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diff --git a/19628.txt b/19628.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..81c7eee --- /dev/null +++ b/19628.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3055 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Siouan Indians by W. J. McGee + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Siouan Indians + +Author: W. J. McGee + +Release Date: October 23, 2006 [Ebook #19628] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SIOUAN INDIANS*** + + + + + +The Siouan Indians + + +A Preliminary Sketch - Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology +to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1893-1894, Government +Printing Office, Washington, 1897, pages 153-204 + + +by W. J. McGee + + + + +Edition 1, (October 23, 2006) + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +THE SIOUAN STOCK + DEFINITION + EXTENT OF THE STOCK + TRIBAL NOMENCLATURE + PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS + PHONETIC AND GRAPHIC ARTS + INDUSTRIAL AND ESTHETIC ARTS + INSTITUTIONS + BELIEFS + THE DEVELOPMENT OF MYTHOLOGY + THE SIOUAN MYTHOLOGY + SOMATOLOGY + HABITAT + ORGANIZATION + HISTORY + DAKOTA-ASINIBOIN + cEGIHA + {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}OIWE'RE + WINNEBAGO + MANDAN + HIDATSA + THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN TRIBES + GENERAL MOVEMENTS +SOME FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIOLOGY + + + + + + +THE SIOUAN INDIANS + + +A PRELIMINARY SKETCH(1) + +BY W.J. McGEE + + + + + +THE SIOUAN STOCK + + + + +DEFINITION + + + +EXTENT OF THE STOCK + + +Out of some sixty aboriginal stocks or families found in North America +above the Tropic of Cancer, about five-sixths were confined to the tenth +of the territory bordering Pacific ocean; the remaining nine-tenths of the +land was occupied by a few strong stocks, comprising the Algonquian, +Athapascan, Iroquoian, Shoshonean, Siouan, and others of more limited +extent. + +The Indians of the Siouan stock occupied the central portion of the +continent. They were preeminently plains Indians, ranging from Lake +Michigan to the Rocky mountains, and from the Arkansas to the +Saskatchewan, while an outlying body stretched to the shores of the +Atlantic. They were typical American barbarians, headed by hunters and +warriors and grouped in shifting tribes led by the chase or driven by +battle from place to place over their vast and naturally rich domain, +though a crude agriculture sprang up whenever a tribe tarried long in one +spot. No native stock is more interesting than the great Siouan group, and +none save the Algonquian and Iroquoian approach it in wealth of literary +and historical records; for since the advent of white men the Siouan +Indians have played striking roles on the stage of human development, and +have caught the eye of every thoughtful observer. + +The term Siouan is the adjective denoting the "Sioux" Indians and cognate +tribes. The word "Sioux" has been variously and vaguely used. Originally +it was a corruption of a term expressing enmity or contempt, applied to a +part of the plains tribes by the forest-dwelling Algonquian Indians. +According to Trumbull, it was the popular appellation of those tribes +which call themselves Dakota, Lakota, or Nakota ("Friendly," implying +confederated or allied), and was an abbreviation of _Nadowessioux_, a +Canadian-French corruption of _Nadowe-ssi-wag_ ("the snake-like ones" or +"enemies"), a term rooted in the Algonquian _nadowe_ ("a snake"); and some +writers have applied the designation to different portions of the stock, +while others have rejected it because of the offensive implication or for +other reasons. So long ago as 1836, however, Gallatin employed the term +"Sioux" to designate collectively "the nations which speak the Sioux +language,"(2) and used an alternative term to designate the subordinate +confederacy--i.e., he used the term in a systematic way for the first time +to denote an ethnic unit which experience has shown to be well defined. +Gallatin's terminology was soon after adopted by Prichard and others, and +has been followed by most careful writers on the American Indians. +Accordingly the name must be regarded as established through priority and +prescription, and has been used in the original sense in various standard +publications.(3) + +In colloquial usage and in the usage of the ephemeral press, the term +"Sioux" was applied sometimes to one but oftener to several of the allied +tribes embraced in the first of the principal groups of which the stock is +composed, i.e., the group or confederacy styling themselves Dakota. +Sometimes the term was employed in its simple form, but as explorers and +pioneers gained an inkling of the organization of the group, it was often +compounded with the tribal name as "Santee-Sioux," "Yanktonnai-Sioux," +"Sisseton-Sioux," etc. As acquaintance between white men and red +increased, the stock name was gradually displaced by tribe names until the +colloquial appellation "Sioux" became but a memory or tradition throughout +much of the territory formerly dominated by the great Siouan stock. One of +the reasons for the abandonment of the name was undoubtedly its +inappropriateness as a designation for the confederacy occupying the +plains of the upper Missouri, since it was an alien and opprobrious +designation for a people bearing a euphonious appellation of their own. +Moreover, colloquial usage was gradually influenced by the usage of +scholars, who accepted the native name for the Dakota (spelled Dahcota by +Gallatin) confederacy, as well as the tribal names adopted by Gallatin, +Prichard, and others. Thus the ill-defined term "Sioux" has dropped out of +use in the substantive form, and is retained, in the adjective form only, +to designate a great stock to which no other collective name, either +intern or alien, has ever been definitely and justly applied. + +The earlier students of the Siouan Indians recognized the plains tribes +alone as belonging to that stock, and it has only recently been shown that +certain of the native forest-dwellers long ago encountered by English +colonists on the Atlantic coast were closely akin to the plains Indians in +language, institutions, and beliefs. In 1872 Hale noted a resemblance +between the Tutelo and Dakota languages, and this resemblance was +discussed orally and in correspondence with several students of Indian +languages, but the probability of direct connection seemed so remote that +the affinity was not generally accepted. Even in 1880, after extended +comparison with Dakota material (including that collected by the newly +instituted Bureau of Ethnology), this distinguished investigator was able +to detect only certain general similarities between the Tutelo tongue and +the dialects of the Dakota tribes.(4) In 1881 Gatschet made a collection +of linguistic material among the Catawba Indians of South Carolina, and +was struck with the resemblance of many of the vocables to Siouan terms of +like meaning, and began the preparation of a comparative Catawba-Dakota +vocabulary. To this the Tutelo, cegiha, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}iweŽre, and Hotcangara +(Winnebago) were added by Dorsey, who made a critical examination of all +Catawba material extant and compared it with several Dakota dialects, with +which he was specially conversant. These examinations and comparisons +demonstrated the affinity between the Dakota and Catawba tongues and +showed them to be of common descent; and the establishment of this +relation made easy the acceptance of the affinity suggested by Hale +between the Dakota and Tutelo. + +Up to this time it was supposed that the eastern tribes "were merely +offshoots of the Dakota;" but in 1883 Hale observed that "while the +language of these eastern tribes is closely allied to that of the western +Dakota, it bears evidence of being older in form,"(5) and consequently +that the Siouan tribes of the interior seem to have migrated westward from +a common fatherland with their eastern brethren bordering the Atlantic. +Subsequently Gatschet discovered that the Biloxi Indians of the Gulf coast +used many terms common to the Siouan tongues; and in 1891 Dorsey visited +these Indians and procured a rich collection of words, phrases, and myths, +whereby the Siouan affinity of these Indians was established. Meantime +Mooney began researches among the Cherokee and cognate tribes of the +southern Atlantic slope and found fresh evidence that their ancient +neighbors were related in tongue and belief with the buffalo hunters of +the plains; and he has recently set forth the relations of the several +Atlantic slope tribes of Siouan affinity in full detail.(6) Through the +addition of these eastern tribes the great Siouan stock is augmented in +extent and range and enhanced in interest; for the records of a group of +cognate tribes are thereby increased so fully as to afford historical +perspective and to indicate, if not clearly to display, the course of +tribal differentiation. + +According to Dorsey, whose acquaintance with the Siouan Indians was +especially close, the main portion of the Siouan stock, occupying the +continental interior, comprised seven principal divisions (including the +Biloxi and not distinguishing the Asiniboin), each composed of one or more +tribes or confederacies, all defined and classified by linguistic, social, +and mythologic relations; and he and Mooney recognize several additional +groups, denned by linguistic affinity or historical evidence of intimate +relations, in the eastern part of the country. So far as made out through +the latest researches, the grand divisions, confederacies, and tribes of +the stock,(7) with their present condition, are as follows: + + 1. _Dakota-Asiniboin_ + +Dakota ("Friendly") or OtŽ-ce-ti ca-ko-win ("Seven council-fires") +confederacy, comprising-- + + A. Santee, including Mde-wa-kanŽ-ton-wan ("Spirit Lake village") and + Wa-qpeŽ-ku-te ("Shoot among deciduous trees"), mostly located in + Knox county, Nebraska, on the former Santee reservation, with some + oa Fort Peck reservation, Montana. + B. Sisseton or Si-siŽ-ton-wanŽ ("Fish-scale village"), mostly on + Sisseton reservation, South Dakota, partly on Devils Lake + reservation, North Dakota. + C. Wahpetou or WaŽ-qpeŽ-ton-wan ("Dwellers among deciduous trees"), + mostly on Devils Lake reservation, North Dakota. + D. Yankton or I-hankŽ-ton-wan ("End village"), in Yankton village, + South Dakota. + E. Yanktonai or I-hankŽ-ton-wan-na ("Little End village"), comprising-- + + a. Upper Yanktonai, on Standing Rock reservation, North Dakota, + with the PaŽ-ba-kse ("Cut head") gens on Devils Lake + reservation, North Dakota. + b. Lower Yanktonai, or Hunkpatina ("Campers at the horn [or end + of the camping circle]"), mostly on Crow Creek reservation, + South Dakota, with some on Standing Bock reservation, North + Dakota, and others on Fort Peck reservation, Montana. + + F. Teton or TiŽ-ton-wan ("Prairie dwellers"), comprising-- + + a. Brule or Si-tcanŽ-xu ("Burnt thighs "), including Upper Brule, + mostly on Rosebud reservation, South Dakota, and Lower Brule, + on Lower Brule reservation, in the same state, with some of + both on Standing Rock reservation, North Dakota, and others on + Fort Peck reservation, Montana. + b. Sans Arcs or I-taŽ-zip-tco ("Without bows"), largely on + Cheyenne reservation, South Dakota, with others on Standing + Rock reservation, North Dakota. + c. Blackfeet or Si-haŽ-sa-pa ("Black-feet"), mostly on Cheyenne + reservation, South Dakota, with some on Standing Eock + reservation, North Dakota. + d. Minneconjou or MiŽ-ni-koŽ-o-ju ("Plant beside the stream"), + mostly on Cheyenne reservation, South Dakota, partly on + Rosebud reservation, South Dakota, with some on Standing Rock + reservation, North Dakota. + e. Two Kettles or O-oŽ-he nonŽ-pa ("Two boilings"), on Cheyenne + reservation, South Dakota. + f. Ogalala or O-glaŽ-la ("She poured out her own"), mostly on + Pine Ridge reservation, South Dakota, with some on Standing + Rock reservation, North Dakota, including the Wa-jaŽ-ja + ("Fringed") gens on Pine Ridge reservation, South Dakota, and + Loafers or Wa-gluŽ-xe ("Inbreeders"), mostly on Pine Ridge + reservation, with some on Rosebud reservation, South Dakota. + g. Hunkpapa ("At the entrance"), on Standing Rock reservation, + North Dakota. + +Asiuiboin ("Cook-with-stones people" in Algonquian), commonly called +Nakota among themselves, and called Hohe ("Rebels") by the Dakota; an +offshoot from the Yanktonnai; not studied in detail during recent years; +partly on Fort Peck reservation, Montana, mostly in Canada; comprising in +1833 (according to Prince Maximilian)(8)-- + + A. Itscheabine ("Les gens des filles"=Girl people?). + B. Jatonabine ("Les gens des roches"=Stone people); apparently the + leading band. + C. Otopachguato ("Les gens du large"=Roamers?). + D. Otaopabine ("Les gens des canots"=Canoe people?). + E. Tschantoga ("Les gens des bois"=Forest people). + F. Watopachnato ("Les gens de l'age"=Ancient people?). + G. Tanintauei ("Les gens des osayes"=Bone people). + H. Chabin ("Les gens des montagnes"=Mountain people). + + 2. _cegiha_ ("_People Dwelling here_")(9) + + A. Omaha or U-man-han ("Upstream people"), located on Omaha + reservation, Nebraska, comprising in 1819 (according to James)(10)-- + + a. Honga-sha-no tribe, including-- + + 1. Wase-ish-ta band. + 2. Enk-ka-sa-ba band. + 3. Wa-sa-ba-eta-je ("Those who do not touch bears") band. + 4. Ka-e-ta-je ("Those who do not touch turtles") band. + 5. Wa-jinga-e-ta-je band. + 6. Hun-guh band. + 7. Kon-za band. + 8. Ta-pa-taj-je band. + + b. Ish-ta-sun-da ("Gray eyes") tribe, including-- + + 1. Ta-pa-eta-je band. + 2. Mon-eka-goh-ha ("Earth makers") band. + 3. Ta-sin-da ("Bison tail") band. + 4. Ing-gera-je-da ("Red dung") band. + 5. Wash-a-tung band. + + B. Ponka ("Medicine"?), mostly on Ponca reservation, Indian Territory, + partly at Santee agency, Nebraska. + C. Kwapa, Quapaw, or U-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}aŽ-qpa ("Downstream people," a correlative of + U-manŽ-han), the "Arkansa" of early writers, mostly on Osage + reservation, Oklahoma, partly on Quapaw reservation, Indian + Territory. + D. (D) Osage or Wa-caŽ-ce ("People"), comprising-- + + a. Big Osage or Pa-heŽ-tsi ("Campers on the mountain"), on Osage + reservation, Indian Territory. + b. Little Osage or U-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}se{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED H~}Ž-ta ("Campers on the lowland,") on + Osage reservation, Indian Territory. + c. San-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}suŽ-{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}cin(11) ("Campers in the highland grove") or + "Arkansa band," chiefly on Osage reservation, Indian + Territory. + + E. Kansa or KanŽ-ze (refers to winds, though precise significance is + unknown; frequently called Kaw), on Kansas reservation, Indian + Territory. + + 3. _{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}iweŽre_ ("_People of this place_") + + A. Iowa or Pa-qo-tce ("Dusty-heads"), chiefly on Great Nemaha + reservation, Kansas and Nebraska, partly on Sac and Fox reservation, + Indian Territory. + B. Oto or Wa-toŽ-ta ("Aphrodisian"), on Otoe reservation, Indian + Territory. + C. Missouri or Ni-uŽ-t'a-tci (exact meaning uncertain; said to refer to + drowning of people in a stream; possibly a corruption of + Ni-shuŽ-dje, "Smoky water," the name of Missouri river); on Otoe + reservation, Indian Territory. + + 4. _Winnebago_ + +Winnebago (Algonquian designation, meaning "Turbid water people"?) or +Ho-tcan-ga-ra ("People of the parent speech"), mostly on Winnebago +reservation in Nebraska, some in Wisconsin, and a few in Michigan; +composition never definitely ascertained; comprised in 1850 (according to +Schoolcraft(12)) twenty-one bands, all west of the Mississippi, viz.: + + a. Little Mills' band. + b. Little Dekonie's band. + c. Maw-kuh-soonch-kaw's band. + d. Ho-pee-kaw's band. + e. Waw-kon-haw-kaw's band. + f. Baptiste's band. + g. Wee-noo-shik's band. + h. Con-a-ha-ta-kaw's band. + i. Paw-sed-ech-kaw's band. + j. Taw-nu-nuk's band. + k. Ah-hoo-zeeb-kaw's band. + l. Is-chaw-go-baw-kaw's band. + m. Watch-ha-ta-kaw's band. + n. Waw-maw-noo-kaw-kaw's band. + o. Waw-kon-chaw-zu-kaw's band. + p. Good Thunder's band. + q. Koog-ay-ray-kaw's band. + r. Black Hawk's band. + s. Little Thunder's band. + t. Naw-key-ku-kaw's band. + u. O-chin-chin-nu-kaw's band. + + 5. _Mandan_ + +Mandan (their own name is questionable; Catlin says they called themselves +See-pohs-kah-nu-mah-kah-kee, "People of the pheasants;"(13) Prince +Maximilian says they called themselves Numangkake, "Men," adding usually +the name of their village, and that another name is Mahna-Narra, "The +Sulky [Ones]," applied because they separated from the rest of their +nation;(14) of the latter name their common appellation seems to be a +corruption); on Fort Berthold reservation, North Dakota, comprising in +1804 (according to Lewis and Clark(15)) three villages-- + + a. Matootonha. + b. Rooptahee. + c. __________(Eapanopa's village). + + 6. _Hidatsa_ + + A. Hidatsa (their own name, the meaning of which is uncertain, but + appears to refer to a traditional buffalo pannch connected with the + division of the group, though supposed by some to refer to + "willows"); formerly called Minitari ("Cross the water," or, + objectionally, Gros Ventres); on Fort Berthold reservation, North + Dakota, comprising in 1796 (according to information gained by + Matthews(16)) three villages-- + + a. Hidatsa. + b. Amatilia ("Earth-lodge [village]"?). + c. Amaliami ("Mountain-country [people]"?). + + B. Crow or Ab-saŽ-ru-ke, on the Crow reservation, Montana. + + 7. _Biloxi_ + + A. Biloxi ("Trifling" or "Worthless" in Choctaw) or Ta-neksŽ Han-ya-diŽ + ("Original people" in their own language); partly in Rapides parish, + Louisiana; partly in Indian Territory, with the Choctaw and Caddo. + B. Paskagula ("Bread people" in Choctaw), probably extinct. + C. ?Moctobi (meaning unknown), extinct. + D. ?Chozetta (meaning unknown), extinct. + + 8. _Monakan_ + +Monakan confederacy. + + A. Monakan ("Country [people of?]"), ? extinct. + B. Meipontsky (meaning unknown), extinct. + C. ?Mahoc (meaning unknown), extinct. + D. Nuntaneuck or Nuntaly (meaning unknown), extinct. + E. Mohetan ("People of the earth"?), extinct. + +Tutelo. + + A. Tutelo or Ye-sanŽ (meaning unknown), probably extinct. + B. Saponi (meaning unknown), probably extinct. (According to Mooney, + the Tutelo and Saponi tribes were intimately connected or identical, + and the names were used interchangeably, the former becoming more + prominent after the removal of the tribal remnant from the Carolinas + to New York.(17)) + C. Occanichi (meaning unknown), probably extinct. + +?Manahoac confederacy, extinct. + + A. Manahoac (meaning unknown). + B. Stegarake (meaning unknown). + C. Shackakoni (meaning unknown). + D. Tauxitania (meaning unknown). + E. Ontponi (meaning unknown). + F. Tegniati (meaning unknown). + G. Whonkenti (meaning unknown). + H. Hasinninga (meaning unknown). + + 9. _Catawba or Ni-ya ("People")_ + + A. Catawba (meaning unknown; they called themselves Ni-ya, "Men" in the + comprehensive sense), nearly extinct. + B. Woccon (meaning unknown), extinct. + C. ? Sissipahaw (meaning unknown), extinct. + D. ? Cape Fear (proper name unknown), extinct. + E. ? Warrennuncock (meaning unknown), extinct. + F. ? Adshusheer (meaning unknown), extinct. + G. ? Eno (meaning unknown), extinct. + H. ? Shocco (meaning unknown), extinct. + I. ? Waxhaw (meaning unknown), extinct. + J. ? Sugeri (meaning unknown), extinct. + K. Santee (meaning unknown). + L. Wateree (derived from the Catawba word wateran, "to float in the + water"). + M. Sewee (meaning unknown). + N. Congaree (meaning unknown). + + 10. _Sara (extinct)_ + + A. Sara ("Tall grass"). + B. Keyauwi (meaning unknown). + + 11. _? Pedee (extinct)_ + + A. Pedee (meaning unknown). + B. Waccamaw (meaning unknown). + C. Winyaw (meaning unknown). + D. "Hooks" and "Backhooks"(?). + +The definition of the first six of these divisions is based on extended +researches among the tribes and in the literature representing the work of +earlier observers, and may be regarded as satisfactory. In some cases, +notably the Dakota confederacy, the constitution of the divisions is also +satisfactory, though in others, including the Asiniboin, Mandan, and +Winnebago, the tabulation represents little more than superficial +enumeration of villages and bands, generally by observers possessing +little knowledge of Indian sociology or language. So far as the survivors +of the Biloxi are concerned the classification is satisfactory; but there +is doubt concerning the former limits of the division, and also concerning +the relations of the extinct tribes referred to on slender, yet the best +available, evidence. The classification of the extinct and nearly extinct +Siouan Indians of the east is much less satisfactory. In several cases +languages are utterly lost, and in others a few doubtful terms alone +remain. In these cases affinity is inferred in part from geographic +relation, but chiefly from the recorded federation of tribes and union of +remnants as the aboriginal population faded under the light of brighter +intelligence; and in all such instances it has been assumed that +federation and union grew out of that conformity in mode of thought which +is characteristic of peoples speaking identical or closely related +tongues. Accordingly, while the grouping of eastern tribes rests in part +on meager testimony and is open to question at many points, it is perhaps +the best that can be devised, and suffices for convenience of statement if +not as a final classification. So far as practicable the names adopted for +the tribes, confederacies, and other groups are those in common use, the +aboriginal designations, when distinct, being added in those cases in +which they are known. + +The present population of the Siouan stock is probably between 40,000 and +45,000, including 2,000 or more (mainly Asiniboin) in Canada. + + + +TRIBAL NOMENCLATURE + + +In the Siouan stock, as among the American Indians generally, the accepted +appellations for tribes and other groups are variously derived. Many of +the Siouan tribal names were, like the name of the stock, given by alien +peoples, including white men, though most are founded on the descriptive +or other designations used in the groups to which they pertain. At first +glance, the names seem to be loosely applied and perhaps vaguely defined, +and this laxity in application and definition does not disappear, but +rather increases, with closer examination. + +There are special reasons for the indefiniteness of Indian nomenclature: +The aborigines were at the time of discovery, and indeed most of them +remain today, in the prescriptorial stage of culture, i.e., the stage in +which ideas are crystallized, not by means of arbitrary symbols, but by +means of arbitrary associations,(18) and in this stage names are connotive +or descriptive, rather than denotive as in the scriptorial stage. +Moreover, among the Indians, as among all other prescriptorial peoples, +the ego is paramount, and all things are described, much more largely than +among cultured peoples, with reference to the describer and the position +which he occupies--Self and Here, and, if need be, Now and Thus, are the +fundamental elements of primitive conception and description, and these +elements are implied and exemplified, rather than expressed, in thought +and utterance. Accordingly there is a notable paucity in names, especially +for themselves, among the Indian tribes, while the descriptive +designations applied to a given group by neighboring tribes are often +diverse. + +The principles controlling nomenclature in its inchoate stages are +illustrated among the Siouan peoples. So far as their own tongues were +concerned, the stock was nameless, and could not be designated save +through integral parts. Even the great Dakota confederacy, one of the most +extensive and powerful aboriginal organizations, bore no better +designation than a term probably applied originally to associated tribes +in a descriptive way and perhaps used as a greeting or countersign, +although there was an alternative proper descriptive term.--"Seven +Council-fires"--apparently of considerable antiquity, since it seems to +have been originally applied before the separation of the Asiniboin.(19) +In like manner the cegiha, {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}iwe're, and Hotcangara groups, and perhaps +the Niya, were without denotive designations for themselves, merely +styling themselves "Local People," "Men," "Inhabitants," or, still more +ambitiously, "People of the Parent Speech," in terms which are variously +rendered by different interpreters; they were lords in their own domain, +and felt no need for special title. Different Dakota tribes went so far as +to claim that their respective habitats marked the middle of the world, so +that each insisted on precedence as the leading tribe,(20) and it was the +boast of the Mandan that they were the original people of the earth.(21) +In the more carefully studied confederacies the constituent groups +generally bore designations apparently used for convenient distinction in +the confederation; sometimes they were purely descriptive, as in the case +of the Sisseton, Wahpeton, Sans Arcs, Blackfeet, Oto, and several others; +again they referred to the federate organization (probably, possibly to +relative position of habitat), as in the Yankton, Yanktonai, and Hunkpapa; +more frequently they referred to geographic or topographic position, e.g., +Teton, Omaha, Pahe'tsi, Kwapa, etc; while some appear to have had a +figurative or symbolic connotation, as Brule, Ogalala, and Ponka. Usually +the designations employed by alien peoples were more definite than those +used in the group designated, as illustrated by the stock name, Asiniboin, +and Iowa. Commonly the alien appellations were terms of reproach; thus +Sioux, Biloxi, and Hohe (the Dakota designation for the Asiniboin) are +clearly opprobrious, while Paskagula might easily be opprobrious among +hunters and warriors, and Iowa and Oto appear to be derogatory or +contemptuous expressions. The names applied by the whites were sometimes +taken from geographic positions, as in the case of Upper Yanktonai and +Cape Fear--the geographic names themselves being frequently of Indian +origin. Some of the current names represent translations of the aboriginal +terms either into English ("Blackfeet," "Two Kettles," "Crow,") or into +French ("Sans Arcs," "Brule"," "Gros Ventres"); yet most of the names, at +least of the prairie tribes, are simply corruptions of the aboriginal +terms, though frequently the modification is so complete as to render +identification and interpretation difficult--it is not easy to find Waca'ce +in "Osage" (so spelled by the French, whose orthography was adopted and +mispronounced by English-speaking pioneers), or Pa'qotce in "Iowa." + +The meanings of most of the eastern names are lost; yet so far as they are +preserved they are of a kind with those of the interior. So, too, are the +subtribal names enumerated by Dorsey. + + + +PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS + + +PHONETIC AND GRAPHIC ARTS + + +The Siouan stock is defined by linguistic characters. The several tribes +and larger and smaller groups speak dialects so closely related as to +imply occasional or habitual association, and hence to indicate community +in interests and affinity in development; and while the arts (reflecting +as they did the varying environment of a wide territorial range) were +diversified, the similarity in language was, as is usual, accompanied by +similarity in institutions and beliefs. Nearly all of the known dialects +are eminently vocalic, and the tongues of the plains, which have been most +extensively studied, are notably melodious; thus the leading languages of +the group display moderately high phonetic development. In grammatic +structure the better-known dialects are not so well developed; the +structure is complex, chiefly through the large use of inflection, though +agglutination sometimes occurs. In some cases the germ of organization is +found in fairly definite juxtaposition or placement. The vocabulary is +moderately rich, and of course represents the daily needs of a primitive +people, their surroundings, their avocations, and their thoughts, while +expressing little of the richer ideation of cultured cosmopolites. On the +whole, the speech of the Siouan stock may be said to have been fairly +developed, and may, with the Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Shoshonean, be +regarded as typical for the portion of North America lying north of +Mexico. Fortunately it has been extensively studied by Riggs, Hale, +Dorsey, and several others, including distinguished representatives of +some of the tribes, and is thus accessible to students. The high phonetic +development of the Siouan tongues reflects the needs and records the +history of the hunter and warrior tribes, whose phonetic symbols were +necessarily so differentiated as to be intelligible in whisper, oratory, +and war cry, as well as in ordinary converse, while the complex structure +is in harmony with the elaborate social organization and ritual of the +Siouan people. + +Many of the Siouan Indians were adepts in the sign language; indeed, this +mode of conveying intelligence attained perhaps its highest development +among some of the tribes of this stock, who, with other plains Indians, +developed pantomime and gesture into a surprisingly perfect art of +expression adapted to the needs of huntsmen and warriors. + +Most of the tribes were fairly proficient in pictography; totemic and +other designs were inscribed on bark and wood, painted on skins, wrought +into domestic wares, and sometimes carved on rocks. Jonathan Carver gives +an example of picture-writing on a tree, in charcoal mixed with bear's +grease, designed to convey information from the "Chipe'ways" (Algonquian) +to the "Naudowessies,"(22) and other instances of intertribal +communication by means of pictography are on record. Personal decoration +was common, and was largely symbolic; the face and body were painted in +distinctive ways when going on the warpath, in organizing the hunt, in +mourning the dead, in celebrating the victory, and in performing various +ceremonials. Scarification and maiming were practiced by some of the +tribes, always in a symbolic way. Among the Mandan and Hidatsa scars were +produced in cruel ceremonials originally connected with war and hunting, +and served as enduring witnesses of courage and fortitude. Symbolic +tattooing was fairly common among the westernmost tribes. Eagle and other +feathers were worn as insignia of rank and for other symbolic purposes, +while bear claws and the scalps of enemies were worn as symbols of the +chase and battle. Some of the tribes recorded current history by means of +"winter counts" or calendaric inscriptions, though their arithmetic was +meager and crude, and their calendar proper was limited to recognition of +the year, lunation, and day--or, as among so many primitive people, the +"snow," "dead moon," and "night,"--with no definite system of fitting +lunations to the annual seasons. Most of the graphic records were +perishable, and have long ago disappeared; but during recent decades +several untutored tribesmen have executed vigorous drawings representing +hunting scenes and conflicts with white soldiery, which have been +preserved or reproduced. These crude essays in graphic art were the germ +of writing, and indicate that, at the time of discovery, several Siouan +tribes were near the gateway opening into the broader field of scriptorial +culture. So far as it extends, the crude graphic symbolism betokens +warlike habit and militant organization, which were doubtless measurably +inimical to further progress. + +It would appear that, in connection with their proficiency in gesture +speech and their meager graphic art, the Siouan Indians had become masters +in a vaguely understood system of dramaturgy or symbolized conduct. Among +them the use of the peace-pipe was general; among several and perhaps all +of the tribes the definite use of insignia was common; among them the +customary hierarchic organization of the aborigines was remarkably +developed and was maintained by an elaborate and strict code of etiquette +whose observance was exacted and yielded by every tribesman. Thus the +warriors, habituated to expressing and recognizing tribal affiliation and +status in address and deportment, were notably observant of social +minutiae, and this habit extended into every activity of their lives. They +were ceremonious among themselves and crafty toward enemies, tactful +diplomatists as well as brave soldiers, shrewd strategists as well as +fierce fighters; ever they were skillful readers of human nature, even +when ruthless takers of human life. Among some of the tribes every +movement and gesture and expression of the male adult seems to have been +affected or controlled with the view of impressing spectators and +auditors, and through constant schooling the warriors became most +consummate actors. To the casual observer, they were stoics or stupids +according to the conditions of observation; to many observers, they were +cheats or charlatans; to scientific students, their eccentrically +developed volition and the thaumaturgy by which it was normally +accompanied suggests early stages in that curious development which, in +the Orient, culminates in necromancy and occultism. Unfortunately this +phase of the Indian character (which was shared by various tribes) was +little appreciated by the early travelers, and little record of it +remains; yet there is enough to indicate the importance of constantly +studied ceremony, or symbolic conduct, among them. The development of +affectation and self-control among the Siouan tribesmen was undoubtedly +shaped by warlike disposition, and their stoicism was displayed largely in +war--as when the captured warrior went exultingly to the torture, taunting +and tempting his captors to multiply their atrocities even until his +tongue was torn from its roots, in order that his fortitude might be +proved; but the habit was firmly fixed and found constant expression in +commonplace as well as in more dramatic actions. + + +INDUSTRIAL AND ESTHETIC ARTS + + +Since the arts of primitive people reflect environmental conditions with +close fidelity, and since the Siouan Indians were distributed over a vast +territory varying in climate, hydrography, geology, fauna, and flora, +their industrial and esthetic arts can hardly be regarded as distinctive, +and were indeed shared by other tribes of all neighboring stocks. + +The best developed industries were hunting and warfare, though all of the +tribes subsisted in part on fruits, nuts, berries, tubers, grains, and +other vegetal products, largely wild, though sometimes planted and even +cultivated in rude fashion. The southwestern tribes, and to some extent +all of the prairie denizens and probably the eastern remnant, grew maize, +beans, pumpkins, melons, squashes, sunflowers, and tobacco, though their +agriculture seems always to have been subordinated to the chase. +Aboriginally, they appear to have had no domestic animals except dogs, +which, according to Carver--one of the first white men seen by the prairie +tribes,--were kept for their flesh, which was eaten ceremonially,(23) and +for use in the chase.(24) According to Lewis and Clark (1804-1806), they +were used for burden and draft;(25) according to the naturalists +accompanying Long's expedition (1819-20), for flesh (eaten ceremonially +and on ordinary occasions), draft, burden, and the chase,(26) and +according to Prince Maximilian, for food and draft,(27) all these +functions indicating long familiarity with the canines. Catlin, too, found +"dog's meat ... the most honorable food that can be presented to a +stranger;" it was eaten ceremonially and on important occasions.(28) +Moreover, the terms used for the dog and his harness are ancient and even +archaic, and some of the most important ceremonials were connected with +this animal,(29) implying long-continued association. Casual references +indicate that some of the tribes lived in mutual tolerance with several +birds(30) and mammals not yet domesticated (indeed the buffalo may be said +to have been in this condition), so that the people were at the threshold +of zooculture. + +The chief implements and weapons were of stone, wood, bone, horn, and +antler. According to Carver, the "Nadowessie" were skillful bowmen, using +also the "casse-tete"(31) or warclub, and a flint scalping-knife. Catlin +was impressed with the shortness of the bows used by the prairie tribes, +though among the southwestern tribes they were longer. Many of the Siouan +Indians used the lance, javelin, or spear. The domestic utensils were +scant and simple, as became wanderers and fighters, wood being the common +material, though crude pottery and basketry were manufactured, together +with bags and bottles of skins or animal intestines. Ceremonial objects +were common, the most conspicuous being the calumet, carved out of the +sacred pipestone or catlinite quarried for many generations in the midst +of the Siouan territory. Frequently the pipes were fashioned in the form +of tomahawks, when they carried a double symbolic significance, standing +alike for peace and war, and thus expressing well the dominant idea of the +Siouan mind. Tobacco and kinnikinic (a mixture of tobacco with shredded +bark, leaves, etc(32)) were smoked. + +Aboriginally the Siouan apparel was scanty, commonly comprising +breechclout, moccasins, leggings, and robe, and consisted chiefly of +dressed skins, though several of the tribes made simple fabrics of bast, +rushes, and other vegetal substances. Fur robes and rush mats commonly +served for bedding, some of the tribes using rude bedsteads. The +buffalo-hunting prairie tribes depended largely for apparel, bedding, and +habitations, as well as for food, on the great beast to whose comings and +goings their movements were adjusted. Like other Indians, the Siouan +hunters and their consorts quickly availed themselves of the white man's +stuffs, as well as his metal implements, and the primitive dress was soon +modified. + +The woodland habitations were chiefly tent-shape structures of saplings +covered with bark, rush mats, skins, or bushes; the prairie habitations +were mainly earth lodges for winter and buffalo-skin tipis for summer. +Among many of the tribes these domiciles, simple as they were, were +constructed in accordance with an elaborate plan controlled by ritual. +According to Morgan, the framework of the aboriginal Dakota house +consisted of 13 poles;(33) and Dorsey describes the systematic grouping of +the tipis belonging to different gentes and tribes. Sudatories were +characteristic in most of the tribes, menstrual lodges were common, and +most of the more sedentary tribes had council houses or other communal +structures. The Siouan domiciles were thus adapted with remarkable +closeness to the daily habits and environment of the tribesmen, while at +the same time they reflected the complex social organization growing out +of their prescriptorial status and militant disposition. + +Most of the Siouan men, women, and children were fine swimmers, though +they did not compare well with neighboring tribes as makers and managers +of water craft. The Dakota women made coracles of buffalo hides, in which +they transported themselves and their householdry, but the use of these +and other craft seems to have been regarded as little better than a +feminine weakness. Other tribes were better boatmen; for the Siouan Indian +generally preferred land travel to journeying by water, and avoided the +burden of vehicles by which his ever-varying movements in pursuit of game +or in waylaying and evading enemies would have been limited and +handicapped. + +There are many indications and some suggestive evidences that the chief +arts and certain institutions and beliefs, as well as the geographic +distribution, of the principal Siouan tribes were determined by a single +conspicuous feature in their environment--the buffalo. As Riggs, Hale, and +Dorsey have demonstrated, the original home of the Siouan stock lay on the +eastern slope of the Appalachian mountains, stretching down over the +Piedmont and Coastplain provinces to the shores of the Atlantic between +the Potomac and the Savannah. As shown by Allen, the buffalo, "prior to +the year 1800," spread eastward across the Appalachians(34) and into the +priscan territory of the Siouan tribes. As suggested by Shaler, the +presence of this ponderous and peaceful animal materially affected the +vocations of the Indians, tending to discourage agriculture and encourage +the chase; and it can hardly be doubted that the bison was the bridge that +carried the ancestors of the western tribes from the crest of the +Alleghenies to the Coteau des Prairies and enabled them to disperse so +widely over the plains beyond. Certainly the toothsome flesh and useful +skins must have attracted the valiant huntsmen among the Appalachians; +certainly the feral herds must have become constantly larger and more +numerous westward, thus tempting the pursuers down the waterways toward +the great river; certainly the vast herds beyond the Mississippi gave +stronger incentives and richer rewards than the hunters of big game found +elsewhere; and certainly when the prairie tribes were discovered, the men +and animals lived in constant interaction, and many of the hunters acted +and thought only as they were moved by their easy prey. As the Spanish +horse spread northward over the Llano Estacado and overflowed across the +mountains from the plains of the Cayuse, the Dakota and other tribes found +a new means of conquest over the herds, and entered on a career so facile +that they increased and multiplied despite strife and imported disease. + +The horse was acquired by the prairie tribes toward the end of the last +century. Carver (1766-1768) describes the methods of hunting among the +"Naudowessie" without referring to the horse,(35) though he gives their +name for the animal in his vocabulary,(36) and describes their mode of +warfare with "Indians that inhabit still farther to the westward a country +which extends to the South Sea," having "great plenty of horses."(37) +Lewis and Clark (1804-1806) mention that the "Sioux of the Teton tribe ... +frequently make excursions to steal horses" from the Mandan,(38) and make +other references indicating that the horse was in fairly common use among +some of the Siouan tribes, though the animal was "confined principally to +the nations inhabiting the great plains of the Columbia,"(39) and dogs +were still used for burden and draft.(40) Grinnell learned from an aged +Indian that horses came into the hands of the neighboring Piegan +(Algonquian) about 1804-1806.(41) Long's naturalists found the horse, ass, +and mule in use among the Kansa and other tribes,(42) and described the +mode of capture of wild horses by the Osage;(43) yet when, two-thirds of a +century after Carver, Catlin (1832-1839) and Prince Maximilian (1833-34) +visited the Siouan territory, they found the horse established and in +common use in the chase and in war.(44) It is significant that the Dakota +word for horse (suk-tan'-ka or sun-ka'-wa-kan) is composed of the word for +dog (sun'-ka), with an affix indicating greatness, sacredness, or mystery, +so that the horse is literally "great mysterious dog," or "ancient sacred +dog," and that several terms for harness and other appurtenances +correspond with those used for the gear of the dog when used as a draft +animal.(45) This terminology corroborates the direct evidence that the dog +was domesticated by the Siouan aborigines long before the advent of the +horse. + +Among the Siouan tribes, as among other Indians, amusements absorbed a +considerable part of the time and energy of the old and young of both +sexes. Among the young, the gambols, races, and other sports were chiefly +or wholly diversional, and commonly mimicked the avocations of the adults. +The girls played at the building and care of houses and were absorbed in +dolls, while the boys played at archery, foot racing, and mimic hunting, +which soon grew into the actual chase of small birds and animals. Some of +the sports of the elders were unorganized diversions, leaping, racing, +wrestling, and other spontaneous expressions of exuberance. Certain +diversions were controlled by more persistent motive, as when the idle +warrior occupied his leisure in meaningless ornamentation of his garment +or tipi, or spent hours of leisure in esthetic modification of his weapon +or ceremonial badge, and to this purposeless activity, which engendered +design with its own progress, the incipient graphic art of the tribes was +largely due. The more important and characteristic sports were organized +and interwoven with social organization and belief so as commonly to take +the form of elaborate ceremonial, in which dancing, feasting, fasting, +symbolic painting, song, and sacrifice played important parts, and these +organized sports were largely fiducial. To many of the early observers the +observances were nothing more than meaningless mummeries; to some they +were sacrilegious, to others sortilegious; to the more careful students, +like Carver, whose notes are of especial value by reason of the author's +clear insight into the Indian character, they were invocations, +expiations, propitiations, expressing profound and overpowering devotion. +Carver says of the "Naudowessie," "They usually dance either before or +after every meal; and by this cheerfulness, probably, render the Great +Spirit, to whom they consider themselves as indebted for every good, a +more acceptable sacrifice than a formal and unanimated thanksgiving;"(46) +and he proceeds to describe the informal dances as well as the more formal +ceremonials preparatory to joining in the chase or setting out on the +warpath. The ceremonial observances of the Siouan tribes were not +different in kind from those of neighboring contemporaries, yet some of +them were developed in remarkable degree--for example, the bloody rites by +which youths were raised to the rank of warriors in some of the prairie +tribes were without parallel in severity among the aborigines of America, +or even among the known primitive peoples of the world. So the sports of +the Siouan Indians were both diversional and divinatory, and the latter +were highly organized in a manner reflecting the environment of the +tribes, their culture-status, their belief, and especially their +disposition toward bloodshed; for their most characteristic ceremonials +were connected, genetically if not immediately, with warfare and the +chase. + +Among many of the Siouan tribes, games of chance were played habitually +and with great avidity, both men and women becoming so absorbed as to +forget avocations and food, mothers even neglecting their children; for, +as among other primitive peoples, the charm of hazard was greater than +among the enlightened. The games were not specially distinctive, and were +less widely differentiated than in certain other Indian stocks. The sport +or game of chungke stood high in favor among the young men in many of the +tribes, and was played as a game partly of chance, partly of skill; but +dice games (played with plum stones among the southwestern prairie tribes) +were generally preferred, especially by the women, children, and older +men. The games were partly, sometimes wholly, diversional, but generally +they were in large part divinatory, and thus reflected the hazardous +occupations and low culture-status of the people. One of the evils +resulting from the advent of the whites was the introduction of new games +of chance which tended further to pervert the simple Siouan mind; but in +time the evil brought its own remedy, for association with white gamblers +taught the ingenuous sortilegers that there is nothing divine or sacred +about the gaming table or the conduct of its votaries. + +The primitive Siouan music was limited to the chant and rather simple +vocal melody, accompanied by rattle, drum, and flute, the drum among the +northwestern tribes being a skin bottle or bag of water. The music of the +Omaha and some other tribes has been most appreciatively studied by Miss +Fletcher, and her memoir ranks among the Indian classics.(47) In general +the Siouan music was typical for the aboriginal stocks of the northern +interior. Its dominant feature was rhythm, by which the dance was +controlled, though melody was inchoate, while harmony was not yet +developed. + +The germ of painting was revealed in the calendars and the seed of +sculpture in the carvings of the Sionan Indians. The pictographic +paintings comprised not only recognizable but even vigorous +representations of men and animals, depicted in form and color though +without perspective, while the calumet of catlinite was sometimes chiseled +into striking verisimilitude of human and animal forms in miniature. To +the collector these representations suggest fairly developed art, though +to the Indian they were mainly, if not wholly, symbolic; for everything +indicates that the primitive artisan had not yet broken the shackles of +fetichistic symbolism, and had little conception of artistic portrayal for +its own sake. + + +INSTITUTIONS + + +Among civilized peoples, institutions are crystallized in statutes about +nuclei of common law or custom; among peoples in the prescriptorial +culture-stage statutes are unborn, and various mnemonic devices are +employed for fixing and perpetuating institutions; and, as is usual in +this stage, the devices involve associations which appear to be +essentially arbitrary at the outset, though they tend to become natural +through the survival of the fittest. A favorite device for perpetuating +institutions among the primitive peoples of many districts on different +continents is the taboo, or prohibition, which is commonly fiducial but is +often of general application. This device finds its best development in +the earlier stages in the development of belief, and is normally connected +with totemism. Another device, which is remarkably widespread, as shown by +Morgan, is kinship nomenclature. This device rests on a natural and easily +ascertained basis, though its applications are arbitrary and vary widely +from tribe to tribe and from culture-status to culture-status. A third +device, which found much favor among the American aborigines and among +some other primitive peoples, may be called _ordination_, or the +arrangement of individuals and groups classified from the prescriptorial +point of view of Self, Here, and Now, with respect to each other or to +some dominant personage or group. This device seems to have grown out of +the kin-name system, in which the Ego is the basis from which relation is +reckoned. It tends to develop into federate organization on the one hand +or into caste on the other hand, according to the attendant +conditions.(48) There are various other devices for fixing and +perpetuating institutions or for expressing the laws embodied therein. +Some of these are connected with thaumaturgy and shamanism, some are +connected with the powers of nature, and the several devices overlap and +interlace in puzzling fashion. + +Among the Siouan Indians the devices of taboo, kin-names, and ordination +are found in such relation as to throw some light on the growth of +primitive institutions. While they blend and are measurably involved with +thaumaturgic devices, there are indications that in a general way the +three devices stand for stages in the development of law. Among the +best-known tribes the taboo pertained to the clan, and was used (in a much +more limited way than among some other peoples) to commemorate and +perpetuate the clan organization; kin-names, which were partly natural and +thus normal to the clan organization, and at the same time partly +artificial and thus characteristic of gentile organization, served to +commemorate and perpetuate not only the family relations but the relations +of the constituent elements of the tribe; while the ordination, expressed +in the camping circle, in the phratries, in the ceremonials, and in many +other ways, served to commemorate intertribal as well as intergentile +relations, and thus to promote peace and harmonious action. It is +significant that the taboo was less potent among the Siouan Indians than +among some other stocks, and that among some tribes it has not been found; +and it is especially significant that in some instances the taboo was +apparently inversely related to kin-naming and ordination, as among the +Biloxi, where the taboo is exceptionally weak and kin-naming exceptionally +strong, and among the Dakota, where the system of ordination attained +perhaps its highest American development in domiciliary arrangement, while +the taboo was limited in function; for the relations indicate that the +taboo was archaic or even vestigial. It is noteworthy also that among most +of the Siouan tribes the kin-name system was less elaborate than in many +other stocks, while the system of ordination is so elaborate as to +constitute one of the leading characteristics of the stock. + +At the time of the discovery, most of the Siouan tribes had apparently +passed into gentile organization, though vestiges of clan organization +were found--e.g., among the best-known tribes the man was the head of the +family, though the tipi usually belonged to the woman. Thus, as defined by +institutions, the stock was just above savagery and just within the lower +stages of barbarism. Accordingly the governmental functions were +hereditary in the male line, yet the law of heredity was subject to +modification or suspension at the will of the group, commonly at the +instance of rebels or usurpers of marked prowess or shrewdness. The +property regulations were definite and strictly observed; as among other +barbarous peoples, the land was common to the tribe or other group +occupying it, yet was defended against alien invasion; the ownership of +movable property was a combination of communalism and individualism +delicately adjusted to the needs and habits of the several tribes-- in +general, evanescent property, such as food and fuel, was shared in common +(subject to carefully regulated individual claims), while permanent +property, such as tipis, dogs, apparel, weapons, etc, was held by +individuals. As among other tribes, the more strictly personal property +was usually destroyed on the death of the owner, though the real reason +for the custom--the prevention of dispute--was shrouded in a mantle of +mysticism. + +Although of primary importance in shaping the career of the Siouan tribes, +the marital institutions of the stock were not specially distinctive. +Marriage was usually effected by negotiation through parents or elders; +among some of the tribes the bride was purchased, while among others there +was an interchange of presents. Polygyny was common; in several of the +tribes the bride's sisters became subordinate wives of the husband. The +regulations concerning divorce and the punishment of infidelity were +somewhat variable among the different tribes, some of whom furnished +temporary wives to distinguished visitors. Generally there were sanctions +for marriage by elopement or individual choice. In every tribe, so far as +known, gentile exogamy prevailed--i.e., marriage in the gens was forbidden, +under pain of ostracism or still heavier penalty, while the gentes +intermarried among one another; in some cases intermarriage between +certain tribes was regarded with special favor. There seems to have been +no system of marriage by capture, though captive women were usually +espoused by the successful tribesmen, and girls were sometimes abducted. +In general it would appear that intergentile and intertribal marriage was +practiced and sanctioned by the sages, and that it tended toward harmony +and federation, and thus contributed much toward the increase and +diffusion of the great Siouan stock. + +As set forth in some detail by Dorsey, the ordination of the Siouan tribes +extended beyond the hierarchic organization into families, subgentes, +gentes, tribes, and confederacies; there were also phratries, sometimes +(perhaps typically) arranged in pairs; there were societies or +associations established on social or fiducial bases; there was a general +arrangement or classification of each group on a military basis, as into +soldiers and two or more classes of noncombatants, etc. Among the Siouan +peoples, too, the individual brotherhood of the David-Jonathan or +Damon-Pythias type was characteristically developed. Thus the corporate +institutions were interwoven and superimposed in a manner nearly as +complex as that found in the national, state, municipal, and minor +institutions of civilization; yet the ordination preserved by means of the +camping circle, the kinship system, the simple series of taboos, and the +elaborate symbolism was apparently so complete as to meet every social and +governmental demand. + + +BELIEFS + + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF MYTHOLOGY + + +As explained by Powell, philosophies and beliefs may be seriated in four +stages: The first stage is hecastotheism; in this stage extranatural or +mysterious potencies are imputed to objects both animate and inanimate. +The second stage is zootheism; within it the powers of animate forms are +exaggerated and amplified into the realm of the supernal, and certain +animals are deified. The third stage is that of physitheism, in which the +agencies of nature are personified and exalted unto omnipotence. The +fourth stage is that of psychotheism, which includes the domain of +spiritual concept. In general the development of belief coincides with the +growth of abstraction; yet it is to be remembered that this growth +represents increase in definiteness of the abstract concepts rather than +augmentation in numbers and kinds of subjective impressions, i.e., the +advance is in quality rather than in quantity; indeed, it would almost +appear that the vague and indefinite abstraction of hecastotheism is more +pervasive and prevalent than the clearer abstraction of higher stages. +Appreciation of the fundamental characteristics of belief is essential to +even the most general understanding of the Indian mythology and +philosophy, and even after careful study it is difficult for thinkers +trained in the higher methods of thought to understand the crude and +confused ideation of the primitive thinker. + +In hecastotheism the believer finds mysterious properties and potencies +everywhere. To his mind every object is endued with occult power, moved by +a vague volition, actuated by shadowy motive ranging capriciously from +malevolence to benevolence; in his lax estimation some objects are more +potent or more mysterious than others, the strong, the sharp, the hard, +and the swift-moving rising superior to the feeble, the dull, the soft, +and the slow. Commonly he singles out some special object as his personal, +family, or tribal mystery-symbol or fetich, the object usually +representing that which is most feared or worst hated among his +surroundings. Vaguely realizing from the memory of accidents or unforeseen +events that he is dependent on his surroundings, he invests every feature +of his environment with a capricious humor reflecting his own disposition, +and gives to each and all a subtlety and inscrutability corresponding to +his exalted estimation of his own craft in the chase and war; and, +conceiving himself to live and move only at the mercy of his multitudinous +associates, he becomes a fatalist--kismet is his watchword, and he meets +defeat and death with resignation, just as he goes to victory with +complacence; for so it was ordained. + +Zootheism is the offspring of hecastotheism. As the primitive believer +assigns special potency or mystery to the strong and the swift, he +gradually comes to give exceptional rank to self-moving animals; as his +experience of the strength, alertness, swiftness, and courage of his +animate enemy or prey increases, these animals are invested with +successively higher and higher attributes, each reflecting the mental +operations of the mystical huntsman, and in time the animals with which +the primitive believers are most intimately associated come to be regarded +as tutelary daimons of supernatural power and intelligence. At first the +animals, like the undifferentiated things of hecastotheism, are regarded +in fear or awe by reason of their strength and ferocity, and this regard +grows into an incipient worship in the form of sacrifice or other +ceremonial; meanwhile, inanimate things, and in due season rare and +unimportant animals, are neglected, and a half dozen, a dozen, or a score +of the well-known animals are exalted into a hierarchy of petty gods, +headed by the strongest like the bear, the swiftest like the deer, the +most majestic like the eagle, the most cunning like the fox or coyote, or +the most deadly like the rattlesnake. Commonly the arts and the skill of +the mystical huntsman improve from youth to adolescence and from +generation to generation, so that the later animals appear to be easier +snared or slain than the earlier; moreover, the accounts of conflicts +between men and animals grow by repetition and are gilded by imagination +as memory grows dim; and for these and other reasons the notion grows up +that the ancient animals were stronger, swifter, slier, statelier, +deadlier than their modern representatives, and the hierarchy of petty +gods is exalted into an omnipotent thearchy. Eventually, in the most +highly developed zootheistic systems, the leading beast-god is regarded as +the creator of the lesser deities of the earth, sun, and sky, of the +mythic under-world and its real counterpart the ground or mid-world, as +well as the visionary upper-world, of men, and of the ignoble animals; +sometimes the most exalted beast-god is worshiped especially by the great +man or leading class and incidentally by all, while other men and groups +choose the lesser beast-gods, according to their rank, for special +worship. In hecastotheism the potencies revered or worshiped are +polymorphic, while their attributes reflect the mental operations of the +believers; in zootheism the deities worshiped are zoomorphic, and their +attributes continue to reflect the human mind. + +Physitheism, in its turn, springs from zootheism. Through contemplation of +the strong the idea of strength arises, and a means is found for bringing +the bear into analogy with thunder, with the sun, or with the +avalanche-bearing mountain; through contemplation of the swift the concept +of swiftness is engendered, and comparison of the deer with the wind or +rushing river is made easy; through contemplation of the deadly stroke of +the rattlesnake the notion of death-dealing power assumes shape, and +comparison of the snake bite and the lightning stroke is made possible; +and in every case it is inevitably perceived that the agency is stronger, +swifter, deadlier than the animal. At first the agency is not abstracted +or dissociated from the parent zootheistic concept, and the sun is the +mightiest animal as among many peoples, the thunder is the voice of the +bear as among different woodland tribes or the flapping of the wings of +the great ancient eagle as among the Dakota and cegiha, while lightning is +the great serpent of the sky as among the Zuni. Subsequently the zoic +concept fades, and the constant association of human intellectual +qualities engenders an anthropic concept, when the sun becomes an +anthropomorphic deity (perhaps bearing a dazzling mask, as among the +Zuni), and thunder is the rumbling of quoits pitched by the shades of +old-time giants, as among different American tribes. Eventually all the +leading agencies of nature are personified in anthropic form, and retain +the human attributes of caprice, love, and hate which are found in the +minds of the believers. + +Psychotheism is born of physitheism as the anthropomorphic element in the +concept of natural agency gradually fades; but since none of the +aborigines of the United States had passed into the higher stage, the mode +of transition does not require consideration. + +It is to be borne in mind that throughout the course of development of +belief, from the beginning of hecastotheism into the borderland of +psychotheism, the dominant characteristic is the vague notion of mystery. +At first the mystery pervades all things and extends in all directions, +representing an indefinite ideal world, which is the counterpart of the +real world with the addition of human qualities. Gradually the mystery +segregates, deepening with respect to animals and disappearing with +respect to inanimate things; and at length the slowly changing mysteries +shape themselves into semiabstractions having a strong anthropic cast, +while the remainder of the earth and the things thereof gradually become +real, though they remain under the spell and dominion of the mysterious. +Thus at every stage the primitive believer is a mystic--a fatalist in one +stage, a beast worshiper in another, a thaumaturgist in a third, yet ever +and first of all a mystic. It is also to be borne in mind (and the more +firmly because of a widespread misapprehension) that the primitive +believer, up to the highest stage attained by the North American Indian, +is not a psychotheist, much less a monotheist. His "Great Spirit" is +simply a great mystery, perhaps vaguely anthropomorphic, oftener +zoomorphic, yet not a spirit, which he is unable to conceive save by +reflection of the white man's concept and inquiry; and his departed spirit +is but a shade, much like that of the ancient Greeks, the associate and +often the inferior of animal shades. + +While the four stages in development of belief are fundamentally distinct, +they nevertheless overlap in such manner as apparently, and in a measure +really, to coexist and blend. Culture progress is slow. In biotic +development the effect of beneficial modification is felt immediately, and +the modified organs or organisms are stimulated and strengthened +cumulatively, while the unmodified are enfeebled and paralyzed +cumulatively through inactivity and quickly pass toward atrophy and +extinction. Conversely in demotic development, which is characterized by +the persistence of the organisms and by the elimination of the bad and the +preservation of the good among qualities only, there is a constant +tendency toward retardation of progress; for in savagery and barbarism as +in civilization, age commonly produces conservatism, and at the same time +brings responsibility for the conduct of old and young, so that +modification, howsoever beneficial, is measurably held in check, and so +that the progress of each generation buds in the springtime of youth yet +is not permitted to fruit until the winter of old age approaches. +Accordingly the mean of demotic progress tends to lag far behind its +foremost advances, and modes of action and especially of thought change +slowly. This is especially true of beliefs, which, during each generation, +are largely vestigial. So the stages in the evolution of mythologic +philosophy overlap widely; there is probably no tribe now living among +whom zootheism has not yet taken root, though hecastotheism has been found +dominant among different tribes; there is probably no people in the +zootheistic stage who are completely divested of hecastotheistic vestiges; +and one of the curious features of even the most advanced psychotheism is +the occasional outcropping of features inherited from all of the earlier +stages. Yet it is none the less important to discriminate the stages. + + +THE SIOUAN MYTHOLOGY + + +It was partly through pioneer study of the Siouan Indians that the popular +fallacy concerning the aboriginal "Great Spirit" gained currency; and it +was partly through the work of Dorsey among the cegiha and Dakota tribes, +first as a missionary and afterward as a linguist, that the early error +was corrected. Among these tribes the creation and control of the world +and the things thereof are ascribed to "wa-kan-da" (the term varying +somewhat from tribe to tribe), just as among the Algonquian tribes +omnipotence was assigned to "ma-ni-do" ("Manito the Mighty" of +"Hiawatha"); yet inquiry shows that wakanda assumes various forms, and is +rather a quality than a definite entity. Thus, among many of the tribes +the sun is wakanda--not _the_ wakanda or _a_ wakanda, but simply wakanda; +and among the same tribes the moon is wakanda, and so is thunder, +lightning, the stars, the winds, the cedar, and various other things; even +a man, especially a shaman, might be wakanda or a wakanda. In addition the +term was applied to mythic monsters of the earth, air, and waters; +according to some of the sages the ground or earth, the mythic +under-world, the ideal upper-world, darkness, etc, were wakanda or +wakandas. So, too, the fetiches and the ceremonial objects and decorations +were wakanda among different tribes. Among some of the groups various +animals and other trees besides the specially wakanda cedar were regarded +as wakandas; as already noted, the horse, among the prairie tribes, was +the wakanda dog. In like manner many natural objects and places of +striking character were considered wakanda. Thus the term was applied to +all sorts of entities and ideas, and was used (with or without +inflectional variations) indiscriminately as substantive and adjective, +and with slight modification as verb and adverb. Manifestly a term so +protean is not susceptible of translation into the more highly +differentiated language of civilization. Manifestly, too, the idea +expressed by the term is indefinite, and can not justly be rendered into +"spirit," much less into "Great Spirit;" though it is easy to understand +stand how the superficial inquirer, dominated by definite spiritual +concept, handicapped by unfamiliarity with the Indian tongue, misled by +ignorance of the vague prescriptorial ideation, and perhaps deceived by +crafty native informants or mischievous interpreters, came to adopt and +perpetuate the erroneous interpretation. The term may be translated into +"mystery" perhaps more satisfactorily than into any other single English +word, yet this rendering is at the same time much too limited and much too +definite. As used by the Siouan Indian, wakanda vaguely connotes also +"power," "sacred," "ancient," "grandeur," "animate," "immortal," and other +words, yet does not express with any degree of fullness and clearness the +ideas conveyed by these terms singly or collectively--indeed, no English +sentence of reasonable length can do justice to the aboriginal idea +expressed by the term wakanda. + +While the beliefs of many of the Siouan tribes are lost through the +extinction of the tribesmen or transformed through acculturation, it is +fortunate that a large body of information concerning the myths and +ceremonials of several prairie tribes has been collected. The records of +Carver, Lewis and Clark, Say, Catlin, and Prince Maximilian are of great +value when interpreted in the light of modern knowledge. More recent +researches by Miss Fletcher(49) and by Dorsey(50) are of especial value, +not only as direct sources of information but as a means of interpreting +the earlier writings. From these records it appears that, in so far as +they grasped the theistic concept, the Siouan Indians were polytheists; +that their mysteries or deities varied in rank and power; that some were +good but more were bad, while others combined bad and good attributes; +that they assumed various forms, actual and imaginary; and that their +dispositions and motives resembled those found among mankind. + +The organization of the vague Siouan thearchy appears to have varied from +group to group. Among all of the tribes whose beliefs are known, the sun +was an important wakanda, perhaps the leading one potentially, though +usually of less immediate consideration than certain others, such as +thunder, lightning, and the cedar tree; among the Osage the sun was +invoked as "grandfather," and among various tribes there were sun +ceremonials, some of which are still maintained; among the Omaha and +Ponka, according to Miss Fletcher, the mythic thunder-bird plays a +prominent, perhaps dominant role, and the cedar tree or pole is deified as +its tangible representative. The moon was wakanda among the Osage and the +stars among the Omaha and Ponka, yet they seem to have occupied +subordinate positions; the winds and the four quarters were apparently +given higher rank; and, in individual cases, the mythic water-monsters or +earth-deities seem to have occupied leading positions. On the whole, it +may be safe to consider the sun as the Siouan arch-mystery, with the +mythic thunder-bird or family of thunder-birds as a sort of mediate link +between the mysteries and men, possessing less power but displaying more +activity in human affairs than the remoter wakanda of the heavens. Under +these controlling wakandas, other members of the series were vaguely and +variably arranged. Somewhere in the lower ranks, sacred animals--especially +sports, such as the white buffalo cow--were placed, and still lower came +totems and shamans, which, according to Dorsey, were reverenced rather +than worshiped. It is noteworthy that this thearchic arrangement +corresponded in many respects with the hierarchic social organization of +the stock. + +The Siouan thearchy was invoked and adored by means of forms and +ceremonies, as well as through orisons. The set observances were highly +elaborate; they comprised dancing and chanting, feasting and fasting, and +in some cases sacrifice and torture, the shocking atrocities of the Mandan +and Minitari rites being especially impressive. From these great +collective devotions the ceremonials graded down through war-dance and +hunting-feast to the terpsichorean grace extolled by Carver, and to +individual fetich worship. In general the adoration expressed fear of the +evil rather than love of the good--but this can hardly be regarded as a +distinctive feature, much less a peculiar one. + +Some of the mystery places were especially distinctive and noteworthy. +Foremost among them was the sacred pipestone quarry near Big Sioux river, +whence the material for the wakanda calumet was obtained; another was the +far-famed Minne-wakan of North Dakota, not inaptly translated "Devil's +lake;" a third was the mystery-rock or medicine-rock of the Mandan and +Hidatsa near Yellowstone river; and there were many others of less +importance. About all of these places picturesque legends and myths +clustered. + +The Siouan mythology is especially instructive, partly because so well +recorded, partly because it so clearly reflects the habits and customs of +the tribesmen and thus gives an indirect reflection of a well-marked +environment. As among so many peoples, the sun is a prominent element; the +ice-monsters of the north and the rain-myths of the arid region are +lacking, and are replaced by the frequent thunder and the trees shaken by +the storm-winds; the mythic creatures are shaped in the image of the +indigenous animals and birds; the myths center in the local rocks and +waters; the mysterious thearchy corresponds with the tribal hierarchy, and +the attributes ascribed to the deities are those characteristic of +warriors and hunters. + +Considering the mythology in relation to the stages in development of +mythologic philosophy, it appears that the dominant beliefs, such as those +pertaining to the sun and the winds, represent a crude physitheism, while +vestiges of hecastotheism crop out in the object-worship and place-worship +of the leading tribes and in other features. At the same time well-marked +zootheistic features are found in the mythic thunder-birds and in the more +or less complete deification of various animals, in the exaltation of the +horse into the rank of the mythic dog father, and in the animal forms of +the water-monsters and earth-beings; and the living application of +zootheism is found in the animal fetiches and totems. On the whole, it +seems just to assign the Siouan mythology to the upper strata of +zootheism, just verging on physitheism, with vestigial traces of +hecastotheism. + + +SOMATOLOGY + + +The vigorous avocations of the chase and war were reflected in fine +stature, broad and deep chests, strong and clean limbs, and sound +constitution among the Siouan tribesmen and their consorts. The skin was +of the usual coppery cast characteristic of the native American; the teeth +were strong, indicating and befitting a largely carnivorous diet, little +worn by sandy foods, and seldom mutilated; the hands and feet were +commonly large and sinewy. The Siouan Indians were among those who +impressed white pioneers by the parallel placing of the feet; for, as +among other walkers and runners, who rest sitting and lying, the feet +assumed the pedestrian attitude of approximate parallelism rather than the +standing attitude of divergence forward. The hair was luxuriant, stiff, +straight, and more uniformly jet black than that of the southerly stocks; +it was worn long by the women and most of the men, though partly clipped +or shaved in some tribes by the warriors as well as the worthless dandies, +who, according to Catlin, spent more time over their toilets than ever did +the grande dame of Paris. The women were beardless and the men more or +less nearly so; commonly the men plucked out by the roots the scanty hair +springing on their faces, as did both sexes that on other parts of the +body. The crania were seldom deformed artificially save through cradle +accident, and while varying considerably in capacity and in the ratio of +length to width were usually mesocephalic. The facial features were +strong, yet in no way distinctly unlike those found among neighboring +peoples. + +Since the advent of white men the characteristics of the Siouan Indians, +like those of other tribes, have been somewhat modified, partly through +infusion of Caucasian blood but chiefly through acculturation. With the +abandonment of hunting and war and the tardy adoption of a slothful, +semidependent agriculture, the frame has lost something of its stalwart +vigor; with the adaptation of the white man's costume and the incomplete +assimilation of his hygiene, various weaknesses and disorders have been +developed; and through imitation the erstwhile luxuriant hair is cropped, +and the beard, made scanty through generations of extirpation, is commonly +cultivated. Although the accultural condition of the Siouan survivors +ranges from the essentially primitive status of the Asiniboin to the +practical civilization of the representatives of several tribes, it is +fair to consider the stock in a state of transition from barbarism to +civilization; and many of the tribesmen are losing the characteristics of +activity and somatic development normal to primitive life, while they have +not yet assimilated the activities and acquired the somatic +characteristics normal to peaceful sedentary life. + +Briefly, certain somatic features of the Siouan Indians, past and present, +may be traced to their causes in custom and exercise of function; yet by +far the greater number of the features are common to the American people +or to all mankind, and are of ill-understood significance. The few +features of known cause indicate that special somatic characteristics are +determined largely or wholly by industrial and other arts, which are +primarily shaped by environment. + + + + +HABITAT + + +Excepting the Asiniboin, who are chiefly in Canada, nearly all of the +Siouan Indians are now gathered on the reservations indicated on earlier +pages, most of these reservations lying within the aboriginal territory of +the stock. + +At the advent of white men, the Siouan territory was vaguely defined, and +its limits were found to vary somewhat from exploration to exploration. +This vagueness and variability of habitat grew out of the characteristics +of the tribesmen. Of all the great stocks south of the Arctic, the Siouan +was perhaps least given to agriculture, most influenced by hunting, and +most addicted to warfare; thus most of the tribes were but feebly attached +to the soil, and freely followed the movements of the feral fauna as it +shifted with climatic vicissitudes or was driven from place to place by +excessive hunting or by fires set to destroy the undergrowth in the +interests of the chase; at the same time, the borderward tribes were +alternately driven and led back and forth through strife against the +tribes of neighboring stocks. Accordingly the Siouan habitat can be +outlined only in approximate and somewhat arbitrary fashion. + +The difficulty in defining the priscan home of the Siouan tribes is +increased by its vast extent and scant peopling, by the length of the +period intervening between discovery in the east and complete exploration +in the west, and by the internal changes and migrations which occurred +during this period. The task of collating the records of exploration and +pioneer observation concerning the Siouan and other stocks was undertaken +by Powell a few years ago, and was found to be of great magnitude. It was +at length successfully accomplished, and the respective areas occupied by +the several stocks were approximately mapped.(51) + +As shown on Powell's map, the chief part of the Siouan area comprised a +single body covering most of the region of the Great plains, stretching +from the Rocky mountains to the Mississippi and from the Arkansas-Red +river divide nearly to the Saskatchewan, with an arm crossing the +Mississippi and extending to Lake Michigan. In addition there were a few +outlying bodies, the largest and easternmost bordering the Atlantic from +Santee river nearly to Capes Lookout and Hatteras, and skirting the +Appalachian range northward to the Potomac; the next considerable area lay +on the Gulf coast about Pascagoula river and bay, stretching nearly from +the Pearl to the Mobile; and there were one or two unimportant areas on +Ohio river, which were temporarily occupied by small groups of Siouan +Indians during recent times. + +There is little probability that the Siouan habitat, as thus outlined, ran +far into the prehistoric age. As already noted, the Siouan Indians of the +plains were undoubtedly descended from the Siouan tribes of the east +(indeed the Mandan had a tradition to that effect); and reason has been +given for supposing that the ancestors of the prairie hunters followed the +straggling buffalo through the cis-Mississippi forests into his normal +trans-Mississippi habitat and spread over his domain save as they were +held in check by alien huntsmen, chiefly of the warlike Caddoan and Kiowan +tribes; and the buffalo itself was a geologically recent--indeed +essentially post-glacial--animal. Little if any definite trace of Siouan +occupancy has been found in the more ancient prehistoric works of the +Mississippi valley. On the whole it appears probable that the prehistoric +development of the Siouan stock and habitat was exceptionally rapid, that +the Siouan Indians were a vigorous and virile people that arose quickly +under the stimulus of strong vitality (the acquisition of which need not +here be considered), coupled with exceptionally favorable opportunity, to +a power and glory culminating about the time of discovery. + + + + +ORGANIZATION + + +The demotic organization of the Siouan peoples, so far as known, is set +forth in considerable detail in Mr Dorsey's treatises(52) and in the +foregoing enumeration of tribes, confederacies, and other linguistic +groups. + +Like the other aborigines north of Mexico, the Siouan Indians were +organized on the basis of kinship, and were thus in the stage of tribal +society. All of the best-known tribes had reached that plane in +organization characterized by descent in the male line, though many +vestiges and some relatively unimportant examples of descent in the female +line have been discovered. Thus the clan system was obsolescent and the +gentile system fairly developed; i. e., the people were practically out of +the stage of savagery and well advanced in the stage of barbarism. + +Confederation for defense and offense was fairly defined and was +strengthened by intermarriage between tribes and gentes and the +prohibition of marriage within the gens; yet the organization was such as +to maintain tribal autonomy in considerable degree; i.e., the social +structure was such as to facilitate union in time of war and division into +small groups adapted to hunting in times of peace. No indication of +feudalism has been found in the stock. + +The government was autocratic, largely by military leaders sometimes +(particularly in peace) advised by the elders and priests; the leadership +was determined primarily by ability--prowess in war and the chase and +wisdom in the council,--and was thus hereditary only a little further than +characteristics were inherited; indeed, excepting slight recognition of +the divinity that doth hedge about a king, the leaders were practically +self-chosen, arising gradually to the level determined by their abilities. +The germ of theocracy was fairly developed, and apparently burgeoned +vigorously during each period of peace, only to be checked and withered +during the ensuing war when the shamans and their craft were forced into +the background. + +During recent years, since the tribes began to yield to the domination of +the peace-loving whites, the government and election are determined +chiefly by kinship, as appears from Dorsey's researches; yet definite +traces of the militant organization appear, and any man can win name and +rank in his gens, tribe, or confederacy by bravery or generosity. + +The institutional connection between the Siouan tribes of the plains and +those of the Atlantic slope and the Gulf coast is completely lost, and it +is doubtful whether the several branches have ever been united in a single +confederation (or "nation," in the language of the pioneers), at least +since the division in the Appalachian region perhaps five or ten centuries +ago. Since this division the tribes have separated widely, and some of the +bloodiest wars of the region in the historic period have been between +Siouan tribes; the most extensive union possessing the slightest claim to +federal organization was the great Dakota confederacy, which was grown +into instability and partial disruption; and most of the tribal unions and +coalitions were of temporary character. + +Although highly elaborate (perhaps because of this character), the Siouan +organization was highly unstable; with every shock of conflict, whether +intestine or external, some autocrats were displaced or slain; and after +each important event--great battle, epidemic, emigration, or destructive +flood--new combinations were formed. The undoubtedly rapid development of +the stock, especially after the passage of the Mississippi, indicates +growth by conquest and assimilation as well as by direct propagation (it +is known that the Dakota and perhaps other groups adopted aliens +regularly); and, doubtless for this reason in part, there was a strong +tendency toward differentiation and dichotomy in the demotic growth. In +some groups the history is too vague to indicate this tendency with +certainty; in others the tendency is clear. Perhaps the best example is +found in the Cegiha, which divided into two great branches, the stronger +of which threw off minor branches in the Osage and Kansa, and afterward +separated into the Omaha and Ponka, while the feebler branch also ramified +widely; and only less notable is the example of the Winnebago trunk, with +its three great branches in the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri. This strong +divergent tendency in itself suggests rapid, perhaps abnormally rapid, +growth in the stock; for it outran and partially concealed the tendency +toward convergence and ultimate coalescence which characterizes demotic +phenomena. + +The half-dozen eastern stocks occupying by far the greater part of North +America contrast strongly with the half-hundred local stocks covering the +Pacific coast; and none of the strong Atlantic stocks is more +characteristic, more sharply contrasted with the limited groups of the +western coast, or better understood as regards organization and +development, than the great Siouan stock of the northern interior. There +is promise that, as the demology of aboriginal America is pushed forward, +the records relating to the Siouan Indians and especially to their +structure and institutions will aid in explaining why some stocks are +limited and others extensive, why large stocks in general characterize the +interior and small stocks the coasts, and why the dominant peoples of the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were successful in displacing the +preexistent and probably more primitive peoples of the Mississippi valley. +While the time is not yet ripe for making final answer to these inquiries, +it is not premature to suggest a relation between a peculiar development +of the aboriginal stocks and a peculiar geographic conformation: In +general the coastward stocks are small, indicating a provincial shoreland +habit, yet their population and area commonly increase toward those shores +indented by deep bays, along which maritime and inland industries +naturally blend; so (confining attention to eastern United States) the +extensive Muskhogean stock stretches inland from the deep-bayed eastern +Gulf coast; and so, too, three of the largest stocks on the continent +(Algonquian, Iroquoian, Siouan) stretch far into the interior from the +still more deeply indented Atlantic coast. In two of these cases +(Iroquoian and Siouan) history and tradition indicate expansion and +migration from the land of bays between Cape Lookout and Cape May, while +in the third there are similar (though perhaps less definite) indications +of an inland drift from the northern Atlantic bays and along the +Laurentian river and lakes. + + + + +HISTORY(53) + + + +DAKOTA-ASINIBOIN + + +The Dakota are mentioned in the Jesuit Relations as early as 1639-40; the +tradition is noted that the Ojibwa, on arriving at the Great Lakes in an +early migration from the Atlantic coast, encountered representatives of +the great confederacy of the plains. In 1641 the French voyageurs met the +Potawatomi Indians flying from a nation called Nadawessi (enemies); and +the Frenchmen adopted the alien name for the warlike prairie tribes. By +1658 the Jesuits had learned of the existence of thirty Dakota villages +west-northwest from the Potawatomi mission St Michel; and in 1689 they +recorded the presence of tribes apparently representing the Dakota +confederacy on the upper Mississippi, near the mouth of the St Croix. +According to Croghan's History of Western Pennsylvania, the "Sue" Indians +occupied the country southwest of Lake Superior about 1759; and Dr T.S. +Williamson, "the father of the Dakota mission," states that the Dakota +must have resided about the confluence of the Mississippi and the +Minnesota or St Peters for at least two hundred years prior to 1860. + +According to traditions collected by Dorsey, the Teton took possession of +the Black Hills region, which had previously been occupied by the Crow +Indians, long before white men came; and the Yankton and Yanktonnai, which +were found on the Missouri by Lewis and Clark, were not long removed from +the region about Minnesota river. In 1862 the Santee and other Dakota +tribes united in a formidable outbreak in which more than 1,000 whites +were massacred or slain in battle. Through this outbreak and the +consequent governmental action toward the control and settlement of the +tribes, much was learned concerning the characteristics of the people, and +various Indian leaders became known; Spotted Tail, Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, +Sitting Bull, American Horse, and Even-his-horse-is-feared (commonly +miscalled Man-afraid-of-his-horses) were among the famous Dakota chiefs +and warriors, notable representatives of a passing race, whose names are +prominent in the history of the country. Other outbreaks occurred, the +last of note resulting from the ghost-dance fantasy in 1890-91, which +fortunately was quickly suppressed. Yet, with slight interruptions, the +Dakota tribes in the United States were steadily gathered on reservations. +Some 800 or more still roam the prairies north of the international +boundary, but the great body of the confederacy, numbering nearly 28,000, +are domiciled on reservations (already noted) in Minnesota, Montana, +Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota. + +The separation of the Asiniboin from the Wazi-kute gens of the Yanktonai +apparently occurred before the middle of the seventeenth century, since +the Jesuit relation of 1658 distinguishes between the Poualak or Guerriers +(undoubtedly the Dakota proper) and the Assiuipoualak or Guerriers de +pierre. The Asiniboin are undoubtedly the Essanape (Essanapi or Assinapi) +who were next to the Makatapi (Dakota) in the Walam-Olum record of the +Lenni-Lenape or Delaware. In 1680 Hennepin located the Asiniboin northeast +of the Issati (Isanyati or Santee) who were on Knife lake (Minnesota); and +the Jesuit map of 1681 placed them on Lake-of-the-Woods, then called "L. +Assinepoualacs." La Hontan claimed to have visited the Eokoro (Arikara) in +1689-90, when the Essanape were sixty leagues above; and Perrot's Memoire +refers to the Asiniboin as a Sioux tribe which, in the seventeenth +century, seceded from their nation and took refuge among the rocks of +Lake-of-the-Woods. Chauvignerie located some of the tribe south of +Ounipigan (Winnipeg) lake in 1736, and they were near Lake-of-the-Woods as +late as 1766, when they were said to have 1,500 warriors. It is well known +that in 1829 they occupied a considerable territory west of the Dakota and +north of Missouri river, with a population estimated at 8,000; and Drake +estimated their number at 10,000 before the smallpox epidemic of 1838, +which is said to have carried off 4,000. From this blow the tribe seems +never to have fully recovered, and now numbers probably no more than +3,000, mostly in Canada, where they continue to roam the plains they have +occupied for half a century. + + + +cEGIHA + + +According to tribal traditions collected by Dorsey, the ancestors of the +Omaha, Ponka, Elwapa, Osage, and Kansa were originally one people dwelling +on Ohio and Wabash rivers, but gradually working westward. The first +separation took place at the mouth of the Ohio, when those who went down +the Mississippi became the Kwapa or Downstream People, while those who +ascended the great river became the Omaha or Up-stream People. This +separation must have occurred at least as early as 1500, since it preceded +De Soto's discovery of the Mississippi. + +The Omaha group (from whom the Osage, Kansa, and Ponka were not yet +separated) ascended the Mississippi to the mouth of the Missouri, where +they remained for some time, though war and hunting parties explored the +country northwestward, and the body of the tribe gradually followed these +pioneers, though the Osage and Kansa were successively left behind. Some +of the pioneer parties discovered the pipestone quarry, and many +traditions cling about this landmark. Subsequently they were driven across +the Big Sioux by the Yankton Indians, who then lived toward the confluence +of the Minnesota and Mississippi. The group gradually differentiated and +finally divided through the separation of the Ponka, probably about the +middle of the seventeenth century. The Omaha gathered south of the +Missouri, between the mouths of the Platte and Niobrara, while the Ponka +pushed into the Black Hills country. + +The Omaha tribe remained within the great bend of the Missouri, opposite +the mouth of the Big Sioux, until white men came. Their hunting ground +extended westward and southwestward, chiefly north of the Platte and along +the Elkhorn, to the territory of the Ponka and the Pawnee (Caddoan); and +in 1766 Carver met their hunting parties on Minnesota river. Toward the +end of the eighteenth century they were nearly destroyed by smallpox, +their number having been reduced from about 3,500 to but little over 300 +when they were visited by Lewis and Clark, their famous chief Blackbird +being one of those carried off by the epidemic. Subsequently they +increased in numbers; in 1890 their population was about 1,200. They are +now on reservations, mostly owning land in severalty, and are citizens of +the United States and of the state of Nebraska. + +Although the name Ponka did not appear in history before 1700 it must have +been used for many generations earlier, since it is an archaic designation +connected with the social organization of several tribes and the secret +societies of the Osage and Kansa, as well as the Ponka. In 1700 the Ponka +were indicated on De l'Isle's map, though they were not then segregated +territorially from the Omaha. They, too, suffered terribly from the +smallpox epidemic, and when met by Lewis and Clark in 1804 numbered only +about 200. They increased rapidly, reaching about 600 in 1829 and some 800 +in 1842; in 1871, when they were first visited by Dorsey, they numbered +747. Up to this time the Ponka and Dakota were amicable; but a dispute +grew out of the cession of lands, and the Teton made annual raids on the +Ponka until the enforced removal of the tribe to Indian Territory took +place in 1877. Through this warfare, more than a quarter of the Ponka lost +their lives. The displacement of this tribe from lands owned by them in +fee simple attracted attention, and a commission was appointed by +President Hayes in 1880 to inquire into the matter; the commission, +consisting of Generals Crook and Miles and Messrs William Stickney and +Walter Allen, visited the Ponka settlements in Indian Territory and on the +Niobrara and effected a satisfactory arrangement of the affairs of the +tribe, through which the greater portion (some 600) remained in Indian +Territory, while some 225 kept their reservation in Nebraska. + +When the cegiha divided at the mouth of the Ohio, the ancestors of the +Osage and Kansa accompanied the main Omaha body up the Mississippi to the +mouth of Osage river. There the Osage separated from the group, ascending +the river which bears their name. They were distinguished by Marquette in +1673 as the "Ouchage" and "Autrechaha," and by Penicaut in 1719 as the +"Huzzau," "Ous," and "Wawha." According to Croghan, they were, in 1759, on +"White creek, a branch of the Mississippi," with the "Grand Tuc;" +but"White creek" (or White water) was an old designation for Osage river, +and "Grand Tuc" is, according to Mooney, a corruption of "Grandes Eaux," +or Great Osage; and there is accordingly no sufficient reason for +supposing that they returned to the Mississippi. Toward the close of the +eighteenth century the Osage and Kansa encountered the Comanche and +perhaps other Shoshonean peoples, and their course was turned southward; +and in 1817, according to Brown, the Great Osage and Little Osage were +chiefly on Osage and Arkansas rivers, in four villages. In 1829 Porter +described their country as beginning 25 miles west of the Missouri line +and running to the Mexican line of that date, being 50 miles wide; and he +gave their number as 5,000. According to Schoolcraft, they numbered 3,758 +in April, 1853, but this was after the removal of an important branch +known as Black Dog's band to a new locality farther down Verdigris river. +In 1850 the Osage occupied at least seven large villages, besides numerous +small ones, on Neosho and Verdigris rivers. In 1873, when visited by +Dorsey, they were gathered on their reservations in what is now Oklahoma. +In 1890 they numbered 158. + +The Kansa remained with the Up-stream People in their gradual ascent of +the Missouri to the mouth of the Kaw or Kansas, when they diverged +westward; but they soon came in contact with inimical peoples, and, like +the Osage, were driven southward. The date of this divergence is not +fixed, but it must have been after 1723, when Bourgmont mentioned a large +village of "Quans" located on a small river flowing northward thirty +leagues above Kaw river, near the Missouri. After the cession of Louisiana +to the United States, a treaty was made with the Kansa Indians, who were +then on Kaw river, at the mouth of the Saline, having been forced back +from the Missouri by the Dakota; they then numbered about 1,500 and +occupied about thirty earth lodges. In 1825 they ceded their lands on the +Missouri to the Government, retaining a reservation on the Kaw, where they +were constantly subjected to attacks from the Pawnee and other tribes, +through which large numbers of their warriors were slain. In 1846 they +again ceded their lands and received a new reservation on Neosho river in +Kansas. This was soon overrun by settlers, when another reservation was +assigned to them in Indian Territory, near the Osage country. By 1890 +their population was reduced to 214. + +The Kwapa were found by De Soto in 1541 on the Mississippi above the mouth +of the St Francis, and, according to Marquette's map, they were partly +east of the Mississippi in 1673. In 1681 La Salle found them in three +villages distributed along the Mississippi, and soon afterward Tonty +mentioned four villages, one (Kappa = U{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}aqpaqti, "Real Kwapa") on the +Mississippi and three (Toyengan = Tanwan-ji{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED K~}a, "Small Village"; Toriman = +Ti-uadciman, and Osotonoy = Uzutiuwe) inland; this observation was +verified by Dorsey in 1883 by the discovery that these names are still in +use. In early days the Kwapa were known as "Akansa," or Arkansa, first +noted by La Metairie in 1682. It is probable that this name was an +Algonquian designation given because of confusion with, or recognition of +affinity to, the Kansa or Kanze, the prefix "a" being a common one in +Algouquian appellations. In 1687 Joutel located two of the villages of the +tribe on the Arkansas and two on the Mississippi, one of the latter being +on the eastern side. According to St Cosme, the greater part of the tribe +died of smallpox in October, 1699. In 1700 De l'Isle placed the principal +"Acansa" village on the southern side of Arkansas river; and, according to +Gravier, there were in 1701 five villages, the largest, Imaha (Omaha), +being highest on the Arkansas. In 1805 Sibley placed the "Arkensa" in +three villages on the southern side of Arkansas river, about 12 miles +above Arkansas post. They claimed to be the original proprietors of the +country bordering the Arkansas for 300 miles, or up to the confluence of +the Cadwa, above which lay the territory of the Osage. Subsequently the +Kwapa affiliated with the Caddo Indians, though of another stock; +according to Porter they were in the Caddo country in 1829. As +reservations were established, the Kwapa were re-segregated, and in 1877 +were on their reservation in northwestern Indian Territory; but most of +them afterward scattered, chiefly to the Osage country, where in 1890 they +were found to number 232. + + + +{~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}OIWE'RE + + +The ancestry and prehistoric movements of the tribes constituting this +group are involved in considerable obscurity, though it is known from +tradition as well as linguistic affinity that they sprung from the +Winnebago. + +Since the days of Marquette (1673) the Iowa have ranged over the country +between the Mississippi and Missouri, up to the latitude of Oneota +(formerly upper Iowa) river,- and even across the Missouri about the mouth +of the Platte. Chauvignerie located them, in 1736 west of the Mississippi +and (probably through error in identification of the waterway) south of +the Missouri; and in 1761 Jefferys placed them between Missouri river and +the headwaters of Des Moines river, above the Oto and below the Maha +(Omaha). In 1805, according to Drake, they dwelt on Des Moines river, +forty leagues above its mouth, and numbered 800. In 1811 Pike found them +in two villages on Des Moines and Iowa rivers. In 1815 they were decimated +by smallpox, and also lost heavily through war against the tribes of the +Dakota confederacy. In 1829 Porter placed them on the Little Platte, some +15 miles from the Missouri line, and about 1853 Schoolcraft located them +on Nemaha river, their principal village being near the mouth of the Great +Nemaha. In 1848 they suffered another epidemic of smallpox, by which 100 +warriors, besides women and children, were carried off. As the country +settled, the Iowa, like the other Indians of the stock, were collected on +reservations which they still occupy in Kansas and Oklahoma. According to +the last census their population was 273. + +The Missouri were first seen by Tonty about 1670; they were located near +the Mississippi on Marquette's map (1673) under the name of Ouemessourit, +probably a corruption of their name by the Illinois tribe, with the +characteristic Algonquian prefix. The name Missouri was first used by +Joutel in 1687. In 1723 Bourgmont located their principal village 30 +leagues below Kaw river and 60 leagues below the chief settlement of the +Kansa; according to Groghan, they were located on Mississippi river +opposite the Illinois country in 1759. Although the early locations are +somewhat indefinite, it seems certain that the tribe formerly dwelt on the +Mississippi about the mouth of the Missouri, and that they gradually +ascended the latter stream, remaining for a time between Grand and +Chariton rivers and establishing a town on the left bank of the Missouri +near the mouth of the Grand. There they were found by French traders, who +built a fort on an island quite near their village about the beginning of +the eighteenth century. Soon afterward they were conquered and dispersed +by a combination of Sac, Fox, and other Indians; they also suffered from +smallpox. On the division, five or six lodges joined the Osage, two or +three took refuge with the Kansa, and most of the remainder amalgamated +with the Oto. In 1805 Lewis and Clark found a part of the tribe, numbering +about 300, south of Platte river. The only known survivors in 1829 were +with the Oto, when they numbered no more than 80. In 1842 their village +stood on the southern bank of Platte river near the Oto settlement, and +they followed the latter tribe to Indian Territory in 1882. + +According to Winnebago tradition, the {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}iwe're tribes separated from that +"People of the parent speech" long ago, the Iowa being the first and the +Oto the last to leave. In 1673 the Oto were located by Marquette west of +Missouri river, between the fortieth and fortyfirst parallels; in 1680 +they were 130 leagues from the Illinois, almost opposite the mouth of the +Miskoncing (Wisconsin), and in 1687 they were on Osage river. According to +La Hontan they were, in 1690, on Otontas (Osage) river; and in 1698 +Hennepin placed them ten days' journey from Fort Creve Coeur. Iberville, in +1700, located the Iowa and Oto with the Omaha, between Wisconsin and +Missouri rivers, about 100 leagues from the Illinois tribe; and +Charlevoix, in 1721, fixed the Oto habitat as below that of the Iowa and +above that of the Kansa on the western side of the Missouri. Dupratz +mentions the Oto as a small nation on Missouri river in 1758, and Jefferys +(1761) described them as occupying the southern bank of the Panis (Platte) +between its mouth and the Pawnee territory; according to Porter, they +occupied the same position in 1829. The Oto claimed the land bordering the +Platte from their village to the mouth of the river, and also that on both +sides of the Missouri as far as the Big Nemaha. In 1833 Catlin found the +Oto and Missouri together in the Pawnee country; about 1841 they were +gathered in four villages on the southern side of the Platte, from 5 to 18 +miles above its mouth. In 1880 a part of the tribe removed to the Sac and +Fox reservation in Indian Territory, where they still remain; in 1882 the +rest of the tribe, with the remnant of the Missouri, emigrated to the +Pouka, Pawnee, and Oto reservation in the present Oklahoma, where, in 1890 +they were found to number 400. + + + +WINNEBAGO + + +Linguistically the Winnebago Indians are closely related to the {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}iwe're +on the one side and to the Mandan on the other. They were first mentioned +in the Jesuit Relation of 1636, though the earliest known use of the name +Winnebago occurs in the Relation of 1640; Nicollet found them on Green bay +in 1639. According to Shea, the Winnebago were almost annihilated by the +Illinois (Algonquian) tribe in early days, and the historical group was +made up of the survivors of the early battles. Cbauvignerie placed the +Winnebago on Lake Superior in 1736, and Jefferys referred to them and the +Sac as living near the head of Green bay in 1761; Carver mentions a +Winnebago village on a small island near the eastern end of Winnebago lake +in 1778. Pike enumerated seven Winnebago villages existing in 1811; and in +1822 the population of the tribe was estimated at 5,800 (including 900 +warriors) in the country about Winnebago lake and extending thence +southwestward to the Mississippi. By treaties in 1825 and 1832 they ceded +their lands south of Wisconsin and Fox rivers for a reservation on the +Mississippi above the Oneota; one of their villages in 1832 was at Prairie +la Grosse. They suffered several visitations of smallpox; the third, which +occurred in 1836, carried off more than a quarter of the tribe. A part of +the people long remained widely distributed over their old country east of +the Mississippi and along that river in Iowa and Minnesota; in 1840 most +of the tribe removed to the neutral ground in the then territory of Iowa; +in 1846 they surrendered their reservation for another above the +Minnesota, and in 1856 they were removed to Blue Earth, Minnesota. Here +they were mastering agriculture, when the Sioux war broke out and the +settlers demanded their removal. Those who had taken up farms, thereby +abandoning tribal rights, were allowed to remain, but the others were +transferred to Crow creek, on Missouri river, whence they soon escaped. +Their privations and sufferings were terrible; out of 2,000 taken to Crow +creek only 1,200 reached the Omaha reservation, whither most of them fled. +They were assigned a new reservation on the Omaha lands, where they now +remain, occupying lands allotted in severalty. In 1890 there were 1,215 +Winnebago on the reservation, but nearly an equal number were scattered +over Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, where they now live chiefly +by agriculture, with a strong predilection for hunting. + + + +MANDAN + + +The Mandan had a vague tradition of emigration from the eastern part of +the country, and Lewis and Clark, Prince Maximilian, and others found +traces of Mandan house-structures at various points along the Missouri; +thus they appear to have ascended that stream before the advent of the +cegiha. During the historical period their movements were limited; they +were first visited in the upper Missouri country by Sieur de la Verendrye +in 1738. About 1750 they established two villages on the eastern side and +seven on the western side of the Missouri, near the mouth of Heart river. +Here they were assailed by the Asiniboin and Dakota and attacked by +smallpox, and were greatly reduced; the two eastern villages consolidated, +and the people migrated up the Missouri to a point 1,430 miles above its +mouth (as subsequently determined by Lewis and Clark); the seven villages +were soon reduced to five, and these people also ascended the river and +formed two villages in the Arikara country, near the Mandan of the eastern +side, where they remained until about 1766, when they also consolidated. +Thus the once powerful and populous tribe was reduced to two villages +which, in 1804, were found by Lewis and Clark on opposite banks of the +Missouri, about 4 miles below Knife river. Here for a time the tribe waxed +and promised to regain the early prestige, reaching a population of 1,600 +in 1837; but in that year they were again attacked by smallpox and almost +annihilated, the survivors numbering only 31 according to one account, or +125 to 145 according to others. After this visitation they united in one +village. When the Hidatsa removed from Knife river in 1845, some of the +Mandan accompanied them, and others followed at intervals as late as 1858, +when only a few still remained at their old home. In 1872 a reservation +was set apart for the Hidatsa and Arikara and the survivors of the Mandan +on Missouri and Yellowstone rivers in Dakota and Montana, but in 1886 the +reservation was reduced. According to the census returns, the Mandan +numbered 252 in 1890. + + + +HIDATSA + + +There has been much confusion concerning the definition and designation of +the Hidatsa Indians. They were formerly known as Minitari or Gros Ventres +of the Missouri, in distinction from the Gros Ventres of the plains, who +belong to another stock. The origin of the term Gros Ventres is somewhat +obscure, and various observers have pointed out its inapplicability, +especially to the well-formed Hidatsa tribesmen. According to Dorsey, the +French pioneers probably translated a native term referring to a +traditional buffalo paunch, which occupies a prominent place in the +Hidatsa mythology and which, in early times, led to a dispute and the +separation of the Crow from the main group some time in the eighteenth +century. + +The earlier legends of the Hidatsa are vague, but there is a definite +tradition of a migration northward, about 1765, from the neighborhood of +Heart river, where they were associated with the Mandan, to Knife river. +At least as early as 1796, according to Matthews, there were three +villages belonging to this tribe on Knife river--one at the mouth, another +half a mile above, and the third and largest 3 miles from the mouth. Here +the people were found by Lewis and Clark in 1804, and here they remained +until 1837, when the scourge of smallpox fell and many of the people +perished, the survivors uniting in a single village. About 1845 the +Hidatsa and a part of the Mandan again migrated up the Missouri, and +established a village 30 miles by land and 60 miles by water above their +old home, within what is now Fort Berthold reservation. Their population +has apparently varied greatly, partly by reason of the ill definition of +the tribe by different enumerators, partly by reason of the inroads of +smallpox. In 1890 they numbered 522. + +The Crow people are known by the Hidatsa as Kihatsa +(They-refused-the-paunch), according to Matthews; and Dorsey points out +that their own name, Absaruke, does not mean " crow," but refers to a +variety of hawk. Lewis and Clark found the tribe in four bands. In 1817 +Brown located them on Yellowstone river. In 1829 they were described by +Porter as ranging along Yellowstone river on the eastern side of the Bocky +mountains, and numbered at 4,000; while in 1834, according to Drake, they +occupied the southern branch of the Yellowstone, about the fortysixth +parallel and one hundred and fifth meridian, with a population of 4,500. +In 1842 their number was estimated at 4,000, and they were described as +inhabiting the headwaters of the Yellowstone. They have since been duly +gathered on the Crow reservation in Montana, and are slowly adopting +civilization. In 1890 they numbered 2,287. + + + +THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN TRIBES + + +The history of the Monakan, Oatawba, Sara, Pedee, and Santee, and +incidentally that of the Biloxi, has been carefully reviewed in a recent +publication by Mooney(54) , and does not require repetition. + + + +GENERAL MOVEMENTS + + +On reviewing the records of explorers and pioneers and the few traditions +which have been preserved, the course of Siouan migration and development +becomes clear. In general the movements were westward and northwestward. +The Dakota tribes have not been traced far, though several of them, like +the Yanktonnai, migrated hundreds of miles from the period of first +observation to the end of the eighteenth century; then came the Mandan, +according to their tradition, and as they ascended the Missouri left +traces of their occupancy scattered over 1,000 miles of migration; next +the cegiha descended the Ohio and passed from the cis-Mississippi forests +over the trans-Mississippi plains--the stronger branch following the +Mandan, while the lesser at first descended the great river and then +worked up the Arkansas into the buffalo country until checked and diverted +by antagonistic tribes. So also the {~LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T~}{~LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O~}iwe're, first recorded near the +Mississippi, pushed 300 miles westward; while the Winnebago gradually +emigrated from the region of the Great Lakes into the trans-Mississippi +country even before their movements were affected by contact with white +men. In like manner the Hidatsa are known to have flowed northwestward +many scores of miles; and the Asiniboin swept more rapidly across the +plains from the place of their rebellion against the Yanktonnai, on the +Mississippi, before they found final resting place on the Saskatchewan +plains 500 or 800 miles away. All of the movements were consistent and, +despite intertribal friction and strife, measurably harmonious. The lines +of movement, so far as they can be restored, are in full accord with the +lines of linguistic evolution traced by Hale and Dorsey and Gatschet, and +indicate that some five hundred or possibly one thousand years ago the +tribesmen pushed over the Appalachians to the Ohio and followed that +stream and its tributaries to the Mississippi (though there are faint +indications that some of the early emigrants ascended the northern +tributaries to the region of the Great Lakes); and that the human flood +gained volume as it advanced and expanded to cover the entire region of +the plains. The records concerning the movement of this great human stream +find support in the manifest reason for the movement; the reason was the +food quest by which all primitive men are led, and its end was the +abundant fauna of the prairieland, with the buffalo at its head. + +While the early population of the Siouan stock, when first the huntsmen +crossed the Appalachians, may not be known, the lines of migration +indicate that the people increased and multiplied amain during their long +journey, and that their numbers culminated, despite external conflict and +internal strife, about the beginning of written history, when the Siouan +population may have been 100,000 or more. Then came war against the whites +and the still more deadly smallpox, whereby the vigorous stock was checked +and crippled and the population gradually reduced; but since the first +shock, which occurred at different dates in different parts of the great +region, the Siouan people have fairly held their own, and some branches +are perhaps gaining in strength. + + + + + +SOME FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIOLOGY + + +As shown by Powell, there are two fundamentally distinct classes or stages +in human society--(1) tribal society and (2) national society. National +society characterizes civilization; primarily it is organized on a +territorial basis, but as enlightenment grows the bases are multiplied. +Tribal society is characteristic of savagery and barbarism; so far as +known, all tribal societies are organized on the basis of kinship. The +transfer from tribal society to national society is often, perhaps always, +through feudalism, in which the territorial motive takes root and in which +the kinship motive withers. + +All of the American aborigines north of Mexico and most of those farther +southward were in the stage of tribal society when the continents were +discovered, though feudalism was apparently budding in South America, +Central America, and parts of Mexico. The partly developed transitional +stage may, for the present, be neglected, and American Indian sociology +may be considered as representing tribal society or kinship organization. + +The fundamental principles of tribal organization through kinship have +been formulated by Powell; they are as follows:(55) + + I. A body of kindred constituting a distinct body politic is divided + into groups, the males into groups of brothers and the females into + groups of sisters, on distinctions of generations, regardless of + degrees of consanguinity; and the kinship terms used express + relative age. In civilized society kinships are classified on + distinctions of sex, distinctions of generations, and distinctions + arising from degrees of consanguinity. + II. When descent is in the female line, the brother-group consists of + natal brothers, together with all the materterate male cousins of + whatever degree. Thus mother's sisters' sons and mother's mother's + sisters' daughters' sons, etc, are included in a group with natal + brothers. In like manner the sister-group is composed of natal + sisters, together with all materterate female cousins of whatever + degree. + III. When descent is in the male line, the brother-group is composed of + natal brothers, together with all patruate male cousins of whatever + degree, and the sister-group is composed of natal sisters, together + with all patruate female cousins of whatever degree. + IV. The son of a member of a brother-group calls each one of the group, + father; the father of a member of a brother-group calls each one of + the group, son. Thus a father-group is coextensive with the + brother-group to which the father belongs. A brother-group may also + constitute a father-group and grandfather-group, a son-group and a + grandson-group. It may also be a patruate-group and an avunculate + group. It may also be a patruate cousin-group and an avunculate + cousin-group; and in general, every member of a brother-group has + the same consanguineal relation to persons outside of the group as + that of every other member. + +Two postulates concerning primitive society, adopted by various ethnologic +students of other countries, have been erroneously applied to the American +aborigines; at the same time they have been so widely accepted as to +demand consideration. + +The first postulate is that primitive men were originally assembled in +chaotic hordes, and that organized society was developed out of the +chaotic mass by the segregation of groups and the differentiation of +functions within each group. Now the American aborigines collectively +represent a wide range in development, extending from a condition about as +primitive as ever observed well toward the verge of feudalism, and thus +offer opportunities for testing the postulate; and it has been found that +when higher and lower stages representing any portion of the developmental +succession are compared, the social organizations of the lower grade are +no less definite, perhaps more definite, than those pertaining to the +higher grade; so that when the history of demotic growth among the +American Indians is traced backward, the organizations are found on the +whole to grow more definite, albeit more simple. When the lines of +development revealed through research are projected still farther toward +their origin, they indicate an initial condition, directly antithetic to +the postulated horde, in which the scant population was segregated in +small discrete bodies, probably family groups; and that in each of these +bodies there was a definite organization, while each group was practically +independent of, and probably inimical to, all other groups. The testimony +of the observed institutions is corroborated by the testimony of language, +which, as clearly shown by Powell,(56) represents progressive combination +rather than continued differentiation, a process of involution rather than +evolution. It would appear that the original definitely organized groups +occasionally met and coalesced, whereby changes in organization were +required; that these compound groups occasionally coalesced with other +groups, both simple and compound, whereby they were elaborated in +structure, always with some loss in definiteness and permanence; and that +gradually the groups enlarged by incorporation, while the composite +organization grew complex and variable to meet the ever-changing +conditions. It would also appear that in some cases the corporeal growth +outran the structural or institutional growth, when the bodies--clans, +gentes, tribes, or confederacies--split into two or more fragments which +continued to grow independently; yet that in general the progress of +institutional developmentwent forward through incorporation of peoples and +differentiation of institutions. The same process was followed as tribal +society passed into national society; and it is the same process which is +today exalting national society into world society, and transforming +simple civilization into enlightenment. Thus the evoluffon of social +organization is from the simple and definite toward the complex and +variable; or from the involuntary to the voluntary; or from the +environment-shaped to the environment-shaping; or from the biotic to the +demotic. + +The second postulate, which may be regarded as a corollary of the first, +is that the primary conjugal condition was one of promiscuity, out of +which different forms ot marriage were successively segregated. Now the +wide range in institutional development exemplified by the American +Indians affords unprecedented opportunities for testing this postulate +also. The simplest demotic unit found among the aborigines is the clan or +mother-descent group, in which the normal conjugal relation is essentially +monogamous,(57) in which marriage is more or less strictly regulated by a +system of prohibitions, and in which the chief conjugal regulation is +commonly that of exogamy with respect to the clan; in higher groups, more +deeply affected by contact with neighboring peoples, the simple clan +organization is sometimes found to be modified, (1) by the adoption and +subsequent conjugation of captive men and boys, and, doubtless more +profoundly, (2) by the adoption and polygamous marriage of female +captives; and in still more highly organized groups the mother-descent is +lost and polygamy is regular and limited only by the capacity of the +husband as a provider. The second and third stages are commonly +characterized, like the first, by established prohibitions and by clan +exogamy; though with the advance in organization amicable relations with +certain other groups are usually established, whereby the germ of tribal +organization is implanted and a system of interclan marriage, or tribal +endogamy, is developed. With further advance the mother-descent group is +transformed into a father-descent group, when the clan is replaced by the +gens; and polygamy is a common feature of the gentile organization. In all +of these stages the conjugal and consanguineal regulations are affected by +the militant habits characteristic of primitive groups; more warriors than +women are slain in battle, and there are more female captives than male; +and thus the polygamy is mainly or wholly polygyny. In many cases civil +conditions combine with or partially replace the militant conditions, yet +the tendency of conjugal development is not changed. Among the Seri +Indians, probably the most primitive tribe in North America, in which the +demotic unit is the clan, there is a rigorous marriage custom under which +the would-be groom is required to enter the family of the girl and +demonstrate (1) his capacity as a provider and (2) his strength of +character as a man, by a year's probation, before he is finally +accepted--the conjugal theory ofr the tribe being monogamy, though the +practice, at least during recent years, has, by reason of conditions, +passed into polygyny. Among several other tribes of more provident and +less exclusive habit, the first of the two conditions recognized by the +Seri is met by rich presents (representing accumulated property) from the +groom to the girl's family, the second condition being usually ignored, +the clan organization remaining in force; among still other tribes the +first condition is more or less vaguely recognized, though the voluntary +present is commuted into, or replaced by, a negotiated value exacted by +the girl's family, when the mother-descent is commonly vestigial; and in +the next stage, which is abundantly exemplified, wife-purchase prevails, +and the clan is replaced by the gens. In this succession the development +of wife-purchase and the decadence of mother-descent maybe traced, and it +is significant that there is a tendency first toward partial enslavement +of the wife and later toward the multiplication of wives to the limit of +the husband's means, and toward transforming all, or all but one, of the +wives into menials. Thus the lines of development under militant and civil +conditions are essentially parallel. It is possible to project these lines +some distance backward into the unknown, of the exceedingly primitive, +when they, are found to define small discrete bodies--just such as are +indicated by the institutional and linguistic lines--probably family +groups, which must have been essentially, and were perhaps strictly, +monogamous. It would appear that in these groups mating was either between +distant members (under a law of attraction toward the remote and repulsion +from the near, which is shared by mankind and the higher animals), or the +result of accidental meeting between nubile members of different groups; +that in the second case and sometimes in the first the conjugation +produced a new monogamic family; and that sometimes in the first case (and +possibly in the second) the new group retained a more or less definite +connection with the parent group--this connection constituting the germ of +the clan. In passing, it may be noted merely that this inferential origin +of the lines of institutional development is in accord with the habits of +certain higher and incipiently organized animals. From this hypothetic +beginning, primitive marriage may be traced through the various observed +stages of monogamy and polygamy and concubinage and wife-subordination, +through savagery and barbarism and into civilization, with its curious +combination of exoteric monogamy and esoteric promiscuity. Fortunately the +burden of the proof of this evolution does not now rest wholly on the +evidence obtained among the American aborigines; for Westermarck has +recently reviewed the records of observation among the primitive peoples +of many lands, and has found traces of the same sequence in all.(58) Thus +the evolution of marriage, like that of other human institutions, is from +the simple and definite to the complex and variable; i.e., from +approximate or complete monogamy through polygamy to a mixed status of +undetermined signification; or from the mechanical to the spontaneous; or +from the involuntary to the voluntary; or from the provincial to the +cosmopolitan. + +As implied in several foregoing paragraphs, and as clearly set forth in +various publications by Powell, tribal society falls into two classes or +stages--(1) clan organization and (2) gentile organization, these stages +corresponding respectively to savagery and barbarism, strictly defined. + +At the time of discovery, most of the American Indians were in the upper +stages of savagery and the lower stages of barbarism, as defined by +organization; among some tribes descent was reckoned in the female line, +though definite matriarchies have not been discovered; among several +tribes descent was and still is reckoned in the male line, and among all +of the tribes thus far investigated the patriarchal system is found. + +In tribal society, both clan and gentile, the entire social structure is +based on real or assumed kinship, and a large part of the demotic devices +are designed to establish, perpetuate, and advertise kinship relations. As +already indicated, the conspicuous devices in order of development are the +taboo with the prohibitions growing out of it, kinship nomenclature and +regulations, and a system of ordination by which incongruous things are +brought into association. + +Among the American Indians the taboo and derivative prohibitions are used +chiefly in connection with marriage and clan or gentile organization. +Marriage in the clan or gens is prohibited; among many tribes a vestige of +the inferential primitive condition is found in the curious prohibition of +communications between children-in-law and parents-in-law; the clan taboos +are commonly connected with the tutelar beast-god, perhaps represented by +a totem. + +The essential feature of the kinship terminology is the reckoning from +ego, whereby each individual remembers his own relation to every other +member of the clan or tribe; and commonly the kinship terms are classific +rather than descriptive (i.e., a single term expresses the relation which +in English is expressed by the phrase "My elder brother's second son's +wife"). The system is curiously complex and elaborate. It was not +discovered by the earlier and more superficial observers of the Indians, +and was brought out chiefly by Morgan, who detected numerous striking +examples among different tribes; but it would appear that the system is +not equally complete among all of the tribes, probably because of immature +development in some cases and because of decadence in others. + +The system of ordination, like that of kinship, is characterized by +reckoning from the ego and by adventitious associations. It may have been +developed from the kinship system through the need for recognition and +assignment of adopted captives, collective property, and other things +pertaining to the group; yet it bears traces of influence by the taboo +system. Its ramifications are wide: In some cases it emphasizes kinship by +assigning members of the family group to fixed positions about the +camp-fire or in the house; this function develops into the placement of +family groups in fixed order, as exemplified in the Iroquoian long-house +and the Siouan camping circle; or it develops into a curiously exaggerated +direction-concept culminating in the cult of the Four Quarters and the +Here, and this prepares the way for a quinary, decimal, and vigesimal +numeration; this last branch sends off another in which the cult of the +Six Quarters and the Here arises to prepare the way for the mystical +numbers 7, 13, and 7x7, whose vestiges come down to civilization; both the +four-quarter and the six-quarter associations are sometimes bound up with +colors; and there are numberless other ramifications. Sometimes the +function and development of these curious concepts, which constitute +perhaps the most striking characteristic of prescriptorial culture, are +obscure at first glance, and hardly to be discovered even through +prolonged research; yet, so far as they have been detected and +interpreted, they are especially adapted to fixing demotic relations; and +through them the manifold relations of individuals and groups are +crystallized and kept in mind. + +Thus the American Indians, including the Siouan stock, are made up of +families organized into clans or gentes, and combined in tribes, sometimes +united in confederacies, all on a basis of kinship, real or assumed; and +the organization is shaped and perpetuated by a series of devices +pertaining to the plane of prescriptorial culture, whereby each member of +the organization is constantly reminded of his position in the group. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Prepared as a complement and introduction to the following paper oil + "Siouan Sociology," by the late James Owen Dorsey. + + 2 "A synopsis of the Indian tribes ... in North America," Trans, and + Coll. Am. Antiq. Soc., vol. II, p. 120. + + 3 "Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico," Seventh + Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, for 1885-86 (1891), pp. + 111-118. Johnson's Cyclopedia, 1893-95 edition, vol. VII, p. 546, + etc. + + 4 Correspondence with the Bureau of Ethnology. + + 5 "The Tutelo tribe and language," Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. xxi, + 3883, p. 1. + + 6 Siouan Tribes of the East; Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, + 1894. + + 7 The subdivisions are set forth, in the following treatise on "Siouan + Sociology." + + 8 Travels in the Interior of North America; Translated by H. Evans + Lloyd; London, 1843, p. 194. In this and other lists of names taken + from early writers the original orthography and interpretation are + preserved. + + 9 "Defined in" The cegiha Language," by J. Owen Dorsey, Cont. N.A. + Eth., vol. VI, 1890, p. xv. Miss Fletcher, who is intimately + acquainted with the Omaha, questions whether the relations between + the tribes are so close as to warrant the maintenance of this + division; yet as an expression of linguistic affinity, at least, the + division seems to be useful and desirable. + + 10 Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, + performed in the years 1819-1820. ... under the Command of Major + S.H. Long, by Edwin James; London, 1823, vol. ii, p. 47 et seq. + + 11 Corrupted to "Chancers" in early days; cf. James ibid., vol. III, p. + 108. + + 12 Information Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the + Indian Tribes of the United States, part I, Philadelphia, 1853, p. + 498. + + 13 Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the + North American Indians, 4th edition; London, 1844, vol. I, p. 80. + + 14 Travels, op. cit., p. 335. + + 15 History of the Expedition, under the Command of Lewis and Clark, by + Elliott Coues, 1893, vol. I, pp. 182-4. The other two villages + enumerated appear to belong rather to the Hidatsa. Prince Maximilian + found but two villages in 1833, Mih-Tutta-Hang-Kush and Ruhptare, + evidently corresponding to the first two mentioned by the earlier + explorers (op. cit., p. 335). + + 16 Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indiana; Miscel. Publ. No. + 7, U.S. Geol. and Geog. Survey, 1877, p. 38. + + 17 Siouan Tribes of the East, p. 37. Local names derived from the + Saponi dialect were recognized and interpreted by a Kwapa when + pronounced by Dorsey. + + 18 The leading culture stages are defined in the Thirteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, for 1891-92 (1896), p. xxiii et + seq. + + 19 Cf. Schoolcraft, "Information," etc, op. cit., pt. II, 1852, p. 169. + Dorsey was inclined to consider the number as made up without the + Asiniboin. + + 20 Riggs-Dorsey: "Dakota Grammar,Texts, and Ethnography," Cont. N.A. + Eth., vol. IX, 1893, p. 164. + + 21 Catlin: "Letters and Notes," op. cit., p. 80. + + 22 Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America in the Years + 1766, 1767, and 1768; London, 1778, p. 418. + + 23 Op.cit., p.278. + + 24 Op. cit., p. 445. Carver says, "The dogs employed by the Indians in + hunting appear to be all of the same species; they carry their ears + erect, and greatly resemble a wolf about the head. They are + exceedingly useful to them in their hunting excursions and will + attack the fiercest of the game they are in pursuit of. They are + also remarkable for their fidelity to their masters, but being ill + fed by them are very troublesome in their huts or tents." + + 25 "Coues, "History of the Expedition," op. cit., vol. I, p. 140. A + note adds, "The dogs are not large, much resemble a wolf, and will + haul about 70 pounds each." + + 26 Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River ... + under the Command of Stephen H. Long, U.S.T.E., by William H. + Keating; London, 1825, vol. I, p. 451; vol. II, p. 44, et al. + Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains ... + under the Command of Major S.H. Long, U.S.T.E., by Edwin James; + London, 1823, vol. I, pp. 155, 182, et al. + + Say remarks (James, loc. cit., p. 155) of the coyote(?), "This + animal ... is probably the original of the domestic dog, so common + in the villages of the Indians of this region [about Council Bluffs + and Omaha], some of the varieties of which still retain much of the + habit and manners of this species." James says (loc. cit., vol. II, + p. 13), "The dogs of the Konzas are generally of a mixed breed, + between our dogs with pendent ears and the native dogs, whose ears + are universally erect. The Indians of this nation seek every + opportunity to cross the breed. These mongrel dogs are less common + with the Omawhaws, while the dogs of the Pawnees generally have + preserved their original form." + + 27 Travels in the Interior of North America; London, 1843. The Prince + adds, "In shape they differ very little from the wolf, and are + equally large and strong. Some are of the real wolf color; others + are black, white, or spotted with black and white, and differing + only by the tail being rather more turned up. Their voice is not a + proper barking, but a howl like that of the wolf, and they partly + descend from wolves, which approach the Indian huts, even in the + daytime, and mix with the dogs" (cf. p. 203 et al.). Writing at the + Mandan village, he says, "The Mandans and Manitaries have not, by + any means, so many dogs as the Assiniboin, Crows, and Blackfeet. + They are rarely of true wolf color, but generally black or white, or + else resemble the wolf, but here they are more like the prairie wolf + (_Canis latrans_). We likewise found among these animals a brown + race, descended from European pointers; hence the genuine bark of + the dog is more frequently heard here, whereas among the western + nations they only howl. The Indian dogs are worked very hard, have + hard blows and hard fare; in fact, they are treated just as this + fine animal is treated among the Esquimaux" (p. 345). + + 28 "Letters and Notes," etc, vol. I, p. 14; of. p. 230 et al. He speaks + (p. 201) of the Minitari canines as "semiloup dogs and whelps." + + 29 Keating's "Narrative," op. cit., vol. II, p. 452; James' "Account," + op. cit., vol. I, p.127 et al. + + 30 According to Prince Maximilian, both the Mandan and Minitari kept + owls in their lodges and regarded them as soothsayers ("Travels," + op. cit., pp. 383, 403), and the eagle was apparently tolerated for + the sake of his feathers. + + 31 "Cassa Tate, the antient tomahawk" on the plate illustrating the + objects ("Travels," op. cit., pl. 4, p. 298). + + 32 Described by Coues, "History of the Expedition under the Command of + Lewis and Clark," 1893, vol. I, p. 139, note. + + 33 "Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines," Cont. N.A. Eth., + vol. IV. 1881, p. 114. + + 34 "The American Bisons, Living and Extinct," by J.A. Allen; Memoirs of + the Geol. Survey of Kentucky, vol. 1, pt. ii, 1876, map; also pp. + 55, 72-101, et al. + + 35 Op. cit., p. 283 et seq. + + 36 Ibid., p. 435. + + 37 Ibid., p. 294. + + 38 "History of the Expedition under the Command of Lewis and Clark," + etc, by Elliott Coues, 1893 vol. 1, p. 175. It is noted that in + winter the Mandan kept their horses in their lodges at night, and, + fed them on cottonwood branches. Ibid., pp. 220, 233, et al. + + 39 Coues, Expedition of Lewis and Clark, vol. III, p. 839. + + 40 Ibid., vol. I, p. 140. + + 41 "The Story of the Indian," 1895, p. 237. + + 42 James' "Account," op. cit., vol. I, pp. 126, 148; vol. II, p. 12 et + al. + + 43 Ibid., vol. III, p. 107. + + 44 "Letters and Notes," op. cit., vol. I, pp. 142 (where the manner of + lassoing wild horses is mentioned), p. 251 et al.; "Travels," op. + cit., p. 149 et al. (The Crow were said to have between 9,000 and + 10,000 head, p. 174.) + + 45 Keating in Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. II, appendix, p. 152. + Riggs' "Dakota-English Dictionary," Cont. N.A. Eth., vol. VII, 1890. + + 46 Op. cit., p. 265. + + 47 "A study of Omaha Indian Music, by Alice C. Fletcher ... aided by + Francis La Flesche, with a report on the structural peculiarities of + the music, by John Comfort Fillmore, A.M.;" Arch. and Eth. papers of + the Peabody Museum, vol. I, No. 5, 1893, pp. i-vi + 7-152 + (=231-382). + + 48 Ordination, as the term is here used, comprehends regimentation as + defined by Powell, yet relates especially to the method of reckoning + from the constantly recognized but ever varying standpoint of + prescriptorial culture. + + 49 Several of these are summarized in "The emblematic use of the tree + in the Dakota group," Science, n.s., vol. IV, 1896, pp. 475-487. + + 50 Notably "A Study of Siouan Cults," Seventh Annual Report of the + Bureau of Ethnology for 1889-0*0 (1894), pp. 351-544. + + 51 Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, for 1885-86 + (1891), pp. 1-142, and map. + + 52 Chiefly "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., for 1881-82 + (1884), pp. 205-370; "A study of Siouan cults," Eleventh Ann. Rep. + Bur. Eth., for 1889-90 (1894), pp. 351-544, and that printed on the + following pages. + + 53 Taken chiefly from notes and manuscripts prepared by Mr Dorsey. + + 54 Sionan Tribes of the East, 1894. + + 55 Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, for 1881-82 (1884), + pp. xliv-xlv. + + 56 Notably in "Relation of primitive peoples to environment, + illustrated by American examples," Smithsonian Report for 1896, pp. + 625-638, especially p. 635. + + 57 Neither space nor present occasion warrants discussion of the + curious aphrodisian cults found among many peoples, usually in the + barbaric stage of development; it may be noted merely that this is + an aberrant branch from the main stem of institutional growth. The + subject is touched briefly in "The beginning of marriage," American + Anthropologist, vol. IX, pp. 371-383, Nov., 1896. + + 58 The History of Human Marriage (London, 1891), especially chapters + iv-vi, xiii-xv, xx-xxii. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SIOUAN INDIANS*** + + + +CREDITS + + +October 23, 2006 + + Posted to Project Gutenberg + PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, + Joshua Hutchinson and + The Online Distributed Proofreading Team + (This file was produced from images generously made available + by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at + http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19628.txt or 19628.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/6/2/19628/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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