bands of quatrefoils; the sides are more or less
+ornamented with projecting canopied niches for statuary, and in many of
+these niches the statues have been preserved from the iconoclastic zeal
+which has elsewhere prevailed. The belfry windows are partly pierced,
+sometimes in quatrefoils, and partly filled with sunk panel-work. The
+parapets, whether embattled or straight-sided, are pierced with open work;
+and at each angle of the tower, at which buttresses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> are disposed
+rectangular-wise, is finished with a crocketed pinnacle, which is also
+often to be met with rising from the middle of the parapet. Towers similar
+in general design to those which may be said to prevail in Somersetshire
+are not unfrequently met with in other counties, but do not exhibit that
+provincialism which is the case in that particular county.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/image115-full.jpg"><img src="images/image115.jpg" width="297" height="256" alt="King Henry VII.&#39;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey." title="King Henry VII.&#39;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey." /></a>
+<span class="caption">King Henry VII.&#39;s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_121-A_12" id="Footnote_121-A_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121-A_12"><span class="label">121-*</span></a> Mr. Rickman, from whom this appellation is derived, has
+been since generally followed in his nomenclature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_137-A_13" id="Footnote_137-A_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137-A_13"><span class="label">137-*</span></a> In Compton Church, Surrey, is, or until recently was, the
+remains of a wooden screen of late Norman character. Between the chancel
+and nave of Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire, is an early wooden
+screen in the style of the thirteenth century: the lower division is of
+plain panel-work, whilst the upper division consists of a series of
+open-pointed arches, trefoiled in the heads, and supported by slender
+cylindrical shafts with moulded bases and capitals, and an annulated
+moulding encircles each shaft midway up. In Northfleet Church, Kent, is a
+wooden screen which approximates in general design that at Stanton
+Harcourt, but is in a more advanced stage of art, being of the Early
+Decorated style: the lower portion of this is of plain panelling, while
+the open work forming the upper division above consists of a series of
+pointed arches, with tracery and foliations in and between the heads,
+supported by slender cylindrical shafts banded round midway with moulded
+bases and capitals, and these arches support a horizontal cornice.
+Specimens of decorated screen-work, some much mutilated, others in a more
+perfect state, are existing in the churches of King&#8217;s Sutton,
+Northamptonshire; Croperdy, Oxfordshire; Beaudesert, Warwickshire; and in
+St. John&#8217;s Church, Winchester. A characteristic distinction between
+screen-work of an earlier date than the fifteenth century and screen-work
+of that period will be found to consist in the slender cylindrical shafts,
+often annulated, sometimes not, with moulded bases and capitals which
+pertain to early work of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and the
+mullion-like and angular-edged bars, often faced with small buttresses,
+which form the principal vertical divisions in screen-work of the
+fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_140-A_14" id="Footnote_140-A_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140-A_14"><span class="label">140-*</span></a> This stately monument of private munificence was erected
+at the sole charges of two brothers, Adam and William Botnor: it was
+twenty-one years in building, and cost each year 100<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_140-B_15" id="Footnote_140-B_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140-B_15"><span class="label">140-&#8224;</span></a> Though not an ecclesiastical structure, it is here
+noticed as an example of the style in an early stage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 160px;">
+<a href="images/image116-full.jpg"><img src="images/image116.jpg" width="160" height="177" alt="Window, Duffield Church, Derbyshire." title="Window, Duffield Church, Derbyshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, Duffield Church, Derbyshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">OF THE DEBASED ENGLISH STYLE.</p>
+
+
+<p>Q. <a name="corr6" id="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="WHEN">When</ins> did this style commence, and how long did it prevail or continue?</p>
+
+<p>A. It may be said to have commenced about the year 1540, and to have
+continued to about the middle of the seventeenth century; but it is
+difficult to assign a precise date either for its introduction or
+discontinuance.</p>
+
+<p>Q. Why is this style called the <span class="smcap">Debased</span>?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A. From the general inferiority of design compared with the style it
+succeeded, from the meagre and clumsy execution of sculptured and other
+ornamental work, from the intermixture of detail founded on an entirely
+different school of art, and the consequent subversion of the purity of
+style.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What may be considered as one great cause of this falling off?</p>
+
+<p>A. The devastation of the monasteries, religious houses, and chantries,
+which followed their suppression, discouraged the study of ecclesiastical
+architecture, (which had been much followed by the members of the
+conventual foundations, who were now dispersed, in their seclusion,) and
+gave a fatal blow to that spirit of erecting and enriching churches which
+this country had for many ages possessed.</p>
+
+<p>Q. How could this be the cause?</p>
+
+<p>A. The expenses of erecting many of our ecclesiastical structures, or
+different portions of them, from time to time, in the most costly and
+beautiful manner, according to the style of the age in which such were
+built, were defrayed, some out of the immense revenues of the monasteries,
+which at their suppression were granted away by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> the crown, and others by
+the private munificence of individuals who frequently built an aisle, with
+a chantry chapel at the east end, partly inclosed by screen-work, or
+annexed to a church, a transept, or an additional chapel, endowed as a
+chantry, in order that remembrance might be specially and continually made
+of them in the offices of the church, according to the then prevailing
+usage; which chantries having been abolished, one motive for
+church-building was gone.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What concurrent causes may also be assigned for this change?</p>
+
+<p>A. The almost imperceptible introduction and advance, about this period,
+of a fantastic mode of architectural design and decoration, which is very
+apparent in the costly though in many respects inelegant monuments of this
+age, and in which details of ancient classic architecture were
+incorporated with others of fanciful design peculiar to the latter part of
+the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What are the characteristics of this style?</p>
+
+<p>A. A general heaviness and inelegance of detail, doorways with
+pointed-arched heads exceedingly depressed in form, and also plain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+round-headed doorways, with key stones after the Roman or Italian
+semi-classic style now beginning to prevail; square-headed windows with
+plain vertical mullions, and the heads of the lights either round or
+obtusely arched, and generally without foliations; pointed windows
+clumsily formed, with plain mullion bars simply intersecting each other in
+the head, or filled with tracery miserably designed, and an almost total
+absence of ornamental mouldings. Indications of this style may be found in
+many country churches which have been repaired or partly rebuilt since the
+Reformation. In the interior of churches specimens of the wood-work of
+this style are very common, and may be perceived by the shallow and flat
+carved panelling, with round arches, arabesques, scroll-work, and other
+nondescript ornament peculiar to the age, with which the pews,
+reading-desks, and pulpits are often adorned. The screens of this period
+are constructed in a semi-classic style of design, with features and
+details of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> English growth, and are often surmounted with scroll-work,
+shields, and other accessories. Of this description of work the screen in
+the south aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, constructed A.&nbsp;D. 1611, may
+be instanced as a curious specimen.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 137px;">
+<a href="images/image117-full.jpg"><img src="images/image117.jpg" width="137" height="307" alt="Arabesque." title="Arabesque." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Arabesque.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Q. What peculiarity may be noted in the alterations and additions of this
+era?</p>
+
+<p>A. A very common practice prevailed, from about the middle of the
+sixteenth century, when any alteration or addition was made in or to a
+church, of affixing a stone in the masonry, with the date of such in
+figures. Thus over the east window of Hillmorton Church, Warwickshire,
+(which is a pointed window of four lights, formed by three plain mullions
+curving and intersecting each other in the head, which is filled with
+nearly lozenge-shaped lights, but all without foliations,) is a stone
+bearing the date of 1640. In the south wall of the tower of the same
+church (which is low, heavy, and clumsily built, without any pretension to
+architectural design) is a stone to denote the period of its erection,
+which bears the date of 1655. Pulpits, communion-tables, church chests,
+poor-boxes, and pewing of the latter part of the sixteenth and of the
+seventeenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> century, also very frequently exhibit, in figures carved on
+them, the precise periods of their construction.</p>
+
+<p>Q. What specimens are there of this style of late or debased and mixed
+Gothic?</p>
+
+<p>A. Annexed to Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, is a singular porch or
+building, sexagonal in form, at the angles of which are projecting columns
+of the Ionic order supporting an entablature. On each side of this
+building, except that by which it communicates with the church, and that
+in which the doorway is contained, is a plain window of the Debased Gothic
+style, of one light, with a square head and hood moulding over. The
+doorway is nondescript, neither Roman or Gothic. This building is supposed
+to have been erected by Bishop Jewell. The chapel of St. Peter&#8217;s College,
+Cambridge, finished in 1632, exhibits in the east wall a large pointed
+window, clumsily designed, in the Debased style, and divided by mullions
+into five principal lights, round-headed, but trefoiled within; three
+series of smaller lights, rising one above the other, all of which are
+round-headed and trefoiled, fill the head of the window, the composition
+of which, though comparatively rude, is illustrative of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> taste of the
+age. On each side of the window, on the exterior, is a kind of
+semi-classic niche. In Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, are a number of
+windows inserted at a general reparation of the church in 1639; these are
+square-headed, and have a label or hood moulding over, and are mostly
+divided into three obtusely pointed-arched lights, without foliations.
+Under the windows of the south aisle is a string-course, more of a
+semi-classic contour than Gothic. On the south side is a plain
+round-headed doorway, inserted at the same period. The tower and south
+aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, erected by Sir Thomas Spencer, A.&nbsp;D.
+1611, have the same kind of square-headed window, with arched lights
+without foliations, as those of Stow. Stanton-Harold Church,
+Leicestershire, erected A.&nbsp;D. 1653, is perhaps the latest complete specimen
+of the Debased Gothic style. Towards the end of this century Gothic
+mouldings appear not to have been understood, as in the attempt to
+reconstruct portions of churches in that style we find mouldings of
+classic art to prevail. Such is the case with respect to the tower of
+Eynesbury Church, St. Neot&#8217;s, Huntingdonshire, rebuilt in a kind of
+Debased Gothic and mixed Roman style, in 1687.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> Other instances of the
+kind might also be enumerated. At the commencement of the eighteenth
+century the Roman or Italian mode appears to have prevailed generally in
+the churches then erected, without any admixture even of the Debased
+Gothic style.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<a href="images/image118-full.jpg"><img src="images/image118.jpg" width="200" height="159" alt="Window, Ladbrook Church, Warwickshire." title="Window, Ladbrook Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Window, Ladbrook Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;">
+<a href="images/image119-full.jpg"><img src="images/image119.jpg" width="220" height="353" alt="Stoup, South Door, Oakham Church, Rutlandshire." title="Stoup, South Door, Oakham Church, Rutlandshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Stoup, South Door, Oakham Church, Rutlandshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="chapafterill"><a name="CONCLUDING_CHAPTER" id="CONCLUDING_CHAPTER"></a>CONCLUDING CHAPTER.</h2>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 8em;" />
+
+<p class="chaptitle">ON THE INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT AND DECORATIONS OF A CHURCH.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> churches of this country were anciently so constructed as to display,
+in their internal arrangement, certain appendages designed with
+architectonic skill, and adapted purposely for the celebration of mass and
+other religious offices.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the Reformation, when the ritual was changed and many of the
+formularies of the church of Rome were discarded, some of such appendages
+were destroyed; whilst others, though suffered to exist, more or less in a
+mutilated condition, were no longer appropriated to the particular uses
+for which they had been originally designed.</p>
+
+<p>On entering a church through the porch on the north or south side, or at
+the west end, we sometimes perceive on the right hand side of the door, at
+a convenient height from the ground, often beneath a niche, and partly
+projecting from the wall, a stone basin: this was the <i>stoup</i>, or
+receptacle for holy water, called also the <i>aspersorium</i>, into which each
+individual dipped his finger and crossed himself when passing the
+threshold of the sacred edifice. The custom of aspersion at the church
+door appears to have been derived from an ancient usage of the heathens,
+amongst whom, according to <span class="nowrap">Sozomen<a name="FNanchor_154-A_16" id="FNanchor_154-A_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_154-A_16" class="fnanchor">154-*</a>,</span> the priest was accustomed to
+sprinkle such as entered into a temple with moist branches of olive. The
+stoup is sometimes found inside the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> church, close by the door; but the
+stone appendage appears to have been by no means general, and probably in
+most cases a movable vessel of metal was provided for the purpose; and in
+an inventory of ancient church goods at St. Dunstan&#8217;s, Canterbury, taken
+A.&nbsp;D. 1500, we find mentioned &#8220;a stope off lede for the holy wat<sup class="super2">r</sup> atte the
+church dore.&#8221; We do not often find the stoup of so ancient a date as the
+twelfth century; one much mutilated, but apparently of that era, may
+however be met with inside the little Norman church of Beaudesert,
+Warwickshire, near to the south door.</p>
+
+<p>The porch was often of a considerable size, and had frequently a groined
+ceiling, with an apartment above; it was anciently used for a variety of
+religious rites, for before the Reformation considerable portions of the
+marriage and baptismal services, and also much of that relating to the
+churching of women, were here performed, being commenced &#8220;ante ostium
+ecclesi&aelig;,&#8221; and concluded in the church; and these are set forth in the
+rubric of the Manual or service-book, according to the use of Sarum,
+containing those and other occasional offices.</p>
+
+<p>Having entered the church, the font is generally discovered towards the
+west end of the nave,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> or north or south aisle, and near the principal
+door; such, at least, was in most cases its original and appropriate
+position: this was for the convenience of the sacramental rite there
+administered; part of the baptismal service (that of making the infant a
+catechumen) having been performed in the porch or outside the <span class="nowrap">door<a name="FNanchor_156-A_17" id="FNanchor_156-A_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_156-A_17" class="fnanchor">156-*</a>,</span>
+he was introduced by the priest into the church, with the invitation,
+<i>Ingredere in templum Dei, ut habeas vitam &aelig;ternam et vivas in s&aelig;cula
+s&aelig;culorum</i>; and after certain other rites and prayers the infant was
+carried to the font and immersed therein thrice by the priest, in the
+names of the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. By an ancient
+ecclesiastical constitution a font of stone or other durable material,
+with a fitting cover, was required to be placed in every church in which
+baptism could be <span class="nowrap">administered<a name="FNanchor_156-B_18" id="FNanchor_156-B_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_156-B_18" class="fnanchor">156-&#8224;</a>;</span> and it was, as Lyndwood informs us,
+to be capacious enough for total immersion. Some ancient fonts are of
+lead, as that in Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, and that in Childrey
+Church, Berkshire; both of these are cylindrical in shape, and of the
+Norman era,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> encircled with figures in relief; those on the font at
+Dorchester representing the twelve apostles, whilst those on that of
+Childrey are of bishops. Leaden fonts are also to be met with in the
+churches of Brookland, Kent; Wareham, Dorsetshire; and Walmsford,
+Northamptonshire. Square and cylindrical or truncated cone-like shaped
+fonts, of Norman design, supported on a basement by one or more shafts,
+and either plain or sculptured, are numerous; we sometimes find on them
+figures of the twelve apostles, sculptured in low relief; the baptism of
+our Saviour also was no uncommon representation. Fonts subsequent to the
+Norman era are not so frequently covered with sculptured figures, though
+such sometimes occur; they are sexagonal, septagonal, or octagonal in
+shape; and the different styles are easily ascertained by the
+architectural decorations, mouldings, tracery, and panel-work, with which
+they are more or less covered. On the sides of rich fonts of the fifteenth
+century representations of the seven sacraments were not unfrequently
+sculptured, as on that in Farningham Church, Kent. The covers to some rich
+fonts, especially to some of those of the fifteenth century, were very
+splendid, in shape somewhat resembling that of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> spire, but the sides
+were covered with tabernacle-work, and decorated at the angles with small
+buttresses and crockets. Fonts with rich covers of this description are to
+be found in the churches of Ewelme, Oxfordshire; of North Walsham and of
+Worstead, Norfolk; and of Sudbury and of Ufford, <span class="nowrap">Suffolk.<a name="FNanchor_158-A_19" id="FNanchor_158-A_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_158-A_19" class="fnanchor">158-*</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The general situation of the tower or campanile is at the west end of the
+nave; it is sometimes, however, found in a different position, as at the
+west end of a side aisle, which is the case with respect to the churches
+of Monkskirby and Withybrooke, Warwickshire; or on one side of the church,
+as at Eynesbury Church, Huntingdonshire, and Alderbury Church, Salop; and
+the tower of the latter church is covered with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> what is called the
+saddle-back roof, having two gables&mdash;a peculiarity to be found in some few
+other churches. In cross churches the tower was generally, though not
+always, erected at the intersection of the transept, and between the nave
+and chancel. In the towers the church bells were hung, with the exception
+of one; without these no church was accounted complete; they were
+anciently consecrated with great ceremony, named and inscribed in honour
+of some saint, and the sound issuing from them was supposed to be of
+efficacy in averting the influence of evil spirits. Bells appear to have
+been introduced into this country in the latter part of the seventh
+century, but comparatively few bells are now remaining in our churches of
+an earlier date than the seventeenth century, since the commencement of
+which century most of our present church bells have been cast. Towers were
+also occasionally used, up to the fourteenth century, as parochial
+fortresses, to which in time of sudden and unforeseen danger the
+inhabitants of the parish resorted for awhile. The tower of Rugby Church,
+Warwickshire, a very singular structure built in the reign of Henry the
+Third, appears to have been erected for this purpose; it is of a square
+form, very lofty, and plain in construction, and is without a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> single
+buttress to support it; the lower windows are very narrow, and at a
+considerable distance from the ground; some of them are, in fact, mere
+loop-holes; the belfry windows are <i>square-headed</i>, of two lights, simply
+trefoiled in the head, and divided by a plain mullion; the only entrance
+was through the church; it has also a fire-place, the funnel for the
+conveyance of smoke being carried up through the thickness of the wall to
+a perforated battlement, and it altogether seems well calculated to resist
+a sudden attack. Other church towers of early date appear to have been
+erected for a double purpose: that of a campanile, as well as to afford
+temporary security. The towers of Newton Arlosh Church, of the Church of
+Burgh on the Sands, and of Great Salkeld Church, Cumberland, appear to
+have been constructed with a view to afford protection to the inhabitants
+of those villages upon any sudden invasion from the borders of Scotland,
+and for that purpose were strongly <span class="nowrap">fortified<a name="FNanchor_160-A_20" id="FNanchor_160-A_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_160-A_20" class="fnanchor">160-*</a>.</span> Some church towers,
+especially in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, are round and batter,
+or gradually decrease in diameter as they rise upwards; most of these are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+of the Norman, though some are in the Early English, style; that at Little
+Saxham Church, Suffolk, may be adduced as a specimen. Spires in some
+instances appear to have served as landmarks, to guide travellers through
+woody districts and over barren downs. The spire of Astley Church,
+Warwickshire, now destroyed, was so conspicuous an object at a distance,
+that it was denominated the lantern of Arden. The spires<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> of the churches
+of Monkskirby and Clifton, in the same county, now also destroyed, were
+formerly noticed as eminent landmarks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;">
+<a href="images/image120-full.jpg"><img src="images/image120.jpg" width="218" height="388" alt="Little Saxham Church Tower, Suffolk." title="Little Saxham Church Tower, Suffolk." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Little Saxham Church Tower, Suffolk.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;">
+<a href="images/image121-full.jpg"><img src="images/image121.jpg" width="240" height="254" alt="Open Seat, Culworth Church, Northamptonshire." title="Open Seat, Culworth Church, Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Open Seat, Culworth Church, Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Anciently the body of the church appears to have contained no other fixed
+seats for the congregation than a solid mass of masonry raised against the
+wall, and forming a long stone bench or seat. A bench of this description
+runs along great part of the north, west, and south sides of the Norman
+church of Parranforth, Cornwall. In the Norman conventual church of Romsey
+plain stone benches of this description occur; they are likewise to be met
+with in Salisbury and other cathedrals; also in some of our ancient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+parish churches, as in the south aisle of Kidlington Church, Oxfordshire.
+Seats for the use of the congregation are noticed in the synod of Exeter,
+held A.&nbsp;D. 1287. Open wooden benches or pew-work are rarely, if at all, met
+with of an earlier era than the fifteenth century, when the practice of
+pewing the body of the church with open wooden seats, if not then
+introduced, began to prevail. In 1458 we meet with a testamentary bequest
+of money &#8220;to make seats called puying,&#8221; and several of our churches still
+retain considerable remains of the ancient open seats of the fifteenth
+century. At Finedon, in Northamptonshire, the body of the church and
+aisles are almost entirely filled with low open seats, with carved tracery
+at the ends, disposed in four distinct rows; so that the whole of the
+congregation might sit facing the east. Similar seats occur in Culworth
+Church, in the same county, and these are likewise of the fifteenth
+century. The pulpit was anciently disposed towards the eastern part of the
+body of the church, but not in the centre of the aisle. Pulpits are now
+rarely to be found of an earlier date than the fifteenth century, when
+they appear to have been introduced into many churches, though not to have
+become a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> general appendage. Ancient pulpits of that era, whether of wood
+or stone, are covered with panel-work tracery and mouldings; and some
+exhibit signs of having been once elaborately painted and gilt. Mention,
+however, is made of pulpits at a much earlier period; for in the year 1187
+one was set up in the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund&#8217;s, from which, we are
+told, the abbot was accustomed to preach to the people in the vulgar
+tongue and provincial <span class="nowrap">dialect<a name="FNanchor_164-A_21" id="FNanchor_164-A_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_164-A_21" class="fnanchor">164-*</a>.</span> The most ancient pulpit, perhaps,
+existing in this country, is that in the refectory of the abbey (now in
+ruins) of Beaulieu, Hampshire: it is of stone, and partly projects from
+the wall, and is ornamented with mouldings, sculptured foliage, and a
+series of blank trefoiled pointed arches, in the style of the thirteenth
+century. The church of the Holy Trinity, at Coventry, contains a fine
+specimen of a stone pulpit of the fifteenth century. In Rowington Church,
+in the county of Warwick, is a stone pulpit of the same age as that at
+Coventry, but much plainer in design. At Long Sutton<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden pulpit of the fifteenth century,
+painted and gilt; and the sides are covered with ogee-headed niches, with
+angular-shaped buttresses between; but the pulpits of this era may be
+distinguished without difficulty by the peculiar architectural designs
+they exhibit.</p>
+
+<p>We now approach the division between the nave or body of the church and
+the chancel or choir: this was formed by a beautiful and highly decorated
+screen, sometimes of stone, but generally of wood, panel and open-work
+tracery, painted and gilt: above this was a cross-beam, which formed a
+main support to the rood-loft, a gallery in which the crucifix or rood and
+the accompanying images of the blessed Virgin and St. John were placed so
+as to be seen by the parishioners in the body of the church, and also in
+accordance with the traditional belief that the position of our Saviour
+whilst suspended on the cross was facing the west. The passage to the
+rood-loft was generally up a flight of stone steps in the north or south
+wall of the nave; but as the rood-loft frequently extended across the
+aisles, we sometimes meet with a small turret annexed to the east end of
+one of the aisles for the approach. Though the introduction of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+lattice-work division between the chancel and nave may be traced in the
+eastern church to the fourth century, we possess in our own churches few
+remains of screen-work of earlier date than the fifteenth century; and it
+appears probable that wooden screen-work before that period was not
+common, and that in most instances a curtain or veil was used for the
+purpose of division. The rood-loft generally projected in front, so as to
+form a kind of groined cove, the ribs of which sprang or diverged from the
+principal uprights of the screen beneath. In Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden rood-loft, elaborately carved,
+painted, and gilt, which extends across the whole breadth of the church,
+and is approached by means of a staircase turret on the south side of the
+church. In the churches of Great Handborough, Enstone, Great Rollwright,
+and Hook Norton, Oxfordshire, are considerable remains of the ancient
+rood-loft, and numerous other instances where it is still retained could
+be adduced. Sometimes this gallery was so small as to admit of the rood
+and two attendant images only, and had no apparent access to it, as that
+in Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire. Hardly a rood-loft is, however,
+remaining of earlier date than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> fifteenth century; prior to that
+period, and in many instances even during it, the crucifix or rood and its
+attendant images appear to have been affixed to a transverse beam
+extending horizontally across the chancel arch; this was sometimes richly
+carved, and a beam of this description still exists in the chancel of
+Little Malvern Church, Worcestershire. An earlier date than the eleventh
+century can hardly be assigned for the introduction of the rood, with the
+figures of St. Mary and St. John, into our churches, though in illuminated
+manuscripts somewhat before that period we find such figures pourtrayed
+with the <span class="nowrap">crucifix<a name="FNanchor_167-A_22" id="FNanchor_167-A_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_167-A_22" class="fnanchor">167-*</a>.</span> In the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund&#8217;s, the rood
+and the figures of St. Mary and St. John, which were placed over the high
+altar, were (as we are informed by Joceline, who wrote his Chronicle in
+the twelfth century) the gift of Archbishop <span class="nowrap">Stigand<a name="FNanchor_167-B_23" id="FNanchor_167-B_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_167-B_23" class="fnanchor">167-&#8224;</a>.</span> Gervase, in
+describing the work of Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral, as it appeared
+before the fire, A.&nbsp;D. 1174, notices the rood-beam, which sustained a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+large crucifix and the images of St. Mary and St. John, as extended across
+the church between the nave and central <span class="nowrap">tower<a name="FNanchor_168-A_24" id="FNanchor_168-A_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_168-A_24" class="fnanchor">168-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 255px;">
+<a href="images/image122-full.jpg"><img src="images/image122.jpg" width="255" height="374" alt="Rood, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire." title="Rood, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Rood, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the carved wooden roods appear to have been destroyed at the
+Reformation in compliance with the injunctions issued for that purpose.
+We<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> occasionally meet, however, with bas relief sculptures of our Saviour
+extended on the cross, with a figure on each side representing the Virgin
+and St. John, but in a mutilated condition. On the outside of the west
+wall of the south transept of Romsey Church, Hants, and close to the
+entrance from the cloisters into the church, is a large stone rood or
+crucifix sculptured in relief, with a hand above emerging from a
+<span class="nowrap">cloud<a name="FNanchor_169-A_25" id="FNanchor_169-A_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_169-A_25" class="fnanchor">169-*</a>:</span> this is apparently of the twelfth century. Small sculptured
+representations of the rood, with the figures of St. Mary and St. John,
+still exist on one of the buttresses near the west door of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire; over a south doorway of Burford Church, Oxfordshire;
+and in the wall of the tower of the church of St. Lawrence, Evesham.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/image123-full.jpg"><img src="images/image123.jpg" width="239" height="425" alt="Sanctus Bell, Long Compton Church, Warwickshire." title="Sanctus Bell, Long Compton Church, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Sanctus Bell, Long Compton Church, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Outside the roof of some churches, on the apex of the eastern gable of the
+nave, is a small open arch or turret, in which formerly a single bell was
+suspended: this was the <i>sanctus</i> or <i>sacringe</i> bell, thus placed that,
+being near the altar, it might be the more readily rung, when,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> in
+concluding the ordinary of the mass, the priest pronounced the
+<i>Ter-sanctus</i>, to draw attention to that more solemn office, the canon of
+the mass, which he was now about to commence; it was also rung at a
+subsequent part of the service, on the elevation and adoration of the host
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>and chalice, after <span class="nowrap">consecration<a name="FNanchor_171-A_26" id="FNanchor_171-A_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_171-A_26" class="fnanchor">171-*</a>;</span> but though the arch remains on
+the gable of the nave of many churches, the bell thus suspended is
+retained in few; amongst which may be mentioned those of Long Compton,
+Whichford, and Brailes, in Warwickshire, where this bell is still
+preserved hung in an arch at the apex of the nave, with the rope hanging
+down between the chancel and <span class="nowrap">nave<a name="FNanchor_171-B_27" id="FNanchor_171-B_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_171-B_27" class="fnanchor">171-&#8224;</a>.</span> Mention of this bell is thus
+made in the Survey of the Priory of Sandwell, in the county of Stafford,
+taken at the time of the Reformation: &#8220;Itm the belframe standyng betw: the
+chauncell and the church, w<sup class="super">t</sup>. a litle <i>sanct</i><sup class="super2">m</sup> bell in the same.&#8221;
+Generally, however, a small hand-bell was carried and rung at the proper
+times in the service, by the acolyte; and in inventories of ancient church
+furniture we find it often noticed as &#8220;<i>a sacringe bell</i>;&#8221; but in an
+inventory of goods belonging to the chapel of Thorp, Northamptonshire, it
+is described as &#8220;a litle <i>sanctus bell</i>.&#8221; A small sacringe bell, of
+bell-metal, with the exception of the clapper,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> which was of iron, was in
+1819 discovered on the removal of some rubbish from the ruins of St.
+Margaret&#8217;s Priory, Barnstable; and within the last few years a small
+sanctus bell was found on the site of a religious house at <span class="nowrap">Warwick<a name="FNanchor_172-A_28" id="FNanchor_172-A_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_172-A_28" class="fnanchor">172-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;">
+<a href="images/image124-full.jpg"><img src="images/image124.jpg" width="254" height="349" alt="Ancient Sanctus Bell, found at Warwick." title="Ancient Sanctus Bell, found at Warwick." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ancient Sanctus Bell, found at Warwick.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Passing under the rood-loft, we enter the chancel: this was so called from
+the screen or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> lattice-work (cancelli) of stone or wood by which it was
+separated from the nave, and which succeeded the curtain or veil which
+anciently formed this division of the <span class="nowrap">church<a name="FNanchor_173-A_29" id="FNanchor_173-A_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_173-A_29" class="fnanchor">173-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;">
+<a href="images/image125-full.jpg"><img src="images/image125.jpg" width="422" height="303" alt="Stalls and Desk, St. Margaret&#39;s Church, Leicester." title="Stalls and Desk, St. Margaret&#39;s Church, Leicester." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Stalls and Desk, St. Margaret&#39;s Church, Leicester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We often perceive in the choirs of conventual churches, as in our
+cathedrals, on either side of the entrance, facing the east, and also on
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> north and south sides, a range of wooden stalls divided into single
+seats, peculiarly constructed, the <i>formul&aelig;</i> or forms of which were
+movable, and carved on the <i>subselli&aelig;</i> or under-sides with grotesque,
+satirical, and often irreverend devices: these were appropriated to the
+monks or canons of the monastery or college to which the church was
+attached. The form of each stall, when turned up so as to exhibit the
+carved work on the under-part, furnished a small kind of seat or ledge,
+constructed for the purpose of inclining against rather than sitting on;
+and this was called the <i>misericorde</i> or <i>miserere</i>. The <i>formul&aelig;</i> or
+forms when down, and the misericordes when the forms were turned up, were
+used as the season required for penitential <span class="nowrap">inclinations<a name="FNanchor_174-A_30" id="FNanchor_174-A_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_174-A_30" class="fnanchor">174-*</a>.</span> In front
+of these stalls was a desk, ornamented on the exterior with panelled
+tracery; and over the stalls, especially of those of cathedral churches,
+canopies of tabernacle work richly carved were sometimes disposed. In
+Winchester Cathedral we have perhaps the most early, chaste, and beautiful
+example of the canons&#8217; stalls, with canopies over, that are to be met
+with, although a greater excess<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> of minute carved ornament may be found in
+the canopies which overhang the stalls in other cathedrals. In old
+conventual churches, now no longer used as such, the stalls have been
+often removed from their original position to other parts of the church,
+and they appear to have varied in number according to that of the
+fraternity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;">
+<a href="images/image126-full.jpg"><img src="images/image126.jpg" width="336" height="195" alt="Misericorde, All Souls&#39; College, Oxford." title="Misericorde, All Souls&#39; College, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Misericorde, All Souls&#39; College, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px; margin-top: 3em;">
+<a href="images/image127-full.jpg"><img src="images/image127.jpg" width="318" height="450" alt="Brass Reading Desk, Merton College Chapel, Oxford." title="Brass Reading Desk, Merton College Chapel, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Brass Reading Desk, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the choirs of cathedral and conventual churches, and in the chancels of
+some other churches, a movable desk, at which the epistle and gospel were
+read, was placed: this was often called the eagle desk, from its being
+frequently sustained on a brazen eagle with expanded wings, elevated on a
+stand, emblematic of St. John the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> evangelist. Eagle desks are generally
+found either of the fifteenth or seventeenth century; notices of them
+occur, however, much earlier. In the Louterell Psalter, written circa A.&nbsp;D.
+1300, an eagle desk supported on a cylindrical shaft,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> banded midway down
+by an annulated moulding in the style of the thirteenth century, is
+represented; and in an account of ornaments belonging to Salisbury
+Cathedral, A.&nbsp;D. 1214, we find mentioned <i>Tuellia una ad Lectricum Aquil&aelig;</i>.
+Besides the brass eagle desks which still remain in use in several of our
+cathedrals, and in the chapels of some of the colleges at Oxford and
+Cambridge, fine specimens are preserved in Redcliffe Church, Bristol, of
+the date 1638; in Croydon Church, Surrey; and in the church of the Holy
+Trinity at Coventry; other instances might also be enumerated. Sometimes
+we meet with ancient brass reading-desks which have not the eagle in
+front, but both the sides are sloped so as to form a double desk: of
+these, examples of the fifteenth century may be found in Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire, and in the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. Ancient wooden
+reading-desks, either single or double, are also occasionally found; some
+of these are richly carved, others are comparatively plain, but all
+partake more or less of the architectonic style of the age in which they
+were severally constructed, and from which their probable dates may be
+ascertained. In Bury Church, Huntingdonshire, is a wooden desk with a
+single slope, and the vertical face presented in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> front is covered with
+arches and other carved ornaments: this perhaps may be referable to the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. A rich double desk, of somewhat
+later date, with the shaft supported by buttresses of open-work tracery,
+is preserved in Ramsey Church, Huntingdonshire. In Aldbury Church,
+Hertfordshire, is an ancient double lecturn or reading desk, of wood, of
+the fifteenth century, much plainer in design than those at Bury and
+Ramsey; the shaft is angular, with small buttresses at the angles, and
+with a plain angular-shaped moulded capital and base, which latter is set
+on a cross-tree. In Hawstead Church, Suffolk, is a wooden desk with little
+ornament, supported on an angular shaft with an embattled capital, and
+moulded base with leaves carved in relief: this is apparently of the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. The ancient wooden desks found in
+some of our churches must not, however, be confounded with a more numerous
+class constructed and used subsequent to the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding up the chancel or choir, we ascend by three steps to the
+platform, on which the high altar anciently stood: this was so called to
+distinguish it from other altars, of which there were often several, in
+the same church; high mass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> was celebrated at it, whereas the other altars
+were chiefly used for the performance of low or private masses. The most
+ancient altars were of wood, afterwards they were constructed of stone;
+those of the primitive British churches are spoken of by St. Chrysostom.
+By a decree of the council of Paris, held A.&nbsp;D. 509, no altar was to be
+built but of stone. Amongst the excerptions of Ecgbert, archbishop of York
+A.&nbsp;D. 750, was one that no altars should be consecrated with chrism but
+such as were made of stone; and by the council of Winchester, held under
+Lanfranc A.&nbsp;D. 1076, altars were enjoined to be of stone. The customary
+form of such was a mass of stone supporting an altar table or slab, and
+resembling the tombs of the martyrs, at which the primitive Christians
+held their meetings; from which circumstance it became customary to
+enclose in every altar relics of some saint, and without such relics an
+altar was esteemed incomplete.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 181px;">
+<a href="images/image128-full.jpg"><img src="images/image128.jpg" width="181" height="228" alt="Ancient Pix, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford." title="Ancient Pix, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ancient Pix, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pertaining to the high altar, which was covered with a frontal and cloths,
+and anciently enclosed at the sides with curtains suspended on rods of
+iron projecting from the wall, was a crucifix, which succeeded to the
+simple cross placed on the altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches; a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+<span class="nowrap">pair<a name="FNanchor_180-A_31" id="FNanchor_180-A_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_180-A_31" class="fnanchor">180-*</a></span> of candlesticks, generally with spikes instead of sockets, on
+which lights or tapers were fixed; a pix, in which the host was kept
+reserved for the sick; a pair of cruets, of metal, in which were contained
+the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in the eucharistic cup;
+a sacring bell; a pax table, of silver or other metal, for the kiss of
+peace, which took place shortly before the host was received in communion;
+a stoup or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> stok, of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water; a censer or
+<span class="nowrap">thurible<a name="FNanchor_181-A_32" id="FNanchor_181-A_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_181-A_32" class="fnanchor">181-*</a>,</span> and a ship, (a vessel so called,) to hold frankincense; a
+<span class="nowrap">chrismatory<a name="FNanchor_181-B_33" id="FNanchor_181-B_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_181-B_33" class="fnanchor">181-&#8224;</a>,</span> an offering basin, a basin which was used when the
+priest washed his hands, and a chalice and paten. Costly specimens of the
+ancient pix, containing small patens for the reception of the host, are
+preserved amongst the plate belonging to New College and Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford. A pix of a much plainer description, but without its
+cover, of the metal called latten, was until recently preserved in the
+church of Enstone, Oxfordshire: the body of this was of a semi-globular
+form, supported on an angular stem, with a knob in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> the midst, and in
+appearance not unlike a chalice. The monstrance, in which the host was
+exhibited to the people, and which has been sometimes confounded with the
+<span class="nowrap">pix<a name="FNanchor_182-A_34" id="FNanchor_182-A_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_182-A_34" class="fnanchor">182-*</a>,</span> does not appear to have been introduced into our churches
+before the fifteenth century; on the suppression of the monasteries and
+chantries we find it noticed in the inventories then taken of church
+furniture, as in that of the Priory of Ely, where it is called &#8220;a stonding
+monstral for the sacrament;&#8221; and in that of St. Augustine&#8217;s Monastery,
+Canterbury, where it is described as &#8220;one monstrance, silver gilt, with
+four glasses.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 255px;">
+<a href="images/image129-full.jpg"><img src="images/image129.jpg" width="255" height="242" alt="Sedilia, Crick Church, Northamptonshire." title="Sedilia, Crick Church, Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Sedilia, Crick Church, Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Near the high altar we frequently find, in the south wall of the chancel,
+a series of stone seats, sometimes without but generally beneath plain or
+enriched arched canopies, often supported by slender piers which serve to
+divide the seats. In most instances these seats are three in number, but
+they vary from one to five, and are the <i>sedilia</i> or seats formerly
+appropriated during high mass to the use of the officiating priest and his
+attendant ministers, the deacon and sub-deacon, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> retired thither
+during the chanting of the <i>Gloria in excelsis</i>, and some other parts of
+the <span class="nowrap">service<a name="FNanchor_183-A_35" id="FNanchor_183-A_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_183-A_35" class="fnanchor">183-*</a>.</span> The sedilia sometimes preserve the same level, but
+generally they graduate or rise one above another, and that nearest the
+altar, being the highest, was occupied by the priest; the other two by the
+deacon and sub-deacon in <span class="nowrap">succession<a name="FNanchor_183-B_36" id="FNanchor_183-B_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_183-B_36" class="fnanchor">183-&#8224;</a>.</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> We do not often meet with
+sedilia of so early an era as the twelfth century; there are, however,
+instances of such, as in the church of St. Mary, at Leicester, where is a
+fine Norman triple sedile, divided into graduating seats by double
+cylindrical piers with sculptured capitals, and the recessed arches they
+support are enriched on the face with a profusion of the zigzag moulding.
+In the south wall of the choir of Broadwater Church, Sussex, is a stone
+bench beneath a large semicircular Norman arch, the face of which is
+enriched with the chevron or zigzag moulding. In Avington Church,
+Berkshire, is a stone beneath a plain segmental arch. Norman sedilia also
+occur in the churches of Earls Barton, Northamptonshire, and of
+Wellingore, Lincolnshire. From the commencement of the thirteenth century
+up to the Reformation sedilia became a common appendage to a church, and
+the styles are easily distinguished by their peculiar architectonic
+features. Some are without canopies, and are excessively plain. On the
+south side of the chancel of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, is a
+stone bench without a canopy or division, and plain stone benches thus
+disposed are found in the chancel of Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and of
+Rowington Church, Warwickshire. In Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire,
+are two sedilia without canopies; and in Standlake Church, Oxfordshire,
+the sedilia, three in number, are without canopies or ornament. In
+Spratten Church, Northamptonshire, is a stone bench for three persons
+under a plain recessed pointed arch. In Priors Hardwick Church,
+Warwickshire, is a sedile for the priest, and below that one double the
+size for the deacon and sub-deacon; both are under recessed arched
+canopies. Quadruple sedilia occur in the churches of Turvey and Luton,
+Bedfordshire; in the Mayor&#8217;s Chapel, Bristol; in Gloucester Cathedral; in
+the church of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire; and in Rothwell Church,
+Northamptonshire: these are beneath canopies, and most of them are highly
+enriched. Quintuple sedilia sometimes occur, but are very rare; in the
+conventual church of Southwell, Nottinghamshire, are, however, five
+sedilia beneath ogee-headed canopies richly ornamented. A single sedile
+for one person only is occasionally met with, but not often.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 211px;">
+<a href="images/image130-full.jpg"><img src="images/image130.jpg" width="211" height="252" alt="Double Piscina, Salisbury Cathedral." title="Double Piscina, Salisbury Cathedral." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Double Piscina, Salisbury Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Eastward of the sedilia, in the same wall, is a <i>fenestella</i> or niche,
+sometimes plain, but often enriched with a crocketed ogee or pedimental
+hood moulding in front, over the arch, which is trefoiled or cinquefoiled
+in the head. This niche contains a hollow perforated basin or stone drain,
+called the <i>piscina</i> or <span class="nowrap"><i>lavacrum</i><a name="FNanchor_186-A_37" id="FNanchor_186-A_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_186-A_37" class="fnanchor">186-*</a>,</span> into which it appears that
+after the priest had washed his hands, which he was accustomed to do
+before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> the consecration of the elements and again after the communion,
+the water was poured, as also that with which the chalice was rinsed. The
+usage of washing the hands before the communion is one of very high
+antiquity, and is expressly noticed in the Clementine Liturgy, and by St.
+Cyril in his mystical <span class="nowrap">Catechesis<a name="FNanchor_187-A_38" id="FNanchor_187-A_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_187-A_38" class="fnanchor">187-*</a>;</span> we do not, however, find the
+piscina in our churches of an era earlier than the twelfth century, and
+even then it was of uncommon occurrence; but in the thirteenth century the
+general introduction is observable. In Romsey Church, Hampshire, is the
+shaft and basin (the latter cushion-shaped) of a curious Norman piscina:
+this is now lying loose, in a dilapidated state. In the south apsis of the
+same church is another Norman piscina, consisting of a quadrangular-shaped
+basin projecting from the south wall; and on the south side of the chancel
+of Avington Church, Berkshire, is a plain Norman piscina within a simple
+semicircular arched recess. The churches of Kilpeck, Herefordshire,
+Keelby, Lincolnshire, and Bapchild, Kent, also contain Norman piscin&aelig;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+Those of all the various styles of later date are common; they exhibit,
+however, an interesting variety in design and ornamental detail. The drain
+of the piscina communicated with a perforated stone shaft, commonly
+enclosed in the wall, through which the water was lost in the earth; as in
+the case of the piscina with its shaft taken out of the south wall of the
+chancel of the now destroyed church of Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.
+Sometimes a piscina was a subsequent addition to a structure of early
+date, as in the old and now demolished church of Stretton-upon-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>Dunsmore,
+Warwickshire, in the south wall of the Norman chancel of which a piscina
+of the latter part of the thirteenth century had been inserted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;">
+<a href="images/image131-full.jpg"><img src="images/image131.jpg" width="175" height="275" alt="Piscina, Newnham Regis, Warwickshire." title="Piscina, Newnham Regis, Warwickshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Piscina, Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The piscina is very common in churches even where the sedilia or stone
+seats are wanting, and not only in the chancel, but also in the south
+walls at the east end of the north and south aisles, and in mortuary
+chapels, as will be presently noticed; it appears, in short, to have been
+an indispensable appendage to an altar.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the piscina is double, and contains two basins with drains, the
+one for receiving the water in which the hands had been washed, the other
+for the reception of the water with which the chalice was rinsed after the
+<span class="nowrap">communion<a name="FNanchor_189-A_39" id="FNanchor_189-A_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_189-A_39" class="fnanchor">189-*</a>.</span> In Rothwell Church, Northamptonshire, on the south side
+of the chancel, are the vestiges of a triple piscina; the fenestella has
+been destroyed, but the three basins with their drains remain.</p>
+
+<p>Across the <i>fenestella</i>, or niche which contains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> the piscina, a shelf of
+stone or wood may be frequently found: this was the <span class="nowrap"><i>credence</i><a name="FNanchor_190-A_40" id="FNanchor_190-A_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_190-A_40" class="fnanchor">190-*</a>,</span> or
+table on which the chalice, paten, ampull&aelig;, and other things necessary for
+the celebration of mass were, before consecration, placed in a state of
+readiness on a clean linen cloth; and this originated from the
+&#960;&#961;&#8057;&#952;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962;, or side table of preparation, used in the early church; a
+recurrence to which ancient and primitive custom by some of the divines of
+the Anglican church, after the Reformation, occasioned great offence to be
+taken by the Puritan seceders. In some instances a side table of stone or
+wood was used for this purpose; and a fine credence table of stone, the
+sides of which are covered with panelled compartments, is still remaining
+on the south side of the choir, St. Cross Church, near <span class="nowrap">Winchester<a name="FNanchor_190-B_41" id="FNanchor_190-B_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_190-B_41" class="fnanchor">190-&#8224;</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 236px;">
+<a href="images/image132-full.jpg"><img src="images/image132.jpg" width="236" height="253" alt="Ambrie or Locker, Chaddesden Church, Derbyshire." title="Ambrie or Locker, Chaddesden Church, Derbyshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ambrie or Locker, Chaddesden Church, Derbyshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The credence table, or shelf above the piscina, must not be confounded
+with the <i>ambrie</i> or <i>locker</i>, a small square and plain recess usually
+contained in the east or north wall, near the altar. In this the chalice,
+paten, and other articles pertaining to the altar were kept when not in
+use. The wooden doors formerly affixed to these ambries have for the most
+part either fallen into decay or been removed, but traces of the hinges
+may be frequently perceived; and a locker in the north wall of the chancel
+of Aston Church, Northamptonshire, still retains the two-leaved wooden
+door. Sometimes shelves are set across the lockers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> In the east wall of
+Earls Barton Church, Northamptonshire, is a large locker divided into two
+unequal parts by a stone shelf inserted in it; and in the north aisle of
+Salisbury Cathedral are two large triangular-headed lockers or ambries,
+<a name="corr7" id="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="each of which">each which</ins> contains two shelves.</p>
+
+<p>Within the north wall of the chancel, near the altar, a large arch, like
+that of a tomb, may often be perceived; within this the <i>holy sepulchre</i>,
+generally a wooden and movable structure, was set up at Easter, when
+certain rites commemorative of the burial and resurrection of our Lord
+were anciently performed with great solemnity; for on Good Friday the
+crucifix and host were here deposited, and watched the following day and
+nights; and early on Easter morning they were removed from thence with
+great ceremony, and replaced on the altar by the priest. In the accounts
+of churchwardens of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century
+we meet with frequent notices of payments made for watching the sepulchre
+at <span class="nowrap">Easter<a name="FNanchor_192-A_42" id="FNanchor_192-A_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_192-A_42" class="fnanchor">192-*</a>.</span> Sometimes the sepulchre was altogether of stone, and a
+fixture, and enriched with architectural and sculptured detail,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> as in the
+well-known specimen at Heckington, Lincolnshire, and the fine specimen of
+tabernacle-work in Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire.</p>
+
+<p>At the back of the high altar was affixed a reredos, or screen of
+tabernacle-work, costly specimens of which contained small images set on
+brackets under projecting canopies; an alabaster table or sculptured bas
+relief, placed just over the altar, was also common. The high altar
+reredos is still remaining, though in a mutilated condition, in the Abbey
+Church, St. Alban&#8217;s; it was erected A.&nbsp;D. 1480, and is perhaps the most
+splendid specimen we have; and in Bristol Cathedral a portion of the high
+altar reredos is also left. The chantry altar reredos is more frequently
+remaining, even where the altar and alabaster <span class="nowrap">table<a name="FNanchor_193-A_43" id="FNanchor_193-A_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_193-A_43" class="fnanchor">193-*</a></span> above have been
+destroyed; rarely, however, in a perfect state. In the seventeenth century
+the rich tabernacle-work was sometimes plastered over, probably to
+preserve it from iconoclastic violence. In many of our cathedrals, as at
+Gloucester, Bristol, Wells, and Worcester, and in some of the chantries
+attached to Henry the Seventh&#8217;s Chapel, Westminster, specimens of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+chantry reredos screen, which appear to have abounded more or less with
+sculptured and architectural detail, are to be met with; and remains of
+the painting and gilding with which they were anciently covered may in
+some instances be traced. In a Survey of the Priory Church, Bridlington,
+taken at the suppression, we find noticed, &#8220;The Reredose at the highe
+alter representyng Criste at the assumpcyon of our Lady and the XII.
+appostells, w<sup class="super">t</sup>. dyvers other great imagys, beyng of a great heyght, ys
+excellently well wrought, and as well gylted.&#8221; Five small chapels are also
+mentioned, &#8220;w<sup class="super">t</sup>. fyve alters and small tables of alleblaster and imag&#8217;s.&#8221;
+Sometimes, however, the space behind the altar was occupied by a painted
+altar-piece, on wood or panel; a curious but mutilated specimen of which,
+of the latter part of the fifteenth century, is still preserved in the
+conventual church, Romsey.</p>
+
+<p>Over the high altar was the great east window of the church, glazed with
+painted glass; other windows in the church were also thus filled. The
+subjects pourtrayed on the glass were sometimes scriptural, sometimes
+legendary. Single figures of saints, distinguished by their peculiar
+symbols, are common; figures of crowned heads, prelates, and warriors also
+frequently occur; and on some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> windows are depicted the arms and sometimes
+even the portraits of different benefactors to the church, with scrolls
+bearing inscriptions. We have, perhaps, few remains of ancient stained
+glass in our churches of a period antecedent to the thirteenth century: of
+this era, probably, are those curious circular designs which fill the
+greater portion of the lights at the back of the sedilia in Dorchester
+Church, Oxfordshire: one representing St. Augustine and St. Birinus, the
+first bishop of that ancient see; another, a priest and deacon, the former
+with the host, the latter bearing the ampull&aelig;. Of this period also is some
+ancient stained glass in Chetwood Church, Bucks, the ground of which is
+covered with a kind of mosaic pattern, a usual feature in the more ancient
+stained glass, and the borders partake of a tendril foliage; whilst in
+pointed oval-shaped compartments, forming the well-known symbol <i>vesica
+piscis</i>, are single figures of saints and crowned heads, each clad in a
+vest and mantle of two different colours. In the fourteenth century single
+figures under rich canopies are common, but we begin to lose sight of the
+mosaic pattern as a back-ground. The stained glass in the windows of the
+choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is either very early in this, or
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> a late period in the preceding century, and exhibits single figures
+under rich canopies: over the head of one of these, (the kneeling figure
+of a monk in his cowl,) is a scroll inscribed &#8220;<i>Magister Henricus de
+Mammesfeld me fecit</i>.&#8221; In the windows of Tewkesbury Abbey Church are
+several single figures of this period, some of knights in armour. In the
+chancel of Stanford Church, Northamptonshire, are single figures of the
+apostles in painted glass, each appearing within an ogee-headed canopy,
+cinquefoiled within the head and crocketed externally, and the sides of
+the canopy are flanked by pinnacled buttresses in stages. Specimens of
+stained glass of the fifteenth century are numerous in comparison with
+those of an earlier period; we find such in the east window of Langport
+Church, Somersetshire, where single figures occur of St. Clemens, St.
+Catherine, St. Elizabeth, and of many other saints. Some splendid remains
+of painted glass of the fifteenth century are likewise preserved in the
+windows of the choir of Ludlow Church, Salop, mostly in single figures;
+amongst them is the representation of St. George in armour, of the reign
+of Henry the Seventh; the figures of the Virgin and infant Christ may also
+be noticed. Towards the close of this century kneeling figures, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+merely disposed single, but also in groups, formally arranged, may be
+observed. As a composition, wherein a better display of grouping and
+aerial perspective is evinced, the splendid window in St. Margaret&#8217;s
+Church, Westminster, of the crucifixion between the two thieves, and
+numerous figures in the foreground, not grouped formally but with
+artistical feeling, with the figures of St. George and St. Catherine on
+each side of the principal design, and the portraits of Henry the Seventh
+and his consort Elizabeth in separate compartments beneath, each kneeling
+before a faldstool, may be noticed. This window, which in some of the
+details exhibits an approach to the renaissance style, was presented to
+Henry the Seventh by the magistrates of Dort in Holland, to adorn his
+chapel at Westminster. The era of the various specimens of ancient stained
+glass we meet with in our churches may generally be ascertained by the
+costume and disposition of the figures, the form of the shields, the
+mosaic pattern or other back-ground, and architectural designs of the
+canopies.</p>
+
+<p>The pavement beneath the high altar was frequently composed of small
+square encaustic bricks or tiles, whereon the arms of founders and
+benefactors, interspersed with figures, flowers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> emblematic devices,
+were impressed, painted, and glazed; other parts of the church were also
+paved with these tiles.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of the church were covered with fresco paintings of the day of
+judgment, legendary stories, portraits of saints, and scriptural,
+allegorical, and historical subjects, in the conventional styles of the
+different ages in which such were executed, the costume and details being
+according to the fashion then prevailing. These paintings have in most
+churches been obliterated by repeated coats of whitewash, so that few
+perfect specimens now remain; traces of such are, however, occasionally
+brought to light in the alteration and reparation of our ancient churches.
+The subject of the judgment-day was commonly represented on the west wall
+of the nave, or over the chancel arch; and in the contract for the
+erection of the Lady Chapel, St. Mary&#8217;s Church, Warwick, A.&nbsp;D. 1454, is a
+covenant &#8220;to paint fine and curiously, to make on the west wall the dome
+of our Lord God Jesus, and all manner of devises and imagery thereto
+belonging.&#8221; The west front of the wall over the chancel arch, Trinity
+Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon, was some years back found to be thus covered;
+but this painting, with others in the same chapel, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> afterwards again
+<span class="nowrap">obliterated<a name="FNanchor_199-A_44" id="FNanchor_199-A_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_199-A_44" class="fnanchor">199-*</a>.</span> A curious fresco painting of the last judgment,
+discovered a few years ago on the west face of the wall over the chancel
+arch, Trinity Church, Coventry, has, however, been very carefully
+preserved, and the coat of whitewash which tended to conceal it probably
+ever since the Reformation has been judiciously removed. The legend of St.
+Christopher, represented by a colossal figure with a beam-like
+walking-staff, carrying the infant Christ on his shoulders through the
+water, was generally painted on the north wall of the nave or body of the
+church. A fresco painting of this subject, half obliterated, is still
+apparent on the north wall of the nave of Burford Church, Oxfordshire; and
+other instances might be adduced. The murder of Archbishop Becket was also
+a very favourite subject: an early pictorial representation of the
+thirteenth century, of this event, is still visible on one of the walls of
+Preston Church, Sussex; it formed, likewise, one of the subjects
+represented on the walls of Trinity Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon; and a
+painting of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> the same subject on panel, executed in the middle of the
+fifteenth century, was formerly suspended over or near the tomb of Henry
+the Fourth in Canterbury <span class="nowrap">Cathedral<a name="FNanchor_200-A_45" id="FNanchor_200-A_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_200-A_45" class="fnanchor">200-*</a>.</span> Several vestiges of ancient
+fresco wall-paintings, more or less obliterated, are still preserved in
+Winchester Cathedral. The walls of our churches were even in the
+Anglo-Saxon era embellished with paintings; and such are described as
+decorating the walls of the church of Hexham in the seventh century. By
+the synod of Calcuith, held A.&nbsp;D. 816, a representation of the saint to
+whom a church was dedicated was required to be painted either on the wall
+of the church or on a tablet suspended in the church.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<a href="images/image133-full.jpg"><img src="images/image133.jpg" width="183" height="240" alt="Ancient Stone Reliquary or Shrine, Brixworth Church,
+Northamptonshire." title="Ancient Stone Reliquary or Shrine, Brixworth Church,
+Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ancient Stone Reliquary or Shrine, Brixworth Church,
+Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In most of the large conventual churches, and also in some of the smaller
+parochial churches, shrines containing relics of the patron or other
+saints were exhibited; these were either fixed and immovable, of
+tabernacle-work, of stone or wood, or partly of both, or were small
+movable feretories, which could be carried on festivals in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> procession. Of
+the fixed shrines, that in Hereford Cathedral of Bishop Cantelupe, of the
+date A.&nbsp;D. 1287, is a fine and early specimen, in very fair preservation.
+In the north aisle of the abbey church, Shrewsbury, are some remains of a
+stone shrine, which from the workmanship may be considered as a production
+of the early part of the fifteenth century: this is much mutilated: but
+the shrine of St. Frideswide, in Oxford Cathedral, the lower part of which
+is composed of a stone tomb, the upper part of rich tabernacle-work of
+wood, is still tolerably perfect: this is also of the fifteenth century.
+Of the small movable feretories, one apparently of the workman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>ship of the
+twelfth century, seven inches long and six high, formed of wood, enamelled
+and gilt, with figures on the sides representing the crucifixion, is still
+preserved in Shipley Church, Sussex; and a small stone reliquary or shrine
+of the fourteenth century was discovered a few years ago, and is now
+preserved in the church of Brixworth, Northamptonshire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/image134-full.jpg"><img src="images/image134.jpg" width="182" height="230" alt="Ancient Organ." title="Ancient Organ." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ancient Organ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The organ, as a solemn musical instrument, may claim a very early origin,
+and has been in use in our churches from the Anglo-Saxon era. The ancient
+organs were small, and all the pipes were exposed. The phrase &#8220;<i>a pair of
+organs</i>,&#8221; so frequently met with in old inventories and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> church accounts,
+may probably have answered to the great and choir organ of a subsequent
+period&mdash;one instrument in two divisions. The mechanism of the old organs
+was rude and simple, compared with the improvements of modern times, and
+the cost was small; they were generally placed in the rood-loft.</p>
+
+<p>The church chest is often an ancient and interesting object: sometimes we
+find it rudely formed, or hollowed out of the solid trunk of a tree, with
+a plain or barrel-shaped lid of considerable thickness. The churches of
+Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; Long Sutton, Somersetshire; and Ensham,
+Oxfordshire; contain chests thus rudely constructed. Sometimes they are
+strongly banded about with iron. The fronts and sides of these chests are
+not unfrequently embellished more or less richly with carved tracery,
+panel-work, and other detail in the style prevalent at the period of their
+construction. In Clemping Church, Sussex, is an early chest of the
+thirteenth century, the front of which exhibits a series of plain pointed
+arches trefoiled in the head, and other carved work. In Haconby Church,
+Lincolnshire, and in Chevington Church, Suffolk, are very rich chests
+covered with tracery and detail in the decorated style of the fourteenth
+century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> In Brailes Church, Warwickshire, is an ancient chest of the
+fifteenth century covered with panel-work compartments, with plain pointed
+arches foliated in the heads. Panelled chests of this century are
+numerous. In Shanklin Church, Isle of Wight, is a chest bearing the date
+of 1519, on which no architectural ornament is displayed, but the initials
+T.&nbsp;S. (Thomas Selkstead) are fancifully designed, and are separated by the
+lock, and a coat of arms beneath.</p>
+
+<p>In the south wall of each aisle, near the east end, and also in other
+parts of the church, we frequently find the same kind of fenestella or
+niche containing a piscina, and sometimes a credence shelf, as that before
+described as being in the chancel: this is a plain indication that an
+altar has been erected in this part of the church; and this end of the
+aisle was generally separated from the rest of the church by a screen, the
+lower part of panel, the upper part of open-work tracery, of stone or
+wood, similar to that forming the division between the chancel and nave;
+and the space thus enclosed was converted into or became a private chapel
+or chantry; for it was anciently the custom, especially during the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, for lords of manors and persons of
+wealth and local importance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> build or annex small chapels or side
+aisles to their parish churches, and these were endowed by license from
+the crown with land sufficient for the maintenance, either wholly or in
+part, of one or more priests, who were to celebrate private masses daily
+or otherwise, as the endowment expressed, at the altar erected therein,
+and dedicated to some saint, for the souls of the founder, his ancestors
+and posterity, for whose remains these chantry chapels frequently served
+as burial-places. At this service, however, no congregation was required
+to be present, but merely the priest, and an acolyte to assist him; and it
+was in allusion to the low or private masses thus performed, that Bishop
+Jewell, whilst condemning the practice as untenable, observes, &#8220;And even
+suche be their private masses, for the most part sayde in side iles,
+alone, without companye of people, onely with one boye to make answer.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The screens by which these chapels were enclosed have in numerous
+instances been destroyed; still many have been preserved, and chantry
+chapels parted off the church by screen-work of stone may be found in the
+churches of Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; and Aldbury, Hertfordshire; in
+which latter church is a very perfect specimen of a mortuary chapel, with
+a monument and recumbent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> effigies in the midst of it. Chantry chapels
+enclosed on two of the sides by wooden screen-work are more common.</p>
+
+<p>Although no ancient high altar of stone is known to exist, some of the
+ancient chantry altars have been preserved: these are composed either of a
+solid mass of masonry, covered with a thick slab or table of stone, as in
+the north aisle of Bengeworth Church, near Evesham, and in the south aisle
+of Enstone Church, Oxfordshire; or of a thick stone slab or table, with a
+cross at each angle and in the centre, supported merely on brackets or
+trusses built into and projecting from the wall, as in a chantry chapel in
+Warmington Church, Warwickshire; or partly on brackets and partly
+sustained on shafts or slender piers, as in a chantry chapel,
+Chipping-Norton Church, Oxfordshire. Sometimes a chamber containing a
+fire-place was constructed over a chantry, apparently for the residence,
+either occasional or permanent, of a priest: such a chamber occurs over
+the chantry chapel containing the altar in Chipping-Norton Church; and
+such also, with the exception of the flooring, which has decayed or been
+removed, may be seen in the chantry chapel which contains the altar in
+Warmington Church. In both of these chambers are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> windows or apertures in
+the walls which divide them from the church, through which the priest was
+enabled to observe unseen any thing passing within the church.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;">
+<a href="images/image135-full.jpg"><img src="images/image135.jpg" width="368" height="406" alt="Chantry Altar, Warmington Church, Warwickshire" title="Chantry Altar, Warmington Church, Warwickshire" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Chantry Altar, Warmington Church, Warwickshire</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We often find an opening or aperture obliquely disposed, carried through
+the thickness of the wall at the north-east angle of the south, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> the
+south-east angle of the north aisle: this was the <i>hagioscope</i>, through
+which at high mass the elevation of the host at the high altar, and other
+ceremonies, might be viewed from the chantry chapel situate at the east
+end of each aisle. In general, these apertures are mere narrow oblong
+slits; sometimes, however, they partake of a more ornamental character, as
+in a chantry chapel on the south side of Irthlingborough Church,
+Northamptonshire, where the head of an aperture of this kind is arched,
+cinquefoiled within, and finished above with an embattled moulding. In the
+north and south transepts of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, are
+oblique openings, arched-headed and foliated; and in the north aisle of
+Chipping-Norton Church, in the same county, is a singular hagioscope,
+obliquely disposed, not unlike a square-headed window of three foliated
+arched lights, with a quatrefoil beneath each light.</p>
+
+<p>We sometimes meet with one or more brackets, with plain mouldings or
+sculptured, projecting from the east wall of a chancel aisle or chantry
+chapel; and on these, lamps or lights were formerly set, and kept
+continually burning in honour of the Virgin or of some other saint; and we
+also meet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> with rich projecting canopies or recessed niches, with brackets
+beneath, on which images of saints were formerly placed.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the low side window, common in some districts, near the
+south-west angle of the chancel, and sometimes, but not so frequently,
+near the north-west angle, and occasionally even in the aisle, has not
+been correctly ascertained; it has, however, been conjectured to have
+served for the purpose of a confessional; and on minute examination
+indications of its formerly having had a wooden shutter, which opened on
+the inside, are sometimes visible; and on the south side of Kenilworth
+Church, Warwickshire, is an iron-barred window of this description, on
+which the wooden shutter is still <span class="nowrap">retained.<a name="FNanchor_209-A_46" id="FNanchor_209-A_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_209-A_46" class="fnanchor">209-*</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The sedilia or stone seats, so frequently found in the south wall of the
+chancel, are occasionally, though not often, to be met with in the south<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+walls of side aisles or chantry chapels: when this is the case it is
+presumed the endowment was for more priests than one.</p>
+
+<p>Such, not to digress into more minute particulars, may suffice to convey a
+general idea of the manner in which our churches were internally
+decorated, and how they were fitted up, with reference to the ceremonial
+rites of the church of Rome, in and before the year 1535. The walls were
+covered with fresco paintings, the windows were glazed with stained glass;
+the rood-loft and the pulpit, where the latter existed, were richly
+carved, painted, and gilt; and the altars were garnished with plate and
+sumptuous hangings. Altar-tombs with cumbent effigies were painted so as
+to correspond in tone with the colours displayed on the walls; the
+pavement of encaustic tiles, of different devices, was interspersed with
+sepulchral slabs and inlaid brasses; and screen-work, niches for statuary,
+mouldings, and sculpture of different degrees of excellence, abounded.
+Suspended from aloft hung the funeral achievement; at a later period, even
+more common, the banner, helme, crest, gauntlets, spurs, sword, targe, and
+cote <span class="nowrap">armour.<a name="FNanchor_210-A_47" id="FNanchor_210-A_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_210-A_47" class="fnanchor">210-*</a></span> In addition to these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> were, in some churches, shrines
+and reliquaries, enriched by the lavish donations of devotees, and wooden
+images excessively decked out and <span class="nowrap">appareled<a name="FNanchor_211-A_48" id="FNanchor_211-A_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_211-A_48" class="fnanchor">211-*</a></span>&mdash;objects of
+superstition, to which pilgrimages and offerings were made. And if in the
+review of the conceptions of a prior age, viz. of the fourteenth century,
+we find a higher rank of art to be evinced, and the style and combination
+of architectural and sculptured detail to be more severe and pure, at no
+period were our churches adorned to greater excess than on the eve of that
+in which all were about to undergo spoliation, and many of them wanton
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>For on the suppression of the monasteries and colleges, to the number of
+700 and upwards, and of the chantries, in number more than 2300, effected
+between the years 1535 and 1540, the abbey churches were not only
+despoiled of their costly vestments, altar plate and furniture, and
+shrines enriched with silver, gold, and jewels, but many of them were
+entirely dismantled, and the sites with the materials granted to
+individuals by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> whom they were soon reduced to a state of ruin. Some were
+even, either then or in after-times, converted into dwelling-houses; and
+others, or some portion of such, were allowed to be preserved as parochial
+churches; but the private chantry altars, though left bare and forsaken,
+were not as yet ordered to be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>By the royal injunctions exhibited A.&nbsp;D. 1538, such feigned images as were
+known to be abused of pilgrimages, or offerings of any kind made
+thereunto, were, for the avoiding of idolatry, to be forthwith taken down
+without delay, and no candles, tapers, or images of wax were from
+thenceforth to be set before any image or picture, &#8220;but onelie the light
+that commonlie goeth about the crosse of the church by the rood-loft, the
+light afore the sacrament of the altar, and the light about the
+sepulchre;&#8221; which, for the adorning of the church and divine service, were
+for the present suffered to remain. By the same injunctions a Bible of the
+largest volume, in English, was directed to be set up in some convenient
+place in every church, that the parishioners might resort to the same and
+read it; and a register-book was ordered to be kept, for the recording of
+christenings, marriages, and burials.</p>
+
+<p>But beyond the suppression of the monasteries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> and chantries, an act the
+effect of secular rather than religious motives, little alteration was
+made during the reign of Henry the Eighth in the ceremonies and services
+of the church, although the minds of many were becoming prepared for the
+change which afterwards ensued. And in the reign of his successor, Edward
+the Sixth, a striking difference was effected in the internal appearance
+of our churches; for many appendages were, not all at once, but by
+degrees, and under the authority of successive injunctions, discarded.
+Thus, by the king&#8217;s injunctions published in 1547, all images which had
+been abused with pilgrimage, or offering of any thing made thereunto,
+were, for the avoiding of the detestable offence of idolatry, by
+ecclesiastical authority, but not by that of private persons, to be taken
+down and destroyed; and no torches or candles, tapers or images of wax,
+were to be thenceforth suffered to be set before any image or picture,
+&#8220;but only two lights upon the high altar before the sacrament, which, for
+the signification that Christ is the very true light of the world, they
+shall suffer to remain still.&#8221; And as to such images which had not been
+abused, and which as yet were suffered to remain, the parishioners were to
+be admonished by the clergy that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> they served for no other purpose but to
+be a remembrance. The Bible in English, and the Paraphrases of Erasmus
+upon the Gospels, also in English, were ordered to be provided and set up
+in every church for the use of the parishioners. It was also enjoined that
+at every high mass the gospel and epistle should be read in English, and
+not in Latin, in the pulpit or in some other convenient place, so that the
+people might hear the same. Processions about the church and churchyard
+were now ordered to be disused, and the priests and clerks were to kneel
+in the midst of the church immediately before high mass, and there sing or
+read the Litany in English set forth by the authority of King Henry the
+Eighth. By the same injunctions all shrines, covering of shrines, all
+tables, candlesticks, trindles or rolls of wax, pictures, paintings, and
+all other monuments of feigned miracles, pilgrimages, idolatry, and
+superstition, were directed to be utterly taken away and destroyed; so
+that there should remain no memory of the same in walls, glass windows, or
+elsewhere within churches; and in every church &#8220;a comely and honest
+pulpit&#8221; was to be provided at the cost of the parishioners, to be set in a
+convenient place for the preaching of God&#8217;s word; and a strong chest,
+having three keys,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> with a hole in the upper part thereof, was to be set
+and fastened near unto the high altar, to the intent the parishioners
+should put into it their oblation and alms for their poor
+<span class="nowrap">neighbours<a name="FNanchor_215-A_49" id="FNanchor_215-A_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_215-A_49" class="fnanchor">215-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Hence the primary introduction of desks with divinity books, the litany
+stool, and the charity box, yet retained in some of our churches. But as
+much contention arose respecting the taking down of images, also as to
+whether they had been idolatrously abused or not, all images without
+exception were shortly afterwards, by royal authority, ordered to be
+removed and taken away.</p>
+
+<p>In the ritual the first formal change appears to have been the order of
+the communion set forth in 1547 as a temporary measure only, until other
+order should be provided for the true and right manner of administering
+the sacrament according to the rule of the scriptures of God, and first
+usage of the primitive church. In this the term <i>altar</i> is alone made use
+of; but in the first Liturgy of King Edward the Sixth, published in 1549,
+the altar or table whereupon the Lord&#8217;s<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> Supper was ministered is
+indifferently called <i>the altar</i>, <i>the Lord&#8217;s table</i>, <i>God&#8217;s board</i>.
+Ridley, bishop of London, by his diocesan injunctions issued in 1550,
+after noticing that in divers places some used the Lord&#8217;s board after the
+form of a table, and some as an altar, exhorted the curates,
+churchwardens, and questmen to erect and set up the Lord&#8217;s board after the
+form of an honest table, decently covered, in such place of the quire or
+chancel as should be thought most meet, so that the ministers with the
+communicants might have their place separated from the rest of the people;
+and to take down and abolish all other by-altars or tables. Soon after
+this, orders of council were sent to the bishops, in which, after noticing
+that the altars in most churches of the realm had been taken down, but
+that there yet remained altars standing in divers other churches, by
+occasion whereof much variance and contention arose, they were commanded,
+for the avoiding of all matters of further contention and strife about the
+standing or taking away of the said <span class="nowrap">altars<a name="FNanchor_216-A_50" id="FNanchor_216-A_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_216-A_50" class="fnanchor">216-*</a>,</span> to give substantial
+order that all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> altars in every church should be taken down, and
+instead of them that a table should be set up in some convenient part of
+the chancel, to serve for the ministration of the blessed communion; and
+reasons were at the same time published why the Lord&#8217;s board should rather
+be after the form of a table than of an altar, expressing however in what
+sense it might be called an altar. In the second Liturgy of King Edward
+the Sixth, amongst other important changes both of doctrine and
+discipline, the word <i>altar</i>, as denoting the communion-table, was
+purposely omitted.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar formation, frequently observable, of the old
+communion-tables, seems to have originated from the diversity of opinion
+held by many in the Anglican church, as to whether or not there was in the
+sacrament of the Lord&#8217;s Supper a memorative sacrifice; for by those who
+held the negative they were so constructed, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> merely that they might be
+moved from one part of the church to another, but the slab, board, or
+table, properly so called, was purposely not fastened or fixed to the
+frame-work or stand on which it was supported, but left loose, so as to be
+set on or taken off; and in 1555, on the accession of Queen Mary, when the
+stone altars were restored and the communion-tables taken down, we find it
+recorded of one John Austen, at Adesham Church, Kent, that &#8220;he with other
+tooke up the table, and laid it on a chest in the chancel, and set the
+tressels by <span class="nowrap">it<a name="FNanchor_218-A_51" id="FNanchor_218-A_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_218-A_51" class="fnanchor">218-*</a>.</span>&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It appears that texts of scripture were painted on the walls of some
+churches in the reign of Edward the Sixth; for Bonner, bishop of London,
+by a mandate issued to his diocese in 1554, after noticing that some had
+procured certain scriptures wrongly applied to be painted on church walls,
+charged that such scriptures should be razed, abolished, and extinguished,
+so that in no means they could be either read or heard.</p>
+
+<p>In the articles set forth by Cardinal Pole in 1557, to be inquired of in
+his diocese of Canterbury, were the following: &#8220;Whether the churches be
+sufficiently garnished and adorned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> with all ornaments and books
+necessary; and whether they have a rood in their church of a decent
+stature, with Mary and John, and an image of the patron of the same
+church?&#8221; Also, &#8220;Whether the altars of the church be consecrated or no?&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>But in 1559, the first year of the reign of Elizabeth, many of the
+injunctions set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth, as to the mode of
+saying the Litany without procession, the removal and destruction of
+shrines and monuments of superstition, the setting up of a pulpit, and of
+the poor-box or chest, which latter was however &#8220;to be set and fastened in
+a most convenient place,&#8221; were re-established. By these injunctions it
+appears that in many parts of the realm the altars of the churches had
+been removed, and tables placed for the administration of the holy
+sacrament; that in some other places the altars had not yet been removed:
+in the order whereof, as the injunctions express, save for an uniformity,
+there seemed to be no matter of great moment, so that the sacrament was
+duly and reverently ministered; and it was so ordered that no altar should
+be taken down but by oversight of the curate and churchwardens, or one of
+them, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> that the holy table in every church should be decently made and
+set in the place where the altar stood, and there commonly covered, and so
+to stand, saving when the communion of the sacrament was to be
+distributed; at which time the same was to be so placed within the chancel
+in such manner that the minister might be the more conveniently heard of
+the communicants in his prayer and ministration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;">
+<a href="images/image136-full.jpg"><img src="images/image136.jpg" width="391" height="319" alt="Ancient Communion Table, Sunningwell Church, Berkshire." title="Ancient Communion Table, Sunningwell Church, Berkshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ancient Communion Table, Sunningwell Church, Berkshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the old communion-tables set up in the reign of Elizabeth are yet
+remaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> in our churches, and are sustained by a stand or frame, the
+bulging pillar-legs of which are often fantastically carved, with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail according to the taste of the age.
+The communion-table in Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, probably set up
+during the time Bishop Jewell was pastor of that church, is a rich and
+interesting specimen. Communion-tables of the same era, designed in the
+same general style, with carved bulging legs, are preserved in the
+churches of Lapworth, Rowington, and Knowle, Warwickshire; in St. Thomas&#8217;s
+Church, Oxford; and in many other churches. Sometimes the bulging
+pillar-legs are turned plain, and are not covered with carving: such occur
+in Broadwas Church, Worcestershire; in the churches of St. Nicholas and
+St. Helen, at Abingdon; and in the north aisle of Dorchester Church,
+Oxfordshire. The table or slab of the communion-table in Knowle Church is
+not fixed or fastened to the frame or stand on which it is placed, but
+lies loose; and this is also the case with an old communion-table of the
+sixteenth century, now disused, in Northleigh Church, Oxfordshire. In an
+inventory of church goods, taken in 1646, occurs the following: &#8220;Item, one
+<i>short table and frame</i>, commonly called the communion-table.&#8221; On
+examining the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> old communion-tables, the movability of the slab from the
+frame-work is of such frequent occurrence as to corroborate the
+supposition that some esoteric meaning was attached to its unfixed state,
+which meaning has been attempted to be explained.</p>
+
+<p>Under the colour of removing monuments of idolatry and false feigned
+images in the churches, much wanton spoliation and needless injury was
+effected; and this to such excess that in 1560 a royal proclamation was
+issued, commanding all persons to forbear the breaking or defacing of any
+monument or tomb, or any image of kings, princes, or nobles, or the
+breaking down and defacing of any image in glass windows, in any churches,
+without consent of the ordinary. And in the same year, in a letter from
+the queen to the commissioners for causes ecclesiastical, occasion is
+taken to remark that &#8220;in sundry churches and chappells where divine
+service, as prayer, preaching, and ministration of the sacraments be used,
+there is such negligence and lacke of convenient reverence used towardes
+the comelye keeping and order of the said churches, and especially of the
+upper parte called the chauncels, that it breedeth no small offence and
+slaunder to see and consider on the one part the curiositie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> and costes
+bestowed by all sortes of men upon there private houses, and the other
+part, the unclean or negligent order or sparekeeping of the house of
+prayer, by permitting open decaies, and ruines of coveringes, walls, and
+wyndowes, and by appointing unmeet and unseemly tables, with fowle
+clothes, for the communion of the sacraments, and generally leavynge the
+place of prayers desolate of all cleanlynes, and of meet ornaments for
+such a place, whereby it might be known a place provided for divine
+service.&#8221; And the commissioners were required to consider the same, and in
+their discretion to determine upon some good and speedy means of
+reformation; and, amongst other things, to order that the tables of the
+commandments might be comely set or hung up in the east end of the
+chancel, to be not only read for edification, but also to give some comely
+ornament and demonstration that the same was a place of religion and
+<span class="nowrap">prayer<a name="FNanchor_223-A_52" id="FNanchor_223-A_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_223-A_52" class="fnanchor">223-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>An ancient table, apparently of this period, of the commandments painted
+on panel, but in language somewhat abbreviated, is still hung up against
+the east wall of the south transept of Ludlow Church, <span class="nowrap">Salop<a name="FNanchor_224-A_53" id="FNanchor_224-A_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_224-A_53" class="fnanchor">224-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>By the articles issued by royal authority in 1564, for administration of
+prayer and sacraments, each parish was to provide a decent table, standing
+on a frame, for the communion-table; this was to be decently covered with
+carpet, silk, or other decent covering, and with a fair linen cloth (at
+the time of the ministration); the ten commandments were to be set upon
+the east wall, over the table; the font was not to be removed, nor was the
+curate to baptize in parish churches in any basins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the Visitation Articles of Archbishop Parker, A.&nbsp;D. 1569, we find
+inquiries were to be made whether there was in each parish church a
+convenient pulpit well placed, a comely and decent table for the holy
+communion, covered decently and set in the place prescribed; and whether
+the altars had been taken down; also whether images and all other
+monuments of idolatry and superstition were destroyed and abolished;
+whether the rood-loft was pulled down, according to the order prescribed;
+and if the partition between the chancel and church was kept.</p>
+
+<p>The latter inquiry is explanatory of the fact why, when the rood-lofts in
+many churches were taken down, the screens beneath them, separating the
+chancel from the nave, were left undisturbed.</p>
+
+<p>By the injunctions of Grindal, archbishop of York, A.&nbsp;D. 1571, all altars
+were ordered to be pulled down to the ground, and the altar stones to be
+defaced and bestowed to some common use.</p>
+
+<p>Pulpits of the reign of Edward the Sixth are rare, nor are those of the
+reign of Elizabeth very common. The pulpit in Fordington Church,
+Dorsetshire, of the latter period, is of stone, the upper part worked in
+plain oblong panels; and a kind of escutcheon within one of these bears
+the date<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> 1592; the lower part or basement of this pulpit is circular in
+form.</p>
+
+<p>The richly embroidered and costly vestments and antependia or frontals, of
+a period antecedent to the Reformation, were in some instances converted
+into coverings for the altar or communion table, or into hangings for the
+pulpit and reading desk. In Little Dean Church, Gloucestershire, the
+covering for the reading desk is formed out of an ancient sacerdotal
+vestment, probably a cope, of velvet, embroidered with portraits of
+saints. The cushion of the pulpit of East Langdon Church, near Dover, is
+made out of either an ancient antependium or vestment; the material
+consists of very thick crimson silk, embroidered with sprigs, and in the
+centre of the hanging are two figures supposed to represent the salutation
+of the Virgin, who is kneeling before a faldstool.</p>
+
+<p>We occasionally, though rarely, meet with ancient charity-boxes of a date
+anterior to the Reformation: the churches of Wickmere, Loddon, and
+Causton, in Norfolk, still retain <span class="nowrap">such<a name="FNanchor_226-A_54" id="FNanchor_226-A_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_226-A_54" class="fnanchor">226-*</a>.</span> At the Reformation,
+however, they were first required to be set up in churches. The ancient
+poor-box<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> in Trinity Church, Coventry, is an excellent specimen of the
+Elizabethan era, and the shaft which supports it is of stone, covered with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail peculiar to that age; but most of
+the old charity-boxes are of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 255px;">
+<a href="images/image137-full.jpg"><img src="images/image137.jpg" width="255" height="426" alt="Ancient Charity-box, Trinity Church, Coventry." title="Ancient Charity-box, Trinity Church, Coventry." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ancient Charity-box, Trinity Church, Coventry.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the sixteenth century the practice of preaching by an
+hour-glass, set in an iron frame affixed to the pulpit or projecting from
+the wall near it, began to prevail; and in the succeeding century this
+practice became quite common. In the churchwardens&#8217; accounts for St.
+Mary&#8217;s Church, Lambeth, occurs the following: &#8220;A. 1579, Payde to Yorke for
+the frame on which the hower standeth,&mdash;..1..4;&#8221; and in the churchwardens'
+accounts of St. Helen&#8217;s Church, Abingdon, is an item, &#8220;Anno <span class="smcap">MDXCI.</span> payde
+for an houre glass for the pilpit, 4<i>d.</i>&#8221; In the parochial accounts for
+St. Mary&#8217;s, Shrewsbury, A.&nbsp;D. 1597, is a charge &#8220;for removing the desk and
+other necessaries about the pulpit, and for makeinge a thing for the hower
+glasse, 9<i>d.</i>&#8221; In Shawell Church, Isle of Wight, the old iron stand for
+the hour-glass still remains affixed to a pier adjoining the pulpit; it is
+composed of two flat circular hoops or rings, one at some distance above
+the other, annexed or attached and kept in position by four vertical bars
+of iron, and the lower ring has cross-bars to sustain the glass. In
+Cassington Church, Oxfordshire, projecting from the wall by the side of
+the pulpit, is an iron stand for the hour-glass, consisting of two
+circular hoops or rings of iron, connected by four wrought iron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> bars,
+worked in the middle; and across the lower ring or hoop is an iron bar or
+stay. In High Laver Church, Essex, the iron stand for the glass still
+remains, and is in fashion not unlike a cresset, having only one hoop or
+ring encircling the top, and supported on four iron bars, which cross in
+curves at the bottom. Many other churches might be enumerated in which the
+stand for the hour-glass is still preserved; and the hour-glass itself,
+together with its frame, is said to be retained in South Burlingham
+Church, Norfolk. An hour-glass within a rich and peculiar frame, supported
+on a spiral column, and apparently of the latter part of the seventeenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+century, is yet preserved in St. Alban&#8217;s Church, Wood Street, London.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 177px;">
+<a href="images/image138-full.jpg"><img src="images/image138.jpg" width="177" height="241" alt="Hour-glass Frame, Shawell Church, Isle of Wight." title="Hour-glass Frame, Shawell Church, Isle of Wight." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Hour-glass Frame, Shawell Church, Isle of Wight.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To the close of the sixteenth century the mode of pewing with open
+low-backed seats continued to prevail; the ends of these seats were not
+covered with tracery or arched panel-work, but were plain, though they
+sometimes terminated with a finial. In the nave of Stanton St. John
+Church, Oxfordshire, are some old open pews or seats, apparently of the
+reign of Henry the Eighth, the backs of which are divided diamond-wise,
+and form a kind of lattice-work, and the ends terminate in grotesque
+heads. In Harrington Church, Worcestershire, are some open seats of plain
+workmanship, bearing the date of 1582. The church of Sunningwell,
+Berkshire, is fitted up with a range of open seats on each side of the
+nave, without any ornament, with the exception of a large carved finial at
+the end of each seat. In Cowley Church, near Oxford, are open seats of the
+date of 1632, which have at the ends finials carved in the shallow angular
+designs of that period. All these seats are appropriately placed, or
+disposed facing the east, and none are turned with the backs towards the
+<span class="nowrap">altar<a name="FNanchor_230-A_55" id="FNanchor_230-A_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_230-A_55" class="fnanchor">230-*</a>.</span> About<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> the commencement of the seventeenth century our
+churches began to be disfigured by the introduction of high pews, an
+innovation which did not escape censure; for, as Weaver observes, &#8220;Many
+monuments of the dead in churches in and about this citie of London, as
+also in some places in the countrey, are covered with seates or pewes,
+made high and easie for the parishioners to sit or sleepe in; a fashion of
+no long continuance, and worthy of <span class="nowrap">reformation<a name="FNanchor_231-A_56" id="FNanchor_231-A_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_231-A_56" class="fnanchor">231-*</a>.</span>&#8221; The high pews set
+up in the early part of this century are easily distinguished by the flat
+and shallow carved scroll and arabesque work with which the sides and
+doors are covered. In the directions given on the primary visitation of
+Wren, bishop of Norwich, A.&nbsp;D. 1636, we find an order &#8220;that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> the chancels
+and alleys in the church be not encroached upon by building of seats; and
+if any be so built, the same to be removed and taken away; and that no
+pews be made over high, so that they which be in them cannot be seen how
+they behave themselves, or the prospect of the church or chancel be
+hindered; and therefore that all pews which within do much exceed a yard
+in height be taken down near to that scantling, unless the bishop by his
+own inspection, or by the view of some special commissioner, shall
+otherwise allow.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>From a paper found among secretary Cecil&#8217;s <span class="nowrap">MSS.<a name="FNanchor_232-A_57" id="FNanchor_232-A_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_232-A_57" class="fnanchor">232-*</a>,</span> it appears that in
+1564 some ministers performed divine service and prayers in the chancel,
+others in the body of the church, and some <i>in a seat made in the church</i>;
+and in the parochial accounts of St. Mary&#8217;s Church, Shrewsbury, A.&nbsp;D. 1577,
+is an entry &#8220;for coloringe the curate&#8217;s pew and dask;&#8221; but no public
+notice of the modern reading desk, or, as it was called, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> &#8220;reading
+pew,&#8221; occurs till 1603, when, in the ecclesiastical canons then framed, it
+was enjoined that besides the pulpit a fitting or convenient seat should
+be constructed for the minister to read service in; and in allusion to the
+reading desk, Bishop Sparrow, in his Rationale of the Book of Common
+Prayer, observes, &#8220;This was the ancient custom of the church of England,
+that the priest who did officiate in all those parts of the service which
+were directed to the people turned himself towards them, as in the
+absolution; but in those parts of the office which were directed to God
+immediately, as prayers, hymns, lauds, confessions of faith or sins, he
+turned from the people; and for that purpose, in many parish churches of
+late, the reading pew had one desk for the Bible, looking towards the
+people to the body of the church, another for the prayer-book, looking
+towards the east or upper end of the chancel. And very reasonable was this
+usage; for when the people was spoken to it was fit to look towards them,
+but when God was spoken to it was fit to turn from the people.&#8221; And so he
+goes on to explain the custom of turning to the east in public prayer.</p>
+
+<p>In Bishop Wren&#8217;s directions it was enjoined that the minister&#8217;s reading
+desk should not stand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> with the back towards the chancel, nor too remote
+or far from it.</p>
+
+<p>The double reading desk is still occasionally met with, as in East Ilsley
+Church, Berkshire, where is a kind of double reading desk so that the
+minister can turn himself either towards the west or south. In Priors
+Salford Church, Warwickshire, is an old carved reading pew bearing the
+date of its construction, 1616; and in St. Peter&#8217;s Church, Dorchester,
+Dorsetshire, and in Sherbourne Church, in the same county, are reading
+pews which evidently, from the style and the carved work with which they
+are covered, were constructed in the early part of the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The enclosing of the communion table in the church of Stow, in the county
+of Norfolk, by rails, about the year 1622, is noticed by Weaver, who
+states that the vicar and churchwardens pulled down a tomb to make room
+for the rail.</p>
+
+<p>In Bishop Wren&#8217;s diocesan directions it was ordered that the communion
+table in every church should always stand close under the east wall of the
+chancel, the ends thereof north and south, and that the rail should be
+made before it, reaching up from the north wall to the south wall,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> near
+one yard in height, so thick with pillars that dogs might not get in.</p>
+
+<p>But we find the situation of the altar or communion table, and the reason
+of its severance by means of rails, more particularly noticed in the
+canons entertained by the convocation held in 1640. In these (after an
+allusion to the fact that many had been misled against the rites and
+ceremonies of the church of England, and had taken offence at the same
+upon an unjust supposal that they were introductive unto popish
+superstitions, whereas they had been duly and ordinarily practised by the
+whole church during a great part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and that
+though since that time they had by subtle practices begun to fall into
+disuse, and in place thereof other foreign and unfitting usages by little
+and little to creep in, yet in the royal chapels and many other churches
+most of them had been ever constantly used and observed) it was declared
+that the standing of the communion table sideway under the east window of
+every chancel was in its own nature <span class="nowrap">indifferent<a name="FNanchor_235-A_58" id="FNanchor_235-A_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_235-A_58" class="fnanchor">235-*</a>;</span> yet as it had
+been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> ordered by the injunctions of Queen Elizabeth that the holy tables
+should stand in the places where the altars stood, it was judged fit and
+convenient that all churches should conform themselves in this particular
+to the example of the cathedral and mother churches; and it was declared
+that this situation of the holy table did not imply that it was or ought
+to be esteemed a true and proper altar, whereon Christ was again really
+sacrificed; but that it was and might be called an altar, in that sense in
+which the primitive church called it an altar, and in no other. And
+because experience had shewn how irreverent the behaviour of many people
+was in many places, (some leaning, others casting their hats, and some
+sitting upon, some standing, and others sitting under the communion table,
+in time of divine service,) for the avoiding of which and like abuses it
+was thought meet and convenient that the communion tables in all churches
+should be decently severed with rails, to preserve them from such or worse
+profanations.</p>
+
+<p>Communion rails carved in the nondescript style, almost peculiar to the
+reign of Charles the First, are preserved in St. Giles&#8217;s Church, Oxford;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+in the Lady Chapel, Winchester Cathedral; in the Church of St. Cross, near
+Winchester; in the choir of Worcester Cathedral; and in Andover Church,
+Hants: in which last instance the rails are composed of open semicircular
+arches, supported on baluster columns, with pendants similar to hip knobs
+hanging from the arches; but specimens of altar rails of a period
+antecedent to the Restoration are not often to be met with, the reason for
+which will be adduced.</p>
+
+<p>By the canons of 1603 the churchwardens or questmen were to provide in
+every church a comely and decent pulpit, to be set in a convenient place
+within the same, and there to be seemly kept for the preaching of God&#8217;s
+word. Carved pulpits set up between the years 1603 and 1640 are numerous,
+and the sides are more or less embellished with circular-arched panels,
+flat and shallow scroll-work, and other decorative detail in fashion at
+that period; and not a few bear the precise date of their construction.</p>
+
+<p>In the nave of Bristol Cathedral is a stone pulpit, ascended to by means
+of a circular flight of steps; the sides are panelled and ornamented with
+escutcheons surrounded by scroll-work, and it bears the date of 1624.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In Ashington Church, Somersetshire, is a pulpit with the date 1627.</p>
+
+<p>In Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a fine carved wooden pulpit and
+sounding-board, and on it appears the date 1632.</p>
+
+<p>The date of 1625 appears on a fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of
+which are covered with semicircular-headed panels, in Huish Episcopi
+Church, Somersetshire.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the churches at Wells is a fine wooden pulpit, of the date 1636;
+at the angles are columns of semi-classic design, fantastically carved;
+the panels are curiously ornamented with figures in relief, and it is
+supported on a stand composed of a square and four detached columns, above
+which are represented a number of birds with large beaks; the
+sounding-board over corresponds in design with the pulpit.</p>
+
+<p>A very fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of which are embellished with
+circular-arched panel and scroll-work, with the date 1640, and a
+sounding-board over, is contained in Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire.</p>
+
+<p>Many carved pulpits of this era have, however, no assigned date; they are
+commonly placed at the north or south-east angle of the nave, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> never
+in the middle of the aisle, so as to obstruct the view of the communion
+table.</p>
+
+<p>The commandments were again, by the canons of 1603, ordered to be set upon
+the east end of every church, where the people might best see and read the
+same; and other chosen sentences were to be written upon the walls of the
+churches in places convenient.</p>
+
+<p>On the south wall of Rowington Church, Warwickshire, are sentences painted
+with a border of scroll-work; the like also occur at Astley Church, in the
+same county; and on the walls of Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, are
+sentences of scripture painted in black-lettered characters within panels
+surrounded by scroll-work.</p>
+
+<p>By the same canons the churchwardens were required to provide, if such had
+not been already provided, a strong chest, with a hole in the upper part
+thereof, having three keys, of which one was to remain in the custody of
+the minister, and the other two in the custody of the churchwardens; which
+chest was to be set and fastened in the most convenient place, to the
+intent the parishioners might put into it their alms for their poor
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>In the retro-choir, Sherbourne Church, Dorsetshire, is a poor-box with
+three locks; and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> carved poor-box, of the early part of the seventeenth
+century, is preserved in Harlow Church, Essex. In Elstow Church,
+Bedfordshire, are the remains of a poor-box of the same period. In Clapham
+Church, in the same county, is an old poor-box, the cover of which is
+gone, on which are the initials I. W., and the date 1626: this is fixed on
+a plain wooden pillar near the south door; and in the south aisle of
+Bletchley Church, Buckinghamshire, is an oak pillar or shaft surmounted by
+a poor-box, with an inscription carved on it of &#8220;Remember the Pore,&#8221; and
+the date <span class="nowrap">1637<a name="FNanchor_240-A_59" id="FNanchor_240-A_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_240-A_59" class="fnanchor">240-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>The communion tables of the early part of this century were not so richly
+carved as those of the reign of Elizabeth, and in general the pillar-legs
+were plain and not so bulging; but the frieze or upper part of the
+frame-work, on which the table rested, was often covered with shallow and
+flat carved panel and scroll-work, and sometimes with the date of its
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>In the church of St. Lawrence, at Evesham, the communion table bears the
+date of 1610; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> round the frieze is carved an inscription, stating by
+whom it was given. In Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a carved
+communion table, bearing the date of 1638. The communion table in Godshill
+Church, Isle of Wight, is supported on four carved bulging pillar-legs;
+and round the frieze, below the ledge of the table, is the following
+inscription:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="titlepage">&#8220;Lancelot Coleman &amp; Edward Britwel, Churchwardens, Anno Dom. 1631.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>In Whitwell Church, Isle of Wight, the communion table stands on plain
+bulging pillar-legs; and on the frieze round the ledge is carved in relief
+an arm holding a chalice, with the following inscription:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="titlepage">&#8220;I will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the
+Lord. Psa. 116. v. 53. Anno Dom. 1632.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>As the rubric of the church enjoined that at the communion the priest
+should himself place the elements upon the holy table, the custom of
+having a side table, called the credence table, for the elements to be set
+on previous to their removal by the priest to the communion table for
+consecration, was observed in some churches in the latter part of the
+sixteenth and early part of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> the seventeenth century. Such table appears
+to have been introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, by Andrews, bishop of
+Norwich, whose model Archbishop Laud is said to have <span class="nowrap">followed<a name="FNanchor_242-A_60" id="FNanchor_242-A_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_242-A_60" class="fnanchor">242-*</a>;</span> and
+it originated from the &#960;&#961;&#8057;&#952;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962;, or side table of preparation,
+used in the early church; it was likewise, as we have seen, used at the
+sacramentals of the church of Rome, and on that account was strongly
+objected to by the Puritans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+<a href="images/image139-full.jpg"><img src="images/image139.jpg" width="280" height="238" alt="Table, (temp. Charles I.,) Chipping-Warden Church,
+Northamptonshire." title="Table, (temp. Charles I.,) Chipping-Warden Church,
+Northamptonshire." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Table, (temp. Charles I.,) Chipping-Warden Church,
+Northamptonshire.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the chancel of Chipping-Warden Church, Northamptonshire, on the north
+side of the com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>munion table, is a semicircular oak table, apparently of
+the reign of Charles the First, standing on a frame supported by three
+plain pillar-legs, like those of the communion tables of the same period,
+and enriched with carved arched frieze-work similar to the arched
+panel-work on pulpits of the same period.</p>
+
+<p>A plain credence table of black oak, which from the style and make was
+evidently set up after the Restoration, still continues to be used as such
+in St. Michael&#8217;s Church, Oxford, being placed on the north side of the
+communion table.</p>
+
+<p>The objections of the Puritans against many of the usages of the Anglican
+church, and their refusal to conform to such under the pretence of their
+being superstitious, had no slight effect in altering the internal
+appearance of our churches in the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+during the period their party had obtained the ascendancy, and had
+succeeded for a while in abolishing in this country episcopal church
+government; for among the &#8220;innovations in discipline,&#8221; as they were called
+by the Puritan committee of the House of Lords in 1641, we find the
+following usages complained of: the turning of the holy table altarwise,
+and most commonly calling it an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> altar; the bowing towards it or towards
+the east many times; advancing candlesticks in many churches upon the
+altar, so called; the making of canopies over the altar, so called, with
+traverses and curtains on each side and before it; the compelling all
+communicants to come up to the rails, and there to receive; the advancing
+crucifixes and images upon the parafront or altar cloth, so called; the
+reading some part of the morning prayer at the holy table, when there was
+no communion celebrated; the minister&#8217;s turning his back to the west, and
+his face to the east, when he pronounced the Creed or read prayers; the
+reading the Litany in the midst of the body of the church in many of the
+parochial churches; the having a <i>credentia</i> or side table, besides the
+Lord&#8217;s table, for divers uses in the Lord&#8217;s Supper; and the taking down
+galleries in churches, or restraining the building of galleries where the
+parishes were very <span class="nowrap">populous<a name="FNanchor_244-A_61" id="FNanchor_244-A_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_244-A_61" class="fnanchor">244-*</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>In August, 1643, an Ordinance of the Lords and Commons was published, for
+the taking away and demolishing of all altars and tables of stone, and for
+the removal of all communion tables from the east end of every church and
+chancel; and it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> was prescribed that such should be placed in some other
+fit and convenient place in the body of the church or in the body of the
+chancel; and that all rails whatsoever which had been erected near to,
+before, or about any altar or communion table, should be likewise taken
+away; and that the chancel-ground which had been raised within twenty
+years then last past, for any altar or communion table to stand on, should
+be laid down and levelled, as the same had formerly been; and that all
+tapers, candlesticks, and basins should be removed and taken away from the
+communion table, and not again used about the same; and that all
+crucifixes, crosses, and all images and pictures of any one or more
+Persons of the Trinity, or of the Virgin Mary, and all other images and
+pictures of saints, or superstitious inscriptions belonging to any
+churches, should be taken away and defaced before the first day of
+November, 1643: but it was provided that such ordinances should not extend
+to any image, picture, or coat of arms, in glass, stone, or otherwise, set
+up or graven only for a monument of any dead person not reputed for a
+saint, but that all such might stand and continue.</p>
+
+<p>By a subsequent ordinance, passed in May, 1644, it was prescribed that no
+rood-loft or holy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> water fonts should be any more used in any church; and
+that all organs, and the frames or cases in which they stood, in all
+churches, should be taken away and utterly defaced.</p>
+
+<p>Under colour of these ordinances the beauty of the cathedrals and churches
+was injured to an extent hardly credible; the monuments of the dead were
+defaced, and brasses torn away, in the iconoclastic fury which then raged;
+the very tombs were violated; and the havoc made of church ornaments, and
+destruction of the fine painted glass with which most church windows then
+abounded, may in some degree be estimated from the account given by one
+Dowsing, a parliamentary visitor appointed under a warrant from the Earl
+of Manchester for demolishing the so called superstitious pictures and
+ornaments of churches within the county of Suffolk, who kept a journal,
+with the particulars of his transactions, in the years 1643 and 1644:
+these were chiefly comprised in the demolition of numerous windows filled
+with painted glass, in the breaking down of altar rails and organ cases,
+in levelling the steps in the chancels, in removing crucifixes, in taking
+down the stone crosses from the exterior of the churches, in defacing
+crosses on the fonts, and in the taking up (under the pretence of their
+being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> superstitious) of numerous sepulchral inscriptions in brass. Nor
+did the churches in other parts of the country, with some exceptions,
+escape from a like fanatical warfare; and, in this, many of our cathedrals
+suffered most. But this was not enough: our sacred edifices were profaned
+and polluted in the most irreverent and disgraceful manner; and with the
+exception of the destruction which took place on the dissolution of the
+monastic establishments in the previous century, more devastation was
+committed at this time by the party hostile to the Anglican church than
+had ever before been effected since the ravages of the ancient Danish
+invaders.</p>
+
+<p>But as to other alterations at this time effected. In January, 1644, an
+ordinance of parliament was published for the taking away of the Book of
+Common Prayer, which was forbid to be used any longer in any church,
+chapel, or place of public worship. In lieu of this the &#8220;Directory for the
+Publike Worship of God&#8221; was established: this contained no stated forms of
+prayer, but general instructions only for extemporaneous praying and
+preaching, and for the administration of the sacraments of Baptism and the
+Lord&#8217;s Supper; the former of which was to be administered in the place of
+public worship and in the face of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> congregation, but &#8220;not,&#8221; as the
+Directory expresses, &#8220;in the places where fonts in the time of popery were
+unfitly and superstitiously placed.&#8221; And at the administration of the
+Lord&#8217;s Supper the table was to be so placed that the communicants might
+sit orderly about it or at it; but all liturgical form was abolished, and
+the prayers even at this sacrament were such as the minister might
+spontaneously offer.</p>
+
+<p>At Brill Church, in Buckinghamshire, the communion table, on an elevation
+of one step, is inclosed with rails, within an area of eight feet by six
+feet and a half, and a bench is fixed to the wall on each side; an
+innovation made at this period, in order that the communicants might
+receive the sacrament sitting. The communion table in Wooten Wawen Church,
+Warwickshire, though perfectly plain in construction, is unusually long
+and large, and appears to have been set up by the Puritans at this period,
+so that they might sit round or at it.</p>
+
+<p>To the removal of the communion table from the east end of the chancel may
+be attributed the usage which, in the middle of the seventeenth century,
+began to prevail of constructing close and high seats or pews, without
+regard to that uniformity of arrangement which had hitherto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> been
+observed; and many seats were now so constructed that those who occupied
+them necessarily turned their backs on the east during the ministration of
+prayer and public service. The erection of unseemly galleries, which have
+greatly tended to disfigure our churches, was another consequence of the
+innovation on the ancient arrangement of pewing.</p>
+
+<p>After the Restoration the communion tables were again restored to their
+former position at the east end of the chancel; and in Evelyn&#8217;s Diary for
+1661-2, we find the change of position in his parish church thus noticed:
+&#8220;6 April. Being of the vestry in the afternoone, we order&#8217;d that the
+communion table should be set as usual altarwise, with a decent raile in
+front, as before the rebellion.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The altar rails were now generally restored, and in most instances we find
+those in our churches to be of a period subsequent to the Restoration, as
+the details in the workmanship evince. In the church accounts of St.
+Mary&#8217;s, Shrewsbury, for 1662, we find a &#8220;memorandum that this year the
+rayles about the communion table wer new sett up, and the surplice was
+made.&#8221; In Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire, the altar rails have on them
+the date of 1664;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> and the communion table, which is quite plain, is of
+the same character and era.</p>
+
+<p>But a return, after the Restoration, to the former usages of the Anglican
+church was not made without great opposition; and accordingly we find
+objections stated to the bowing to the altar and to the east, to the
+preaching by book, to the railing in of the altar, to the candles,
+cushion, and book thereon, to the bowing at the name of Jesus, and to the
+organs as &#8220;popish-like music, and too much <span class="nowrap">superstition<a name="FNanchor_250-A_62" id="FNanchor_250-A_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_250-A_62" class="fnanchor">250-*</a>.</span>&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>When the rood was taken down at the Reformation, a custom began to prevail
+of fixing up in its stead or place, against the arch leading into the
+chancel, the upper part of which was in consequence blocked up by it, and
+facing the congregation, so as to be seen by them, the royal arms, with
+proper heraldic supporters; but it does not clearly appear that this was
+done in consequence of any express law or injunction to that effect,
+though it may perhaps have served to denote the king&#8217;s supremacy. We
+seldom, however, find the royal arms of earlier date than the Restoration,
+in the twenty years previous to which they appear to have been generally
+taken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> down. In Brixton Church, Isle of Wight, on some plain wooden
+panelling between the tower and a gallery at the west end are the remains
+of the royal arms, which, from the style in which they have been painted
+with the rose and thistle, appear coeval with the reign of James the
+First; they are surmounted by a crown, below which is an open six-barred
+helme. These arms appear to have been removed from their original position
+against the chancel-arch, and are now much mutilated. In the church
+accounts, St. Mary&#8217;s, Shrewsbury, for 1651, is a charge of 1<i>l.</i> 8<i>s.</i>
+&#8220;for making the states armes.&#8221; In Anstey Church, Warwickshire, the arms of
+the commonwealth, put up during the inter-regnum, were taken down not many
+years back. The little church of St. Lawrence, in the Isle of Wight, still
+retains the royal arms put up at the Restoration in 1660.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting the rood-loft galleries, we have few galleries in our churches
+of a period antecedent to the latter part of the seventeenth century. At
+the west end of Worstead Church, Norfolk, over the west door, is a gallery
+erected in 1550, at the cost of the candle called the Bachelor&#8217;s Light. At
+the west end of the nave in Leighton Buzzard Church is a gallery erected
+in 1634; and at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> west end of Piddletown Church, Dorsetshire, is a
+gallery with the date of its erection, 1635.</p>
+
+<p>From about the period of the Revolution, in 1688, we may trace the
+commencement of a custom, still partially prevailing, of setting up the
+pulpit and reading-pew in the middle aisle, in front of the communion
+table; so that during the whole of the service the back of the minister
+was turned to the east, and the view of the communion table obstructed;
+but we have not found any pulpit thus placed of an earlier period.</p>
+
+<p>We still retain, in the Anglican church, the usage of placing two
+candlesticks and candles upon the communion table, in compliance with the
+injunctions of King Edward the Sixth, together also with an offertory
+dish; of reading the lessons from the eagle desk, and of saying the Litany
+at the litany-stool. These practices are, however, more particularly
+observed in our cathedrals and college chapels than in our parochial
+churches, in most of which they have fallen into desuetude.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude, in the language of the synod held in 1640: &#8220;Whereas the
+church is the house of God, dedicated to his holy worship, and therefore
+ought to remind us both of the greatness and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> goodness of his Divine
+Majesty; certain it is that the acknowledgment thereof, not only inwardly
+in our hearts, but also outwardly with our bodies, must needs be pious in
+itself, profitable unto us, and edifying unto others: we therefore think
+it meet and behoveful, and heartily commend it to all good and
+well-affected people, members of this church, that they be ready to tender
+unto the Lord the said acknowledgment, by doing reverence and obeisance,
+both at their coming in and going out of the said churches, chancels, or
+chapels, according to the most ancient custom of the primitive church in
+the purest times, and of this church also for many years of the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The reviving, therefore, of this ancient and laudable custom we heartily
+recommend to the serious consideration of all good people, not with any
+intention to exhibit any religious worship to the communion table, the
+east, or church, or any thing therein contained, in so doing; or to
+perform the said gesture in the celebration of the holy eucharist, upon
+any opinion of a corporal presence of the body of Jesus Christ on the holy
+table or in the mystical elements, but only for the advancement of God&#8217;s
+majesty, and to give him alone that honour and glory that is due unto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+him, and no otherwise; and in the practice or omission of this rite we
+desire that the rule of charity prescribed by the apostle may be observed,
+which is, that they which use this rite despise not them who use it not,
+and that they who use it not condemn not those that use it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 188px; margin-bottom: 3em;">
+<a href="images/image140-full.jpg"><img src="images/image140.jpg" width="188" height="204" alt="Symbol" title="Symbol" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poem">
+<tr>
+  <td><span style="margin-left: 5em;">&#8220;... a bloodie crosse he bore,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The deare remembrance of his dying Lord,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">For whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And dead, as living, ever him ador&#8217;d:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Upon his shield the like was also scor&#8217;d.&#8221;</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes" style="margin-top: 2em;">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_154-A_16" id="Footnote_154-A_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154-A_16"><span class="label">154-*</span></a> Hist. Eccles. lib. vi. c. 6. Durantus, however, assigns a
+different origin. &#8220;In veteri testamento non nisi lotus templum
+ingrediebatur.&#8221; De Labro, seu Vase Aqu&aelig; Benedict&aelig;, c. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_156-A_17" id="Footnote_156-A_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156-A_17"><span class="label">156-*</span></a> &#8220;Ad valvas ecclesi&aelig;,&#8221;&mdash;Ordo ad Faciendum Catechumenum,
+Manuale.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_156-B_18" id="Footnote_156-B_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156-B_18"><span class="label">156-&#8224;</span></a> Constitutions of Edmund Archbishop of Canterbury, A.&nbsp;D.
+1236. <a name="corr8" id="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="&#8220;De">De</ins> Baptismo et eius Effectu.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_158-A_19" id="Footnote_158-A_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158-A_19"><span class="label">158-*</span></a> It is much to be regretted that of late years many
+ancient fonts have been cast out of our churches, and earthenware and
+pewter basins substituted in their stead for the administration of the
+holy sacrament of baptism: a practice not authorized by the Anglican
+church, but rather condemned; for in the canons set forth by authority,
+A.&nbsp;D. 1571, it is provided that &#8220;Curabunt (&OElig;ditui) ut in singulis
+ecclesiis sit sacer fons, <i>non pelvis</i>, in quo baptismus ministretur,
+isque ut decenter et munde conservetur.&#8221; And in the canons of 1603, after
+alluding to the foregoing constitution, and observing that it was too much
+neglected in many places, it is appointed &#8220;That there shall be a font of
+stone in every church and chapel where baptism is to be ministered; the
+same to be set in the <i>ancient usual places</i>.&#8221; In the orders and
+directions given by Bishop Wren, A.&nbsp;D. 1636, to be observed in his diocese
+of Norwich, we find it enjoined, &#8220;That the font at baptism be filled with
+clear water, and no dishes, pails, or basins be used in it or instead of
+it.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_160-A_20" id="Footnote_160-A_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160-A_20"><span class="label">160-*</span></a> The 28th decree of a foreign council, that of Wirtzburgh,
+held A.&nbsp;D. 1278, prohibits the fortifying of churches in order to make use
+of them as castles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_164-A_21" id="Footnote_164-A_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164-A_21"><span class="label">164-*</span></a> Anglice sermocinari solebat (Abbas Samson) populo, sed
+secundum Linguam Norfolchie ... unde et pulpitum jussit fieri in ecclesia
+et ad utilitatem audiencium et ad decorem ecclesie.&mdash;Cronica Jocelini de
+Brakelonda, sub anno 1187.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_167-A_22" id="Footnote_167-A_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167-A_22"><span class="label">167-*</span></a> Cottonian MS. Titus D. xxvii. 10th s&aelig;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_167-B_23" id="Footnote_167-B_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167-B_23"><span class="label">167-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Crux que erat super magnum altare, et Mariola, et
+Johannes, quas imagines Stigandus archiepiscopus magno pondere auri et
+argenti ornaverat, et sancto &AElig;dmundo dederat.&#8221;&mdash;Cronica Jocelini de
+Brakelonda, p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_168-A_24" id="Footnote_168-A_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168-A_24"><span class="label">168-*</span></a> &#8220;Supra pulpitum trabes erat, per tranversum ecclesi&aelig;
+posita, qu&aelig; crucem grandem et duo cherubin et imagines Sanct&aelig; <i>Mari&aelig;</i> et
+Sancti <i>Johannis</i> apostoli sustentabat.&#8221;&mdash;Gervasius de Combustione, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_169-A_25" id="Footnote_169-A_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169-A_25"><span class="label">169-*</span></a> &#8220;Superest exponere, quod manus illa e nubibus erumpens
+indicet: Qu&aelig; procul dubio omnipotentis Dei dexteram designat.&#8221;&mdash;Ciampini
+Vetera Monimenta, vol. ii. pp. 22, 81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_171-A_26" id="Footnote_171-A_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171-A_26"><span class="label">171-*</span></a> &#8220;In elevatione atque utriusque squilla
+pulsatur.&#8221;&mdash;Durandi Rationale, lib. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_171-B_27" id="Footnote_171-B_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171-B_27"><span class="label">171-&#8224;</span></a> In Yeovil Church Accounts, A.&nbsp;D. 1457, is an item, &#8220;<i>In
+una cordul empt p le salsyngbelle ijd</i>.&#8221;&mdash;Collectanea Topographica, vol.
+iii. p. 130.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_172-A_28" id="Footnote_172-A_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172-A_28"><span class="label">172-*</span></a> It is now in the possession of William Staunton, esq., of
+Longbridge House, near Warwick.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_173-A_29" id="Footnote_173-A_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173-A_29"><span class="label">173-*</span></a> Durandus, in his description of a church, makes no
+mention of screen-work, but observes, &#8220;Notandum est quod triplex genus
+<i>veli</i> suspenditur in ecclesia videlicet quod sacra operit, quod
+sanctuarium a clero dividit, <i>et quod clerum a populo secernit</i>;&#8221;
+evidently alluding in the latter to the curtain extended across the
+chancel arch.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_174-A_30" id="Footnote_174-A_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174-A_30"><span class="label">174-*</span></a> &#8220;Item tunc stent in sedibus suis versa facie ad altare
+donec ad <i>misericordias</i> vel super <i>formulas</i> prout tempus postulat
+inclinent.&#8221;&mdash;Monasticon, 1st ed. vol. i. p. 951.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_180-A_31" id="Footnote_180-A_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180-A_31"><span class="label">180-*</span></a> The placing of more than two lights on the altar seems
+never to have been practised in the churches of this country; at least I
+have not met with any ancient illumination in which more than two are
+represented.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_181-A_32" id="Footnote_181-A_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181-A_32"><span class="label">181-*</span></a> The cover of an ancient thurible of latten was lately
+discovered in the chest of Ashbury Church, Berkshire: the lower part is of
+a semi-globular or domical form, from which issues an embattled turret or
+lantern in the form of a pentagon, which is finished by a quadrangular
+spire; the sides both of the lantern and spire are partly of open work,
+and round the domical part is inscribed <i>Gloria Tibi Domine</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_181-B_33" id="Footnote_181-B_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181-B_33"><span class="label">181-&#8224;</span></a> A small ampulla of brass or latten, supposed to have been
+an ancient chrismatory for the consecrated oil used in the sacrament of
+extreme unction, has been within the last few years discovered in the
+castle ditch, Pulford, Cheshire: this curious little relic is not more
+than two inches high; the body is semi-globular, or bulges in front, with
+a plain Greek cross engraved on it, and is flattened at the back; and at
+the neck are two bowed handles, by chains attached to which it appears to
+have hung suspended from the shoulders.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_182-A_34" id="Footnote_182-A_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182-A_34"><span class="label">182-*</span></a> Harding, in his controversy with Bishop Jewell, mentions
+&#8220;the monstrance or pixe&#8221; as if one and the same article.&mdash;Defence of the
+Apology, &amp;c., p. 343.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_183-A_35" id="Footnote_183-A_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183-A_35"><span class="label">183-*</span></a> Quo finito sacerdos cum suis ministris in sedibus ad hos
+paratis se recipiant et expectent usque ad orationem dicendam vel alio
+tempore usque ad <i>Gloria in excelsis</i>.&mdash;MS. Rituale pen. Auc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_183-B_36" id="Footnote_183-B_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183-B_36"><span class="label">183-&#8224;</span></a> This arrangement was different to that directed by the
+rubrical orders of the Roman missals, on their revision after the council
+of Trent, by which the celebrant was to be seated between the deacon and
+sub-deacon: &#8220;In missa item solemni celebrans medius inter diaconum et
+sub-diaconum sedere potest a cornu epistol&aelig; juxta altare cum cantatur
+<i>Kyrie eleison, Gloria in excelsis</i>, et <i>Credo</i>.&#8221;&mdash;Missale Romanum,
+Antverpi&aelig;, <span class="smcap">MDCXXXI.</span>; Rubric&aelig; Generales, &amp;c. One of the queries published
+by Le Brun, whilst composing his liturgical work, was, &#8220;Si le pr&ecirc;tre
+s&#8217;assied au dessus du diacre et du soudiacre, ou au milieu d&#8217;eux.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_186-A_37" id="Footnote_186-A_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186-A_37"><span class="label">186-*</span></a> Prope altare collocatur Piscina seu Lavacrum in quo manus
+lavantur.&mdash;Durandi Rat. de Ecclesia, &amp;c. In ancient church contracts the
+term <i>Lavatorie</i> was sometimes used for the Piscina, as in that for
+Catterick Church. In the Roman Missal subsequent to the Tridentine council
+the word <i>Sacrarium</i> is used.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_187-A_38" id="Footnote_187-A_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187-A_38"><span class="label">187-*</span></a> At Alvechurch, Worcestershire, the custom prevails of the
+priest washing his hands in the vestry before the administration of the
+sacrament, and napkins are brought to dry his hands.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_189-A_39" id="Footnote_189-A_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189-A_39"><span class="label">189-*</span></a> &#8220;Il y avoit pour cet effet en chaque piscine, comme en
+peut voir encore &agrave; une infinit&eacute; d&#8217;autels, deux conduits, ou canaux, pour
+faire &eacute;couler l&#8217;eau, l&#8217;un pour recevoir l&#8217;eau qui avoit servi au lavement
+des mains, l&#8217;autre pour celle qui avoit servi au purification ou perfusion
+du chalice.&#8221;&mdash;De Vert, Explication des C&eacute;r&eacute;monies de l&#8217;Eglise, vol. iii.
+p. 193.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_190-A_40" id="Footnote_190-A_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190-A_40"><span class="label">190-*</span></a> In &#8220;Le Parfaict Ecclesiastique, par M. Claude de la
+Croix,&#8221; (a curious work published A.&nbsp;D. 1666, and containing full
+instructions for the clergy of the Gallican church, and an exposition of
+the rites and ceremonies,) amongst appendages to an altar is enumerated
+&#8220;une credance ou niche dans le mur a poser les burettes et le bassin,&#8221; p.
+536. And in another place, &#8220;au cost&eacute; de l&#8217;Autel il y faut une petite niche
+&agrave; poser les burettes et le bassin, et y faire un trou en facon de piscine
+a fin que l&#8217;eau se perde en terre.&#8221; p. 568.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_190-B_41" id="Footnote_190-B_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190-B_41"><span class="label">190-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;In cornu Epistol&aelig; ... ampull&aelig; vitre&aelig; vini et aqu&aelig; cum
+pelvicula et manutergio mundo in fenestella seu in parva mensa ad h&aelig;c
+praeparata&#8221;&mdash;Missale Romanum ex Decreto, &amp;c. 1631.
+</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Calix vero et alia necessaria praeparentur in credentia cooperta linteo,
+antequam sacerdos veniat ad altare.&#8221;&mdash;Ibid.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_192-A_42" id="Footnote_192-A_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192-A_42"><span class="label">192-*</span></a> The earliest account of the sepulchre thus set up that I
+have yet met with occurs in an inventory of church furniture, A.&nbsp;D. 1214,
+in which is mentioned &#8220;<i>velum unum de serico supra sepulchrum</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_193-A_43" id="Footnote_193-A_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193-A_43"><span class="label">193-*</span></a> &#8220;Table&#8221; was a word used to express any sculptured basso
+relievo, more especially that inserted in the wall over an altar.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_199-A_44" id="Footnote_199-A_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199-A_44"><span class="label">199-*</span></a> A series of coloured engravings from the paintings on the
+walls of this chapel, which were evidently executed at the close of the
+fifteenth century, was published in 1807 by the late Mr. Thomas Fisher.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_200-A_45" id="Footnote_200-A_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200-A_45"><span class="label">200-*</span></a> By an injunction set forth by royal authority, A.&nbsp;D. 1539,
+it was ordered, &#8220;That from henceforth the said Thomas Becket shall not be
+esteemed, named, reputed, and called a saint, but Bishop Becket; and that
+his images and pictures thorow the whole realme shal be pluckt downe and
+avoided out of all churches, chapel, and other places.&#8221;&mdash;Fox&#8217;s
+Martyrology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_209-A_46" id="Footnote_209-A_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209-A_46"><span class="label">209-*</span></a> The locality, character, and construction of the
+confessional in our ancient churches are not yet clearly elucidated. Du
+Cange described the confessional, &#8220;<i>confessio</i>,&#8221; simply as &#8220;cellula in qua
+presbyteri fidelium confessiones excipiebant;&#8221; whilst according to De la
+Croix, in his remarks on those of the Gallican churches in the middle of
+the seventeenth century, &#8220;Les confessionaux doiuent estre &agrave; l&#8217;entr&eacute;e des
+Eglises, et non pas aupr&eacute;s des Autels, ny dans le Ch&oelig;ur, ny en lieu
+cach&eacute;, et tousieurs vne ouuerture pour &eacute;couter le Penitent, avec vn
+treillis de bois ou autre estoffe, et vn volet pour le fermer, quand on
+&eacute;coute de l&#8217;vn des costez ouuert.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_210-A_47" id="Footnote_210-A_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210-A_47"><span class="label">210-*</span></a> The tabard or heraldic coat worn over the body armour,
+and still worn by the heralds on state occasions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_211-A_48" id="Footnote_211-A_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211-A_48"><span class="label">211-*</span></a> &#8220;Our churches stand full of such great puppets,
+wondrously decked and adorned; garlands and coronets be set on their
+heads, precious pearls hanging about their necks; their fingers shine with
+rings set with precious stones; their dead and stiff bodies are clothed
+with garments stiff with gold.&#8221;&mdash;Homily against Peril of Idolatry.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_215-A_49" id="Footnote_215-A_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215-A_49"><span class="label">215-*</span></a> In the injunctions given by Bishop Ridley, in the
+visitation of his diocese A.&nbsp;D. 1550, occurs the following: &#8220;Item that the
+minister in the time of the communion, immediately after the offertory,
+shall monish the communicants, saying these words, or such like, &#8216;Now is
+the time, if it please you, to remember the poor men&#8217;s chest with your
+charitable alms.'&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_216-A_50" id="Footnote_216-A_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216-A_50"><span class="label">216-*</span></a> Dr. Cardwell, in his editorial preface to the reprint of
+the two Books of Common Prayer set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth,
+observes, &#8220;The communion service of the first liturgy contained a prayer
+for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the bread and wine, and a
+following prayer of oblation, which, together with the form of words
+addressed to the communicants, were designed to represent a sacrifice, and
+appeared to undiscriminating minds to denote the sacrifice of the mass.
+Numerous, therefore, and urgent were the objections against this portion
+of the service. Combined with a large class of objectors, whose theology
+consisted merely in an undefined dread of Romanism, were all those,
+however differing among themselves, who believed the holy communion to be
+a feast and not a sacrifice, and that larger class of persons who, placing
+the solemn duty upon its proper religious basis, were contented to worship
+without waiting to refine.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_218-A_51" id="Footnote_218-A_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218-A_51"><span class="label">218-*</span></a> Fox&#8217;s Martyrology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_223-A_52" id="Footnote_223-A_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223-A_52"><span class="label">223-*</span></a> In compliance with the queen&#8217;s letter, the following
+directions were sent by the commissioners to the dean and chapter of
+Bristol:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;After our hartie comendaco&#773;n&#773;s.&mdash;Whereas we are credibly informed that
+there are divers tabernacles for Images, as well in the fronture of the
+roodeloft of the cath<sup class="super">l</sup> church of Bristol, as also in the frontures, back,
+and ends of the walles wheare the com&#773;n&#773; table standeth, for asmoch as
+the same churche shoulde be a light and good example to th&#8217; ole citie and
+dioc. we have thought good to direct these our lr&#773;e&#773;s unto you, and to
+require youe to cause the said tabernacles to be defaced &amp; hewen downe,
+and afterwards to be made a playne walle, w<sup class="super">th</sup> morter, plast<sup class="super2">r</sup>, or
+otherways, &amp; some scriptures to be written in the places, &amp; namely that
+upon the walle on the east end of the quier wheare the com&#773;n&#773; table
+usually doth stande, the table of the co&#773;m&#773;and<sup class="super">ts</sup> to be painted in large
+caracters, with convenient speed, and furniture according to the orders
+latly set furthe by vertue of the quenes ma<sup class="super">ts</sup> co&#773;m&#773;ission for causes
+ecclesiasticall, at the coste and chardges of the said churche; whereof we
+require you not to faile. And so we bed you farewell. From London, the
+xxi. of December, 1561.&#8221;&mdash;Britton&#8217;s Bristol Cath. p. 52.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_224-A_53" id="Footnote_224-A_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224-A_53"><span class="label">224-*</span></a> In the chancel of Bengeworth Church, Gloucestershire, is
+a table of the commandments, with the letters cut in box-wood. This has
+the date of 1591 upon it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_226-A_54" id="Footnote_226-A_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226-A_54"><span class="label">226-*</span></a> These are engraved in vol. xx. of the Arch&aelig;ologia, and,
+from the general style and mouldings, appear to have been constructed in
+the latter part of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_230-A_55" id="Footnote_230-A_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230-A_55"><span class="label">230-*</span></a> The symbolical turning towards the east whilst
+pronouncing the Creed is adverted to by St. Cyril. In the Apostolical
+Constitutions, book ii. sect. xxviii., the attendants at public worship
+are enjoined to pray to God eastward. The custom of turning to the east at
+prayer is noticed by many of the early fathers of the church, and among
+them by St. Basil, who remarks, &#8220;As to the doctrines and preachings which
+are preserved in the church, we have some of them from the written
+doctrine; others we have received as delivered from the tradition of the
+apostles in a mystery. For, to begin with the mention of what is first and
+most common, who has taught us by writing that those that hope in the name
+of our Lord should be signed with the sign of the cross? what written law
+has taught us that we should turn towards the east in our prayers?.... Is
+not all this derived from this concealed and mystical tradition?.... We
+all, indeed, look towards the east in our prayers.&#8221;&mdash;Basil, Epist. ad
+Amphiloc. de Spiritu S. Whiston&#8217;s translation in Essay on the Apostolical
+Constitutions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_231-A_56" id="Footnote_231-A_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231-A_56"><span class="label">231-*</span></a> Funeral Monuments, A.&nbsp;D. 1631, p. 701.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_232-A_57" id="Footnote_232-A_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232-A_57"><span class="label">232-*</span></a> Printed in Strype&#8217;s Life of Parker. In the same paper the
+communion table is noticed as standing in the body of the church in some
+places, in others standing in the chancel; in some places standing
+altarwise, distant from the wall a yard, in others in the middle of the
+chancel, north and south; in some places <i>the table was joined, in others
+it stood upon tressels</i>; in some the table had a carpet, in others none.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_235-A_58" id="Footnote_235-A_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235-A_58"><span class="label">235-*</span></a> &#8220;The position of the table had now become the token of a
+distinct and solemn belief as to the nature of the eucharist, and was
+therefore treated as a question of conscience and an article of
+faith.&#8221;&mdash;Cardwell&#8217;s Documentary Annals, vol. ii. p. 186, note. The
+extracts given from the injunctions have been principally taken from this
+work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_240-A_59" id="Footnote_240-A_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240-A_59"><span class="label">240-*</span></a> The unostentatious and laudable practice of bestowing
+alms to the charity-box has long fallen into disuse in most churches; but
+within the last few years charity-boxes have been set up in some of our
+churches, and this commendable custom is again gradually reviving.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_242-A_60" id="Footnote_242-A_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242-A_60"><span class="label">242-*</span></a> Neal&#8217;s History of the Puritans, vol. iii. p. 170.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_244-A_61" id="Footnote_244-A_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244-A_61"><span class="label">244-*</span></a> Cardwell&#8217;s Conferences, p. 272.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_250-A_62" id="Footnote_250-A_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250-A_62"><span class="label">250-*</span></a> Hickeringill&#8217;s Ceremony-Monger, (pub. 1689,) p. 63.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin: 2em 0em 2em 0em;">OXFORD: Printed by T. Combe, Printer to the University.&mdash;May 10, 1841</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Published by J.&nbsp;H. Parker, Oxford</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 10em;" />
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">SECOND EDITION.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">In the Press, with many additional Wood-Cuts,</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">A GLIMPSE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">AT THE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">AND</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 130%;">SCULPTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN,</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 130%;">By MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.</p>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 10em;" />
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">THIRD EDITION, ENLARGED.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">2 Vols. 8vo. 1<i>l.</i> 4<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">A GLOSSARY OF TERMS</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">USED IN</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 130%;">GRECIAN, ROMAN, ITALIAN,</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">AND</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"style="font-size: 150%;">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">Exemplified by Seven Hundred Wood-Cuts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Published by J.&nbsp;H. Parker, Oxford</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 10em;" />
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">A COMPANION TO THE GLOSSARY</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">OF</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">ARCHITECTURE,</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">FORTY PLATES ENGRAVED BY JOHN LE KEUX;</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">Containing Four Hundred additional Examples, with
+descriptive Letter-Press, a Chronological
+Table, and Index of Places.</p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%; margin-top: 3em;">PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, IN 2 VOLS. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">SOME ACCOUNT</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of ENGLAND</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE
+REFORMATION.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">BY R. C. HUSSEY, Esq.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">Illustrated by numerous Engravings, from original
+drawings, of <span class="smrom">EXISTING REMAINS</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 3em;">3 Vols. 8vo, 2<i>l.</i> 18<i>s.</i> 3 Vols. 4to, 5<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">MEMORIALS OF OXFORD.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">BY JAMES INGRAM, D.D.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">President of Trinity College.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">THE ENGRAVINGS BY JOHN LE KEUX.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="center noindent"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0%;" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr1">26</a></td>
+  <td>(fig. 5.). has an extra . following the )</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr3">76,&nbsp;fn.&nbsp;*</a></td>
+  <td>&#7988;&#967;&#952;&#965;&#962; should read &#7984;&#967;&#952;&#8059;&#962;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr2">79</a></td>
+  <td>isuse should read disuse</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr4">104</a></td>
+  <td>rom should read from</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr5">106</a></td>
+  <td>pannels should read panels</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr6">145</a></td>
+  <td>First word in chapter was not in small caps</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr8">156,&nbsp;fn&nbsp;&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>1236. De Baptismo should have an open quote mark before &#8220;De&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr" style="vertical-align: top"><a href="#corr7">192</a></td>
+  <td>each which should read each of which. The word &#8220;of&#8221; did
+not print in the original text, although a space is present for it.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">wood-work / woodwork<br />
+zig-zag / zigzag</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words had inconsistent spelling:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Botolph / Botulph<br />
+Higham Ferrars / Higham Ferrers<br />
+Sherbourne / Sherborne<br />
+Wooten Wawen / Wotten Wawen</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic
+Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed., by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE ***
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@@ -0,0 +1,5147 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical
+Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed., by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed.
+
+Author: Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
+Release Date: November 8, 2006 [EBook #19737]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Julia Miller and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors found in the original text have been
+maintained in this version. They are marked in the text with a [TN-#].
+A description of each error is found in the complete list at the end of
+the text.
+
+The oe ligatures used in the original text have been expanded to "oe"
+in this version.
+
+The following codes are used for characters which cannot be represented
+in the character set used for this version of the book.
+
+[=mn]  mn with a macron over the two letters
+[=om]  om with a macron over the two letters
+[=on]  on with a macron over the two letters
+[=re]  re with a macron over the two letters
+
+Some footnotes in the original were marked with a dagger. The dagger
+is represented by a + in this version of the text.
+
+
+
+
+     "Whereby may be discerned that so fervent was the zeal of those
+     elder times to God's service and honour, that they freely endowed
+     the church with some part of their possessions; and that in those
+     good works even the meaner sort of men, as well as the pious
+     founders, were not backwards."
+
+     Dugdale's Antiq. Warwickshire.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                 THE
+
+             PRINCIPLES
+
+                 OF
+
+               GOTHIC
+
+           ECCLESIASTICAL
+
+            ARCHITECTURE,
+
+  ELUCIDATED BY QUESTION AND ANSWER.
+
+
+                 BY
+      MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.
+
+
+           FOURTH EDITION.
+
+               OXFORD:
+         JOHN HENRY PARKER.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In revising this Work for a Fourth Edition several alterations have been
+made, especially in the Concluding Chapter; and the whole has been
+considerably enlarged.
+
+M. H. B.
+
+Rugby,
+April 1841.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                             Page
+  CHAP. I.
+  Definition of Gothic Architecture; its Origin, and Division
+  of it into Styles                                            17
+
+  CHAP. II.
+  Of the different Kinds of Arches                             22
+
+  CHAP. III.
+  Of the Anglo-Saxon Style                                     30
+
+  CHAP. IV.
+  Of the Norman or Anglo-Norman Style                          51
+
+  CHAP. V.
+  Of the Semi-Norman Style                                     74
+
+  CHAP. VI.
+  Of the Early English Style                                   86
+
+  CHAP. VII.
+  Of the Decorated English Style                              102
+
+  CHAP. VIII.
+  Of the Florid or Perpendicular English Style                120
+
+  CHAP. IX.
+  Of the Debased English Style                                145
+
+  CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
+  Of the Internal Arrangement and Decorations of a Church     153
+
+
+
+
+CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.
+
+
+Page 41, line 9, _for_ Cambridge, _read_ Lincoln.
+
+Page 49. In addition to the list of churches containing presumed vestiges
+of Anglo-Saxon architecture, Woodstone Church, Huntingdonshire, and
+Miserden Church, Gloucestershire, may be enumerated.
+
+Page 71. The double ogee moulding is here inserted by mistake: it is not
+Norman, but of the fifteenth century.
+
+Page 137. In some copies the wood-cut in this page has been reversed in
+its position.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Two Arches of Roman Masonry, Leicester.]
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+ON THE ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND DECLINE OF GOTHIC OR ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL
+ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Amongst the vestiges of antiquity which abound in this country, are the
+visible memorials of those nations which have succeeded one another in the
+occupancy of this island. To the age of our Celtic ancestors, the earliest
+possessors of its soil, is ascribed the erection of those altars and
+temples of all but primeval antiquity, the Cromlechs and Stone Circles
+which lie scattered over the land; and these are conceived to have been
+derived from the Phoenicians, whose merchants first introduced amongst
+the aboriginal Britons the arts of incipient civilization. Of these most
+ancient relics the prototypes appear, as described in Holy Writ, in the
+pillar raised at Bethel by Jacob, in the altars erected by the Patriarchs,
+and in the circles of stone set up by Moses at the foot of Mount Sinai,
+and by Joshua at Gilgal. Many of these structures, perhaps from their very
+rudeness, have survived the vicissitudes of time, whilst there scarce
+remains a vestige of the temples erected in this island by the Romans; yet
+it is from Roman edifices that we derive, and can trace by a gradual
+transition, the progress of that peculiar kind of architecture called
+GOTHIC, which presents in its later stages the most striking contrast that
+can be imagined to its original precursor.
+
+The Romans having conquered almost the whole of Britain in the first
+century, retained possession of the southern parts for nearly four hundred
+years; and during their occupancy they not only instructed the natives in
+the arts of civilization, but also with their aid, as we learn from
+Tacitus, began at an early period to erect temples and public edifices,
+though doubtless much inferior to those at Rome, in their municipal towns
+and cities. The Christian religion was also early introduced,[3-*] but for
+a time its progress was slow; nor was it till the conversion of
+Constantine, in the fourth century, that it was openly tolerated by the
+state, and churches were publicly constructed for its worshippers; though
+even before that event, as we are led to infer from the testimony of
+Gildas, the most ancient of our native historians, particular structures
+were appropriated for the performance of its divine mysteries: for that
+historian alludes to the British Christians as reconstructing the churches
+which had, in the Dioclesian persecution, been levelled to the ground. But
+in the fifth century Rome, oppressed on every side by enemies, and
+distracted with the vastness of her conquests, which she was no longer
+able to maintain, recalled her legions from Britain; and the Romanized
+Britons being left without protection, and having, during their subjection
+to the Romans, lost their ancient valour and love of liberty, in a short
+time fell a prey to the Northern Barbarians; in their extremity they
+called over the Saxons to assist them, when the latter perceiving their
+defenceless condition, turned round upon them, and made an easy conquest
+of this country. In the struggle which then took place, the churches were
+again destroyed, the priests were slain at the very altars,[4-*] and
+though the British Church was never annihilated, Paganism for a while
+became triumphant.
+
+Towards the end of the sixth century, when Christianity was again
+propagated in this country by Augustine, Mellitus, and other zealous
+monks, St. Gregory, the head of the Papal church, and the originator of
+this mission, wrote to Mellitus not to suffer the Heathen temples to be
+destroyed, but only the idols found within them. These, and such churches
+built by the Romans as were then, though in a dilapidated state, existing,
+may reasonably be supposed to have been the prototypes of the Christian
+churches afterwards erected in this country.
+
+In the early period of the empire the Romans imitated the Grecians in
+their buildings of magnitude and beauty, forming, however, a style of
+greater richness in detail, though less chaste in effect; and columns of
+the different orders, with their entablatures, were used to support and
+adorn their public structures: but in the fourth century, when the arts
+were declining, the style of architecture became debased, and the
+predominant features consisted of massive square piers or columns, without
+entablatures, from the imposts of which sprung arches of a semicircular
+form; and it was in rude imitation of this latter style that the Saxon
+churches were constructed.
+
+The Roman basilicas, or halls of justice, some of which were subsequently
+converted into churches, to which also their names were given, furnished
+the plan for the internal arrangement of churches of a large size, being
+divided in the interior by rows of columns. From this division the nave
+and aisles of a church were derived; and in the semicircular recess at the
+one end for the tribune, we perceive the origin of the apsis, or
+semicircular east end, which one of the Anglo-Saxon, and many of our
+ancient Norman churches still present.
+
+But independent of examples afforded by some few ancient Roman churches,
+and such of the temples and public buildings of the Romans as were then
+remaining in Britain, the Saxon converts were directed and assisted in the
+science of architecture by those missionaries from Rome who propagated
+Christianity amongst them; and during the Saxon dynasty architects and
+workmen were frequently procured from abroad, to plan and raise
+ecclesiastical structures. The Anglo-Saxon churches were, however, rudely
+built, and, as far as can be ascertained, with some few exceptions, were
+of no great dimensions and almost entirely devoid of ornamental mouldings,
+though in some instances decorative sculpture and mouldings are to be met
+with; but in the repeated incursions of the Danes, in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, so general was the destruction of the monasteries and churches,
+which, when the country became tranquil, were rebuilt by the Normans, that
+we have, in fact, comparatively few churches existing which we may
+reasonably presume, or really know, to have been erected in an Anglo-Saxon
+age. Many of the earlier writers on this subject have, however, caused
+much confusion by applying the term 'SAXON' to all churches and other
+edifices contradistinguished from the pointed style by semicircular-headed
+doorways, windows, and arches. But the vestiges of Anglo-Saxon
+architecture have been as yet so little studied or known, as to render it
+difficult to point out, either generally or in detail, in what their
+peculiarities consist: the style may, however, be said to have
+approximated in appearance much nearer to the Debased Roman style of
+masonry than the Norman, and to have been also much ruder: and in the most
+ancient churches, as in that at Dover Castle, and that at Bricksworth, we
+find arches constructed of flat bricks or tiles, set edgewise, which was
+also a Roman fashion. The masonry was chiefly composed of rubble, with
+ashlar or squared blocks of stone at the angles, disposed in courses in a
+peculiar manner.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Arches, Bricksworth Church, Northamptonshire
+(7th. cent.)]
+
+The most common characteristic by which the NORMAN style is distinguished,
+is the semicircular or segmental arch, though this is to be met with also
+in the rare specimens of Anglo-Saxon masonry; but the Norman arches were
+more scientifically constructed: in their early state, indeed, quite
+plain, but generally concentric, or one arch receding within another, and
+in an advanced stage they were frequently ornamented with zig-zag and
+other mouldings. A variety of mouldings were also used in the decoration
+of the Norman portals or doorways, which were besides often enriched with
+a profusion of sculptured ornament. The Norman churches appear to have
+much excelled in size the lowly structures of the Saxons, and the
+cathedral and conventual churches were frequently carried to the height of
+three tiers or rows of arches, one above another; blank arcades were also
+used to ornament the walls.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcade, St. Aldgate, Oxford.]
+
+The Norman style, in which an innumerable number of churches and monastic
+edifices were originally built or entirely reconstructed, continued
+without any striking alteration till about the latter part of the twelfth
+century, when a singular change began to take place: this was no other
+than the introduction of the pointed arch, the origin of which has never
+yet been satisfactorily explained, or the precise period clearly
+ascertained in which it first appeared; but as the lightness and
+simplicity of design to which the Early Pointed style was found to be
+afterwards convertible was in its incipient state unknown, it retained to
+the close of the twelfth century the heavy concomitants of the
+semicircular arch, with which indeed it was often intermixed: and from
+such intermixture it may be designated the SEMI or MIXED NORMAN.
+
+When the original Norman style of building was first broken through, by
+the introduction of the pointed arch, which was often formed by the
+intersection of semicircular arches, the facing of it, or architrave, was
+often ornamented with the zig-zag, billet, and other mouldings, in the
+same manner as the Norman semicircular arches: it also rested on round
+massive piers, and still retained many other features of Norman
+architecture. But from the time of its introduction to the close of the
+twelfth century, the pointed arch was gradually struggling with the
+semicircular arch for the mastery, and with success; for from the
+commencement of the thirteenth century, as nearly as can be ascertained,
+the style of building with semicircular arches was, with very few
+exceptions, altogether discarded, and superseded by its more elegant
+rival.
+
+[Illustration: Canterbury Cathedral.]
+
+The mode of building with semicircular arches, massive piers, and thick
+walls with broad pilaster buttresses, was now laid aside; and the pointed
+arch, supported by more slender piers, with walls strengthened with
+graduating buttresses, of less width but of greater projection, were
+universally substituted in their stead. The windows, one of the most
+apparent marks of distinction, were at first long, narrow, and
+lancet-shaped: the heavy Norman ornaments, the zig-zag and other mouldings
+peculiar to the Norman and Semi-Norman styles, were now discarded; yet we
+often meet with certain decorative ornaments, as the tooth ornament,
+which, though sometimes found in late Norman work, is almost peculiar to
+the Early Pointed style; also the ball-flower, prevalent both in this and
+the style of the succeeding century. Many church towers were also capped
+with spires, which now first appear. This style prevailed generally
+throughout the thirteenth century, and is usually designated as the EARLY
+ENGLISH.
+
+[Illustration: Horsley Ch., Derbyshire.]
+
+Towards the close of the thirteenth century a perceptible, though gradual,
+transition took place to a richer and more ornamental mode of
+architecture. This was the style of the fourteenth century, and is known
+by the name of the DECORATED ENGLISH; but it chiefly flourished during the
+reigns of Edward the Second and Edward the Third, in the latter of which
+it attained a degree of perfection unequalled by preceding or subsequent
+ages. Some of the most prominent and distinctive marks of this style occur
+in the windows, which were greatly enlarged, and divided into many lights
+by mullions or tracery-bars running into various ramifications above, and
+dividing the heads into numerous compartments, forming either geometrical
+or flowing tracery. Triangular or pedimental canopies and pinnacles, more
+enriched than before with crockets and finials, yet without redundancy of
+ornament, also occur in the churches built during this century.
+
+[Illustration: Worstead Church, Norfolk.]
+
+In the latter part of the fourteenth century another transition, or
+gradual change of style, began to be effected, in the discrimination of
+which an obvious distinction again occurs in the composition of the
+windows, some of which are very large: for the mullion-bars, instead of
+branching off in the head, in a number of curved lines, are carried up
+vertically, so as to form _perpendicular_ divisions between the
+window-sill and the head, and do not present that combination of
+geometrical and flowing tracery observable in the style immediately
+preceding.
+
+[Illustration: St. Michael's, Oxford.]
+
+The frequent occurrence of panelled compartments, and the partial change
+of form in the arches, especially of doorways and windows, which in the
+latter part of the fifteenth century were often obtusely pointed and
+mathematically described from four centres, instead of two, as in the more
+simple pointed arch, and which from the period when this arch began to be
+prevalent was called the TUDOR arch, together with a great profusion of
+minute ornament, mostly of a description not before in use, are the chief
+characteristics of the style of the fifteenth century, which by some of
+the earlier writers was designated as the FLORID; though it has since
+received the more general appellation of the PERPENDICULAR.
+
+This style prevailed till the Reformation, at which period no country
+could vie with our own in the number of religious edifices, which had been
+erected in all the varieties of style that had prevailed for many
+preceding ages. Next to the magnificent cathedrals, the venerable
+monasteries and collegiate establishments, which had been founded and
+sumptuously endowed in every part of the kingdom, might most justly claim
+the preeminence; and many of the churches belonging to them were
+deservedly held in admiration for their grandeur and architectural
+elegance of design.
+
+But the suppression of the monasteries tended in no slight degree to
+hasten the decline and fall of our ancient church architecture, to which
+other causes, such as the revival of the classic orders in Italy, also
+contributed. The churches belonging to the conventual foundations, which
+had been built at different periods by the monks or their benefactors, and
+the charges of erecting and decorating which from time to time in the most
+costly manner, had been defrayed out of the monastic revenues, and from
+private donations, being seized by the crown, were reduced to a state of
+ruin, and the sites on which they stood granted to dependants of the
+court. The former reverential feeling on these matters had greatly
+changed; and as the retention of some few of the ministerial habits, the
+square cap, the cope, the surplice, and hood, which were deemed expedient
+for the decent ministration of public worship, gave great offence to many,
+and was one of the most apparent causes which led to that schism amongst
+the Reformers, on points of discipline, which afterwards ended in the
+subversion, for a time, of the rites and ordinances of the Church of
+England, any attempt towards beautifying and adorning (other than with
+carved pulpits and communion-tables or altars) the places of divine
+worship, which were now stripped of many of their former ornamental
+accessories, would have been regarded and inveighed against as a popish
+and superstitious innovation; and a charge of this kind was at a later
+period preferred against Archbishop Laud. Parochial churches were,
+therefore, now repaired when fallen into a state of dilapidation, in a
+plain and inelegant mode, in complete variance with the richness and
+display observable in the style just preceding this event.
+
+Details, originating from the designs of classic architecture, which had
+been partially revived in Italy, began early in the sixteenth century to
+make their appearance in this country, though as yet, except on tombs and
+in wood-work, we observe few of those peculiar features introduced as
+accessories in church architecture.
+
+Hence many of our country churches, which were repaired or partly rebuilt
+in the century succeeding the Reformation, exhibit the marks of the style
+justly denominated DEBASED, to distinguish it from the former purer
+styles. Depressed and nearly flat arched doorways, with shallow mouldings,
+square-headed windows with perpendicular mullions and obtuse-pointed or
+round-headed lights, without foliations, together with a general
+clumsiness of construction, as compared with more ancient edifices, form
+the predominating features in ecclesiastical buildings of this kind: and
+in the reign of Charles the First an indiscriminate mixture of Debased
+Gothic and Roman architecture prevailing, we lose sight of every true
+feature of our ancient ecclesiastical styles, which were superseded by
+that which sprang more immediately from the Antique, the Roman, or Italian
+mode.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3-*] Tempore, ut scimus, summo Tiberii Caesaris, &c.--GILDAS.
+
+[4-*] Ruebant aedificia publica simul et privata, passim Sacerdotes inter
+altaria trucibantur.--BEDE, Eccl. Hist. lib. i. c. xv.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Scutcheon from Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, circa A. D. 1450.]
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEFINITION OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; ITS ORIGIN, AND THE DIVISION OF IT INTO
+STYLES.
+
+
+Q. What is meant by the term "Gothic Architecture"?
+
+A. Without entering into the derivation of the word "Gothic," it may
+suffice to state that it is an expression sometimes used to denote in one
+general term, and distinguish from the Antique, those peculiar modes or
+styles in which most of our ecclesiastical and many of our domestic
+edifices of the middle ages have been built. In a more confined sense, it
+comprehends those styles only in which the pointed arch predominates, and
+it is then often used to distinguish such from the more ancient
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles.
+
+Q. To what can the origin of this kind of architecture be traced?
+
+A. To the classic orders in that state of degeneracy into which they had
+fallen in the age of Constantine, and afterwards; and as the Romans, on
+their voluntary abandonment of Britain in the fifth century, left many of
+their temples and public edifices remaining, together with some Christian
+churches, it was in rude imitation of the Roman structures of the fourth
+century that the most ancient of our Anglo-Saxon churches were
+constructed. This is apparent from an examination and comparison of such
+with the vestiges of Roman buildings we have existing.
+
+Q. Into how many different styles may English ecclesiastical architecture
+be divided?
+
+A. No specific regulation has been adopted, with regard to the
+denomination or division of the several styles, in which all the writers
+on the subject agree: but they may be divided into seven, which, together
+with the periods when they flourished, may be generally defined as
+follows:
+
+The SAXON Or ANGLO-SAXON Style, which prevailed from the mission of
+Augustine, at the close of the sixth, to the middle of the eleventh
+century.
+
+The NORMAN style, which may be said to have prevailed generally from the
+middle of the eleventh to the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+The SEMI-NORMAN, Or TRANSITION style, which appears to have prevailed
+during the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+The EARLY ENGLISH, or general style of the thirteenth century.
+
+The DECORATED ENGLISH, or general style of the fourteenth century.
+
+The FLORID Or PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH, the style of the fifteenth, and early
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+The DEBASED ENGLISH, or general style of the latter part of the sixteenth
+and early part of the seventeenth century, towards the middle of which
+Gothic architecture, even in its debased state, became entirely discarded.
+
+Q. What constitutes the difference of these styles?
+
+A. They may be distinguished partly by the form of the arches, which are
+triangular-headed, semicircular or segmental, simple pointed, and complex
+pointed; though such forms are by no means an invariable criterion of any
+particular style; by the size and shape of the windows, and the manner in
+which they are subdivided or not by transoms, mullions, and tracery; but
+more especially by certain minute details, ornamental accessories and
+mouldings, more or less peculiar to particular styles, and which are
+seldom to be met with in any other.
+
+Q. Are the majority of our ecclesiastical buildings composed only of one
+style?
+
+A. Most of our cathedral and country churches have been built, or had
+additions made to them, at different periods, and therefore seldom exhibit
+an uniformity of design; and many churches have details about them of
+almost every style. There are, however, numerous exceptions, where
+churches have been erected in the same style throughout; and this is more
+particularly observable in the churches of the fifteenth century.
+
+Q. Were they constructed on any regular plan?
+
+A. The general ground plan of cathedral and conventual churches was after
+the form of a cross, and the edifice consisted of a central tower, with
+transepts running north and south; westward of the tower was the nave or
+main body of the structure, with lateral aisles; and the west front
+contained the principal entrance, and was often flanked by towers.
+Eastward of the central tower was the choir, where the principal service
+was performed, with aisles on each side, and beyond this was the lady
+chapel. Sometimes the design also comprehended other chapels. On the north
+or south side was the chapter house, in early times quadrangular, but
+afterwards octagonal in plan; and on the same side, in most instances,
+though not always, were the cloisters, which communicated immediately with
+the church, and surrounded a quadrangular court. The chapter house and
+cloisters we still find remaining as adjuncts to most cathedral churches,
+though the conventual buildings of a domestic nature, with which the
+cloisters formerly also communicated, have generally been destroyed. Mere
+parochial churches have commonly a tower at the west end, a nave with
+lateral aisles, and a chancel. Some churches have transepts; and small
+side chapels or additional aisles have been annexed to many, erected at
+the costs of individuals, to serve for burial and as chantries. The
+smallest class of churches have a nave and chancel only, with a small
+bell-turret formed of wooden shingles, or an open arch of stonework,
+appearing above the roof at the west end.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SEDILIA,
+
+St. Martin's, Leicester, circa A. D. 1250.]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARCHES.
+
+
+Q. Do the distinctions of the different styles, as they differ from each
+other, depend at all upon the form of the arch?
+
+A. To a certain extent the form of the arch may be considered as a
+criterion of style; too much dependence, however, must not be placed on
+this rule, inasmuch as there are many exceptions.
+
+Q. How are arches divided generally, as to form?
+
+A. Into the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch, the
+round-headed arch, and the curved-pointed arch; and the latter are again
+subdivided.
+
+Q. How is the triangular-headed or straight-lined pointed arch formed, and
+when did it prevail?
+
+A. It may be described as formed by the two upper sides of a triangle,
+more or less obtuse or acute. It is generally considered as one of the
+characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon style, where it is often to be met with
+of plain and rude construction. But instances of this form of arch, though
+they are not frequent, are to be met with in the Norman and subsequent
+styles. Arches, however, of this description, of late date, may be
+generally known by some moulding or other feature peculiar to the style in
+which it is used.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What different kinds of round-headed arches are there?
+
+A. The semicircular arch (fig. 1), the stilted arch (fig. 2), the
+segmental arch (fig. 3), and the horse-shoe arch (fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. How are they formed or described?
+
+A. The semicircular arch is described from a centre in the same line with
+its spring; the stilted arch in the same manner, but the sides are carried
+downwards in a straight line below the spring of the curve till they rest
+upon the imposts; the segmental arch is described from a centre lower than
+its spring; and the horse-shoe arch from a centre placed above its spring.
+
+Q. During what period of time do we find these arches generally in use?
+
+A. The semicircular arch, which is the most common, we find to have
+prevailed from the time of the Romans to the close of the twelfth
+century, when it became generally discarded; and we seldom meet with it
+again, in its simple state, till about the middle of the sixteenth
+century. It is in some degree considered as a characteristic of the
+Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles. The stilted arch is chiefly found in
+conjunction with the semicircular arch in the construction of Norman
+vaulting over a space in plan that of a parallelogram. The segmental arch
+we meet with in almost all the styles, used as an arch of construction,
+and for doorway and window arches; whilst the form of the horse-shoe arch
+seems, in many instances, to have been occasioned by the settlement and
+inclination of the piers from which it springs.
+
+Q. Into how many classes may the pointed arch be divided?
+
+A. Into two, namely, the simple pointed arch described from two centres,
+and the complex pointed arch described from four centres.
+
+Q. What are the different kinds of simple pointed arches?
+
+A. The LANCET, or acute-pointed arch; the EQUILATERAL pointed arch; and
+the OBTUSE-ANGLED pointed arch.
+
+Q. How is the lancet arch formed and described?
+
+A. It is formed of two segments of a circle, and its centres have a radius
+or line longer than the breadth of the arch, and may be described from an
+acute-angled triangle. (fig. 5.).[TN-1]
+
+Q. How is the equilateral arch formed and described?
+
+A. From two segments of a circle; the centres of it have a radius or line
+equal to the breadth of the arch, and it may be described from an
+equilateral triangle. (fig. 6.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. How is the obtuse-angled arch formed and described?
+
+A. Like the foregoing, it is formed from two segments of a circle, and the
+centres of it have a radius shorter than the breadth of the arch; it is
+described from an obtuse-angled triangle. (fig. 7.)
+
+Q. During what period were these pointed arches in use?
+
+A. They were all gradually introduced in the twelfth century, and
+continued during the thirteenth century; after which the lancet arch
+appears to have been generally discarded, though the other two prevailed
+till a much later period.
+
+Q. What are the different kinds of complex pointed arches?
+
+A. Those commonly called the OGEE, or contrasted arch; and the TUDOR arch.
+
+Q. How is the ogee, or contrasted arch, formed and described?
+
+A. It is formed of four segments of a circle, and is described from four
+centres, two placed within the arch on a level with the spring, and two
+placed on the exterior of the arch, and level with the apex or point (fig.
+8); each side is composed of a double curve, the lowermost convex and the
+uppermost concave.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. When was the ogee arch introduced, and how long did it prevail?
+
+A. It was introduced early in the fourteenth century, and continued till
+the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+Q. How is the Tudor arch described?
+
+A. From four centres; two on a level with the spring, and two at a
+distance from it, and below. (fig. 9.)
+
+Q. When was the Tudor arch introduced, and why is it so called?
+
+A. It was introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, or perhaps
+earlier, but became most prevalent during the reigns of Henry the Seventh
+and Henry the Eighth, under the Tudor dynasty, from which it derives its
+name.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What other kinds of arches are there worthy of notice?
+
+A. Those which are called foiled arches, as the round-headed trefoil (fig.
+10), the pointed trefoil (fig. 11), and the square-headed trefoil (fig.
+12). The first prevailed in the latter part of the twelfth and early part
+of the thirteenth century, chiefly as a heading for niches or blank
+arcades; the second, used for the same purpose, we find to have prevailed
+in the thirteenth century; and the latter is found in doorways of the
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. In all these the
+exterior mouldings follow the same curvatures as the inner mouldings, and
+are thus distinguishable from arches the heads of which are only foliated
+within.
+
+[Illustration: DOORWAY. St. Thomas's, Oxford, circa 1250.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Doorway, Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire.
+(7th cent.)]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+OF THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE.
+
+
+Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?
+
+A. From the close of the sixth century, when the conversion of the
+Anglo-Saxons commenced, to the middle of the eleventh century.
+
+Q. Whence does this style appear to have derived its origin?
+
+A. From the later Roman edifices; for in the most ancient of the
+Anglo-Saxon remains we find an approximation, more or less, to the Roman
+mode of building, with arches formed of brickwork.
+
+Q. What is peculiar in the constructive features of Roman masonry?
+
+A. Walls of Roman masonry in this country were chiefly constructed of
+stone or flint, according to the part of the country in which the one
+material or other prevailed, embedded in mortar, bonded at certain
+intervals throughout with regular horizontal courses or layers of large
+flat Roman bricks or tiles, which, from the inequality of thickness and
+size, do not appear to have been shaped in any regular mould.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of the Fragment of a Roman Building at Leicester.]
+
+Q. What vestiges of Roman masonry are now existing in Britain?
+
+A. A fragment, apparently that of a Roman temple or basilica, near the
+church of St. Nicholas at Leicester, which contains horizontal courses of
+brick at intervals, and arches constructed of brickwork; the curious
+portion of a wall of similar construction, with remains of brick arches on
+the one side, which indicate it to have formed part of a building, and not
+a mere wall as it now appears, at Wroxeter, Salop; and the polygonal tower
+at Dover Castle, which, notwithstanding an exterior casing of flint, and
+other alterations effected in the fifteenth century, still retains many
+visible features of its original construction of tufa bonded with bricks
+at intervals. Roman masonry, of the mixed description of brick and stone,
+regularly disposed, is found in walls at York, Lincoln, Silchester, and
+elsewhere; and sometimes we meet with bricks or stone arranged
+herring-bone fashion, as in the vestiges of a Roman building at Castor,
+Northamptonshire, and the walls of a Roman villa discovered at Littleton,
+Somersetshire.
+
+Q. Have we any remains of the ancient British churches erected in this
+country in the third, fourth, or fifth centuries?
+
+A. None such have yet been discovered or noticed; for the ruinous
+structure at Perranzabuloe in Cornwall, which some assert to have been an
+ancient British church, is probably not of earlier date than the twelfth
+century; and the church of St. Martin at Canterbury, built in the time of
+the Romans, which Augustine found on his arrival still used for the
+worship of God, was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, but, to all
+appearance, with the same materials of which the original church was
+constructed.
+
+Q. Do any of our churches bear a resemblance to Roman buildings?
+
+A. The church now in ruins within the precincts of the Castle of Dover
+presents features of early work approximating Roman, as a portal and
+window-arches formed of brickwork, which seem to have been copied from
+those in the Roman tower near adjoining; the walls also have much of Roman
+brick worked up into them, but have no such regular horizontal layers as
+Roman masonry displays. The most ancient portions of this church are
+attributed to belong to the middle of the seventh century. The church of
+Brixworth, Northamptonshire, is perhaps the most complete specimen we have
+existing of an early Anglo-Saxon church: it has had side aisles separated
+from the nave by semicircular arches constructed of Roman bricks, with
+wide joints; these arches spring from square and plain massive piers.
+There is also fair recorded evidence to support the inference that this
+church is a structure of the latter part of the seventh century. Roman
+bricks are worked up in the walls, in no regular order, however, but
+indiscriminately, as in the church at Dover Castle.
+
+[Illustration: Pilaster Rib-work Arch, Brigstock Church.]
+
+Q. What peculiarities are observable in masonry of Anglo-Saxon
+construction?
+
+A. From existing vestiges of churches of presumed Anglo-Saxon construction
+it appears that the walls were chiefly formed of rubble or rag-stone,
+covered on the exterior with stucco or plaster, with long and short blocks
+of ashlar or hewn stone, disposed at the angles in alternate courses. We
+also find, projecting a few inches from the surface of the wall, and
+running up vertically, narrow ribs or square-edged strips of stone,
+bearing from their position a rude similarity to pilasters; and these
+strips are generally composed of long and short pieces of stone placed
+alternately. A plain string course of the same description of square-edged
+rib or strip-work often runs horizontally along the walls of Anglo-Saxon
+remains, and the vertical ribs are sometimes set upon such as a basement,
+and sometimes finish under such.
+
+Q. What churches exhibit projecting strips of stonework thus disposed?
+
+A. The towers of the churches of Earls Barton and Barnack,
+Northamptonshire, and the tower of one of the churches at
+Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire, are covered with these narrow projecting
+strips of stonework, in such a manner that the surface of the wall appears
+divided into rudely formed panels; the like disposition of rib-work
+appears, though not to so great extent, on the face of the upper part of
+the tower of Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, of St. Benedict's Church,
+Cambridge, on the walls of the church of Worth, in Sussex, on the upper
+part of the walls of the chancel of Repton Church, Derbyshire, and on the
+walls of the nave and north transept of Stanton Lacey Church, Salop.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Masonry, Long and Short Work.
+
+Burcombe, Wilts. Wittering, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. Where do we meet with instances where long and short blocks of ashlar
+masonry are disposed in alternate courses at the angles of walls?
+
+A. Such occur at the angles of the chancel of North Burcombe Church,
+Wiltshire; at the angles of the nave and chancel of Wittering Church,
+Northamptonshire; at the angles of the towers of St. Benedict's Church,
+Cambridge, of Sompting Church, Sussex, and of St. Michael's Church,
+Oxford, and in other Anglo-Saxon remains. The ashlar masonry forming the
+angles is not, however, invariably thus disposed.
+
+Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?
+
+A. They are either semicircular, or triangular-arched headed, but the
+former are more common. In those, apparently the most ancient, the
+voussoirs or arched heads are faced with large flat bricks or tiles,
+closely resembling Roman work. Doorways of this description are to be met
+with in the old church, Dover Castle; in the church of Brixworth,
+Northamptonshire; and on the south side of Brytford Church, Wiltshire. The
+doorway, however, we most frequently meet with in Anglo-Saxon remains, is
+of simple yet peculiar construction, semicircular-headed, and formed
+entirely of stone, without any admixture of brick; the jambs are
+square-edged, and are sometimes but not always composed of two long blocks
+placed upright, with a short block between them; the arched head of the
+doorway is plain, and springs from square projecting impost blocks, the
+under edges of which are sometimes bevelled and sometimes left square.
+This doorway is contained within a kind of arch of rib-work, projecting
+from the face of the wall, with strips of pilaster rib-work continued down
+to the ground; sometimes this arch springs from plain block imposts, or
+from strips of square-edged rib-work disposed horizontally, and the jambs
+are occasionally constructed of long and short work.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Doorway, St. Peter's Church,
+Barton-upon-Humber.]
+
+Q. Mention the names of churches in which doorways of this description are
+preserved?
+
+A. The south doorways of the towers of the old church at
+Barton-upon-Humber and of Barnack Church, the west doorway of the tower of
+Earls Barton Church, the north and south doorways of the tower of Wooten
+Wawen Church, Warwickshire, the east doorway of the tower of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, the north doorway of the nave of Brytford Church,
+Wiltshire, and the north doorway of the nave of Stanton Lacey Church,
+Salop, though differing in some respects from each other, bear a general
+similarity of design, and come under the foregoing description.
+
+[Illustration: Belfry Window, north side of the Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.]
+
+Q. How are we able to distinguish the windows of the Anglo-Saxon style?
+
+A. The belfry windows are generally found to consist of two
+semicircular-headed lights, divided by a kind of rude balluster shaft of
+peculiar character, the entasis of which is sometimes encircled with rude
+annulated mouldings; this shaft supports a plain oblong impost or abacus,
+which extends through the whole of the thickness of the wall, or nearly
+so, and from this one side of the arch of each light springs. Double
+windows thus divided appear in the belfry stories of the church towers of
+St. Michael, Oxford; St. Benedict, Cambridge; St. Peter,
+Barton-upon-Humber; Wyckham, Berks; Sompting, Sussex; and Northleigh,
+Oxfordshire. In the belfry of the tower of Earls Barton Church are windows
+of five or six lights, the divisions between which are formed by these
+curious balluster shafts. The semicircular-headed single-light window of
+this style may be distinguished from those of the Norman style by the
+double splay of the jambs, the spaces between which spread or increase in
+width outwardly as well as inwardly, the narrowest part of the window
+being placed on the centre of the thickness of the wall; whereas the jambs
+of windows in the Norman style have only a single splay, and the narrowest
+part of the window is set even with the external face of the wall, or
+nearly so. Single-light windows splayed externally occur in the west
+walls of the towers of Wyckham Church, Berks, and of Stowe Church,
+Northamptonshire, Caversfield Church, Oxfordshire, and on the north side
+of the chancel of Clapham Church, Bedfordshire; but windows without a
+splay occur in the tower of Lavendon Church, Buckinghamshire. Small square
+or oblong-shaped apertures are sometimes met with, as in the tower of St.
+Benedict's Church, Cambridge; and also triangular-headed windows, which,
+with doorways of the same form, will be presently noticed.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Single-light Window, Tower of Wyckham Church,
+Berks.]
+
+Q. Of what description are the arches which separate the nave from the
+chancel and aisles, and sustain the clerestory walls?
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Arches, St. Michael's Church, St. Alban's, A. D.
+948.]
+
+A. They are very plain, and consist of a single sweep or soffit only,
+without any sub-arch, as in the Norman style; and they spring from square
+piers; with a plain abacus impost on each intervening, which impost has
+sometimes the under edge chamfered, and sometimes left quite plain. Arches
+of this description occur at Brixworth Church, between the nave and
+chancel of Clapham Church, and between the nave and chancel of Wyckham
+Church. The arches in St. Michael's Church, St. Alban's, which divide the
+nave from the aisles, have their edges slightly chamfered. There are also
+arches with single soffits, which have over them a kind of hood, similar
+to that over doorways of square-edged rib-work, projecting a few inches
+from the face of the wall, carried round the arch, and either dying into
+the impost or continued straight down to the ground. The chancel arch of
+Worth Church, and arches in the churches of Brigstock and Barnack, and of
+St. Benedict, Cambridge, and the chancel arch, Barrow Church, Salop, are
+of this description. Some arches have round or semicylindrical mouldings
+rudely worked on the face, as in the chancel arch, Wittering Church; or
+under or attached to the soffit, as at the churches of Sompting and St.
+Botulph, Sussex. Rudely sculptured impost blocks also sometimes occur, as
+at Sompting and at St. Botulph; and animals sculptured in low relief
+appear at the springing of the hood over the arch in the tower of St.
+Benedict's Church, Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: Tower Arch, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Chancel Arch, Wittering Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. How are some of the doorways, windows, arched recesses, and panels of
+Anglo-Saxon architecture constructed?
+
+[Illustration: Doorway in the Tower of Brigstock Church.]
+
+A. In a very rude manner, of two or more long blocks of stone, placed
+slantingly or inclined one towards the other, thus forming a straight
+line, or triangular-headed arch; the lower ends of these sometimes rest on
+plain projecting imposts, which surmount other blocks composing the
+jambs. We find a doorway of this description on the west side of the tower
+of Brigstock Church, forming the entrance into the curious circular-shaped
+turret attached and designed for a staircase to the belfry; an arched
+recess of this description occurs in the tower of Barnack Church, and a
+panel on the exterior of the same tower, and in windows in the tower of
+the old church, Barton-upon-Humber, and in the tower of Sompting Church,
+and St. Michael's Church, Oxford. The arch thus shaped is not, however,
+peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon style, but may occasionally be traced in most
+if not all of the subsequent styles, but not of such rude or plain
+construction.
+
+[Illustration: Recess in the Tower of Barnack Church.]
+
+Q. Were the Anglo-Saxon architects accustomed to construct crypts beneath
+their churches?
+
+A. There are some subterranean vaults, not easily accessible, the presumed
+remains of Bishop Wilfrid's work, at Ripon and Hexham, of the latter part
+of the seventh century; but the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton
+Church, Derbyshire, the walls of which are constructed of _hewn_ stone, is
+perhaps the most perfect specimen existing of a crypt in the Anglo-Saxon
+style, and of a stone vaulted roof sustained by piers, which are of
+singular character; the vaulting is without diagonal groins, and bears a
+greater similarity to Roman than to Norman vaulting.
+
+[Illustration: Crypt, Repton Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Q. Are mouldings, or is any kind of sculptured ornament, to be met with in
+Anglo-Saxon work?
+
+A. Although the remains of this style are for the most part plain and
+devoid of ornamental detail, we occasionally meet with mouldings of a
+semicylindrical or roll-like form, on the face or under the soffit of an
+arch, and these are sometimes continued down the sides of the jambs or
+piers. Foliage, knot-work, and other rudely sculptured detail occur on
+the tower of Barnack Church, and some rude sculptures appear in St.
+Benedict's Church, Cambridge; and the plain and simple cross of the Greek
+form, is represented in relief over a doorway at Stanton Lacey Church, and
+over windows in the tower of Earls Barton Church.
+
+Q. What was the general plan of the Anglo-Saxon churches?
+
+A. We have now but few instances in which the complete ground plan of an
+Anglo-Saxon church can be traced: that of Worth Church, Sussex, is perhaps
+the most perfect, as the original foundation walls do not appear to have
+been disturbed, although insertions of windows of later date have been
+made in the walls of the superstructure. This church is planned in the
+form of a cross, and consists of a nave with transepts, and a chancel,
+terminating at the east end with a semicircular apsis--a rare instance in
+the Anglo-Saxon style, as in general the east end of the chancel is
+rectangular in plan. The towers of Anglo-Saxon churches are generally
+placed at the west end, though sometimes, as at Wotten Wawen, they occur
+between the chancel and nave. No original staircase has yet been found in
+the interior of any. The church at Brixworth, an edifice of the seventh
+century, and that of St. Michael, at St. Alban's, of the tenth century,
+have aisles. Sometimes the church appears to have consisted of a nave and
+chancel only.
+
+Q. Why have we so few ecclesiastical remains of known or presumed
+Anglo-Saxon architecture now existing?
+
+A. There are probably many examples of this style preserved in churches
+which have hitherto escaped observation[49-*]; still they are,
+comparatively speaking, rarely to be met with: and this may be accounted
+for by the recorded fact, that in the repeated incursions of the Danes in
+this island, during the ninth and tenth centuries, almost all the
+Anglo-Saxon monasteries and churches were set on fire and destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo Saxon Doorway and Window, interior of the tower of
+Brigstock Church, north side.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-*] All the Anglo-Saxon remains noticed in this chapter, except those
+alluded to as supposed to exist at Ripon and Hexham, together with the
+tower of the church of St. Benedict's, Lincoln, have been inspected by the
+author; and the illustrations of this chapter are, with three exceptions,
+from his sketches made on the spot. Of the remaining three vignettes, two
+are from drawings made whilst the author was present, and one only, viz.
+that of the crypt beneath the chancel of Repton Church, has been reduced
+from a larger engraving. Besides the churches which have been referred to,
+several others which have not been visited by the author exhibit vestiges,
+more or less, of presumed Anglo-Saxon work. Of such churches the following
+is a list, and, with those mentioned in the chapter, constitute all which
+have yet come under his notice:
+
+Caversfield, Oxfordshire. Church Stretton, Salop. Trinity Church,
+Colchester. Deerhurst, Gloucestershire. Daglinworth, Gloucestershire.
+Jarrow, Durham. Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorkshire. Kirkdale, Yorkshire.
+Monkswearmouth, Durham. Ropsley, Lincolnshire. Stoke D'Abernon, Surrey.
+Wittingham, Yorkshire.
+
+Of these, seven are noticed by Mr. Rickman.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Norman Chancel, Darent Church, Kent.]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+OF THE NORMAN OR ANGLO-NORMAN STYLE.
+
+
+Q. To what era may we assign the introduction of the Anglo-Norman style?
+
+A. To the reign of Edward the Confessor, since that monarch is recorded by
+the historians, Matthew Paris and William of Malmesbury, to have rebuilt
+(A. D. 1065) the Abbey Church at Westminster in a new style of
+architectural design, which furnished an example afterwards followed by
+many in the construction of churches.[52-*]
+
+Q. Is any portion of the structure erected by Edward the Confessor
+remaining?
+
+A. A crypt of early Norman work under the present edifice or buildings
+attached to it is supposed to have been part of the church constructed by
+that monarch.
+
+Q. During what period of time did this style prevail?
+
+A. From about A. D. 1065 to the close of the twelfth century.
+
+Q. By what means are we to distinguish this style from the styles of a
+later period?
+
+A. It is distinguished without difficulty by its semicircular arches, its
+massive piers, which are generally square or cylindrical, though sometimes
+multangular in form, and from numerous ornamental details and mouldings
+peculiar to the style.
+
+Q. What part of the original building has generally been preserved in
+those churches that were built by the Normans, when all the rest has been
+demolished and rebuilt in a later style of architecture?
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway, Wolston Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+A. There appears to have been a prevalent custom, among those architects
+who succeeded the Normans, to preserve the doorways of those churches they
+rebuilt or altered; for many such doorways still remain in churches, the
+other portions of which were built at a much later period. Thus in the
+tower of Kenilworth Church, Warwickshire, is a Norman doorway of singular
+design, from the square band or ornamental facia which environs it. This
+is a relic of a more ancient edifice than the structure in which it now
+appears, and which is of the fourteenth century; and the external masonry
+of the doorway is not tied into the walls of more recent construction, but
+exhibits a break all round. The church of Stoneleigh, in the same county,
+contains in the north wall a fine Norman doorway, which has been left
+undisturbed, though the wall on each side of Norman construction, has been
+altered, not by demolition, but by the insertion, in the fourteenth
+century, of decorated windows in lieu of the original small Norman lights.
+
+Q. Were the Norman doorways much ornamented?
+
+A. Many rich doorways were composed of a succession of receding
+semicircular arches springing from rectangular-edged jambs, and detached
+shafts with capitals in the nooks; which shafts, together with the arches,
+were often enriched with the mouldings common to this style. Sometimes the
+sweep of mouldings which faced the architrave was continued without
+intermission down the jambs or sides of the doorway; and in small country
+churches Norman doorways, quite plain in their construction, or with but
+few mouldings, are to be met with. There is, perhaps, a greater variety of
+design in doorways of this than of any other style; and of the numerous
+mouldings with which they in general abound more or less, the chevron, or
+zig-zag, appears to have been the most common.
+
+Q. In what other respect were these doors sometimes ornamented?
+
+A. The semicircular-shaped stone, which we often find in the tympanum at
+the back of the head of the arch, is generally covered with rude sculpture
+in basso relievo, sometimes representing a scriptural subject, as the
+temptation of our first parents on the tympanum of a Norman doorway at
+Thurley Church, Bedfordshire; sometimes a legend, as a curious and very
+early sculpture over the south door of Fordington Church, Dorsetshire,
+representing a scene in the story of St. George; and sometimes symbolical,
+as the representation of fish, serpents, and chimerae on the north doorway
+of Stoneleigh Church, Warwickshire. The figure of our Saviour in a sitting
+attitude, holding in his left hand a book, and with his right arm and hand
+upheld, in allusion to the saying, _I am the way, and the truth, and the
+life_, and circumscribed by that mystical figure the _Vesica piscis_,
+appears over Norman doorways at Ely Cathedral; Rochester Cathedral;
+Malmesbury Abbey Church; Elstow Church, Bedfordshire; Water Stratford
+Church, Buckinghamshire; and Barfreston Church, Kent; and is not
+uncommon.
+
+Q. Are there many Norman porches?
+
+A. Norman porches occur at Durham Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey Church;
+Sherbourne Abbey Church; and Witney Church, Oxfordshire; but they are not
+very common. The roof of the porch was usually groined with simple cross
+springers and moulded ribs; and in some instances a room over has been
+added at a later period. Numerous portals of the Norman era appear
+constructed within a shallow projecting mass of masonry, similar in
+appearance to the broad projecting buttress, and, like that, finished on
+the upper edge with a plain slope. This was to give a sufficiency of depth
+to the numerous concentric arches successively receding in the thickness
+of the wall, which could not otherwise be well attained.
+
+Q. What kind of windows were those belonging to this style?
+
+A. The windows were mostly small and narrow, seldom of more than one
+light, except belfry windows, which were usually divided into two
+round-headed lights by a shaft, with a capital and abacus. Early in the
+style the windows were quite plain; afterwards they were ornamented in a
+greater or less degree, sometimes with the chevron or zig-zag, and
+sometimes with roll or cylinder mouldings; in many instances, also, shafts
+were inserted at the sides, the window jambs were simply splayed in one
+direction only, and the space between them increased in width inwardly.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window, Ryton Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Q. Do we meet with any circular or wheel-shaped windows of the Norman era?
+
+A. A circular window, with divisions formed by small shafts and
+semicircular or trefoiled arches, disposed so as to converge to a common
+centre, sometimes occurs in the gable at the east end of a Norman church,
+as at Barfreston Church, Kent; and New Shoreham Church, Sussex; and are
+not uncommon.
+
+[Illustration: Early Norman Window, Darent Church, Kent, with incipient
+zig-zag moulding.]
+
+Q. What kinds of piers were the Norman piers?
+
+A. Early in the style they were (with some exceptions, as in the crypts
+beneath the cathedrals of Canterbury and Worcester) very massive, and the
+generality plain and cylindrical; though sometimes they were square, which
+was indeed the most ancient shape; sometimes they appear with rectangular
+nooks or recesses; and, in large churches, Norman piers had frequently one
+or more semicylindrical pier-shafts attached, disposed either in nooks or
+on the face of the pier. We sometimes meet with octagonal piers, as in the
+cathedrals of Oxford and Peterborough, the conventual church at Ely, and
+in the ruined church of Buildwas Abbey, Salop; and also, though rarely,
+with piers covered with spiral flutings, as one is in Norwich Cathedral;
+with the spiral cable moulding, as one is in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral; and encircled with a spiral band, as one appears in the ruined
+chapel at Orford, in Suffolk; sometimes, also, they appear covered with
+ornamental mouldings. Late in the style the piers assume a greater
+lightness in appearance, and are sometimes clustered and banded round with
+mouldings, and approximate in design those of a subsequent style.
+
+Q. How are the capitals distinguished?
+
+A. The general outline and shape of the Norman capital is that of a square
+cubical mass, having the lower part rounded off with a contour resembling
+that of an ovolo moulding; the face on each side of the upper part of the
+capital is flat, and it is often separated from the lower part by an
+escalloped edge; and where such division is formed by more than one
+escallop, the lower part is channelled between each, and the spaces below
+the escalloped edges are worked or moulded so as to resemble inverted and
+truncated semicones.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital, Steetley Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Besides the plain capital thus described, of which instances with the
+single escalloped edge occur in the crypts beneath the cathedrals of
+Canterbury, Winchester, and Worcester, and with a series of escalloped
+edges, or what would be heraldically termed _invected_, in many of the
+capitals of the Norman piers in Norwich Cathedral, an extreme variety of
+design in ornamental accessories prevail, the general form and outline of
+the capital being preserved; and some exhibit imitations of the Ionic
+volute and Corinthian acanthus, whilst many are covered with rude
+sculpture in relief. They are generally finished with a plain square
+abacus moulding, with the under edge simply bevelled or chamfered;
+sometimes a slight angular moulding occurs between the upper face and
+slope of the abacus, and sometimes the abacus alone intervenes between the
+pier and the spring of the arch. There are also many round capitals, as,
+for instance, those in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral, but they are
+mostly late in the style.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcade, St. Augustine's, Canterbury.]
+
+Q. What is observable in the bases of the piers?
+
+A. The common base moulding resembles in form or contour a quirked ovolo
+reversed; there are, however, many exceptions.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Base, Romsey Church, Hants.]
+
+Q. How are the arches distinguished?
+
+A. By their semicircular form; they are generally double-faced, or formed
+of two concentric divisions, one receding within the other. Early in the
+style they are plain and square-edged; late in the style they are often
+found enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings, or some other
+ornament. Sometimes the curvature of the arch does not immediately spring
+from the capital or impost, but is raised or stilted.
+
+Q. What parts of Norman churches do we generally find vaulted?
+
+A. In cathedral and large conventual churches built in the Norman style we
+find the crypts and aisles vaulted with stone, but not the nave or choir;
+and over the vaulting of the aisles was the triforium. In small Norman
+churches the chancel is generally the only part vaulted; and between the
+vaulting and outer roof is, in some instances, a small loft or chamber.
+Sometimes we find the original design for vaulting to have been commenced
+and left unfinished.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arch and Piers, Melbourne Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+Q. Of what description was the Norman vaulting?
+
+A. The bays of vaulting were generally either squares or parallelograms,
+though sometimes not rectangular in shape, and each was divided into four
+concave vaulting cells by diagonal and intersecting groins, thus forming
+what is called a quadripartite vault. Early in the style the diagonal
+edges of the groins appear without ribs or mouldings; at an advanced stage
+they are supported by square-edged ribs of cut stone; and late in the
+style the ribs and groins are faced with roll or cylinder mouldings. They
+are also sometimes profusely covered with the zig-zag moulding and other
+ornamental details.
+
+Q. What is observable with respect to Norman masonry?
+
+A. In general the walls are faced on each side with a thin shell of ashlar
+or cut stone, whilst the intervening space, which is sometimes
+considerable, is filled with grouted rubble. Masses of this grout-work
+masonry, from which the facing of cut stone has been removed, we often
+find amongst ruined edifices of early date.
+
+Q. Were there any buttresses used at this period?
+
+[Illustration: Norman Buttress, Chancel of St. Mary's, Leicester.]
+
+A. Yes; but the walls being enormously thick, and requiring little
+additional support, those in use are like pilasters, with a broad face
+projecting very little from the building; and they seem to have been
+derived from the pilaster strips of stonework in Anglo-Saxon masonry. They
+are generally of a single stage only, but sometimes of more, and are not
+carried up higher than the cornice, under which they often but not always
+finish with a slope. They appear as if intended rather to relieve the
+plain external surface of the wall than to strengthen it. Norman portals
+not unfrequently occur, formed in the thickness of a broad but shallow
+pilaster buttress, as at Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, and at Stoneleigh and
+Hampton-in-Arden Churches, Warwickshire, and elsewhere. This kind of
+buttress was also used in the next, or Semi-Norman style.
+
+Q. Were there any towers?
+
+A. Yes; they were generally very low and massive; and the exterior,
+especially of the upper story, was often decorated with arcades of blank
+semicircular and intersecting arches; the parapet consisted of a plain
+projecting blocking-course, supported by the corbel table.
+
+Q. Do pinnacles appear to have been known to the Normans?
+
+A. Although some are of opinion that the pinnacle was not introduced till
+after the adoption of the pointed style, many Norman buildings have
+pinnacles of a conical shape, which are apparently part of the original
+design.
+
+Q. What distinction occurs in the construction of the small country
+churches of this style, and the larger buildings of conventual foundation?
+
+A. Small Norman churches consisted of a single story only; cathedral and
+conventual churches were carried up to a great height, and were frequently
+divided into three tiers, the lowest of which consisted of single arches,
+separating the nave from the aisles: above each of these arches in the
+second tier were two smaller arches constructed beneath a larger;
+sometimes the same space was occupied by a single arch; and in this tier
+was the triforium or gallery. In the third tier or clerestory were
+frequently arcades of three arches connected together, the middle one of
+which was higher and broader than the others: and all these three occupied
+a space only equal to the span of the lowest arch. Blank arcades were also
+much used in the exterior walls, as well as in the interior of rich
+Norman buildings; and some of the arches which composed them were often
+pierced for windows.
+
+Q. What were the mouldings principally used in the decoration of Norman
+churches?
+
+A. The chevron, or zig-zag, which is not always single, but often
+duplicated, triplicated, or quadrupled.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The reversed zig-zag.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The indented moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The embattled moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The dovetail moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The beak head.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The nebule, chiefly used for the fascia under a parapet.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The billet.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The square billet, or corbel bole, used for supporting a blocking course.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The cable moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The double cone.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The pellet, or stud.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The hatched, or saw tooth.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The nail head.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The lozenge.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The studded trellis.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The diamond fret.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The medallion.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The star.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The scalloped or invected moulding.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A variety of other mouldings and ornamental accessories are also to be met
+with, but those above described are the most common.
+
+Q. What kind of string-course do we usually find carried along the walls
+of Norman churches, just below the windows?
+
+A. A string-course similar in form to the common Norman abacus, with a
+plain face and the under part bevelled, is of most frequent occurrence; a
+plain semihexagon string-course is also often to be met with. Sometimes
+the string-course is ornamented with the zig-zag moulding.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Mouldings, from Binham Church, Norfolk, and
+Peterborough.]
+
+Q. What difference is there as to their general character and appearance
+between the early and late examples of Norman architecture?
+
+A. The details of those buildings early in the style are characterized by
+their massiveness, simplicity, and plain appearance; the single or
+double-faced semicircular arches, both of doorways and windows, as well as
+the arches supporting the clerestory walls, are generally devoid of
+ornament, and the edges of the jambs and arches are square. The undercroft
+of Canterbury Cathedral, the work of Archbishop Lanfranc, between A. D.
+1073 and A. D. 1080; the crypt and transepts of Winchester Cathedral, built
+by Bishop Walkelyn between A. D. 1079 and A. D. 1093; the plain Norman work
+of the Abbey Church at St. Alban's, built by Abbot Paul, between
+1077-1093; and the north and south aisles of the choir of Norwich
+Cathedral, the work of Bishop Herbert, between A. D. 1096 and A. D. 1101,
+not to multiply examples, may be enumerated as instances of plain and
+early Norman work. In buildings late in the style we find a profusion of
+ornamental detail of a peculiar character, and numerous semi and
+tripartite cylindrical mouldings on the faces and edges of arches and
+vaulting-ribs. The transepts of Peterborough Cathedral, built by Abbot
+Waterville between A. D. 1155 and A. D. 1175, exhibit vaulting-groins faced
+with roll mouldings, and other details of an advanced stage; whilst the
+Galilee, Durham Cathedral, built by Bishop Pudsey, A. D. 1180, is
+remarkable for the lightness and elongation of the piers, which are formed
+of clustered columns; and the semicircular arches which spring from these
+are enriched both on the face and soffits with the chevron or zig-zag
+moulding. There are many intermediate gradations between the extreme plain
+and massive work of early date, and the enrichments, mouldings, and
+elongated proportions to be found late in the style; and in detail we may
+perceive an almost imperceptible merging into that style which succeeded
+the Norman.
+
+[Illustration: Base. Crypt, St. Peter's, Oxford, c. 1100.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52-*] Defunctus autem Rex beatissimus in crastino sepultus est Londini,
+in Ecclesia, quam ipse novo compositionis genere construxerat, a qua post,
+multi Ecclesias construentes, exemplum adepti, opus illud expensis
+oemulabantur sumptuosis.--MATT. PARIS.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Vesica Piscis in the tympan of the south doorway, Ely
+Cathedral]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+OF THE SEMI-NORMAN STYLE.
+
+
+Q. What is the Semi-Norman style?
+
+A. It is that style of transition which, without superseding the Norman
+style, prevailed more or less, in conjunction with it, during the latter
+part of the twelfth century, and probably even from an earlier period, and
+gradually led to the complete adoption, in the succeeding century, of the
+early pointed style in a pure state, and to the general disuse of the
+semicircular arch.
+
+Q. By what is this style chiefly denoted?
+
+A. By the intersection of semicircular arches, the frequent intermixture
+of the pointed arch in its incipient state with the semicircular arch, and
+the pointed arch with its accompaniments of features, mouldings, and
+ornamental accessories, exactly similar to those of the Norman style, both
+in its earlier and later gradations, and from which it appears to have
+differed only in the contour or form of the arch.
+
+[Illustration: Early specimen of intersecting Arches, St. Botolph's
+Priory, Colchester. (12th cent.)]
+
+Q. Whence are we to derive the origin of the pointed arch?
+
+A. Many conjectural opinions on this much-contested question have been
+entertained, yet it still remains to be satisfactorily elucidated. Some
+would derive it from the East and ascribe its introduction to the
+Crusaders; some maintain that it was suggested by the intersection of
+semicircular arches, which intersection we frequently find in ornamental
+arcades; others contend that it originated from the mode of quadripartite
+vaulting adopted by the Normans, the segmental groins of which, crossing
+diagonally, produce to appearance the pointed arch; whilst some imagine it
+may have been derived from that mystical figure of a pointed oval form,
+the _Vesica Piscis_[76-*]. But whatever its origin, it appears to have
+been imperceptibly brought into partial use towards the middle of the
+twelfth century.
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman double Piscina, Jesus College Chapel,
+Cambridge.]
+
+Q. What are the characteristics of this style?
+
+A. In large buildings massive cylindrical piers support pointed arches,
+above which we often find round-headed clerestory windows, as at Buildwas
+Abbey Church, Salop; or semicircular arches forming the triforium, as at
+Malmesbury Abbey Church, Wilts. Sometimes we meet with successive tiers
+of arcades, in which the pointed arch is surmounted both by intersecting
+and semicircular arches, as in a portion of the west front of Croyland
+Abbey Church, Lincolnshire, now in ruins. The ornamental details and
+mouldings of this style generally partake of late Norman character; and
+the zig-zag and semicylindrical mouldings on the faces of arches appear to
+predominate, though other Norman mouldings are common; but we also
+frequently meet with specimens in the Semi-Norman style in which extreme
+plainness prevails, and the character is of that nature as to induce us to
+ascribe such buildings to rather an early period. Single and double, and
+sometimes even triple-faced arches, with the edges left square,
+distinguish plain specimens of this style from the plain-pointed
+double-faced arches of the succeeding century, the edges of which are
+splayed or chamfered. In late instances of this, as of the cotemporaneous
+Norman style, we observe in the details a gradual tendency to merge into
+those of the style of the thirteenth century, when the pointed arch had
+attained maturity, and the peculiar features and decorative mouldings and
+sculptures of Norman character had fallen into isuse.[TN-2]
+
+Q. What specimen of this style is there of apparently early date?
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Arch, Abbey Church, Malmesbury.]
+
+A. The church, now in ruins, of Buildwas Abbey, Salop, founded A. D.
+1135[79-*], is an early specimen of the Semi-Norman style, in which, with
+the incipient pointed arch, Norman features and details are blended. The
+nave is divided from the aisles by plain double-faced pointed arches, with
+square edges, and hood mouldings over, which spring from massive
+cylindrical piers with square bases and capitals; whilst the clerestory
+windows above (for there is no triforium) are semicircular-headed. The
+general features of early Norman character, the absence of decorative
+mouldings, and the plain appearance this church exhibits throughout, are
+such as perhaps to warrant the presumption that this church is the same
+structure mentioned in the charter of confirmation granted to this abbey
+by Stephen, A. D. 1138-9.
+
+Q. What other noted specimens are there of this style?
+
+[Illustration: Intersecting Window Arches, St. Cross Church, Winchester.]
+
+A. The church of the Hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, presents an
+interesting combination of semicircular, intersecting, and pointed arches,
+of cotemporaneous date, enriched with the zig-zag and other Norman
+decorative mouldings, and is a structure, in appearance and detail, of
+much later date than the church at Buildwas Abbey, though the same early
+era has been assigned to each.
+
+St. Joseph's Chapel, Glastonbury, now in ruins, supposed to have been
+erected in the reigns of Henry the Second and Richard the First, is
+perhaps the richest specimen now remaining of the Semi-Norman or
+transition style, and is remarkable for the profusion of sculptured detail
+and combination of round and intersecting arches. In the remains of
+Malmesbury Abbey Church a Norman triforium with semicircular arches is
+supported on pointed arches which are enriched with Norman mouldings, and
+spring from massive cylindrical Norman piers. The interior of Rothwell
+Church, Northamptonshire, has much of Semi-Norman character: the aisles
+are divided from the nave by four lofty, plain, and triple-faced pointed
+arches, with square edges, springing from square piers with attached
+semicylindrical shafts on each side, and banded round midway between the
+bases and capitals; and the latter, which are enriched with sculptured
+foliage, are surmounted by square abaci; the west doorway is also of
+Semi-Norman character, and pointed, and is set within a projecting mass of
+masonry resembling the shallow Norman buttress. The circular part of St.
+Sepulchre's Church, Northampton, has early pointed arches, plain in
+design, springing from Norman cylindrical piers. In the circular part of
+the Temple Church, London, dedicated A. D. 1185, the piers consist of four
+clustered columns banded round midway between the bases and capitals, and
+approximating the Early English style of the thirteenth century; and these
+support pointed arches, over which and continued round the clerestory wall
+is an arcade of intersecting semicircular arches, and above these are
+round-headed windows.
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Window, Oxford Cathedral.]
+
+Q. What particular specimen of the Semi-Norman style has been noticed by
+any cotemporaneous author, and the date of it clearly defined?
+
+A. The eastern part of Canterbury Cathedral, consisting of Trinity Chapel
+and the circular adjunct called Becket's Crown. The building of these
+commenced the year following the fire which occurred A. D. 1174, and was
+carried on without intermission for several successive years. Gervase, a
+monk of the cathedral, and an eyewitness of this re-edification, wrote a
+long and detailed description of the work in progress, and a comparison
+between that and the more ancient structure which was burnt; he does not,
+however, notice in any clear and precise terms the general adoption of the
+pointed arch and partial disuse of the round arch in the new building,
+from which we may perhaps infer they were at that period indifferently
+used, or rather that the pointed arch was gradually gaining the
+ascendancy[83-*].
+
+Q. How long does the Semi or Mixed Norman style appear to have prevailed?
+
+[Illustration: Semi-Norman Arch, St. Cross Church, Winchester.]
+
+A. Though we can neither trace satisfactorily the exact period of its
+introduction, or even that of its final extinction, (for it appears to
+have merged gradually into the pure and unmixed pointed style of the
+thirteenth century,) we have perhaps no remains of this kind to which we
+can attribute an earlier date than that included between the years 1130
+and 1140, unless we except the intersecting arches at St. Botulph's,
+Priory Church, Colchester, which may be a few years earlier; and it
+appears to have prevailed, in conjunction or intermixed with the Norman
+style, from thence to the close of the twelfth century, and probably to a
+somewhat later period.
+
+[Illustration: Arcade, Christ Church, Oxford.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[76-*] The figure of a fish, whence the form _vesica piscis_ originated,
+was one of the most ancient of the Christian symbols, emblematically
+significant of the word ichthys, which contained the initial letters of
+the name and titles of our Saviour. The symbolic representation of a fish
+we find sculptured on some of the sarcophagi of the early Christians
+discovered in the catacombs at Rome; but the actual figure of a fish
+afterwards gave place to an oval-shaped compartment, pointed at both
+extremities, bearing the same mystical signification as the fish itself,
+and formed by two circles intersecting each other in the centre. This was
+the most common symbol used in the middle ages, and thus delineated it
+abounds in Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts. Every where we meet with
+it during the middle ages, in religious sculptures, in painted glass, on
+encaustic tiles, and on seals; and in the latter, that is, in those of
+many of the ecclesiastical courts, the form is yet retained. Even with
+respect to the origin of the pointed arch, that _vexata quaestio_ of
+antiquaries, with what degree of probability may it not be attributed to
+this mystical form? It is indeed in this symbolical figure that we see the
+outline of the pointed arch plainly developed at least a century and half
+before the appearance of it in architectonic form. And in that age full of
+mystical significations, the twelfth century, when every part of a church
+was symbolized, it appears nothing strange if this typical form should
+have had its weight towards originating and determining the adoption of
+the pointed arch.--Internal Decorations of English Churches, British
+Critic, April, 1839.
+
+[79-*] The date of the _foundation_ of an abbey or church must not,
+however, be confounded with that of its actual _erection_, which was often
+many years later, and the only certain guide to which is the date of the
+_Consecration_.
+
+[83-*] In the minute and circumstantial account which Gervase gives of the
+partial destruction of this cathedral by fire, A. D. 1174, and its after
+restoration, he seems to allude, though in obscure language, to the
+altered form of the vaulting in the aisles of the choir (_in circuitu
+extra chorum_); and his comparison, with reference to this building,
+between early and late Norman architecture is altogether so curious and
+exact as to deserve being transcribed:--
+
+"Dictum est in superioribus quod post combustionem illam vetera fere omnia
+chori diruta sunt, et in quandam augustioris formae transierunt novitatem.
+Nunc autem quae sit operis utriusque differentia dicendum est. Pilariorum
+igitur tam veterum quam novorum una forma est, una et grossitudo, sed
+longitudo dissimilis. Elongati sunt enim pilarii novi longitudine pedum
+fere duodecim. In capitellis veteribus opus erat planum, in novis
+sculptura subtilis. Ibi in chori ambitu pilarii viginti duo, hic autem
+viginti octo. Ibi arcus et caetera omnia plana utpote sculpta secure et non
+scisello, his in omnibus fere sculptura idonea. Ibi columpna nulla
+marmorea, hic innumerae. Ibi in circuitu extra chorum fornices planae, hic
+arcuatae sunt et clavatae. Ibi murus super pilarios directus cruces a choro
+sequestrabat, hic vero nullo intersticio cruces a choro divisae in unam
+clavem quae in medio fornicis magnae consistit, quae quatuor pilariis
+principalibus innititur, convenire videntur. Ibi coelum ligneum egregia
+pictura decoratum, hic fornix ex lapide et tofo levi decenter composita
+est. Ibi triforium unum, hic duo in choro, et in ala ecclesiae
+tercium."--De Combust. et Repar. Cant. Ecclesiae.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, Paulscray Church, Kent.]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+OF THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. During what era did the Early English style prevail?
+
+A. It may be said to have prevailed generally throughout the thirteenth
+century[86-*].
+
+Q. How is it distinguished from the Norman and Semi-Norman styles?
+
+A. The semicircular-headed arch, with its peculiar mouldings, was almost
+entirely discarded, and superseded by the pointed arch, with plain
+chamfered edges or mouldings of a different character. The segmental arch,
+nearly flat, was still however used in doorways, and occasionally the
+semicircular also, as in the arches of the Retrochoir, Chichester
+Cathedral.
+
+Q. Of what three kinds were the pointed arches of this era?
+
+A. The lancet, the equilateral, and the obtuse-angled arch.
+
+Q. Which of these arches were most in use?
+
+A. In large buildings the lancet and the equilateral-shaped arch were
+prevalent, as appears in Westminster Abbey, where the lancet arch
+predominates, and Salisbury Cathedral, where the equilateral arch is
+principally used; but in small country churches the obtuse-angled arch is
+most frequently found. All these arches are struck from two centres, and
+are formed from segments of a circle. In large buildings the architrave
+is faced with a succession of roll mouldings and deep hollows, in which
+the tooth ornament is sometimes inserted. In small churches the arches,
+which are double-faced, have merely plain chamfered edges.
+
+Q. What was the difference of the piers between this and an earlier era?
+
+A. Instead of the massive Norman, the Early English piers were, in large
+buildings, composed of an insulated column surrounded by slender detached
+shafts, all uniting together under one capital; these shafts were divided
+into parts by horizontal bands or fillets; but in small churches a plain
+octagonal pier, which can, however, scarcely be distinguished from that of
+a later style, predominated.
+
+Q. How are the capitals distinguished?
+
+A. They are simple in comparison with those of a later style, and are
+often bell-shaped, with a bead moulding round the neck, and a capping,
+with a series of mouldings, above; a very elegant and beautiful capital is
+frequently formed of stiffly sculptured foliage. The capital surmounting
+the multangular-shaped pier is also multangular in form, but plain, with a
+neck, and cap mouldings, and is difficult to be discerned from that of
+the succeeding style; the cap mouldings are, however, in general not so
+numerous as those of a later period.
+
+[Illustration: Capital, Chapter House, Southwell.]
+
+Q. How are the doorways of this style distinguished?
+
+A. The small doorways have generally a single detached shaft on each side,
+with a plain moulded bell-shaped capital, which is sometimes covered with
+foliage; and the architrave mouldings consist of a few simple members,
+with a hood moulding or label over, terminated by heads. We also find
+richer doorways with two or more detached shafts at the sides, and
+architrave mouldings composed of numerous members. Large doorways of the
+Early English style were sometimes double, being divided into two arched
+openings by a shaft, either single or clustered; and above this a
+quatrefoil was generally inserted, but sometimes the head was filled with
+sculptured detail. Examples of the double doorway occur in the cathedrals
+of Ely, Chichester, Wells, Salisbury, Lincoln, and Lichfield; also at
+Christchurch and St. Cross, Hants; Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire; and
+in other large churches in this style.
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, Baginton Church, Warwickshire. (13th cent.)]
+
+Q. What kind of windows were prevalent?
+
+[Illustration: Window, Beverley Minster. (13th cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: St. Giles's Oxford. Ely cathedral.]
+
+A. In the early stages of this style the lancet arch-headed window, very
+long and narrow, was prevalent; frequently two, three, or more of these
+were connected together by hood mouldings, the middle window rising higher
+than those at the sides; sometimes they were unconnected, and without
+hood mouldings. In the east wall of Early English chancels three lancet
+windows, thus arranged, are frequently displayed. At a later period a
+broader window, divided into two lights by a plain mullion, finished at
+the top with a lozenge or circle, was used; and sometimes a window divided
+into three lights, the middle one higher than the others, and comprised
+under one hood moulding, was in use; windows of four and even five lancet
+lights, thus disposed, are to be met with, but are not common; the sides
+of the windows were in general simply splayed, without mouldings, and
+increased in width inwardly, but slender shafts were sometimes annexed;
+and we also find, in the interior of rich buildings of this style,
+detached shafts standing out in front of the stonework forming the window
+jambs, and supporting the arch of the window. Towards the close of this
+style the windows assumed a more ornamental cast, and became much larger,
+being frequently divided into two or four principal lights, with one or
+three circles in the heads; both the lights and circles are foliated, and
+these evince the transition in progress to the next, or Decorated style.
+Beneath the windows a string-course is generally carried horizontally
+along the wall; and a roll moulding, similar to the upper members of the
+string-course of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is most commonly met with,
+as the string-course.
+
+[Illustration: Interior of Window, St. Giles's, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How is the buttress of this age distinguished?
+
+A. In general by its plain triangular or pedimental head, its projecting
+more from the building than the Norman buttress, and from its being less
+in breadth. It is also sometimes carried up above the parapet wall. The
+edges of the buttresses are sometimes chamfered; and plain buttresses in
+stages finished with simple slopes are not uncommon. We very rarely find
+buttresses of this style disposed at the angles of buildings, though such
+disposition was common in the succeeding style; but two buttresses placed
+at right angles with each other, and with the face of the wall, generally
+occur at the angles of churches in this style. Flying buttresses were
+sometimes used to strengthen the clerestory walls of large buildings, and
+have a light and elegant effect.
+
+[Illustration: String-Course, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Were the walls differently built?
+
+A. They were not so thick as those of an earlier period, which occasioned
+the want of stronger buttresses to support them.
+
+[Illustration: Pottern, Wilts.]
+
+[Illustration: Hartlepool, Durham.]
+
+Q. Were the Early English roofs of a different construction from those of
+a later style?
+
+[Illustration: Groining Rib, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. The Norman and Early English roofs were high and acutely pointed. The
+original roofs of most of our old churches, from their exposure to the
+weather, have long since fallen to decay, and been replaced by others of a
+more obtuse shape; but in general the height and angular form of the
+original roof may be ascertained by the weather moulding still remaining
+on the side of the tower or steeple. The interior vaulting of stone roofs
+was composed of fewer parts and ribs, which were often not more numerous
+than those of Norman vaulting, and does not present that complexity of
+arrangement which occurs in the vaulting-ribs of subsequent styles. In the
+cathedral of Salisbury also in the nave of Wells Cathedral are simple and
+good examples of Early English vaulting. A curious groined roof, in which
+the ribs are of wood--plain, cut with chamfered edges--and the cells of
+the vaulting are covered with boards, is to be met with in the church of
+Warmington, Northamptonshire, a very rich, perfect, and interesting
+specimen of this style.
+
+Q. Was not the spire introduced at this period?
+
+A. Yes, many spires were then built; among which was that of old St.
+Paul's Cathedral, more than five hundred feet high, and which was
+destroyed by fire, A. D. 1561. The spire of Oxford Cathedral is also of
+this style. Early English spires are generally what are called Broach
+spires, and spring at once from the external face of the walls of the
+tower, without any intervening parapet.
+
+Q. Whence did the spire take its origin?
+
+A. It appears to have been suggested by the Norman pinnacle, which, at
+first a conical capping, afterwards became polygonal, and ribbed at the
+angles, thus presenting the prototype of the spire.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Q. What ornament is peculiar, or nearly so, to this style?
+
+A. That called the tooth or dog-tooth ornament, a kind of
+pyramidal-shaped flower of four leaves, which is generally inserted in a
+hollow moulding, and, when seen in profile, presents a zig-zag or serrated
+appearance. The tooth moulding appears to have been introduced towards the
+close of the twelfth century; and an early instance where it occurs is on
+a late Norman doorway, at Whitwell Church, Rutlandshire: we do not,
+however, meet with it in buildings of a later style than that of the
+thirteenth century. It is sometimes found used in great profusion in
+doorways, windows, and other ornamental details; but many churches of this
+style are entirely devoid of this ornament. The ball-flower, though
+introduced in the thirteenth century, is not a common ornament until the
+fourteenth, to which era it may be said more particularly to belong; we
+find it in cornice mouldings, and sometimes on capitals.
+
+Q. What may be observed of the sculptured foliage of this style?
+
+A. As applied to capitals, bases, crockets, and other ornamental detail,
+we find the general design and appearance of the sculptured foliage of
+this style to be stiff and formal compared with that of the succeeding
+style, when the arrangement of the foliage more closely approximated
+nature, and a greater freedom both in conception and execution was
+evinced.
+
+[Illustration: Boss of Sculptured Foliage, Warmington Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+Q. How are the parapets distinguished?
+
+A. They are often plain and embattled; but sometimes a simple horizontal
+parapet is used, supported by a corbel table, as in the tower of Haddenham
+Church, Buckinghamshire, and on that of Brize Norton Church, Oxfordshire.
+At Salisbury Cathedral the parapet is relieved by a series of blank
+trefoil headed pannels,[TN-3] sunk in the face.
+
+Q. What may be said in general terms of the style of the thirteenth
+century, in comparing it with the styles which immediately preceded and
+followed it?
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. In comparison with the Norman style, with its heavy concomitants and
+enrichments, the style of the thirteenth century is light and simple, and
+the details possess much elegance of contour. These, in small buildings,
+are generally plain; but in large buildings they exhibit numerous
+mouldings, combined with a certain degree of decorative embellishment.
+This style is, however, far from presenting that extreme beauty of outline
+and tasteful conception, combined with the pure and chaste ornamental
+accessories, which prevail in the designs of the fourteenth century.
+
+Q. What particular structures may be noticed as belonging to this style?
+
+A. Salisbury Cathedral, built by Bishop Poore between A. D. 1220 and 1260,
+is perhaps the most perfect specimen, on a large scale, of this style in
+its early state, with narrow lancet windows; the nave and transepts of
+Westminster Abbey, commenced in 1245, exhibit this style in a more
+advanced stage; whilst Lincoln Cathedral is, for the most part, a rich
+specimen of this style in its late or transition state. The west front of
+Wells Cathedral, erected by the munificence of Bishop Joceline, between
+A. D. 1213 and A. D. 1239, is covered with blank arcades and a number of
+trefoil-headed niches, surmounted by plain pedimental canopies, which
+contain specimens of statuary remarkable for their extreme beauty and
+freedom of design.
+
+[Illustration: Corbel, Wells Cathedral.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[86-*] From the economic principles on which our modern churches are, with
+few exceptions, planned, they are mostly designed after and are intended
+to resemble in style those of the thirteenth century, in which more
+detail can be dispensed with than in any other style. Hence it follows
+that the just proportions and adaptation of the different parts and the
+minutest details and mouldings in ancient churches of this style required
+to be carefully studied, more so perhaps for practical purposes than in
+churches of any other style.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+OF THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When did the Decorated English style commence, and how long did it
+prevail?
+
+A. It may be said to have commenced in the latter part of the thirteenth
+century, or reign of Edward the First, and to have prevailed about a
+century. The transition from the Early English style to this, and again
+from this to the succeeding style, was however so extremely gradual, that
+it is difficult to affix any precise date for the termination of one
+style, or the introduction of another.
+
+[Illustration: Bracket, York Cathedral.]
+
+Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?
+
+A. From there being a greater redundancy of chaste ornament in this than
+in the preceding style; and though it does not exhibit that extreme
+multiplicity of decorative detail as the style of the fifteenth century,
+the general contours and forms which this style presents, and the
+principal lines of composition, which verge pyramidically rather than
+vertically or horizontally, are infinitely more pleasing; and it is justly
+considered as the most beautiful style of English ecclesiastical
+architecture.
+
+Q. What difference is there between the arches of this style, which
+support the clerestory, and those of an earlier period?
+
+A. The lancet arch is seldom seen; the equilateral arch is generally,
+though not always, used. Both this and the obtuse-angled arch are, taken
+exclusively, difficult to be distinguished from those of an earlier
+period. In small buildings the edges of the pier arches are plain and
+chamfered. In large churches a series of quarter-round or roll-mouldings,
+which have often a square-edged fillet attached, are applied to the
+sub-arch, edges, and facing.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Piers rom[TN-4] Grendon Church, Warwickshire,
+and Austrey Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Q. What difference occurs in the piers from which these arches spring?
+
+A. In large buildings piers of this style were composed of a cluster of
+slender cylindrical shafts, not standing detached from each other, as in
+the Early English style, but closely united. A common pier of this kind is
+formed of four shafts thus united, without bands, with a square-edged
+fillet running vertically up the face of each shaft. Sometimes a simple
+cylindrical pier is found. The octagonal pier, with plain sides, is very
+prevalent in small churches, and does not differ materially from the Early
+English pier of the same kind. The capitals are either bell-shaped,
+clustered, or octagonal, to correspond with the shape of the piers; but
+the cap mouldings are more numerous than in the earlier style. Sometimes
+the capitals are sculptured. In the churches of Monkskirby, Warwickshire,
+and of Cropredy, Oxfordshire, the arches which support the clerestory
+spring at once from the piers, without any intervening capitals, a
+practice not uncommon in the style of the fifteenth century, but very rare
+in this.
+
+Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?
+
+A. Of the large stone vaulted roofs each bay is intersected by
+longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal ribs, with shorter ribs springing
+from the bearing shafts intervening; thus forming a series of vaulting
+cells more numerous than are to be met with in the Early English style,
+though not subdivided to the excess observable in the vaulted roofs of the
+fifteenth century. Sculptured bosses often occur at the intersections. In
+the nave of York Cathedral, finished about A. D. 1330, the groining of the
+roof is less complicated than that of the choir of the same cathedral,
+constructed between A. D. 1360 and A. D. 1370[106-*]. Small structures are
+more simply vaulted. In a chantry chapel adjoining the north side of the
+chancel of Willingham Church, Cambridgeshire, is a very acute-pointed
+angular-shaped stone roof, the plain surface of the vaulting of which is
+supported by two pointed arches springing from corbels projecting from the
+walls; and these sustain straight-sided stone vaulting ribs, obliquely
+disposed to conform with the angle of the roof, and which act as
+principals; and above each arch, and between that and the ridge-line of
+the oblique ribs or principals, the space is filled with an open
+quatrefoil and other tracery. The north transept of Limington Church,
+Somersetshire, has a high pitched stone roof supported by groined ribs.
+
+Q. Are there many wooden roofs of this style remaining?
+
+A. We find comparatively few original wooden roofs in structures of the
+fourteenth century, for such have generally been superseded by roofs of a
+later date and of a more obtuse form. The high and acute pitch of the
+original roof is, however, still generally discernible by the weather
+moulding on the east wall of the tower. In the nave of Higham Ferrars
+Church, Northamptonshire, is a wooden roof which apparently belongs to
+this style: the roof is angular-pointed and open to the ridge-line, the
+walls are connected by tie-beams, and under each of these is a wooden arch
+formed of two ribs or beams springing from stone corbels.
+
+Q. In what respect do the doors of this style differ?
+
+[Illustration: Window, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+A. Large doorways of this style have lateral shafts, with capitals, and
+between the shafts architrave mouldings intervene, which run without stop
+into the base tablet: of such the south doorway of St. Martin's Church,
+Leicester, is an instance. Small doorways are generally without shafts,
+but have a series of quarter-round, semicylindrical, and tripartite roll
+mouldings at the sides, which are continuous with the architrave
+mouldings; and these have sometimes a square-edged fillet on the face. The
+doorways of this style are frequently enriched with pedimental and
+ogee-shaped canopies, ornamented with crockets and finials; of which the
+north doorway of Exeter Cathedral and the south doorway of Everdon Church,
+Northamptonshire, may be cited as examples. Large doorways have sometimes
+a double opening, divided by a clustered shaft, as in the entrance to the
+Chapter House, York Cathedral. In some instances the head of the doorway
+is foliated, and we observe in detail an approximation to the succeeding
+style. The west doorway of Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire, is in this
+stage of transition.
+
+Q. How are the windows of this style known?
+
+[Illustration: Square-headed Decorated Window, Ashby Folville,
+Leicestershire.]
+
+A. In the later stage of the Early English style the windows became
+enlarged, and the heads were filled with foliated circles. To these
+succeeded, in the fourteenth century, windows ornamented with geometrical
+and flowing tracery, peculiarities which exclusively pertain to this
+style, and by which it is most easily known. The windows are of good
+proportions, and are divided into two or more principal lights by
+mullions, which at the spring of the arch form designs of regular
+geometrical construction, or branch out into flowing ramifications
+composing flame-like compartments, which are foliated[109-*]. The variety
+of tracery in windows of this style is very great, and they frequently
+have pedimental and ogee canopies over them, ornamented in the same manner
+as those over doors: examples of this kind may be found at York
+Cathedral. In the south transept of Chichester, and west front of Exeter
+Cathedrals, are two exceeding large and beautiful windows of this style;
+the first filled with geometrical, the other with flowing, tracery. In
+some windows of this style the mullions simply cross in the head, as in a
+later style, but the lights are commonly foliated, and the difference may
+in general be discerned by the mouldings: such windows occur in Stoneleigh
+Church, Warwickshire. There are also many square-headed windows in this
+style, distinguished by the flowing tracery in the heads, and by other
+characteristic marks: of such a window in Ashby Folville Church,
+Leicestershire, is a rich and good example. Circular windows, filled with
+tracery, are not uncommon in large buildings; and we also meet with
+triangular spherical-shaped windows, as in the clerestory of Barton
+Segrave Church, Northamptonshire[111-*].
+
+[Illustration: Window, Barton Segrave Church.]
+
+Q. Of what description are the mouldings which pertain to this style?
+
+[Illustration: Moulding, Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+[Illustration: Roll Moulding, Chacombe Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+[Illustration: String-Course, Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire.]
+
+[Illustration: Ball-Flower Ornament, Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and York
+Cathedral.]
+
+A. They approximate more nearly, in section and appearance, those of the
+thirteenth than those of the fifteenth century, but the members are
+generally more numerous than in those of the former style; quarter-round,
+half, and tripartite cylinder mouldings, often filleted along the face and
+divided by small cavetto mouldings, sometimes deeply cut, are common. The
+string-course under the windows frequently consists, as in the preceding
+style, of a simple roll moulding, the upper member of which overlaps the
+lower. A plain semicylindrical moulding, with a square-edged fillet on the
+face, is also common, and occurs at the church of Orton-on-the-Hill,
+Leicestershire. The hood moulding over the windows often consists of a
+quarter-round or ogee, with a cavetto beneath, and sometimes returns
+horizontally along the walls as a string-course; a disposition, however,
+more frequently observable in the Early English style than in this: of
+such disposition the churches of Harvington, Worcestershire, and of
+Sedgeberrow, Gloucestershire, may be cited as affording examples. In
+decorative work we often meet with the ball-flower, one of the most
+characteristic ornaments of the style, consisting of a ball inclosed
+within three or four leaves, and sometimes bearing a resemblance to the
+rose-bud, inserted at intervals in a cavetto or hollow moulding, with the
+accompaniment, in some instances, of foliage; a four-leaved flower,
+inserted in the same manner, is also not uncommon.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Buttress, St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How may the buttresses of this style be distinguished?
+
+[Illustration: Flying Buttress, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+A. They were worked in stages, and their set-offs have frequently
+triangular heads, sometimes plain but often ornamented with crockets and
+finials of a more decorative character than those of the Early English
+style. Many buttresses have, however, plain slopes as set-offs, and they
+are frequently placed diagonally at the corners of buildings, as at
+Dunchurch Church, Warwickshire. The flying buttresses at Salisbury
+Cathedral, in which the thrust is partly counterpoised by
+pyramidal-headed pinnacles decorated with crockets and finials, are of
+this age.
+
+Q. What parapet is peculiar to this style?
+
+A. Besides the plain embattled parapet, which is not always easy to be
+distinguished from other styles, a horizontal blocking course, pierced
+with foliated or wavy, flowing tracery, which has a rich effect, is
+common. Of this description specimens occur at St. Mary Magdalen Church,
+Oxford, and Brailes Church, Warwickshire.
+
+Q. What is observable in the niches of this style?
+
+A. They are very beautiful, and are generally surmounted by triangular or
+ogee-shaped canopies, enriched with crockets and finials, while the
+interior of the canopies are groined with numerous small rib mouldings.
+The crockets and finials of this style, as decorative embellishments, are
+peculiarly graceful, chaste, and pleasing in contour.
+
+Q. Was the transition from this style to the next gradual?
+
+A. Both the transition from the Early English to the Decorated style, and
+from the Decorated to the Florid or Perpendicular, was so gradual, that
+though many individual details and ornaments were extremely dissimilar,
+and peculiar to each particular style, we are only able to judge from
+examples when a change was generally established.
+
+Q. From what cotemporary writers of the fourteenth century can we collect
+any architectural notices, either general or of detail?
+
+[Illustration: Part of the Altar Screen, Winchester Cathedral.]
+
+A. In Chaucer we find allusions made to _imageries_, _pinnacles_,
+_tabernacles_, (canopied niches for statuary,) and _corbelles_. Lydgate,
+in _The Siege of Troy_, in his description of the buildings, adverts to
+those of his own age, and uses several architectural terms now obsolete or
+little understood, and some which are not so, as _gargoiles_. In Pierce
+Ploughman's Creed we have a concise but faithful description of a large
+monastic edifice of the fourteenth century, comprising the church or
+minster, cloister, chapter house, and other offices.
+
+Q. What edifices maybe noticed as constructed in this style?
+
+A. In Exeter Cathedral this style may be said generally to prevail,
+although some portions are of earlier and some of later date. Great part
+of Lichfield Cathedral was also built during the fourteenth century. The
+beautiful cloisters adjoining Norwich Cathedral, commenced A. D. 1297, but
+not finished for upwards of a century, although proceeded with by
+different prelates from time to time, rank as the most beautiful of the
+kind we have remaining. Several country churches are wholly or principally
+erected in this style. Broughton Church, Oxfordshire, may be instanced as
+an elegant, pleasing, and complete example of plain decorated work.
+Trumpington Church, Cambridgeshire, is also deserving of notice; and
+Wimington Church, Bedfordshire, built by John Curteys, lord of the manor,
+who died A. D. 1391, is a small but late edifice in the Decorated style.
+Annexations were also made during this century to numerous churches of
+earlier construction, by the erection of additional aisles or chapels as
+chantries. In all these structures we find more or less, in general
+appearance, form, and detail, of that extreme beauty and elegance of
+design which prevailed, as it were, for about a century, and then
+imperceptibly glided away.
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, Magdalen Church, Oxford.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106-*] The allusion is made to the vaulted roofs of the nave and choir of
+this cathedral as they existed previous to the late unfortunate and
+destructive fires.
+
+[109-*] The Flamboyant window, common in France, is not often met with in
+this country. On the north side of Salford Church, Warwickshire, is,
+however, a window of this description, filled with flamboyant tracery.
+
+[111-*] For specimens of Decorated windows with flowing tracery in the
+heads, vide cuts, pp. 12 and 13.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: South Porch of Newbold-upon-Avon Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+OF THE FLORID OR PERPENDICULAR ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When may this style be said to have commenced, and how long did it
+prevail?
+
+A. We find traces of it in buildings erected at the close of the reign of
+Edward the Third (circa A. D. 1375); and it prevailed for about a century
+and half, or rather more, till late in the reign of Henry the Eighth
+(circa A. D. 1539).
+
+Q. Whence does it derive its appellation?
+
+A. From the multiplicity, profusion, and minuteness of its ornamental
+detail, it has by some received the designation of FLORID; by others, from
+the mullions of the windows and the divisions of ornamental panel-work
+running in straight or perpendicular lines up to the head, which is not
+the case in any earlier style, it has been called and is now better known
+by the designation of the PERPENDICULAR[121-*].
+
+Q. In what respects did it differ from the style which immediately
+preceded it?
+
+A. The beautiful flowing contour of the lines of tracery characteristic of
+the Decorated style was superseded by mullions and transoms, and, in
+panel-work, lines of division disposed vertically and horizontally; and in
+lieu of the quarter-round, semi and tripartite roll and small hollow
+mouldings of the fourteenth century, angular-edged mouldings with bold
+cavettos became predominant.
+
+Q. Of what kind are the arches of this style?
+
+A. Although, in this style, pointed arches constructed from almost every
+radius are to be found, the complex four-centred arch, commonly called
+the Tudor arch, was almost peculiar to it; and the cavetto or wide and
+rather shallow hollow moulding, a characteristic feature of this style,
+often appears in the architrave mouldings of pier arches, doorways, and
+windows, and as a cornice moulding under parapets.
+
+[Illustration: Window, St. Mary's Church, Oxford.]
+
+[Illustration: Mullion, Burford Church, Oxfordshire.]
+
+Q. How are the piers of this style, which support the clerestory arches,
+distinguished from those of an earlier period?
+
+[Illustration: Capital, Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+A. The section of a pier, which is common in this style, may be described
+as formed from a square or parallelogram, with the angles fluted or cut in
+a bold hollow, and on the flat face of each side of the pier a
+semicylindrical shaft is attached. The flat faces or sides of the pier and
+the hollow mouldings at the angles are carried up vertically from the base
+moulding to the spring of the arch, and thence, without the interposition
+of any capital, in a continuous sweep to the apex of the arch; but the
+slender shafts attached to the piers have capitals, the upper members of
+which are angular-shaped. The base mouldings are also polygonal. Piers and
+arches of this description are numerous, and occur, amongst other
+churches, in St. Thomas Church, Salisbury; Cerne Abbas Church, Bradford
+Abbas Church, and Piddleton Church, Dorsetshire; Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire; and Burford Church, Oxfordshire. In some churches a very
+slender shaft with a capital is attached to each angle of the pier, which
+is disposed lozengewise, the main body of the pier presenting continuous
+lines of moulding with those of the arch, unbroken by any capital: as in
+the piers of Bath Abbey Church, rebuilt early in the sixteenth century. In
+small country churches we frequently find the architrave mouldings of the
+arch continued down the piers, which are altogether devoid of any
+horizontal stop by way of capital. The churches of Brinklow and
+Willoughby, in Warwickshire, afford instances of this kind. Piers somewhat
+different to those above described are also to be met with, but are not so
+common.
+
+Q. What else may be noted respecting some of the piers and arches in this
+style?
+
+A. The face of the sub-arch or soffit is sometimes enriched with oblong
+panelled compartments, arched-headed and foliated; and these are
+continued down the inner sides of the piers. The arches of the tower of
+Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, and some of the arches in Sherborne
+Church, in the same county, may be instanced as examples.
+
+[Illustration: Panelled Arch, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+Q. How may we distinguish the doorways and doors of this style?
+
+A. Many doorways of this style, especially during its early progress, were
+surmounted by crocketted ogee-shaped hood mouldings, terminating with
+finials. In the most common doorway of this style, however, the depressed
+four-centred arch appears within a square head, and in general a
+rectangular hood moulding over; and the spandrels or spaces between the
+spring and apex of the arch and angles of the square head over it are
+filled with quatrefoils, panelling, foliage, small shields, or other
+sculptured ornaments. Sometimes the depressed four-centred arch appears
+without any hood moulding, and we occasionally meet with a simple pointed
+arch described from two centres placed within a rectangular compartment.
+Doorways in this style are often profusely ornamented; and it is common to
+see doors covered with panel-work boldly recessed, the compartments of
+which are sometimes filled in the heads with crocketed ogee arches, which
+produce a rich effect.
+
+[Illustration: Doorway, All Souls College, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Are there many fine porches of this style?
+
+A. More than in any other style, and they are often profusely enriched,
+the front and sides being covered with panel-work, tracery, and niches for
+statuary. The interior of the roof is frequently groined, sometimes with
+fan tracery, but generally with simple though numerous ribs; and in many
+instances a room is constructed over the groined entrance or lower story
+of the porch, but so as to be in keeping with and form part of the general
+design. The south porch of Gloucester Cathedral, the south-west porch of
+Canterbury Cathedral, the south porch of St. John's Church, Cirencester,
+and the south porch of Burford Church, Oxfordshire, may be noticed as
+examples of rich porches of this style; many others might also be
+enumerated, as they are very numerous and various in detail. Some porches
+are comparatively plain, as the south porch of the church of
+Newbold-upon-Avon, Warwickshire.
+
+Q. How are the windows distinguished?
+
+[Illustration: Window, New College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+A. The chief characteristic in the windows of this style, and which
+renders them easily distinguished from those of an earlier era, consists
+in the vertical bearing of the mullions, which, instead of diverging off
+in flowing lines, are carried straight up into the head of the window;
+smaller mullions spring from the heads of the principal lights, and thus
+the upper portion of the window is filled with panel-like compartments.
+The principal as well as the subordinate lights are foliated in the heads;
+and in large windows the lights are often divided horizontally by
+transoms, which are sometimes embattled. From the continued upright
+position of the mullions and tracery-bars is derived the term
+PERPENDICULAR, as applied to this style. The forms of the window-arches
+vary from the simple pointed to the complex four-centred arch, more or
+less depressed. The windows of the clerestory are sometimes arched, but
+oftener square-headed; and some large windows of the latter description
+nearly cover the sides of the clerestory walls of Chipping Norton Church,
+Oxfordshire.
+
+Q. What do we frequently observe in buildings of this style?
+
+A. The interior walls of churches are often completely covered with
+panel-work tracery, arched headed and foliated, from the clerestory
+windows down to the mouldings of the arches below. The walls of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire, present in the interior a surface almost entirely
+covered with panel-work. Several large churches in this style have also
+long ranges of clerestory windows, set so close to each other that the
+whole length of the clerestory wall seems perforated: we may enumerate as
+examples the churches of St. Michael, Coventry; Stratford-upon-Avon,
+Warwickshire; and Lavenham and Melford, Suffolk. Walls covered on the
+exterior with panel-work are also far from uncommon: the Abbots' Tower,
+Evesham, the tower of the church of St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire, and of
+Wrexham, Denbighshire, and many other rich towers, (especially those of
+the churches in Somersetshire, where rich specimens in this style abound,
+more so perhaps than in any other county,) are thus decorated. The
+exterior of many rich structures in this style are also covered with
+panel-work, as the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, the west front of Winchester
+Cathedral, and Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster Abbey.
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, St. Peter's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Q. How are the vaulted roofs of this style distinguished?
+
+A. They are in detail more complicated than those of earlier styles, and
+in plain as distinguished from fan-tracery vaulting the groining ribs are
+more numerous. The ribs often diverge at different angles, and form
+geometrical-shaped panels or compartments; and the design has, in some
+instances, been assimilated to net-work. Plain vaulting of this style
+occurs in the nave and choir, Norwich Cathedral; the Lady Chapel and
+choir, Gloucester Cathedral; the nave, Winchester Cathedral; the Beauchamp
+Chapel, Warwick; and a very late specimen in the choir, Oxford Cathedral.
+A very rich and peculiar description of vaulting is one composed of
+pendant semicones covered with foliated panel-work, and, from the design
+resembling a fan spread open, called _fan-tracery_. Of this description of
+vaulting an early instance appears in the cloisters, Gloucester Cathedral.
+The roofs of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and Henry the Seventh's
+Chapel, Westminster Abbey, are well-known examples; and portions of
+several of our cathedrals and many small chantry and sepulchral chapels
+are thus vaulted.
+
+Q. What may be observed of the wooden roofs of this style?
+
+[Illustration: Wooden Roof, south aisle, St. Mary's Church, Leicester.]
+
+A. They are far more numerous than those we meet with in all the previous
+styles; and we frequently find churches of early date in which the
+original roofs, having perhaps become decayed, have been removed and
+replaced by roofs designed in that style prevalent during the fifteenth
+century. The slope or pitch of the roof is much lower than before, and the
+form altogether more obtuse, and sometimes approaching nearly to flatness.
+The exterior is on this account often entirely concealed from view by the
+parapet. Many roofs of this style are divided into bays or compartments
+by horizontal tie-beams faced with mouldings, and apparently supported by
+curved ribs springing from corbels, and forming spandrels filled with open
+worked tracery; and the spaces between the tie-beam, the king-post, and
+the sloping rafters of the roof, are filled with pierced or open-work
+tracery. The sloping bays or compartments of the roof are divided by rib
+mouldings into squares or parallelograms of panel-work, which are again
+often subdivided into similar-shaped panels by smaller ribs with carved
+bosses at the intersections. Some roofs are nearly flat, and simply
+panelled. On many roofs traces of painting and gilding may still be
+discerned, more especially in that part which was over an altar, and where
+the roof often bears indications of having been more ornamented than other
+parts. Roofs painted of an azure colour and studded with gilt stars are
+not uncommon. Sometimes the roof is coved, and the boards are painted in
+imitation of clouds. A great variety of wooden roofs is to be met with in
+this style, many of them exceeding rich; whilst the cornice under the roof
+is sometimes elaborately carved and enriched. Some roofs are much plainer
+in construction than others; and it was, during this era, a part of the
+church on the enrichment of which no small expense and attention were
+bestowed.
+
+Q. What may be noted respecting the parapets of this era?
+
+[Illustration: Parapet, St. Peter's Church, Dorchester.]
+
+A. Many embattled parapets are covered with sunk or pierced panelling, and
+ornamented with quatrefoils or small trefoil-headed arches; and they have
+sometimes triangular-shaped heads, as at King's College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and at the east end of Peterborough Cathedral. We also find horizontal or
+straight-sided parapets, covered with sunk or pierced quatrefoils in
+circles. A plain embattled parapet, with the horizontal coping moulding
+continued or carried down the sides of the embrasures, and then again
+returning horizontally, as at St. Peter's Church, Dorchester, Dorsetshire,
+is also common. A bold but shallow cavetto or hollow cornice moulding is
+frequently carried along the wall just under the parapet.
+
+Q. Was the panelled or sunk quatrefoil much used in decorative detail?
+
+A. In rich buildings of this style the base, the parapet, and other
+intermediate portions were decorated with rows or bands of sunk
+quatrefoils, sometimes inclosed in circles, sometimes in squares, and
+sometimes in lozenge-shaped compartments.
+
+[Illustration: Rose and Foliage, Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.]
+
+Q. What other ornamental detail is peculiar to this style?
+
+A. The rose, which, differing only in colour, was the badge both of the
+houses of York and Lancaster, and as such is often to be met with. Rows of
+a trefoil or lozenge-shaped leaf, somewhat like an oak or strawberry leaf,
+with a smaller trefoil more simple in design intervening between two
+larger, was frequently used as a finish to the cornice of rich
+screen-work, and is known under the designation of _the Tudor Flower_. It
+is also common to find the tendrils, leaves, and fruit of the vine carved
+or sculptured in great profusion in the hollow of rich cornice mouldings,
+especially on screen-work in the interior of a church.
+
+[Illustration: Vine Leaves and Fruit, Whitchurch Church, Somersetshire.]
+
+Q. In what respect do the mouldings of this style differ from those of
+earlier styles?
+
+A. In a greater prevalence of angular forms, which may be observed in
+noticing the section of a series of mouldings, and in the bases and
+capitals of cylindrical shafts. A large and bold but shallow hollow
+moulding or cavetto, in which, when forming part of a horizontal fascia or
+cornice, flowers, leaves, and other sculptured details are often inserted
+at intervals, is a common feature; and such moulding, without any
+insertion, is frequent in doorway and window jambs. A kind of double ogee
+moulding with little projection, is, in conjunction with other mouldings,
+also of common occurrence.
+
+[Illustration: Window, St. Peter's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Q. Of what particular description of work do we find the existing remains
+to be almost entirely designed and executed in this style of
+ecclesiastical art?
+
+A. Of the numerous specimens of rich wooden screens, composed as to the
+lower part of sunk panelling, with open work above, which we often find
+separating the chancel from the body of the church, supporting the
+rood-loft, and inclosing chantry chapels in side aisles, comparatively few
+now remaining are of an earlier date than the fifteenth century[137-*].
+
+Q. What do we find in large buildings erected late in this style?
+
+A. Octagonal turrets, plain or covered with sunk panelling, and surmounted
+with ogee-headed cupolas, which are adorned with crockets and finials. In
+Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, they are used as buttresses. We
+also find them at King's College Chapel, Cambridge; at St. George's
+Chapel, Windsor; and at Winchester Cathedral.
+
+Q. Have we any coeval documents which contain particulars relating to the
+erection of churches?
+
+A. The contract entered into A. D. 1412, for the building of Catterick
+Church, Yorkshire, and the contract entered into A. D. 1435, for
+rebuilding, as it now stands, the collegiate church of Fotheringhay in
+Northamptonshire, or copies of such, have been preserved; as have
+particulars also from the contracts entered into A. D. 1450, for the
+fitting up of the Beauchamp Chapel, St. Mary's Church, Warwick. In the
+will of King Henry the Sixth, dated A. D. 1447, we find specific directions
+given for the size and arrangement of King's College Chapel, Cambridge;
+and no less than five different indentures are preserved, (the earliest
+dated A. D. 1513, the latest A. D. 1527,) containing contracts for the
+execution of different parts of that celebrated structure. The will of
+King Henry the Seventh, dated A. D. 1509, contains several orders and
+directions relating to the completion of the splendid chapel adjoining the
+abbey church, Westminster.
+
+Q. Mention some of the earliest buildings of this style, the dates of the
+erection of which have been clearly ascertained?
+
+A. The tower of St. Michael's Church, Coventry, the building of which
+commenced A. D. 1373 and was finished A. D. 1395[140-*], is an early and
+fine specimen; the beautiful and lofty spire was, however, an after
+addition, like that at Salisbury Cathedral, and was not commenced till
+A. D. 1432. Westminster Hall[140-+], the reparation or reconstruction of
+the greater part of which by King Richard the Second was commenced A. D.
+1397 and finished A. D. 1399, has a fine groined porch, the front of which
+exhibits the square head over the arch of entrance; and the spandrels are
+filled with quatrefoils, inclosing shields and sunk panel-work. The large
+window above the porch, and that at the west end, are divided into
+panel-like compartments by vertical mullions, and a transom divides the
+principal lights horizontally. The wooden roof is of a more acute pitch
+than we usually find in buildings of this style, and is remarkable as a
+specimen of constructive art and display. The spaces between the arches
+and rafters are filled up to the ridge-piece with open panel-work
+ornamentally designed; and this is perhaps the earliest specimen we
+possess of the perpendicular wooden roof.
+
+Q. What complete structures are there in this style of a late date, the
+periods of the erection of which are ascertained?
+
+A. The design for the rebuilding of the Abbey Church, Bath, was planned
+and the reconstruction thereof commenced, by Bishop King, A. D. 1500; and
+after his death the works were carried on by Priors Bird and Hollowaye;
+but the church was not completed when the surrender of the monastery took
+place, A. D. 1539. The foundation of Henry the Seventh's Chapel,
+Westminster Abbey, was laid A. D. 1502, but the chapel was not completed
+till the reign of Henry the Eighth. It is the richest specimen, on a large
+scale, of this style of architecture, and is completely covered, both
+internally and externally, with panel-work, niches, statuary, heraldic
+devices, cognizances, and other decorative embellishment. The church at
+St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire, is a fine large parochial edifice, all built
+apparently after one regular design, and consists of a tower covered with
+panel-work and ornament, with crocketed pinnacles at the angles and in
+front of each side; a nave, north and south aisles and chancel, and two
+chantry chapels, forming a continuation eastward of each aisle. It has a
+fine wooden roof, the cornice under which is in different parts curiously
+carved in relief. This church is said to have been erected A. D. 1507. But
+one of the most perfect specimens of a late date, on a smaller scale, is
+the church of Whiston, Northamptonshire, built A. D. 1534, by Anthony
+Catesby, esquire, lord of the manor, Isabel his wife, and John their son:
+it consists of a tower encircled with rows of quatrefoils and other
+decorative embellishment, and finished with crocketed pinnacles at the
+angles; a nave divided from the north and south aisles by arches within
+rectangular compartments, the spandrels of which are filled with sunk
+quatrefoils and foliated panels; these arches spring from piers disposed
+lozengewise with semicylindrical shafts at the angles; there are no
+clerestory windows, and the windows of the aisles and chancel have
+obtusely-pointed four-centred arches. The wooden roof is a good example of
+the kind.
+
+Q. What district is noted for the number of rich churches in this style?
+
+[Illustration: St. Stephen's Church, Bristol.]
+
+A. Somersetshire contains a number of fine churches, erected apparently
+towards the close of the fifteenth or very early in the sixteenth
+century; and many of these churches have much of carved woodwork in
+screens, rood-lofts, pulpits, and in pewing. The towers are, in
+particular, remarkable for their general style of design, and are often
+divided into stages by bands of quatrefoils; the sides are more or less
+ornamented with projecting canopied niches for statuary, and in many of
+these niches the statues have been preserved from the iconoclastic zeal
+which has elsewhere prevailed. The belfry windows are partly pierced,
+sometimes in quatrefoils, and partly filled with sunk panel-work. The
+parapets, whether embattled or straight-sided, are pierced with open work;
+and at each angle of the tower, at which buttresses are disposed
+rectangular-wise, is finished with a crocketed pinnacle, which is also
+often to be met with rising from the middle of the parapet. Towers similar
+in general design to those which may be said to prevail in Somersetshire
+are not unfrequently met with in other counties, but do not exhibit that
+provincialism which is the case in that particular county.
+
+[Illustration: King Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[121-*] Mr. Rickman, from whom this appellation is derived, has been since
+generally followed in his nomenclature.
+
+[137-*] In Compton Church, Surrey, is, or until recently was, the remains
+of a wooden screen of late Norman character. Between the chancel and nave
+of Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire, is an early wooden screen in the
+style of the thirteenth century: the lower division is of plain
+panel-work, whilst the upper division consists of a series of open-pointed
+arches, trefoiled in the heads, and supported by slender cylindrical
+shafts with moulded bases and capitals, and an annulated moulding
+encircles each shaft midway up. In Northfleet Church, Kent, is a wooden
+screen which approximates in general design that at Stanton Harcourt, but
+is in a more advanced stage of art, being of the Early Decorated style:
+the lower portion of this is of plain panelling, while the open work
+forming the upper division above consists of a series of pointed arches,
+with tracery and foliations in and between the heads, supported by slender
+cylindrical shafts banded round midway with moulded bases and capitals,
+and these arches support a horizontal cornice. Specimens of decorated
+screen-work, some much mutilated, others in a more perfect state, are
+existing in the churches of King's Sutton, Northamptonshire; Croperdy,
+Oxfordshire; Beaudesert, Warwickshire; and in St. John's Church,
+Winchester. A characteristic distinction between screen-work of an earlier
+date than the fifteenth century and screen-work of that period will be
+found to consist in the slender cylindrical shafts, often annulated,
+sometimes not, with moulded bases and capitals which pertain to early work
+of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and the mullion-like and
+angular-edged bars, often faced with small buttresses, which form the
+principal vertical divisions in screen-work of the fifteenth century.
+
+[140-*] This stately monument of private munificence was erected at the
+sole charges of two brothers, Adam and William Botnor: it was twenty-one
+years in building, and cost each year 100_l._
+
+[140-+] Though not an ecclesiastical structure, it is here noticed as an
+example of the style in an early stage.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Window, Duffield Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+OF THE DEBASED ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+Q. When did this style commence, and how long did it prevail or continue?
+
+A. It may be said to have commenced about the year 1540, and to have
+continued to about the middle of the seventeenth century; but it is
+difficult to assign a precise date either for its introduction or
+discontinuance.
+
+Q. Why is this style called the DEBASED?
+
+A. From the general inferiority of design compared with the style it
+succeeded, from the meagre and clumsy execution of sculptured and other
+ornamental work, from the intermixture of detail founded on an entirely
+different school of art, and the consequent subversion of the purity of
+style.
+
+Q. What may be considered as one great cause of this falling off?
+
+A. The devastation of the monasteries, religious houses, and chantries,
+which followed their suppression, discouraged the study of ecclesiastical
+architecture, (which had been much followed by the members of the
+conventual foundations, who were now dispersed, in their seclusion,) and
+gave a fatal blow to that spirit of erecting and enriching churches which
+this country had for many ages possessed.
+
+Q. How could this be the cause?
+
+A. The expenses of erecting many of our ecclesiastical structures, or
+different portions of them, from time to time, in the most costly and
+beautiful manner, according to the style of the age in which such were
+built, were defrayed, some out of the immense revenues of the monasteries,
+which at their suppression were granted away by the crown, and others by
+the private munificence of individuals who frequently built an aisle, with
+a chantry chapel at the east end, partly inclosed by screen-work, or
+annexed to a church, a transept, or an additional chapel, endowed as a
+chantry, in order that remembrance might be specially and continually made
+of them in the offices of the church, according to the then prevailing
+usage; which chantries having been abolished, one motive for
+church-building was gone.
+
+Q. What concurrent causes may also be assigned for this change?
+
+A. The almost imperceptible introduction and advance, about this period,
+of a fantastic mode of architectural design and decoration, which is very
+apparent in the costly though in many respects inelegant monuments of this
+age, and in which details of ancient classic architecture were
+incorporated with others of fanciful design peculiar to the latter part of
+the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries.
+
+Q. What are the characteristics of this style?
+
+A. A general heaviness and inelegance of detail, doorways with
+pointed-arched heads exceedingly depressed in form, and also plain
+round-headed doorways, with key stones after the Roman or Italian
+semi-classic style now beginning to prevail; square-headed windows with
+plain vertical mullions, and the heads of the lights either round or
+obtusely arched, and generally without foliations; pointed windows
+clumsily formed, with plain mullion bars simply intersecting each other in
+the head, or filled with tracery miserably designed, and an almost total
+absence of ornamental mouldings. Indications of this style may be found in
+many country churches which have been repaired or partly rebuilt since the
+Reformation. In the interior of churches specimens of the wood-work of
+this style are very common, and may be perceived by the shallow and flat
+carved panelling, with round arches, arabesques, scroll-work, and other
+nondescript ornament peculiar to the age, with which the pews,
+reading-desks, and pulpits are often adorned. The screens of this period
+are constructed in a semi-classic style of design, with features and
+details of English growth, and are often surmounted with scroll-work,
+shields, and other accessories. Of this description of work the screen in
+the south aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, constructed A. D. 1611, may
+be instanced as a curious specimen.
+
+[Illustration: Arabesque.]
+
+Q. What peculiarity may be noted in the alterations and additions of this
+era?
+
+A. A very common practice prevailed, from about the middle of the
+sixteenth century, when any alteration or addition was made in or to a
+church, of affixing a stone in the masonry, with the date of such in
+figures. Thus over the east window of Hillmorton Church, Warwickshire,
+(which is a pointed window of four lights, formed by three plain mullions
+curving and intersecting each other in the head, which is filled with
+nearly lozenge-shaped lights, but all without foliations,) is a stone
+bearing the date of 1640. In the south wall of the tower of the same
+church (which is low, heavy, and clumsily built, without any pretension to
+architectural design) is a stone to denote the period of its erection,
+which bears the date of 1655. Pulpits, communion-tables, church chests,
+poor-boxes, and pewing of the latter part of the sixteenth and of the
+seventeenth century, also very frequently exhibit, in figures carved on
+them, the precise periods of their construction.
+
+Q. What specimens are there of this style of late or debased and mixed
+Gothic?
+
+A. Annexed to Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, is a singular porch or
+building, sexagonal in form, at the angles of which are projecting columns
+of the Ionic order supporting an entablature. On each side of this
+building, except that by which it communicates with the church, and that
+in which the doorway is contained, is a plain window of the Debased Gothic
+style, of one light, with a square head and hood moulding over. The
+doorway is nondescript, neither Roman or Gothic. This building is supposed
+to have been erected by Bishop Jewell. The chapel of St. Peter's College,
+Cambridge, finished in 1632, exhibits in the east wall a large pointed
+window, clumsily designed, in the Debased style, and divided by mullions
+into five principal lights, round-headed, but trefoiled within; three
+series of smaller lights, rising one above the other, all of which are
+round-headed and trefoiled, fill the head of the window, the composition
+of which, though comparatively rude, is illustrative of the taste of the
+age. On each side of the window, on the exterior, is a kind of
+semi-classic niche. In Stowe Church, Northamptonshire, are a number of
+windows inserted at a general reparation of the church in 1639; these are
+square-headed, and have a label or hood moulding over, and are mostly
+divided into three obtusely pointed-arched lights, without foliations.
+Under the windows of the south aisle is a string-course, more of a
+semi-classic contour than Gothic. On the south side is a plain
+round-headed doorway, inserted at the same period. The tower and south
+aisle of Yarnton Church, Oxfordshire, erected by Sir Thomas Spencer, A. D.
+1611, have the same kind of square-headed window, with arched lights
+without foliations, as those of Stow. Stanton-Harold Church,
+Leicestershire, erected A. D. 1653, is perhaps the latest complete specimen
+of the Debased Gothic style. Towards the end of this century Gothic
+mouldings appear not to have been understood, as in the attempt to
+reconstruct portions of churches in that style we find mouldings of
+classic art to prevail. Such is the case with respect to the tower of
+Eynesbury Church, St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire, rebuilt in a kind of
+Debased Gothic and mixed Roman style, in 1687. Other instances of the
+kind might also be enumerated. At the commencement of the eighteenth
+century the Roman or Italian mode appears to have prevailed generally in
+the churches then erected, without any admixture even of the Debased
+Gothic style.
+
+[Illustration: Window, Ladbrook Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Stoup, South Door, Oakham Church, Rutlandshire.]
+
+CONCLUDING CHAPTER.
+
+ON THE INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT AND DECORATIONS OF A CHURCH.
+
+
+The churches of this country were anciently so constructed as to display,
+in their internal arrangement, certain appendages designed with
+architectonic skill, and adapted purposely for the celebration of mass and
+other religious offices.
+
+At the Reformation, when the ritual was changed and many of the
+formularies of the church of Rome were discarded, some of such appendages
+were destroyed; whilst others, though suffered to exist, more or less in a
+mutilated condition, were no longer appropriated to the particular uses
+for which they had been originally designed.
+
+On entering a church through the porch on the north or south side, or at
+the west end, we sometimes perceive on the right hand side of the door, at
+a convenient height from the ground, often beneath a niche, and partly
+projecting from the wall, a stone basin: this was the _stoup_, or
+receptacle for holy water, called also the _aspersorium_, into which each
+individual dipped his finger and crossed himself when passing the
+threshold of the sacred edifice. The custom of aspersion at the church
+door appears to have been derived from an ancient usage of the heathens,
+amongst whom, according to Sozomen[154-*], the priest was accustomed to
+sprinkle such as entered into a temple with moist branches of olive. The
+stoup is sometimes found inside the church, close by the door; but the
+stone appendage appears to have been by no means general, and probably in
+most cases a movable vessel of metal was provided for the purpose; and in
+an inventory of ancient church goods at St. Dunstan's, Canterbury, taken
+A. D. 1500, we find mentioned "a stope off lede for the holy wat^r atte the
+church dore." We do not often find the stoup of so ancient a date as the
+twelfth century; one much mutilated, but apparently of that era, may
+however be met with inside the little Norman church of Beaudesert,
+Warwickshire, near to the south door.
+
+The porch was often of a considerable size, and had frequently a groined
+ceiling, with an apartment above; it was anciently used for a variety of
+religious rites, for before the Reformation considerable portions of the
+marriage and baptismal services, and also much of that relating to the
+churching of women, were here performed, being commenced "ante ostium
+ecclesiae," and concluded in the church; and these are set forth in the
+rubric of the Manual or service-book, according to the use of Sarum,
+containing those and other occasional offices.
+
+Having entered the church, the font is generally discovered towards the
+west end of the nave, or north or south aisle, and near the principal
+door; such, at least, was in most cases its original and appropriate
+position: this was for the convenience of the sacramental rite there
+administered; part of the baptismal service (that of making the infant a
+catechumen) having been performed in the porch or outside the door[156-*],
+he was introduced by the priest into the church, with the invitation,
+_Ingredere in templum Dei, ut habeas vitam aeternam et vivas in saecula
+saeculorum_; and after certain other rites and prayers the infant was
+carried to the font and immersed therein thrice by the priest, in the
+names of the three Persons of the Holy Trinity. By an ancient
+ecclesiastical constitution a font of stone or other durable material,
+with a fitting cover, was required to be placed in every church in which
+baptism could be administered[156-+]; and it was, as Lyndwood informs us,
+to be capacious enough for total immersion. Some ancient fonts are of
+lead, as that in Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, and that in Childrey
+Church, Berkshire; both of these are cylindrical in shape, and of the
+Norman era, encircled with figures in relief; those on the font at
+Dorchester representing the twelve apostles, whilst those on that of
+Childrey are of bishops. Leaden fonts are also to be met with in the
+churches of Brookland, Kent; Wareham, Dorsetshire; and Walmsford,
+Northamptonshire. Square and cylindrical or truncated cone-like shaped
+fonts, of Norman design, supported on a basement by one or more shafts,
+and either plain or sculptured, are numerous; we sometimes find on them
+figures of the twelve apostles, sculptured in low relief; the baptism of
+our Saviour also was no uncommon representation. Fonts subsequent to the
+Norman era are not so frequently covered with sculptured figures, though
+such sometimes occur; they are sexagonal, septagonal, or octagonal in
+shape; and the different styles are easily ascertained by the
+architectural decorations, mouldings, tracery, and panel-work, with which
+they are more or less covered. On the sides of rich fonts of the fifteenth
+century representations of the seven sacraments were not unfrequently
+sculptured, as on that in Farningham Church, Kent. The covers to some rich
+fonts, especially to some of those of the fifteenth century, were very
+splendid, in shape somewhat resembling that of a spire, but the sides
+were covered with tabernacle-work, and decorated at the angles with small
+buttresses and crockets. Fonts with rich covers of this description are to
+be found in the churches of Ewelme, Oxfordshire; of North Walsham and of
+Worstead, Norfolk; and of Sudbury and of Ufford, Suffolk.[158-*]
+
+The general situation of the tower or campanile is at the west end of the
+nave; it is sometimes, however, found in a different position, as at the
+west end of a side aisle, which is the case with respect to the churches
+of Monkskirby and Withybrooke, Warwickshire; or on one side of the church,
+as at Eynesbury Church, Huntingdonshire, and Alderbury Church, Salop; and
+the tower of the latter church is covered with what is called the
+saddle-back roof, having two gables--a peculiarity to be found in some few
+other churches. In cross churches the tower was generally, though not
+always, erected at the intersection of the transept, and between the nave
+and chancel. In the towers the church bells were hung, with the exception
+of one; without these no church was accounted complete; they were
+anciently consecrated with great ceremony, named and inscribed in honour
+of some saint, and the sound issuing from them was supposed to be of
+efficacy in averting the influence of evil spirits. Bells appear to have
+been introduced into this country in the latter part of the seventh
+century, but comparatively few bells are now remaining in our churches of
+an earlier date than the seventeenth century, since the commencement of
+which century most of our present church bells have been cast. Towers were
+also occasionally used, up to the fourteenth century, as parochial
+fortresses, to which in time of sudden and unforeseen danger the
+inhabitants of the parish resorted for awhile. The tower of Rugby Church,
+Warwickshire, a very singular structure built in the reign of Henry the
+Third, appears to have been erected for this purpose; it is of a square
+form, very lofty, and plain in construction, and is without a single
+buttress to support it; the lower windows are very narrow, and at a
+considerable distance from the ground; some of them are, in fact, mere
+loop-holes; the belfry windows are _square-headed_, of two lights, simply
+trefoiled in the head, and divided by a plain mullion; the only entrance
+was through the church; it has also a fire-place, the funnel for the
+conveyance of smoke being carried up through the thickness of the wall to
+a perforated battlement, and it altogether seems well calculated to resist
+a sudden attack. Other church towers of early date appear to have been
+erected for a double purpose: that of a campanile, as well as to afford
+temporary security. The towers of Newton Arlosh Church, of the Church of
+Burgh on the Sands, and of Great Salkeld Church, Cumberland, appear to
+have been constructed with a view to afford protection to the inhabitants
+of those villages upon any sudden invasion from the borders of Scotland,
+and for that purpose were strongly fortified[160-*]. Some church towers,
+especially in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, are round and batter,
+or gradually decrease in diameter as they rise upwards; most of these are
+of the Norman, though some are in the Early English, style; that at Little
+Saxham Church, Suffolk, may be adduced as a specimen. Spires in some
+instances appear to have served as landmarks, to guide travellers through
+woody districts and over barren downs. The spire of Astley Church,
+Warwickshire, now destroyed, was so conspicuous an object at a distance,
+that it was denominated the lantern of Arden. The spires of the churches
+of Monkskirby and Clifton, in the same county, now also destroyed, were
+formerly noticed as eminent landmarks.
+
+[Illustration: Little Saxham Church Tower, Suffolk.]
+
+[Illustration: Open Seat, Culworth Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Anciently the body of the church appears to have contained no other fixed
+seats for the congregation than a solid mass of masonry raised against the
+wall, and forming a long stone bench or seat. A bench of this description
+runs along great part of the north, west, and south sides of the Norman
+church of Parranforth, Cornwall. In the Norman conventual church of Romsey
+plain stone benches of this description occur; they are likewise to be met
+with in Salisbury and other cathedrals; also in some of our ancient
+parish churches, as in the south aisle of Kidlington Church, Oxfordshire.
+Seats for the use of the congregation are noticed in the synod of Exeter,
+held A. D. 1287. Open wooden benches or pew-work are rarely, if at all, met
+with of an earlier era than the fifteenth century, when the practice of
+pewing the body of the church with open wooden seats, if not then
+introduced, began to prevail. In 1458 we meet with a testamentary bequest
+of money "to make seats called puying," and several of our churches still
+retain considerable remains of the ancient open seats of the fifteenth
+century. At Finedon, in Northamptonshire, the body of the church and
+aisles are almost entirely filled with low open seats, with carved tracery
+at the ends, disposed in four distinct rows; so that the whole of the
+congregation might sit facing the east. Similar seats occur in Culworth
+Church, in the same county, and these are likewise of the fifteenth
+century. The pulpit was anciently disposed towards the eastern part of the
+body of the church, but not in the centre of the aisle. Pulpits are now
+rarely to be found of an earlier date than the fifteenth century, when
+they appear to have been introduced into many churches, though not to have
+become a general appendage. Ancient pulpits of that era, whether of wood
+or stone, are covered with panel-work tracery and mouldings; and some
+exhibit signs of having been once elaborately painted and gilt. Mention,
+however, is made of pulpits at a much earlier period; for in the year 1187
+one was set up in the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund's, from which, we are
+told, the abbot was accustomed to preach to the people in the vulgar
+tongue and provincial dialect[164-*]. The most ancient pulpit, perhaps,
+existing in this country, is that in the refectory of the abbey (now in
+ruins) of Beaulieu, Hampshire: it is of stone, and partly projects from
+the wall, and is ornamented with mouldings, sculptured foliage, and a
+series of blank trefoiled pointed arches, in the style of the thirteenth
+century. The church of the Holy Trinity, at Coventry, contains a fine
+specimen of a stone pulpit of the fifteenth century. In Rowington Church,
+in the county of Warwick, is a stone pulpit of the same age as that at
+Coventry, but much plainer in design. At Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden pulpit of the fifteenth century,
+painted and gilt; and the sides are covered with ogee-headed niches, with
+angular-shaped buttresses between; but the pulpits of this era may be
+distinguished without difficulty by the peculiar architectural designs
+they exhibit.
+
+We now approach the division between the nave or body of the church and
+the chancel or choir: this was formed by a beautiful and highly decorated
+screen, sometimes of stone, but generally of wood, panel and open-work
+tracery, painted and gilt: above this was a cross-beam, which formed a
+main support to the rood-loft, a gallery in which the crucifix or rood and
+the accompanying images of the blessed Virgin and St. John were placed so
+as to be seen by the parishioners in the body of the church, and also in
+accordance with the traditional belief that the position of our Saviour
+whilst suspended on the cross was facing the west. The passage to the
+rood-loft was generally up a flight of stone steps in the north or south
+wall of the nave; but as the rood-loft frequently extended across the
+aisles, we sometimes meet with a small turret annexed to the east end of
+one of the aisles for the approach. Though the introduction of the
+lattice-work division between the chancel and nave may be traced in the
+eastern church to the fourth century, we possess in our own churches few
+remains of screen-work of earlier date than the fifteenth century; and it
+appears probable that wooden screen-work before that period was not
+common, and that in most instances a curtain or veil was used for the
+purpose of division. The rood-loft generally projected in front, so as to
+form a kind of groined cove, the ribs of which sprang or diverged from the
+principal uprights of the screen beneath. In Long Sutton Church,
+Somersetshire, is a splendid wooden rood-loft, elaborately carved,
+painted, and gilt, which extends across the whole breadth of the church,
+and is approached by means of a staircase turret on the south side of the
+church. In the churches of Great Handborough, Enstone, Great Rollwright,
+and Hook Norton, Oxfordshire, are considerable remains of the ancient
+rood-loft, and numerous other instances where it is still retained could
+be adduced. Sometimes this gallery was so small as to admit of the rood
+and two attendant images only, and had no apparent access to it, as that
+in Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire. Hardly a rood-loft is, however,
+remaining of earlier date than the fifteenth century; prior to that
+period, and in many instances even during it, the crucifix or rood and its
+attendant images appear to have been affixed to a transverse beam
+extending horizontally across the chancel arch; this was sometimes richly
+carved, and a beam of this description still exists in the chancel of
+Little Malvern Church, Worcestershire. An earlier date than the eleventh
+century can hardly be assigned for the introduction of the rood, with the
+figures of St. Mary and St. John, into our churches, though in illuminated
+manuscripts somewhat before that period we find such figures pourtrayed
+with the crucifix[167-*]. In the abbey church, Bury St. Edmund's, the rood
+and the figures of St. Mary and St. John, which were placed over the high
+altar, were (as we are informed by Joceline, who wrote his Chronicle in
+the twelfth century) the gift of Archbishop Stigand[167-+]. Gervase, in
+describing the work of Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral, as it appeared
+before the fire, A. D. 1174, notices the rood-beam, which sustained a
+large crucifix and the images of St. Mary and St. John, as extended across
+the church between the nave and central tower[168-*].
+
+[Illustration: Rood, Sherborne Church, Dorsetshire.]
+
+All the carved wooden roods appear to have been destroyed at the
+Reformation in compliance with the injunctions issued for that purpose.
+We occasionally meet, however, with bas relief sculptures of our Saviour
+extended on the cross, with a figure on each side representing the Virgin
+and St. John, but in a mutilated condition. On the outside of the west
+wall of the south transept of Romsey Church, Hants, and close to the
+entrance from the cloisters into the church, is a large stone rood or
+crucifix sculptured in relief, with a hand above emerging from a
+cloud[169-*]: this is apparently of the twelfth century. Small sculptured
+representations of the rood, with the figures of St. Mary and St. John,
+still exist on one of the buttresses near the west door of Sherborne
+Church, Dorsetshire; over a south doorway of Burford Church, Oxfordshire;
+and in the wall of the tower of the church of St. Lawrence, Evesham.
+
+[Illustration: Sanctus Bell, Long Compton Church, Warwickshire.]
+
+Outside the roof of some churches, on the apex of the eastern gable of the
+nave, is a small open arch or turret, in which formerly a single bell was
+suspended: this was the _sanctus_ or _sacringe_ bell, thus placed that,
+being near the altar, it might be the more readily rung, when, in
+concluding the ordinary of the mass, the priest pronounced the
+_Ter-sanctus_, to draw attention to that more solemn office, the canon of
+the mass, which he was now about to commence; it was also rung at a
+subsequent part of the service, on the elevation and adoration of the host
+and chalice, after consecration[171-*]; but though the arch remains on
+the gable of the nave of many churches, the bell thus suspended is
+retained in few; amongst which may be mentioned those of Long Compton,
+Whichford, and Brailes, in Warwickshire, where this bell is still
+preserved hung in an arch at the apex of the nave, with the rope hanging
+down between the chancel and nave[171-+]. Mention of this bell is thus
+made in the Survey of the Priory of Sandwell, in the county of Stafford,
+taken at the time of the Reformation: "Itm the belframe standyng betw: the
+chauncell and the church, w^t. a litle _sanct_^m bell in the same."
+Generally, however, a small hand-bell was carried and rung at the proper
+times in the service, by the acolyte; and in inventories of ancient church
+furniture we find it often noticed as "_a sacringe bell_;" but in an
+inventory of goods belonging to the chapel of Thorp, Northamptonshire, it
+is described as "a litle _sanctus bell_." A small sacringe bell, of
+bell-metal, with the exception of the clapper, which was of iron, was in
+1819 discovered on the removal of some rubbish from the ruins of St.
+Margaret's Priory, Barnstable; and within the last few years a small
+sanctus bell was found on the site of a religious house at Warwick[172-*].
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Sanctus Bell, found at Warwick.]
+
+Passing under the rood-loft, we enter the chancel: this was so called from
+the screen or lattice-work (cancelli) of stone or wood by which it was
+separated from the nave, and which succeeded the curtain or veil which
+anciently formed this division of the church[173-*].
+
+[Illustration: Stalls and Desk, St. Margaret's Church, Leicester.]
+
+We often perceive in the choirs of conventual churches, as in our
+cathedrals, on either side of the entrance, facing the east, and also on
+the north and south sides, a range of wooden stalls divided into single
+seats, peculiarly constructed, the _formulae_ or forms of which were
+movable, and carved on the _subselliae_ or under-sides with grotesque,
+satirical, and often irreverend devices: these were appropriated to the
+monks or canons of the monastery or college to which the church was
+attached. The form of each stall, when turned up so as to exhibit the
+carved work on the under-part, furnished a small kind of seat or ledge,
+constructed for the purpose of inclining against rather than sitting on;
+and this was called the _misericorde_ or _miserere_. The _formulae_ or
+forms when down, and the misericordes when the forms were turned up, were
+used as the season required for penitential inclinations[174-*]. In front
+of these stalls was a desk, ornamented on the exterior with panelled
+tracery; and over the stalls, especially of those of cathedral churches,
+canopies of tabernacle work richly carved were sometimes disposed. In
+Winchester Cathedral we have perhaps the most early, chaste, and beautiful
+example of the canons' stalls, with canopies over, that are to be met
+with, although a greater excess of minute carved ornament may be found in
+the canopies which overhang the stalls in other cathedrals. In old
+conventual churches, now no longer used as such, the stalls have been
+often removed from their original position to other parts of the church,
+and they appear to have varied in number according to that of the
+fraternity.
+
+[Illustration: Misericorde, All Souls' College, Oxford.]
+
+[Illustration: Brass Reading Desk, Merton College Chapel, Oxford.]
+
+In the choirs of cathedral and conventual churches, and in the chancels of
+some other churches, a movable desk, at which the epistle and gospel were
+read, was placed: this was often called the eagle desk, from its being
+frequently sustained on a brazen eagle with expanded wings, elevated on a
+stand, emblematic of St. John the evangelist. Eagle desks are generally
+found either of the fifteenth or seventeenth century; notices of them
+occur, however, much earlier. In the Louterell Psalter, written circa A. D.
+1300, an eagle desk supported on a cylindrical shaft, banded midway down
+by an annulated moulding in the style of the thirteenth century, is
+represented; and in an account of ornaments belonging to Salisbury
+Cathedral, A. D. 1214, we find mentioned _Tuellia una ad Lectricum Aquilae_.
+Besides the brass eagle desks which still remain in use in several of our
+cathedrals, and in the chapels of some of the colleges at Oxford and
+Cambridge, fine specimens are preserved in Redcliffe Church, Bristol, of
+the date 1638; in Croydon Church, Surrey; and in the church of the Holy
+Trinity at Coventry; other instances might also be enumerated. Sometimes
+we meet with ancient brass reading-desks which have not the eagle in
+front, but both the sides are sloped so as to form a double desk: of
+these, examples of the fifteenth century may be found in Yeovil Church,
+Somersetshire, and in the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. Ancient wooden
+reading-desks, either single or double, are also occasionally found; some
+of these are richly carved, others are comparatively plain, but all
+partake more or less of the architectonic style of the age in which they
+were severally constructed, and from which their probable dates may be
+ascertained. In Bury Church, Huntingdonshire, is a wooden desk with a
+single slope, and the vertical face presented in front is covered with
+arches and other carved ornaments: this perhaps may be referable to the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. A rich double desk, of somewhat
+later date, with the shaft supported by buttresses of open-work tracery,
+is preserved in Ramsey Church, Huntingdonshire. In Aldbury Church,
+Hertfordshire, is an ancient double lecturn or reading desk, of wood, of
+the fifteenth century, much plainer in design than those at Bury and
+Ramsey; the shaft is angular, with small buttresses at the angles, and
+with a plain angular-shaped moulded capital and base, which latter is set
+on a cross-tree. In Hawstead Church, Suffolk, is a wooden desk with little
+ornament, supported on an angular shaft with an embattled capital, and
+moulded base with leaves carved in relief: this is apparently of the
+latter part of the fourteenth century. The ancient wooden desks found in
+some of our churches must not, however, be confounded with a more numerous
+class constructed and used subsequent to the Reformation.
+
+Proceeding up the chancel or choir, we ascend by three steps to the
+platform, on which the high altar anciently stood: this was so called to
+distinguish it from other altars, of which there were often several, in
+the same church; high mass was celebrated at it, whereas the other altars
+were chiefly used for the performance of low or private masses. The most
+ancient altars were of wood, afterwards they were constructed of stone;
+those of the primitive British churches are spoken of by St. Chrysostom.
+By a decree of the council of Paris, held A. D. 509, no altar was to be
+built but of stone. Amongst the excerptions of Ecgbert, archbishop of York
+A. D. 750, was one that no altars should be consecrated with chrism but
+such as were made of stone; and by the council of Winchester, held under
+Lanfranc A. D. 1076, altars were enjoined to be of stone. The customary
+form of such was a mass of stone supporting an altar table or slab, and
+resembling the tombs of the martyrs, at which the primitive Christians
+held their meetings; from which circumstance it became customary to
+enclose in every altar relics of some saint, and without such relics an
+altar was esteemed incomplete.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Pix, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.]
+
+Pertaining to the high altar, which was covered with a frontal and cloths,
+and anciently enclosed at the sides with curtains suspended on rods of
+iron projecting from the wall, was a crucifix, which succeeded to the
+simple cross placed on the altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches; a
+pair[180-*] of candlesticks, generally with spikes instead of sockets, on
+which lights or tapers were fixed; a pix, in which the host was kept
+reserved for the sick; a pair of cruets, of metal, in which were contained
+the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in the eucharistic cup;
+a sacring bell; a pax table, of silver or other metal, for the kiss of
+peace, which took place shortly before the host was received in communion;
+a stoup or stok, of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water; a censer or
+thurible[181-*], and a ship, (a vessel so called,) to hold frankincense; a
+chrismatory[181-+], an offering basin, a basin which was used when the
+priest washed his hands, and a chalice and paten. Costly specimens of the
+ancient pix, containing small patens for the reception of the host, are
+preserved amongst the plate belonging to New College and Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford. A pix of a much plainer description, but without its
+cover, of the metal called latten, was until recently preserved in the
+church of Enstone, Oxfordshire: the body of this was of a semi-globular
+form, supported on an angular stem, with a knob in the midst, and in
+appearance not unlike a chalice. The monstrance, in which the host was
+exhibited to the people, and which has been sometimes confounded with the
+pix[182-*], does not appear to have been introduced into our churches
+before the fifteenth century; on the suppression of the monasteries and
+chantries we find it noticed in the inventories then taken of church
+furniture, as in that of the Priory of Ely, where it is called "a stonding
+monstral for the sacrament;" and in that of St. Augustine's Monastery,
+Canterbury, where it is described as "one monstrance, silver gilt, with
+four glasses."
+
+[Illustration: Sedilia, Crick Church, Northamptonshire.]
+
+Near the high altar we frequently find, in the south wall of the chancel,
+a series of stone seats, sometimes without but generally beneath plain or
+enriched arched canopies, often supported by slender piers which serve to
+divide the seats. In most instances these seats are three in number, but
+they vary from one to five, and are the _sedilia_ or seats formerly
+appropriated during high mass to the use of the officiating priest and his
+attendant ministers, the deacon and sub-deacon, who retired thither
+during the chanting of the _Gloria in excelsis_, and some other parts of
+the service[183-*]. The sedilia sometimes preserve the same level, but
+generally they graduate or rise one above another, and that nearest the
+altar, being the highest, was occupied by the priest; the other two by the
+deacon and sub-deacon in succession[183-+]. We do not often meet with
+sedilia of so early an era as the twelfth century; there are, however,
+instances of such, as in the church of St. Mary, at Leicester, where is a
+fine Norman triple sedile, divided into graduating seats by double
+cylindrical piers with sculptured capitals, and the recessed arches they
+support are enriched on the face with a profusion of the zigzag moulding.
+In the south wall of the choir of Broadwater Church, Sussex, is a stone
+bench beneath a large semicircular Norman arch, the face of which is
+enriched with the chevron or zigzag moulding. In Avington Church,
+Berkshire, is a stone beneath a plain segmental arch. Norman sedilia also
+occur in the churches of Earls Barton, Northamptonshire, and of
+Wellingore, Lincolnshire. From the commencement of the thirteenth century
+up to the Reformation sedilia became a common appendage to a church, and
+the styles are easily distinguished by their peculiar architectonic
+features. Some are without canopies, and are excessively plain. On the
+south side of the chancel of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, is a
+stone bench without a canopy or division, and plain stone benches thus
+disposed are found in the chancel of Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire, and of
+Rowington Church, Warwickshire. In Sedgeberrow Church, Gloucestershire,
+are two sedilia without canopies; and in Standlake Church, Oxfordshire,
+the sedilia, three in number, are without canopies or ornament. In
+Spratten Church, Northamptonshire, is a stone bench for three persons
+under a plain recessed pointed arch. In Priors Hardwick Church,
+Warwickshire, is a sedile for the priest, and below that one double the
+size for the deacon and sub-deacon; both are under recessed arched
+canopies. Quadruple sedilia occur in the churches of Turvey and Luton,
+Bedfordshire; in the Mayor's Chapel, Bristol; in Gloucester Cathedral; in
+the church of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire; and in Rothwell Church,
+Northamptonshire: these are beneath canopies, and most of them are highly
+enriched. Quintuple sedilia sometimes occur, but are very rare; in the
+conventual church of Southwell, Nottinghamshire, are, however, five
+sedilia beneath ogee-headed canopies richly ornamented. A single sedile
+for one person only is occasionally met with, but not often.
+
+[Illustration: Double Piscina, Salisbury Cathedral.]
+
+Eastward of the sedilia, in the same wall, is a _fenestella_ or niche,
+sometimes plain, but often enriched with a crocketed ogee or pedimental
+hood moulding in front, over the arch, which is trefoiled or cinquefoiled
+in the head. This niche contains a hollow perforated basin or stone drain,
+called the _piscina_ or _lavacrum_[186-*], into which it appears that
+after the priest had washed his hands, which he was accustomed to do
+before the consecration of the elements and again after the communion,
+the water was poured, as also that with which the chalice was rinsed. The
+usage of washing the hands before the communion is one of very high
+antiquity, and is expressly noticed in the Clementine Liturgy, and by St.
+Cyril in his mystical Catechesis[187-*]; we do not, however, find the
+piscina in our churches of an era earlier than the twelfth century, and
+even then it was of uncommon occurrence; but in the thirteenth century the
+general introduction is observable. In Romsey Church, Hampshire, is the
+shaft and basin (the latter cushion-shaped) of a curious Norman piscina:
+this is now lying loose, in a dilapidated state. In the south apsis of the
+same church is another Norman piscina, consisting of a quadrangular-shaped
+basin projecting from the south wall; and on the south side of the chancel
+of Avington Church, Berkshire, is a plain Norman piscina within a simple
+semicircular arched recess. The churches of Kilpeck, Herefordshire,
+Keelby, Lincolnshire, and Bapchild, Kent, also contain Norman piscinae.
+Those of all the various styles of later date are common; they exhibit,
+however, an interesting variety in design and ornamental detail. The drain
+of the piscina communicated with a perforated stone shaft, commonly
+enclosed in the wall, through which the water was lost in the earth; as in
+the case of the piscina with its shaft taken out of the south wall of the
+chancel of the now destroyed church of Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.
+Sometimes a piscina was a subsequent addition to a structure of early
+date, as in the old and now demolished church of Stretton-upon-Dunsmore,
+Warwickshire, in the south wall of the Norman chancel of which a piscina
+of the latter part of the thirteenth century had been inserted.
+
+[Illustration: Piscina, Newnham Regis, Warwickshire.]
+
+The piscina is very common in churches even where the sedilia or stone
+seats are wanting, and not only in the chancel, but also in the south
+walls at the east end of the north and south aisles, and in mortuary
+chapels, as will be presently noticed; it appears, in short, to have been
+an indispensable appendage to an altar.
+
+Sometimes the piscina is double, and contains two basins with drains, the
+one for receiving the water in which the hands had been washed, the other
+for the reception of the water with which the chalice was rinsed after the
+communion[189-*]. In Rothwell Church, Northamptonshire, on the south side
+of the chancel, are the vestiges of a triple piscina; the fenestella has
+been destroyed, but the three basins with their drains remain.
+
+Across the _fenestella_, or niche which contains the piscina, a shelf of
+stone or wood may be frequently found: this was the _credence_[190-*], or
+table on which the chalice, paten, ampullae, and other things necessary for
+the celebration of mass were, before consecration, placed in a state of
+readiness on a clean linen cloth; and this originated from the prothesis,
+or side table of preparation, used in the early church; a recurrence to
+which ancient and primitive custom by some of the divines of the Anglican
+church, after the Reformation, occasioned great offence to be taken by the
+Puritan seceders. In some instances a side table of stone or wood was used
+for this purpose; and a fine credence table of stone, the sides of which
+are covered with panelled compartments, is still remaining on the south
+side of the choir, St. Cross Church, near Winchester[190-+].
+
+[Illustration: Ambrie or Locker, Chaddesden Church, Derbyshire.]
+
+The credence table, or shelf above the piscina, must not be confounded
+with the _ambrie_ or _locker_, a small square and plain recess usually
+contained in the east or north wall, near the altar. In this the chalice,
+paten, and other articles pertaining to the altar were kept when not in
+use. The wooden doors formerly affixed to these ambries have for the most
+part either fallen into decay or been removed, but traces of the hinges
+may be frequently perceived; and a locker in the north wall of the chancel
+of Aston Church, Northamptonshire, still retains the two-leaved wooden
+door. Sometimes shelves are set across the lockers. In the east wall of
+Earls Barton Church, Northamptonshire, is a large locker divided into two
+unequal parts by a stone shelf inserted in it; and in the north aisle of
+Salisbury Cathedral are two large triangular-headed lockers or ambries,
+each which[TN-5] contains two shelves.
+
+Within the north wall of the chancel, near the altar, a large arch, like
+that of a tomb, may often be perceived; within this the _holy sepulchre_,
+generally a wooden and movable structure, was set up at Easter, when
+certain rites commemorative of the burial and resurrection of our Lord
+were anciently performed with great solemnity; for on Good Friday the
+crucifix and host were here deposited, and watched the following day and
+nights; and early on Easter morning they were removed from thence with
+great ceremony, and replaced on the altar by the priest. In the accounts
+of churchwardens of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century
+we meet with frequent notices of payments made for watching the sepulchre
+at Easter[192-*]. Sometimes the sepulchre was altogether of stone, and a
+fixture, and enriched with architectural and sculptured detail, as in the
+well-known specimen at Heckington, Lincolnshire, and the fine specimen of
+tabernacle-work in Stanton Harcourt Church, Oxfordshire.
+
+At the back of the high altar was affixed a reredos, or screen of
+tabernacle-work, costly specimens of which contained small images set on
+brackets under projecting canopies; an alabaster table or sculptured bas
+relief, placed just over the altar, was also common. The high altar
+reredos is still remaining, though in a mutilated condition, in the Abbey
+Church, St. Alban's; it was erected A. D. 1480, and is perhaps the most
+splendid specimen we have; and in Bristol Cathedral a portion of the high
+altar reredos is also left. The chantry altar reredos is more frequently
+remaining, even where the altar and alabaster table[193-*] above have been
+destroyed; rarely, however, in a perfect state. In the seventeenth century
+the rich tabernacle-work was sometimes plastered over, probably to
+preserve it from iconoclastic violence. In many of our cathedrals, as at
+Gloucester, Bristol, Wells, and Worcester, and in some of the chantries
+attached to Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, specimens of the
+chantry reredos screen, which appear to have abounded more or less with
+sculptured and architectural detail, are to be met with; and remains of
+the painting and gilding with which they were anciently covered may in
+some instances be traced. In a Survey of the Priory Church, Bridlington,
+taken at the suppression, we find noticed, "The Reredose at the highe
+alter representyng Criste at the assumpcyon of our Lady and the XII.
+appostells, w^t. dyvers other great imagys, beyng of a great heyght, ys
+excellently well wrought, and as well gylted." Five small chapels are also
+mentioned, "w^t. fyve alters and small tables of alleblaster and imag's."
+Sometimes, however, the space behind the altar was occupied by a painted
+altar-piece, on wood or panel; a curious but mutilated specimen of which,
+of the latter part of the fifteenth century, is still preserved in the
+conventual church, Romsey.
+
+Over the high altar was the great east window of the church, glazed with
+painted glass; other windows in the church were also thus filled. The
+subjects pourtrayed on the glass were sometimes scriptural, sometimes
+legendary. Single figures of saints, distinguished by their peculiar
+symbols, are common; figures of crowned heads, prelates, and warriors also
+frequently occur; and on some windows are depicted the arms and sometimes
+even the portraits of different benefactors to the church, with scrolls
+bearing inscriptions. We have, perhaps, few remains of ancient stained
+glass in our churches of a period antecedent to the thirteenth century: of
+this era, probably, are those curious circular designs which fill the
+greater portion of the lights at the back of the sedilia in Dorchester
+Church, Oxfordshire: one representing St. Augustine and St. Birinus, the
+first bishop of that ancient see; another, a priest and deacon, the former
+with the host, the latter bearing the ampullae. Of this period also is some
+ancient stained glass in Chetwood Church, Bucks, the ground of which is
+covered with a kind of mosaic pattern, a usual feature in the more ancient
+stained glass, and the borders partake of a tendril foliage; whilst in
+pointed oval-shaped compartments, forming the well-known symbol _vesica
+piscis_, are single figures of saints and crowned heads, each clad in a
+vest and mantle of two different colours. In the fourteenth century single
+figures under rich canopies are common, but we begin to lose sight of the
+mosaic pattern as a back-ground. The stained glass in the windows of the
+choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, is either very early in this, or
+of a late period in the preceding century, and exhibits single figures
+under rich canopies: over the head of one of these, (the kneeling figure
+of a monk in his cowl,) is a scroll inscribed "_Magister Henricus de
+Mammesfeld me fecit_." In the windows of Tewkesbury Abbey Church are
+several single figures of this period, some of knights in armour. In the
+chancel of Stanford Church, Northamptonshire, are single figures of the
+apostles in painted glass, each appearing within an ogee-headed canopy,
+cinquefoiled within the head and crocketed externally, and the sides of
+the canopy are flanked by pinnacled buttresses in stages. Specimens of
+stained glass of the fifteenth century are numerous in comparison with
+those of an earlier period; we find such in the east window of Langport
+Church, Somersetshire, where single figures occur of St. Clemens, St.
+Catherine, St. Elizabeth, and of many other saints. Some splendid remains
+of painted glass of the fifteenth century are likewise preserved in the
+windows of the choir of Ludlow Church, Salop, mostly in single figures;
+amongst them is the representation of St. George in armour, of the reign
+of Henry the Seventh; the figures of the Virgin and infant Christ may also
+be noticed. Towards the close of this century kneeling figures, not
+merely disposed single, but also in groups, formally arranged, may be
+observed. As a composition, wherein a better display of grouping and
+aerial perspective is evinced, the splendid window in St. Margaret's
+Church, Westminster, of the crucifixion between the two thieves, and
+numerous figures in the foreground, not grouped formally but with
+artistical feeling, with the figures of St. George and St. Catherine on
+each side of the principal design, and the portraits of Henry the Seventh
+and his consort Elizabeth in separate compartments beneath, each kneeling
+before a faldstool, may be noticed. This window, which in some of the
+details exhibits an approach to the renaissance style, was presented to
+Henry the Seventh by the magistrates of Dort in Holland, to adorn his
+chapel at Westminster. The era of the various specimens of ancient stained
+glass we meet with in our churches may generally be ascertained by the
+costume and disposition of the figures, the form of the shields, the
+mosaic pattern or other back-ground, and architectural designs of the
+canopies.
+
+The pavement beneath the high altar was frequently composed of small
+square encaustic bricks or tiles, whereon the arms of founders and
+benefactors, interspersed with figures, flowers, and emblematic devices,
+were impressed, painted, and glazed; other parts of the church were also
+paved with these tiles.
+
+The walls of the church were covered with fresco paintings of the day of
+judgment, legendary stories, portraits of saints, and scriptural,
+allegorical, and historical subjects, in the conventional styles of the
+different ages in which such were executed, the costume and details being
+according to the fashion then prevailing. These paintings have in most
+churches been obliterated by repeated coats of whitewash, so that few
+perfect specimens now remain; traces of such are, however, occasionally
+brought to light in the alteration and reparation of our ancient churches.
+The subject of the judgment-day was commonly represented on the west wall
+of the nave, or over the chancel arch; and in the contract for the
+erection of the Lady Chapel, St. Mary's Church, Warwick, A. D. 1454, is a
+covenant "to paint fine and curiously, to make on the west wall the dome
+of our Lord God Jesus, and all manner of devises and imagery thereto
+belonging." The west front of the wall over the chancel arch, Trinity
+Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon, was some years back found to be thus covered;
+but this painting, with others in the same chapel, was afterwards again
+obliterated[199-*]. A curious fresco painting of the last judgment,
+discovered a few years ago on the west face of the wall over the chancel
+arch, Trinity Church, Coventry, has, however, been very carefully
+preserved, and the coat of whitewash which tended to conceal it probably
+ever since the Reformation has been judiciously removed. The legend of St.
+Christopher, represented by a colossal figure with a beam-like
+walking-staff, carrying the infant Christ on his shoulders through the
+water, was generally painted on the north wall of the nave or body of the
+church. A fresco painting of this subject, half obliterated, is still
+apparent on the north wall of the nave of Burford Church, Oxfordshire; and
+other instances might be adduced. The murder of Archbishop Becket was also
+a very favourite subject: an early pictorial representation of the
+thirteenth century, of this event, is still visible on one of the walls of
+Preston Church, Sussex; it formed, likewise, one of the subjects
+represented on the walls of Trinity Chapel, Stratford-upon-Avon; and a
+painting of the same subject on panel, executed in the middle of the
+fifteenth century, was formerly suspended over or near the tomb of Henry
+the Fourth in Canterbury Cathedral[200-*]. Several vestiges of ancient
+fresco wall-paintings, more or less obliterated, are still preserved in
+Winchester Cathedral. The walls of our churches were even in the
+Anglo-Saxon era embellished with paintings; and such are described as
+decorating the walls of the church of Hexham in the seventh century. By
+the synod of Calcuith, held A. D. 816, a representation of the saint to
+whom a church was dedicated was required to be painted either on the wall
+of the church or on a tablet suspended in the church.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Stone Reliquary or Shrine, Brixworth Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+In most of the large conventual churches, and also in some of the smaller
+parochial churches, shrines containing relics of the patron or other
+saints were exhibited; these were either fixed and immovable, of
+tabernacle-work, of stone or wood, or partly of both, or were small
+movable feretories, which could be carried on festivals in procession. Of
+the fixed shrines, that in Hereford Cathedral of Bishop Cantelupe, of the
+date A. D. 1287, is a fine and early specimen, in very fair preservation.
+In the north aisle of the abbey church, Shrewsbury, are some remains of a
+stone shrine, which from the workmanship may be considered as a production
+of the early part of the fifteenth century: this is much mutilated: but
+the shrine of St. Frideswide, in Oxford Cathedral, the lower part of which
+is composed of a stone tomb, the upper part of rich tabernacle-work of
+wood, is still tolerably perfect: this is also of the fifteenth century.
+Of the small movable feretories, one apparently of the workmanship of the
+twelfth century, seven inches long and six high, formed of wood, enamelled
+and gilt, with figures on the sides representing the crucifixion, is still
+preserved in Shipley Church, Sussex; and a small stone reliquary or shrine
+of the fourteenth century was discovered a few years ago, and is now
+preserved in the church of Brixworth, Northamptonshire.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Organ.]
+
+The organ, as a solemn musical instrument, may claim a very early origin,
+and has been in use in our churches from the Anglo-Saxon era. The ancient
+organs were small, and all the pipes were exposed. The phrase "_a pair of
+organs_," so frequently met with in old inventories and church accounts,
+may probably have answered to the great and choir organ of a subsequent
+period--one instrument in two divisions. The mechanism of the old organs
+was rude and simple, compared with the improvements of modern times, and
+the cost was small; they were generally placed in the rood-loft.
+
+The church chest is often an ancient and interesting object: sometimes we
+find it rudely formed, or hollowed out of the solid trunk of a tree, with
+a plain or barrel-shaped lid of considerable thickness. The churches of
+Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; Long Sutton, Somersetshire; and Ensham,
+Oxfordshire; contain chests thus rudely constructed. Sometimes they are
+strongly banded about with iron. The fronts and sides of these chests are
+not unfrequently embellished more or less richly with carved tracery,
+panel-work, and other detail in the style prevalent at the period of their
+construction. In Clemping Church, Sussex, is an early chest of the
+thirteenth century, the front of which exhibits a series of plain pointed
+arches trefoiled in the head, and other carved work. In Haconby Church,
+Lincolnshire, and in Chevington Church, Suffolk, are very rich chests
+covered with tracery and detail in the decorated style of the fourteenth
+century. In Brailes Church, Warwickshire, is an ancient chest of the
+fifteenth century covered with panel-work compartments, with plain pointed
+arches foliated in the heads. Panelled chests of this century are
+numerous. In Shanklin Church, Isle of Wight, is a chest bearing the date
+of 1519, on which no architectural ornament is displayed, but the initials
+T. S. (Thomas Selkstead) are fancifully designed, and are separated by the
+lock, and a coat of arms beneath.
+
+In the south wall of each aisle, near the east end, and also in other
+parts of the church, we frequently find the same kind of fenestella or
+niche containing a piscina, and sometimes a credence shelf, as that before
+described as being in the chancel: this is a plain indication that an
+altar has been erected in this part of the church; and this end of the
+aisle was generally separated from the rest of the church by a screen, the
+lower part of panel, the upper part of open-work tracery, of stone or
+wood, similar to that forming the division between the chancel and nave;
+and the space thus enclosed was converted into or became a private chapel
+or chantry; for it was anciently the custom, especially during the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, for lords of manors and persons of
+wealth and local importance to build or annex small chapels or side
+aisles to their parish churches, and these were endowed by license from
+the crown with land sufficient for the maintenance, either wholly or in
+part, of one or more priests, who were to celebrate private masses daily
+or otherwise, as the endowment expressed, at the altar erected therein,
+and dedicated to some saint, for the souls of the founder, his ancestors
+and posterity, for whose remains these chantry chapels frequently served
+as burial-places. At this service, however, no congregation was required
+to be present, but merely the priest, and an acolyte to assist him; and it
+was in allusion to the low or private masses thus performed, that Bishop
+Jewell, whilst condemning the practice as untenable, observes, "And even
+suche be their private masses, for the most part sayde in side iles,
+alone, without companye of people, onely with one boye to make answer."
+
+The screens by which these chapels were enclosed have in numerous
+instances been destroyed; still many have been preserved, and chantry
+chapels parted off the church by screen-work of stone may be found in the
+churches of Bradford Abbas, Dorsetshire; and Aldbury, Hertfordshire; in
+which latter church is a very perfect specimen of a mortuary chapel, with
+a monument and recumbent effigies in the midst of it. Chantry chapels
+enclosed on two of the sides by wooden screen-work are more common.
+
+Although no ancient high altar of stone is known to exist, some of the
+ancient chantry altars have been preserved: these are composed either of a
+solid mass of masonry, covered with a thick slab or table of stone, as in
+the north aisle of Bengeworth Church, near Evesham, and in the south aisle
+of Enstone Church, Oxfordshire; or of a thick stone slab or table, with a
+cross at each angle and in the centre, supported merely on brackets or
+trusses built into and projecting from the wall, as in a chantry chapel in
+Warmington Church, Warwickshire; or partly on brackets and partly
+sustained on shafts or slender piers, as in a chantry chapel,
+Chipping-Norton Church, Oxfordshire. Sometimes a chamber containing a
+fire-place was constructed over a chantry, apparently for the residence,
+either occasional or permanent, of a priest: such a chamber occurs over
+the chantry chapel containing the altar in Chipping-Norton Church; and
+such also, with the exception of the flooring, which has decayed or been
+removed, may be seen in the chantry chapel which contains the altar in
+Warmington Church. In both of these chambers are windows or apertures in
+the walls which divide them from the church, through which the priest was
+enabled to observe unseen any thing passing within the church.
+
+[Illustration: Chantry Altar, Warmington Church, Warwickshire]
+
+We often find an opening or aperture obliquely disposed, carried through
+the thickness of the wall at the north-east angle of the south, and the
+south-east angle of the north aisle: this was the _hagioscope_, through
+which at high mass the elevation of the host at the high altar, and other
+ceremonies, might be viewed from the chantry chapel situate at the east
+end of each aisle. In general, these apertures are mere narrow oblong
+slits; sometimes, however, they partake of a more ornamental character, as
+in a chantry chapel on the south side of Irthlingborough Church,
+Northamptonshire, where the head of an aperture of this kind is arched,
+cinquefoiled within, and finished above with an embattled moulding. In the
+north and south transepts of Minster Lovel Church, Oxfordshire, are
+oblique openings, arched-headed and foliated; and in the north aisle of
+Chipping-Norton Church, in the same county, is a singular hagioscope,
+obliquely disposed, not unlike a square-headed window of three foliated
+arched lights, with a quatrefoil beneath each light.
+
+We sometimes meet with one or more brackets, with plain mouldings or
+sculptured, projecting from the east wall of a chancel aisle or chantry
+chapel; and on these, lamps or lights were formerly set, and kept
+continually burning in honour of the Virgin or of some other saint; and we
+also meet with rich projecting canopies or recessed niches, with brackets
+beneath, on which images of saints were formerly placed.
+
+The use of the low side window, common in some districts, near the
+south-west angle of the chancel, and sometimes, but not so frequently,
+near the north-west angle, and occasionally even in the aisle, has not
+been correctly ascertained; it has, however, been conjectured to have
+served for the purpose of a confessional; and on minute examination
+indications of its formerly having had a wooden shutter, which opened on
+the inside, are sometimes visible; and on the south side of Kenilworth
+Church, Warwickshire, is an iron-barred window of this description, on
+which the wooden shutter is still retained.[209-*]
+
+The sedilia or stone seats, so frequently found in the south wall of the
+chancel, are occasionally, though not often, to be met with in the south
+walls of side aisles or chantry chapels: when this is the case it is
+presumed the endowment was for more priests than one.
+
+Such, not to digress into more minute particulars, may suffice to convey
+a general idea of the manner in which our churches were internally
+decorated, and how they were fitted up, with reference to the ceremonial
+rites of the church of Rome, in and before the year 1535. The walls were
+covered with fresco paintings, the windows were glazed with stained glass;
+the rood-loft and the pulpit, where the latter existed, were richly
+carved, painted, and gilt; and the altars were garnished with plate and
+sumptuous hangings. Altar-tombs with cumbent effigies were painted so as
+to correspond in tone with the colours displayed on the walls; the
+pavement of encaustic tiles, of different devices, was interspersed with
+sepulchral slabs and inlaid brasses; and screen-work, niches for statuary,
+mouldings, and sculpture of different degrees of excellence, abounded.
+Suspended from aloft hung the funeral achievement; at a later period, even
+more common, the banner, helme, crest, gauntlets, spurs, sword, targe, and
+cote armour.[210-*] In addition to these were, in some churches, shrines
+and reliquaries, enriched by the lavish donations of devotees, and wooden
+images excessively decked out and appareled[211-*]--objects of
+superstition, to which pilgrimages and offerings were made. And if in the
+review of the conceptions of a prior age, viz. of the fourteenth century,
+we find a higher rank of art to be evinced, and the style and combination
+of architectural and sculptured detail to be more severe and pure, at no
+period were our churches adorned to greater excess than on the eve of that
+in which all were about to undergo spoliation, and many of them wanton
+destruction.
+
+For on the suppression of the monasteries and colleges, to the number of
+700 and upwards, and of the chantries, in number more than 2300, effected
+between the years 1535 and 1540, the abbey churches were not only
+despoiled of their costly vestments, altar plate and furniture, and
+shrines enriched with silver, gold, and jewels, but many of them were
+entirely dismantled, and the sites with the materials granted to
+individuals by whom they were soon reduced to a state of ruin. Some were
+even, either then or in after-times, converted into dwelling-houses; and
+others, or some portion of such, were allowed to be preserved as parochial
+churches; but the private chantry altars, though left bare and forsaken,
+were not as yet ordered to be destroyed.
+
+By the royal injunctions exhibited A. D. 1538, such feigned images as were
+known to be abused of pilgrimages, or offerings of any kind made
+thereunto, were, for the avoiding of idolatry, to be forthwith taken down
+without delay, and no candles, tapers, or images of wax were from
+thenceforth to be set before any image or picture, "but onelie the light
+that commonlie goeth about the crosse of the church by the rood-loft, the
+light afore the sacrament of the altar, and the light about the
+sepulchre;" which, for the adorning of the church and divine service, were
+for the present suffered to remain. By the same injunctions a Bible of the
+largest volume, in English, was directed to be set up in some convenient
+place in every church, that the parishioners might resort to the same and
+read it; and a register-book was ordered to be kept, for the recording of
+christenings, marriages, and burials.
+
+But beyond the suppression of the monasteries and chantries, an act the
+effect of secular rather than religious motives, little alteration was
+made during the reign of Henry the Eighth in the ceremonies and services
+of the church, although the minds of many were becoming prepared for the
+change which afterwards ensued. And in the reign of his successor, Edward
+the Sixth, a striking difference was effected in the internal appearance
+of our churches; for many appendages were, not all at once, but by
+degrees, and under the authority of successive injunctions, discarded.
+Thus, by the king's injunctions published in 1547, all images which had
+been abused with pilgrimage, or offering of any thing made thereunto,
+were, for the avoiding of the detestable offence of idolatry, by
+ecclesiastical authority, but not by that of private persons, to be taken
+down and destroyed; and no torches or candles, tapers or images of wax,
+were to be thenceforth suffered to be set before any image or picture,
+"but only two lights upon the high altar before the sacrament, which, for
+the signification that Christ is the very true light of the world, they
+shall suffer to remain still." And as to such images which had not been
+abused, and which as yet were suffered to remain, the parishioners were to
+be admonished by the clergy that they served for no other purpose but to
+be a remembrance. The Bible in English, and the Paraphrases of Erasmus
+upon the Gospels, also in English, were ordered to be provided and set up
+in every church for the use of the parishioners. It was also enjoined that
+at every high mass the gospel and epistle should be read in English, and
+not in Latin, in the pulpit or in some other convenient place, so that the
+people might hear the same. Processions about the church and churchyard
+were now ordered to be disused, and the priests and clerks were to kneel
+in the midst of the church immediately before high mass, and there sing or
+read the Litany in English set forth by the authority of King Henry the
+Eighth. By the same injunctions all shrines, covering of shrines, all
+tables, candlesticks, trindles or rolls of wax, pictures, paintings, and
+all other monuments of feigned miracles, pilgrimages, idolatry, and
+superstition, were directed to be utterly taken away and destroyed; so
+that there should remain no memory of the same in walls, glass windows, or
+elsewhere within churches; and in every church "a comely and honest
+pulpit" was to be provided at the cost of the parishioners, to be set in a
+convenient place for the preaching of God's word; and a strong chest,
+having three keys, with a hole in the upper part thereof, was to be set
+and fastened near unto the high altar, to the intent the parishioners
+should put into it their oblation and alms for their poor
+neighbours[215-*].
+
+Hence the primary introduction of desks with divinity books, the litany
+stool, and the charity box, yet retained in some of our churches. But as
+much contention arose respecting the taking down of images, also as to
+whether they had been idolatrously abused or not, all images without
+exception were shortly afterwards, by royal authority, ordered to be
+removed and taken away.
+
+In the ritual the first formal change appears to have been the order of
+the communion set forth in 1547 as a temporary measure only, until other
+order should be provided for the true and right manner of administering
+the sacrament according to the rule of the scriptures of God, and first
+usage of the primitive church. In this the term _altar_ is alone made use
+of; but in the first Liturgy of King Edward the Sixth, published in 1549,
+the altar or table whereupon the Lord's Supper was ministered is
+indifferently called _the altar_, _the Lord's table_, _God's board_.
+Ridley, bishop of London, by his diocesan injunctions issued in 1550,
+after noticing that in divers places some used the Lord's board after the
+form of a table, and some as an altar, exhorted the curates,
+churchwardens, and questmen to erect and set up the Lord's board after the
+form of an honest table, decently covered, in such place of the quire or
+chancel as should be thought most meet, so that the ministers with the
+communicants might have their place separated from the rest of the people;
+and to take down and abolish all other by-altars or tables. Soon after
+this, orders of council were sent to the bishops, in which, after noticing
+that the altars in most churches of the realm had been taken down, but
+that there yet remained altars standing in divers other churches, by
+occasion whereof much variance and contention arose, they were commanded,
+for the avoiding of all matters of further contention and strife about the
+standing or taking away of the said altars[216-*], to give substantial
+order that all the altars in every church should be taken down, and
+instead of them that a table should be set up in some convenient part of
+the chancel, to serve for the ministration of the blessed communion; and
+reasons were at the same time published why the Lord's board should rather
+be after the form of a table than of an altar, expressing however in what
+sense it might be called an altar. In the second Liturgy of King Edward
+the Sixth, amongst other important changes both of doctrine and
+discipline, the word _altar_, as denoting the communion-table, was
+purposely omitted.
+
+The peculiar formation, frequently observable, of the old
+communion-tables, seems to have originated from the diversity of opinion
+held by many in the Anglican church, as to whether or not there was in the
+sacrament of the Lord's Supper a memorative sacrifice; for by those who
+held the negative they were so constructed, not merely that they might be
+moved from one part of the church to another, but the slab, board, or
+table, properly so called, was purposely not fastened or fixed to the
+frame-work or stand on which it was supported, but left loose, so as to be
+set on or taken off; and in 1555, on the accession of Queen Mary, when the
+stone altars were restored and the communion-tables taken down, we find it
+recorded of one John Austen, at Adesham Church, Kent, that "he with other
+tooke up the table, and laid it on a chest in the chancel, and set the
+tressels by it[218-*]."
+
+It appears that texts of scripture were painted on the walls of some
+churches in the reign of Edward the Sixth; for Bonner, bishop of London,
+by a mandate issued to his diocese in 1554, after noticing that some had
+procured certain scriptures wrongly applied to be painted on church walls,
+charged that such scriptures should be razed, abolished, and extinguished,
+so that in no means they could be either read or heard.
+
+In the articles set forth by Cardinal Pole in 1557, to be inquired of in
+his diocese of Canterbury, were the following: "Whether the churches be
+sufficiently garnished and adorned with all ornaments and books
+necessary; and whether they have a rood in their church of a decent
+stature, with Mary and John, and an image of the patron of the same
+church?" Also, "Whether the altars of the church be consecrated or no?"
+
+But in 1559, the first year of the reign of Elizabeth, many of the
+injunctions set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth, as to the mode of
+saying the Litany without procession, the removal and destruction of
+shrines and monuments of superstition, the setting up of a pulpit, and of
+the poor-box or chest, which latter was however "to be set and fastened in
+a most convenient place," were re-established. By these injunctions it
+appears that in many parts of the realm the altars of the churches had
+been removed, and tables placed for the administration of the holy
+sacrament; that in some other places the altars had not yet been removed:
+in the order whereof, as the injunctions express, save for an uniformity,
+there seemed to be no matter of great moment, so that the sacrament was
+duly and reverently ministered; and it was so ordered that no altar should
+be taken down but by oversight of the curate and churchwardens, or one of
+them, and that the holy table in every church should be decently made and
+set in the place where the altar stood, and there commonly covered, and so
+to stand, saving when the communion of the sacrament was to be
+distributed; at which time the same was to be so placed within the chancel
+in such manner that the minister might be the more conveniently heard of
+the communicants in his prayer and ministration.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Communion Table, Sunningwell Church, Berkshire.]
+
+Many of the old communion-tables set up in the reign of Elizabeth are yet
+remaining in our churches, and are sustained by a stand or frame, the
+bulging pillar-legs of which are often fantastically carved, with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail according to the taste of the age.
+The communion-table in Sunningwell Church, Berkshire, probably set up
+during the time Bishop Jewell was pastor of that church, is a rich and
+interesting specimen. Communion-tables of the same era, designed in the
+same general style, with carved bulging legs, are preserved in the
+churches of Lapworth, Rowington, and Knowle, Warwickshire; in St. Thomas's
+Church, Oxford; and in many other churches. Sometimes the bulging
+pillar-legs are turned plain, and are not covered with carving: such occur
+in Broadwas Church, Worcestershire; in the churches of St. Nicholas and
+St. Helen, at Abingdon; and in the north aisle of Dorchester Church,
+Oxfordshire. The table or slab of the communion-table in Knowle Church is
+not fixed or fastened to the frame or stand on which it is placed, but
+lies loose; and this is also the case with an old communion-table of the
+sixteenth century, now disused, in Northleigh Church, Oxfordshire. In an
+inventory of church goods, taken in 1646, occurs the following: "Item, one
+_short table and frame_, commonly called the communion-table." On
+examining the old communion-tables, the movability of the slab from the
+frame-work is of such frequent occurrence as to corroborate the
+supposition that some esoteric meaning was attached to its unfixed state,
+which meaning has been attempted to be explained.
+
+Under the colour of removing monuments of idolatry and false feigned
+images in the churches, much wanton spoliation and needless injury was
+effected; and this to such excess that in 1560 a royal proclamation was
+issued, commanding all persons to forbear the breaking or defacing of any
+monument or tomb, or any image of kings, princes, or nobles, or the
+breaking down and defacing of any image in glass windows, in any churches,
+without consent of the ordinary. And in the same year, in a letter from
+the queen to the commissioners for causes ecclesiastical, occasion is
+taken to remark that "in sundry churches and chappells where divine
+service, as prayer, preaching, and ministration of the sacraments be used,
+there is such negligence and lacke of convenient reverence used towardes
+the comelye keeping and order of the said churches, and especially of the
+upper parte called the chauncels, that it breedeth no small offence and
+slaunder to see and consider on the one part the curiositie and costes
+bestowed by all sortes of men upon there private houses, and the other
+part, the unclean or negligent order or sparekeeping of the house of
+prayer, by permitting open decaies, and ruines of coveringes, walls, and
+wyndowes, and by appointing unmeet and unseemly tables, with fowle
+clothes, for the communion of the sacraments, and generally leavynge the
+place of prayers desolate of all cleanlynes, and of meet ornaments for
+such a place, whereby it might be known a place provided for divine
+service." And the commissioners were required to consider the same, and in
+their discretion to determine upon some good and speedy means of
+reformation; and, amongst other things, to order that the tables of the
+commandments might be comely set or hung up in the east end of the
+chancel, to be not only read for edification, but also to give some comely
+ornament and demonstration that the same was a place of religion and
+prayer[223-*].
+
+An ancient table, apparently of this period, of the commandments painted
+on panel, but in language somewhat abbreviated, is still hung up against
+the east wall of the south transept of Ludlow Church, Salop[224-*].
+
+By the articles issued by royal authority in 1564, for administration of
+prayer and sacraments, each parish was to provide a decent table, standing
+on a frame, for the communion-table; this was to be decently covered with
+carpet, silk, or other decent covering, and with a fair linen cloth (at
+the time of the ministration); the ten commandments were to be set upon
+the east wall, over the table; the font was not to be removed, nor was the
+curate to baptize in parish churches in any basins.
+
+In the Visitation Articles of Archbishop Parker, A. D. 1569, we find
+inquiries were to be made whether there was in each parish church a
+convenient pulpit well placed, a comely and decent table for the holy
+communion, covered decently and set in the place prescribed; and whether
+the altars had been taken down; also whether images and all other
+monuments of idolatry and superstition were destroyed and abolished;
+whether the rood-loft was pulled down, according to the order prescribed;
+and if the partition between the chancel and church was kept.
+
+The latter inquiry is explanatory of the fact why, when the rood-lofts in
+many churches were taken down, the screens beneath them, separating the
+chancel from the nave, were left undisturbed.
+
+By the injunctions of Grindal, archbishop of York, A. D. 1571, all altars
+were ordered to be pulled down to the ground, and the altar stones to be
+defaced and bestowed to some common use.
+
+Pulpits of the reign of Edward the Sixth are rare, nor are those of the
+reign of Elizabeth very common. The pulpit in Fordington Church,
+Dorsetshire, of the latter period, is of stone, the upper part worked in
+plain oblong panels; and a kind of escutcheon within one of these bears
+the date 1592; the lower part or basement of this pulpit is circular in
+form.
+
+The richly embroidered and costly vestments and antependia or frontals, of
+a period antecedent to the Reformation, were in some instances converted
+into coverings for the altar or communion table, or into hangings for the
+pulpit and reading desk. In Little Dean Church, Gloucestershire, the
+covering for the reading desk is formed out of an ancient sacerdotal
+vestment, probably a cope, of velvet, embroidered with portraits of
+saints. The cushion of the pulpit of East Langdon Church, near Dover, is
+made out of either an ancient antependium or vestment; the material
+consists of very thick crimson silk, embroidered with sprigs, and in the
+centre of the hanging are two figures supposed to represent the salutation
+of the Virgin, who is kneeling before a faldstool.
+
+We occasionally, though rarely, meet with ancient charity-boxes of a date
+anterior to the Reformation: the churches of Wickmere, Loddon, and
+Causton, in Norfolk, still retain such[226-*]. At the Reformation,
+however, they were first required to be set up in churches. The ancient
+poor-box in Trinity Church, Coventry, is an excellent specimen of the
+Elizabethan era, and the shaft which supports it is of stone, covered with
+arabesque scroll-work and other detail peculiar to that age; but most of
+the old charity-boxes are of the seventeenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Charity-box, Trinity Church, Coventry.]
+
+Towards the close of the sixteenth century the practice of preaching by an
+hour-glass, set in an iron frame affixed to the pulpit or projecting from
+the wall near it, began to prevail; and in the succeeding century this
+practice became quite common. In the churchwardens' accounts for St.
+Mary's Church, Lambeth, occurs the following: "A. 1579, Payde to Yorke for
+the frame on which the hower standeth,--..1..4;" and in the churchwardens'
+accounts of St. Helen's Church, Abingdon, is an item, "Anno MDXCI. payde
+for an houre glass for the pilpit, 4_d._" In the parochial accounts for
+St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, A. D. 1597, is a charge "for removing the desk and
+other necessaries about the pulpit, and for makeinge a thing for the hower
+glasse, 9_d._" In Shawell Church, Isle of Wight, the old iron stand for
+the hour-glass still remains affixed to a pier adjoining the pulpit; it is
+composed of two flat circular hoops or rings, one at some distance above
+the other, annexed or attached and kept in position by four vertical bars
+of iron, and the lower ring has cross-bars to sustain the glass. In
+Cassington Church, Oxfordshire, projecting from the wall by the side of
+the pulpit, is an iron stand for the hour-glass, consisting of two
+circular hoops or rings of iron, connected by four wrought iron bars,
+worked in the middle; and across the lower ring or hoop is an iron bar or
+stay. In High Laver Church, Essex, the iron stand for the glass still
+remains, and is in fashion not unlike a cresset, having only one hoop or
+ring encircling the top, and supported on four iron bars, which cross in
+curves at the bottom. Many other churches might be enumerated in which the
+stand for the hour-glass is still preserved; and the hour-glass itself,
+together with its frame, is said to be retained in South Burlingham
+Church, Norfolk. An hour-glass within a rich and peculiar frame, supported
+on a spiral column, and apparently of the latter part of the seventeenth
+century, is yet preserved in St. Alban's Church, Wood Street, London.
+
+[Illustration: Hour-glass Frame, Shawell Church, Isle of Wight.]
+
+To the close of the sixteenth century the mode of pewing with open
+low-backed seats continued to prevail; the ends of these seats were not
+covered with tracery or arched panel-work, but were plain, though they
+sometimes terminated with a finial. In the nave of Stanton St. John
+Church, Oxfordshire, are some old open pews or seats, apparently of the
+reign of Henry the Eighth, the backs of which are divided diamond-wise,
+and form a kind of lattice-work, and the ends terminate in grotesque
+heads. In Harrington Church, Worcestershire, are some open seats of plain
+workmanship, bearing the date of 1582. The church of Sunningwell,
+Berkshire, is fitted up with a range of open seats on each side of the
+nave, without any ornament, with the exception of a large carved finial at
+the end of each seat. In Cowley Church, near Oxford, are open seats of the
+date of 1632, which have at the ends finials carved in the shallow angular
+designs of that period. All these seats are appropriately placed, or
+disposed facing the east, and none are turned with the backs towards the
+altar[230-*]. About the commencement of the seventeenth century our
+churches began to be disfigured by the introduction of high pews, an
+innovation which did not escape censure; for, as Weaver observes, "Many
+monuments of the dead in churches in and about this citie of London, as
+also in some places in the countrey, are covered with seates or pewes,
+made high and easie for the parishioners to sit or sleepe in; a fashion of
+no long continuance, and worthy of reformation[231-*]." The high pews set
+up in the early part of this century are easily distinguished by the flat
+and shallow carved scroll and arabesque work with which the sides and
+doors are covered. In the directions given on the primary visitation of
+Wren, bishop of Norwich, A. D. 1636, we find an order "that the chancels
+and alleys in the church be not encroached upon by building of seats; and
+if any be so built, the same to be removed and taken away; and that no
+pews be made over high, so that they which be in them cannot be seen how
+they behave themselves, or the prospect of the church or chancel be
+hindered; and therefore that all pews which within do much exceed a yard
+in height be taken down near to that scantling, unless the bishop by his
+own inspection, or by the view of some special commissioner, shall
+otherwise allow."
+
+From a paper found among secretary Cecil's MSS.[232-*], it appears that in
+1564 some ministers performed divine service and prayers in the chancel,
+others in the body of the church, and some _in a seat made in the church_;
+and in the parochial accounts of St. Mary's Church, Shrewsbury, A. D. 1577,
+is an entry "for coloringe the curate's pew and dask;" but no public
+notice of the modern reading desk, or, as it was called, the "reading
+pew," occurs till 1603, when, in the ecclesiastical canons then framed, it
+was enjoined that besides the pulpit a fitting or convenient seat should
+be constructed for the minister to read service in; and in allusion to the
+reading desk, Bishop Sparrow, in his Rationale of the Book of Common
+Prayer, observes, "This was the ancient custom of the church of England,
+that the priest who did officiate in all those parts of the service which
+were directed to the people turned himself towards them, as in the
+absolution; but in those parts of the office which were directed to God
+immediately, as prayers, hymns, lauds, confessions of faith or sins, he
+turned from the people; and for that purpose, in many parish churches of
+late, the reading pew had one desk for the Bible, looking towards the
+people to the body of the church, another for the prayer-book, looking
+towards the east or upper end of the chancel. And very reasonable was this
+usage; for when the people was spoken to it was fit to look towards them,
+but when God was spoken to it was fit to turn from the people." And so he
+goes on to explain the custom of turning to the east in public prayer.
+
+In Bishop Wren's directions it was enjoined that the minister's reading
+desk should not stand with the back towards the chancel, nor too remote
+or far from it.
+
+The double reading desk is still occasionally met with, as in East Ilsley
+Church, Berkshire, where is a kind of double reading desk so that the
+minister can turn himself either towards the west or south. In Priors
+Salford Church, Warwickshire, is an old carved reading pew bearing the
+date of its construction, 1616; and in St. Peter's Church, Dorchester,
+Dorsetshire, and in Sherbourne Church, in the same county, are reading
+pews which evidently, from the style and the carved work with which they
+are covered, were constructed in the early part of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+The enclosing of the communion table in the church of Stow, in the county
+of Norfolk, by rails, about the year 1622, is noticed by Weaver, who
+states that the vicar and churchwardens pulled down a tomb to make room
+for the rail.
+
+In Bishop Wren's diocesan directions it was ordered that the communion
+table in every church should always stand close under the east wall of the
+chancel, the ends thereof north and south, and that the rail should be
+made before it, reaching up from the north wall to the south wall, near
+one yard in height, so thick with pillars that dogs might not get in.
+
+But we find the situation of the altar or communion table, and the reason
+of its severance by means of rails, more particularly noticed in the
+canons entertained by the convocation held in 1640. In these (after an
+allusion to the fact that many had been misled against the rites and
+ceremonies of the church of England, and had taken offence at the same
+upon an unjust supposal that they were introductive unto popish
+superstitions, whereas they had been duly and ordinarily practised by the
+whole church during a great part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and that
+though since that time they had by subtle practices begun to fall into
+disuse, and in place thereof other foreign and unfitting usages by little
+and little to creep in, yet in the royal chapels and many other churches
+most of them had been ever constantly used and observed) it was declared
+that the standing of the communion table sideway under the east window of
+every chancel was in its own nature indifferent[235-*]; yet as it had
+been ordered by the injunctions of Queen Elizabeth that the holy tables
+should stand in the places where the altars stood, it was judged fit and
+convenient that all churches should conform themselves in this particular
+to the example of the cathedral and mother churches; and it was declared
+that this situation of the holy table did not imply that it was or ought
+to be esteemed a true and proper altar, whereon Christ was again really
+sacrificed; but that it was and might be called an altar, in that sense in
+which the primitive church called it an altar, and in no other. And
+because experience had shewn how irreverent the behaviour of many people
+was in many places, (some leaning, others casting their hats, and some
+sitting upon, some standing, and others sitting under the communion table,
+in time of divine service,) for the avoiding of which and like abuses it
+was thought meet and convenient that the communion tables in all churches
+should be decently severed with rails, to preserve them from such or worse
+profanations.
+
+Communion rails carved in the nondescript style, almost peculiar to the
+reign of Charles the First, are preserved in St. Giles's Church, Oxford;
+in the Lady Chapel, Winchester Cathedral; in the Church of St. Cross, near
+Winchester; in the choir of Worcester Cathedral; and in Andover Church,
+Hants: in which last instance the rails are composed of open semicircular
+arches, supported on baluster columns, with pendants similar to hip knobs
+hanging from the arches; but specimens of altar rails of a period
+antecedent to the Restoration are not often to be met with, the reason for
+which will be adduced.
+
+By the canons of 1603 the churchwardens or questmen were to provide in
+every church a comely and decent pulpit, to be set in a convenient place
+within the same, and there to be seemly kept for the preaching of God's
+word. Carved pulpits set up between the years 1603 and 1640 are numerous,
+and the sides are more or less embellished with circular-arched panels,
+flat and shallow scroll-work, and other decorative detail in fashion at
+that period; and not a few bear the precise date of their construction.
+
+In the nave of Bristol Cathedral is a stone pulpit, ascended to by means
+of a circular flight of steps; the sides are panelled and ornamented with
+escutcheons surrounded by scroll-work, and it bears the date of 1624.
+
+In Ashington Church, Somersetshire, is a pulpit with the date 1627.
+
+In Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a fine carved wooden pulpit and
+sounding-board, and on it appears the date 1632.
+
+The date of 1625 appears on a fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of
+which are covered with semicircular-headed panels, in Huish Episcopi
+Church, Somersetshire.
+
+In one of the churches at Wells is a fine wooden pulpit, of the date 1636;
+at the angles are columns of semi-classic design, fantastically carved;
+the panels are curiously ornamented with figures in relief, and it is
+supported on a stand composed of a square and four detached columns, above
+which are represented a number of birds with large beaks; the
+sounding-board over corresponds in design with the pulpit.
+
+A very fine carved wooden pulpit, the sides of which are embellished with
+circular-arched panel and scroll-work, with the date 1640, and a
+sounding-board over, is contained in Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire.
+
+Many carved pulpits of this era have, however, no assigned date; they are
+commonly placed at the north or south-east angle of the nave, but never
+in the middle of the aisle, so as to obstruct the view of the communion
+table.
+
+The commandments were again, by the canons of 1603, ordered to be set upon
+the east end of every church, where the people might best see and read the
+same; and other chosen sentences were to be written upon the walls of the
+churches in places convenient.
+
+On the south wall of Rowington Church, Warwickshire, are sentences painted
+with a border of scroll-work; the like also occur at Astley Church, in the
+same county; and on the walls of Bradford Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, are
+sentences of scripture painted in black-lettered characters within panels
+surrounded by scroll-work.
+
+By the same canons the churchwardens were required to provide, if such had
+not been already provided, a strong chest, with a hole in the upper part
+thereof, having three keys, of which one was to remain in the custody of
+the minister, and the other two in the custody of the churchwardens; which
+chest was to be set and fastened in the most convenient place, to the
+intent the parishioners might put into it their alms for their poor
+neighbours.
+
+In the retro-choir, Sherbourne Church, Dorsetshire, is a poor-box with
+three locks; and a carved poor-box, of the early part of the seventeenth
+century, is preserved in Harlow Church, Essex. In Elstow Church,
+Bedfordshire, are the remains of a poor-box of the same period. In Clapham
+Church, in the same county, is an old poor-box, the cover of which is
+gone, on which are the initials I. W., and the date 1626: this is fixed on
+a plain wooden pillar near the south door; and in the south aisle of
+Bletchley Church, Buckinghamshire, is an oak pillar or shaft surmounted by
+a poor-box, with an inscription carved on it of "Remember the Pore," and
+the date 1637[240-*].
+
+The communion tables of the early part of this century were not so richly
+carved as those of the reign of Elizabeth, and in general the pillar-legs
+were plain and not so bulging; but the frieze or upper part of the
+frame-work, on which the table rested, was often covered with shallow and
+flat carved panel and scroll-work, and sometimes with the date of its
+construction.
+
+In the church of St. Lawrence, at Evesham, the communion table bears the
+date of 1610; and round the frieze is carved an inscription, stating by
+whom it was given. In Cerne Abbas Church, Dorsetshire, is a carved
+communion table, bearing the date of 1638. The communion table in Godshill
+Church, Isle of Wight, is supported on four carved bulging pillar-legs;
+and round the frieze, below the ledge of the table, is the following
+inscription:
+
+     "Lancelot Coleman & Edward Britwel, Churchwardens, Anno Dom. 1631."
+
+In Whitwell Church, Isle of Wight, the communion table stands on plain
+bulging pillar-legs; and on the frieze round the ledge is carved in relief
+an arm holding a chalice, with the following inscription:
+
+     "I will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the
+     Lord. Psa. 116. v. 53. Anno Dom. 1632."
+
+As the rubric of the church enjoined that at the communion the priest
+should himself place the elements upon the holy table, the custom of
+having a side table, called the credence table, for the elements to be set
+on previous to their removal by the priest to the communion table for
+consecration, was observed in some churches in the latter part of the
+sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth century. Such table appears
+to have been introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, by Andrews, bishop of
+Norwich, whose model Archbishop Laud is said to have followed[242-*]; and
+it originated from the prothesis, or side table of preparation, used in
+the early church; it was likewise, as we have seen, used at the
+sacramentals of the church of Rome, and on that account was strongly
+objected to by the Puritans.
+
+[Illustration: Table, (temp. Charles I.,) Chipping-Warden Church,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+In the chancel of Chipping-Warden Church, Northamptonshire, on the north
+side of the communion table, is a semicircular oak table, apparently of
+the reign of Charles the First, standing on a frame supported by three
+plain pillar-legs, like those of the communion tables of the same period,
+and enriched with carved arched frieze-work similar to the arched
+panel-work on pulpits of the same period.
+
+A plain credence table of black oak, which from the style and make was
+evidently set up after the Restoration, still continues to be used as such
+in St. Michael's Church, Oxford, being placed on the north side of the
+communion table.
+
+The objections of the Puritans against many of the usages of the Anglican
+church, and their refusal to conform to such under the pretence of their
+being superstitious, had no slight effect in altering the internal
+appearance of our churches in the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+during the period their party had obtained the ascendancy, and had
+succeeded for a while in abolishing in this country episcopal church
+government; for among the "innovations in discipline," as they were called
+by the Puritan committee of the House of Lords in 1641, we find the
+following usages complained of: the turning of the holy table altarwise,
+and most commonly calling it an altar; the bowing towards it or towards
+the east many times; advancing candlesticks in many churches upon the
+altar, so called; the making of canopies over the altar, so called, with
+traverses and curtains on each side and before it; the compelling all
+communicants to come up to the rails, and there to receive; the advancing
+crucifixes and images upon the parafront or altar cloth, so called; the
+reading some part of the morning prayer at the holy table, when there was
+no communion celebrated; the minister's turning his back to the west, and
+his face to the east, when he pronounced the Creed or read prayers; the
+reading the Litany in the midst of the body of the church in many of the
+parochial churches; the having a _credentia_ or side table, besides the
+Lord's table, for divers uses in the Lord's Supper; and the taking down
+galleries in churches, or restraining the building of galleries where the
+parishes were very populous[244-*].
+
+In August, 1643, an Ordinance of the Lords and Commons was published, for
+the taking away and demolishing of all altars and tables of stone, and for
+the removal of all communion tables from the east end of every church and
+chancel; and it was prescribed that such should be placed in some other
+fit and convenient place in the body of the church or in the body of the
+chancel; and that all rails whatsoever which had been erected near to,
+before, or about any altar or communion table, should be likewise taken
+away; and that the chancel-ground which had been raised within twenty
+years then last past, for any altar or communion table to stand on, should
+be laid down and levelled, as the same had formerly been; and that all
+tapers, candlesticks, and basins should be removed and taken away from the
+communion table, and not again used about the same; and that all
+crucifixes, crosses, and all images and pictures of any one or more
+Persons of the Trinity, or of the Virgin Mary, and all other images and
+pictures of saints, or superstitious inscriptions belonging to any
+churches, should be taken away and defaced before the first day of
+November, 1643: but it was provided that such ordinances should not extend
+to any image, picture, or coat of arms, in glass, stone, or otherwise, set
+up or graven only for a monument of any dead person not reputed for a
+saint, but that all such might stand and continue.
+
+By a subsequent ordinance, passed in May, 1644, it was prescribed that no
+rood-loft or holy water fonts should be any more used in any church; and
+that all organs, and the frames or cases in which they stood, in all
+churches, should be taken away and utterly defaced.
+
+Under colour of these ordinances the beauty of the cathedrals and churches
+was injured to an extent hardly credible; the monuments of the dead were
+defaced, and brasses torn away, in the iconoclastic fury which then raged;
+the very tombs were violated; and the havoc made of church ornaments, and
+destruction of the fine painted glass with which most church windows then
+abounded, may in some degree be estimated from the account given by one
+Dowsing, a parliamentary visitor appointed under a warrant from the Earl
+of Manchester for demolishing the so called superstitious pictures and
+ornaments of churches within the county of Suffolk, who kept a journal,
+with the particulars of his transactions, in the years 1643 and 1644:
+these were chiefly comprised in the demolition of numerous windows filled
+with painted glass, in the breaking down of altar rails and organ cases,
+in levelling the steps in the chancels, in removing crucifixes, in taking
+down the stone crosses from the exterior of the churches, in defacing
+crosses on the fonts, and in the taking up (under the pretence of their
+being superstitious) of numerous sepulchral inscriptions in brass. Nor
+did the churches in other parts of the country, with some exceptions,
+escape from a like fanatical warfare; and, in this, many of our cathedrals
+suffered most. But this was not enough: our sacred edifices were profaned
+and polluted in the most irreverent and disgraceful manner; and with the
+exception of the destruction which took place on the dissolution of the
+monastic establishments in the previous century, more devastation was
+committed at this time by the party hostile to the Anglican church than
+had ever before been effected since the ravages of the ancient Danish
+invaders.
+
+But as to other alterations at this time effected. In January, 1644, an
+ordinance of parliament was published for the taking away of the Book of
+Common Prayer, which was forbid to be used any longer in any church,
+chapel, or place of public worship. In lieu of this the "Directory for the
+Publike Worship of God" was established: this contained no stated forms of
+prayer, but general instructions only for extemporaneous praying and
+preaching, and for the administration of the sacraments of Baptism and the
+Lord's Supper; the former of which was to be administered in the place of
+public worship and in the face of the congregation, but "not," as the
+Directory expresses, "in the places where fonts in the time of popery were
+unfitly and superstitiously placed." And at the administration of the
+Lord's Supper the table was to be so placed that the communicants might
+sit orderly about it or at it; but all liturgical form was abolished, and
+the prayers even at this sacrament were such as the minister might
+spontaneously offer.
+
+At Brill Church, in Buckinghamshire, the communion table, on an elevation
+of one step, is inclosed with rails, within an area of eight feet by six
+feet and a half, and a bench is fixed to the wall on each side; an
+innovation made at this period, in order that the communicants might
+receive the sacrament sitting. The communion table in Wooten Wawen Church,
+Warwickshire, though perfectly plain in construction, is unusually long
+and large, and appears to have been set up by the Puritans at this period,
+so that they might sit round or at it.
+
+To the removal of the communion table from the east end of the chancel may
+be attributed the usage which, in the middle of the seventeenth century,
+began to prevail of constructing close and high seats or pews, without
+regard to that uniformity of arrangement which had hitherto been
+observed; and many seats were now so constructed that those who occupied
+them necessarily turned their backs on the east during the ministration of
+prayer and public service. The erection of unseemly galleries, which have
+greatly tended to disfigure our churches, was another consequence of the
+innovation on the ancient arrangement of pewing.
+
+After the Restoration the communion tables were again restored to their
+former position at the east end of the chancel; and in Evelyn's Diary for
+1661-2, we find the change of position in his parish church thus noticed:
+"6 April. Being of the vestry in the afternoone, we order'd that the
+communion table should be set as usual altarwise, with a decent raile in
+front, as before the rebellion."
+
+The altar rails were now generally restored, and in most instances we find
+those in our churches to be of a period subsequent to the Restoration, as
+the details in the workmanship evince. In the church accounts of St.
+Mary's, Shrewsbury, for 1662, we find a "memorandum that this year the
+rayles about the communion table wer new sett up, and the surplice was
+made." In Wormleighton Church, Warwickshire, the altar rails have on them
+the date of 1664; and the communion table, which is quite plain, is of
+the same character and era.
+
+But a return, after the Restoration, to the former usages of the Anglican
+church was not made without great opposition; and accordingly we find
+objections stated to the bowing to the altar and to the east, to the
+preaching by book, to the railing in of the altar, to the candles,
+cushion, and book thereon, to the bowing at the name of Jesus, and to the
+organs as "popish-like music, and too much superstition[250-*]."
+
+When the rood was taken down at the Reformation, a custom began to prevail
+of fixing up in its stead or place, against the arch leading into the
+chancel, the upper part of which was in consequence blocked up by it, and
+facing the congregation, so as to be seen by them, the royal arms, with
+proper heraldic supporters; but it does not clearly appear that this was
+done in consequence of any express law or injunction to that effect,
+though it may perhaps have served to denote the king's supremacy. We
+seldom, however, find the royal arms of earlier date than the Restoration,
+in the twenty years previous to which they appear to have been generally
+taken down. In Brixton Church, Isle of Wight, on some plain wooden
+panelling between the tower and a gallery at the west end are the remains
+of the royal arms, which, from the style in which they have been painted
+with the rose and thistle, appear coeval with the reign of James the
+First; they are surmounted by a crown, below which is an open six-barred
+helme. These arms appear to have been removed from their original position
+against the chancel-arch, and are now much mutilated. In the church
+accounts, St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, for 1651, is a charge of 1_l._ 8_s._
+"for making the states armes." In Anstey Church, Warwickshire, the arms of
+the commonwealth, put up during the inter-regnum, were taken down not many
+years back. The little church of St. Lawrence, in the Isle of Wight, still
+retains the royal arms put up at the Restoration in 1660.
+
+Excepting the rood-loft galleries, we have few galleries in our churches
+of a period antecedent to the latter part of the seventeenth century. At
+the west end of Worstead Church, Norfolk, over the west door, is a gallery
+erected in 1550, at the cost of the candle called the Bachelor's Light. At
+the west end of the nave in Leighton Buzzard Church is a gallery erected
+in 1634; and at the west end of Piddletown Church, Dorsetshire, is a
+gallery with the date of its erection, 1635.
+
+From about the period of the Revolution, in 1688, we may trace the
+commencement of a custom, still partially prevailing, of setting up the
+pulpit and reading-pew in the middle aisle, in front of the communion
+table; so that during the whole of the service the back of the minister
+was turned to the east, and the view of the communion table obstructed;
+but we have not found any pulpit thus placed of an earlier period.
+
+We still retain, in the Anglican church, the usage of placing two
+candlesticks and candles upon the communion table, in compliance with the
+injunctions of King Edward the Sixth, together also with an offertory
+dish; of reading the lessons from the eagle desk, and of saying the Litany
+at the litany-stool. These practices are, however, more particularly
+observed in our cathedrals and college chapels than in our parochial
+churches, in most of which they have fallen into desuetude.
+
+To conclude, in the language of the synod held in 1640: "Whereas the
+church is the house of God, dedicated to his holy worship, and therefore
+ought to remind us both of the greatness and goodness of his Divine
+Majesty; certain it is that the acknowledgment thereof, not only inwardly
+in our hearts, but also outwardly with our bodies, must needs be pious in
+itself, profitable unto us, and edifying unto others: we therefore think
+it meet and behoveful, and heartily commend it to all good and
+well-affected people, members of this church, that they be ready to tender
+unto the Lord the said acknowledgment, by doing reverence and obeisance,
+both at their coming in and going out of the said churches, chancels, or
+chapels, according to the most ancient custom of the primitive church in
+the purest times, and of this church also for many years of the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth.
+
+"The reviving, therefore, of this ancient and laudable custom we heartily
+recommend to the serious consideration of all good people, not with any
+intention to exhibit any religious worship to the communion table, the
+east, or church, or any thing therein contained, in so doing; or to
+perform the said gesture in the celebration of the holy eucharist, upon
+any opinion of a corporal presence of the body of Jesus Christ on the holy
+table or in the mystical elements, but only for the advancement of God's
+majesty, and to give him alone that honour and glory that is due unto
+him, and no otherwise; and in the practice or omission of this rite we
+desire that the rule of charity prescribed by the apostle may be observed,
+which is, that they which use this rite despise not them who use it not,
+and that they who use it not condemn not those that use it."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+          "... a bloodie crosse he bore,
+  The deare remembrance of his dying Lord,
+    For whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore,
+  And dead, as living, ever him ador'd:
+  Upon his shield the like was also scor'd."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[154-*] Hist. Eccles. lib. vi. c. 6. Durantus, however, assigns a
+different origin. "In veteri testamento non nisi lotus templum
+ingrediebatur." De Labro, seu Vase Aquae Benedictae, c. 21.
+
+[156-*] "Ad valvas ecclesiae,"--Ordo ad Faciendum Catechumenum, Manuale.
+
+[156-+] Constitutions of Edmund Archbishop of Canterbury, A. D. 1236.
+[TN-6]De Baptismo et eius Effectu."
+
+[158-*] It is much to be regretted that of late years many ancient fonts
+have been cast out of our churches, and earthenware and pewter basins
+substituted in their stead for the administration of the holy sacrament of
+baptism: a practice not authorized by the Anglican church, but rather
+condemned; for in the canons set forth by authority, A. D. 1571, it is
+provided that "Curabunt (OEditui) ut in singulis ecclesiis sit sacer
+fons, _non pelvis_, in quo baptismus ministretur, isque ut decenter et
+munde conservetur." And in the canons of 1603, after alluding to the
+foregoing constitution, and observing that it was too much neglected in
+many places, it is appointed "That there shall be a font of stone in every
+church and chapel where baptism is to be ministered; the same to be set in
+the _ancient usual places_." In the orders and directions given by Bishop
+Wren, A. D. 1636, to be observed in his diocese of Norwich, we find it
+enjoined, "That the font at baptism be filled with clear water, and no
+dishes, pails, or basins be used in it or instead of it."
+
+[160-*] The 28th decree of a foreign council, that of Wirtzburgh, held A.
+D. 1278, prohibits the fortifying of churches in order to make use of them
+as castles.
+
+[164-*] Anglice sermocinari solebat (Abbas Samson) populo, sed secundum
+Linguam Norfolchie ... unde et pulpitum jussit fieri in ecclesia et ad
+utilitatem audiencium et ad decorem ecclesie.--Cronica Jocelini de
+Brakelonda, sub anno 1187.
+
+[167-*] Cottonian MS. Titus D. xxvii. 10th saec.
+
+[167-+] "Crux que erat super magnum altare, et Mariola, et Johannes, quas
+imagines Stigandus archiepiscopus magno pondere auri et argenti ornaverat,
+et sancto AEdmundo dederat."--Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda, p. 4.
+
+[168-*] "Supra pulpitum trabes erat, per tranversum ecclesiae posita, quae
+crucem grandem et duo cherubin et imagines Sanctae _Mariae_ et Sancti
+_Johannis_ apostoli sustentabat."--Gervasius de Combustione, &c.
+
+[169-*] "Superest exponere, quod manus illa e nubibus erumpens indicet:
+Quae procul dubio omnipotentis Dei dexteram designat."--Ciampini Vetera
+Monimenta, vol. ii. pp. 22, 81.
+
+[171-*] "In elevatione atque utriusque squilla pulsatur."--Durandi
+Rationale, lib. iv.
+
+[171-+] In Yeovil Church Accounts, A. D. 1457, is an item, "_In una cordul
+empt p le salsyngbelle ijd_."--Collectanea Topographica, vol. iii. p. 130.
+
+[172-*] It is now in the possession of William Staunton, esq., of
+Longbridge House, near Warwick.
+
+[173-*] Durandus, in his description of a church, makes no mention of
+screen-work, but observes, "Notandum est quod triplex genus _veli_
+suspenditur in ecclesia videlicet quod sacra operit, quod sanctuarium a
+clero dividit, _et quod clerum a populo secernit_;" evidently alluding in
+the latter to the curtain extended across the chancel arch.
+
+[174-*] "Item tunc stent in sedibus suis versa facie ad altare donec ad
+_misericordias_ vel super _formulas_ prout tempus postulat
+inclinent."--Monasticon, 1st ed. vol. i. p. 951.
+
+[180-*] The placing of more than two lights on the altar seems never to
+have been practised in the churches of this country; at least I have not
+met with any ancient illumination in which more than two are represented.
+
+[181-*] The cover of an ancient thurible of latten was lately discovered
+in the chest of Ashbury Church, Berkshire: the lower part is of a
+semi-globular or domical form, from which issues an embattled turret or
+lantern in the form of a pentagon, which is finished by a quadrangular
+spire; the sides both of the lantern and spire are partly of open work,
+and round the domical part is inscribed _Gloria Tibi Domine_.
+
+[181-+] A small ampulla of brass or latten, supposed to have been an
+ancient chrismatory for the consecrated oil used in the sacrament of
+extreme unction, has been within the last few years discovered in the
+castle ditch, Pulford, Cheshire: this curious little relic is not more
+than two inches high; the body is semi-globular, or bulges in front, with
+a plain Greek cross engraved on it, and is flattened at the back; and at
+the neck are two bowed handles, by chains attached to which it appears to
+have hung suspended from the shoulders.
+
+[182-*] Harding, in his controversy with Bishop Jewell, mentions "the
+monstrance or pixe" as if one and the same article.--Defence of the
+Apology, &c., p. 343.
+
+[183-*] Quo finito sacerdos cum suis ministris in sedibus ad hos paratis
+se recipiant et expectent usque ad orationem dicendam vel alio tempore
+usque ad _Gloria in excelsis_.--MS. Rituale pen. Auc.
+
+[183-+] This arrangement was different to that directed by the rubrical
+orders of the Roman missals, on their revision after the council of Trent,
+by which the celebrant was to be seated between the deacon and sub-deacon:
+"In missa item solemni celebrans medius inter diaconum et sub-diaconum
+sedere potest a cornu epistolae juxta altare cum cantatur _Kyrie eleison,
+Gloria in excelsis_, et _Credo_."--Missale Romanum, Antverpiae, MDCXXXI.;
+Rubricae Generales, &c. One of the queries published by Le Brun, whilst
+composing his liturgical work, was, "Si le pretre s'assied au dessus du
+diacre et du soudiacre, ou au milieu d'eux."
+
+[186-*] Prope altare collocatur Piscina seu Lavacrum in quo manus
+lavantur.--Durandi Rat. de Ecclesia, &c. In ancient church contracts the
+term _Lavatorie_ was sometimes used for the Piscina, as in that for
+Catterick Church. In the Roman Missal subsequent to the Tridentine council
+the word _Sacrarium_ is used.
+
+[187-*] At Alvechurch, Worcestershire, the custom prevails of the priest
+washing his hands in the vestry before the administration of the
+sacrament, and napkins are brought to dry his hands.
+
+[189-*] "Il y avoit pour cet effet en chaque piscine, comme en peut voir
+encore a une infinite d'autels, deux conduits, ou canaux, pour faire
+ecouler l'eau, l'un pour recevoir l'eau qui avoit servi au lavement des
+mains, l'autre pour celle qui avoit servi au purification ou perfusion du
+chalice."--De Vert, Explication des Ceremonies de l'Eglise, vol. iii. p.
+193.
+
+[190-*] In "Le Parfaict Ecclesiastique, par M. Claude de la Croix," (a
+curious work published A. D. 1666, and containing full instructions for
+the clergy of the Gallican church, and an exposition of the rites and
+ceremonies,) amongst appendages to an altar is enumerated "une credance ou
+niche dans le mur a poser les burettes et le bassin," p. 536. And in
+another place, "au coste de l'Autel il y faut une petite niche a poser les
+burettes et le bassin, et y faire un trou en facon de piscine a fin que
+l'eau se perde en terre." p. 568.
+
+[190-+] "In cornu Epistolae ... ampullae vitreae vini et aquae cum pelvicula
+et manutergio mundo in fenestella seu in parva mensa ad haec
+praeparata"--Missale Romanum ex Decreto, &c. 1631.
+
+"Calix vero et alia necessaria praeparentur in credentia cooperta linteo,
+antequam sacerdos veniat ad altare."--Ibid.
+
+[192-*] The earliest account of the sepulchre thus set up that I have yet
+met with occurs in an inventory of church furniture, A. D. 1214, in which
+is mentioned "_velum unum de serico supra sepulchrum_."
+
+[193-*] "Table" was a word used to express any sculptured basso relievo,
+more especially that inserted in the wall over an altar.
+
+[199-*] A series of coloured engravings from the paintings on the walls of
+this chapel, which were evidently executed at the close of the fifteenth
+century, was published in 1807 by the late Mr. Thomas Fisher.
+
+[200-*] By an injunction set forth by royal authority, A. D. 1539, it was
+ordered, "That from henceforth the said Thomas Becket shall not be
+esteemed, named, reputed, and called a saint, but Bishop Becket; and that
+his images and pictures thorow the whole realme shal be pluckt downe and
+avoided out of all churches, chapel, and other places."--Fox's
+Martyrology.
+
+[209-*] The locality, character, and construction of the confessional in
+our ancient churches are not yet clearly elucidated. Du Cange described
+the confessional, "_confessio_," simply as "cellula in qua presbyteri
+fidelium confessiones excipiebant;" whilst according to De la Croix, in
+his remarks on those of the Gallican churches in the middle of the
+seventeenth century, "Les confessionaux doiuent estre a l'entree des
+Eglises, et non pas aupres des Autels, ny dans le Choeur, ny en lieu
+cache, et tousieurs vne ouuerture pour ecouter le Penitent, avec vn
+treillis de bois ou autre estoffe, et vn volet pour le fermer, quand on
+ecoute de l'vn des costez ouuert."
+
+[210-*] The tabard or heraldic coat worn over the body armour, and still
+worn by the heralds on state occasions.
+
+[211-*] "Our churches stand full of such great puppets, wondrously decked
+and adorned; garlands and coronets be set on their heads, precious pearls
+hanging about their necks; their fingers shine with rings set with
+precious stones; their dead and stiff bodies are clothed with garments
+stiff with gold."--Homily against Peril of Idolatry.
+
+[215-*] In the injunctions given by Bishop Ridley, in the visitation of
+his diocese A. D. 1550, occurs the following: "Item that the minister in
+the time of the communion, immediately after the offertory, shall monish
+the communicants, saying these words, or such like, 'Now is the time, if
+it please you, to remember the poor men's chest with your charitable
+alms.'"
+
+[216-*] Dr. Cardwell, in his editorial preface to the reprint of the two
+Books of Common Prayer set forth in the reign of Edward the Sixth,
+observes, "The communion service of the first liturgy contained a prayer
+for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the bread and wine, and a
+following prayer of oblation, which, together with the form of words
+addressed to the communicants, were designed to represent a sacrifice, and
+appeared to undiscriminating minds to denote the sacrifice of the mass.
+Numerous, therefore, and urgent were the objections against this portion
+of the service. Combined with a large class of objectors, whose theology
+consisted merely in an undefined dread of Romanism, were all those,
+however differing among themselves, who believed the holy communion to be
+a feast and not a sacrifice, and that larger class of persons who, placing
+the solemn duty upon its proper religious basis, were contented to worship
+without waiting to refine."
+
+[218-*] Fox's Martyrology.
+
+[223-*] In compliance with the queen's letter, the following directions
+were sent by the commissioners to the dean and chapter of Bristol:
+
+"After our hartie comendac[=on]s.--Whereas we are credibly informed that
+there are divers tabernacles for Images, as well in the fronture of the
+roodeloft of the cath^l church of Bristol, as also in the frontures, back,
+and ends of the walles wheare the co[=mn] table standeth, for asmoch as
+the same churche shoulde be a light and good example to th' ole citie and
+dioc. we have thought good to direct these our l[=re]s unto you, and to
+require youe to cause the said tabernacles to be defaced & hewen downe,
+and afterwards to be made a playne walle, w^th morter, plast^r, or
+otherways, & some scriptures to be written in the places, & namely that
+upon the walle on the east end of the quier wheare the co[=mn] table
+usually doth stande, the table of the c[=om]and^ts to be painted in large
+caracters, with convenient speed, and furniture according to the orders
+latly set furthe by vertue of the quenes ma^ts c[=om]ission for causes
+ecclesiasticall, at the coste and chardges of the said churche; whereof we
+require you not to faile. And so we bed you farewell. From London, the
+xxi. of December, 1561."--Britton's Bristol Cath. p. 52.
+
+[224-*] In the chancel of Bengeworth Church, Gloucestershire, is a table
+of the commandments, with the letters cut in box-wood. This has the date
+of 1591 upon it.
+
+[226-*] These are engraved in vol. xx. of the Archaeologia, and, from the
+general style and mouldings, appear to have been constructed in the latter
+part of the fifteenth century.
+
+[230-*] The symbolical turning towards the east whilst pronouncing the
+Creed is adverted to by St. Cyril. In the Apostolical Constitutions, book
+ii. sect. xxviii., the attendants at public worship are enjoined to pray
+to God eastward. The custom of turning to the east at prayer is noticed by
+many of the early fathers of the church, and among them by St. Basil, who
+remarks, "As to the doctrines and preachings which are preserved in the
+church, we have some of them from the written doctrine; others we have
+received as delivered from the tradition of the apostles in a mystery.
+For, to begin with the mention of what is first and most common, who has
+taught us by writing that those that hope in the name of our Lord should
+be signed with the sign of the cross? what written law has taught us that
+we should turn towards the east in our prayers?.... Is not all this
+derived from this concealed and mystical tradition?.... We all, indeed,
+look towards the east in our prayers."--Basil, Epist. ad Amphiloc. de
+Spiritu S. Whiston's translation in Essay on the Apostolical
+Constitutions.
+
+[231-*] Funeral Monuments, A. D. 1631, p. 701.
+
+[232-*] Printed in Strype's Life of Parker. In the same paper the
+communion table is noticed as standing in the body of the church in some
+places, in others standing in the chancel; in some places standing
+altarwise, distant from the wall a yard, in others in the middle of the
+chancel, north and south; in some places _the table was joined, in others
+it stood upon tressels_; in some the table had a carpet, in others none.
+
+[235-*] "The position of the table had now become the token of a distinct
+and solemn belief as to the nature of the eucharist, and was therefore
+treated as a question of conscience and an article of faith."--Cardwell's
+Documentary Annals, vol. ii. p. 186, note. The extracts given from the
+injunctions have been principally taken from this work.
+
+[240-*] The unostentatious and laudable practice of bestowing alms to the
+charity-box has long fallen into disuse in most churches; but within the
+last few years charity-boxes have been set up in some of our churches, and
+this commendable custom is again gradually reviving.
+
+[242-*] Neal's History of the Puritans, vol. iii. p. 170.
+
+[244-*] Cardwell's Conferences, p. 272.
+
+[250-*] Hickeringill's Ceremony-Monger, (pub. 1689,) p. 63.
+
+
+OXFORD: Printed by T. Combe, Printer to the University.--May 10, 1841
+
+
+
+
+         _Published by J. H. Parker, Oxford._
+
+
+                   SECOND EDITION.
+
+    In the Press, with many additional Wood-Cuts,
+
+                      A GLIMPSE
+                        AT THE
+               MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE
+                         AND
+             SCULPTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN,
+
+  FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+             By MATTHEW HOLBECHE BLOXAM.
+
+
+
+               THIRD EDITION, ENLARGED.
+               2 Vols. 8vo. 1_l._ 4_s._
+
+                 A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
+                       USED IN
+               GRECIAN, ROMAN, ITALIAN,
+                         AND
+                 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+       Exemplified by Seven Hundred Wood-Cuts.
+
+
+
+         _Published by J. H. Parker, Oxford._
+
+
+              PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION.
+
+             A COMPANION TO THE GLOSSARY
+                          OF
+                     ARCHITECTURE,
+
+        FORTY PLATES ENGRAVED BY JOHN LE KEUX;
+
+  Containing Four Hundred additional Examples, with
+      descriptive Letter-Press, a Chronological
+             Table, and Index of Places.
+
+
+
+      PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, IN 2 VOLS. 8vo.
+
+                      SOME ACCOUNT
+                        OF THE
+           DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of ENGLAND
+
+            FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE
+                     REFORMATION.
+
+                BY R. C. HUSSEY, Esq.
+
+  Illustrated by numerous Engravings, from original
+            drawings, of EXISTING REMAINS.
+
+
+
+  3 Vols. 8vo, 2_l._ 18_s._ 3 Vols. 4to, 5_l._ 10_s._
+
+                 MEMORIALS OF OXFORD.
+
+                BY JAMES INGRAM, D.D.
+            President of Trinity College.
+
+           THE ENGRAVINGS BY JOHN LE KEUX.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.
+
+Misspelled words and typographical errors:
+      Page  Error
+  TN-1  26  (fig. 5.). has an extra . following the )
+  TN-2  79  isuse should read disuse
+  TN-3 104  rom should read from
+  TN-4 106  pannels should read panels
+  TN-5 156, fn +  1236. De Baptismo should have an open quote mark before
+            De
+  TN-6 192  each which should read each of which. The word "of" did
+            not print in the original text, although a space is present
+            for it.
+
+The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:
+
+  wood-work / woodwork
+  zig-zag / zigzag
+
+The following words had inconsistent spelling:
+
+  Botolph / Botulph
+  Higham Ferrars / Higham Ferrers
+  Sherbourne / Sherborne
+  Wooten Wawen / Wotten Wawen
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Gothic
+Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer, 4th ed., by Matthew Holbeche Bloxam
+
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