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diff --git a/19503.txt b/19503.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bda1d6a --- /dev/null +++ b/19503.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8705 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - +Volume III by Charles Morris + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: October 9, 2006 [Ebook #19503] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III*** + + + + + +Historical Tales - The Romance of Reality - Volume III + + +by Charles Morris + + + + +Edition 1, (October 9, 2006) + + + + + + Philadelphia and London + J. B. Lippincott Company + + + + + +Copyright, 1904, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. +Copyright, 1908, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. + + + + + + [Illustration: DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS.] + + DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS. + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS. +A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE. +CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO. +LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ. +FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS. +AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE. +DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO. +COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM. +THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO. +A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS. +THE CITY OF PANAMA. +INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU. +SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT. +BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO. +RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR. +INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING. +THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA. +OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE. +ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO. +HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS. +ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE. +THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER. +BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC. +THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO. +THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS. +PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM. +GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON. +CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA. +THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA. +LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS. +DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS. +SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO. +MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA. +A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE +THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS +THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS. +CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA. +TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI. +BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA. +HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES. +PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM. +THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI. +COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL. +FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY. +TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER. +KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. +THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO. +WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA. +MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO. +MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE. +LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC." + + + + + + +THE ISLES OF BEAUTY BEYOND THE SEAS. + + +The 12th of October, 1492, ranks very high among the important dates in +the history of the world. For on that day men from Europe, then the centre +of civilization, first gazed on a rich new land beyond the seas, a great +virgin continent, destined to become the seat of flourishing civilizations +and to play a leading part in the later history of the world. Little did +Columbus and his companions, when they saw before them on that famous +morning a beautiful island, rising like a pearl of promise from the +sparkling tropical sea, dream of what time held in store for that +new-found land, foreordained to become the "New World" of the nations, the +hope of the oppressed, and the pioneer dwelling-place of liberty and +equality. + +But we are here concerned with only what they saw, and this was a green +and populous island, so covered with fresh verdure that it seemed to their +eyes like a continual orchard. An orchard it was, for many of the trees +were laden with new and strange fruits, of rare color and attractive form. +Never had they breathed air more pure and fresh, and never had they beheld +seas of such crystal clearness or verdure of more emerald hue; and it is +not surprising that their eyes sparkled with joy and their souls were +filled with wonder and delight as they gazed on this entrancing scene +after their long and dreaded journey over a vast and unknown ocean. + +Not less strange to the new-comers were the people who flocked in numbers +from the woods and ran to the shore, where they stood gazing in simple +wonder on the ships, winged marvels which had never met their eyes before. +No clothing hid their dusky, copper-colored skins, of a hue unknown to +their visitors, and they looked like the unclad tenants of some new +paradise. Their astonishment turned into fright when they saw boats leave +these strange monsters of the deep, in them men clad in shining steel or +raiment of varied color. Their white faces, their curling beards, their +splendid clothing, as it appeared to these simple denizens of the forest, +and especially the air of dignity of their leader, with his ample cloak of +scarlet, added to their amazement, and they viewed the strangers as divine +visitors, come to them from the skies. + +Not less was their surprise when they saw the wonderful strangers kneel +and kiss the soil, and then uplift a great and gleaming banner, of rich +colors and designs that seemed magical to their untaught eyes. And deep +was their delight when these strange beings distributed among them +wonderful gifts,--glass beads, hawk's bells, and other trifles,--which +seemed precious gems to their untutored souls. They had nothing to offer +in return, except tame parrots, of which they had many, and balls of +cotton-yarn; but the eyes of the Spaniards sparkled with hope when they +saw small ornaments of gold, which some of them wore. Happy had it been +for all the natives of the New World if this yellow metal had not existed +among them, for it was to bring them untold suffering and despair. + +Such was the island of San Salvador, as Columbus named this first-seen +land; but, leaving it, let us go with him in his voyage through that +island-sprinkled sea, and use his eyes in taking in the marvels with which +it was sown. Familiar as these islands have become to many of us, to him +they were all new, beautiful, and strange, a string of tropic pearls or +rare emeralds spread out along those shining waters of the South. + +On leaving San Salvador, the Spaniards, their hearts elate with joy and +pride in their discovery, hardly knew whither to go. They seemed drawn to +the right and the left alike. They found themselves in an archipelago of +beautiful islands, green and level, rising on all sides and seemingly +numberless. To us they are the great green cluster of the Bahamas, but to +Columbus, who fancied that he had reached the shores of Asia, they were +that wonderful archipelago spoken of by Marco Polo, in which were seven +thousand four hundred and fifty-eight islands, abounding with spices and +rich in odoriferous trees and shrubs. + +On went the Spanish caravels, sailing over bright and placid waters scarce +ruffled by the gentle breeze, and touching at isle after isle, each of +which seemed to the voyagers more beautiful than the last. Besting under +the shade of warm and verdant groves, while his men sought to fill their +water-casks from the purest and coolest springs, the admiral found the +scene around him entrancing to his vision, "the country as fresh and green +as the month of May in Andalusia; the trees, the fruits, the herbs, the +flowers, the very stones, for the most part, as different from those of +Spain as night from day." + + [Illustration: A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE.] + + A TROPICAL RIVER SCENE. + + +One isle, which he honored with the name of Isabella, after his patron, +the Spanish queen, surpassed in charm all he had yet seen. Like them all, +it was covered with rich vegetation, its climate delightful, its air soft +and balmy, its scenery so lovely that it seemed to him "as if one would +never desire to depart. I know not where first to go, nor are my eyes ever +weary of gazing on the beautiful verdure." + +Fresh water was abundant, and he ordered all the casks of the ships to be +filled. He could not say enough in praise of what he saw. "Here are large +lakes, and the groves about them are marvellous, and in all the island +everything is green, and the herbage as in April in Andalusia. The singing +of the birds is such that it seems as if one would never wish to leave +this land. There are flocks of parrots which hide the sun, and other +birds, large and small, of so many kinds, and so different from ours, that +it is wonderful; and besides, there are trees of a thousand species, each +having its particular fruit, and all of marvellous flavor, so that I am in +the greatest trouble in the world not to know them, for I am very certain +that they are each of great value." + +As he approached this island, he fancied that the winds bore to his senses +the spicy odors said to be wafted from the islands of the East Indian +seas. "As I arrived at this cape," he said, "there came off a fragrance so +good and soft of the flowers or trees of the land that it was the sweetest +thing in the world." + +Not only were the islands the homes of birds of brilliant plumage and +flowers of gorgeous hue, but the very seas seemed to their new visitors +like tropical gardens, for the fish with which they abounded rivalled the +birds and flowers in brilliancy of color. The scales of some of them +glittered like precious stones, and gleams of gold and silver seemed to +come from them as they swam around the ships, while the dolphins taken +from the water changed color like the chameleon. + +The natives who had been taken on board the ships made signs which seemed +to indicate that more wonderful islands were yet to be seen, with cities +and kings and queens, and abundance of gold and gems; or, at least, the +Spaniards understood this from their signs, as they pointed to the south +when gold was shown them and they were asked where it could be found. Far +to the south was a great island which they named Cuba, and another which +they called Bohio. Cuba, as their signs appeared to show, was of vast +extent and abounded with gold, pearls, and spices, and Columbus determined +to sail for it, hoping there to find the wealth which he and his +companions so ardently craved. It cannot be said that the natives wished +to deceive them, but no doubt they willingly agreed to all they were +asked, with the innocent desire of pleasing their wonderful new friends. +Columbus, full of the idea that he was near the shores of India, hoped to +reach the city of Quinsai, which Marco Polo had said was one of the most +magnificent in the world, and there deliver the letter of his sovereigns +to the Grand Khan of the Indies and bring back his reply to Spain. +Inspired by this enticing hope, he left the Bahamas and turned the prows +of his small fleet towards the isle of Cuba. + +It was on the morning of October 28 that the shores of this noble island +first met the eyes of the eager mariners. As the small fleet swept along +its coast the admiral was struck with its size and grandeur; its high and +airy mountains, like those of Sicily; its long and sweeping plains, and +the fertile valleys of its broad rivers; its far-reaching forests and many +green headlands, which led them on and on into the remote distance. They +anchored at length in a beautiful river, whose waters were transparent and +deeply shaded with overhanging trees. Here Columbus had himself rowed up +the stream, which seemed to grow more enchanting with every mile, forests +of lofty and spreading trees crowding down to its banks, some in fruit, +some in flower, some bearing fruits and flowers at once. These woods +swarmed with birds of brilliant plumage,--the scarlet flamingo, the +rich-hued parrots and woodpeckers, the tiny and sparkling humming-birds, +which flitted on rainbow wings from flower to flower, and which no +European had ever before seen. Even the insects were beautiful, in their +shining coats of mail. Though most of the birds were silent, the charms of +song were not wanting, and the excited fancy of Columbus detected among +them notes like those of the nightingale. Ever open to the charms of +nature, Cuba seemed to him an elysium, "the most beautiful island that +eyes ever beheld." + +He was sure there must here be mines of gold, groves of spices, rivers and +seas that bore pearls. The houses, though simple in structure, were well +built and clean, roofed with palm-leaves and shaded by spreading trees. +Led on still by his excited fancy, he hoped soon to find great cities and +rich settlements, but none such greeted his gaze. Assured that the capital +of the Grand Khan could not be far away, he sent two ambassadors, with +presents, to the interior, in a direction pointed out by the people. But +after going many miles they found only a village of fifty houses, like +those seen on the coast. There was no gold or silver, no spices, none of +the things they so ardently sought. The only thing new to their eyes was a +fashion seen among the people, who rolled up certain dried and aromatic +leaves, and, lighting one end, put the other in their mouths, and exhaled +the smoke. This was the first ever seen by white men of that remarkable +American plant, called by the natives by a name like tobacco, which has +since grown to be a favorite throughout the world, in palace and hovel +alike. + +Sailing onward along the Cuban coast, the imagination of Columbus was +continually aroused by the magnificence, freshness, and verdant charm of +the scenery, which he could not praise too highly. A warm love of nature +is frequently displayed in the description of the country which he wrote +out for Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain. Of one place, named by him +Puerto Santo, he said: "The amenity of this river, and the clearness of +the water, through which the sand at the bottom may be seen; the multitude +of palm-trees of various forms, the highest and most beautiful that I have +met with, and an infinity of other great and green trees; the birds in +rich plumage, and the verdure of the fields, render this country, most +Serene Princess, of such marvellous beauty, that it surpasses all others +in graces and charm, as the day doth the night in lustre. For which reason +I often say to my people, that, much as I endeavor to give a complete +account of it to your Majesties, my tongue cannot express the whole truth +or my tongue describe it; and I have been so overwhelmed at the sight of +so much beauty that I have not known how to relate it." + +One more island he was yet to see in this marvellous series of +discoveries,--the one called by the natives Bohio or Babeque, now known as +Hayti, one of the most beautiful islands in the world in the splendor of +its tropical vegetation. Columbus and his men could describe it only by +comparison with the most beautiful provinces of the country from which +they came, and in consequence he named the island Hispaniola, or "Little +Spain." + +Here he found the people as innocent and simple in their habits as those +of San Salvador, living in huts built of the palm-branches, wearing no +clothing, for the air was always warm and balmy, and passing life in a +holiday of indolence and enjoyment. To the Spaniards their life seemed +like a pleasant dream, their country a veritable Lotus land, where it was +"always afternoon." They had no wants nor cares, and spent life in easy +idleness and innocent sports. They had their fields, but the food plants +grew bountifully with little labor. The rivers and sea yielded abundance +of fish, and luscious tropical fruits grew profusely in their forests. +Thus favored by nature, they spent much of the day in repose, while in the +evenings they danced gayly in their fragrant groves with songs or the rude +music of their drums. After the coming of the Spaniards the clear tinkle +of the hawk's bells as they danced gave them the deepest delight, and for +those musical toys they were ready to barter everything they possessed. + +In Hispaniola gold seemed more plentiful than the Spaniards had yet seen, +but they were still lured on to distant places, with the illusive hope +that this precious metal might there be found in quantities. Yet Columbus +felt forced to cease, for a time, the quest of the precious metal, and +sail for home with the story of the new world he had found. One of his +vessels had deserted him; another had been wrecked: if he should lose the +third he would be left without means of return and his great discovery +might remain unknown. + +Moved by this fear, on the 4th of January, 1493, he spread the sails of +the one caravel left to him, and turned its prow towards Europe, to carry +thither the news of the greatest maritime discovery the world had ever +known. Thus ended in success and triumph the first voyage of Columbus to +the "New World." + + + + + +ALONSO DE OJEDA AND THE CARIB CACIQUE. + + +Of the three ships with which Columbus made his first voyage, the "Pinta" +deserted the others and went off on a voyage of discovery of its own, and +the "Santa Maria," the flag-ship of the admiral, ran ashore on the coast +of Hispaniola and proved a hopeless wreck. Only the little "Nina" (the +"girl," as this word means in English) was left to carry the discoverer +home. The "Santa Maria" was carefully taken to pieces, and from her +timbers was constructed a small but strong fort, with a deep vault beneath +and a ditch surrounding. Friendly Indians aided in this, and not a shred +of the stranded vessel was left to the waves. As the "Nina" was too small +to carry all his crew back to Spain, Columbus decided to leave a garrison +to hold this fort and search for gold until he should return. That the +island held plenty of gold he felt sure. So Captain Ardua was left, with a +garrison of forty men, and the "Nina" spread her sails to the winds to +carry to Spain the wonderful news of the great discovery. + +La Navidad, or The Nativity, he named the fort, in remembrance of the day +of the wreck, and when he came back in 1493 he hopefully expected to find +its garrison awaiting him, with a rich treasure in the precious yellow +metal. He reached the spot to find the fort a ruin and the garrison a +remembrance only. They had been attacked by the Indians and massacred +during the absence of the admiral. + +In fact, the mild, gentle, and friendly Indians whom Columbus had met with +on his first voyage were not the only people of the islands. There were on +some of the West Indies a warlike race called Caribs,--cannibals, the +Spaniards said they were,--who gave the invaders no small trouble before +they were overcome. + +It was a band of these fierce Caribs that had attacked La Navidad and +destroyed the fort and its garrison, impelled to this, likely enough, by +some of the ruthless acts which the Spaniards were much too ready to +commit. The leader of these warriors was a bold cacique named Caonabo, +chief of a warlike mountain tribe. It is with this chieftain that we are +at present concerned, as he was the hero, or victim rather, of the first +romantic story known to us in Indian life. + +In addition to the forts built by the Spaniards on the coast of +Hispaniola, there was one built far in the interior, called Fort Santo +Tomas. This stood in the mountainous region of Cibao, the reputed land of +gold of the island. Its site lay within the territory of Caonabo, who +ruled over a great district, his capital town or village being on the +southern slope of the Cibao Mountains. + +The first conflict between the Spaniards and the natives, after the +massacre of the garrison of La Navidad, was in the district of the Vega, +where a fierce fight took place in the spring of 1495, the natives +suffering a severe defeat. The next was at Fort Santo Tomas, which was +commanded by Alonso de Ojeda, a young man who had come out with Columbus +in his second voyage. He was a man of great courage and unusual daring, +one of the chief among those dauntless spirits who had to do with the +conquest of the New World. + +A man of his spirit was needed to command this isolated fort in the +mountains, for the cacique, Caonabo, was not pleased with this invasion of +his territory, and soon marched upon the fort with a strong force of his +warlike race. Santo Tomas was closely invested and fiercely attacked, +Ojeda being reduced to such an extremity that he owed his escape only to a +rescuing force sent by Columbus from Fort Isabella, on the coast. Driven +off by the superior arms of his foes, Caonabo withdrew sullenly to his +stronghold in the mountains. But he was quickly back again, with a larger +force than before. He had never met his equal among the Indians, but the +fire-spouting tubes of the Spaniards proved too much even for his courage, +and he was a second time forced to withdraw. + +It was evident, however, that Ojeda was perilously situated, surrounded as +he was by warlike enemies, led by so bold and persistent a chief. In the +face of this peril he adopted an expedient as daring as any of those shown +by Cortez, Pizarro, or any other of the Spanish caballeros of that age of +conquest, and one whose ingenuity equalled its daring. It is this striking +adventure which it is our purpose to describe. + +Choosing from his men a few of the bravest and most trusty, Ojeda set out +on horseback over the mountains, following paths never before traversed by +the Spaniards, until they came to the Carib town of Maguana, where he +found Caonabo surrounded by a throng of armed warriors. The Spaniards had +bearded the lion in his den, and were in a position of extreme peril +should the cacique prove hostile. But Ojeda was a past-master in +craftiness, and by professions of friendship and other arts of duplicity +he persuaded the chief to accompany him alone into the edge of the forest. + +He now took from his pocket a pair of handcuffs, bright and shining +manacles of which the untutored Indian had no conception of the use, but +whose brightness attracted him. Ojeda told him they were bracelets, which +the King of Spain had graciously sent him as a present, in recognition of +his fame as a warrior of skill and courage. The poor Indian probably +understood all this very imperfectly, but he was easily brought to view +the manacles as _Turey_ or a gift from Heaven, and willingly held out his +wrists that his guest might adorn them with those strange and splendid +bracelets. + +In a moment his hands were secured, and before he could recover from his +surprise Ojeda, whose small frame concealed much strength, reached from +his saddle, seized the astonished chief, and by a great exertion of +muscular force lifted him from the ground and swung him up on the horse. +The warriors, who beheld this act with sudden suspicion, had no time to +use their weapons before the Spaniards had put spur to their horses and +dashed off into the forest. Two of them rode on each side of Ojeda, to +prevent the captive throwing himself from the horse. Threatened by their +swords and with his hands clasped in those fatal bracelets, Caonabo was +forced to submit, and was carried by his captors for many miles through +the heart of his own country to Fort Isabella, a stronghold which Columbus +had built at a site on the sea-coast, fronting a bay in which all his +vessels could ride in safety. Here the bold Ojeda, as the culmination of +his daring enterprise, delivered his captive to Columbus, and he was +locked up in a secure cell. + +As the story goes, the brave cacique had a greater admiration for courage +than anything else in the world, and instead of hating Ojeda for the +crafty way in which he had been captured, he seemed to hold him in high +esteem as the bravest of the Spaniards. Whenever Ojeda appeared in his +cell he would rise and courteously salute him, while he treated the visits +of Columbus with haughty disregard. So far as the captive cacique could +make himself understood, the high rank of Columbus was nought to him. He +had no proof that he was a man of courage, while the manner in which Ojeda +had captured him showed him to be a brave man. To the bold Carib courage +was the first of virtues and the only one worthy of respect. + +The poor Indian suffered the fate of most of his countrymen who had to do +with the Spanish invaders. Put on board ship and sent as a prize of valor +to Spain, the unfortunate chief died on the voyage, perhaps from a broken +heart, or as a result of the change from his free forest life to the +narrow confines of a fifteenth-century ship. + +The life of Ojeda after that date was one full of adventure, in which he +distinguished himself as much by rashness as by valor. In 1499 he was put +in command of an exploring expedition and sent out from Spain, one of his +companions being Amerigo Vespucci, he whose first name gained the +immemorial honor of being given to the great western continent. In this +voyage Ojeda discovered part of the continent of South America, which he +called Venezuela, or Little Venice, a name suggested by an Indian village +built on piles in the water. Eight years later Ojeda sought to plant a +colony in New Andalusia, but the natives there proved too bold and hostile +for him, and he failed to subject them to his authority. + +Many were his adventures, all of them characterized by a rash daring like +that he had shown in the capture of Caonabo. When at length he died, he +was buried, in response to his own request, in the doorway of the +Franciscan monastery in the city of Santo Domingo, so that all who entered +that place of worship should walk over his grave. + + + + + +THE EARLY DAYS OF A FAMOUS CAVALIER. + + +The island elysium which Columbus had discovered, and of which he wrote +and conversed in the most glowing terms, seemed like a fairy-land of +promise to the people of Spain, and hundreds of adventurers soon crossed +the seas, hopeful of winning gold and ready for deeds of peril and daring +in that wonderful unknown land. Some of them were men of wealth, who were +eager to add to their riches, but the most of them had little beyond their +love of adventure and their thirst for gold to carry them across the seas, +needy but bold soldiers and cavaliers who were ready for any enterprise, +however perilous, that might promise them reward. The stories of many of +these men are full of romantic interest, and this is especially the case +with one of them, the renowned Hernando Cortez. + +We propose here to deal with the interesting early history of this most +famous of the New World conquerors. The son of a Spanish captain, of good +family, his buoyant spirit and frolicsome humor led him into many wild +escapades while still a boy. The mystery and romance of the strange land +beyond the sea and the chance to win gold and glory which it offered were +fascinating to a spirit like his, and he was prevented from taking part in +an expedition when but seventeen years of age only by an unlucky accident. +As he was scaling a wall one night, in an adventure like that of Romeo and +Juliet, the stones gave way and he was thrown violently to the ground and +buried under the ruins. Before he got out of bed from his hurts the fleet +had sailed. + +Two years longer the ambitious boy remained at home, engaged, perhaps, in +similar pranks, but at length another chance offered, and in 1504 he set +sail for the land of promise, still a youth of only nineteen years of age. +He did not get across the sea without adventure. Quintero, the captain of +his ship, bound for Hispaniola and a market, stole away from the rest of +the squadron, hoping to reach port and sell his cargo before the others +arrived. But fierce gales came to punish him; for many days the vessel was +tossed about, the sailors not knowing where they were, and furious at the +treachery of their captain. At length, one morning, hope returned to them, +in the form of a white dove that lighted on the foremast-top. When the +bird had rested it took to flight again, and by following its course the +weary mariners finally came to the port they sought. But the captain was +paid for his treachery by finding that the other vessels had arrived +before him and sold their cargoes. + +The young adventurer was full of ambitious hope. When the governor's +secretary told him that no doubt he would be given a good estate to settle +on, he replied, "But I came to get gold; not to till the soil, like a +peasant." + +As no gold offered, however, he was glad enough to accept the land, but +his fondness for active deeds clung to him, and he took part in the +military expeditions sent out to fight with the rebel natives. He had his +quarrels, too, and his duels about the love of fair ladies, and received +wounds whose scars he carried to the grave. A nobler opening for his valor +came in 1511, when an expedition set out for the conquest of Cuba. Cortez +enlisted under the leader, Diego Velasquez, whose favor he won by his +courage and activity, his cordial and lively disposition, and the good +humor and ready wit which made him a favorite with all he met. + +After the island had been conquered, Velasquez was made its governor, +Cortez still being his close friend. But for some reason this friendship +did not last, and when at length a party of discontented men formed a plan +to complain of the acts of the governor to the higher authorities in +Hispaniola, Cortez took part in the conspiracy, and was chosen, from his +fearless spirit, to act as their envoy, it being necessary to perform the +perilous exploit of crossing an arm of the sea over fifty miles wide in an +open boat. + +In some way the plot got wind, and, before he could leave the island, +Cortez was arrested by order of the governor and thrown into prison, his +limbs being loaded with fetters. Velasquez even intended to hang him, as +we are told, but was persuaded by his friends not to go so far. These +Spanish governors had the power to do almost anything they pleased, their +distance from home enabling them to act the despot at will, and their +influence at court saving them from evil consequences. + + [Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO.] + + CATHEDRAL OF SAN DOMINGO. + + +Cortez did not stay long in his prison cell. In some way he managed to +open one of the bolts of his fetters and soon had his limbs free. Then, +turning his irons into tools, he used them to force open the window of his +cell. As he was on the second floor of the building, it was easy for one +so agile as he to reach the ground without injury, and he made his way to +a church near by, where he claimed the right of sanctuary. + +When Velasquez heard of the escape of his prisoner he was furious. He did +not dare attempt to take him from the church by force, since the sacred +walls protected all who sought their asylum. But a guard was stationed +close by, with orders to seize the fugitive if he should leave the +sanctuary. With one so careless as Cortez this was sure to be done. A few +days later, as he stood heedlessly sunning himself outside the walls of +the building, one of the guards rushed on him from behind, seized his +arms, and held him till his comrades came to his aid. This man was one of +those who afterwards took part in the conquest of Mexico, during which he +was hung for some offence by Cortez, who perhaps took this opportunity for +revenge. + +Once more the reckless young adventurer found himself a fettered captive, +this time being put on board a vessel that was to sail the next morning +for Hispaniola, where Velasquez designed he should be tried for his +offence. But he proved a very hard prisoner to hold. That night, with much +pain and difficulty, he managed to pull his feet out of the irons that +held them, and then stole cautiously to the deck, where he found a boat +floating by the vessel's side. Slipping down into this, under cover of the +darkness, he cut loose and paddled silently away. + +When near the shore he met with a rapid current and rough waters, to which +he was afraid to trust the boat. Being an expert swimmer, he thought it +safest to breast the water himself, and boldly plunged overboard. He found +his task a hard, almost a fatal one; the current threatened to sweep him +away, but after a long struggle with the waves he succeeded in reaching +the shore, in a state of almost complete exhaustion. He now sought the +church again, no doubt resolving this time to keep safely within its +sacred shelter. + +The story goes on to state that the governor, worked upon by friends of +the culprit, offered him forgiveness, which the incensed young cavalier +was too proud to accept. What followed is amusing. Velasquez was at a +distance from the capital, on a military excursion, when one evening he +was startled in his tent by the appearance of his enemy, completely armed +and threatening in aspect. In dismay, the governor asked him what he +wanted. Cortez replied, angrily, that he was tired of being treated like a +felon, and that he must have an explanation or he would know the reason +why. Velasquez answered as angrily, and a hot altercation followed. But at +length their talk became more friendly, and in the end their old amicable +relations were resumed and they embraced like a pair of lovers. The +amusing part of the story is this: When a messenger arrived to tell the +governor that Cortez had left the sanctuary and disappeared, he found the +governor and the culprit both fast asleep in the same bed. + +This story seems doubtful, but at any rate they became friends again, and +Cortez was given a large estate in Cuba, which he stocked with cattle, and +on which he found gold-mines, which were worked by Indian labor. He +married a beautiful Spanish girl, and, fast growing rich, spent several +years in happy content. + +This, with some, would have been the end of a career. It was only the +beginning of that of Cortez, before whom still lay a wonderful history and +a record of undying fame. All we can tell here is how this came about. It +began in expeditions of discovery. Cordova, a Cuban settler, seeking +Indians for slaves in the Bahamas, was blown far westward by a storm, and +reached an unknown shore, where the natives lived in stone buildings, +cultivated the soil, and wore delicate cotton garments and ornaments of +gold. In other ways they showed evidence of civilization. The land thus +reached is that now known as Yucatan. + +Velasquez, on seeing the gold which Cordova brought back, sent out a small +fleet under his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, to visit and explore this new +land. Grijalva found evidence that a great civilized nation dwelt inland, +rich in gold and far superior in civilization to any Indians whom the +Spaniards had yet met. He named the country New Spain, and sailed back to +Cuba with an account of his important discoveries. + +The news filled Velasquez with hope and joy. Here seemed to be the land of +gold which the Spaniards had so long sought. Here he might win vast wealth +and the glory of adding a new and splendid province to Spain. He at once +began to fit out a much larger expedition, and looked around for a man fit +to command it. Several of the hidalgos, or gentlemen of Cuba, offered +themselves, but none pleased the governor, and at length he settled upon +Cortez as the best man for his purpose. By chance, rather than by +intention, he had made a splendid choice. Cortez was the one man in the +New World, and perhaps the one man at that time in all Spain, fitted by +nature for the difficult task which lay before him. Wild and frivolous as +he had shown himself in youth, all he needed was a great occasion to prove +himself a great man. He was to develop into one of the ablest military +leaders in all history, a man who, on a small scale, was to display a +genius and achieve a success worthy of Caesar or Alexander or any of the +famous soldiers of the world. + +But, from another point of view, Velasquez had made a bad choice. Cortez +had disdained his fetters and his prisons, and would soon disdain his +control. His hope to win gain and glory by the aid of this young +adventurer was likely to prove a mere Will-o'-the-wisp. + + [Illustration: LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ.] + + LANDING-PLACE OF CORTEZ, VERA CRUZ. + + +The very appointment seemed to change the whole character of the new +admiral. He became a different man. His high spirits now changed to a +tireless energy. He spent his money freely in fitting out the fleet, and +even mortgaged his estate to raise more, and borrowed all he could. He +worked incessantly, and inspired his companions and followers to active +and enthusiastic toil. He was so popular in the island that several +hundred recruits soon flocked to his banner, and six ships, some of them +of large size, were rapidly got ready and stocked with provisions and +military stores. + +Yet at the last moment it seemed as if all the labor and cost of Cortez +would go for naught. Velasquez grew suspicious of him, and decided to rob +him of his command and trust the fleet to safer hands. But he was not +dealing with a man who could be played with in this fast and loose +fashion. The secret was whispered to Cortez, and he decided to sail at +once, though he was still short of men, of vessels, and of supplies. That +night he took on board all the meat in the town, weighed anchor, and got +ready to set sail. + +At day-dawn the news came to Velasquez that the fleet was about to depart. +In a panic he sprang from his bed, threw on his clothes, mounted his +horse, and rode in all haste to the beach. Cortez entered a boat and rowed +near enough to the shore to speak with him. + +"And is this the way you leave me?" cried the angry governor; "a courteous +leave-taking, truly." + +"Pardon me," said Cortez; "time presses, and there are some things that +should be done before they are even thought of. Has your excellency any +commands?" + +His excellency would have commanded him to come on shore, if it had been +of any use. As it was he had little to say, and with a polite wave of the +hand Cortez returned to his ships. Soon only their vanishing hulls were to +be seen. + +The fleet stopped for supplies at Macaca and at Trinidad. At the last +place many men, and several cavaliers who were to prove his ablest +officers, joined him. While there, letters came from Velasquez to the +governor of Trinidad, ordering him ta arrest Cortez, and hold the fleet +for a new admiral who was to command it. The governor looked at Cortez and +his men and concluded that he had better let them alone. They were too +strong for him to deal with. + +So once more the bold adventurers escaped from Velasquez and his schemes +and sailed in triumph away, this time for Havana. Here, also, the governor +of the place had received orders to arrest Cortez, and here, also, he did +not dare attempt it. Velasquez also wrote to Cortez, asking him to wait +till he could see him. Hernando Cortez was hardly the fool to pay any heed +to such a letter as that. The lion was hardly likely to trust himself to +the fox. He sent him a very polite and mild answer, saying that he would +not lose sight of the interests of his excellency, and that he and the +fleet, "God willing, would set sail the next morning." + +Finally, on the 18th of February, 1519, the fleet lost sight of Cuba at +Cape San Antonio, on the western end of the island. It consisted in all of +eleven vessels, most of them small, and had on board six hundred and +sixty-three soldiers and sailors. A few of these were armed with +cross-bows and only thirteen with muskets, while the horses numbered only +sixteen. In addition there were ten heavy guns and four lighter ones, with +a good supply of ammunition. + +Such was the fleet and such the force with which Hernando Cortez set sail +to conquer a powerful and warlike nation. Fortunately the expedition had +one of the world's great commanders at its head, or the enterprise would +have ended in failure instead of leading, as it did, to a wonderful +success. + + + + + +BALBOA AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC. + + +It was a splendid road to fortune which Columbus opened to the adventurers +of Spain, and hundreds of them soon took that promising path. Among these +was one Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a man poor in gold or land, but rich in +courage and ambition, and weary enough of trying to live at home like a +gentleman with the means of a peasant. In the year 1501 he crossed the +seas to Hispaniola, where, like Cortez, he took up land and began to till +the soil for a living. But he had not the skill or good luck of Cortez, +and after years of labor he found himself poorer than when he commenced. +He began to see that nature had not meant him for a farmer, and that if he +wanted a fortune he must seek it in other fields. + +Balboa was not alone in this. There were others, with better-filled +pockets than he, who were ripe for adventure and eager for gold. A famous +one of these was Alonso de Ojeda, one of the companions of Columbus and +the hero of the adventure with the Carib chief already described, who in +1509 sailed for South America and founded a settlement named by him San +Sebastian. He left orders with Enciso, a lawyer of the town of San +Domingo, to fit out two more vessels and follow him with provisions for +his new settlement. + +Enciso sailed in 1510, his vessels well laden with casks of bread and +other food-stuffs. There was more in them, indeed, than Enciso dreamed of, +for when far from land there crept out of one of these casks a haggard, +woe-begone, half-starved stowaway, who looked as if he had not many ounces +of life left in him. It was Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who had taken this way +to join the expedition and escape from his creditors, since they would not +have permitted him to go openly. The cask in which he snugly lay had been +carried from his farm to the ship among others containing provisions. + +Enciso was furious when he saw this unwelcome addition to his crew. He +threatened to throw him overboard, and on second thought vowed to leave +him to starve on a desert island. The poor fellow fell on his knees and +tearfully begged for mercy. Others joined him in entreaties, and Enciso at +length softened and spared him his life. He was to pay bitterly for his +kindness before many days. + +The expedition had its adventures on the seas, ending in a wreck, and when +San Sebastian was reached Ojeda was not to be found, and the settlement +was a ruin. Enciso was in a quandary what to do, but Balboa had been on +that coast before, on his first voyage out from Spain, and knew of an +Indian village on the Darien River where they might find food and shelter. +He advised Enciso to go thither, and a journey was made overland, among +hostile Indians and with little food. The adventurers were half-starved +when at length they reached their goal. + +Here they founded a new settlement named Santa Maria, no doubt first +disposing of the Indians in the usual Spanish fashion,--killing some and +making slaves of others. But it was not long before there were bitter +quarrels among themselves. Enciso had forbidden them to have any private +trade for gold with the natives, a ukase which they strongly resented. The +result was that a party rose against him, with Balboa at its head. Enciso +was deprived of his authority, but when they tried to elect another in his +place it did not prove easy. Diego de Nicuesa, who had made a settlement +near there, was sent for by some of the settlers, but when he came, +Balboa's party would not receive him, and he, with seventeen companions, +was placed in a crazy old barque and left to find their way back to +Hispaniola as best they could. + +Balboa had by this time shown himself the ablest and boldest man in +Darien, and his influence and power grew steadily until the settlers voted +him their governor. Enciso was seized and imprisoned, and finally was sent +to Spain. With him went one of Balboa's chief supporters, in order to gain +for him from the king the royal right to his new office. + +Balboa lost no time in showing that he was worthy of the dignity given +him. He made many incursions into the surrounding country, and succeeded +in collecting much gold, the yellow metal being more plentiful there than +in the West India islands. In those expeditions he showed a wise spirit of +conciliation and won the friendship of several of the Indian chiefs. In +one of their excursions a quarrel arose among the Spaniards about the +division of the gold they had obtained. They were almost at sword's-point +when a young Indian chief, surprised to find them so hot about what seemed +to him a useless substance, upset the gold out of the balance, and turned +to Balboa, saying,-- + +"Why do you quarrel about such stuff as this? If you value it so highly, I +could take you to a country where it is so common that it is used for the +meanest utensils." + +These significant words filled the Spaniards with hope and desire, and +they eagerly asked where that rich land lay, and how it might be reached. + +"At the distance of six suns [six days' journey] from here," said the +cacique, "lies another ocean as great as the one before you. Near its +shores is the kingdom I spoke of. But it is very powerful, and if you wish +to attack it you will need far more men than you have here." + +This was the first the Spaniards had heard of the great southern ocean or +of the rich land of Peru. This must be the ocean, thought Balboa, which +Columbus sought for without success, the waters which border the East +Indies, and the great and rich nation on its shores must be one of the +famous countries of Asia. At once the desire arose in his mind to gaze on +that unknown sea. + +Balboa felt it necessary to do something striking and do it quickly. He +had received letters from Zamudio, the agent he had sent to Spain, which +were very discouraging. Enciso had complained to King Ferdinand of the way +in which he had been treated, and the king had not only refused to support +Balboa with a royal warrant for his actions, but had condemned his course +and ordered him to return to Spain. His hopes of fortune and greatness +were at an end unless he could win the favor of the king by some great +enterprise. Such would be the discovery of that great ocean, and this he +determined to attempt. + +The Isthmus of Darien, which he would have to cross, is not over sixty +miles wide. But many of these are miles of mountain, on which grow forests +so dense as to be almost impassable. There, too, where it rains for more +than half the year, the valleys are converted into marshes, and are so +often overflowed that in many places the natives have to dwell in the +trees, while from the high grounds rush swollen rivers, fierce and +threatening. To march across an unknown and perilous country like this, +led by treacherous Indian guides, was a bold and desperate enterprise, +surpassing any which the Spaniards had yet attempted. But Balboa was one +of the most daring and intrepid of them all, and to win the favor of his +sovereign there was no danger he was not ready to face. + +For the perilous expedition he could muster only one hundred and ninety +men. But these were veterans, hardened to the climate of the isthmus, and +ready to follow him whatever the peril. They had good reason to trust his +courage and readiness in emergencies, for they had found him always brave +and alert. A thousand Indians were taken with them, to carry their +provisions, and they added to their force a number of the fierce +bloodhounds which were dreaded by the natives as much as the fire-arms of +the Spaniards. + +Thus equipped, the expedition set out on the 1st of September, 1513, +sailing along the coast to Coyba, where dwelt a friendly chief. Here half +the men were left to guard their vessels and canoes. With the remainder +the terrible journey across the rock-ribbed and forest-covered isthmus was +begun. + +No sooner had the Spaniards left the coast than troubles and perils +thickened around them. The country was difficult to traverse, the people +were bold and hostile. With their poisoned arrows they proved no feeble +antagonists. As the adventurers left the plain and toiled up the +mountains, a warlike cacique, with a large body of followers, met them in +a narrow pass and boldly disputed the way. A fierce battle ensued, ending +in favor of the Spaniards, who cut their way through the savages, leaving +hundreds of them dead on the ground. + +Thus, fighting nature and fighting men, they toiled onward and upward, +until the six days fixed for their journey had stretched out to +twenty-five. But now hope burned fresh in their hearts, for their guides +assured them that from the top of the next mountain they could see the +ocean they so ardently sought. Up the steep pass they toiled, until near +the lofty summit, when Balboa bade them halt and went on alone, that he +might be the first to gaze on the wonderful spectacle. + +Soon he stood on the mountain-top, and there, to his infinite delight, +sparkled and spread before his eyes the mightiest ocean of the earth, +stretching away to the north, south, and west as far as human eye could +see. Overwhelmed by the stupendous vision, he fell prostrate on the +ground, like a worshipper before the object of his adoration. Then, rising +to his knees, he thanked God for the great boon vouchsafed to him. + +His men, gazing eagerly upward, saw him rise and beckon them, while with +his other hand he pointed wildly westward. With springing steps they +rushed to his side, and joined in his delight and his thanks to God as the +marvellous spectacle met their eyes. Heaps of stones were piled up to show +that they had taken possession of this spot for his sovereign, and as they +went down the farther slope they carved on many trees the name of King +Ferdinand of Castile, as the lord of this new land. + +Let us repeat here the closing lines of Keats's famous sonnet to Homer, in +which a great poet has admirably depicted the scene, though, by a strange +error, giving the credit to Cortez instead of Balboa: + + "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies + When a new planet swims into his ken; + Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes + He stared at the Pacific--and all his men + Looked at each other with a wild surmise-- + Silent, upon a peak in Darien." + +Twelve men were sent on in advance to seek the easiest and shortest path +to the sea, one of them a man destined to become still more famous than +Balboa,--Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. Reaching the +shore, they found on it two stranded canoes, into which stepped two of the +men, Blaze de Atienza and Alousa Martine, calling on their comrades to +witness that they were the first to embark on that sea. + +For three days the remaining men waited advices from their pioneers, and +then followed the guides sent them to the shore, Balboa, armed with his +sword and buckler, rushing into the water to his middle, and claiming +possession of that vast sea and all its shores in the name of his king, +for whom he pledged himself to defend it against all comers. + +Such was the discovery of the great South Sea, as Balboa named it, the +Pacific Ocean, as Magellan soon after called it. The people of the coast +told the Spaniards of a rich and mighty kingdom that lay to the south, and +whose people had tame animals to carry their burdens. The form of these +they drew on the sand, their long necks convincing Balboa that they were +camels, and that the land indicated must be Asia. They really represented +the llama of Peru, an animal resembling the camel in form. + +After remaining for some time on the coast, gathering all the information +he could obtain, Balboa led his travel-worn men back to Darien, resolved +to return with a stronger force next year and seek that distant land of +gold. But this exploit was left for Pizarro, one of the ablest and bravest +of the men who took part in this pioneer expedition. + +It was the 18th of January, 1514, when the adventurers reached their +starting-point at Santa Maria, when the people heard of his discovery with +the utmost joy. Messengers were at once sent to Spain, with an account of +the remarkable exploit, which was received with an enthusiasm little less +than had been the news of the discovery of the New World. If Columbus had +discovered a new land, Balboa had matched it with the discovery of a new +ocean, added to which was the story of a land of gold, for whose conquest +Balboa asked for a reinforcement of a thousand men. + +Unfortunate as Columbus had been, the new discovery was destined to still +greater ill-fortune, as we shall soon see. Before his messengers reached +Spain a new governor, Pedrarias de Avila, had been appointed and had set +sail, with fifteen vessels and fifteen hundred men. Balboa had nearly five +hundred men under his command, but he at once submitted to the decision of +his king and accepted Pedrarias as his superior. The fifteen hundred new +men landed in that pestilential climate, in the unhealthy season, paid +bitterly for their imprudence. A violent disease attacked them; scarcity +of provisions made it worse; and within a month more than six hundred of +them had died, while others hastened away from that noxious spot. + +At length news came that the king fully appreciated the splendid discovery +of Balboa; letters of high praise were received, and he was appointed +_Adelantado_, or admiral of the South Sea, Pedrarias being ordered to +support him in all his operations. The rivals now became reconciled, their +union being made firmer by Pedrarias giving his daughter in marriage to +Balboa. + +The adventurer now began active preparations for an exploration of the +South Sea, materials for ship-building being conveyed, with the greatest +labor, across the isthmus, and two brigantines constructed. There was no +lack of volunteers for the expedition, and the vessels were launched and +sailed to the Pearl Islands, the inclement weather alone preventing them +from going on to the coast of Peru. + +Thus there seemed a great career opening before Balboa at the very moment +when adverse fate was gathering darkly around him. Pedrarias had grown +jealous of his daring exploits and the fame that seemed his coming meed, +and, cherishing treacherous designs, by a crafty message induced him to +return to Acla, his new capital. + +On arriving there, Balboa was at once seized by order of the governor, +thrown into prison, and put on trial on a charge of disloyalty to the king +and an intention to revolt against his superior. The judge was forced to +condemn him to death, and the fatal sentence was at once carried into +effect, the great discoverer being beheaded on the public square of Acla. +Thus, in blood and treachery, ended the career of one of the ablest of the +bold adventurers of Spain. + + + + + +THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE PRINCE OF TEZCUCO. + + +About a hundred years before the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, there +reigned over the kingdom of Tezcuco, in the valley of Mexico, a monarch +whose history is as interesting and romantic as any that can be found in +the annals of Europe. His story was preserved by his descendants, and its +principal events are as follows: + + [Illustration: FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS.] + + FLOATING GARDENS ON THE CHENAMPAS. + + +The city of Tezcuco, the capital of the Acolhuans, stood on the eastern +borders of the lake on whose opposite side was Mexico, the Aztec capital. +About the year 1418 the Acolhuans were attacked by a kindred race, the +Tepanecs, who, after a desperate struggle, captured their city, killed +their monarch, and subjugated their kingdom. The heir to the crown, the +young Prince Nezahualcoyotl, concealed himself in the foliage of a tree +when the triumphant foe broke into the palace, and from his hiding-place +saw his father killed before his eyes. This was the opening event in a +history as full of deeds of daring and perilous escapes as that of the +"Young Chevalier of English history." + +The young prince did not long remain at liberty. Soon after his flight +from the city he fell into the hands of his foes, and was brought back and +thrown into a dungeon. This led to the first romantic incident in his +career. The governor of the fortress prison was an old servant of the +royal family of Tezcuco, and aided the little captive to escape in +disguise, taking his place in the dungeon. He paid for his loyalty with +his life, but he willingly gave it in exchange for the liberty of the heir +to the throne. + +The royal boy had friends in the Mexican capital. He was, in fact, closely +related to the Aztec monarch, and through his good offices he was at +length permitted to reside in that city. Afterwards he was allowed to +return to Tezcuco, where for eight years he dwelt in privacy, studying +under the teachers of his early youth, and unheeded by the party in power. +Thus the boy grew to manhood, cherishing in his soul ardent hopes of +regaining the throne of his ancestors. + +A change came when the Tepanec conqueror died and his son, Maxtla, +succeeded to the throne. The new king was of a suspicious disposition, and +when Nezahualcoyotl sought his capital to render him homage on his +accession, Maxtla treated with disdain the little gift of flowers which +the young prince laid at his feet, and turned his back on him in the +presence of his chieftains. Evidently the palace was no place of safety +for the Tezcucan prince, and, warned by a friend among the courtiers, he +hastened to withdraw from the court and seek a refuge in his native city +of Tezcuco. Here the tyrant dared not proceed openly against him. His +popular manners had won him many friends, and the ancient subjects of his +family looked upon him as a coming leader who might win back for them +their lost liberty. The prince had given evidence of the possession of +talent and energy, and Maxtla, fearful of his growing popularity, resolved +to make away with him by stratagem. He accordingly invited him to an +evening's entertainment, where he had assassins ready to murder him. +Fortunately, the tutor of the prince suspected the plot, and contrived to +replace the youth by a person who strongly resembled him, and who became +the victim of the fate intended for him. + +Maxtla, baffled in his murderous stratagem, now resolved to kill him +openly, and sent a party of soldiers to the city, who were instructed to +enter the palace, seize the prince, and slay him on the spot. Again the +watchfulness of his old teacher saved him. Warned of his danger, and +advised to flee, the prince refused to do so, but boldly awaited the +assassins. + +When they reached the palace in which he resided, they found him playing +at ball in the court-yard. He received them courteously, showing no +suspicion of their errand, and invited them in to take some refreshment +after their journey. While they were thus engaged, he strolled carelessly +into an adjoining saloon; but the doors being open and the soldiers able +to see through both apartments, his movements gave them no concern. It was +the custom, however, when any one entered the presence of a great lord, +for the servants to throw aromatics into a burning censer. This the +prince's attendants did, and such clouds of incense arose as to hide him +from the unsuspecting soldiers. Thus obscured, he entered a secret passage +which led to a large earthen pipe, formerly employed to bring water to the +palace. In this he concealed himself until nightfall, and then made his +way into the suburbs, where he found shelter in the house of one of his +father's former vassals. + +Maxtla, enraged to find that his proposed victim had twice escaped him, +grew more determined on his death, and ordered immediate and thorough +pursuit, promising to reward whoever should take him, dead or alive, with +the hand of a noble lady and an ample domain. Troops of armed men scoured +the country in every direction, searching all suspected places, and some +of them entered the cottage in which he had taken refuge. Here there was a +heap of the maguey fibres used in the manufacture of cloth, and hid +beneath this the fugitive escaped capture. But the chase soon grew so hot +that he left this place for the wooded hill country between his state and +the neighboring one of Tlascala, hoping to find safety in its thickets and +caverns. + +The royal fugitive now led a wretched life, wandering from place to place, +exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather, remaining concealed by +day, and stealing out at night in search of food. His pursuers, eager to +win the enticing reward, kept up an active search, more than once coming +dangerously near to his retreat. + +Very interesting stories are told of his adventures in this period of +peril. The high rewards offered did not suffice to wean from him the +attachment of the people, and more than once he owed his safety to their +loyalty. Some of them submitted to torture, and even to loss of life, +rather than betray his place of retreat to his enemies. Even many of the +soldiers were his friends, and once, when hotly pursued, he took refuge +among a small party of these, who were dancing around a large drum. To +conceal him from his enemies they placed him in the drum and continued +their dance around it. + +At another time the pursuers were so close to him that he just succeeded +in turning the crest of a hill when they began to climb it on the other +side. Here he fortunately found a girl who was reaping _chia_, a plant +whose seeds were used in making palatable drinks. Telling her who he was +and of his great danger, he got her to cover him up with a heap of the +plants she had cut, and when the pursuers came up and asked if she had +seen him, the faithful girl coolly replied that she had, and pointed out a +path which she said he had taken. + +None of the natives showed any inclination to betray him, despite the +richness of the promised rewards. + +"Would you not deliver up the prince if he came in your way?" he asked of +a peasant who did not recognize him. + +"Not I," was the reply. + +"What! not for a fair lady's hand, and a rich domain as dowry?" + +The peasant shook his head decisively and laughed in disdain. + +But, in spite of the loyalty of the people, the prince was in constant +danger, and his situation, in the rough fastnesses of the hills and +forests, became very distressing. + +"Leave me," he said to the faithful few who kept with him in his +wanderings and shared his sufferings. "Leave me to my fate. Why should you +throw away your lives for one whom fortune steadily persecutes?" + +But they clung to his fortunes still, despite their danger and the fact +that most of the great nobles of the land had sought safety and reward by +an adhesion to the usurper. + +Meanwhile, events were working in favor of the fugitive. Maxtla had shown +himself an oppressor, and his ambition and military successes had caused +much alarm in the surrounding states, where his tyranny was contrasted +with the mild rule of the former monarchs of Tezcuco. The friends of the +young prince took advantage of this feeling, and succeeded in forming a +coalition against his enemy. A day was fixed for a general rising, and on +the date appointed Nezahualcoyotl found himself at the head of an army +strong enough to face that of Maxtla and the Tepanecs. + +The two armies soon met and victory rested on the banner of the young +prince, the forces of Maxtla being badly beaten. No longer a hunted +fugitive, but at the head of a victorious army, he marched in triumph to +the capital which he had left with a price on his head, his joyful +subjects crowding to the route of march to render homage to their rightful +sovereign. The Mexicans, who were angry at the tyrannic conduct of Maxtla, +readily allied themselves with the young victor, and a series of bloody +battles followed, the usurper being at length defeated under the walls of +his own capital. He was dragged from the baths, to which he had fled for +concealment, and sacrificed to the cruel gods of the Aztecs; his royal +city was razed to the ground, and its site was reserved as the great +slave-market of the surrounding nations. + +Thus it was that Nezahualcoyotl came to the throne of his ancestors, where +he was to prove himself the greatest monarch of whom we have any record in +the American annals. The story of his reign is far too full of detail for +the space we can give to it, but is of such interest that we may venture +on a concise account of it, as an example of the career of the most +illustrious of the ancient American sovereigns. + +The first thing the new monarch did was to proclaim a general amnesty. He +not only pardoned the rebel nobles, but raised some of them to posts of +honor and confidence. This was not only politic but just, since their +offences were mainly due to fear of the usurper. Under the circumstances +he could safely treat them with magnanimity. + +He next remodelled the government of the kingdom, and framed a code of +laws which seemed so wise that it was adopted by his allies, the Aztecs +and Tlacopans. Councils of war, of finance, and of justice were +established, and also a council of state, whose members acted as the +immediate advisers of the king, and aided him in the despatch of business. +But the most remarkable of these new departments was the "council of +music," which was devoted to the encouragement of science and art, and +served as a general board of education for the country. Historical +compositions and poems were recited before it, and altogether it indicated +a degree of civilization which we would scarcely look for in any part of +ancient America. Its historians, orators, and poets became celebrated +throughout the country, the allied monarchs presided over its +deliberations, and among its chief bards was the king himself, who entered +into impartial competition with his subjects for the prizes given for the +best poems. Many of his odes were long preserved, and may perhaps still +rest in the dusty archives of Mexico or Spain. + +The far-seeing monarch did not content himself with writing poetry, or +encouraging historians,--who wrote subject to the penalty that any one who +wilfully lied should be punished with death,--but he sought to develop all +the arts. Agriculture was greatly encouraged, the population rapidly +increased, new towns and cities sprang up, and the borders of the nation +were extended by successful wars. He made his capital the most stately +city of the land. Special edifices were built for his nobles, whom he +wished to reside at the court. There were more than four hundred of these +palatial mansions, but far exceeding them in magnificence was the grand +palace he built for himself. This covered a space of three thousand seven +hundred feet in length and nearly three thousand feet in width. A wall +surrounded it, enclosing an outer court which formed the great +market-place of the city, and an inner one surrounded by the council +chambers and halls of justice. There were apartments for ambassadors from +other states, and a spacious saloon in which the poets and men of science +met to study and converse. Here also were kept the public archives. + +The royal apartments adjoined this inner court, and rivalled in beauty +those of Oriental lands. Alabaster or stucco of rich tints covered some of +the walls, while others were hung with tapestries of the gorgeous Indian +feather-work. Long arcades and winding pathways bordered with verdure led +to gardens where were baths and sparkling fountains shadowed by lofty +trees. Fish of various kinds stocked the basins, and in rich aviaries were +birds of glowing tropical plumage. Many birds and animals were reproduced +in gold and silver with wonderful fidelity to nature. In the inner +apartments dwelt the wives and children of the monarch, who were as +numerous as those of an Eastern sultan. Such was the famous palace, in +which were three hundred apartments, some of them fifty yards square. It +is said that two hundred thousand workmen were employed in building it. In +this splendid residence dwelt a monarch who in his youthful days had been +glad to share with wild animals a shelter in the thickets and caverns of +the mountains. + +Nezahualcoyotl did not confine his love for magnificence to this palatial +residence. Beautiful villas were built in various picturesque localities +and adorned with all the requisites of pleasure and comfort. His favorite +retreat from the cares of office was built on a rounded hill about six +miles from the city. Here were terraced gardens reached by a stairway of +five hundred and twenty steps, many of them hewn in the native rock. In +the summit garden was a reservoir kept filled with water by an aqueduct +carried on masonry buttresses for several miles over hill and valley. In +its centre was a large rock, on which were carved in hieroglyphics the +principal events of each year of the king's reign. + +Lower down were other reservoirs, adorned with statuary, and yielding +water to channels that ran through the gardens or to cascades that tumbled +riotously over the rocks. Here were marble porticoes and pavilions, and +baths cut in the solid rock, which the natives still show to visitors +under the title of the "Baths of Montezuma." Near the base of the hill, +amid lofty groves of cedar, rose the royal villa, with its light arcades +and airy halls, affording a delightful relief to the monarch from the +duties of the court. Relics of this villa and garden still remain to +attest their former beauty, and indicate that this Indian king lived in a +magnificence resembling that of the far-famed court of the caliph +Haroun-al-Raschid. + +He was like the celebrated caliph of the "Arabian Nights" in another way, +for it was his custom to wander about the streets, conversing with the +humblest of his people and learning their condition and needs from their +own words. Many anecdotes are told of this kind, in which it was his +delight to reward merit and relieve distress. Some of these may be read +with interest. + +On one occasion he met a boy who was gathering sticks in a field for fuel, +and asked him why he did not go into the neighboring forest, where he +would find plenty of them. + +"I dare not do that," said the boy. "It's the king's wood, and he would +punish me with death if I took sticks from there." + +"What kind of man is your king?" + +"He is a very hard man," answered the boy, "for he takes from his people +what God has given them." + +The boy was right; the forest laws in Tezcuco were as severe as those of +Norman England. The king advised the boy not to heed such cruel laws but +to help himself in the forest, for there was no one who would betray him. +But the lad sturdily refused, and told his tempter that he was a traitor +who wished to bring him into trouble. + +The next day the boy and his parents were sent for to come to the palace. +They obeyed with wonder and dread, and the boy was filled with terror on +seeing the king and recognizing him as the man with whom he had talked so +freely. But the good-natured monarch bade him not to fear, and thanked him +for the lesson he had given his king, praising his respect for the laws +and commending his parents for bringing up their son so wisely. He +dismissed them with liberal presents, and afterwards gave orders that any +one might gather fallen wood in the forest, if they did not interfere with +the standing timber. + +Another adventure was with a poor woodman and his wife. The man, as he +stood in the marketplace with his little store, complained bitterly of his +lot, as compared with that of those who lived idly amid luxuries in the +palace. The wife bade him be careful, as he might be overheard in his +complaints. The king, looking down on the market from a latticed window, +and amusing himself with the chatter of the market people, heard the words +of the couple, and ordered them to be brought into his presence. + +He asked the frightened pair what they had said, and was pleased to find +that they answered him truly. Then he bade them reflect that if he had +great wealth, he had great demands upon it; that he who had a nation to +govern could not lead an idle life; and told them "to be more cautious in +future, as walls had ears." He then dismissed them, after giving them a +quantity of cloth and a good supply of cacao,--the coin of the country. +"Go," he said; "with the little you now have, you will be rich; while, +with all my riches, I shall still be poor." + +Of all the stories told of this famous monarch, there is only one not to +his credit, and of this we may speak in passing, as it bears a remarkable +resemblance to that told in the Bible of David and Uriah. He fell in love +with a beautiful maiden, who was betrothed to an old lord of his kingdom, +and to obtain her hand he bade the old man take command of a warlike +expedition against the Tlascalans. Two chiefs were bidden to keep near him +and bring him into the thick of the fight, that he might lose his life, +which the king said he had forfeited by a great crime. The old man +suspected what was meant, and said so in a farewell entertainment to his +friends. He was correct in his prophecy; like Uriah, he soon fell in +battle, and the royal lover's path was clear. + +The king now secretly offered his hand and heart to the maiden, who was by +no means inconsolable for the loss of her old lover, and willingly +accepted. To prevent any suspicion of what he had done, he had the maiden +brought to his villa to witness some ceremony there. Standing on a balcony +of the palace, the king pretended to be struck with her beauty, and asked, +"Who is the lovely young woman, yonder in the garden?" Some of those +present soon learned her name and rank, which was that of a princess of +the royal house of Mexico. She was asked to enter the palace and receive +the attention due to her station, and the king was not long in publicly +declaring his love. The marriage soon after took place, in the presence of +his brother monarchs of Mexico and Tlacopan, and with great pomp and +ceremony. + +Such was the one blot in the history of this famous monarch. Aside from +this act of treachery, it is remarkable to find so great and high-minded a +monarch in the early annals of the nations of Mexico, and one whose +history is so full of romantic adventure. + + + + + +THE FAMOUS RETREAT OF CORTEZ AND THE SPANIARDS. + + +There is no chapter in all history more crowded with interesting and +romantic events than the story of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards +under Cortez. And of all these records of desperate daring and wonderful +success, the most extraordinary is the tale of the _Noche Triste_, the +terrible night-retreat of the Spaniards from the Aztec capital. No one can +read this story, and that of the remarkable victory of Otumba which +followed it, without feeling that Cortez and his men were warriors worthy +of the most warlike age. This oft-told story we shall here again relate. + +In a preceding tale we described how Cortez set out from Cuba on his great +expedition, with a few hundred soldiers and a small number of cannon, +muskets, and horses. It may briefly be stated here that he sought to +conquer a warlike and powerful nation with this insignificant force, less +than a modern regiment. We might relate how he landed in Mexico; won, with +the terror of his horses and guns and the valor of his men, victory in +every battle; gained allies among the foes of the Aztecs; made his way +into their capital; seized and held prisoner their emperor, Montezuma, and +for a time seemed to be full master of the land. We might go on to tell +how at length the Mexicans rose in fury, attacked the Spaniards with the +courage of desperation, mortally wounded their own emperor, and at length +brought the invaders into such terrible straits that they were forced to +fight their way out of the city as their last hope of life. + +To understand what followed, it must be stated that the city of Mexico +lay, not in the open country, but on an island in the centre of a large +lake, and that all the roads leading to it passed over narrow causeways of +earth across this lake. Each of these causeways was broken at intervals by +wide ditches, with bridges crossing them. But the Aztecs had removed these +bridges, and thus added immensely to the difficulty of the night-march +which the desperate Spaniards were obliged to make. + +It was at midnight on the 1st of July, 1520, that Cortez and his men threw +open the gates of the palace fortress in which they had long defended +themselves against the furious assaults of thousands of daring foes. The +night was dark and cloudy, and a drizzling rain was falling. Not an enemy +was to be seen, and as they made their way with as little noise as +possible along the great street of Tlacopan, all was hushed in silence, +Hope rose in their hearts. The tramp of the horses and the rumble of the +guns and baggage-wagons passed unheard, and they reached the head of the +causeway without waking a sleeping Aztec warrior. + +Here was the first break in the causeway, and they had brought with them a +bridge to lay across it. But here also were some Indian sentinels, who +fled in haste on seeing them, rousing the sleeping city with their cries. +The priests on the summit of the great temple pyramid were also on the +watch, and when the shouts of alarm reached their ears from below, they +sounded their shells and beat their huge drum, which was only heard in +times of peril or calamity. Instantly the city broke from its slumber, and +as the leading Spaniards crossed the bridge a distant sound was heard, +which rapidly approached. Soon from every street and lane poured enemies, +flinging stones and arrows into the crowded ranks of the Spaniards as they +came. On the lake was heard a splashing sound, as of many oars, and the +war-cry of a host of combatants broke on the air. A brief interval had +sufficed to change the silence into a frightful uproar of sound and the +restful peace into the fast growing tumult of furious battle. + +The Spaniards pushed steadily along the causeway, fighting only to drive +back the assailants who landed from their canoes and rushed in fury upon +the marching ranks. The horsemen spurred over them, riding them down; the +men on foot cut them down with their swords, or hurled them backward with +the butts of their guns; the Indian allies of the Spaniards attacked them +fiercely, and the roar of war spread far through the gloom of the night. + +Onward marched the Spaniards, horse and foot; onward creaked and rumbled +the artillery and the wagons; and the second canal in the causeway was +reached while the rear files were not yet across the first. The Spaniards +had made a fatal mistake in bringing with them only one bridge. When the +last of the retreating force was across this, a vigorous effort was made +to raise it and carry it to the canal in front, but in vain. The weight of +men, horses, and cannon had wedged it so firmly in the earth and stones +that it could not be moved. Every nerve was strained to lift the heavy +mass, until, many of the workmen being killed and all wounded by the +torrent of Aztec missiles, they were forced to abandon it. + +When the dread tidings that the bridge could not be raised spread through +the crowded host, a cry of despair arose that almost drowned the sounds of +conflict. All means of retreat were cut off. Before them lay a deep and +yawning ditch. Behind them pressed an army of assailants. On each side +hundreds of canoes dashed on the causeway, yielding foes who rushed in +fury upon their crowded ranks. All hope seemed lost. All discipline was at +an end. Every one thought only of saving his own life, without regard to +the weak or wounded. The leading files, gathered on the brink of the gulf, +were pressed forward by the rear. The horsemen in front dashed into the +water and swam across, but some of the horses failed to climb the steep +and slippery bank, and rolled back with their mail-clad riders headlong +into the lake. + +After them pell mell came the infantry, some seeking to swim, others +forced into the water to sink to a muddy death; many of them slain by the +arrows and war-clubs of the Aztecs; others, wounded or stunned, dragged +into the canoes and carried away to be sacrificed to the terrible war-god +of the pagan foe. Along the whole length of the causeway, from ditch to +ditch, the contest raged fearfully. The Aztecs, satisfied that they had +now got their detested foes in their power, fought like demons, grappling +with the Christians and rolling with them down the sloping way together; +seeking to take their enemies alive that they might be kept for the bloody +sacrifice. + +With the horrid shouts of the combatants, the cries of vengeance and +groans of agony, the prayers to the saints and the blessed Virgin, mingled +the screams of women, of whom there were several, both Spaniard and +Indian, in the Christian ranks. One of these, Maria de Estrada, fought as +valiantly as any of the warriors, battling staunchly with broadsword and +target in the thickest of the fray, and proving herself as valiant a +soldier as the best. + +During this terrible contest, Cortez was not at rest. He was everywhere, +ordering, fighting, inspiring, seeking to restore the lost discipline to +his ranks. Conscious that all was lost unless the fatal ditch could be +crossed, and feeling that life must be considered before wealth, he +hurried forward everything, heavy guns, ammunition-wagons, baggage-vans, +and hurled them into the water along with the spoil of the Spaniards, +bales of costly goods, chests of solid ingots, everything that would serve +to fill the fatal gap. With these were mingled bodies of men and horses, +drowned in that deadly ditch, the whole forming a terrible pathway across +which the survivors stumbled and clambered until they reached the other +side. + +Cortez, riding forward, found a spot in the ditch that was fordable, and +here, with the water up to his saddle-girths, he tried to bring order out +of confusion, and called his followers to this path to safety. But his +voice was lost in the turmoil, and with a few cavaliers who kept with him, +he pressed forward to the van, doubly saddened by seeing his favorite +page, Juan de Salazar, struck down in death by his side. + +Here he found the valiant Gonzalo de Sandoval, who, with about twenty +other cavaliers, had led the van, composed of two hundred Spanish +foot-soldiers. They were halted before the third and final breach in the +causeway, a ditch as wide and deep as those which had been passed. +Fortunately it was not so closely beset by the enemy, who were still +engaged with the centre and rear, and the gallant cavaliers plunged +without hesitation into the water, followed by the foot, some swimming, +some clinging desperately to the manes and tails of the horses, some +carried to the bottom by the weight of the fatal gold with which they were +heavily laden. On leaving the fortress in which they had so long defended +themselves, much of the gold which they had gathered was necessarily +abandoned. Cortez told the soldiers to take what they wished of it, but +warned them not to overload themselves, saying, "He travels safest in the +dark night who travels lightest." Many of those who failed to regard this +wise counsel paid for their cupidity with their death. + +Those who safely passed this final ditch were at the end of their +immediate peril. Soon they were off the causeway and on solid ground, +where the roar of the battle came more faintly to their ears. But word +came to them that the rear-guard was in imminent danger and would be +overwhelmed unless relieved. It seemed an act of desperation to return, +but the valiant and warm-hearted cavaliers did not hesitate when this cry +for aid was heard. Turning their horses, they galloped back, pushed +through the pass, swam the canal again, and rode into the thick of the +fight on the opposite section of the causeway. + +The night was now passing, and the first gray light of day was visible in +the east. By its dim illumination the frightful combat could be seen in +all its horrid intensity. Everywhere lay dead bodies of Christian or +pagan; the dark masses of the warriors could be seen locked in deadly +struggle crowding the blood-stained causeway; while the lake, far and +near, was crowded with canoes, filled with armed and ardent Aztec +warriors, yelling their triumphant war-cry. + +Cortez and his companions found Alvarado, who led the rear, unhorsed and +wounded, yet fighting like a hero. His noble steed, which had borne him +safely through many a hard fight, had fallen under him. With a handful of +followers he was desperately striving to repel the overwhelming tide of +the enemy which was pouring on him along the causeway, a dozen of the +Indians falling for every Spaniard slain. The artillery had done good work +in the early part of the contest, but the fury of the assault had carried +the Aztecs up to and over the guns, and only a hand-to-hand conflict +remained. The charge of the returning cavaliers created a temporary check, +and a feeble rally was made, but the flood of foes soon came on again and +drove them resistlessly back. + +Cortez and the cavaliers with him were forced to plunge once more into the +canal, not all of them this time escaping. Alvarado stood on the brink for +a moment, uncertain what to do, death behind him and deadly peril before. +He was a man of great strength and agility, and despair now gave him +courage. Setting his long lance firmly on the wreck that strewed the +bottom, he sprang vigorously forward and cleared the wide gap at a bound, +a feat that filled all who saw it with amazement, the natives exclaiming, +as they beheld the seemingly impossible leap, "This is truly the +_Tonatiuh_,--the child of the Sun!" This name they had given Alvarado from +his fair features and flaxen hair. How great the leap was no one has told +us, though the name of "Alvarado's leap" still clings to the spot. + +Thus ended the frightful _noche triste_, or "doleful night." Cortez led +the remnant of his men off the causeway, a feeble, wounded, straggling +few, faltering from weariness and loss of blood. Fortunately, the Aztecs, +attracted by the rich spoil that strewed the ground, did not pursue, or it +is doubtful if a man of the Spaniards, in their worn and wounded state, +would have survived. How many perished in that night of dread no one +knows. A probable estimate is about five hundred Spaniards and four +thousand natives, nearly all the rear-guard having fallen. Of forty-six +horses, half had been slain. The baggage, the guns, the ammunition, the +muskets, and nearly all the treasure were gone. The only arms left the +warriors were their swords and a few damaged cross-bows, while their mail +was broken, their garments were tattered, their proud crests and banners +gone, their bright arms soiled, and only a miserable and shattered +fragment of their proud force was left, these dragging themselves along +with pain and difficulty. + + [Illustration: AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE.] + + AZTEC IDOLS CARVED IN STONE. + + +Day after day passed as the Spaniards and their allies, the +Tlascalans,--inveterate enemies of the Aztecs,--slowly moved away from that +blood-stained avenue of death, now little molested by their foes, and +gradually recovering from their fatigue. On the seventh morning they +reached the mountain height which overlooks the plain of Otumba, a point +less than thirty miles from the capital. This plain they were obliged to +traverse on their way to Tlascala, their chosen place of retreat. + +As they looked down on the broad level below them they saw with shrinking +hearts why they had not been as yet molested. A mighty host filled the +whole valley from side to side, their arms and standards glistening in the +sun, their numbers so great that the stoutest heart among the Spaniards +viewed them with dismay, and Cortez, daring and hopeful as he was, felt +that his last hour had now surely come. + +But this stout leader was not the man to give way to despair. There was +nothing to do but to cut their way through this vast array or perish in +the attempt. To retreat would have been to invite sure destruction. +Fortunately, they had rested for two nights and a day, and men and horses +had regained much of their old strength. Without hesitation, Cortez +prepared for the onset, giving his force as broad a front as possible, and +guarding its flanks with his little body of horse, now twenty in all. +Then, with a few words of encouragement, in which he told them of the +victories they had won, and with orders to his men to thrust, not strike, +with their swords, and to the horsemen on no account to lose their lances, +and to strike at the faces of the foe, he gave the word to advance. + +At first the natives recoiled from the stern and fierce onset, rolling +back till they left a wide lane for the passage of their foes. But they +quickly rallied and poured on the little band in their midst, until it +seemed lost in the overwhelming mass. A terrible fray followed, the +Christians, as one writer says, standing "like an islet against which the +breakers, roaring and surging, spend their fury in vain." The struggle was +one of man to man, the Tlascalans and Spaniards alike fighting with +obstinate courage, while the little band of horsemen charged deep into the +enemy's ranks, riding over them and cutting them down with thrust and +blow, their onset giving fresh spirit to the infantry. + +But that so small a force could cut their way through that enormous +multitude of armed and valiant enemies seemed impossible. As the minutes +lengthened into hours many of the Tlascalans and some of the Spaniards +were slain, and not a man among them had escaped wounds. Cortez received a +cut on the head, and his horse was hurt so badly that he was forced to +dismount and exchange it for a strong animal from the baggage-train. The +fight went on thus for several hours, the sun growing hotter as it rose in +the sky, and the Christians, weak from their late wounds, gradually losing +strength and spirit. The enemy pressed on in ever fresh numbers, forcing +the horse back on the foot, and throwing the latter into some disorder. +With every minute now the conflict grew more hopeless, and it seemed as if +nothing were left but to sell their lives as dearly as possible. + +At this critical juncture a happy chance changed the whole fortune of the +day. Cortez, gazing with eagle eye around the field in search of some +vision of hope, some promise of safety, saw at no great distance in the +midst of the throng a splendidly dressed chief, who was borne in a rich +litter and surrounded by a gayly attired body of young warriors. A +head-dress of beautiful plumes, set in gold and gems, rose above him, and +over this again was a short staff bearing a golden net, the standard of +the Aztecs. + +The instant Cortez beheld this person and his emblem his eye lighted with +triumph. He knew him for the commander of the foe, and the golden net as +its rallying standard. Turning to the cavaliers beside him, he pointed +eagerly to the chief, exclaiming, "There is our mark! Follow me!" Then, +shouting his war-cry, he spurred his steed into the thick of the foe. +Sandoval, Alvarado, and others spurred furiously after him, while the +enemy fell back before this sudden and fierce assault. + +On swept the cavaliers, rending through the solid ranks, strewing their +path with the dead and dying, bearing down all who opposed them. A few +minutes of this furious onset carried them to the elevated spot on which +were the Aztec chief and his body-guard. Thrusting and cutting with +tiger-like strength and ferocity, Cortez rent a way through the group of +young nobles and struck a furious blow at the Indian commander, piercing +him with his lance and hurling him to the ground. A young cavalier beside +him, Juan de Salamanca, sprang from his horse and despatched the fallen +chief. Then he tore away the banner and handed it to Cortez. + +All this was the work almost of a moment. Its effect was remarkable. The +guard, overwhelmed by the sudden onset, fled in a panic, which was quickly +communicated to their comrades. The tidings spread rapidly. The banner of +the chief had disappeared. He had been slain. The blindness of panic +suddenly infected the whole host, which broke and fled in wild terror and +confusion. The Spaniards and Tlascalans were not slow in taking advantage +of this new aspect of affairs. Forgetting their wounds and fatigue, they +dashed in revengeful fury on the flying foe, cutting them down by hundreds +as they fled. Not until they had amply repaid their losses on the bloody +causeway did they return to gather up the booty which strewed the field. +It was great, for, in accordance with Cortez's instructions, they had +struck especially at the chiefs, and many of these were richly ornamented +with gold and jewels. + +Thus ended the famous battle of Otumba, the most remarkable victory, in +view of the great disparity of forces, ever won in the New World. Chance +gave the Spaniards victory, but it was a chance made useful only by the +genius of a great commander. The following day the fugitive army reached +the soil of Tlascala and were safe among their friends. History has not a +more heroic story to tell than that of their escape from the Aztec +capital, nor a more striking one than that of their subsequent return and +conquest. + + + + + +PIZARRO AND THE INCA'S GOLDEN RANSOM. + + +The great expedition to the land of gold, which Vasco Nunez de Balboa had +planned to make, was left by his death to be carried out by one of his +companions in the discovery of the South Sea, the renowned Francisco +Pizarro. It was an expedition full of romantic adventure, replete with +peril and suffering, crowded with bold ventures and daring deeds. But we +must pass over all the earlier of these and come at once to the climax of +the whole striking enterprise, the story of the seizure of the Inca of +Peru in the midst of his army and the tale of his incredible ransom. + +Many and strange were the adventures of Pizarro, from the time when, with +one small vessel and about one hundred desperate followers, he sailed from +Panama in 1524, and ventured on the great unknown Pacific, to the time +when, in 1531, he sailed again with one hundred and eighty men and about +thirty horses and landed on the coast of Peru, which he designed to +conquer as Cortez had conquered Mexico. A faithless and cruel wretch was +this Francisco Pizarro, but he had the military merits of courage, +enterprise, daring and persistency, and these qualities carried him +through sufferings and adversities that would have discouraged almost any +man and brought him to magical success in the end. It was the beacon of +gold that lured him on through desperate enterprises and deadly perils and +led him to the El Dorado of the Spanish adventurers. + +Landing and capturing a point on the coast of Peru, he marched with his +handful of bold followers, his horses and guns, eastward into the empire, +crossed the vast and difficult mountain wall of the Andes, and reached the +city of Caxamalca. Close by this city the Inca, Atahualpa, lay encamped +with an army, for a civil war between him and his brother Huascar had just +ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the latter. + +Desperate was the situation of the small body of Spanish soldiers, when, +in the late afternoon of the 15th of November, 1532, they marched into +Caxamalca, which they found empty of inhabitants. About one hundred more +men, with arms and horses, had joined them, but in a military sense they +were but a handful still, and they had every reason to dread the +consequences of their rash enterprise. + +All seemed threatening,--the desertion of the city by its people, the +presence of the Inca, with a powerful army, within a league's distance, +the probable hostility of the Indian emperor. All the Spaniards had to +rely on were their arms,--cannon, muskets and swords of steel,--new and +terrible weapons in that land, and their war-horses, whose evolutions had +elsewhere filled the soul of the Indian with dismay. Yet what were these +in the hands of less than three hundred men, in the presence of a strong +and victorious army? Filled with anxiety, Pizarro at once despatched a +body of horsemen, led by his brother Hernando and the famous cavalier +Hernando de Soto, to visit the Inca in his camp. + +Great was the astonishment of the Indian soldiers as this strange +cavalcade, with clang of arms and blast of trumpet, swept by, man and +horse seeming like single beings to their unaccustomed eyes. De Soto, the +best mounted of them all, showed his command of his steed in the Inca's +presence, by riding furiously over the plain, wheeling in graceful curves, +and displaying all the vigor and beauty of skilled horsemanship, finally +checking the noble animal in full career when so near the Inca that some +of the foam from its lips was thrown on the royal garments. Yet, while +many of those near drew back in terror, Atahualpa maintained an +unflinching dignity and composure, hiding every show of dread, if any such +inspired him. + +To the envoys he said, through an interpreter the Spaniards had brought, +"Tell your captain that I am keeping a fast, which will end to-morrow +morning. I will then visit him with my chieftains. Meanwhile, let him +occupy the public buildings on the square, and no other." + +Refreshments were now offered the Spaniards, but these they declined, as +they did not wish to dismount. Yet they did not refuse to quaff the +sparkling drink offered them in golden vases of great size brought by +beautiful maidens. Then they rode slowly back, despondent at what they had +seen,--the haughty dignity of the Inca and the strength and discipline of +his army. + +That night there were gloomy forebodings throughout the camp, which were +increased as its occupants saw the watch-fires of the Peruvian army, +glittering on the hill-sides, as one said, "as thick as the stars in +heaven." Scarcely a man among them except Pizarro retained his courage; +but he went round among his men, bidding them to keep up their spirits, +and saying that Providence would not desert them if they trusted to their +strength and their cause, as Christians against pagans. They were in +Heaven's service and God would aid them. + +He then called a council of his officers and unfolded to them a desperate +plan he had conceived. This was no less than to lay an ambuscade for the +Inca and seize him in the face of his army, holding him as a hostage for +the safety of the Christians. Nothing less decisive than this would avail +them, he said. It was too late to retreat. At the first sign of such a +movement the army of the Inca would be upon them, and they would all be +destroyed, either there or in the intricacies of the mountain-passes. Nor +could they remain inactive where they were. The Inca was crafty and +hostile, and would soon surround them with a net-work of peril, from which +they could not escape. To fight him in the open field was hazardous, if +not hopeless. The only thing to do was to take him by surprise on his +visit the next day, drive back his followers with death and terror, seize +the monarch, and hold him prisoner. With the Inca in their hands his +followers would not dare attack them, and they would be practically +masters of the empire. + +No doubt Pizarro in this plan had in mind that which Cortez had pursued in +Mexico. He would take care that Atahualpa should not be killed by his own +people, as Montezuma had been, and while the monarch remained alive they +would have the strongest guarantee of safety. This bold plan suited the +daring character of Pizarro's officers. They agreed with him that in +boldness lay their only hope of success or even of life, and they left the +council with renewed confidence to prepare for the desperate enterprise. + +It was noon the next day before the Inca appeared, his litter borne on the +shoulders of his chief nobles and surrounded by others, so glittering with +ornaments that, to quote from one of the Spaniards, "they blazed like the +sun." A large number of workmen in front swept every particle of rubbish +from the road. Behind, and through the fields that lined the road, marched +a great body of armed men. But when within half a mile of the city the +procession halted, and a messenger was sent to the Spaniards to say that +the Inca would encamp there for that night and enter the city the +following morning. + +These tidings filled Pizarro with dismay. His men had been under arms +since daybreak, the cavalry mounted, and the infantry and artillerymen at +their posts. He feared the effect on their spirits of a long and trying +suspense in such a critical situation, and sent word back to the Inca +begging him to come on, as he had everything ready for his entertainment +and expected to sup with him that night. This message turned the monarch +from his purpose, and he resumed his march, though the bulk of his army +was left behind, only a group of unarmed men accompanying him. He +evidently had no fear or suspicion of the Spaniards. Little did he know +them. + +It was near the hour of sunset when the procession reached the city, +several thousand Indians marching into the great square, borne high above +whom was the Inca, seated in an open litter on a kind of throne made of +massive gold, while a collar of emeralds of great size and beauty +encircled his neck and his attire was rich and splendid. He looked around +him with surprise, as there was not a Spaniard to be seen, and asked, in +tones of annoyance, "Where are the strangers?" + +At this moment Pizarro' s chaplain, a Dominican friar, came forward, with +Bible and crucifix in hand, and began to expound to him the Christian +doctrines, ending by asking him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the +king of Spain. The Inca, when by aid of the interpreter he had gained a +glimpse of the priest's meaning, answered him with high indignation, and +when the friar handed him the Bible as the authority for his words, he +flung it angrily to the earth, exclaiming,-- + +"Tell your comrades that they shall give me an account of their doings in +my land. I will not go from here till they have made me full satisfaction +for all the wrongs they have committed." + +Picking up the sacred volume, the friar hastened to Pizarro, told him what +had been said, and cried out,-- + +"Do you not see that while we stand here wasting our breath in talking +with this dog, full of pride as he is, the fields are filling with +Indians? Set on, at once; I absolve you." + +Pizarro waved a white scarf in the air, the signal agreed upon. A gun was +fired from the fortress. Then, with the Spanish war-cry of "St. Jago and +at them!" Pizarro and his followers sprang out into the square. From every +avenue of the great building they occupied poured armed men, horse and +foot, and rushed in warlike fury upon the Indians. Taken utterly by +surprise, the latter were hurled back in confusion. Their ranks rent by +the balls from cannon and musketry, hundreds of them trampled under foot +by the fierce charges of the cavalry, pierced by lances or cut down by +swords, they were driven resistlessly back, falling in multitudes as they +wildly sought to escape. + +The massacre went on with especial intensity around the Inca, his nobles, +none of them armed, struggling with what strength they could in his +defence. "Let no one who values his life strike at the Inca!" shouted +Pizarro, fearing his valued prize might be slain in the wild tumult. +Fiercer still grew the struggle around him. The royal litter swayed back +and forth, and, as some of its bearers were slain, it was overturned, the +monarch being saved from a fall to the ground by Pizarro and some others, +who caught him in their arms. With all haste they bore him into the +fortress and put him under close guard. + +With the capture of the Inca all resistance was at an end. The unarmed +Peruvians fled in terror from the fearful massacre. The soldiers in the +fields were seized with panic on hearing the fatal news, and dispersed in +all directions, pursued by the Spanish cavalry, who cut them down without +mercy. Not till night had fallen did Pizarro's men cease the pursuit and +return at the call of the trumpet to the bloody square of Caxamalca. In +that frightful massacre not less than two thousand victims, perhaps many +more, were slain, the most of them unarmed and helpless. That night +Pizarro kept his word, that he would sup with Atahualpa, but it was a +supper at which he might well have drunk blood. The banquet was served in +one of the halls facing the great square, then thickly paved with the +dead, the monarch, stunned by the calamity, sitting beside his captor at +the dread meal. + +Let us now go forward to a still more spectacular scene in that strange +drama, one which proved that the Spaniards had truly at length reached the +"land of gold." The Inca was not long a prisoner before he discovered the +besetting passion of the Spaniards, their thirst for gold. A party was +sent to pillage his pleasure-house, and brought back a rich booty in gold +and silver, whose weight and value filled the conquerors with delight. + +Thinking that he saw in this a hope of escaping from his captivity, the +Inca one day said to Pizarro that if he would agree to set him free, he +would cover the floor of the room in which they stood with gold. Pizarro +listened with a smile of doubt. As he made no answer, the Inca said, +earnestly, that "he would not merely cover the floor, but would fill the +room with gold as high as he could reach," and he stood on tiptoe as he +put his uplifted hand against the wall. This extraordinary offer filled +Pizarro with intense astonishment. That such a thing could be done seemed +utterly incredible, despite all they had learned of the riches of Peru. +The avaricious conqueror, dazzled by the munificent offer, hastened to +accept it, drawing a red line along the wall at the height the Inca had +touched. How remarkable the ransom was may be judged from the fact that +the room was about seventeen feet wide and twenty-two feet long and the +mark on the wall nine feet high. To add to its value, the Inca offered to +fill an adjoining but smaller room twice full with silver, and to do all +this in the short time of two months. It would seem that he would need +Aladdin's wonderful lamp to accomplish so vast and surprising a task. + +As soon as the offer was made and accepted, the Inca sent messengers to +Cuzco, his capital city, and to the other principal places in his kingdom, +with orders to bring all the gold ornaments and utensils from his palaces +and from the temples and other public buildings, and transport them in all +haste to Caxamalca. While awaiting the golden spoil the monarch was +treated with the fullest respect due to his rank, having his own private +apartments and the society of his wives, while his nobles were permitted +to visit him freely. The only thing the Spaniards took good care of was +that he should be kept under close guard. + +He took one advantage of his measure of liberty. His brother and rival, +Huascar, though a captive, might escape and seize the control of the +state, and he learned that the prisoner had sent a private message to +Pizarro, offering to pay for his liberty a much larger ransom than that +promised by Atahualpa. The Inca was crafty and cruel enough to remove this +danger from his path, if we may accept the evidence of his captors. At any +rate the royal captive was soon after drowned, declaring with his dying +breath that his rival would not long survive him, but that the white men +would avenge his murder. Atahualpa told Pizarro, with a show of great +sorrow and indignation, of his brother's death, and when the Spaniard +threatened to hold him responsible for it, the Inca protested that it had +been done without his knowledge or consent by Huascar's keepers, who +feared that their captive might escape. However it occurred, Pizarro soon +afterward learned that the news was true. It may be that he was well +satisfied with the fact, as it removed a leading claimant for the throne +from his path. + +Meanwhile, the ransom began to come in--slowly, for the distances were +great, and the treasure had to be transported on foot by carriers. Most of +it consisted of massive pieces of gold and silver plate, some of them +weighing from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The Spaniards beheld with +gleaming eyes the shining heaps of treasure, brought in on the shoulders +of Indian porters, and carefully stored away under guard. On some days +articles to the value of half a million dollars are said to have been +brought in. + +Yet the vast weight in gold which was thus brought before them did not +satisfy the avaricious impatience of the Spaniards. They made no allowance +for distance and difficulty, and began to suspect the Inca of delaying the +ransom until he could prepare a rising of his subjects against the +strangers. When Atahualpa heard of these suspicions he was filled with +surprise and indignation. "Not a man of my subjects would dare raise a +finger without my orders," he said to Pizarro. "Is not my life at your +disposal? What better security would you have of my good faith?" He ended +by advising him to send some of his own men to Cuzco, where they could see +for themselves how his orders were being obeyed. He would give them a +safe-conduct, and they could superintend the work themselves. + +The three envoys sent were carried the whole distance of more than six +hundred miles in litters by relays of carriers, their route laying along +the great military road of Peru and through many populous towns. Cuzco +they found to be a large and splendid city. The great temple of the Sun +was covered with plates of gold, which, by the Inca's orders, were being +torn off. There were seven hundred of these plates in all, and a cornice +of pure gold ran round the building. But this was so deeply set in the +stone that it could not be removed. On their return, these messengers +brought with them full two hundred loads of gold, besides great quantities +of silver. + +Gradually the vast ransom offered by the Inca, far surpassing any paid by +any other captive in the world's history, was gathered in. The gold +received came in a great variety of shapes, being wrought into goblets, +ewers, salvers, vases, and other forms for ornament or use, utensils for +temple or palace, tiles and plate used to decorate the public edifices, +and curious imitations of plants and animals. The most beautiful and +artistic of these was the representation of Indian corn, the ear of gold +being sheathed in broad leaves of silver, while the rich tassels were made +of the same precious metal. Equally admired was a fountain which sent up a +sparkling jet of gold, with birds and animals of the same metal playing in +the waters at its base. Some of these objects were so beautifully wrought +as to compare favorably with the work of skilled European artists. + +The treasure gathered was measured in the room in its original form, this +being the compact, but even in this loose form the gold amounted to a sum +equal, in modern money, to over fifteen millions of dollars, with a large +value in silver in addition. All this was melted down into ingots and +divided among the conquerors, with the exception of the royal fifth, +reserved for the King of Spain. The latter included many of the most +curious works of art. The share of Pizarro probably amounted to not less +than a million dollars, and even the common soldiers received what was +wealth to them. + +The ransom paid, what was the benefit to the Inca? Was he given his +liberty, in accordance with the compact? Yes, the liberty which such men +as Francisco Pizarro give to those whom they have injured and have reason +to fear. The total ransom offered by Atahualpa had not been brought in, +but the impatient Spaniards had divided the spoil without waiting for the +whole, and the Inca demanded his freedom. De Soto, who was his chief +friend among the Spaniards, told Pizarro of his demand, but could get from +him no direct reply. His treacherous mind was brooding deeply over some +dark project. + +Soon rumors became current among the soldiers of a design of revolt +entertained by the natives. These spread and grew until an immense army +was conjured up. The Inca was looked upon as the instigator of the +supposed rising, and was charged with it by Pizarro. His denial of it had +little effect, and the fortress was put in a state of defence, while many +of the soldiers began to demand the life of the Inca. To those demands +Pizarro did not turn a deaf ear. Possibly they arose at his own +instigation. + + [Illustration: DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT + CALLAO.] + + DEATH OF ATAHUALPA, FROM A PAINTING IN THE CATHEDRAL AT CALLAO. + + +Hernando Pizarro, who had shown himself a strong friend of the captive, +was absent. De Soto, another of his friends, was sent at the head of an +expedition to Huamachuco, a town a hundred miles away, where it was said +the natives were in arms. Scarcely had he gone when Pizarro, seeming to +yield to the demands of the soldiers, decided to bring Atahualpa to trial +on the charges against him. + +A court was held, with Pizarro and his fellow-captain Almagro as the +judges, an attorney-general being appointed for the crown and counsel for +the prisoner. The crimes charged against the Inca were chiefly of a kind +with which the Spaniards had nothing to do, among them the assassination +of Huascar and the guilt of idolatry. These were simply to bolster up the +only real charge, that of exciting an insurrection against the Spaniards. +The whole affair was the merest show of a trial, and was hurried through +without waiting for the return of De Soto, who could have given useful +evidence about the insurrection. The culprit was adjudged guilty, and +sentenced to be burnt alive that very night in the great square of +Caxamalca! + +It was a sentence that might well have been expected as the termination of +such a trial by such men. Pizarro, in fact, did not dare to set his +captive at liberty, if he proposed to remain in the country, and the cruel +sentence, which was common enough at that day, was carried out except in +one particular. As the poor Inca stood bound to the stake, with the fagots +of his funeral pile heaped around him, Valverde, the Dominican friar, made +a last appeal to him to accept the cross and be baptized, promising him a +less painful death if he would consent. The Inca, shrinking from the +horror of the flames, consented, and was duly baptized under the name of +Juan de Atahualpa. He was then put to death in the Spanish manner, by the +_garrote_, or strangulation. + +Thus died the Inca of Peru, the victim of Pizarro's treachery. Great was +the indignation of De Soto, on his return a day or two later from an +expedition in which he had found no rebels, at what had been done. Pizarro +tried to exculpate himself and blame others for deceiving him, but these +told him to his face that he alone was responsible for the deed. In all +probability they told the truth. + + + + + +GONZALO PIZARRO AND THE LAND OF CINNAMON. + + +We have now to relate the most remarkable adventure in the story of the +conquest of Peru, and one of the most remarkable in the history of the New +World,--the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro to the upper waters of the Amazon +and the pioneer voyage down that mighty river. + +Francisco Pizarro was well aided by his brothers in his great work of +conquest, three of them--Hernando, Juan, and Gonzalo--accompanying him to +Peru, and all of them proving brave, enterprising, and able men. In 1540, +eight years after the conquest, Gonzalo was appointed by his brother +governor of the territory of Quito, in the north of the empire, with +instructions to explore the unknown country lying to the east, where the +cinnamon tree was said to grow. Gonzalo lost no time in seeking his +province, and made haste in starting on his journey of exploration to the +fabled land of spices. + +It was early in the year that he set out on this famous expedition, with a +force of three hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thousand Indians, one +hundred and fifty of the whites being mounted. They were all thoroughly +equipped and took with them a large supply of provisions and a great drove +of hogs, five thousand in number, as some writers say. Yet with all this +food they were to suffer from the extremes of famine. + +We can but briefly tell the incidents of this extraordinary journey. At +first it was easy enough. But when they left the land of the Incas and +began to cross the lofty ranges of the Andes, they found themselves +involved in intricate and difficult passes, swept by chilling winds. In +this cold wilderness many of the natives found an icy grave, and during +their passage a terrible earthquake shook the mountains, the earth in one +place being rent asunder. Choking sulphurous vapors issued from the +cavity, into whose frightful abyss a village of several hundred houses was +precipitated. + +After the heights were passed and they descended to the lower levels, +tropical heats succeeded the biting cold, and fierce storms of rain, +accompanied by violent thunder and lightning, descended almost +ceaselessly, drenching the travellers day after day. It was the rainy +season of the tropics, and for more than six weeks the deluge continued, +while the forlorn wanderers, wet and weary, could scarce drag themselves +over the yielding and saturated soil. + +For several months this toilsome journey continued, many a mountain stream +and dismal morass needing to be crossed. At length they reached the Land +of Cinnamon, the _Canelas_ of the Spaniards, where were forests of the +trees supposed by them to bear the precious bark. Yet had it been the +actual cinnamon of the East Indies, it would have been useless to them in +that remote and mountain-walled wilderness. Here their journey, as +originally laid out, should have ended, but they were lured on by the +statements of the wild tribes they met, they being told of a rich and +populous land at ten days' journey in advance, in which gold could be +found in abundance. + +Gold was a magic word to the Spaniards, and they went eagerly onward, over +a country of broad savannahs which led to seemingly endless forests, where +grew trees of stupendous bulk, some so large that the extended arms of +sixteen men could barely reach around them. A thick net-work of vines and +creepers hung in bright-colored festoons from tree to tree, beautiful to +look at but very difficult to pass. The axe was necessary at every step of +the way, while their garments, rotted with the incessant rains, were torn +into rags by the bushes and brambles of the woodland. Their provisions had +been long since spoiled by the weather, and their drove of swine had +vanished, such of the animals as were not consumed having strayed into the +woods and hills. They had brought with them nearly a thousand dogs, many +of them of the ferocious bloodhound breed, and these they were now glad +enough to kill and eat. When these were gone no food was to be had but +such herbs and edible roots and small animals as the forest afforded. + +At length the disconsolate wanderers emerged on the banks of a broad +river, the Napo, one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, issuing from +the northern Andes to seek a home in the bosom of that mighty stream. +Gladdened by the sight, they followed its banks downward, hoping in this +way to find an easier route. Thickets still beset their way, through which +it needed all their strength to open a passage, and after going a +considerable distance a loud and increasing noise met their ears. For +miles they followed it as it gradually rose into a roar, and at length +they reached a place where the stream rushed furiously down steep rapids, +and at the end poured in a vast volume of foam down a magnificent +cataract, twelve hundred feet in depth. + +This was the height of the fall as measured by the eyes of the wanderers, +a guide not much to be relied on. The stream itself had narrowed until it +was at this point not more than twenty feet wide, and the hungry wanderers +determined to cross it, with the hope of finding beyond it a country +yielding more food. A bridge was constructed by felling great trees across +the chasm, the water here running through vertical walls several hundred +feet in depth. Over this rude bridge men and horses made their way, only +one Spaniard being lost by tumbling down the giddy depth. + +The country beyond the stream proved no better than that they had left, +and the only signs of inhabitants they met were savage and hostile tribes +of Indians, with whom they kept up a steady skirmish. Some of the more +friendly told them that the fruitful land they sought was but a few days' +journey down the river, and they went wearily on, day by day, as the +promised land still fled before their feet. Doubtless they were led by +their own desires to misinterpret the words of the Indians. + +In the end Gonzalo Pizarro decided on building a vessel large enough to +carry the baggage and the men too weak to walk. Timber was superabundant. +The shoes of horses that had died or had been killed for food were wrought +into nails. Pitch was obtained from gum-yielding trees. In place of oakum +the tattered garments of the soldiers were used. It took two months to +complete the difficult task, at the end of which time a rude but strong +brigantine was ready, the first vessel larger than an Indian canoe that +ever floated on the mighty waters of Brazil. It was large enough to carry +half the Spaniards that remained alive after their months of terrible +travel. + +Pizarro gave the command of the vessel to Francisco de Orellana, a man in +whose courage and fidelity he put full trust. The company now resumed its +march more hopefully, following the course of the Napo for weeks that +lengthened into months, the brigantine keeping beside them and +transporting the weaker whenever a difficult piece of country was reached. +In this journey the last scraps of provisions were consumed, including +their few remaining horses, and they were so pressed by hunger as to eat +the leather of their saddles and belts. Little food was yielded by the +forest, and such toads, serpents, and other reptiles as they found were +greedily devoured. + +Still the story of a rich country, inhabited by a populous nation, was +told by the wandering Indians, but it was always several days ahead. +Pizarro at length decided to stop where he was and feed on the scanty +forest spoil, while Orellana went down the stream in his brigantine to +where, as the Indians said, the Napo flowed into a greater river. Here the +nation they sought was to be found, and Orellana was bidden to get a +supply of provisions and bring them back to the half-starved company. +Taking fifty of the adventurers in the vessel, he pushed off into the +swift channel of the river and shot onward in a speedy voyage which +quickly took him and his comrades out of sight. + +Days and weeks passed, and no sign of the return of the voyagers appeared. +In vain the waiting men strained their eyes down the stream and sent out +detachments to look for the vessel farther down. Finally, deeming it +useless to wait longer, they resumed their journey down the river, +spending two months in advancing five or six hundred miles--those of them +who did not die by the way. At length they reached the point they sought, +where the Napo plunged into a much larger stream, that mighty river since +known as the Amazon, which rolls for thousands of miles eastward through +the vast Brazilian forest. + +Here they looked in vain for the brigantine and the rich and populous +country promised them. They were still in a dense forest region, as +unpromising as that they had left. As for Orellana and his companions, it +was naturally supposed that they had perished by famine or by the hands of +the ferocious natives. But they learned differently at length, when a +half-starved and half-naked white man emerged from the forest, whom they +recognized as Sanches de Vargas, one of Orellana's companions. + +The tale he told them was the following: The brigantine had shot so +swiftly down the Napo as to reach in three days the point it had taken +them two months to attain. Here, instead of finding supplies with which to +return, Orellana could obtain barely enough food for himself and his men. +To attempt to ascend against the swift current of the river was +impossible. To go back by land was a formidable task, and one that would +add nothing to the comfort of those left behind. In this dilemma Orellana +came to the daring decision to go on down the Amazon, visiting the +populous nations which he was told dwelt on its banks, descending to its +mouth, and sailing back to Spain with the tidings and the glory of a +famous adventure and noble discovery. + +He found his reckless companions quite ready to accept his perilous +scheme, with little heed of the fate of the comrades left behind them in +the wilderness. De Vargas was the only one who earnestly opposed the +desertion as inhuman and dishonorable, and Orellana punished him by +abandoning him in the wilderness and sailing away without him. + +The story of Orellana's adventure is not the least interesting part of the +expedition we have set out to describe; but, as it is a side issue, we +must deal with it very briefly. Launched on the mighty and unknown river, +in a rudely built barque, it is a marvel that the voyagers escaped +shipwreck in the descent of that vast stream, the navigation being too +difficult and perilous, as we are told by Condamine, who descended it in +1743, to be undertaken without the aid of a skilful pilot. Yet the daring +Spaniards accomplished it safely. Many times their vessel narrowly escaped +being dashed to pieces on the rocks or in the rapids of the stream. Still +greater was the danger of the voyagers from the warlike forest tribes, who +followed them for miles in canoes and fiercely attacked them whenever they +landed in search of food. + +At length the extraordinary voyage was safely completed, and the +brigantine, built on the Napo, several thousand miles in the interior, +emerged on the Atlantic. Here Orellana proceeded to the island of Cubagna, +from which he made his way, with his companions, to Spain. He had a +wonderful story to tell, of nations of Amazons dwelling on the banks of +the great river, of an El Dorado said to exist in its vicinity, and other +romances, gathered from the uncertain stories of the savages. + +He found no difficulty, in that age of marvels and credulity, in gaining +belief, and was sent out at the head of five hundred followers to conquer +and colonize the realms he had seen. But he died on the outward voyage, +and Spain got no profit from his discovery, the lands of the Amazon +falling within the territory assigned by the Pope to Portugal. + +Orellana had accomplished one of the greatest feats in the annals of +travel and discovery, though his glory was won at the cost of the crime of +deserting his companions in the depths of the untrodden wilderness. It was +with horror and indignation that the deserted soldiers listened to the +story of Vargas, and found themselves deprived of their only apparent +means of escape from that terrible situation. An effort was made to +continue their journey along the banks of the Amazon, but after some days +of wearying toil, this was given up as a hopeless task, and despair +settled down upon their souls. + +Gonzalo Pizarro now showed himself an able leader. He told his despairing +followers that it was useless to advance farther, and that they could not +stay where they were, their only hope lying in a return to Quito. This was +more than a thousand miles away, and over a year had passed since they +left it. To return was perilous, but in it lay their only hope. + +Gonzalo did all he could to reanimate their spirits, speaking of the +constancy they had shown, and bidding them to show themselves worthy of +the name of Castilians. Glory would be theirs when they should reach their +native land. He would lead them back by another route, and somewhere on it +they would surely reach that fruitful land of which so much had been told +them. At any rate, every step would take them nearer home, and nothing +else was left them to do. + +The soldiers listened to him with renewed hope. He had proved himself so +far a true companion, sharing all their perils and privations, taking his +lot with the humblest among them, aiding the sick and cheering up the +despondent. In this way he had won their fullest confidence and devotion, +and in this trying moment he reaped the benefit of his unselfish conduct. + +The journey back was more direct and less difficult than that they had +already taken. Yet though this route proved an easier one, their distress +was greater than ever, from their lack of food beyond such scanty fare as +they could pick up in the forest or obtain by force or otherwise from the +Indians. Such as sickened and fell by the way were obliged to be left +behind, and many a poor wretch was deserted to die alone in the +wilderness, if not devoured by the wild beasts that roamed through it. + +The homeward march, like the outward one, took more than a year, and it +was in June, 1542, that the survivors trod again the high plains of Quito. +They were a very different looking party from the well-equipped and +hope-inspired troop of cavaliers and men-at-arms who had left that upland +city nearly two and a half years before. Their horses were gone, their +bright arms were rusted and broken, their clothing was replaced by the +skins of wild beasts, their hair hung long and matted down their +shoulders, their faces were blackened by the tropical sun, their bodies +were wasted and scarred. A gallant troop they had set out; a body of +meagre phantoms they returned. Of the four thousand Indians taken, less +than half had survived. Of the Spaniards only eighty came back, and these +so worn and broken that many of them never fully recovered from their +sufferings. Thus in suffering and woe ended the famous expedition to the +Land of Cinnamon. + + + + + +CORONADO AND THE SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA. + + +The remarkable success of Cortez and Pizarro in Mexico and Peru went far +to convince the Spaniards that in America they had found a veritable land +of magic, filled with wonders and supremely rich in gold and gems. Ponce +de Leon sought in Florida for the fabled Fountain of Youth. Hernando de +Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro, attempted to find a second Peru in +the north, and became the discoverer of the Mississippi. From Mexico other +adventurers set out, with equal hopes, in search of empire and treasure. +Some went south to the conquest of Central America, others north to +California and New Mexico. The latter region was the seat of the fancied +Seven Cities of Cibola, the search for which it is here proposed to +describe. + +In 1538 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was appointed governor of New +Galicia, as the country lying north of Mexico was named, and sent out a +certain Fray Marcos, a monk who had been with Pizarro in Peru, on a +journey of exploration to the north. With him were some Indian guides and +a negro named Estevanico, or Stephen, who had been one of the survivors of +the Narvaez expedition to Florida and had travelled for years among the +Indians of the north. He was expected to be of great assistance. As the +worthy friar went on he was told of rich regions beyond, where the people +wore ornaments of gold, and at length he sent the negro in advance to +investigate and report. Stephen was to send back by the Indians a cross, +the size of which would indicate the importance of what he had learned. +Within four days messengers returned with a great cross the height of a +man, significant of great and important discoveries. + +One of the Indians told the friar that thirty days' journey from the point +they had reached was a populous country called Cibola, in which were seven +great cities under one lord, peopled by a civilized nation that dwelt in +large houses well built of stone and lime, some of them several stories in +height. The entrances to the principal houses were richly wrought with +turquoise, which was there in great abundance. Farther on they had been +told were other provinces, each of them much greater than that of the +seven cities. + +Two days after Easter, 1539, Fray Marcos set out on the track of his +pioneer, eager to reach the land of wonders and riches of which he had +been told. Doubtless there rose in his mind dreams of a second Mexico or +Peru. The land through which lay his route was strange and picturesque. +Here were fertile valleys, watered by streams and walled in by mountains; +there were narrow canons through which ran rapid streams, with rock-walls +hundreds of feet high and cut into strange forms of turrets and towers. + +As he went on he heard more of the seven cities and the distant kingdoms, +and of the abundance of turquoises with which the natives adorned their +persons and their doorways. But nothing was seen of Stephen, though +shelter and provisions were found which he had left at points along the +route. As for the dusky pioneer, Fray Marcos was never to set eyes on him +again. + +At length the good monk reached a fertile region, irrigated like a garden, +where the men wore three or four strings of turquoises around their necks; +and the women wore them in their ears and noses. But Cibola lay still +beyond, the tales of the natives magnifying its houses till some of them +were ten stories in height. Ladders, they said, were used in place of +stairways. Reaching at length the Gila River, a stream flowing through +deep and rugged valleys, he heard again of the negro, who was crossing the +wilderness to the northeast, escorted like a prince by some three hundred +natives. Fifteen days journey still lay between Fray Marcos and Cibola, +and he went on into the wilderness, escorted, like his pioneer, by a large +train of natives, who volunteered their services. + +For twelve days the journey continued through a rough mountain region, +abundantly supplied with game, consisting of deer, rabbits, and +partridges, which was brought in by the Indian hunters. But now there came +back startling news, for one of the negro's guides appeared, pallid with +fright, telling how Stephen had reached Cibola, where he had been seized, +plundered, and imprisoned. Farther on two more Indians were met, covered +with blood and wounds, who said that they had escaped from the slaughter +of all their comrades by the warlike people of Cibola. + +The bold monk had now much trouble in getting his frightened followers to +go on with him, but by means of abundant presents he induced two of the +chiefs to proceed. He was determined to gain at least a sight of the land +of wonders, and with the chiefs and his own followers he cautiously +proceeded. At length, from a hill summit, he looked down on a broad plain +on which he saw the first of the famous seven cities. To his excited fancy +it was greater than the city of Mexico, the houses of stone in many +stories and with flat roofs. This was all he could tell from his distant +view, in which the mountain hazes seem to have greatly magnified his power +of vision. + +That was the end of Fray Marcos's journey. He did not dare to approach +nearer to that terrible people, and, as he quaintly says, "returned with +more fear than victuals;" overtaking his escort, which, moved by still +greater fear, had not waited for him. Back to Coronado he went with his +story, a disappointing one, since he had seen nothing of either gold, +silver, or precious stones, the nearest approach to treasure being the +greenish turquoise. + +The story of the negro pioneer, as afterwards learned, was one that might +have fitted the Orient. He advanced with savage magnificence, bells and +feathers adorning his sable arms and legs, while he carried a gourd +decorated with bells and with white and red feathers. This he knew to be a +symbol of authority among the Indians. Two Spanish greyhounds followed +him, and a number of handsome Indian women, whom he had taken up on the +way, attended him. He was followed with a large escort of Indians, +carrying his provisions and other effects, among them gifts received, or +plunder taken, from the natives. + +When near Cibola, he, in disobedience of the orders given him, sent +messengers to the city bearing his gourd, and saying that he came to treat +for peace and to cure the sick. The chief to whom the gourd was presented, +on observing the bells, cast it angrily to the ground, exclaiming,-- + +"I know not those people; their bells are not of our fashion; tell them to +return at once, or not a man of them will be left alive." + +In despite of this hostile message, the vain-glorious negro went on. He +and his company were not permitted to enter the city, but were given a +house outside of it, and here they were stripped of all their possessions +and refused food and drink. The next morning they left the house, where +they were quickly surrounded and attacked by a great number of the +townspeople, all of them being killed except the two Indians who had +brought the news to Fray Marcos. + +Why they were treated in this manner is not known. They seem to have been +looked on as spies or enemies. But it is interesting that the legend of +the killing of a Black Mexican still lingers in a pueblo of the Zuni +Indians, though three centuries and a half have since then elapsed. + +The story of the discovery of the Seven Cities, as told by the worthy Fray +Marcos, when repeated in the city of Mexico gave rise to high hopes of a +new El Dorado; and numbers were ready to join in an expedition to explore +and conquer Cibola. The city was then well filled with adventurers eager +for fame and fortune, many of them men of good family, cavaliers of rank +"floating about like corks on water," and soldiers ready to enlist in any +promising service. It is no wonder that in a few weeks a company of over +three hundred were enlisted, a large proportion of them mounted. The +Indians of the expedition numbered eight hundred, and some small +field-pieces were taken along, while sheep and cows were to be driven to +supply the army with fresh meat. + +Francisco de Coronado was given the command, and so distinguished was the +cavalcade that the viceroy would have appointed each of the gentlemen a +captain but for fear of making the command top-heavy with officers. It was +early in 1540 that the gallant expedition set out, some of the horsemen +arrayed in brilliant coats of mail and armed with swords and lances, +others wearing helmets of iron or tough bullhide, while the footmen +carried cross-bows and muskets, and the Indians were armed with bows and +clubs. Splendid they were--but woe-befallen were they to be on their +return, such of them as came back. An accessory party was sent by sea, +along the Pacific coast, under Hernando de Alarcon, to aid, as far as it +could, in the success of the army. But in spite of all Alarcon's efforts, +he failed to get in communication with Coronado and his men. + +On the 7th of July, after following the monk's route through the mountain +wilderness, the expedition came within two days' march of the first city +of Cibola. It was evident from the signal-fires on the hills and other +signs of hostility that the Spaniards would have to fight; but for this +the cavaliers of that day seem to have been always ready, and the next day +Coronado moved forward towards the desired goal. + +At length the gallant little army was before Hawaikuh, the city on which +Fray Marcos had gazed with such magnifying eyes, but which now was seen to +be a village of some two hundred houses. It lay about fifteen miles +southwest of the present Zuni. The natives were ready for war. All the old +men, with the women and children, had been sent away, and the Spaniards +were received with volleys of arrows. + +The houses were built in retreating terraces, each story being smaller +than that below it, and from these points of vantage the arrows of the +natives came in showers. Evidently the place was only to be taken by +assault, and the infantry was posted so as to fire on the warriors, while +a number of dismounted horsemen sought to scale the walls by a ladder +which they had found. This proved no easy task. Coronado's glittering +armor especially made him a shining mark, and he was so tormented with +arrows and battered with stones as he sought to ascend that he was wounded +and had to be carried from the field. Others were injured and three horses +were killed, but in less than an hour the place was carried, the warriors +retreating in dismay before the impetuous assault. + +Glad enough were the soldiers to occupy the deserted houses. Their food +had given out and they were half starved, but in the store-rooms they +found "that of which there was greater need than of gold or silver, which +was much corn and beans and chickens, better than those of New Spain, and +salt, the best and whitest I have seen in all my life." The chickens seem +to have been wild turkeys, kept by the natives for their plumage. But of +the much-desired gold and silver there was not a trace. + +The story of all the adventures of the Spaniards in this country is too +extended and not of enough interest to be given here. It must suffice to +say that before their eyes the Seven Cities of Cibola faded into phantoms, +or rather contracted into villages of terraced houses like that they had +captured. Food was to be had, but none of the hoped-for spoil, even the +turquoises of which so much had been told proving to be of little value. +Expeditions were sent out in different directions, some of them +discovering lofty, tower-like hills, with villages on their almost +inaccessible summits, the only approach being by narrow steps cut in the +rock. Others came upon deep canons, one of them discovering the wonderful +Grand Canon of the Colorado River. In the country of Tiguex were twelve +villages built of adobe, some on the plain and some on the lofty heights. +The people here received the Spaniards peaceably and with much show of +welcome. + +In Tiguex was found an Indian slave, called by the Spaniards El Turco, +from his resemblance to the Turks, who said he had come from a rich +country in the east, where were numbers of great animals with shaggy +manes,--evidently the buffalo or bison, now first heard of. Some time +later, being brought into the presence of Coronado, El Turco had a more +wonderful story to tell, to the effect that "In his land there was a river +in the level country which was two leagues wide, in which were fishes as +big as horses, and large numbers of very big canoes with more than twenty +rowers on a side, and carrying sails; and their lords sat on the poop +under awnings, and on the prow they had a great golden eagle. He said also +that the lord of that country took his afternoon nap under a great tree on +which were hung a large number of little gold bells, which put him to +sleep as they swung in the air. He said also that every one had his +ordinary dishes made of wrought plate, and the jugs, plates, and bowls +were of gold." + +No doubt it was the love of the strangers for the yellow metal that +inspired El Turco to these alluring stories, in the hope of getting rid of +the unwelcome visitors. At any rate, this was the effect it had. After +wintering in the villages of the Tiguas, which the Spaniards had assailed +and taken, they set out in the following April in search of Quivira, the +land of gold, which El Turco had painted in such enticing colors. Against +the advice of El Turco, they loaded the horses with provisions, the +imaginative Indian saying that this was useless, as the laden animals +could not bring back the gold and silver. Scarcely to his liking, the +romancing Indian was taken with them as a guide. + +On for many leagues they went until the Pecos River was crossed and the +great northern plains were reached, they being now in a flat and treeless +country, covered with high grasses and peopled by herds of the great maned +animals which El Turco had described. These strange creatures were seen in +extraordinary numbers, so abundant that one day, when a herd was put to +flight, they fell in such a multitude into a ravine as nearly to fill it +up, so that the remainder of the herd crossed on the dead bodies. + +Various tribes of Indians were met, the story they told not at all +agreeing with that of El Turco, who accordingly was now put in chains. +Coronado, not wishing to subject all his companions to suffering, but +eager still to reach the fabled Quivira, at length sent all his followers +back except thirty horsemen and six foot-soldiers, with whom he continued +his journey to the north, the bisons supplying them with abundance of +food. + +For six weeks they marched onward, crossing at the end of thirty days a +wide stream, which is thought to have been the Arkansas River, and at last +reached Quivira, which seems to have lain in the present State of Kansas. +A pleasing land it was of hills and dales and fertile meadows, but in +place of El Turco's many-storied stone houses, only rude wigwams were to +be seen, and the civilized people proved to be naked savages. The only +yellow metal seen was a copper plate worn by one of the chiefs and some +bells of the same substance. The utmost Coronado could do was to set up a +cross and claim this wide region in the name of his master; and his chief +satisfaction was in strangling El Turco for his many embellished lies. + +We shall not describe the return journey, though it was not lacking in +interesting incidents. Finally, having lost many of their horses, being +harassed by the Indians, and suffering from want of provisions, the +way-worn army reached known soil in the valley of Culiacan. Here all +discipline was at an end, and the disorganized army straggled for leagues +down the valley, all Coronado's entreaties failing to restore any order to +the ranks. + +At length the sorely disappointed commander presented himself before the +viceroy Mendoza, with scarcely a hundred ragged followers who alone +remained with him of the splendid cavalcade with which he had set out. + +Thus ends the story of the last of the conquistadores, who had found only +villages of barbarians and tribes of half-naked savages, and returned +empty-handed from his long chase after the Will-o' the-wisp of Quivira and +its fleeting treasures. Little did he dream that Quivira would yet become +the central region of one of the greatest civilized nations of the world, +and rich in productions beyond his most avaricious vision. + + + + + +THE FAITHFUL MIRANDA AND THE LOVERS OF ARGENTINA. + + +The early history of America has few romantic tales of love and devotion, +but there is one woven in with the history of the settlement of Buenos +Ayres, the modern Argentina, which is told by all the historians of the +time, and which exists as the one striking love romance of the Spanish +conquest. It has been doubted, it is true, but it will not to do to +dismiss all the chivalrous tales of the past on the plea that historical +critics have questioned them. + +It may not be generally known to our readers that the man who explored and +took possession of the great rivers of Buenos Ayres for Spain was +Sebastian Cabot, he who, many years before, had with his father discovered +North America in the service of England. It was in the year 1526 that he +sailed up the noble river which he named the Rio de la Plata, a name +suggested by the bars of silver which he obtained from the Indians on its +banks. Sailing some hundred miles up the Paraguay River, he built at the +mouth of the river Zarcaranna a stronghold which he named the Fort of the +Holy Ghost. Some three years later Cabot set sail for Spain, leaving Nuno +de Lara as commander of this fort, with a garrison of one hundred and +twenty men. + +These historical details are important, as a necessary setting for the +love-romance which followed the founding of this fort. Lara, being left +with his handful of men as the only whites in a vast territory peopled +with Indians, felt strongly that in his situation prudence was the better +part of valor, and strove to cultivate friendly relations with the nearest +and most powerful of these tribes, the Timbuez. His success in this +brought about, in an unexpected manner, his death and the loss of the +fort, with other evils in their train. + + [Illustration: COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM.] + + COFFEE PLANT IN BLOSSOM. + + +The tragedy came on in this way: Sebastian Hurtado, one of Lara's +principal officers, had brought with him his wife, Lucia Miranda, a +Spanish lady of much beauty and purity of soul. During the frequent visits +which Mangora, the cacique of the Timbuez, paid to the fort, he saw this +lady and became enamoured of her charms, so deeply that he could not +conceal the evidence of his love. + +Miranda was not long in observing the ardent looks of the Indian chief and +in understanding their significance, and the discovery filled her with +dread and alarm. Knowing how important it was for the commandant to keep +on good terms with this powerful chief, and fearing that she might be +sacrificed to this policy, she did her utmost to keep out of his sight, +and also to guard against any surprise or violence, not knowing to what +extremes the passion of love might lead an Indian. + +Mangora, on his part, laid covert plans to get the fair lady out of the +fort, and with this in view pressed Hurtado to pay him a visit and bring +his wife with him. This the Spaniard was loath to do, for Miranda had told +him of her fears, and he suspected the Indian's design. With a policy +demanded by the situation, he declined the invitations of the chief, on +the plea that a Castilian soldier could not leave his post of duty without +permission from his commander, and that honor forbade him to ask that +permission except to fight his enemies. + +The wily chief was not duped by this reply. He saw that Hurtado suspected +his purpose, and the removal of the husband seemed to him a necessary step +for its accomplishment. While seeking to devise a plan for this, he +learned, to his great satisfaction, that Hurtado and another officer, with +fifty soldiers, had left the fort on an expedition to collect provisions, +of which a supply was needed. + +Here was the opportunity which the treacherous chief awaited. It not only +removed the husband, but weakened the garrison, the protectors of the wife +in his absence. Late one day the chief placed four thousand armed men in +ambush in a marsh near the fort, and then set out for it with thirty +others, laden with provisions. Reaching the gates, he sent word to Lara +that he had heard of his want of food, and had brought enough to serve him +until the return of Hurtado and his men. This show of friendship greatly +pleased Lara. He met the chief with warm demonstrations of gratitude, and +insisted on entertaining him and his followers. + +So far the scheme of the treacherous Indian had been successful. The men +in the marsh had their instructions and patiently awaited the fixed +signals, while the feast in the fort went on till the night was well +advanced. When it broke up the Spaniards were given time to retire; then +the food-bearing Indians set fire to the magazines, and the ambushed +savages, responding to the signal, broke into the fort and ruthlessly cut +down all the Spaniards they met. Those who had gone to bed were killed in +their sleep or slain as they sprang up in alarm. The governor was severely +wounded, but had strength enough to revenge himself on the faithless +Mangora, whom he rushed upon and ran through the body with his sword. In a +moment more he was himself slain. + +At the close of the attack, of all the Spaniards in the fort only the +women and children remained alive--spared, no doubt, by order of the chief. +These consisted of the hapless Miranda, the innocent cause of this bloody +catastrophe, four other women, and as many children. The weeping captives +were bound and brought before Siripa, the brother of Mangora, and his +successor as cacique of the tribe. + +No sooner had the new chief gazed on the woman whom his brother had loved, +her beauty heightened in his eyes by her grief and woe, than a like +passion was born in his savage soul, and he at once ordered his men to +remove her bonds. He then told her that she must not consider herself a +captive, and solicited her favor with the gentleness and address that love +can implant in the breast of the savage as well as of the son of +civilization. Her husband, he told her, was a forlorn fugitive in the +forests of a hostile country; he was the chief of a powerful nation and +could surround her with luxuries and wealth. Could she hesitate to accept +his love in preference to that of a man who was lost to her. + +These persuasions excited only horror and anguish in the soul of the +faithful wife. Her love for her husband was proof against all that Siripa +could say, and also against the fear of slavery or death, which might +follow her rejection of his suit. In fact, death seemed to her a smaller +evil than life as the wife of this savage suitor, and she rejected his +offers with scorn and with a bitter contempt which she hoped would excite +his rage and induce him to put her to instant death. + +Her flashing eyes and excited words, however, had a very different effect +from that she intended. They served only to heighten her charms in the +eyes of the cacique, and he became more earnest than ever in his +persuasions. Taking her to his village, he treated her with every mark of +kindness and gentleness, and showed her the utmost respect and civility, +doubtless hoping in this way to win her esteem and raise a feeling in her +breast corresponding to his own. + +Meanwhile, Hurtado and his men returned with the provisions they had +collected, and viewed with consternation the ruins of the fort which they +had so lately left. Their position was a desperate one, alone and +undefended as they were, in the midst of treacherous tribes; but the fears +which troubled the minds of his comrades did not affect that of Hurtado. +He learned that his wife was a captive in the hands of the cacique of +Timbuez, and love and indignation in his soul suppressed all other +feelings. With a temerity that seemed the height of imprudence, he sought +alone the village of the chief and demanded the release of his wife. + +Siripa heard his request with anger at his presumption and savage joy at +having at his mercy the man who stood between him and the object of his +affections. Determined to remove this obstacle to his suit, he at once +ordered him to be seized, bound to a tree, and pierced with arrows. + +This was not unseen by Miranda, and, filled with anguish, she rushed out, +cast herself at the Indian's feet and pitifully pleaded with him for her +husband's life. The force of beauty in grief prevailed. Hurtado was +unbound, but he was still kept in captivity. + +Lover as Siripa was, he had all the undisciplined passions of a savage, +and the fate of husband and wife alike was at constant risk in his hands. +Now, tormented with the fury of jealousy, he seemed bent on sacrificing +the husband to his rage. Again, the desire of winning the esteem of +Miranda softened his soul, and he permitted the husband and wife to meet. + +As the days of captivity passed the strictness of their detention was +relaxed and they were permitted greater freedom of action. As a result +they met each other more frequently and under less restraint. But this +growing leniency in the cacique had its limits: they might converse, but +they were warned against indulging in any of the fond caresses of love. +Jealousy still burned in his soul, and if Miranda would not become his, he +was resolved that no one else should enjoy the evidence of her affection. + +The situation was a painful one. Husband and wife, as Hurtado and Miranda +were, they continued lovers as well, and it was not easy to repress the +feelings that moved them. Prudence bade them avoid any show of love, and +they resolved to obey its dictates; but prudence is weak where love +commands, and in one fatal moment Siripa surprised them clasped in each +other's arms and indulging in the ardent kisses of love. + +Filled with wild jealousy at the sight and carried away by ungovernable +fury at their contempt of his authority and their daring disregard of his +feelings, he ordered them both to instant execution. Hurtado's old +sentence was renewed: he was bound to a tree and his body pierced with +arrows. As for Miranda, she was sentenced by the jealous and furious +savage to a more painful death, that of the flames. Yet painful as it was, +the loyal wife doubtless preferred it to yielding to the passion of the +chief, and as a quick means of rejoining in soul life her lover and +husband. + +Thus ends the most romantic and tragical story of love and faith that the +early annals of America have to show, and the fate of the faithful Miranda +has become a classic in the love-lore of the America of the south. + + + + + +LANTARO, THE BOY HERO OF THE ARAUCANIANS. + + +The river Biobio, in Southern Chili, was for centuries the boundary +between liberty and oppression in South America. South of it lay the land +of the Araucanians, that brave and warlike people who preserved their +independence against the whites, the only Indian nation in America of +which this can be said. Valorous and daring as were the American Indians, +their arms and their arts were those of the savage, and the great +multitude of them were unable to stand before the weapons and the +discipline of their white invaders. But such was not the case with the +valiant Araucanians. From the period of Almagro, the companion of Pizarro +and the first invader of Chili, down to our own days these bold Americans +fought for and retained their independence, holding the Biobio as their +national frontier, and driving army after army from their soil. Not until +1882 did they consent to become citizens of Chili, and then of their own +free will, and they still retain their native habits and their pride in +their pure blood. + +The most heroic and intrepid of the Indian races, they defied the armies +of the Incas long before the Spaniards came, and the armies of the +Spaniards for centuries afterwards, and though they have now consented to +become a part of the Chilian nation, this has not been through conquest, +and they are as independent in spirit to-day as in the warlike years of +the past. Their hardy and daring character infects the whole of Chili, and +has given that little republic, drawn out like a long string between the +Andes and the sea, the reputation of being one of the most warlike and +unyielding of countries, while to its people has been applied the +suggestive title of "the Yankees of the South." + +It would need a volume to tell the deeds of the heroes who arose in +succession to defend the land of Araucania from the arms of those who so +easily overturned the mighty empire of Peru. We shall, therefore, confine +ourselves to the exploits of one of the earliest of these, a youthful +warrior with a genius for war that might have raised him to the rank of a +great commander had not death early cut short his career. The second +Spaniard who attempted the conquest of this valiant people was Pedro de +Valdivia, the quartermaster of Pizarro, an able soldier, but one of those +who fancied that a handful of Spanish cavaliers were a match for the +strongest of the Indian tribes. He little knew the spirit of the race with +which he would have to deal. + +Southward from Peru marched the bold Valdivia with two hundred Spaniards +at his back. With them as aids to conquest was brought a considerable +force of Peruvians; also priests and women, for he proposed to settle and +hold the land as his own after he had conquered it. Six hundred miles +southward he went, fighting the hostile natives at every step, and on the +14th of February, 1541, stopped and laid the foundations of a town which +he named St. Jago. This still stands as the modern Santiago, a city of +three hundred thousand souls. + +We do not propose to tell the story of Valdivia's wars with the many +tribes of Chili. He was in that land nine years before his conquests +brought him to the Biobio and the land of the Araucanians, with whom alone +we are concerned. On the coast near the mouth of this river he founded a +new town, which he named Concepcion, and made this the basis of an +invasion of the land of the Araucanians, whom he proposed to subdue. + +As it happened, the Araucanian leader at this time was a man with the body +of a giant and the soul of a dwarf. He timidly kept out of the way of the +Spaniards until they had overrun most of the country, built towns and +forts, and had reason to believe that the whole of Chili was theirs. +Valdivia went on founding cities until he had seven in all, and gave +himself the proud title of the Marquis of Arauco, fancying that he was +lord and master of the Araucanians. He was too hasty; Arauco was not yet +his. + +A new state of affairs began when the Araucanians, disgusted with the +timid policy of their leader, chose a bolder man, named Caupolican, as +their toqui, or head chief. A daring and able man, the new toqui soon +taught the Spaniards a lesson. He began with an attack on their forts. At +one of these, named Arauco, the invaders had eighty Indians employed in +bringing them forage for their horses. The wily Caupolican replaced these +laborers by eighty of his own warriors, who hid their arms in the bundles +of hay they carried. On reaching the fort they were to attack the guards +and hold the gates till their ambushed comrades could come to their aid. + +This device failed, the garrison attacking and driving back the +forage-bearers before Caupolican could reach the place. Foiled in this, he +made a fierce assault upon the fort, but the fire of eighty cannons proved +too much for Indian means of defence, and the assailants were forced to +draw back and convert their assault into a siege. This did not continue +long before the Spaniards found themselves in peril of starvation. Vainly +they sallied out on their assailants, who were not to be driven off; and +finally, hopeless of holding the fort, the beleaguered garrison cut its +way by a sudden night attack through the besieging lines and retired to +the neighboring fort of Puren. A similar result took place at another fort +called Tucapel, its garrison also seeking a refuge at Puren. + +When news of these events reached Valdivia, he saw that his conquests were +in peril, and at once set out for the seat of war with all his forces, +amounting to about two hundred Spaniards and four or five thousand +Indians. A small party of cavalry were despatched in advance to +reconnoitre the enemy, but they were all killed by the Araucanians and +their heads were hung on roadside trees as a warning to their approaching +comrades. This gruesome spectacle had much of the effect intended. On +seeing it many of the Spaniards were dismayed and clamored to return. But +Valdivia insisted on advancing, and on the 3d of December, 1553, the two +armies came in sight of each other at Tucapel. + +Valdivia soon found that he had no ordinary Indians to deal with. These +were not of the kind that could be dispersed by a squadron of cavalry. A +fierce charge was made on his left wing, which was cut to pieces by the +daring warriors of Caupolican. The right wing was also vigorously +attacked. But the artillery and musketry of the Spaniards were mowing down +the ranks of the Araucanians, whose rude war-clubs and spears were +ill-fitted to cope with those death-dealing weapons. Driven back, and +hundreds of them falling, they returned with heroic courage three times to +the assault. But at length the slaughter became too great to bear and the +warriors were ready to flee in dismay. + +At this critical moment the first great hero of the Araucanians appeared. +He was a boy of only sixteen years of age, a mere lad, who some time +before had been captured by Valdivia, baptized, and made his page. But +young as he was, he loved his country ardently and hated the invaders with +a bitter hate, and it was this youthful hero who saved the day for his +countrymen and snatched victory out of defeat. + +Leaving the Spanish ranks at the moment the Araucanians were shrinking in +dismay, he rushed into their ranks, called loudly on them to turn, accused +them of cowardice, and bade them to face their foes like men. Seizing a +lance, he charged alone on the Spaniards, calling on his countrymen to +follow him. Inspired by his example and his cries, the Araucanians charged +with such fury that the ranks of the Spaniards and their allies were +broken, and they were cut down until the whole force was annihilated. It +is said that of the entire expedition only two Indians escaped. + +Valdivia, who had retired with his chaplain to pray, on seeing the fortune +of war turning against him, was seized by a party of the victors and +brought before Caupolican. The dismayed captive begged the chief for his +life, promising to leave Chili with all his Spaniards. Seeing Lantaro, his +late page, he asked him to intercede with the chief, and this the generous +boy did. But the Araucanians had little faith in Spanish promises, and an +old warrior who stood near ended the matter by raising his war-club and +dashing out the captive's brains. Thus tragically ended the career of one +of the least cruel of the Spanish conquerors. He paid the penalty of his +disdain of Indian courage. + +Lantaro, the boy hero, had the blood of chiefs in his veins, and was +endowed by nature with beauty of person, nobleness of character, and +intrepidity of soul. His people honored him highly in the festival with +which they celebrated their victory, and Caupolican appointed him his +special lieutenant, raising him to a rank in the army nearly equal to his +own. + +There was fighting still to be done. The leader of the Spaniards was dead, +but he had left many behind him, and there were still strongholds in the +Indian country held by Spanish arms. On hearing of the terrible disaster +to their cause, the Spaniards hastily evacuated their forts beyond the +Biobio and retired to the towns of Imperial and Valdivia. Here they were +besieged by Caupolican, while Lantaro was given the difficult task of +defending the border-land about the frontier stream. The youthful general +at once fortified himself on the steep mount of Mariguenu, a fort made +very strong by nature. + +Meanwhile, the two Indians who had escaped from Tucapel brought the news +of the disaster to Concepcion, filling the minds of the people with +terror. The tidings of an attack on a party of fourteen horsemen, of whom +seven were slain, added to the dismay. The fact that they were now dealing +with a foe to whom artillery and cavalry had lost their terrors was not +reassuring to the invaders of the land. Evidently their position was +hazardous; they must fight to win or retreat. + +Villagrau, who was chosen to succeed Valdivia, decided to fight. With a +small army of Spaniards and a strong body of Indians he crossed the Biobio +and marched upon Lantaro and his men, ascending Mount Mariguenu to attack +the stronghold on its top. + +Boy as Lantaro was, he showed the skill of an old soldier in dealing with +his well-armed foe. While the Spaniards were toiling up a narrow pass of +the mountain a strong force of Araucanians fell upon them, and for three +hours gave them as sharp a fight as they had yet encountered. Then the +Indians withdrew to the strong palisade, behind which Lantaro awaited the +foe. + +Up the side of the steep mountain rode a party of Spanish horsemen, with +the purpose of forcing a passage, but near the summit they were met with +such a storm of arrows and other missiles that it became necessary to +support them with infantry and artillery. Lantaro, vigilant in the +defence, endeavored to surround the Spaniards with a body of his warriors, +but the success of this stratagem was prevented by the advance of +Villagrau to their support. The battle now grew hot, the artillery in +particular sweeping down the ranks of the Indians. + +At this critical juncture Lantaro showed that he was a born captain. +Calling to him one of his officers, named Leucoton, he said, "You see +those thunder-tubes. It is from them our trouble comes. There is your +work. Do not dare show your face to me until you have made them your own." + +Leucoton at once rushed forward with his company and fell in fury upon the +battery, driving back the gunners and capturing their cannon. This +successful charge was followed by Lantaro with a fierce attack on the +Spanish front, which broke their ranks, throwing them into confusion and +putting them to flight. The defeat was ruinous, three thousand of the +Spaniards and their allies being slain, while Villagrau was saved with +difficulty and at the risk of their lives by three of his men, who picked +him up where he lay wounded and carried him off on his horse. + +In their flight the Spaniards had to traverse again the defile by which +they had ascended. Lantaro had sent men to obstruct it by felled trees, +and the few remaining Spaniards had a severe fight before they could +escape. The Araucanians pursued them to the Biobio, fatigue preventing +their following beyond that stream. The fugitives continued their flight +until Concepcion was reached, and here the old men and women were speedily +sent north in ships, while the other inhabitants fled from the city in a +panic, and started for Santiago by land. All their property was left, and +the victors found a rich prize when they entered the city. Lantaro, after +destroying the place, returned home, to be greeted with the acclamations +of his people. + +We must deal more rapidly with the remaining events of the boy hero's +career. Some time after this defeat the Spaniards attempted to rebuild +Concepcion, but while thus employed they were attacked and defeated by +Lantaro, who pursued them through the open gates of their fortress and +took possession of the stronghold, the people again fleeing to the woods +and the ships in the harbor. Once more burning the city, Lantaro withdrew +in triumph. + +The "Chilian Hannibal," as Lantaro has been with much justice called, now +advanced against Santiago with six hundred picked men, as an aid to +Caupolican in his siege of Imperial and Valdivia. Reaching the country of +the Indian allies of the Spanish, the youthful general laid it waste. He +then fortified himself on the banks of the Rio Claro and sent out spies +into the country of the enemy. At the same time a body of Spanish horsemen +were sent from the city to reconnoitre the position of their enemies, but +they were met and driven back in dismay, being severely handled by the +Araucanians. The news of their repulse filled the people of Santiago with +consternation. + +Villagrau being ill, he despatched his son Pedro against Lantaro, and +ordered the roads leading to the city to be fortified. Young Pedro proved +no match for his still younger but much shrewder opponent. When the +Spaniards attacked him, Lantaro withdrew as if in a panic, the Spaniards +following tumultuously into the fortifications. Once inside, the Indians +turned on them and cut them down so furiously that none but the horsemen +escaped. + +Three times Pedro attacked Lantaro, but each time was repulsed. The young +Spanish leader then withdrew into a meadow, while Lantaro encamped on a +neighboring hill, with the design in mind of turning the waters of a +mountain stream on Pedro's camp. Fortunately for the latter, a spy +informed him of the purpose to drown him out, and he hastily retired to +Santiago. + +Villagrau had now got well again, and relieved his son of the task which +had proved too much for him. At the head of a strong force, he took a +secret route by the sea-shore, with the purpose of surprising the +Araucanian camp. At daybreak the cries of his sentinels aroused Lantaro to +the impending danger, and he sprang up and hurried to the side of his +works to observe the coming enemy. He had hardly reached there when an +arrow from the bow of one of the Spanish allies pierced him with a mortal +wound, and the gallant boy leader fell dead in the arms of his followers. + +A fierce combat followed, the works being stormed and the fight not ending +till none of the Araucanians remained alive. The Spaniards then withdrew +to Santiago, where for three days they celebrated the death of their foe; +while his countrymen, dismayed by his fall, at once abandoned the siege of +the invested cities and returned home. + +A remarkable career was that of this young captain, begun at sixteen and +ending at nineteen. History presents no rival to his precocious military +genius, though in the centuries of war for independence in his country +many older heroes of equal fame and daring arose for the defence of their +native land against the Spanish foe. + + + + + +DRAKE, THE SEA-KING, AND THE SPANISH TREASURE-SHIPS. + + +At the end of October, 1578, Sir Francis Drake, the Sea-King of Devon, as +he was called, and the most daring and persistent of the enemies of the +Spanish settlements in America, sailed from Cape Horn, at the southern +extremity of the continent, and steered northward into the great Pacific, +with the golden realm of Peru for his goal. A year before he had left the +harbor of Plymouth, England, with a fleet of five well-armed ships. But +these had been lost or left behind until only the "Golden Hind," a ship of +one hundred tons burden, was left, the flag-ship of the little squadron. +Of the one hundred and sixty men with whom he started only about sixty +remained. + +The bold Drake had previously made himself terrible to the Spaniards of +Mexico and the West Indies, and had won treasure within sight of the walls +of Panama. Now for the first time the foot of a white man trod the barren +rocks of Cape Horn and the keel of an English ship cut the Pacific waves. +Here were treasure-laden Spanish galleons to take and rich Spanish cities +to raid, and the hearts of the adventurers were full of hope of a golden +harvest as they sailed north into that unknown sea. + +Onward they sailed, nearing the scene of the famous adventures of Pizarro, +and about the 1st of December entered a harbor on the coast of Chili. +Before them, at no great distance, lay sloping hills on which sheep and +cattle were grazing and corn and potatoes growing. They landed to meet the +natives, who came to the shore and seemed delighted with the presents +which were given them. But soon afterwards Drake and a boatload of his +men, who had gone on shore to procure fresh water, were fiercely attacked +by ambushed Indians, and every man on board was wounded before they could +pull away. Even some of their oars were snatched from them by the Indians, +and Drake was wounded by an arrow in the cheek and struck by a stone on +the side of his face. + + [Illustration: THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO.] + + THE HARBOR OF VALPARAISO. + + +Furious at this unprovoked assault, the crew wished to attack the hostile +natives, but Drake refused to do so. + +"No doubt the poor fellows take us for Spaniards," he said; "and we cannot +blame them for attacking any man from Spain." + +Some days later a native fisherman was captured and brought on board the +ship. He was in a terrible fright, but was reassured when he learned that +his captors were not Spaniards, but belonged to a nation whose people did +not love Spain. He was highly pleased with a chopping-knife and a piece of +linen cloth that were given him, and was sent ashore, promising to induce +his people to sell some provisions to the ship's crew. He kept his word, +and a good supply of fowls and eggs and a fat hog were obtained. + +With the boat came off an Indian chief, glad to see any white men who +hated the Spaniards as deeply as he did himself. He was well received and +served to the best the ship could afford. Then he said to his entertainer +in Spanish, a language he spoke fairly well,-- + +"If you are at war with the Spaniards, I will be glad to go with you, and +think I can be of much use to you. The city of Valparaiso lies not far +south of here, and in its harbor is a large galleon, nearly ready to sail +with a rich treasure. We should all like much to have you capture that +vessel." + +This was good news to Drake. The next day the "Golden Hind" turned its +prow down the coast under full sail, with the friendly native on board. +When Valparaiso was reached, Drake saw to his delight that his dusky pilot +had told the truth. There lay a great galleon, flying a Spanish flag. Not +dreaming of an enemy in those waters, the Spaniards were unsuspicious +until the "Golden Hind" had been laid alongside and its armed crew were +clambering over the bulwarks. The rich prize was captured almost without a +blow. + +The crew secured, Drake searched for the expected treasure, and to his joy +found that she was laden with over one hundred and twenty thousand dollars +in gold coin, and with other costly goods, including about two thousand +jars of Chili wine. This rich plunder was transferred to the hold of the +"Golden Hind," and the Spanish ship left to her disconsolate captain and +crew. + +After celebrating this victory with a gleeful feast, in which the rich +viands obtained were washed down freely with the captured wine, an armed +force was sent ashore to raid the town, whose people fled hurriedly to the +fields when they saw the hostile strangers approaching. In the deserted +houses and the church a fair supply of gold and silver spoil was found, +and what was equally welcome, an abundant addition to their scanty store +of provisions. Greatly the richer for her raid, the "Golden Hind" set sail +again up the coast, putting the native pilot ashore at the place where he +wished to land, and enriching him in a way that drew from him eager +protestations of joy and gratitude. + +Good and bad fortune attended the adventurers in this voyage up the South +American coast. One of the examples of good fortune came at a place called +Tarapaza, where a boatload of men, who had gone ashore, came upon a +Spaniard lying fast asleep on the bank of a small stream. By his side, to +their surprise, were thirteen heavy bars of solid silver. The sleepy +treasure-bearer and his silver were speedily secured. Farther inland the +party met with another Spaniard and an Indian boy, who were driving some +sheep, with bulging bags upon their backs. On opening those they were +found also to contain silver bars. It was a joyous party that returned to +the "Golden Hind" with the treasure thus unexpectedly obtained, and it +began to look almost as if the country grew silver. + +The next raid of the adventurers was at a place called Arica, a small +seaport town at the output of a beautiful and fertile valley. Here lay two +or three Spanish vessels which were quickly captured and searched for +goods of value. The town was not taken, for a native whom Drake met here +told him of a Spanish galleon, heavily laden with a valuable cargo, which +had recently passed up the coast. Here was better hope for spoil than in a +small coastwise town, and the "Golden Hind" was speedily under sail again. + +"A great galleon is ahead of us," said Drake to his men. "I am told she is +richly laden. The first man of you who sets eyes on her will win my hearty +thanks and a heavy gold chain into the bargain." + +It may well be imagined that the eyes of the sailors were kept wide open +in the days that followed. The man to win the golden chain was John Drake, +the admiral's brother, who rushed to him one morning, as he came on deck, +with the glad tidings,-- + +"Yonder is the galleon!" + +He pointed to the far northern horizon, where the sails of a great ship +were just becoming visible through the morning haze. "Make all sail!" was +the cry, and the English cruiser glided swiftly forward before the fresh +breeze towards the slow-moving Spanish ship. + +Not dreaming of such an unlikely thing as an English ship in those waters, +as yet never broken except by a Spanish keel, the captain of the galleon +took the stranger for a craft of his own nation, and shortened sail as the +"Golden Hind" came up, signalling for its officers to come on board. Drake +did so, with a strong body of armed sailors, and when the Spanish captain +learned his mistake it was too late to resist. The crew of the galleon +were put under hatches, and her cargo, which proved to be rich in gold and +silver, was quickly transferred to the "Golden Hind." Then captain and +crew of the galleon were put ashore, and the captured ship was set adrift, +to try her chances without pilot or helmsman in those perilous seas. The +next storm probably made her a grave in the breakers. + +Great had been the spoil gathered by the English rovers, a rich wealth of +treasure being within the coffers of the "Golden Hind," while she was +abundantly supplied with provisions. Drake now thought of returning home +with the riches he had won for himself and his comrades. But the port of +Lima, Pizarro's capital, lay not far up the coast, and here he hoped for a +rich addition to his spoil. Though satisfied that a messenger had been +sent from Valparaiso to warn the people of the presence of an armed +English ship on the coast, he had no doubt of reaching Lima in advance of +news brought overland. + +On reaching the port of Lima a number of Spanish vessels were found, and, +their captains being unsuspicious, were easily taken. But they contained +no cargoes worth the capture. Lima lay several miles inland from the port, +and the governor, on hearing of these depredations, imagined that the +stranger must be a Spanish vessel that had fallen into the hands of +pirates and was on a freebooting cruise. While he was making preparations +for her capture the messenger from Valparaiso arrived and told him the +real character of the unwelcome visitor. + +This news spurred the governor to increased exertions. An armed English +war-ship on their coast was a foe more to be dreaded than a pirate, and +the wealth it had taken at Valparaiso was amply worth recapture. With all +haste the governor got together a force of two thousand men, horse and +foot, and at their head hurried to the port. There in the offing was the +dangerous rover, lying motionless in a calm, and offering a promising +chance for capture. + +Hastily getting ready two Spanish ships and manning them heavily from his +forces, he sent them out, favored by a land-breeze which had not reached +Drake's sails. But before they had gone far the "Golden Hind" felt the +welcome wind and was soon gliding through the water. With his small force +it was hopeless for the English captain to face the strongly armed +Spaniards, and his only hope for safety lay in flight. + +The pursuit went on hour after hour, the Spaniards at times coming near +enough to reach the "Golden Hind" with their shots. As the wind varied in +strength, now the chase, now the pursuers, gained in speed. The Spanish +ships proved fair sailers and might in the end have overhauled the +Englishman but for a precaution the governor had neglected in his haste. +Expecting to capture the English ship in a short run, he had not thought +of provisioning his vessels, and as the chase went on their small food +supply gave out and the soldiers were nearly famished. In the end the +governor, who was on board, was reluctantly forced to order a return to +port. + +Yet he did not give up hope of capturing the English rovers. On reaching +Lima he sent out three more ships, this time fully provisioned. But Drake +and his men had won too good a start to be overtaken, and the new pursuers +never came within sight of him. + +Homeward bound with an abundant treasure, the rovers pressed merrily on. +To return by the Straits of Magellan seemed too risky a venture with the +Spaniards keenly on the alert, and the adventurous Englishman decided to +sail north, expecting to be able to find a passage through the seas north +of the American continent. The icy and impassable character of these seas +was at that early date quite unknown. + +Onward through the Spanish waters they went, taking new prizes and adding +to their store of treasure as they advanced. The coastwise towns were also +visited and booty obtained from them. At length the South American +continent was left behind and the "Golden Hind" was off the coast of +Central America. About mid April they left the shore and stood out to sea, +at last bound definitely for home. + +Drake fancied that the Pacific coast stretched due northward to the limit +of the continent, where he hoped to find an easy passage back to the +Atlantic, but after more than five weeks of a north-westward course, +gradually verging to due north, he was surprised to see land again to his +right. At first taking it for a large island, he soon learned that he had +met the continent again and that America here stretched to the northwest. + +He was off the coast of the country now called California, in a new region +which English eyes had never seen, though Spaniards had been there before. +The land seemed well peopled with Indians, very different in character and +degree of civilization from those of Peru. They were simple-minded +savages, but very friendly; fortunately so, since, as they lay in harbor, +the ship sprang a leak, and it became necessary to take measures to repair +the damage. + +The ship was anchored in shallow water near the shore, her cargo and +provisions were landed and stored, and steps taken to make the necessary +repairs. While this was going on the mariners were visited by the savages +in large numbers, occasionally with what were thought to be signs of +hostility. But their friendliness never ceased, and when at length their +visitors, with whom they had established very amicable relations, were +ready to depart they manifested the greatest grief, moaning, wringing +their hands, and shedding tears. + +The harbor of the "Golden Hind" was in or near what is now called the +Golden Gate, the entrance to the magnificent bay of San Francisco. On the +23d of July, 1579, the ship weighed anchor and sailed out of the harbor. +On the hill-side in the rear was gathered a large body of Indians, some of +them fantastically attired in skins and adorned with feathers, others +naked but for the painted designs which covered their bodies. They built +bonfires in all directions in token of farewell, and Drake and his +officers stood on deck, waving their hats to their new-made friends. +Slowly the hill with its fires of friendship disappeared from view, and +they were on the open ocean again. + +From this point the ship sailed northward, skirting the coast. But the +farther they went the colder the weather became, until it grew so bleak +that it was deemed necessary to give up the hope of reaching home by the +northern route. Yet to return by the way they had come would be very +dangerous with their small force, as the Spaniards would probably be +keenly on the lookout for them. Only one course remained, which was to +follow the route taken by Magellan, sixty years before, across the vast +Pacific, through the islands of Asia, and around the Cape of Good Hope. +Drake had with him the narratives and copies of the charts of the first +circumnavigator of the globe, and it struck him that it would be a great +and glorious thing to take the "Golden Hind" around the earth, and win him +the credit of being the first Englishman to accomplish this wonderful +task. + +The prow of the "Golden Hind" was thereupon turned to the west. Quick and +prosperous was the voyage, the sea being almost free from storms, and +after sixty-eight days in which land had not been seen a green shore came +in view. It was the last day of September, 1579. + +The voyagers had many interesting experiences in the eastern archipelago, +but no mishaps except that the ship grounded on a rocky shoal near one of +the islands. Fortunately there was no leak, and after throwing overboard +eight of their cannon, three tons of cloves they had gathered in their +voyage through the isles of spices, and many bags of meal, the "Golden +Hind" was got afloat again, none the worse for her dangerous misadventure. + +Stocking their vessel once more with spices and sago at the island of +Booten, and meeting with a hospitable reception at the large island of +Java, they sailed to the south, doubling the stormy Cape of Good Hope +without mishap and entering the Atlantic again. Finally, on the 26th of +September, 1580, the "Golden Hind" dropped anchor in Plymouth harbor, from +which she had sailed nearly three years before, and with wealth enough to +make all on board rich. + +Never had England been more full of joy and pride than when the news of +the wonderful voyage of the "Golden Hind" round the world was received and +its strange adventures told. Queen Elizabeth was glad to make a knight of +the bold sea-rover, changing his name from plain Francis Drake to Sir +Francis Drake, and the people looked on him as their greatest hero of the +sea. In our days acts like his would have been called piracy, for England +was not at war with Spain. But Drake was made a hero all the same, and in +the war that soon after began he did noble work in the great sea fight +with the Spanish Armada. + + + + + +SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE QUEST FOR EL DORADO. + + +Gold was the beacon that lured the Spaniards to America, and dazzling +stories were told by them of the riches of the countries they explored, +stories illustrated by the marvellous wealth of Peru. It was well known +that Cortez had not obtained all the treasures of Montezuma, or Pizarro +all those of Atahualpa, and many believed that these treasures had been +carried far away by the servants of those unhappy monarchs. Guiana, the +northeastern section of South America, was looked upon by the Spanish +adventurers as the hiding-place of this fabulous wealth. Others fancied +that Guiana was the true El Dorado in itself, a land marvellously rich in +gold, silver, and precious stones. Gonzalo Pizarro, in his expedition in +1540, had heard much from the Indians of this land of wealth, and Orellana +brought back from his famous descent of the Amazon marvellous stories of +the riches in gold, silver, and precious stones of the land of the north. + +These stories, once set afloat, grew in wonder and magnitude through pure +love of the marvellous or wild expansion of the fanciful tales of the +Indians. Far inland, built on a lofty hill, so the fable ran, was a mighty +city, whose very street watering-troughs were made of solid gold and +silver, while "billets of gold lay about in heaps, as if they were logs of +wood marked out to burn." + +In this imperial city dwelt in marvellous magnificence a mighty king. The +legend went that it was a habit of his to cover his body with turpentine +and then roll in gold-dust till he gleamed like a veritable golden image. +Then, entering his barge of state, with a retinue of nobles whose dresses +glittered with gems, they would sail around a beautiful lake, ending their +tour by a bath in the cooling waters. + +Where was this city? Who had seen its gold-emblazoned king? Certainly none +of those who went in search of it or its monarch. Of the Spanish +adventurers who sought for that land of treasure, the most persistent was +a bold explorer named Berreo, who landed in New Granada, and set out +thence with a large body of followers--seven hundred horsemen, the story +goes. His route lay along the river Negro, and then down the broad +Orinoco. Boats were built for the descent of this great stream. But the +route was difficult and exhausting and the natives usually hostile, and as +they went on many of the men and horses died or were slain. + +For more than a year these sturdy explorers pushed on, reaching a point +from which, if they could believe the natives, the city they sought was +not far away, and Guiana and its riches were near at hand. As evidence, +the Indians had treasure of their own to show, and gave Berreo "ten images +of fine gold, which were so curiously wrought, as he had not seen the like +in Italy, Spain, or the Low Countries." But as they went on the gallant +seven hundred became reduced to a weary fraction, and these so eager to +return home that their leader was forced to give up the quest. He sought +the island of Trinidad, near the coast of South America, and there, as +governor, he dwelt for years, keeping alive in his soul the dream of some +day going again in search of El Dorado. + +While Berreo was thus engaged, there dwelt in England a man of romantic +and adventurous nature named Walter Raleigh. He became afterwards famous +as Sir Walter Raleigh, and for many years devoted himself to the attempt +to plant an English colony on the coast of North America. On this project +he spent much time and money, but ill-fortune haunted him and all his +colonies failed. Then he concluded to cross the ocean himself and restore +his wasted wealth by preying on the Spanish treasure-ships, after the +fashion of the bold Sir Francis Drake. But Queen Elizabeth put an end to +this project by clapping him in prison, on a matter of royal jealousy. +While one of the queen's lovers, he had dared to marry another woman. + +While Raleigh lay in prison, some of the ships of the fleet he had fitted +out came back with a Spanish galleon they had taken, so richly laden with +costly goods that the whole court was filled with delight. Part of the +spoils went to the queen and another part to Raleigh, and when at length +he was released from his prison-cell his mind was set on winning more of +the American gold. The stories of El Dorado and its marvellous city were +then in great vogue, for Berreo had but lately returned from his +expedition--with no gold, indeed, but with new tales of marvel he had +gathered from the Indians. + +It was now the year 1594. Raleigh was but forty-two years of age, in the +prime of life and full of activity and energy. His romantic turn of mind +led him to a full belief in the stories that floated about, and he grew +eager to attempt the brilliant and alluring adventure which Berreo had +failed to accomplish. Though the Spaniard had failed, he had opened up +what might prove the track to success. Raleigh had sent various +expeditions to the New World, but had never crossed the ocean himself. He +now decided to seek Guiana and its fairyland of gold. + +A small vessel was sent in advance, under command of Raleigh's friend, +Jacob Whiddon, to feel the way and explore the mouth of the Orinoco, which +was deemed to be the gateway to the golden realm. Whiddon stopped at +Trinidad, and found Berreo, then its governor, very kindly and cordial. +But, on one pretext or another, the treacherous Spaniard had the English +sailors arrested and put in prison, until Whiddon found his crew so small +that he was obliged to go back to England without seeing the Orinoco. + +Whiddon's report made Raleigh more eager than ever. He believed that +Berreo was getting ready to go back to Guiana himself, and was seeking to +rid himself of rivals. He hastened his preparations accordingly, and in +February, 1595, set sail from Plymouth with a fleet of five well-supplied +vessels, taking with him about one hundred gentlemen adventurers in +addition to the crews. A number of small and light boats were also taken +for use on the rivers of Guiana. Many of their friends came to see the +voyagers off, flags floated on all the vessels in the harbor, and Raleigh +and his companions, dressed in their best array, stood on the decks, as, +with set sails and flying pennons, the stout ships moved slowly away on +their voyage of chance and hope. + +Raleigh followed the example of the sea-rovers of his day, committing what +would now be called piracy on the high seas. Not long had the fleet left +the Canary Islands before a Spanish ship was seen and captured. It was +quickly emptied of its cargo,--a welcome one, as it consisted of fire-arms. +Very soon after a second ship was captured. This was a Flemish vessel, +laden with wines. These were taken also, twenty hogsheads of them. About +two months out from Plymouth the hills of Trinidad were sighted, and +Raleigh's eyes rested for the first time on the shores of that New World +in which he had so long taken a warm interest. + +Governor Berreo tried to treat Raleigh as he had done his agent, +forbidding any of the Indians to go on his ships on peril of death. But +they went on board, for all that, and were delighted with the kind +treatment they received. They told Raleigh that several of their chiefs +had been seized and imprisoned in the town of St. Joseph, and begged him +to rescue them. No Englishman of that day hesitated when the chance came +to deal the Spaniards a blow, and a vigorous attack was soon made on the +town, it being captured, the chiefs set free, and the governor himself +made a prisoner. + + [Illustration: A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS.] + + A TROPICAL BUNGALOW AND PALMS. + + +Raleigh, while holding the Spaniard as a captive on his flag-ship, treated +him with every courtesy, and had him to eat at his own table. Here Berreo, +who did not suspect the purpose of the English, talked freely about his +former expedition and gave his captor a good deal of very useful +information. One thing Raleigh learned was that his ships could not be +taken up the Orinoco, on account of the sand-banks at its mouth and its +dangerous channels. He therefore felt it necessary to leave the ships at +Trinidad and cross to the mainland in the boats he had brought with him. + +One hundred men were chosen for the journey, the others being left to +guard the fleet. An old galley, a barge, a ship's-boat, and two wherries +carried them, and a young Indian pilot, who claimed to be familiar with +the coast, was taken along. Trinidad lies at no great distance from the +mainland, but stormy weather assailed the voyagers, and they were glad +enough to enter one of the mouths of the river and escape the ocean +billows. But here new troubles surrounded them, the nature of which +Raleigh described later, in his account of the expedition. He wrote: + +"If God had not sent us help, we might have wandered a whole year in that +labyrinth of rivers, ere we had found any way. I know all the earth does +not yield the like confluence of streams and branches, the one crossing +the other so many times, and all so fair and large, and so like one +another as no man can tell which to take. And if we went by the sun or +compass, hoping thereby to go directly one way or the other, yet that way +also we were carried in a circle among multitudes of islands. Every island +was so bordered with big trees as no man could see any farther than the +breadth of the river or length of the branch." + +The Indian pilot proved to be useless in this medley of water-ways, and +only chance extricated the voyagers from the labyrinth in which they were +involved. This chance was the meeting and capturing a canoe with three +natives, who became friendly when they found they had nothing to fear from +the strange white men. One of them was an old man who knew the river +thoroughly, and whom presents and kind words induced to guide them past +their difficulties. + +Resting that night on a little knoll on the wooded banks of the stream, +they were off again early the next morning. The river was still swift and +violent, broken here and there with rapids, where they had to land and +pull the boats. There were shoals also, which they had much trouble in +getting over. And the banks were so crowded with trees and high reeds that +they could not land, and were almost stifled from the closeness of the +air. + +After four hard and weary days of this kind they reached a smoother +channel and could proceed more easily. But their work was still far from +easy, for the inflowing tidal waters had left them and they had the swift +current of the river to breast, while the tropic heat grew more oppressive +day by day. It was hard work for the gentlemen rovers in that tropical +climate, where the dense forest growth cut off every breath of air and +their diminishing bread forced them to be put on short allowance. They +began to complain bitterly, and Raleigh had to use all his powers of +persuasion to induce them to go on. + +Yet the country was in many ways beautiful. Here and there the woods +ceased and broad plains spread out, covered with luxuriant herbage, amid +which rose at intervals groves of beautiful trees. Graceful deer would +come down to the water's edge and gaze fearlessly on the travellers with +their big, soft eyes. "On the banks of these rivers," says Raleigh, "were +divers sorts of fruits good to eat; flowers, too, and trees of such +variety as were sufficient to make two volumes of travels. We refreshed +ourselves many times with the fruits of the country, and sometimes with +fowls and fish. We saw birds of all colors: some carnation, some crimson, +orange, tawny, purple, and so on; and it was unto us a great good passing +time to behold them, besides the relief we found by killing some store of +them with our fowling-pieces." + +The adventurers at length reached an Indian village of which their old +guide had told them, and here, after the natives had got over their fright +and learned that the strangers meant them no harm, they were very +hospitably entertained. Thence they went onward, day after day, seeing +many canoes on the river and landing at various villages. One of the +canoes contained three Spaniards, who escaped from the effort to capture +them, and Raleigh soon learned that the Spaniards had told the natives +that the English were robbers and cannibals. To overcome the effect of +this story, the greatest care was taken to treat the Indians with kindness +and gentleness, and to punish in their presence any of the men who +maltreated them. This quickly had its effect, for the news spread that the +new-comers were the friends of the red men, and they were rewarded by +every attention the natives could bestow on them. Provisions were brought +them in profusion,--fish, fowl, and fruit, great roasted haunches of +venison, and other viands. Among these were sweet and delicious pineapples +of enormous size, "the prince of fruits," as Raleigh called them. + +Finally, after they had gone about one hundred and fifty miles up the +Orinoco, they reached the point where another great river, the Caroni, +empties into it. The country here was more beautiful than they had yet +seen, and prosperous Indian villages were numerous on the bordering +plains. The natives had heard of the amicable character of the new-comers, +and greeted them with great friendliness, doing all they could to show how +they trusted and admired them. With one old chief, named Topiawara, +Raleigh held many interesting talks and learned from him much about the +country and the people. In return he told him about his own country and +its great queen, and one day showed him a portrait of Queen Elizabeth, +before which the simple natives bowed themselves as if it were the figure +of a goddess they saw. + +Many days were spent with these people, in hunting, fishing, and +exploring, but, ask as they would, they could learn nothing about the land +of gold and the marvellous city they had come so far to seek. The old +chief told him that Guiana had many fertile plains and valleys and had +mines of silver and gold, but the gold-dust king he knew nothing about. +Finally, Raleigh decided to go up the Caroni, three parties being sent to +explore its vicinity, while he with a fourth rowed up the stream. He had +been told of a mighty cataract, which he was very anxious to see, and this +was at length reached, after a long struggle with the strong current of +the river. + +The cataract proved to be a series of giant cascades, ten or twelve in +number, in the words of Raleigh, "every one as high above the other as a +church tower, which fell with that fury that the rebound of waters made it +seem as if it had been all covered over with a great shower of rain. And +in some places we took it at first for a smoke that had risen over some +great town. + +"I never saw a more beautiful country," he continues, "or more lively +prospects; hills so raised, here and there, over the valleys; the river +winding into divers branches; the plains adjoining all green grass without +bush or stubble; the ground of hard sand, easy to march on, either for +horses or foot; the birds, towards evening, singing on every tree with a +thousand sweet tunes; cranes and herons of white, crimson, and carnation, +perching on the river's side; the air fresh, with a gentle, easterly wind; +and every stone we stooped to pick up promising either gold or silver by +its complexion." + +On the return to the junction of the rivers, the land parties had similar +stories to tell, and had pieces of golden ore to show, of which they +claimed to have found plentiful indications. This story filled the whole +party with dazzling hopes. Here, in the rocks at least, were the riches of +which they had heard so much. If El Dorado did not exist, here was the +native wealth that might well bring it into existence. + +The prospectors had done all that lay in their power, and now felt it +necessary to return to their ships, taking with them, at his request, the +son of the aged chief, who wished him to see England, and perhaps to +return at some time to succeed him, with the aid of the valiant English. + +We must briefly close the story of Raleigh and his quest. After various +adventures, the party reached Plymouth again in August, 1595, and the +narrative of their discoveries was read everywhere with the utmost +interest. + +But many years passed before the explorer could return again. He became +engaged in the wars against Spain, and after the death of the queen was +arrested for treason by order of James I. and imprisoned for thirteen +years. In 1617, twenty-two years after his first expedition, he returned +to the Orinoco, this time with a fleet of thirteen vessels. + +His release from prison had been gained by bribery and the promise to open +a rich mine of gold in Guiana, but the expedition proved a failure. There +was a sharp fight with a party of Spaniards at St. Thomas, in which +Raleigh's son was killed. As for the gold mine, it could not be found, and +the expedition was forced to return with none of the hoped-for wealth to +show. + +And now Raleigh's misfortunes culminated. He had been sentenced to death +for treason in 1603, but had been reprieved. The king had him arrested +again on the old charge, and the king of Spain demanded that he should be +punished for the attack on St. Thomas in times of peace. James I. did not +like Raleigh, and wished to stand well with Spain, so the famous explorer +fell a victim to the royal policy and dislike and was beheaded under the +old sentence in October, 1618. Since then El Dorado has lain concealed in +the mists of legend and romance, though mines of gold have been worked in +the region which Raleigh explored. + + + + + +MORGAN, THE FREEBOOTER, AND THE RAID ON PANAMA. + + +During the seventeenth century the Spanish Main was beset with a horde of +freebooters or buccaneers, as they called themselves, to whose fierce +attacks the treasure-ships bound for Spain were constantly exposed, and +who did not hesitate to assail the strongholds of the Spaniards in quest +of plunder. They differed from pirates only in the fact that their +operations were confined to Spain and her colonies, no war giving warrant +to their atrocities. Most ferocious and most successful among these +worthies was Henry Morgan, a man of Welsh birth, who made his name dreaded +by his daring and cruelty throughout the New-World realms of Spain. The +most famous among the deeds of this rover of the seas was his capture of +the city of Panama, which we shall here describe. + +On the 24th of October, 1670, there set sail from the island haunts of the +freebooters the greatest fleet which these lawless wretches had ever got +together. It consisted of thirty-seven ships, small and large, Morgan's +flag-ship, of thirty-two guns, being the largest, and flying the English +standard. The men had gathered from all the abiding-places of their +fraternity, eager to serve under so famous a leader as Morgan, and looking +for rich spoil under a man whose rule of conduct was, "Where the Spaniards +obstinately defend themselves there is something to take, and their best +fortified places are those which contain the most treasure." + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF PANAMA.] + + THE CITY OF PANAMA. + + +Not until they reached the vicinity of the isthmus did Morgan announce to +his followers the plan he had conceived, which was to attack the important +and opulent city of Panama, in which he expected to find a vast wealth of +gold and silver. It was no trifling adventure. This city lay on the +Pacific side of the Isthmus of Panama, and could be reached only by a long +and toilsome land journey, the route well defended by nature and doubtless +by art, while not a man on board the fleet had ever trod the way thither. +To supply themselves with a guide the island of St. Catharine, where the +Spaniards confined their criminals, was attacked and taken, and three of +the convicts were selected for guides, under promise of liberty and +reward. + +Panama was at that time one of the largest and wealthiest cities in +America. It contained some seven thousand houses, one-third the number +being large and handsome dwellings, many of them strongly built of stone +and richly furnished. Walls surrounded the city, which was well prepared +for defence. It was the emporium for the precious metals of Peru and +Mexico, two thousand mules being kept for the transportation of those rich +ores. It was also the seat of a great trade in negro slaves, for the +supply of Chili and Peru. The merchants of the place lived in great +opulence and the churches were magnificently adorned, the chief among them +being a handsome cathedral. Beautiful paintings and other costly works of +art ornamented the principal dwellings, and everything concurred to add to +the importance and beauty of the place. + +A century earlier Sir Francis Drake had led his men near enough to Panama +to behold the distant sea from the top of a high tree. But he had +contented himself with waylaying and plundering a mule-train laden with +treasure, and in 1670 it seemed the act of madness for a horde of +freebooters to attack the city itself. Yet this was what the daring Morgan +designed to do. + +The first thing to be done was to capture Fort St. Laurent, a strong place +on an almost inaccessible hill, near the banks of the Chagres River. Four +ships, with four hundred men, were sent against this fort, which was +vigorously defended by its garrison, but was taken at length by the +expedient of firing the palisades and buildings of the fort--composed of +light wood--by means of burning arrows. The assailants suffered heavily, +losing more than half their force, while of the garrison only twenty-four +were taken, many of the others having leaped from the walls into the +river, preferring death to capture by their ferocious foes. From the +prisoners it was learned that the people of Panama were not ignorant of +Morgan's purpose, and that the threatened city was defended by more than +three thousand men. + +As the remainder of the fleet drew near, the freebooters, seeing the +English flag flying on the fort, manifested their joy by the depths of +their potations, getting so drunk, in fact, that they managed to run four +of the ships on the rocks at the mouth of the Chagres, among them the +admiral's ship. The crews and cargoes were saved, but the vessels were +total wrecks, much to Morgan's chagrin. + +At length, on the 18th of January, 1671, the march on Panama actually +began, with a force of thirteen hundred picked men, five hundred being +left to garrison the fort and one hundred and fifty to seize some Spanish +vessels that were in the river. The means of conveyance being limited, and +the need of marching light important, a very small supply of provisions +was taken, it being expected to find an abundance on the route. But in +this the raiders were seriously at fault, the Spaniards fleeing with all +their cattle and cutting all the growing grain, so that the buccaneers +soon found themselves almost destitute of supplies. + +The journey was made in boats up the river as far as practicable, five +small vessels carrying the artillery. At the end of the second day most of +the men were forced to abandon the boats and prosecute their journey on +foot. On the third day they found themselves in a marshy forest, which +they traversed with difficulty and reached the town of Cedro Bueno. Here +they had hoped to find food, but the place was deserted and not a scrap of +provisions left. + +The affair was now growing very serious, all their food having been +consumed and they left in imminent danger of starvation. Many of them were +reduced to eat the leaves of the trees in their extremity. They found +themselves also benumbed with cold as they spent the night unsheltered on +the chilly river-bank. During the next day their route followed the +stream, the canoes being dragged along, or rowed where the water was of +sufficient depth. The Spaniards still carried away all food from the +country before them, the only things they found being some large sacks of +hides. These, in their extremity, were used as food, the leather being +scraped, beaten, and soaked in water, after which it was roasted. Even +then it could not be swallowed without the aid of copious draughts of +water. + +Only the courage and determination of the chiefs induced the men to go on +under such severe privations. The fifth day's journey ended as badly as +the previous ones, the only food found being a little flour, fruit, and +wine, so small in quantity that Morgan had it distributed among the weaker +members of his troop, some of whom were so faint as to seem on the point +of death. For the rest of the men there was nothing to eat but leaves and +the grass of the meadows. + +The feebler men were now put on board the boats, the stronger continuing +to travel by land, but very slowly, frequent rests being needed on account +of their great exhaustion. It seemed, indeed, as if the expedition would +have to be abandoned, when, to their delirious joy, they found a great +supply of maize, which the Spaniards by some oversight had abandoned in a +granary. Many of them, in their starving condition, devoured this grain +raw. Others roasted it wrapped in banana leaves. The supply was soon +exhausted, but for a time it gave new vigor to the famished men. + +On the following day all the food they found was a sack of bread and some +cats and dogs, all of which were greedily devoured; and farther on, at the +town of Cruces, the head of navigation on the Chagres, a number of vessels +of wine were discovered. This they hastily drank, with the result that all +the drinkers fell ill and fancied they were poisoned. Their illness, +however, was merely the natural effect of hasty drinking in their +exhausted state, and soon left them. + +At this point a number of the men were sent back with the boats to where +the ships had been left, the force that continued the march amounting to +eleven hundred. With these the journey proceeded, the principal adventure +being an attack by a large body of Indians, who opposed the invaders with +much valor, only retreating when their chief was killed. + +About noon of the ninth day a steep hill was ascended, from whose summit, +to their delight, the buccaneers beheld the distant Pacific. But what gave +them much livelier joy was to see, in a valley below them, a great herd of +bulls, cows, horses, and asses, under the care of some Spaniards, who took +to flight the moment they saw the formidable force of invaders. Only an +utter lack of judgment, or the wildness of panic in the Spaniards, could +have induced them to leave this prey to their nearly starved foes. It was +an oversight which was to prove fatal to them. Then was the time to attack +instead of to feed their ruthless enemies. + +The freebooters, faint with famine and fatigue, gained new strength at the +sight of the welcome herd of food animals. They rushed hastily down and +killed a large number of them, devouring the raw flesh with such a fury of +hunger that the blood ran in streams from their lips. What could not be +eaten was taken away to serve for a future supply. As yet Panama had not +been seen, but soon, from a hill-top, they discerned its distant towers. +The vision was hailed with the blare of trumpets and shouts of "victory!" +and the buccaneers encamped on the spot, resolved to attack the city the +next day. + +The Spaniards, meanwhile, were not at rest. A troop of fifty horsemen was +sent to reconnoitre, and a second detachment occupied the passes, to +prevent the escape of the enemy in case of defeat. But the freebooters +were not disturbed in their camp, and were allowed a quiet night's rest +after their abundant meal of raw flesh. + +The next day Morgan led his men against the city, skilfully avoiding the +main road, which was defended by batteries, and passing through a thick +and pathless wood. Two hours of this flanking march brought them in sight +of the Spanish forces, which were very numerous, consisting of four +regiments of the line and nearly three thousand other soldiers. They had +with them also a great herd of wild bulls under the charge of Indians and +negroes, from which much was hoped in the assault. + +Morgan and his men were much discouraged by the multitude and military +array of their foes, but nothing remained for them but a desperate fight, +and, with two hundred of their best marksmen in front, they descended to +the broad plain on which the Spaniards awaited them. They had no sooner +reached it than the Spanish cavalry charged, while the bulls were driven +tumultuously upon them. + +This carefully devised assault proved a disastrous failure. The horsemen +found themselves in marshy ground, where they were exposed to a hot and +well-directed fire, numbers of them falling before they could effect a +retreat. The charge of the bulls, on which so much reliance had been +placed, proved an equal failure, and with wild shouts the freebooters +advanced, firing rapidly and with an accuracy of aim that soon strewed the +ground with the dead. + +The Spaniards, driven back by this impetuous charge, now turned the bulls +against the rear of their enemy. But many of these had been cattle-raisers +and knew well how to act against such a foe, driving them off with shouts +and the waving of colored flags and killing numbers of them. In the end, +after a battle of two hours' duration, the Spaniards, despite their great +superiority of numbers, were utterly defeated, a great many being killed +on the field and others in the panic of flight. + +But the freebooters had lost heavily, and Panama, a city defended by walls +and forts, remained to be taken. Morgan knew that success depended on +taking instant advantage of the panic of the enemy, and he advanced +without delay against the town. It was strongly defended with artillery, +but the impetuous assault of the freebooters carried all before it, and +after a three hours' fight the city was in their hands. + +The scenes that followed were marked by the most atrocious ferocity and +vandalism. The city was given up to indiscriminate pillage, attended by +outrages of every kind, and in the end was set on fire by Morgan's orders +and burned to the ground, much of its great wealth being utterly consumed +through the sheer instinct of destruction. + +Fortunately for the people of Panama, the majority of them had sought +safety in flight, taking their women and all their portable wealth. In +pursuit of those that had fled by water Morgan sent out a well-manned +ship, which returned after a two days' cruise with three prizes. It also +brought back news that a large galleon, deeply laden with treasure in gold +and silver and carrying away the principal women of the town, with their +jewels, had escaped. It was poorly manned and defended and for days Morgan +made strenuous efforts to discover and capture it, but fortunately this +rich prize eluded his grasp. + +For three weeks the freebooters occupied the site of the burned city, many +of them engaged in searching the ruins for gold and silver, while some, +who were discontented with the acts of their leader, conspired to seize +the largest ship in the harbor and start on a piratical cruise of their +own down the Pacific. This coming to Morgan's ears on the eve of its +execution, he defeated it by causing the main-mast of the ship to be cut +down, and afterwards by setting fire to all the ships in the harbor. + +The return of the freebooters had its items of interest. The booty, +consisting of gold, silver, and jewels, was laden on a large number of +animals, beside which disconsolately walked six hundred prisoners, men, +women, and children, Morgan refusing them their liberty except on payment +of a ransom which they could not procure. Some of them succeeded in +obtaining the ransom on the march, but the majority were taken to Chagres. +From there they were sent in a ship to Porto Bello, a neighboring coast +town, Morgan threatening that place with destruction unless a heavy ransom +was sent him. The inhabitants sent word back that not a half-penny would +be paid, and that he might do what he pleased. What he pleased to do was +to carry out his threat of destroying the town. + +The final outcome of this frightful raid remains to be told. It +demonstrated that Morgan was as faithless to his companions as he was +ferocious to his victims. On their way back from Panama he ordered that +every man should be searched and every article they had secreted be added +to the general store. To induce them to consent he offered himself to be +searched first. In the final division, however, of the spoil, which was +valued at four hundred and forty-three thousand two hundred pounds weight +of silver, he played the part of a traitor, many of the most precious +articles disappearing from the store and the bulk of the precious stones +especially being added by Morgan to his share. + +This and other acts of the leader created such a hostile feeling among the +men that a mutiny was imminent, to avoid which Morgan secretly set sail +with his own and three other vessels, whose commanders had shared with him +in the unequal division of the spoil. The fury of the remaining +freebooters, on finding that they had been abandoned, was extreme, and +they determined to pursue and attack Morgan and his confederates, but lack +of provisions prevented them from carrying this into effect. + +Meanwhile, events were taking place not much to the comfort of the +freebooting fraternity. An English ship-of-the-line arrived at Jamaica +with orders to bring home the governor to answer for the protection he had +given "these bloodthirsty and plundering rascals," while the governor who +succeeded him issued the severest orders against any future operations of +the freebooters. + +From this time Morgan withdrew from his career of robbery, content to +enjoy the wealth which he had so cruelly and treacherously obtained. He +settled in Jamaica, where he was permitted to enjoy in security his +ill-gotten wealth. In fact, the British government showed its real +sentiment concerning his career by promoting him to high offices and +giving him the honor of knighthood. As a result this faithless and cruel +pirate bore during the remainder of his life the distinction of being +addressed as Sir Henry Morgan. + + + + + +A DRAMA OF PLUNDER, MURDER, AND REVENGE + + +A famous story of American history is that which tells of the massacre of +the French settlers in Florida by the Spaniards of St. Augustine, and of +the signal revenge taken on the murderers by the French chevalier +Dominique de Gourgues. There is a parallel tale to tell about Brazil, not +so full of the element of romance, yet for all that an interesting story +and well worth the telling. + +The great Portuguese colony of Brazil, like many of the Spanish colonies, +was open to the attacks of buccaneers and of free lances of the seas +bearing the flags of various countries of Europe. There was not an +important port of the country, except its capital, Rio Janeiro, that +escaped attack by hostile fleets, eager for spoil, during the seventeenth +century, and early in the eighteenth Rio itself was made the victim of +assault. A city of over twelve thousand people, and the gateway to a rich +gold-mining country in the rear, its wealth invited a visit from the +prize-seekers, though the strength of its population and garrison long +kept these away. Its turn for assault came in 1710. + +In that year a squadron appeared in the waters outside the harbor on which +the people looked with doubt. It flew the French flag, and that standard +had not been a welcome visitor in the past. In fact, it was commanded by a +daring Frenchman named Duclerc, who was on the seas for spoil. But a look +at the strong defences of the harbor entrance, and some exchange of shots, +warned him of the perils that would attend an attempt to pass them by +force, and he sailed on to a point some forty miles down the coast, where +he landed a party of a thousand marines. + +His design to attack the city with this small party seemed folly. The +governor, Francisco de Castro, had a force of eight thousand Portuguese +troops, besides five thousand armed negroes and several hundred Indian +bowmen. But he lacked the heart of a soldier, and Duclerc's marines +marched like so many buccaneers through the forest for seven days without +meeting a foeman. Even when near the city the only enemies in sight were a +handful of men led by a friar, who attacked them boldly in defence of his +church. After capturing this, the daring French charged into the city in +the face of the fire from the forts on the surrounding hills, to which the +governor's troops had been withdrawn. + +The very boldness of the assault, and the failure of the governor to guard +the streets with troops, nearly led to success. Little resistance was made +by the few soldiers in the city, and the French traversed the narrow +streets until the central square was reached. Here they met their first +check from a party of fifty students, who had entered the palace of the +governor and fired upon them from the windows. The first French assailants +who forced their way in were taken prisoners and tied to the furniture. In +the custom-house adjoining was the magazine. Here, as the storekeeper was +hastily giving out ammunition, a fellow with a lighted match approached +and carelessly set fire to the powder. In a moment the building was blown +into the air, and the palace, which the French were still assailing, was +set on fire. + +The people were now rising, and the several detachments into which the +attacking force had divided found themselves fiercely assailed. Duclerc, +at the head of the main body, after losing heavily, barricaded himself in +a stone warehouse on the quay, round which his foes gathered thickly. +While there the bells of the city rang out merrily, a sound which he +fancied to be made by his own men, who he thought were thus celebrating +their victory. In reality it signified the victory of the Portuguese, who +had fallen upon, defeated, and slaughtered one of his detachments. A +second detachment, which had entered and begun to plunder the magazine, +was set upon by the rabble and completely butchered. Duclerc's defence +soon grew hopeless, and he was forced to surrender at discretion. The +Portuguese sullied their victory by acts of cruel reprisal, many of the +prisoners in their hands being murdered. In all nearly seven hundred of +the French were killed and wounded. Six hundred, including the wounded, +were taken prisoners, and of these many died through bad treatment in the +prisons. Duclerc was murdered some-months after being taken. Soon after +the fight the squadron appeared off the port, where its officers, learning +of the loss of the assailants, squared their yards and sailed away for +France. Thus ended the first act in our tragedy of plunder. + +The second act was one of revenge. In France was found a second Dominique +de Gourgues to call to a harsh account the murderers of his countrymen. +France, indeed, was in a fury throughout when the news came of the inhuman +slaughter of its citizens. The man who played the part of De Gourgues was +a distinguished and able naval officer named M. de Guay-Trouin. He was +moved by a double motive. While hot for revenge, the hope for plunder was +an equally inspiring force. And the fame that might come to him with +victory added still another motive. The path was made easy for him, for +the government gave its approval to his enterprise, and certain wealthy +citizens of St. Malo, eager for gain, volunteered the money to fit out the +expedition. + +It was important to keep the affair secret, and the vessels were fitted +out at different ports to avoid suspicion. Yet the rumor that an unusual +number of war-vessels were being got ready was soon afloat and reached +Portugal, where its purpose was suspected, and a fleet of merchant and +war-vessels was hurried to sea with supplies and reinforcements for Rio. +The suspicion reached England, also, and that country, then on the side of +Portugal, sent out a fleet to blockade Brest, where the vessels of the +expedition then lay, and prevent its sailing. But Admiral Trouin was not +the man to be caught in a trap, and he hurried his ships out of port +before they were quite ready, leaving the British an empty harbor to seal +up. The work of preparation was finished at Rochelle, whence the fleet +sailed in June, 1711. It consisted of seven line-of-battle ships, their +number of guns varying from seventy-four to fifty-six, six frigates, and +four smaller vessels, and had on board five thousand picked men,--a +formidable force to send against a colonial city. + +The powerful fleet made its way safely over the sea, and reached the +vicinity of the northern Brazilian port of Bahia on August 27. Trouin had +some thought of beginning his work here, but his water-supply was getting +low and he felt obliged to hasten on. On the 11th of September he found +himself off the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, with the city and its environing +hills in full view. + +The Portuguese had got ahead of him, the fleet from Lisbon having arrived, +giving warning of the danger and reinforcing the garrison. Three forts and +eleven batteries defended the narrow-mouthed harbor, within which lay four +ships-of-the-line and as many frigates. Had all this force been directed +by a man of ability the French might have found entrance to the bay +impossible. But Francisco de Castro, the hopeless governor of the year +before, was still at the head of affairs, and no man could have played +more thoroughly into the hands of the French. + +As it chanced, fortune favored the assailants. A heavy fog descended, +under cover of which the fleet ran with little damage past the forts and +entered the harbor. When the fog rose the Portuguese were dismayed to see +their foes inside. Gaspar da Costa, the admiral of their fleet, was known +as an able commander, but he was old and in feeble health, and such a +panic now assailed him that he ran his ships in haste ashore and set fire +to them, leaving to his foes the undisputed command of the harbor. Admiral +Trouin had won the first move in the game. + +Governor de Castro proved to be as completely demoralized as Admiral da +Costa. He had twice as many troops as the French, but not half the courage +and ability of his adversary. Fort Villegagnon, one of the chief defences, +was blown up by the mismanagement of its garrison, and during the state of +panic of the Portuguese Trouin landed about four thousand men, erecting a +battery on an island within easy cannon-shot of the city, and occupying a +range of hills to the left which gave him command of that section of the +place. The governor with his troops looked on from a distance while the +French pillaged the adjoining suburb, destitute of tactics that any one +could discover unless he proposed to let the French enter the streets and +then attack them from the houses. + +It was in this way they had been defeated the year before, but Trouin was +too old a soldier to be caught in such a trap. He erected batteries on the +surrounding hill-slopes till the town was commanded on three sides, while +the governor kept the bulk of his forces at a distance, waiting for no one +knew what. Trouin had been permitted, with scarcely a blow in defence, to +make himself master of the situation, and he needed only to get his guns +in place to be able to batter the town to the dust. + +He now sent a demand to the governor to surrender, saying that he had been +sent by the king of France to take revenge for the murder of Duclerc and +the inhuman slaughter of his men. De Castro answered that his duty to his +king would not permit him to surrender, and sought to show that the French +had been honorably killed in battle and Duclerc murdered by an assassin +beyond his control. + +A poor affair of a governor De Castro proved, and the French were +permitted to go on with their works almost unmolested, the Portuguese +occupying hill forts, the fire from which did little harm to the enemy. +Trouin had already begun the bombardment of the city, and on receiving the +governor's answer he kept his guns at work all night. At the same time +there raged a tropical storm of great violence, accompanied by thunders +that drowned the roar of the guns, the frightful combination throwing the +people into such a state that they all fled in blind terror, the troops in +the town with them. In the morning, when Trouin was ready to launch his +storming parties, word was brought him that the city was deserted and lay +at his mercy. Some of the richest magazines had been set on fire by the +governor's order, but otherwise the rich city was abandoned, with all its +wealth, to the French. + +Of the relics of Duclerc's force, about five hundred remained alive in the +city. These do not seem to have been then in prison, but living at large, +and they were already abroad and plundering the abandoned city when the +French forces entered. They had met good treatment as well as bad. Some of +the people had been kind and hospitable to them, and in the sack of the +city that ensued the houses of these charitable citizens were marked and +left untouched. + +Otherwise the sack was general, houses and warehouses being broken open, +and quantities of valuable goods which could not be taken off being thrown +into the mud of the streets. Now was the opportunity for the Portuguese to +attack. Trouin was aware of the danger, but was unable to control his men, +and a sudden assault by the garrison might have proved disastrous to the +French. But the opportunity was allowed to pass, the governor, in fact, +surrendering all his forts and marching his troops a league from the city, +where he lay waiting reinforcements from the interior while the French +plundered at their leisure. + +Trouin was wise enough to know that his position was perilous. He might be +overwhelmed by numbers, and it was important to finish his work and get +away with little delay. But the plunder of the city was not sufficient for +his purpose, and he sent word to the governor that he must ransom it or it +would be burned. To make his word good he began by setting fire to the +environs. + +De Castro, eager to get rid of his foes at any price, offered six hundred +thousand _cruzadoes_. This was refused by Trouin, and to stir up the +governor to a better offer, the admiral took his messenger through the +city and showed him that he was spoiling everything that fire would not +burn. Learning, however, that the expected reinforcements might soon +arrive, anxiety induced him to march his men to the front of the +Portuguese camp, where he began to negotiate for better terms. The only +addition De Castro would agree to was to promise the French a supply of +cattle for food, fifteen days being allowed to collect the ransom. + +Trouin, knowing well that he had no time to waste, accepted the terms, and +none too soon, for shortly afterwards a strong body of reinforcements, led +by an able general, entered the Portuguese camp. They came too late, the +treaty had been made, and the new general felt bound in honor to make it +good. So the ransom was paid, and on the 4th of November the triumphant +French set sail, their ships deep laden with the rich plunder of the +Brazilian capital and the gold of the governor's ransom. + +The return home was not attended with the success of the earlier part of +the expedition. Trouin had left Bahia to be visited and plundered on his +return, but when he came near it the weather was so stormy that he was +obliged to abandon this part of his plan. The storms followed the fleet on +its way across the seas, and rose to such a height that two of his ships +went to the bottom, carrying down twelve hundred men. One of these was the +finest ship of the fleet, and in consequence had been laden with the most +valuable booty. Of gold and silver alone it took down with it a weight +valued at six hundred thousand livres. A third vessel went ashore and was +wrecked at Cayenne. Yet with all these losses, so much wealth was brought +home that the speculators in spoil made a profit of ninety-two per cent. +on their investment. + +The French had won in large measure revenge and plunder, while Trouin had +gained his meed of fame. It was now Portugal's time for vengeance, and it +was visited principally on the worthless governor to whose cowardice the +disaster was due. He had been praised and rewarded for the victory over +Duclerc' s expedition--praise and reward which he certainly did not +deserve. For very similar conduct he was now deposed and sentenced to +degradation and perpetual imprisonment, on the charge of cowardice and +lack of judgment. His nephew was banished for life for bad conduct, and a +captain who had given up his fort and fled was hung in effigy. There were +no others to punish, and Portugal was obliged to hold its hand, France +being a foe beyond its reach. Rio had met with a terrible misfortune, from +which it took many years to recover, and rarely have the sanguinary deeds +of a murderous rabble led to so severe a retribution. + + + + + +THE WONDERFUL MARCH OF THE FREEBOOTERS + + +The March of the Ten Thousand, from Babylon to the Black Sea, is one of +the famous events of history. The march of the three hundred, from the +Pacific to the Atlantic, which we have here to tell, is scarcely known to +history at all, yet it was marked by a courage and command of resources as +great as those of the ancient Greeks. We think our readers will agree with +us when they read this story, taken from the records of the freebooters on +the Spanish Main. + +After ravaging the settlements of Spain on the Atlantic coasts, various +fleets of these piratical adventurers sought the Pacific waters in 1685, +and there for several years made life scarce worth living to the +inhabitants of the Spanish coast cities. Time and again these were +plundered of their wealth, numbers of their ships were taken, and a +veritable reign of terror prevailed. As time went on, however, most of +these freebooters withdrew, satisfied with their abundant gains, so that, +by the end of 1687, only a few of them remained, and these were eager to +return with their ill-gotten wealth to their native land. + +This remnant of the piratical fraternity, less than three hundred in +number, had their head-quarters on an island in the Bay of Mapalla, on the +Central American coast. What vessels they had left were in a wretched +condition, utterly unfit to attempt the vast sea voyage by way of the +Straits of Magellan, and nothing seemed to remain for them but an attempt +to cross the continent by way of Nicaragua and Honduras, fighting their +way through a multitude of enemies. To the pen of Ravenneau de Lussan, one +of the adventurers, we are indebted for the narrative of the singular and +interesting adventure which follows. + +The daring band of French and English freebooters were very ill provided +for the dangerous enterprise they had in view. They proposed to cross an +unknown country without guides and with a meagre supply of provisions, +fighting as they went and conveying their sick and wounded as best they +could. They had also a number of prisoners whom they felt it necessary to +take with them, since to set them free would be to divulge their weakness +to their enemies. Nature and circumstance seemed to combine against them, +yet if they ever wished to see their native lands again they must face +every danger, trusting that some of them, at least, might escape to enjoy +their spoils. + +After questioning their prisoners, they decided to take a route by way of +the city of New Segovia, which lies north of the lake of Nicaragua, about +one hundred and twenty miles from the Pacific and seventy-five miles from +the waters of a river that flows, after a long course, into the Atlantic +opposite Cape Gracias-a-Dios. In order to gain further information about +the route, sixty men were sent to explore the neighboring country. These +advanced till they were near the small city of Chiloteca. Here, worn out +by their journey and learning that they were in a thickly settled country, +most of the pioneers decided to return. But eighteen of the bolder spirits +had the audacity to advance on Chiloteca, a place of perhaps a thousand +inhabitants. + +Into it they rushed with such ferocious yells and so terrific a fusillade +of shots that the frightened inhabitants, taken utterly by surprise, fled +in mortal terror, leaving the place to its captors. These quickly seized a +number of horses, and made haste to retreat on their backs, hotly pursued +by the Spaniards, who soon discovered to what a handful of men they had +surrendered their city. + +On receiving the report of their scouts, the freebooters determined on the +desperate venture. They had little to convey except their spoil, which, +the result of numerous raids, was valued at about one million dollars. It +chiefly consisted of gold and jewels, all heavier valuables, even silver, +being left in great part behind, as too heavy to carry. The spoil was very +unequally owned, since the gambling which had gone on actively among them +had greatly varied the distribution of their wealth. To overcome the anger +and jealousy which this created among the poorer, those with much to carry +shared their portions among their companions, with the understanding that, +if they reached the Antilles in safety, half of it should be returned. As +for the prisoners, it was decided to take them along, and make use of them +for carrying the utensils, provisions, and sick. + +On the 1st of January, 1688, these freebooters, two hundred and +eighty-five in number, with sixty-eight horses, crossed in boats from +their island refuge to the main-land and began their march. Their ships +had been first destroyed, their cannon cast into the sea, and their +bulkier effects burned. Divided into four companies, with forty men in +front as an advance guard, they moved forward into a land of adventure and +peril. + +It was soon found that the people expected and had prepared for their +coming. Trees had been felled across the roads and efforts made to +obstruct all the foot-paths. Provisions had been carried away, and the dry +herbage of the fields was set on fire as they advanced, almost suffocating +them with the heat and smoke. This was done to hinder their march until +the Spaniards had completed a strong intrenchment which was being built at +a suitable place on the route. + +Ambuscades were also laid for them. On the eighth day of their march they +fell into one of these at Tusignala, where three hundred Spaniards lay +concealed on the ground and fired into their ranks. Though these were +dispersed by a fierce charge, they followed the freebooters closely, +annoying them from the shelter of woods and thickets. The next day a still +larger ambuscade was laid, which, fortunately for the freebooters, was +discovered and dispersed in time, the fleeing Spaniards leaving their +horses behind. + +Two days later New Segovia was reached. Here the buccaneers expected a +severe engagement, and hoped to gain a supply of provisions. In both they +were mistaken; the inhabitants had decamped, carrying all food with them. +Their prisoners, who had served them as guides to this point, knew nothing +of the country beyond, but they succeeded in taking a new prisoner who was +familiar with the further route. + +The country they were passing through was mountainous and very difficult. +Steep acclivities had constantly to be climbed, narrow paths on the +borders of deep chasms to be traversed, and rapid slopes to be descended. +The nights were bitterly cold, the mornings were darkened by thick fogs, +and their whole route was attended with danger, discomfort, and fatigue. + +New Segovia lay in a valley surrounded on all sides by mountains, one of +which had to be ascended immediately on leaving the town. The next day's +dawn found them on its summit, with a valley far below them, in which, to +their joy, they beheld a large number of animals which they took to be +oxen. Their joy was dissipated, however, when the scouts they sent out +came back with the information that these animals were horses, saddled and +bridled, and that a series of formidable intrenchments had been built in +the valley, rising like terraces, one above another, and carried to the +mountains on each side, so as completely to close the route. + +There seemed no way to avoid these defences. On one side of the mountain +flowed a river. A small eminence, surrounded by breastworks, commanded the +only passage which the freebooters could follow. The whole country round +was thick forest, through whose rock-guarded demesnes not the slightest +indication of a path could be seen. Yet to attack those works in front +promised quick and utter defeat, and if they wished to avoid destruction +they must find some way to outwit their foes. It was decided that the +forest presented less dangers and difficulties than the fortified road, +and that the only hope of safety lay in a flank movement which would lead +them to the rear of the enemy. + +During that day active preparations were made for the proposed movement. +The three hundred Spaniards who had ambushed them some days before still +hung upon their rear. Their horses, sick, and prisoners were therefore +left in an enclosed camp, barricaded by their baggage-vehicles and guarded +by eighty of their number. As a means of impressing the enemy with their +numbers and alertness they kept up camp-fires all night, repeated at +intervals the rolls upon the drum, relieved the sentinels with a great +noise, and varied these signs of activity with cries and occasional +discharges of musketry. + +Meanwhile, as soon as the shades of evening descended, the remainder of +the freebooters, some two hundred in number, began their march, following +the route indicated by a scout they had sent to examine the forest. The +difficulties of that night journey through the dense wood proved very +great, there being numerous steep rocks to climb and descend, and this +needed to be done with as little noise as possible. Daybreak found the +adventurers on a mountain elevation, from which they could see the Spanish +intrenchments below them on the left. The greatest of their impediments +had been surmounted, but there were difficulties still to be overcome. + +Fortunately for them a thick mist rose with the morning light, which, +while it rendered their downward passage critical, served to conceal them +from the enemy below. As they came near the works the heavy tread of a +patrol guided them in their course, and the morning prayers of the +Spaniards were of still more advantage in indicating their distance and +position. The freebooting band had reached the rear of the hostile army, +composed of five hundred men, who were so taken by surprise on seeing +their ferocious enemy rushing upon them with shouts and volleys, from this +unlooked-for quarter, that they fled without an attempt at defence. + +The other Spaniards behaved more courageously, but the appearance of the +buccaneers within the works they had so toilsomely prepared robbed them of +spirit, and after an hour's fight they, too, broke and fled. The trees +they had felled to obstruct the road now contributed to their utter +defeat, and they were cut down in multitudes, with scarce an attempt at +resistance. We can scarcely credit the testimony of the freebooters, +however, that their sole losses were one killed and two wounded. The +success of the advance party was equalled by that of the guard of armed +men left in the camp, who, after some negotiations with the troop of +Spaniards in their rear, made a sudden charge upon them and dispersed all +who were not cut down. + +That the freebooters were as much surprised as gratified by the signal +success of their stratagem need scarcely be said. One of the panics which +are apt to follow a surprise in war had saved them from threatened +annihilation. They learned, however, the disquieting fact that six miles +farther on was another strong intrenchment which could not be avoided, the +country permitting no choice of roads. In their situation there was +nothing to do but to advance and dare the worst, and fortunately for them +their remarkable success spread such terror before it that, when they +appeared before these new works, the Spaniards made no attack, but +remained quietly behind their breastworks while their dreaded foes marched +past. + +The seventeenth day of their march carried them to the banks of the river +towards which their route had been laid. This was the Magdalena, a stream +which rises in the mountains near New Segovia and flows through a +difficult rock channel, with numerous cascades, three of them amounting to +cataracts, finally reaching the Caribbean Sea after a course of several +hundred miles. + +How they were to descend this mountain torrent was the question which now +offered itself to them. It presented a more attractive route of travel +than the one so far pursued over the mountains, but was marked by +difficulties of a formidable character. These were overcome by the +freebooters in an extraordinary manner, one almost or quite without +parallel in the annals of travel. The expedient they adopted was certainly +of curious interest. + +Before them was a large and rapid river, its current impeded by a +multitude of rocks and broken by rapids and cascades. They were destitute +of ropes or tools suitable for boat-building, and any ordinary kind of +boats would have been of no use to them in such a stream. It occurred to +them that what they needed to navigate a river of this character was +something of the nature of large baskets or tuns, in which they might +float enclosed to their waists, while keeping themselves from contact with +the rocks by the aid of poles. + +They had no models for such floating contrivances, and were obliged to +invent them. Near the river was an extensive forest, and this supplied +them abundantly with young trees, of light wood. These they cut down, +stripped off their bark, collected them by fives, and, lacking ropes, +fastened them together with lianas and a tenacious kind of gum which the +forest provided. A large number of small, frail, basket-like contrivances +were thus made, each large enough to carry two men, with whom they would +sink in the water as deep as the waist. Piperies, Lussan called them, but +his description does not make it clear just what they were like. + +While thus engaged, the freebooters killed part of their horses, and +salted their flesh for food, all the work being done with the energy and +activity necessary in their critical situation. During it they were not +molested by the Spaniards, but no one could tell how soon they might be. +When all was ready they restored their prisoners to the liberty of which +they had long been deprived, and entered upon one of the most perilous +examples of navigation that can well be imagined. + +Launched in their piperies, the freebooters found themselves tossed about +by the impetuous current, and speedily covered with spray. The lightness +of their floating baskets kept them from sinking, but the energetic +efforts they were obliged to make to keep from being thrown out or dashed +on the rocks soon exhausted them. A short experience taught them the +necessity of fastening themselves in the piperies, so that their hands +might be free to keep them from being hurled on the rocks. Occasionally +their frail crafts were overturned or buried under the waves in the swift +rapids, and the inmates were either drowned or escaped by abandoning the +treasures which weighed them down. + +Whatever else may be said of this method of navigation, it proved a rapid +one, the frail barks being hurried on at an impetuous speed. Each of the +cataracts was preceded by a basin of still water, and here it became +necessary to swim to the shore and descend the rocks to the bottom of the +fall. Some who remained behind threw the piperies into the stream to be +carried over the liquid precipice, and recovered by swimming out to meet +them, or replaced by new ones when lost. + +After three days of this singular navigation it was decided, in view of +the fact that the piperies were often dashed together to their mutual +injury, to separate and keep at a distance from each other, those who went +first marking out by small flags where it was necessary to land. During +their progress the question of food again became prominent, the salted +horsemeat they had brought with them being spoiled by its frequent +wetting. Game was plentiful, but their powder was all spoiled, and the +only food to be found was the fruit of the banana-tree, which grew +abundantly on the banks. + +The cupidity of the freebooters was not abated by the danger of their +situation. They made the most earnest endeavors to preserve their spoil, +and some of the poorer ones even resorted to murder to gain the wealth of +their richer comrades. The dispersion of the flotilla favored this, and +six conspiring Frenchmen hid behind the rocks and attacked and killed five +Englishmen who were known to possess much treasure. Robbing the bodies, +they took to the stream again, leaving the bloody corpses on the bank. +Those who saw them had no time to think of avenging them. + +Gradually the river grew wider and deeper and its course less impetuous. +The cascades were all passed, but the stream was obstructed by floating or +anchored tree-trunks, by which many of the piperies were overturned and +their occupants drowned. To avoid this danger the piperies were now +abandoned and the freebooters divided themselves into detachments and +began to build large canoes from the forest trees. Four of these, carrying +one hundred and thirty men, were soon ready and their builders again took +to the stream. Of the fate of the others, who remained behind, no further +account is given by the historian of this adventure. + +On the 9th of March, sixty days after their departure from the Pacific, +the adventurers reached the river's mouth, having completed their +remarkable feat of crossing the continent in the face of the most +threatening perils from man and nature. But fortune only partly favored +them, for many had lost all the wealth which they had gathered in their +career of piracy, their very clothes hanging in rags about their limbs. +Some, indeed, had been more fortunate or more adroit in their singular +navigation, but, as a whole, they were a woe-begone and miserable party +when, a few days afterwards, they reached the isle of Perlas. Here were +some friendly vessels, on which they embarked, and near the end of April +they reached the West Indies, with the little that remained of their +plunder. + +Such was the end of this remarkable achievement, one which for boldness, +intrepidity, and skill in expedients has few to rival it in the annals of +history, and which, if performed by men of note, instead of by an obscure +band of robbers, would have won for them a high meed of fame. + + + + + +THE CRUELTY OF THE SPANIARDS TO THE INDIANS. + + +Never were a people more terribly treated than the natives of America +under the Spanish adventurers. The often told story that the Indians of +Hispaniola were annihilated in one generation after the settlement of that +island is sufficient evidence of the frightfully inhuman treatment to +which they were subjected. The laws of Spain provided for justice and +humanity in the dealings with the Indians, but the settlers, thousands of +miles away, paid no attention to these laws, and the red men were almost +everywhere reduced to slavery, or where free and given political rights, +were looked upon as far inferior to the whites. In every district Spain +placed an official called the "Protector of the Indians," but it does not +appear that they were much the better off for their "Protectors." It is +our purpose here to say something about the cruel treatment of the natives +in South America. + + [Illustration: INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU.] + + INDIANS OF THE PLATEAU. + + +The Spanish settlers had three terms which applied to their dealings with +the Indians, the _encomiendo_, the _mitad_, and the _repartimiento_, each +indicating a form of injustice. The conquerors divided the country between +them, and the _encomiendos_ were rights granted them to hold the Indians +for a number of years as workers in their fields or their mines. Under +these grants, the natives were converted into beasts of burden, and forced +to do the hardest work without the least compensation. They were obliged +to labor all day long under the burning tropical sun, to dive into the sea +in search of pearls for their masters, or to toil buried from the light of +day in the depths of the mines. It is not surprising that these miserable +slaves, accustomed to a life of indolence and ease, perished as if exposed +to a killing plague. + +The _mitad_ was a law formed for their protection, but it soon became one +of the worst of the abuses. Under it every man from the age of eighteen to +fifty was required to render bodily service, the natives of each mining +colony of South America being divided into seven sections, each of which +had to work six months in the mines. Every mine-owner could demand the +number of Indians he needed. In Peru alone fourteen hundred mines were +worked, and labor of this kind was in constant demand. + +As to the kind of labor they had to do, we need only say that when any man +was called upon to work in the mines he looked upon it as a sentence of +death. Before going he gave all his possessions to his relatives, and they +went through the funeral service, as if he were already dead. They well +knew the usual end of labor in the mines. A mass was said for him at the +church, and he had to take an oath of fidelity to the king. Then he was +sprinkled with holy water and sent away to his deadly service. Deadly we +may well call it, for it is said that scarcely a fifth part of these +miners lived through their term of labor. + +Lowered from the light of the sun into the deep underground shafts and +galleries, and passing from the pure air of heaven to a pestilential +atmosphere, excessive labor and bad food soon robbed them of strength and +often of life. If they survived this, a species of asthma usually carried +them off during the year. We may judge of the results from the calculation +that the _mitad_ in Peru alone had eight million victims. + +The law limited the _mitad_ to those living within thirty miles of a mine, +but laborers were often brought by force from hundreds of miles away. As +for the small wages paid them, the masters took part of it from them in +payment for their food, and usually got the remainder by giving credit for +clothes or liquor or in other ways. In fact, if by good fortune the Indian +had not lost his life at the end of his term of service, he might be +brought into debt which he could not pay, and thus held a slave for life. + +The _repartimiento_ was another protective law, which also became a means +of oppression. Under it the district officials were required to supply all +things needed by the Indians, there being, when the law was passed, no +peddlers or travelling dealers. This privilege was quickly and shamelessly +abused, the natives being sold poor clothing, spoiled grain, sour wine, +and other inferior supplies, often at three or four times their value when +of good quality. They were even made to buy things at high prices which +were of no possible use to them, such as silk stockings for men who went +barefoot, and razors for those who had scarcely any beard to shave. One +_corregidor_ bought a box of spectacles from a trader, and made the +natives buy these at his own price, to wear when they went to mass, +without regard to the fact that they were utterly useless to them. + +The oppression of the natives was not confined to the laity, but the +clergy were often as unjust. They forced them to pay not only the tithes, +but extravagant prices for every church service, forty reals being charged +for a baptism, twenty for a marriage certificate, thirty-two for a burial, +etc. Such sums as these, which fairly beggared the poor Indians, enabled +the clergy to build costly churches and mission houses and to keep up +abundant revenues. + +These general statements very faintly picture the actual state to which +the Indians were reduced. This may be better shown by some instances of +their sufferings. The Timebos Indians, for example, of the province of +Velez, New Grenada, were reduced to such extreme misery by the +embezzlement of the funds, that whole families flung themselves from the +top of a rock twelve hundred feet high into the river below. One night, in +order to escape from the cruelty of the colonists, the whole tribes of the +Agatoas and Cocomes killed themselves, preferring death to the horrors of +Spanish rule. Many Indians strangled themselves when in peril of being +enslaved by the Spaniards, feeling that a quick death was better than a +slow one under the torture of incessant toil. + +In one instance, when a party of hopeless natives had come together with +the intention of killing themselves, an intendant came to them with a rope +in his hand, and told them that if they did not give up their purpose he +would hang himself with them. This threat filled them with such horror at +the prospect of meeting a Spaniard in the spirit world, that they fled +from the spot, preferring life with all its terrors to such a companion. + +As may well be imagined, the natives did not all yield resistlessly to +their tyrants. Thus, in exasperation at the quantity of gold-dust which +they were forced to pay as tribute, the people of Aconcalm, in the +province of Canas, seized the brutal Spanish collector one day, and gave +him melted gold to drink, "to satisfy in this way his insatiable thirst +for gold." + +In December, 1767, the descendants of the two tribes which had owned the +mining valley of Caravaya descended on the white inhabitants in revenge +for a usurpation of their lands which had taken place more than two +centuries before. They settled the question of ownership by burning the +city and killing all the inhabitants with arrows and clubs. When news of +this was received by the viceroy, Don Antonio Amat, he swore on a piece of +the true cross to kill all the savages in Peru. He was prevented from +carrying out this threat only by the prayers of the actress Mariquita +Gallegas, whom he loved, and who convinced him that it was his duty as a +Christian to convert them to the religion of Christ rather than to +massacre them. + +In 1780 there began a memorable insurrection of the persecuted natives. It +was especially notable as being led by a direct descendant of the Inca +Tupac-Amaru, who had been beheaded by the Spaniards in 1562. This noble +Indian, the last of the Incas, had been well educated by the Jesuits in +Cuzco, and became the cacique of Tungasac. His virtues were such as to +gain him the respect and esteem of all the Peruvian Indians, who venerated +him also as the lineal descendant of their ancient emperors. + +One day this cacique, exasperated by the rapacity of the _corregidor_ of +Tuita, who had laid three _repartimientos_ on the Indians in a single +year, seized the tyrannical wretch and strangled him with his own hands. +Then, taking the name of his ancestor, Tupac-Amaru, he proclaimed himself +the chief of all those who were in rebellion against the Spaniards. + +His error seems to have been in not fraternizing with the creoles, or +white natives of the country, who hated the Spaniards as bitterly as the +Indians themselves. On the contrary he treated these as enemies also, and +thus greatly augmented the number of his foes. The Indians, their memories +of their ancient freedom aroused by his call, joined his ranks in +enthusiastic numbers and won several victories over the whites, the whole +of Upper Peru breaking out in insurrection. Lacking fire-arms as they did, +they kept up the struggle for a year, the outbreak being brought to an end +at last by treachery instead of arms. Betrayed by a cacique to whom the +Spaniards promised a colonel's commission,--a promise they did not +keep,--the Inca was taken prisoner by his enemies, and conducted to Cuzco, +the ancient capital of his ancestors. Here he was tried and condemned to +death, and executed with a frightful excess of cruelty that filled with +horror all the civilized world, when the terrible tale became known. + +Conducted to the place of execution, his wife and children, and his +brother-in-law, Bastidas, were brought before him, their tongues cut out, +and then put to death by the Spanish method of strangling before his eyes. +His little son was left alive to witness his death. This was one in which +the most brutal tortures of mediaeval times seemed revived. His tongue +being torn out, his limbs were tied to four horses, which were driven in +different directions with the purpose of tearing him limb from limb. The +horses proved unable to do this, and he remained suspended in agony, until +one of the more merciful of the Spaniards ended his torture by cutting off +his head. During this revolting scene the little son of the victim gave +vent to a terrible scream of agony, the memory of which haunted many of +the executioners to their death. + +The legs and arms of the victim were sent to the rebellious towns, his +body was burned to ashes, his house was razed, his property confiscated, +and his family declared infamous forever. One of his brothers was sent to +Spain and condemned to the galleys, in which he remained for thirty years. +Such were the means taken by the Spaniards to overcome the love of liberty +in the natives of Peru. + +As for the natives themselves, what few privileges they had retained were +taken from them, their meetings and festivals were forbidden, and for any +one to assume the name of Inca was declared criminal. These severe +measures were thought sufficient to intimidate the Indians, but they only +exasperated them, and they took a terrible revenge. Andres, a cousin of +Amaru, who had escaped capture, and another chief named Catari, led them +in a campaign of revenge in which they fought with the fury of despair. +The lives of five hundred Spaniards, it is said, paid the penalty for each +of the victims of that dread execution in Cuzco. + +Andres besieged the city of Sorata, in which all the white families of the +vicinity had taken refuge with their treasures. The artillery of the +fortifications seemed an invulnerable defence against the poorly armed +besiegers, but Andres succeeded in making a breach by turning the mountain +streams against the walls. Once within, the exasperated Indians took a +terrible revenge, a single priest being, as we are told, the sole survivor +of the twenty thousand inhabitants. In the end the Spaniards put down the +insurrection by treachery and cunning, seized the chiefs, and sent Andres +to Ceuta, in Spain, where he remained in prison till 1820. + +We shall only say in addition that the Portuguese of Brazil treated the +natives of that land with a cruelty little less than that shown by the +Spaniards, sending out hunting expeditions to bring in Indians to serve as +slaves. Those who opposed them were shot down without mercy, and it is +said that, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, peasants infected +with the virus of smallpox were sent to the Botocudos, as a convenient +means of getting rid of that hostile tribe. As a result of all this, the +greater part of the tribes of Brazil completely disappeared. The natives +of South America obtained justice and honorable treatment only after the +people of that country had won their liberty. + + + + + +CUDJOE, THE NEGRO CHIEF, AND THE MAROONS OF JAMAICA. + + +When the English conquered the island of Jamaica and drove the Spaniards +out of it, they failed to conquer its sable inhabitants, negroes who had +been slaves to the Spaniards, but who now fought for and maintained their +freedom. Such were the Maroons, or mountain-dwelling fugitives of Jamaica, +whose story is well worth telling. + +First we must say something about the history of this island, and how it +came into English hands. It was long held by the Spaniards, being +discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. In his last voyage +he had a dismal experience there. With his vessels battered and ready to +sink, after running through a severe wind storm, he put into the harbor of +Porto Bueno, in northern Jamaica. He afterwards left this for a small bay, +still known after him as Don Christopher's Cove, and here, attacked by the +warlike natives, and unable to put to sea, he was kept captive in his +shattered hulks for a whole year. + +The Indians refused him food, and the tradition goes that he got this at +length by a skilful artifice. Knowing that a total eclipse of the moon +would soon take place, he sent word to the dusky chief that the lights in +the sky were under his control, and if they did not give him supplies he +would put out the light of the moon and never let it shine again on their +island. The Indians laughed with scorn at this threat, but when they saw +the moon gradually losing its light and fading into darkness, they fell +into a panic, and begged him to let it shine again, promising to bring him +all the food he wanted. At this the admiral feigned to relent, and after +retiring for a time to his cabin, came forth and told them that he would +consent to bring back the lost moonlight. After that the Indians saw that +the crew had abundance of food. The admiral and his crew were finally +rescued by an expedition sent from Hispaniola. + +Jamaica, like Cuba and Hayti, has the honor of keeping its old Indian +name, signifying a land of springs, or of woods and waters. It is a land +of mountains also; if it had not been we would have had no story to tell, +for these mountains were the haunts and the strongholds of the Maroons. +The island was not settled till 1523, twenty years after the detention of +Columbus on its shores. Many years after that we find its Spanish settlers +oppressing all the English that fell into their hands. This was the case, +in fact, all through the West Indies, English seamen being put in the +stocks, sent to the galleys, or murdered outright. + +It took the sturdy directness of Oliver Cromwell to put an end to these +outrages. He sent word to the Spanish minister that there must be a stop +put to the practices of the Inquisition and to the restriction of free +navigation in the West Indies. The minister replied, that to ask for these +two things was "to ask for his master's two eyes," and that no such thing +could be allowed. Cromwell's reply was to the point: + +"I know of no title that the Spaniards hath but by force, which by the +same title may be repelled. And as to the first discovery--to me it seems +as little reason that the sailing of a Spanish ship upon the coast of +India should entitle the king of Spain to that country as the sailing of +an Indian or English ship upon the coast of Spain should entitle either +the Indians or the English to the dominion thereof. The Spaniards have +contravented the Treaty of 1630. War must needs be justifiable when peace +is not allowable." + +This reply was certainly one marked by sound logic and good sense. It was +the rule of force, not of right, that lay behind all claims to dominion in +America, and this rule could be set aside by superior force. So Cromwell +sent out a great fleet under command of Admiral Penn,--father of William +Penn, the settler of Pennsylvania,--with a land force commanded by General +Venables. The first attempt was made upon Hispaniola. Failing here, the +fleet sailed to Jamaica, where the Spaniards surrendered on the 11th of +May, 1655. They tried to take it back again shortly before Cromwell's +death, but did not succeed, and Jamaica has remained an English island +from that day to this. + +This is about all we need say by way of preface, except to remark that +many settlers were sent to Jamaica, and the island soon became well +peopled and prosperous, Port Royal, its principal harbor, coming to be the +liveliest city in the West Indies. It was known as the wickedest city as +well as the richest, and when an earthquake came in 1692, and Port Royal, +with the sandy slope on which it was built, slipped into the sea with all +its dwellings, warehouses and wealth, and numbers of its people, the +disaster was looked upon by many as a judgment from heaven. There is one +thing more worth mention, which is that Morgan, the buccaneer, whose deeds +of shameful cruelty at Panama we have described, became afterwards deputy +governor of Jamaica, as Sir Henry Morgan, which title was given him by +King Charles II. It is not easy to know why this was done, unless it be +true, as was then said, that Charles shared in the spoils of his bloody +deeds of piracy. However that be, Morgan, as governor, turned hotly upon +his former associates, and hunted down the buccaneers without mercy, +hanging and shooting all he could lay hands on, until he fairly put an end +to the trade which had made him rich. + +Let us come now to the story of the Maroons, that nest of fugitives who +made things hot enough for the English in Jamaica for many years. When +Cromwell's soldiers took possession of Jamaica few or none of those +warlike Indians, who had given Columbus so much trouble, were left. In +their place were about two thousand negro slaves, and these fled to the +mountains, as the Indians had done before them. There they remained in +freedom, though the English did their best to coax them to come down and +enjoy the blessings of slavery again, and though they tried their utmost +to drive them down from the cliffs by means of soldiers and guns. In spite +of all the whites could do, the negroes, "Maroons," as they were called, +long preserved their liberty. + +In 1663 the British, finding that they could not master the warlike +fugitives by force, offered them a full pardon, with liberty and twenty +acres of land apiece, if they would yield. But the negroes, who were +masters of the whole mountainous interior, where thousands could live in +plenty, chose to stay where they were and not to trust to the slippery +faith of the white man. And so it went on until after 1730, when the +depredations of the negroes upon the settlements became so annoying that +two regiments of British regulars and all the militia of the island were +sent into the mountains to put them down. As it proved, the negroes still +held their own, not one of them being taken prisoner, and very few of them +killed. They were decidedly masters of the situation. + +At this time the chief of the Maroons, Cudjoe by name, was a dusky dwarf, +sable, ugly, and uncouth, but shrewd and wary, and fully capable of +discounting all the wiles of his enemies. No Christian he, but a full +Pagan, worshipping, with his followers, the African gods of Obeah, or the +deities of the wizards and sorcerers. His lurking-place, in the defiles of +the John Crow Mountains, was named Nanny Town, after his wife. Here two +mountain streams plunged over a rock nine hundred feet high into a +romantic gorge, where their waters met in a seething caldron called +"Nanny's Pot." Into this, as the negroes believed, the black witch Nanny +could, by her sorcery, cast the white soldiers who pursued them. As for +old Cudjoe himself, the English declared that he must be in league with +the devil, whom he resembled closely enough to be his brother. And they +were not without warrant for this belief, for he held his own against them +for nine long years, at the end of which the Maroons were more numerous +than at the beginning, since those who were killed were more than made up +by fresh accessions of runaway slaves. + +It is certain that the British soldiers were no match for Cudjoe the +dwarf. Retreating warily before them, he drew them into many an ambush in +the wild defiles of the mountains, where they were cut down like sheep, +the waters of the "Pot" being often reddened with their blood. From many +of the expeditions sent against him only a few weary and wounded survivors +returned, and it became difficult to induce the soldiers to venture into +that den of death. + +At length a British officer succeeded in dragging two mountain howitzers +up the cliffs to a position from which Nanny Town, the inaccessible Maroon +stronghold, could be shelled. When the shells, hurled from the distant +cannon, began to burst among them, the Maroons were at first so filled +with terror that some of them threw themselves over the cliffs, but the +bulk of them merely scattered and let the howitzers do their work among +empty walls. + +Cudjoe was astonished at the bursting shells, but he was too old a bird to +be frightened. "Dis a new way de buckra man got to fight," he said. "He +fire big ball arter you, and den de big ball fire little ones arter you. +Dat's berry cunnin', but ole Cudjoe know somethin' better un dat." + +Leading his men through the woods with the stealthy tread and noiseless +skill of the American Indians, the dwarf and his Maroons suddenly burst +upon the unwary soldiers from the rear while they were busy about their +guns, delivering a telling volley and then rushing upon them with blade +and axe. Few of the whites escaped this ferocious onset, and the +shell-delivering howitzers remained in Cudjoe's hands. + +Despairing of conquering the forest-born Maroons by the arts of civilized +warfare, the British were driven to try a new method. In 1737 they brought +from the Mosquito coast a number of Indians, who were fully the equal of +the negroes in bush fighting. These were launched upon the track of the +Maroons and soon ran them down in their mountain fastnesses. From Nanny +Town the seat of war shifted to another quarter of the island, but at +length the Maroons, finding their new foes fully their match in their own +methods, consented to sign a treaty of peace with the whites, though only +on the terms that they should retain their full freedom. + +The treaty was made in 1738 at Trelawney Town, the Maroons being +represented by Captains Cudjoe, Accompong, Johnny, Cuffee, and Quaco, and +a number of their followers, "who have been in a state of war and +hostility for several years past against our sovereign lord the king and +the inhabitants of this island." + +By the terms of the treaty the Maroons were to retain their liberty +forever, to be granted a large tract of land in the mountains, and to +enjoy full freedom of trade with the whites. On their part they agreed to +keep peace with the whites, to return all runaway slaves who should come +among them, and to aid the whites in putting down the rebellion and in +fighting any foreign invader. + +In 1760 their promise to aid the whites against local outbreaks was put to +the test when the fierce Koromantyn negroes broke out in rebellion and +committed fearful atrocities. A party of Maroons joined the whites and +seemed very zealous in their cause, ranging the woods and bringing in a +large number of ears, which they said they had cut from the heads of +rebels killed by them. It afterwards was found that the ears had been +obtained from the negroes who had been slain by the troops and left where +they fell. + +The Maroons remained unmolested until 1795, not without outbreaks on their +part and depredations on the settlements. In the year named two of them +were caught stealing pigs, and were sent to the workhouse and given +thirty-nine lashes on the bare back. When set free they went home in a +fury, and told a pitiful tale of the disgrace they had suffered, being +whipped by the black driver of the workhouse in the presence of felon +slaves. The story roused the blood of all their fellows, who felt that +they had been outraged by this insult to two of their kindred, and a +revolt broke out that spread rapidly throughout the mountains. + +The whites were in a quandary. To attempt to put down the rebels by force +of arms might lead to the sanguinary results of sixty years before. But it +was remembered that in the former war the use of dogs had proved very +advantageous, so agents were now sent to Cuba to purchase a pack of +bloodhounds. Thus the methods employed by the Spaniards against the +Indians two centuries before were once more brought into use. One hundred +hounds were bought and with them came forty Cuban huntsmen, mostly +mulattoes. As it proved, the very news of the coming of the hounds had the +desired effect, the Maroons being apparently much more afraid of these +ferocious dogs than of trained soldiers. At any rate, they immediately +sued for peace, and, as an old historian tells us, "It is pleasing to +observe that not a drop of blood was spilt after the dogs arrived in the +island." Peace was made within a week, and in the next year the chief +offenders were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and put at work on the +fortifications. They were afterwards sent to Liberia. + +From that time forward there was no trouble with the Maroons. Their +descendants still dwell in the island as a separate people. In 1865 there +was an outbreak among the free blacks, slavery having been abolished +thirty years before. The Maroons were called upon to help the troops put +down this revolt. They responded cheerfully and rendered useful aid in the +brief conflict. When it was over the black warriors were invited to +Kingston, the capital, where the whites of that city had their first sight +of the redoubtable Maroons. Black and brawny, they had the dignified +carriage of men who had always been free and independent, while some of +them wore with pride silver medals which their ancestors had been given +for former aid to the whites. Once a terror to Jamaica, the Maroons are +now among its most trusty inhabitants. + + + + + +TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE REVOLUTION IN HAYTI. + + +The people of Europe have not stood alone in settling and ruling America, +for the blacks of Africa, brought to the New World as slaves, have made +themselves masters of one of the largest and most fertile islands of the +West Indies, that attractive gem of the tropics which, under the name of +Hispaniola, was the pioneer among Spanish dominions on American soil. + +Hispaniola has had a strange and cruel history. The Spaniards enslaved its +original inhabitants and treated them so ruthlessly that they were soon +annihilated. Then the island was filled with negro slaves. About 1630 the +buccaneers, or hunters of wild bulls, made it their haunt, and as these +were mostly French, the western part of the island was ceded to France in +1697. During the century that followed Africans were brought over in +multitudes, until there were nearly half a million blacks in Hayti,--the +Indian name of the island,--while there were less than forty thousand +whites and thirty thousand mulattoes, the latter being neither citizens +nor slaves. These facts are given as a necessary introduction to the story +we are about to tell. + +It was the white revolution in France that brought about the black +revolution in Hayti. In 1789 the States-General met in France and +overturned the ancient system of oppression in that land. Liberty for all +was the tocsin of its members, and it was proclaimed that not only the +whites of France and her colonies, but the blacks also, were entitled to +freedom and a voice in the government. The news of this decree created a +ferment of passion in Hayti. The white planters of the island, who had +long controlled everything, burst into fury, for-swore all allegiance to +France, and trampled the national flag under foot in their rage. + +But they had others than the French Assembly to deal with. The mulattoes, +or free people of color, rose in arms for the rights of which they had +been deprived. They were soon put down, but in the following year (1791) a +much more terrible outbreak took place, that of the slaves. There followed +a reign of terror as sanguinary in type as that of France. The revolt +began on the night of August 21, on the plantation of Noe, near Cape +Haytien. The long-oppressed and savage blacks mercilessly killed all the +whites who fell into their hands. Down from the mountains they poured on +every side, their routes marked by blood and devastation. Hills and plains +were swept with fire and sword, atrocities of the most horrible kinds were +committed, and nearly all the residents on the plantations, more than two +thousand in number, were brutally slaughtered, while a thousand sugar and +coffee estates were swept by fire. + +In the first revolution the mulattoes aided the whites of the cities to +repel the blacks, but later, believing themselves betrayed by the whites, +they joined the blacks, and the revolt became a war of extermination. It +did not end until the negroes became masters of all the country districts, +and gained a control of the mountainous interior of the island which, +except for a brief interval, they have ever since retained. + +This success was in great part due to the famous leader of the blacks, the +renowned Toussaint L'Ouverture, a man who proved himself one of the +greatest and noblest of his race. Born in Hayti, of negro parents, he was +descended from an African prince, and, slave though he was in condition, +had himself the soul of a prince. He taught himself to read and write, and +also something of mathematics and of Latin, and was taken from the fields +to become coachman for the overseer of the estate of his master, the Count +de Breda. + +When the negro revolt began, and the furious blacks were seeking victims +on all sides, Toussaint concealed the overseer and his family in the +forest, took them food at the risk of his own life, and finally led them +to the coast, where they took ship for the United States. + +While he was thus engaged, the negroes, led by a gigantic black named +Bouckman, and subsequently by three others, were continuing their course +of butchery and devastation. Toussaint joined them after the escape of the +overseer, and quickly gained an influence over them, largely from his +knowledge of medicinal plants and a degree of skill in surgery. This +influence enabled him to put himself at their head and to mitigate the +ferocity of their actions. His ascendency was due not only to his +knowledge, but also to his valor, and from his courage in opening a breach +in the ranks of the enemy he became known as L'Ouverture, or the opener. + + [Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT.] + + SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT. + + +Under their new leader the revolted slaves held their own against their +enemies, declaring in favor of the king, Louis XVI., and against the +revolutionists. On the other hand, the English came to the aid of the +whites, and the island was thrown into a state of horrible confusion, +increased by the interference of the Spaniards, who held the eastern +section of the island. + +In 1794, after the Convention in Paris had issued a decree demanding the +liberation of the slaves, Toussaint and his followers joined the +revolutionary cause, and aided the French general Laveaux to expel the +British and Spanish invaders. In this campaign he won a number of +victories, and showed such military skill and ability as to prove him a +leader of the highest qualities. Beard says of him, "His energy and his +prowess made him the idol of his troops.... In his deeds and warlike +achievements he equalled the great captains of ancient and modern times." + +One example of the risks which he ran in battle occurred in his efforts to +put down an insurrection of the mulattoes. In this contest he fell into an +ambush in the mountains near Port de Paix, a shower of bullets sweeping +his ranks. His private physician fell dead by his side and a plume of +feathers in his hat was shot away, but he remained unharmed. The same was +the case soon after when, in a narrow pass, his coachman was shot down. +The negro leader seemed, like Napoleon, to bear a charmed life. + +Declaring himself lieutenant-general of the colony, he wrote to the +Directory in Paris, guaranteeing to be responsible for the orderly +behavior of the blacks and their good will to France. He sent at the same +time his two elder sons to Paris to be educated, making them practically +hostages for his honor and good faith. + +In 1798 the war, which had lasted for years, came to an end, the British +being expelled from the island and the rebellious mulattoes put down. +Peace prevailed, and the negro conqueror now devoted himself to the +complete pacification of the people. Agriculture was encouraged, the +churches were reopened, schools were established, and law and justice were +made equal for all. At the same time the army was kept in excellent +training and a rigid discipline exacted. + +As is usual in such cases, there were abundant applications among the +negroes for official positions, and Toussaint was sorely put to it to +dispose of these ignorant aspirers after high places without giving +offence. He seems, however, to have been well versed in political +management, and is said to have disposed of one unlearned applicant for a +judicial position with the words, "Ah, yes; you would make an excellent +magistrate. Of course you understand Latin.--No?--Why, that is very +unfortunate, for you know that Latin is absolutely necessary." + +There is another evidence of his wisdom in dealing with his people that is +worth repeating. As has been said, when the revolution began Hayti had +about half a million of blacks to seventy thousand whites and mulattoes. +Toussaint adopted an original method of making the force of this fact +evident to his followers. He would fill a glass with black grains of corn +and throw upon them a few grains of white. "You are the black grains," he +would say; "your enemies are the white." Then he would shake the glass. +"Where are the white grains now? You see they have disappeared." + +The authorities in France could not but recognize the ability and the +moderation of the black leader, and in 1796 he was appointed +commander-in-chief in the island, a commission which was confirmed by +Bonaparte about December, 1799. All classes and colors regarded him as a +general benefactor and a wise and judicious ruler. Order and prosperity +were restored, and his government was conducted with moderation and +humanity. It looked as though peace and good will might continue in Hayti +as long as this able governor lived, but unluckily he had to deal with a +man in whom ambition and pride of place overruled all conceptions of +justice. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, who had now risen to the supreme +power in France. + +Bonaparte seems to have been angered by two letters which Toussaint sent +him, after having completely pacified the island. These were addressed, +"The First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites." The assumed equality +seems to have touched the pride of the conqueror, for he disdained to +answer the letters of the Haytian ruler. Early in 1800 a republican +constitution was drafted under the auspices of Toussaint, which made Hayti +virtually independent, though under the guardianship of France. An +election was held and the liberator chosen president for life. + +When the news of this action reached France in July, 1800, Napoleon was +furious. He had just been made First Consul and would brook no equal. "He +is a revolted slave, whom we must punish," he exclaimed; "the honor of +France is outraged." Resolved to reduce the negroes again to slavery, he +sent to Hayti a fleet of sixty ships and an army of about thirty-five +thousand men, under General Leclerc, the husband of Pauline Bonaparte. +Pauline accompanied him, and also several officers who had been former +opponents of Toussaint. + +Meanwhile, the Haytien president had not been idle. Having subdued the +French portion of the island, he led his army into the Spanish portion, +which was also reduced, San Domingo, its capital, being taken on January +2, 1801. When the keys of this city were handed to him by its governor, +the negro conqueror said, solemnly, "I accept them in the name of the +French Republic." Yet his conquests in the name of France did not soften +the heart of the First Consul, who was bent on treating him as a daring +rebel. The Peace of Amiens left the hands of Napoleon free in Europe, and +the expedition under Leclerc reached the island about the end of 1801. + +To oppose the strong army of Napoleon's veterans, men who had been trained +to victory under his own eye, Toussaint had a force of blacks little more +than half as strong. As he looked at the soldiers disembarking from the +ships in the Bay of Samana he exclaimed in dismay, "We are lost! All +France is coming to invade our poor island!" + +The French made landings at several of the ports of Hayti, driving back +their defenders. The city of San Domingo, held by Toussaint's brother, +Paul, was taken. Cristophe, a daring negro who was to figure high in the +subsequent history of the island, commanded at Cape Haytien, and when +Leclerc summoned him to surrender, replied, "Go tell your general that the +French shall march here only over ashes, and that the ground shall burn +beneath their feet." This was not bombast, for when he found further +defence impossible, he set fire to the city and retreated to the +mountains, taking with him two thousand white prisoners. Grief and despair +filled the soul of Toussaint when, marching to the relief of Cristophe, he +saw the roads filled with fugitives and the city in ashes. + +But though the French became masters of the ports, the army of the blacks +maintained itself in the mountain fastnesses, in which Toussaint defied +all the efforts of his foes. After Leclerc had lost heavily, and began to +despair of subduing his able opponent by force of arms, he had recourse to +strategy. He had brought with him Toussaint's two sons. Napoleon had +interviewed these boys before their departure from France, saying to them, +"Your father is a great man, and has rendered good service to France. Tell +him I say so, and bid him not to believe I have any hostile intention +against the island. The troops I send are not designed to fight the +natives, but to increase their strength, and the man I have appointed to +command is my own brother-in-law." + +Leclerc sent these boys to Toussaint, with the demand that he should +submit or send his children back as hostages. An affecting interview took +place between the boys and their father, and when they repeated to him +Napoleon's words, he was at first inclined to yield, but fuller +consideration induced him to refuse. + +"I cannot accept your terms," he said. "The First Consul offers me peace, +but his general no sooner arrives than he begins a fierce war. No; my +country demands my first consideration. Take back my sons." + +In the continuation of the war a French force of twenty thousand men under +Rochambeau marched against Toussaint, who was strongly intrenched at Crete +a Pierrot. In the contest that followed Toussaint at first outgeneralled +Rochambeau and defeated him with severe loss. But the assistance he looked +for from his subordinates failed to reach him, and at length he was forced +to retreat. + +The French, however, despite their superior numbers and the military +experience of their leaders, found that they had no mean antagonist in the +negro general, and Leclerc again resorted to negotiation, offering the +blacks their freedom if they would submit. Toussaint, seeing that he was +unable to hold his own against his powerful foe, and convinced that the +terms offered would be advantageous to his country, now decided to accept +them, saying, "I accept everything which is favorable for the people and +for the army; as for myself, I wish to live in retirement." + +The negro liberator trusted his enemies too much. The pride of Napoleon +had not yet digested the affront of Toussaint's message, "From the First +of the Blacks to the First of the Whites," and he sent orders to Leclerc +to arrest and send him to France. In June, 1802, a force was sent secretly +at night to Toussaint's home, where he was dwelling in peace and quiet. +The house was surrounded, two blacks that sought to defend him were killed +on the spot, and he was dragged from his bed and taken to the coast. Here +he was placed on board a man-of-war, which at once set sail for France. + +Napoleon's treatment of Toussaint was one of the dark deeds in his career. +Reaching France, the captive was separated from his wife and children and +confined in the dungeon of a dreary frontier castle. Here, one morning in +April, 1803, Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negro liberator, was found dead. +He had been starved to death, if we may accept the belief of some authors. + +The Haytien patriot died in poverty, though he might easily have +accumulated vast wealth. In his official position he had maintained a +degree of magnificence, and Napoleon believed that he had concealed great +riches somewhere in the island. He sent spies to question him, but +Toussaint's only reply was, "No, the treasures you seek are not those I +have lost." The lost ones were his wife, his children, and his liberty. + +Treachery is often an error, and Napoleon was soon to find that he had +made a fatal mistake in his treatment of the leader of the blacks. Alarmed +at his seizure, and having no one to control them, the negroes flew to +arms, and soon the revolt spread over the whole island. Yellow fever came +to the aid of the blacks, raging in Leclerc's army until thousands of +soldiers and fifteen hundred officers found graves in the land they had +invaded. In the end Leclerc himself died, and Pauline was taken back to +France. When Napoleon heard the story of the fate of his expedition, he +exclaimed in dismay,-- + +"Here, then, is all that remains of my fine army; the body of a +brother-in-law, of a general, my right arm, a handful of dust! All has +perished, all will perish! Fatal conquest! Cursed land! Perfidious +colonists! A wretched slave in revolt. These are the causes of so many +evils." He might more truly have said, "My own perfidy is the cause of all +those evils." + +A few words must conclude this tale. General Rochambeau was sent large +reinforcements, and with an army of twenty thousand men attempted the +reconquest of the island. After a campaign of ferocity on both sides, he +found himself blockaded at Cape Haytien, and was saved from surrender to +the revengeful blacks only by the British, to whom he yielded the eight +thousand men he had left. As he sailed from the island he saw the +mountain-tops blazing with the beacon-fires of joy kindled by the blacks. +From that day to this the island of Hayti has remained in the hands of the +negro race. + + + + + +BOLIVAR THE LIBERATOR, AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA. + + +One dark night in the year 1813 a negro murderer crept stealthily into a +house in Jamaica, where slept a man in a swinging hammock. Stealing +silently to the side of the sleeper, the assassin plunged his knife into +his breast, then turned and fled. Fortunately for American independence he +had slain the wrong man. The one whom he had been hired to kill was Simon +Bolivar, the great leader of the patriots of Spanish America. But on that +night Bolivar's secretary occupied his hammock, and the "Liberator" +escaped. + +Bolivar was then a refugee in the English island, after the failure of his +early attempt to win freedom for his native land of Venezuela. He was soon +back there again, however, with recruited forces, and for years afterwards +the war went on, with variations of failure and success, the Spanish +general Morillo treating the people who fell into his hands with revolting +cruelty. + +It was not until 1819 that Bolivar perceived the true road to success. +This was by leaving Venezuela, from which he had sought in vain to +dislodge the Spaniards, and carrying the war into the more promising field +of New Granada. So confident of victory did he feel in this new plan that +he issued the following proclamation to the people of New Granada: "The +day of America has come; no human power can stay the course of Nature +guided by Providence. Before the sun has again run his annual course +altars to Liberty will arise throughout your land." + +Bolivar had recently been strengthened by a British legion, recruited in +London among the disbanded soldiers of the Napoleonic wars. He had also +sent General Santander to the frontier of New Granada, and General +Barreiro, the Spanish general, had been driven back. Encouraged by this +success, he joined Santander at the foot of the Andes in June, 1819, +bringing with him a force of twenty-five hundred men, including his +British auxiliaries. + +Bolivar in this expedition had as bitter a foe to conquer in nature as in +the human enemy. In order to join Santander he was obliged to cross an +enormous plain which at that season of the year was covered with water, +and to swim some deep rivers, his war materials needing to be transported +over these streams. But this was child's play compared with what lay +before him. To reach his goal the Andes had to be crossed at some of their +most forbidding points, a region over which it seemed next to impossible +for men to go, even without military supplies. + +When the invading army left the plains for the mountains the soldiers +quickly found themselves amid discouraging scenes. In the distance rose +the snowy peaks of the eastern range of the Cordillera, and the waters of +the plain through which they had waded were here replaced by the rapids +and cataracts of mountain streams. The roads in many places followed the +edge of steep precipices, and were bordered by gigantic trees, while the +clouds above them poured down incessant rains. + +Four days of this march used up most of the horses, which were foundered +by the difficulties of the way. As a consequence, an entire squadron of +Llaneros, men who lived in the saddle, and were at home only on the plain, +deserted on finding themselves on foot. To cross the frequent torrents +there were only narrow, trembling bridges formed of tree-trunks, or the +aerial _taravitas_. These consisted of stout ropes made by twisting +several thongs of well-greased hides. The ropes were tied to trees on the +two banks of the ravine, while from them was suspended a cradle or hammock +of capacity for two persons, which was drawn backward and forward by long +lines. Horses and mules were similarly drawn across, suspended by long +girths around their bodies. + +Where the streams were fordable the current was usually so strong that the +infantry had to pass two by two with their arms thrown round each other's +shoulders. To lose their footing was to lose their lives. Bolivar +frequently passed these torrents back and forward on horseback, carrying +the sick and weakly, or the women who accompanied the expedition. + +In the lower levels the climate was moist and warm, only a little firewood +being needed for their nightly bivouacs. But as they ascended they reached +localities where an ice-cold wind blew through the stoutest clothing, +while immense heaps of rocks and hills of snow bounded the view on every +side and clouds veiled the depths of the abysses. The only sounds to be +heard were those of the roaring torrents they had passed and the scream of +the condor as it circled the snowy peaks above. Here all vegetation +disappeared except the clinging lichens and a tall plant which bore plumes +instead of leaves and was covered with yellow flowers, resembling a +funeral torch. To add to the terrors of the journey the path was marked by +crosses, erected in memory of travellers who had perished by the way. + +In this glacial region the provisions brought with them gave out. The +cattle on which they had depended as their chief resource could go no +farther. Thus, dragging on through perils and privation, at length they +reached the summit of the Paya pass, a natural stronghold where a +battalion would have been able to hold a regiment in check. An outpost of +three hundred men occupied it, but these were easily dispersed by +Santander, who led the van. + +At this point the men, worn out by the difficulties of the way, began to +murmur. Bolivar called a council of war and told its members that there +were greater difficulties still to surmount. He asked if they would keep +on, or if they preferred to return. They all voted in favor of going +onward, and the knowledge of their decision inspired the weary troops with +new spirit. + +Before the terrible passage was completed one hundred men had died of +cold, fifty of them being Englishmen. Not a horse was left, and it was +necessary to abandon the spare arms, and even some of those borne by the +soldiers. It was little more than the skeleton of an army that at length +reached the beautiful valley of Sagamoso, in the heart of the province of +Tunja, on the 6th of July, 1819. Resting at this point, Bolivar sent back +assistance to the stragglers who still lingered on the road, and +despatched parties to collect horses and communicate with the few +guerillas who roamed about that region. + +Barreiro, the Spanish commander, held the Tunja province with two thousand +infantry and four hundred horse. There was also a reserve of one thousand +troops at Bogota, the capital, and detachments elsewhere, while there was +another royalist army at Quito. Bolivar trusted to surprise and to the +support of the people to overcome these odds, and he succeeded in the +first, for Barreiro was ignorant of his arrival, and supposed the passage +of the Cordillera impossible at that season of the year. + +He was soon aware, however, that the patriots had achieved this impossible +thing and were in his close vicinity, and with all haste collected his +forces and took possession of the heights above the plain of Vargas. By +this movement he interposed between the patriots and the town of Tunja, +which, as attached to the cause of liberty, Bolivar was anxious to occupy. +It was not long, therefore, before the opposing armies met, and a battle +took place that lasted five hours. The patriots won, chiefly by the aid of +the English infantry, led by Colonel James Rooke, who had the misfortune +to lose an arm in the engagement. + + [Illustration: BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO.] + + BRIDGE ENTERING QUITO. + + +The victory was by no means a decisive one, and the road to Tunja remained +in the hands of the royalists. Instead of again attacking his intrenched +foe, Bolivar now employed strategy, retreating during the day, then making +a rapid countermarch at night, thus passing Barreiro's forces in the dark +over by-roads. On the 5th of August Tunja fell into his hands. He found +there an abundance of war material, and by holding it he cut off +Barreiro's communication with Bogota. + +The strength of Bolivar's generalship lay in rapid and unexpected +movements like this. The Spanish leaders, bound in the shackles of +military routine, were astonished and dismayed by the forced marches of +their enemies over roads that seemed unfit for the passage of an army. +While they were manoeuvring, calculating, hesitating, guarding the +customary avenues of approach, Bolivar would surprise them by +concentrating a superior force upon a point which they imagined safe from +attack, and, by throwing them into confusion, would cut up their forces in +detail. As a result, the actions of the patriot commander in the field +seemed less impressive than those of less notable generals, but the sum of +effects was far superior. + +Bolivar's occupation of Tunja took the Spaniards by surprise. Barreiro, +finding himself unexpectedly cut off from his centre of supplies, fell +back upon Venta Quemada, where he was soon followed by his foe, anxious to +deal a decisive blow before the royal forces could concentrate. Boyaca, +the site now occupied by the hostile armies, was a wooded and mountainous +country and one well suited to Bolivar's characteristic tactics. Placing a +large part of his troops in ambush and manoeuvring so as to get his cavalry +in the enemy's rear, he advanced to the attack with a narrow front. On +this Barreiro made a furious assault, forcing his opponents to recoil. But +this retreat was only a stratagem, for, as they fell back, the Spaniards +found themselves suddenly attacked in the flank by the ambushed troops, +while the cavalry rode furiously upon their rear. + +In a few minutes they were surrounded, and the fierce attack threw them +into utter confusion, in which the patriot army cut them down almost +without resistance. General Barreiro was taken prisoner on the field of +battle, throwing away his sword when he saw that escape was impossible, to +save himself the mortification of surrendering it to General Bolivar. +Colonel Ximenes, his second in command, was also taken, together with most +of the officers and more than sixteen hundred men. All their artillery, +ammunition, horses, etc., were captured, and a very small portion of the +army escaped. Some of these fled before the battle was decided, but many +of them were taken by the peasantry of the surrounding country and brought +in as prisoners. The loss of the patriots was incredibly small,--only +thirteen killed and fifty-three wounded. + +Boyaca--after Maypo, by which Chili gained its freedom--was the great battle +of South America. It gave the patriots supremacy in the north, as Maypo +had done in the south. New Granada was freed from the Spaniards, and on +August 9, two days after the battle, the viceroy, Samana, hastily +evacuated Bogota, fleeing in such precipitate haste that in thirty hours +he reached Honda, usually a journey of three days. On the 12th Bolivar +triumphantly marched into the capital, and found in its coffers silver +coin to the value of half a million dollars, which the viceroy had left +behind in his haste. + +It must be said further that the English auxiliaries aided greatly in the +results of these battles, their conduct giving Bolivar such gratification +that he made them all members of the Order of the Liberator. + +It is not our purpose to tell the whole story of this implacable war, but +simply to relate the dramatic invasion and conquest of New Granada. It +must suffice, then, to state that the war dragged on for two years longer, +ending finally in 1821 with the victory of Carabobo, in which the +Spaniards were totally defeated and lost more than six thousand men. After +that they withdrew and a republic was organized, with Bolivar for its +president. + +Two years later he aided the Peruvians in gaining their independence and +was declared their liberator and made supreme dictator of the country. +After ruling there absolutely for two years, he resigned and gave the +country a republican constitution. The congress of Lima elected him +president for life, and a new commonwealth was organized in the northern +section of Peru, to which the people gave the name of Bolivia, in honor of +the winner of their liberties. + + + + + +HIDALGO THE PATRIOT, AND THE GRITO DE DOLORES. + + +In the last quarter of the eighteenth century ideas of revolution were +widely in the air. The people were rising against the tyranny of the +kings. First in this struggle for liberty came the English colonies in +America. Then the people of France sprang to arms and overthrew the +moss-grown tyranny of feudal times. The armies of Napoleon spread the +demand for freedom through Europe. In Spain the people began to fight for +their freedom, and soon the thirst for liberty crossed the ocean to +America, where the people of the Spanish colonies had long been oppressed +by the tyranny of their rulers. + +The citizens of Mexico had been deeply infected by the example of the +great free republic of the north, and the seed of liberty grew for years +in their minds. Chief among its advocates was a farmer's son named Miguel +Hidalgo, a true scion of the people and an ardent lover of liberty, who +for years longed to make his native Mexico independent of the effete +royalty of Spain. He did not conceal his views on this subject, though his +deeper projects were confided only to a few trusty friends, chief among +whom was Ignacio Allende, a man of wealth and of noble Spanish descent, +and a captain of dragoons in the army. These men, with a few intimates, +consulted often and matured their plans, confident that the desire for +liberty was strong in the country and that the patriot people needed only +a leader to break out into insurrection. + +Hidalgo's eager desire for liberty, long smouldering, burst into flame in +1810, when the Spanish authorities attempted to arrest in Queretaro some +revolutionists who had talked too freely. Warned of their danger, these +men fled or concealed themselves. News of this came quickly to Hidalgo and +taught him that with his reputation there was but one of two things to do, +he must flee or strike. He decided to strike, and in this he was supported +by Allende, whose liberty was also in danger. + +The decisive step was taken on the 15th of September, 1810. That night +Hidalgo was roused from slumber by one of his liberty-loving friends, and +told that the hour had come. Calling his brother to his aid and summoning +a few of those in the secret, he led the small party of revolutionists to +the prison, broke it open, and set free certain men who had been seized +for their liberal ideas. + +This took place in the early hours of a Sunday. When day broke and the +countrymen of the neighboring parish came to early mass the news of the +night's event spread among them rapidly and caused great excitement. To a +man they took the side of Hidalgo, and before the day grew old he found +himself at the head of a small band of ardent revolutionists. They at once +set out for San Miguel le Grande, the nearest town, into which marched +before nightfall of the day a little party of eighty men, the nucleus of +the Mexican revolution. For standard they bore a picture of the Holy +Virgin of Guadalupe, taken from a village church. New adherents came to +their ranks till they were three hundred strong. Such was the movement +known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores," their war-cry, the _Grito_, +being, "Up with True Religion, and down with False Government." + +Never before had an insurrection among the submissive common people been +known in Mexico. When news of it came to the authorities they were +stupefied with amazement. That peasants and townspeople, the plain workers +of the land, should have opinions of their own about government and the +rights of man was to them a thing too monstrous to be endured, but for the +time being they were so dumfounded as to be incapable of taking any +vigorous action. + +While the authorities digested the amazing news of the outbreak, the +movement grew with surprising rapidity. Hidalgo's little band was joined +by the regiment of his comrade Allende, and a crowd of field laborers, +armed with slings, sticks, and spades, hastened in to swell their ranks. +So popular did the movement prove that in a brief period the band of +eighty men had grown to a great host, fifty thousand or more in numbers. +Poorly armed and undisciplined as they were, their numbers gave them +strength. Hidalgo put himself at their head as commander-in-chief, with +Allende as his second in command, and active exertions were made to +organize an army out of this undigested material. + +The next thing we perceive in this promising movement for liberty is the +spectacle of Hidalgo and his host of enthusiastic followers marching on +the rich and flourishing city of Guanajuato, capital of a mining state, +the second largest in Mexico. This city occupies a deep but narrow ravine, +its houses crowded on the steep slopes, up which the streets climb like +stairways. + +The people of the city were terrified when they saw this great body of +people marching upon them, with some of the organization of a regular +army, though most of them bore only the arms of a mob. The authorities, +who were advised of their approach, showed some energy. Resolving not to +surrender and making hasty preparations for defence, they intrenched +themselves in a strongly built grain warehouse, with the governor at their +head. + +Much better armed than the mass of their assailants, and backed up by +strong stone walls, the authorities defended themselves vigorously, and +for a time the affair looked anything but promising for Hidalgo's +improvised army. Success came at last through the courage of a little boy, +called Pipita, who, using as a shield a flat tile torn from the pavement, +and holding a blazing torch in his hand, crept through a shower of bullets +up to the gate of the stronghold and set fire to it. As the flames spread +upward, the insurgents broke in upon the frightened defenders, killing +some and making prisoners of the others. + +The common people of the city, in sympathy with the revolutionists, and +inspired with the mob spirit of pillage, now rushed in disorder through +the streets, breaking into and robbing shops and houses, until checked in +their career of plunder by Hidalgo, who restored order by threatening +condign punishment to any plunderers. He proceeded to make the city a +stronghold and centre for the collection of arms and money, his forces +being increased by the defection from the Spaniards of three squadrons of +regular troops, while the whole province declared for the cause of the +revolution. + +While this was going on, the governing powers in Mexico had recovered from +their stupefaction and begun to take active measures to suppress the +dangerous movement. Shortly before a new viceroy had arrived in Mexico, +Don Francisco Venegas, a Spanish general who had distinguished himself in +the war with Napoleon. Fancying that he had a peaceful life before him in +America, he began his work of government by calling a council of prominent +persons and asking them to help him raise money from the loyal people for +the support of their brethren in Spain who were fighting against Napoleon. +Three days later the Grito de Dolores broke out and he saw that his dream +of peace was at an end, and that he would need all the funds he could +raise to suppress revolution in his new government. + +The viceroy, an experienced soldier, at once ordered the troops in +garrison at Mexico to Queretaro, strengthening them by rural detachments, +and summoning garrisons from the north, west, and east. He issued at the +same time a decree under which all Indians were released from taxation, +and promised pardon to all rebels who should at once lay down their arms; +a reward of ten thousand dollars being offered for the capture or death of +the three chief insurgents, Hidalgo, Allende, and Aldama. + +The civil authorities were vigorously supported by the clergy in this +action against the revolution. Hidalgo and his chief comrades were +excommunicated by the bishops, and the local clergy denounced them +bitterly from their pulpits. The Inquisition, which had taken action +against Hidalgo in 1800 for his dangerous opinions, now cited him to +appear before its tribunal and answer these charges. But bishops and +inquisitors alike wasted their breath on the valiant insurgents, who +maintained that it was not religion but tyranny that they were banded +against. + +The revolutionists took possession of Valladolid on the 17th of October, +without resistance, the bishop and authorities fleeing at their approach. +As the bishop himself was gone, Hidalgo forced the canons he had left +behind to remove the sentence of excommunication. The town was made a +second stronghold of the revolution and a centre for new recruiting, the +army increasing so rapidly that in ten days' time its leader took the bold +step of advancing upon Mexico, the capital city. + +The approach of the insurgents, who had now grown greatly in numbers, +filled the people of the capital with terror. They remembered the sack of +Guanajuata, and hastened to conceal their valuables, while many of them +fled for safety. As the insurgents drew near they were met by the army of +the viceroy, and a fierce battle took place upon an elevation called the +Monte de la Cruces, outside the city. A hot fire of artillery swept the +ranks of the insurgents, but, filled with enthusiasm, and greatly +outnumbering the royal troops, they swept resistlessly on, bearing down +all before them, and sweeping the viceroy's soldiers from the field with +heavy loss. Only his good horse saved Trujillo, the commanding general, +from death or capture, and bore him in safety to the city. + +Mexico, filled with panic and confusion at the news of the disastrous +defeat of its defenders, could perhaps have been easily taken, and its +capture might possibly have closed the struggle in favor of liberty. It +certainly was a moment for that boldness on which success so often +depends, but Hidalgo at this critical stage took counsel from prudence +instead of daring, and, fearing the arrival of reinforcements to the +beaten army, withdrew his forces towards Queretaro--a weak and fatal +retrograde movement, as it proved. + +The viceroy had another army advancing from the north, under the command +of Calleja, a skilful general. Meeting Hidalgo at Aculco on his march +towards Queretaro, he attacked him with such vigor that, after a hot +combat, the insurgents were utterly worsted, losing all their artillery +and many men. In fact, the whole loose-joined army fell to pieces at this +severe repulse, and Hidalgo was followed to Valladolid with an +insignificant remnant of his mighty host. + +Calleja followed up his victory with a pursuit of Allende and a fierce +attack on him at Guanajuato, forcing him to abandon the city and retreat +to Zacatecas, which had proclaimed independence. Calleja, who had much of +the traditional Spanish cruelty, now sullied his triumph by a barbarous +retaliation upon the people of the city he had taken, who were most +savagely punished for their recent plundering outbreak. + +The remainder of this story of revolution is a brief and unfortunate one. +Hidalgo gathered another army and led them to Guadalajara, where he +organized a government, appointed ministers, and styled himself +generalissimo. He despatched a commissioner to the United States, but this +personage soon found himself a prisoner. Arms were collected and the army +organized as rapidly as possible, but his forces were still in the rough +when, disregarding the advice of Allende and others, he resolved to attack +Calleja. He advanced on the 16th of January to the Puenta de Calderon, +where he found himself in face of a well-equipped and disciplined army of +ten thousand men, superior in everything but numbers to his undisciplined +levies. They fought bravely enough in the battle of the next day, but they +were no match for their opponents, and the contest ended in a complete +rout, the insurgents scattering in all directions. + +Hidalgo hastened towards Zacatecas, meeting on his way Allende, Jiminez, +and other leaders who had escaped from the fatal field of Calderon. The +cause of liberty seemed at an end. Calleja was vigorously putting down the +revolution on all sides. As a last hope the chiefs hastened towards the +United States borders with such men and money as they had left, proposing +there to recruit and discipline another army. But before reaching the +frontier they were overtaken by their pursuers, being captured in a desert +region near the Rio Grande. + +The captives were now taken under a strong escort to Chihuahua, where they +were tried and condemned to death. Allende, Aldama, and Jiminez were shot +on the 26th of June, and Hidalgo paid the penalty of his life on the 27th +of June, 1811. Thus, in the death of its chiefs, ended the first struggle +for independence in Mexico. The heads of the four chiefs were taken to +Guanajuato and nailed to the four corners of the stronghold which they had +taken by storm in that city. There they remained till the freedom of +Mexico was won, when they were given solemn burial beneath the altar of +the sovereigns in the cathedral of Mexico. The Alhondiga de Grenaditas, +the building to which their heads were attached, is now used as a prison, +but its walls still bear the spike which for ten years held Hidalgo's +head. Before it there stands a bronze statue of this earliest of the +Mexican patriot leaders. + +Shall we add a few words descriptive of the later course of the struggle +for independence? The death of Hidalgo left many patriots still alive, and +one of these, Moreles the muleteer, kept up the war with varying fortunes +until 1815, when he, too, was taken and shot. + +The man to whom Moreles owed his downfall was Augustin de Yturbide, a +royalist leader, who pursued the insurgents with relentless energy. Yet it +was to this man that Mexico in the end owed its independence. After the +death of Moreles a chief named Guerrero kept up the war for liberty, and +against him Yturbide was sent in 1820. As it proved, the royalist had +changed his views, and after some fighting with Guerrero he joined hands +with him and came out openly as a patriot leader. He had under him a +well-disciplined army, and advanced from success to success till the final +viceroy found himself forced to acknowledge the independence of Mexico. + +The events that followed--how Mexico was organized into an empire, with +Yturbide as emperor under the title of Augustin I., and how a new +revolution made it a republic and Yturbide was shot as a traitor--belong to +that later history of the Spanish American republics in which revolution +and counter-revolution continued almost annual events. + + + + + +PAEZ, THE LLANERO CHIEF, AND THE WAR FOR FREEDOM. + + +On the 3d of June, 1819, General Morillo, the commander of the Spanish +forces in Venezuela, found himself threatened in his camp by a party of +one hundred and fifty daring horsemen, who had swum the Orinoco and +galloped like centaurs upon his line. Eight hundred of the Spanish +cavalry, with two small field-pieces, sallied out to meet their +assailants, who slowly retired before their superior numbers. In this way +the royalists were drawn on to a place called Las Queseras del Medio, +where a battalion of infantry had been placed in ambush near the river. +Here, suddenly ceasing their retreat, and dividing up into groups of +twenty, the patriot horsemen turned on the Spaniards and assailed them on +all sides, driving them back under the fire of the infantry, by whom they +were fearfully cut down. Then they recrossed the river with two killed and +a few wounded, while the plain was strewn with the bodies of their foes. + +This anecdote may serve to introduce to our readers Joseph Antonio Paez, +the leader of the band of patriot horsemen, and one of the most daring and +striking figures among the liberators of South America. Born of Indian +parents of low extraction, and quite illiterate, Paez proved himself so +daring as a soldier that he became in time general-in-chief of the armies +of Venezuela and the neighboring republics, and was Bolivar's most trusted +lieutenant during the war for independence. + +Brought up amid the herds of half-wild cattle belonging to his father, who +was a landholder in the Venezuelan plains, he became thoroughly skilled in +the care of cattle and horses, and an adept at curing their disorders. He +was accustomed to mount and subdue the wildest horses, and was noted for +strength and agility and for power of enduring fatigue. + +A llanero, or native of the elevated plains of Venezuela, he rose +naturally to great influence among his fellow-herdsmen, and when the +revolution began, in 1810, and he declared in favor of the cause of +freedom, his reputation for courage was so great that they were very ready +to enlist under him. He chose from among them one hundred and fifty picked +horsemen, and this band, under the title of "Guides of the Apure," soon +made itself the terror of the Spaniards. + +The following story well shows his intrepid character. After the death of +his mother young Paez inherited her property in Barinas, and divided it +with his sisters who were living in that town. The Spanish forces, which +had been driven out of it, occupied it again in 1811, and proclaimed a +general amnesty for the inhabitants, inviting all property-holders to +return and promising to reinstate them in their fortunes. Paez, hearing of +this, rode boldly into Barinas and presented himself before the Spanish +commandant, saying that he had come to avail himself of the amnesty and +take possession of his property. + +He was soon recognized by the inhabitants, who gathered in hundreds to +welcome and shake hands with him, and the news quickly spread among the +Spanish soldiers that this was the famous Captain Paez, who had done them +so much mischief. Seizing their arms, they called loudly on their +commander to arrest and shoot the insolent newcomer as a rebel and +traitor. But this officer, who was well aware of the valor of Paez, and +perceived his great influence over the people of Barinas, deemed it very +imprudent to take a step that might lead to a general outbreak, and +concluded to let his perilous visitor alone. He therefore appeased his +soldiers, and Paez was left unmolested in the house of his sisters. + +The governor, however, only bided his time. Spies were set to watch the +daring llanero, and after some days they informed their leaders that Paez +had gone out unarmed, and that there was a good opportunity to seize his +weapons as a preliminary to his arrest. When Paez returned home after his +outing, he was told that armed men had visited the house and taken away +his sword and pistols. + +Incensed by this act of ill-faith, he boldly sought the governor's house +and angrily charged him with breaking his word. He had come to Barinas, he +said, trusting in the offer of amnesty, and vigorously demanded that his +arms should be restored--not for use against the Spaniards, but for his +personal security. His tone was so firm and indignant, and his request so +reasonable under the circumstances, that the governor repented of his +questionable act, and gave orders that the arms should be returned. + +On hearing this, the whole garrison of Barinas assailed the governor with +reproaches, impetuously demanding that the guerilla chief should be +arrested and confined in irons. The versatile governor again gave way, and +that night the Paez mansion was entered and he taken from his bed, put in +irons, and locked up in prison. It was no more than he might have +expected, if he had known as much of the Spanish character then as he was +afterwards to learn. + +But Paez was not an easy captive to hold. In the prison he found about one +hundred and fifty of his fellow rebels, among them his friend Garcia, an +officer noted for strength and courage. On Garcia complaining to him of +the weight of his irons and the miserable condition of the prisoners, Paez +accused him of cowardice, and offered to exchange fetters with him. To +keep his word he broke his own chains by main strength and handed them to +his astonished friend. + +Paez now spoke to the other prisoners and won their consent to a concerted +break for liberty. Freed from his own fetters, he was able to give +efficient service to the others, and before morning nearly the whole of +them were free. When the jailor opened the door in the morning he was +promptly knocked down by Paez and threatened with instant death if he made +a sound. Breaking into the guard-room, they seized the arms of the guard, +set free those whose irons were not yet broken, and marched from the +prison, with Paez at their head, upon the Spanish garrison, two hundred in +number. Many of these were killed and the rest put to rout, and Barinas +was once more in patriot hands. + +This anecdote will serve to show, better than pages of description, the +kind of man that Paez was. When the act became known to the llaneros they +proclaimed Paez their general, and were ready to follow him to the death. +These cowboys of the Orinoco, if we may give them this title, were, like +their leader, of Indian blood. Neither they nor their general knew +anything about military art, and felt lost when taken from their native +plains, a fact which was shown when they were called upon to follow +Bolivar in his mountain expedition against New Granada. Neither persuasion +nor force could induce them to leave the plains for the mountains. Bolivar +and Paez entreated them in vain, and they declared that rather than go to +the hill-country they would desert and return to their native plains, +where alone they were willing to fight. This was their only act of +insubordination under their favorite leader, who usually had complete +control over them. He made himself one with his men, would divide his last +cent with them, and was called by them uncle and father. His +staff-officers were all llaneros and formed his regular society, they +being alike destitute of education and ignorant of tactics, but bold and +dashing and ready to follow their leader to the cannon's mouth. + +The British Legion, about six hundred strong, was in the last year of the +war attached to the llaneros corps, its members being highly esteemed by +Paez, who called them "my friends, the English." The soldiers of the +legion, however, were bitterly opposed to their commander, Colonel +Bossuet, whom they held responsible for the miserable state of their +rations and clothes and their want of pay. At the end of one day, which +was so scorchingly hot that the soldiers were excused from their usual +five o'clock parade, the legion rushed from their quarters at this hour +and placed themselves in order of battle, crying that they would rather +have a creole to lead them than their colonel. + +Their officers attempted to pacify them, but in vain, and the +lieutenant-colonel, against whom they had taken offence, was attacked and +mortally wounded with bayonet thrusts. When Colonel Bossuet appeared and +sought to speak to them they rushed upon him with their bayonets, and it +needed the active efforts of the other officers to save him from their +revengeful hands. Tidings of the mutiny were brought to General Paez in +his quarters and threw him into a paroxysm of rage. Seizing his sword, he +rushed upon the mutineers, killed three of them instantly, and would have +continued this bloody work but that his sword broke on the body of a +fourth. Flinging down the useless weapon, he seized some of the most +rebellious, dragged them from the ranks by main strength, and ordered them +to be taken to prison. The others, dismayed by his spirited conduct, +hastily dispersed and sought their quarters. The next day three of the +most seditious of the soldiers, and a young lieutenant who was accused of +aiding in the mutiny,--though probably innocent of it,--were arrested and +shot without trial. + +Paroxysms of fury were not uncommon with Paez. After the battle of Ortiz, +in which his daring charges alone saved the infantry from destruction, he +was seized with a fit, and lay on the ground, foaming at the mouth. +Colonel English went to his aid, but his men warned him to let their +general alone, saying, "He is often so, and will soon be all right. None +of us dare touch him when he is in one of these spells." + +But Colonel English persisted, sprinkling his face with water and forcing +some down his throat. The general soon recovered and thanked him for his +aid, saying that he was a little overcome with fatigue, as he had killed +thirty-nine of the enemy with his own hand. As he was running the fortieth +through the body he felt his illness coming on. By way of reward he +presented Colonel English with the lance which had done this bloody work +and gave him three fine horses from his own stud. + +These anecdotes of the dashing leader of the llaneros, who, like all +Indians, viewed the Spaniards with an abiding hatred, are likely to be of +more interest than the details of his services in the years of +campaigning. In the field, it may be said, he was an invaluable aid to +General Bolivar. In the campaigns against Morillo, the Spanish +commander-in-chief, his daring activity and success were striking, and to +him was largely due the winning the last great battle of the war, that of +Carabobo. + +In this battle, fought on the 26th of June, 1821, Bolivar had about +sixteen hundred infantry, a thousand or more of them being British, and +three thousand of llanero cavalry under Paez. The Spaniards, under La +Torre, had fewer men, but occupied a very strong defensive position. This +was a plain, interspersed with rocky and wooded hills, and giving abundant +space for military movements, while if driven back they could retire to +one strong point after another, holding the enemy at disadvantage +throughout. In front there was only one defile, and their wings were well +protected, the left resting upon a deep morass. A squadron of cavalry +protected their right wing, and on a hill opposite the defile--through +which ran the road to Valencia--was posted a small battery. + +This position seemed to give the royalists a decisive superiority over +their patriot antagonists, and for twenty days they waited an attack, in +full confidence of success. Bolivar hesitated to risk an attack, fearing +that the destiny of his country might rest upon the result. He proposed an +armistice, but this was unanimously rejected by his council of war. Then +it was suggested to seek to turn the position of the enemy, but this was +also rejected, and it was finally decided to take every risk and assail +the enemy in his stronghold, trusting to courage and the fortune of war +for success. + +While the subject was being discussed by Bolivar and his staff, one of the +guides of the army, who was thoroughly familiar with the country they +occupied, stood near and overheard the conversation. At its end he drew +near Bolivar, and in a whisper told him that he knew a difficult foot-path +by which the right wing of the Spaniards might be turned. + +This news was highly welcome, and, after a consultation with his +informant, Bolivar secretly detached three battalions of his best troops, +including the British legion and a strong column of cavalry under General +Paez, directing them to follow the guide and preserve as much silence and +secrecy as possible. + +The path proved to be narrow and very difficult. They were obliged to +traverse it in single file, and it was paved with sharp stones that cut +their shoes to pieces and deeply wounded their feet. Many of them tore +their shirts and made bandages for their feet to enable them to go on. +Fortunately for the success of the movement, it was masked by the forest, +and the expedition was able to concentrate in a position on the flank of +the enemy without discovery. + +When at length the Spaniards found this unwelcome force on their flank +they hastily despatched against it the royal battalion of Bengos, driving +back the nearest troops and unmasking the British legion. This they fired +upon and then charged with the bayonet. The British returned the fire and +charged in their turn, and with such dash and vigor that the Spaniards +soon gave way. In their retreat Paez marched upon them with a squadron +called the Sacred Legion, and few of them got back to their ranks. In +return a squadron of the Spaniards charged the British, but with less +success, being dispersed by a hot musketry fire. + +"While the Spanish right wing was being thus dealt with, a fierce attack +had been made upon the front. The unexpected flank and rear attack was so +disconcerting that La Torre lost all presence of mind, and on every side +his men were driven back and thrown into confusion. In front and on flank +they were hotly pressed. The opportunity of retreating to the succession +of defensive points in the rear was quite lost sight of in the panic that +invaded their ranks, and soon they were in precipitate retreat, their +cavalry dispersed without making a charge, their infantry in the utmost +disorder, their cannon and baggage-trains deserted and left to the enemy. + +In this state of affairs Paez showed his customary dash and activity. He +pursued the Spaniards at the head of the cavalry, cutting them down +vigorously, and few of them would have escaped but for the fatigued and +weak condition of his horses, which rendered them unable to break the +files of the Spanish infantry. In one of their unsuccessful charges +General Sedeno, Colonel Plaza, and a black man called, from his courage, +El Primero (the first), finding that they could not break the infantry +lines, rushed madly into the midst of the bayonets and were killed. + +The news of this defeat spread consternation among the Spaniards. +Thousands of the royalists in the cities hastened to leave the country, +fearing the vengeance of the patriots, the Spanish commanders lost all +spirit, and three months later the strong fortress of Carthagena +surrendered to the Colombians. Maracaibo was held till 1823, when it +surrendered, and in July, 1824, Porto Cabello capitulated and the long +contest was at an end. + +This final surrender was due in great measure to General Paez, who thus +sustained his military service to the end. Though not gaining the renown +of Bolivar, and doubtless incapable of heading an army and conducting a +campaign, as a cavalry leader he was indispensable, and to him and his +gallant llaneros was largely due the winning of liberty. + + + + + +THE HANNIBAL OF THE ANDES AND THE FREEDOM OF CHILI. + + +At the end of 1816 the cause of liberty in Chili was at its lowest ebb. +After four years of struggle the patriots had met with a crushing defeat +in 1814, and had been scattered to the four winds. Since then the viceroy +of Spain had ruled the land with an iron hand, many of the leading +citizens being banished to the desolate island of Juan Fernandez, the +imaginary scene of Robinson Crusoe's career, while many others were +severely punished and all the people were oppressed. + +In this depressed state of Chilian affairs a hero came across the +mountains to strike a new blow for liberty. Don Jose de San Martin had +fought valiantly for the independence of Buenos Ayres at the battle of San +Lorenzo. Now the Argentine patriots sent him to the aid of their +fellow-patriots in Chili and Peru. Such was the state of the conflict in +the latter part of 1816, when San Martin, collecting the scattered bands +of Chilian troops and adding them to men of his own command, got together +a formidable array five thousand strong. The "Liberating Army of the +Andes" these were called. + +An able organizer was San Martin, and he put his men through a thorough +course of discipline. Those he most depended on were the cavalry, a force +made up of the _Gauchos_, or cattlemen of the Pampas, whose life was +passed in the saddle, and who were genuine centaurs of the plains. + +San Martin had the Andes to cross with his army, and this was a task like +that which Hannibal and Bonaparte had accomplished in the Alps. He set out +himself at the head of his cavalry on the 17th of January, 1817, the +infantry and artillery advancing by a different route. The men of the army +carried their own food, consisting of dried meat and parched corn, and +depots of food were established at intervals along the route, the +difficulty of transporting provision-trains being thus avoided. The +field-pieces were slung between mules or dragged on sledges made of tough +hide, and were hoisted or lowered by derricks, when steep places were +reached. Some two thousand cattle were driven along to add to their food +supply. + +Thus equipped, San Martin's army set out on its difficult passage of the +snow-topped Andes. He had previously sent over guerilla bands whose active +movements thoroughly deceived the royalist generals as to his intended +place of crossing. Onward went the cavalry, spurred to extraordinary +exertion by the fact that provisions began to run short. The passes to be +traversed, thirteen thousand feet high and white with perpetual snow, +formed a frightful route for the horsemen of the plains, yet they pushed +on over the rugged mountains, with their yawning precipices, so rapidly as +to cover three hundred miles in thirteen days. The infantry advanced with +equal fortitude and energy, and early in February the combined forces +descended the mountains and struck the royalist army at the foot with such +energy that it was soon fleeing in a total rout. So utterly defeated and +demoralized were the royalists that Santiago, the capital, was abandoned +and was entered by San Martin at the head of his wild gauchos and host of +refugees on the 15th of February. His funds at this time consisted of the +two doubloons remaining in his pocket, while he had no military chest, no +surgeons nor medicines for his wounded, and a very small supply of the +indispensable requisites of an army. About all he had to depend on was the +patriotism of his men and their enthusiasm over their brilliant crossing +of the Andes and their easy victory over their foes. + +For the time being Chili was free. The royalists had vanished and the +patriots were in full possession. Thirty or more years before, a bold +Irishman, bearing the name of O'Higgins, had come to Chili, where he +quickly rose in position until he was given the title of Don Ambrosio, and +attained successively the ranks of field-marshal of the royal army, baron, +marquis, and finally viceroy of Peru. His son, Don Bernardo, was a man of +his own type, able in peace and brilliant in war, and he was now made +supreme dictator of Chili, an office which San Martin had refused. The +banished patriots were brought home from their desert island, the +royalists severely punished, and a new army was organized to dislodge the +fragment of the Spanish army which still held out in the south. + +On the 15th of February, 1818, the anniversary of the decisive victory of +the "Liberating Army of the Andes," O'Higgins declared the absolute +independence of Chili. A vote of the people was taken in a peculiar +manner. Two blank books were opened for signatures in every city, the +first for independence, the second for those who preferred the rule of +Spain. For fifteen days these remained, and then it was found that the +first books were filled with names, while the second had not a single +name. This vote O'Higgins declared settled the question of Chilian +freedom. + +The Spaniards did not think so, for Abascal, the energetic viceroy of +Peru, was taking vigorous steps to win Chili back for the crown. Three +months before he had received a reinforcement of three thousand five +hundred veterans from Spain, and these he sent to southern Chili to join +the forces still in arms. United, they formed an army of about six +thousand, under General Osorio, the able commander who had subdued Chili +in 1814. It was evident that the newly declared independence of Chili was +to be severely tried. + +In fact, on the first meeting of the armies it seemed overthrown. On the +19th of March San Martin's army, while in camp near Talca, was +unexpectedly and violently attacked by the royalist troops, the onslaught +being so sudden and furious, and the storm of cannon and musket shot so +rapid and heavy, that the patriot troops were stricken with panic, their +divisions firing at each other as well as at the enemy. Within fifteen +minutes the whole army was in full flight. The leaders bravely sought to +stop the demoralized troops, but in vain, O'Higgins, though severely +wounded, throwing himself before them without effect. Nothing could check +them, and the defeat became in large measure a total rout. + +When news of this disaster reached Santiago utter consternation prevailed. +Patriots hastily gathered their valuables for flight; carriages of those +seeking to leave the country thronged the streets; women wrung their hands +in wild despair; the funds of the treasury were got ready to load on +mules; the whole city was in a state of terrible anxiety. + +Several days passed before it was known what had become of San Martin. +Then news arrived that he was at San Fernando at the head of the right +wing, three thousand strong. These had escaped the panic on account of two +divisions of Osorio's army mistaking each other for the enemy and firing +into their own ranks. In the confusion that ensued the right wing was led +unbroken from the field. Also a dashing young cavalry officer named +Rodriguez had done good work in checking the flight of the fugitives, and +in a brief time had organized a regiment which he named the "Hussars of +Death." + +Six days after the defeat General O'Higgins made his appearance in +Santiago. He was badly wounded, but was at once named dictator of the +republic. The next day San Martin, with a few of his officers, entered the +city. Wearied and dusty with travel as he was, his cheery cry of "_La +patria triunfa_" gave new heart to the people. For several days fragments +of the routed army came pouring in, and ten days after the battle Colonel +Las Heras arrived with the three thousand of the right wing. The patriot +cause seemed far less hopeless than had been the case a week before. + +Yet it was evident that liberty could come only from strenuous exertion, +and the people of wealth freely subscribed of their money, plate, and +jewels for the cause. It was not long before a new army five thousand five +hundred strong, freshly clothed and in fair fighting condition, was +gathered in a camp near the city. The artillery lost in the flight could +not be replaced, but a few field-pieces were secured. San Martin and +O'Higgins, with other able officers, were in command, and hope once more +began to dawn upon despair. + +The enemy was known to be approaching, and the army was moved to a point +about nine miles from the capital, occupying a location known as the farm +of Espejo, where the coming enemy was awaited. On the afternoon of April +3, Osorio crossed the Maypo, the patriot cavalry harassing his flank and +rear as he advanced. On the 5th his army took up a position on the brow of +a hill opposite that occupied by the patriot forces. + +Passing out from Santiago there is a succession of white hills, known as +the Lorna Blanca, on one crest of which, commanding the roads to the fords +of the Maypo and to Santiago, the patriot army was encamped. The royalists +occupied the crest and slope of an opposite ridge. Below them ran the +Maypo with its forests and hills. + +As the sun rose on the morning of the 5th San Martin saw with satisfaction +the royalist force beginning to occupy the high ground in his front. With +hopeful tone, he said, "I take the sun to witness that the day is ours." +As he spoke, the golden rays spread like a banner of light from crest to +crest. At ten o'clock when the movement of the armies began, he said, with +assurance, "A half-hour will decide the fate of Chili." + +A few words will serve to describe the positions of the armies. Each was +more than five thousand strong, the patriot army somewhat the smaller. It +had been greatly reduced by its recent defeat, the memory of which also +hung about it like a cloud, while the royalists were filled with +enthusiasm from their late victory. The royalist lines were about a mile +in length, four squadrons of dragoons flanking their right wing and a body +of lancers their left, while a battery occupied a hill on the extreme +left. Confronting them were the patriots, the left commanded by General +Alverado, the centre by Balcarce, the right by Las Heras, while Quintana +headed the reserves. + +The battle opened with a brisk fire from the patriot artillery, and in +about an hour the infantry forces joined in full action. As the royalists +moved down the hill they were swept with the fire of the patriot battery, +while shortly afterwards the royal battery on the left was captured by a +dashing cavalry charge and the guns were turned against their own line. + +The centre of the battle was a farm-house on the Espejo estate, which was +charged furiously by both sides, being taken and retaken several times +during the day. Yet as the day went on the advantage seemed to be on the +side of Osorio, who held the field with the centre and one wing of his +army. Defeat seemed the approaching fate of the patriots. It came nearer +when the regiment of negroes which had for some time withstood the Burgos +regiment--the flower of Osorio's force--gave way and retreated, leaving four +hundred of its number stretched upon the field. + +The critical moment of the battle was now at hand. The Burgos regiment +attempted to follow up its success by forming itself into a square for a +decisive charge. In doing so the Spanish lines were broken and thrown into +temporary disorder. Colonel O'Brien, a gallant cavalry officer of Irish +blood, took quick advantage of this. Joining his troops with Quintana's +reserves, he broke in a fierce charge upon the Burgos regiment while in +the act of reforming and drove it back in complete confusion. + +This defeat of the choice corps of Osorio's army changed the whole aspect +of affairs. The patriots, inspired with hope, boldly advanced and pressed +their foes at all points. The Burgos troops sought refuge in the +farm-house, and were followed by the left, which was similarly broken and +dispersed. The centre kept up the action for a time, but with both wings +in retreat it also was soon forced back, and the whole royalist army was +demoralized. + +The patriots did not fail to press their advantage to the utmost. On all +sides the royalists were cut down or captured, until nearly half their +force were killed and wounded and most of the remainder taken prisoners. A +stand was made by those at the farm house, but they were soon driven out, +and about five hundred of them killed and wounded in the court and +vineyard adjoining. Of the total army less than three hundred escaped, +General Osorio and some other officers among them. These fled to +Concepcion, and embarked from there to Peru. Of the patriots more than a +thousand had fallen in the hot engagement. + +This brilliant and decisive victory, known as the battle of the Maypo, +gave San Martin immense renown, and justly so, for it established the +independence of Chili. Nor was that all, for it broke the power which +Abascal had long sustained in Peru, and opened the way for the freeing of +that land from the rule of Spain. + +This feat also was the work of San Martin, who soon after invaded Peru, +and, aided by a Chilian fleet, conquered that land from Spain, proclaiming +its independence to the people of Cuzco on the 28th of July, 1821. Later +on, indeed, its freedom was seriously threatened, and it was not until +1824 that General Bolivar finally won independence for Peru, in the +victory of Ayacucho. Yet, famous as Bolivar became as the Liberator of +South America, some generous portion of fame should rightly be accorded to +San Martin, the Liberator of Chili. + + + + + +COLONY, EMPIRE, AND REPUBLIC; REVOLUTION IN BRAZIL. + + +While the Spanish colonies of South America were battling for their +liberties, the great Portuguese colony of Brazil was going through a very +different experience. Bolivar and his compatriots were seeking to drive +Spain out of America. On the contrary, we have the curious spectacle of +Brazil swallowing Portugal, or at least its king and its throne, so that, +for a time, the colony became the state, and the state became the +dependency. It was a marked instance of the tail wagging the dog. Brazil +became the one empire in America, and was destined not to become a +republic until many years later. Such are the themes with which we here +propose to deal. + +To begin this tale we must go back to those stirring times in Europe when +Napoleon, the great conqueror, was in the height of his career, and was +disposing of countries at his will, much as a chess-player moves the king, +queen, and knights upon his board. In 1807 one of his armies, led by +Marshal Junot, was marching on Lisbon, with the purpose of punishing +Portugal for the crime of being a friend of the English realm. + +John, then the prince regent of Portugal, was a weak-minded, feeble +specimen of royalty, who did not keep of one mind two days together. Now +he clung to England; now, scared by Napoleon, he claimed to be a friend of +France; and thus he shifted back and forward until the French despot sent +an army to his kingdom to help him make up his mind. The people were ready +to fight for their country, but the prince still wobbled between two +opinions, until Junot had crossed the borders and was fast making his way +to Lisbon. + +Prince John was now in a pitiable state. He shed tears over the fate of +his country, but, as for himself, he wanted badly to save his precious +person. Across the seas lay the great Portuguese colony of Brazil, in +whose vast forest area he might find a safe refuge. The terrible French +were close at hand. He must be a captive or a fugitive. In all haste he +and his court had their treasures carried on a man-of-war in the Lisbon +harbor and prepared for flight. Most of the nobility of the country +followed him on shipboard, the total hegira embracing fifteen thousand +persons, who took with them valuables worth fifty millions of dollars. On +November 29, 1807, the fleet set sail, leaving the harbor just as the +advance guard of the French came near enough to gaze on its swelling +sails. It was a remarkable spectacle, one rarely seen in the history of +the world, that of a monarch fleeing from his country with his nobility +and treasures, to transfer his government to a distant colony of the +realm. + +Seven weeks later the fugitives landed in Brazil, where they were received +with an enthusiastic show of loyalty and devotion. John well repaid the +loyal colonists by lifting their country into the condition of a separate +nation. Its ports, hitherto reserved for Portuguese ships, were opened to +the world's commerce; its system of seclusion and monopoly was brought to +a sudden end; manufactures were set free from their fetters; a national +bank was established; Brazil was thrown open freely to foreigners; schools +and a medical college were opened, and every colonial restriction was +swept away at a blow. Brazil was raised from a dependency to a kingdom at +a word. John, while bearing the title of prince, was practically king, for +his mother, the queen of Portugal, was hopelessly insane, and he ruled in +her stead. + +He became actual king, as John VI., on the death of his mother in 1816, +and as such he soon found trouble growing up around him. The Brazilians +had been given so much that they wanted more. The opening of their country +to commerce and travel had let in new ideas, and the people began to +discover that they were the slaves of an absolute government. This feeling +of unrest passed out of sight for a time, and first broke out in rebellion +at Pernambuco in 1817. This was put down, but a wider revolt came on in +1820, and spread early in the next year to Rio de Janeiro, the capital, +whose people demanded of their ruler a liberal constitution. + +A great crowd assembled in the streets, the frightened monarch taking +refuge in his palace in the suburbs, where he lay trembling with fear. +Fortunately, his son, Prince Pedro, was a man of more resolute character, +and he quieted the people by swearing that his father and himself would +accept the constitution they offered. Full of joy, the throng marched with +enthusiasm to the palace of the king, who on seeing them approach was not +sure whether he was to be garroted or guillotined. Forced to get into his +carriage, he quite mistook their meaning, and fell into a paroxysm of +terror when the people took out the horses that they might draw him to the +city with their own hands. He actually fainted from fright, and when his +senses came back, he sat sobbing and snivelling, protesting that he would +agree to anything,--anything his dear people wanted. + +King John by this time had had quite enough of Brazil and the Brazilians. +As soon as he could decide on anything, he determined to take his throne +and his crown back to Portugal, whence he had brought them fourteen years +before, leaving his son Pedro--young, ardent, and popular--to take care of +Brazil in his stead. + +But the people were not satisfied to let him go until he had given his +royal warrant to the new constitution, and just before he was ready to +depart a crowd gathered round the palace, demanding that he should give +his assent to the charter of the people's rights. He had never read it, +and likely knew very little what it was about, but he signed what they +asked for, all the same, and then made haste on shipboard, leaving Prince +Pedro as regent, and as glad to get away from his _loyal_ Brazilians as he +had once before been to get away from Junot and his Frenchmen. + +Brazil again became a colony of Portugal, but it was not long to remain +so. The Cortes of Portugal grew anxious to milk the colonial cow, and +passed laws to bring Brazil again under despotic control. One of these +required the young prince to leave Brazil. They were laying plans to throw +the great colony back into its former state. + +When news of these acts reached Rio the city broke into a tumult. Pedro +was begged not to abandon his loving people, and he agreed--thus defying +the Cortes and its orders. This was on January 9, 1822. The Cortes next, +to carry out its work for the subjugation of Brazil, sent a squadron to +bring back the prince. This forced him to take a decided stand. On May 13 +he took the title of "Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil;" and on +the 7th of September, when word came that the Cortes had taken still more +violent action, he drew his sword in the presence of a party of +revolutionists, with the exclamation, "Independence or Death." On the 12th +of the following month he was solemnly crowned as Pedro I., +"Constitutional Emperor of Brazil," and the revolution was consummated. +Within less than a year thereafter not a hostile Portuguese soldier +remained in Brazil, and it had taken its place definitely among the +nations of America. + +This is but half the story of Brazil's struggle for freedom. It seems +advisable to tell the other half, which took place in 1889, sixty-seven +years after the first revolution. The first made Brazil an independent +empire. The second made it a republic, and brought it into line with the +republican nations of America. And in connection therewith a peculiar fate +attended the establishment of monarchy in Brazil. We have seen how John, +the first emperor, "left his country for the country's good." The same was +the case with his two successors, Pedro I. and Pedro II. + +Pedro I. took the throne with loud-mouthed declarations of his aspirations +for liberty. He was going to be a second Washington. But it was all empty +talk, the outpourings of a weak brain, a mere dramatic posing, to which he +was given. His ardor for liberty soon cooled, and it was not long before +he was treating the people like a despot. The constitution promised was +not given until it was fairly forced from him, and then it proved to be a +worthless document, made only to be disregarded. A congress was called +into being, but the emperor wished to confine its functions to the +increase of the taxes, and matters went on from bad to worse until by 1831 +the indignation of the people grew intense. The troops were in sympathy +with the multitude, and the emperor, finding that he stood alone against +the country, finally abdicated the throne in haste in favor of his infant +son. He took refuge on a British warship in the harbor, and left the +country never to return. The remainder of his short life was spent as king +of Portugal. + +Dom Pedro II. was a very different man from his father. Studious, liberal, +high-minded, he did not, like his father, stand in the way of the congress +and its powers. But for all his liberality, Brazil was not satisfied. All +around it were republics, and the spirit of republicanism invaded the +empire and grew apace. From the people it made its way into the army, and +in time it began to look as if no other emperor would be permitted to +succeed Dom Pedro on the throne. By this time he was growing old and +feeble and there was a general feeling that he ought to be left to end his +reign undisturbed, and the republic be founded on his grave. Unfortunately +for him, many began to believe that a plot was in the air to make him give +up the throne to his daughter, Isabel. She was unpopular, and her husband, +the Count d'Eu, was hated, and when the ministry began to send the +military away from the capital, as if to carry out such a plot, an +outbreak came. + +Its leaders were Benjamin Constant, formerly a professor in the military +school, and Marshal Deodoro de Fonsaca, one of the leading officers of the +army. There was one brigade they could count on,--the second,--and all the +forces in Rio were republican in sentiment. + +On the 14th of November, 1889, a rumor spread about that Constant and +Deodoro were to be arrested and the disaffected soldiers to be sent away. +It was time to strike. Early the next morning Constant rode out to the +quarters of the Second Brigade, called it out, and led it to the great +square in front of the War Department building. Deodoro took command and +sent an officer into the building to demand the surrender of the ministry. +They yielded, and telegraphed their resignation to the emperor, who was at +Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains. + +The revolution was phenomenally successful. When the other troops in the +city heard of the revolt, they marched, cheering, through the streets to +join the Second Brigade, while the people, who did not dream of what was +afoot, looked on in astonishment. No one thought of resisting, and when +Dom Pedro reached the city at three o'clock in the afternoon, it was to +find that he was no longer emperor. A provisional government had been +organized, the chiefs of the revolution had named themselves ministers, +and they had taken possession of the public buildings. A decree was issued +that Brazil had ceased to be an empire and had become a federal republic. + +So great a change has rarely been accomplished so easily. A few friends +visited the emperor, but there was no one to strike a blow for him. And +the feeble old man cared too little for power to wish to be kept on the +throne by the shedding of blood. That night word was sent him that he had +been deposed and would be compelled to leave the country with his family. +During the next night the royal victims of the revolution were sent on +shipboard and their voyage to Lisbon began. Thus was the third emperor +sent out of Brazil through a bloodless revolution. + +Yet the reaction was to come. A federal republic was organized, with a +constitution closely like that of the United States. But the men at the +head of government had the army at their back and were rather military +dictators than presidents, and it was not long before rebellions broke out +in some of the states. For three years there was war between the two +factions of the people, with frightful destruction of life and property. +Then, in September, 1893, the navy rebelled. + +The navy had always been officered by aristocrats, and looked with +contempt upon the army. At its head was Admiral Mello; his ships lay in +the harbor of Rio, and their guns commanded the city. It soon became +evident that it was the purpose of Mello and his fellows to re-establish +the empire and bring back Dom Pedro to the throne. + +But the rebel admiral found himself in a difficult situation. He hesitated +about bombarding the city, which was full of his friends. Peixoto, the +president, filled the forts with soldiers, and the naval officers had much +trouble to obtain supplies. Mello, finding himself in a dilemma, left the +harbor with one of his ironclads and went to Santa Catharina. Saraiva, an +able chief of his party, invaded this and the neighboring districts, but +he was hotly pursued and his forces defeated, and Mello returned to Rio +without having gained any advantage. Here he found his position a very +awkward one. The rebels were all afloat. They had nothing to gain by +bombarding the city. The best they could do was to try and establish a +commercial blockade, so as to force the government to terms, and in doing +this Mello found himself running up against the power of the United +States. + + [Illustration: RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR.] + + RIO JANEIRO AND HARBOR. + + +We have given these incidents not so much for the interest they may have +in themselves, but because they lead up to a dramatic finale which seems +worth relating. There were warships of several nations in the harbor, the +officers of most of which accorded the rights of belligerents to the rebel +navy, though it had not a foot of land under its control. Saldana da Gama, +then in command of the ships, refused permission to any merchant vessel to +go to the wharves to deliver its cargo, threatening to fire on any one +that should venture. Thus the fleet of merchantmen was forced to lie out +in the bay and await the end of the war, in spite of the fact that yellow +fever was making havoc among the crews. + +The captains of the American merchant ships applied for protection to the +senior American officer present, but he refused to interfere, and the +commercial blockade went on. Such was the state of affairs when the United +States Admiral Andrew E. Benham appeared in the harbor and took in the +situation. He was a man to accept responsibilities. + +"Go in," he said to the American captains. "Trust to me to protect you +from attack or to revenge you if injured." + +This promise put new spirit into the captains. Captain Blackford, of the +barque "Amy," and two other captains, gave notice on Sunday, January 29, +1894, that they would take their ships in to the wharves the next morning. +When Da Gama heard of this he announced that he would fire on any vessel +that dared attempt it. + +When Monday morning dawned there was a state of excitement in Rio Janeiro +harbor. Da Gama might keep his word, and what would the American admiral +do in that event? The commanders of the other war-vessels looked on with +interest and anxiety. They soon saw that Benham meant business. The dawn +of day showed active movements in the small American squadron. The ships +were clearing for action, and the cruiser "Detroit" took a position from +which she could command two of Da Gama's vessels, the "Guanabara" and the +"Trajano." + +When the "Detroit" was in position, the "Amy" began to warp in towards the +pier. A musket-shot came in warning from the deck of the "Guanabara." +Instantly from the "Detroit" a ball hurtled past the bow of the Brazilian +ship. A second followed that struck her side. Seeing that two Brazilian +tugs were moving inward as if with intent to ram his vessel, Captain +Brownson of the "Detroit" took his ship in between the two Brazilian +war-vessels, in a position to rake them and their supporting tugs. + +This decisive act ended the affair. Da Gama's guns remained silent, and +the "Amy," followed by the other two vessels, made her way unharmed to the +wharves. Others followed, and before night all the British and other +merchantmen in the harbor were hastening in to discharge their cargoes. +Benham had brought to a quick end the "intolerable situation" in Rio +Janeiro harbor. + +This ended the last hope of the naval revolutionists to bring Peixoto to +terms. Some of the ironclads escaped from the harbor and fled to Santa +Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans. A few months +sufficed to bring the revolt to an end, and republicanism was at length +firmly established in Brazil. + + + + + +FRANCIA THE DICTATOR, THE LOUIS XI. OF PARAGUAY. + + +Among the varied countries of South America the little republic of +Paraguay, clipped closely in between Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil, +presents the most singular history, this being due to the remarkable +career of the dictator Francia, who ruled over it for a quarter of a +century, and to the warlike energy of his successor Lopez. The tyranny of +Francia was one of the strangest which history records, no man ever ruling +with more absolute authority and more capricious cruelty. For many years +Paraguay was completely cut off by him from the rest of the world, much as +Japan was until opened to civilization by Commodore Perry. Unlucky was the +stranger who then dared set foot on Paraguayan soil. Many years might pass +before he could see the outer world again. Such was the fate of Bonpland, +the celebrated botanist and companion of Humboldt, who rashly entered this +forbidden land and was forced to spend ten years within its locked +confines. Such is the country, and such was the singular policy of its +dictator, whose strange story we have here to tell. + +In May, 1811, Paraguay joined the other countries of South America in the +general revolt against Spain. There was here no invasion and no +blood-shed; the armies of Spain were kept too busy elsewhere, and the +revolution was accomplished in peace. A governing committee was formed, +with Fulgincio Yegros for its chairman and Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de +Francia for its secretary. The first was a man of little ability; the +latter was a man whose powers will soon be seen. + +The committee decreed the independence of Paraguay. Two years later a new +convention was held, which dissolved the committee and elected two +consuls, Yegros and Francia, to govern the country. Two chairs were made +for them, resembling the curule chairs of Rome, and called Caesar's and +Pompey's chairs. On entering office Francia coolly seated himself in +Caesar's chair, leaving that of Pompey for his associate. This action +showed the difference in force of character between the two men. + +In fact, Francia quickly took possession of all the powers of government. +He was a true Caesar. He appointed a secretary of state, undertook to +reorganize the army and the finances, and deprived the Spaniards in the +country of all civil rights. This was done to gain the support of the +Indian population, who hated the Spaniards bitterly. He soon went farther. +Yegros was in his way and he got rid of him, making the simple-minded and +ignorant members of the congress believe that only a sovereign magistrate +could save the country, which was then threatened by its neighbors. In +consequence, on the 8th of October, 1814, Francia was made dictator for +three years. This was not enough to satisfy the ambitious ruler, and he +played his cards so shrewdly that, on the 1st of May, 1816, a new congress +proclaimed him supreme and perpetual dictator. + +It was no common man who could thus induce the congress of a republic to +raise him to absolute power over its members and the people. Francia at +that time was fifty-nine years of age, a lean and vigorous man, of medium +stature, with piercing black eyes, but a countenance not otherwise marked. +The son of a Frenchman who had been a tobacco manufacturer in Paraguay, he +was at first intended for the church, but subsequently studied the law. In +this profession he had showed himself clever, eloquent, and honorable, and +always ready to defend the poor and weak against the rich. It was the +reputation thus gained which first made him prominent in political +affairs. + +Once raised to absolute power for life, Francia quickly began to show his +innate qualities. Love of money was not one of his faults, and while +strictly economical with the public funds, he was free-handed and generous +with his own. Thus, of the nine thousand pesos of annual salary assigned +him, he would accept only three thousand, and made it a strict rule to +receive no present, either returning or paying for any sent him. At first +he went regularly every day to mass, but he soon gave up this show of +religious faith and dismissed his private chaplain. In fact, he grew to +despise religious forms, and took pleasure in ridiculing the priests, +saying that they talked about things and represented mysteries of which +they knew nothing. "The priests and religion," he said, "serve more to +make men believe in the devil than in God." + +Of the leading principle of Francia's political system we have already +spoken. It had been the policy of the old Jesuit missions to isolate the +people and keep them in strict obedience to the priesthood, and Francia +adopted a similar policy. Anarchy prevailed without, he said, and might +penetrate into Paraguay. Brazil, he declared, was seeking to absorb the +country. With these excuses he forbade, under the severest penalties, +intercourse of any character between the people of Paraguay and those of +neighboring countries and the entry of any foreigner to the country under +his rule. + +In 1826 he decreed that any one who, calling himself an envoy from Spain, +should dare to enter Paraguay without authority from himself should be put +to death and his body denied a burial. The same severe penalty was decreed +against any native who received a letter speaking of political affairs and +did not at once present it to the public tribunals. These rigid orders +were probably caused by some mysterious movements of that period, which +made him fear that Spain was laying plans to get possession of the +country. + +In the same year the dictator made a new move in the game of politics. He +called into being a kind of national assembly, professed to submit to its +authority, and ratified a declaration of independence. Just why this was +done is not very clear. Certain negotiations were going on with the +Spanish government, and these may have had something to do with it. At any +rate, a timely military conspiracy was just then discovered or +manufactured, a colonel was condemned to death, and Francia was pressed by +the assembly to resume his power. He consented with a show of reluctance, +and only, as he said, till the Marquis de Guarini, his envoy to Spain, +should return, when he would yield up his rule to the marquis. All this, +however, was probably a mere dramatic move, and Francia had no idea of +yielding his power to any one. + +The dictator had a policy of his own--in fact, a double policy, one devoted +to dealing with the land and its people; one to dealing with his enemies +or those who questioned his authority. The one was as arbitrary, the other +as cruel, as that of the tyrants of Rome. + +The crops of Paraguay, whose wonderful soil yields two harvests annually, +were seized by the dictator and stored on account of the government. The +latter claimed ownership of two-thirds of the land, and a communal system +was adopted under which Francia disposed at will of the country and its +people. He fixed a system for the cultivation of the fields, and when +hands were needed for the harvest he enlisted them forcibly. Yet +agriculture made little progress under the primitive methods employed, a +broad board serving for a plough, while the wheat was ground in mortars, +and a piece of wood moved by oxen formed the sugar-mill. The cotton, as +soon as picked from the pods, was spun on the spinning-wheel, and then +woven by a travelling weaver, whose rude apparatus was carried on the back +of an ox or a mule, and, when in use, was hung from the branch of a tree. + +Commerce was dealt with in the same way as agriculture. The market was +under Francia's control, and all exchange of goods was managed under rules +laid down by him. He found that he must open the country in a measure to +foreign goods, if he wanted to develop the resources of the country, and a +channel of commerce was opened on the frontier of Brazil. But soldiers +vigilantly watched all transactions, and no one could act as a merchant +without a license from him. He fixed a tariff on imports, kept them in a +bazaar under military guard, and sold them to the people, limiting the +amount of goods which any of his subjects could purchase. + +As a result of all this Francia brought about a complete cessation of all +private action, the state being all, and he being the state. All dealing +for profit was paralyzed, and agriculture and commerce alike made no +progress. On the other hand, everything relating to war was developed. It +was his purpose to cut off Paraguay completely from foreign countries, and +to be fully prepared to defend it against warlike invasion. + + [Illustration: INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING.] + + INDIAN SPINNING AND WEAVING. + + +Of his books, the one he most frequently consulted was a French dictionary +of the arts and industries. From this he gained the idea of founding +public workshops, in which the workmen were stimulated to activity alike +by threats and money. At one time he condemned a blacksmith to hard labor +for awkwardness. At another, when he had erected a gallows, he proposed to +try it on a shoemaker if he did not do his work properly, while promising +to richly reward him if he did. + +Military roads were laid out, the capital and other cities were fortified, +and a new city was built in the north as a military post to keep the +savage Indians under control. As for the semi-civilized Mission Indians, +they were gradually brought under the yoke, made to work on the land, and +enrolled in the army like other citizens. In this way a body of twenty +thousand militia and five thousand regular troops was formed, all being +well drilled and the army supplied with an excellent cavalry force. The +body-guard of the dictator was made up of picked troops on whose fidelity +he could rely. + +Francia dwelt in the palace of the old Spanish governors, tearing down +adjoining houses to isolate it. Constantly fearful of death and danger, he +did not trust fully to his vigilant body-guard, but nightly slept in a +different room, so that his sleeping apartment should not be known. In +this he resembled the famous Louis XI., whom he also imitated in his +austerity and simplicity of manners, and the fact that his principal +confidant was his barber,--a mulatto inclined to drink. His other associate +was Patinos, his secretary, who made the public suffer for any +ill-treatment from his master. The remainder of the despot's household +consisted of four slaves, two men and two women. In dress he strove to +imitate Napoleon, whom he greatly admired, and when drilling his troops +was armed with a large sword and pistols. + +There remains to tell the story of the cruelties of this Paraguayan Nero. +With his suspicious nature and his absolute power, his subjects had no +more security for their lives than those of old Rome. Plots against his +person--which he identified with the state--served him as a pretext for +seizing and shooting or imprisoning any one of whom he was suspicious. One +of his first victims was Yegros, his former associate in the consulate. +Accused of favoring an invasion of Paraguay, he and forty others were +condemned to death in 1819. + +More than three hundred others were imprisoned on the same charge, and +were held captive for eighteen months, during which they were subjected by +the tyrant to daily tortures. The ferocious dictator took special pleasure +in the torment of these unfortunates, devising tortures of his own and +making a diversion out of his revenge. From his actions it has been +supposed that there were the seeds of madness in his mind, and it is +certain that it was in his frequent fits of hypochondria that he issued +his decrees of proscription and carried out his excesses of cruelty. + +When in this condition, sad was it for the heedless wretch who omitted to +address him as "Your Excellence the Supreme, Most Excellent Lord and +Perpetual Dictator!" Equally sad was it for the man who, wishing to speak +with him, dared to approach too closely and did not keep his hands well in +view, to show that he had no concealed weapons. Treason, daggers, and +assassins seemed the perpetual tenants of Francia's thoughts. One +country-woman was seized for coming too near his office window to present +a petition; and he went so far, on one occasion, as to order his guard to +fire on any one who dared to look at his palace. Whenever he went abroad a +numerous escort attended him, and the moment he put his foot outside the +palace the bell of the Cathedral began to toll, as a warning to all the +inhabitants to go into their houses. Any one found abroad bowed his head +nearly to the ground, not daring to lift his eyes to the dictator's +dreaded face. + +It is certainly extraordinary that in the nineteenth century, and in a +little state of South America, there should have arisen a tyrant equal in +cruelty, in his restricted sphere, to the Nero and Caligula of old or the +Louis XI. of mediaeval times. Death came to him in 1840, after twenty-six +years of this absolute rule and in his eighty-third year. It came after a +few days of illness, during which he attended to business, refused +assistance, and forbade any one not called by him to enter his room. Only +the quick coming of death prevented him from ending his life with a crime; +for in a fit of anger at the _curandero_, a sort of quack doctor who +attended him, he sprang from his bed, snatched up his sword, and rushed +furiously upon the trembling wretch. Before he could reach his intended +victim he fell down in a fit of apoplexy. No one dared to disregard his +orders and come to his aid, and death soon followed. His funeral was +splendid, and a grand mausoleum was erected to him, but this was thrown +down by the hands of some enemies unknown. + +Thus ended the career of this extraordinary personage, one of the most +remarkable characters of the nineteenth century. Carlos Antonio Lopez, his +nephew, succeeded him, and in 1844 was chosen as president of the republic +for ten years, during which he was as absolute as his uncle. He continued +in power till his death in 1862, but put an end to the isolation of +Paraguay, opening it to the world's commerce. + +He was succeeded by his son, Solano Lopez, whom we mention here simply +from the fact that the war which Francia had so diligently prepared for +came in his time. In 1864 the question of the true frontier of the state +brought on a war in which Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay +combined to crush the little country in their midst. We need only say here +that Lopez displayed remarkable powers as a soldier, appeared again and +again in arms after seemingly crushing defeats, and fought off his +powerful opponents for five years. Then, on the 1st of May, 1870, he was +slain in a battle in which his small army was completely destroyed. +Paraguay, after a valorous and gigantic struggle, was at the mercy of the +allies. It was restored to national life again, but under penalty of the +great indemnity, for so small a state, of two hundred and thirty-six +million pesos. + + + + + +TACON THE GOVERNOR AND MARTI THE SMUGGLER. + + +In 1834 Don Miguel Tacon, one of the most vigorous and tyrannical of the +governor-generals of Cuba, took control of the island, which he ruled with +a stern will and an iron hand. One of the purposes in which he was most +earnest was that of suppressing the active smuggling on the coast, all the +naval vessels under his command being ordered to patrol the coast night +and day, and to have no mercy on these lawless worthies. As it proved, all +his efforts were of no avail, the smugglers continuing to ply their trade +in spite of Tacon and his agents. + +The despoilers of the revenue were too daring and adroit, and too familiar +with the shoals and rocks of the coast waters, to be readily caught, and +the lack of pilots familiar with this difficult navigation prevented any +close approach to their haunts. In this dilemma Tacon tried the expedient +of offering a large and tempting reward to any one who would desert the +fraternity and agree to pilot the government vessels through the perilous +channels which they frequented. Double this reward, an almost princely +prize, was offered for the person of one Marti, dead or alive. + +Tacon had good reason to offer a special reward for the arrest of Marti, +who was looked upon as the leader and chief offender of the smugglers. A +daring and reckless man, notorious as a smuggler and half pirate, his name +was as well known in Cuba as that of the governor-general himself. The +admirers of his daring exploits grew to know him as the King of the Isle +of Pines, this island being his principal rendezvous, from which he sent +his fleet of small, swift vessels to ply their trade on the neighboring +coast. As for Tacon's rewards, they were long as ineffective as his +revenue cutters and gunboats, and the government officials fell at length +into a state of despair as to how they should deal with the nefarious and +defiant band. + +One dark, dull night, several months after the placards offering these +rewards had been posted in conspicuous places in Havana and elsewhere, two +sentinels were pacing as usual before the governor's palace, which stood +opposite the grand plaza of the capital city. Shortly before midnight a +cloaked individual stealthily approached and slipped behind the statue of +the Spanish king near the fountain in the plaza. From this lurking-place +he watched the movements of the sentinels, as they walked until they met +face to face, and then turned back to back for their brief walk in the +opposite direction. + +It was a delicate movement to slip between the soldiers during the short +interval when their eyes were turned from the entrance, but the stranger +at length adroitly effected it, darting lightly and silently across the +short space and hiding himself behind one of the pillars of the palace +before they turned again. During their next turn he entered the palace, +now safe from their espionage, and sought the broad flight of stairs which +led to the governor's rooms with the confidence of one thoroughly familiar +with the place. + + [Illustration: THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA.] + + THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S PALACE, HAVANA. + + +At the head of the stairs there was another guard to be passed, but this +the stranger did with a formal military salute and an air of authority as +if his right to enter was beyond question. His manner quieted all +suspicion in the mind of the sentinel, and the newcomer entered the +governor's room unchallenged, closing the door behind him. + +Before him sat the governor-general in a large easy-chair, quite alone and +busily engaged in writing. On seeing him thus unattended the +weather-beaten face of the stranger took on a look of satisfaction. +Evidently his secret plans had worked fully to his desire. Taking off his +cloak, he tossed it over his arm, making a noise that attracted the +governor's attention. Tacon looked up in surprise, fixing his eyes keenly +upon his unlooked-for visitor. + +"Who is this that enters, at this late hour, without warning or +announcement?" he sternly asked, looking in doubt at the unknown face. + +"One who brings information that the governor-general wants. You are he, I +believe?" + +"I am. What do you want? And how did you, a stranger, pass my guard +without challenge?" + +"That is not the question. Your Excellency, I understand, has offered a +handsome reward to any one who will put you on the track of the rovers of +the gulf?" + +"Ha! is that your errand?" exclaimed Tacon, with sudden interest. "What +know you of them?" + +"Excellency, I must speak with caution," said the stranger. "I have my own +safety to consider." + +"That you need not fear. My offer of reward also carries pardon to the +informant. If you are even a member of the confederation itself you will +be safe in speaking freely." + +"I understand you offer an additional reward, a rich one, for the +discovery of Captain Marti, the chief of the smugglers?" + +"I do. You may fully trust in my promise to reward and protect any one who +puts me on the track of that leader of the villains." + +"Your Excellency, I must have special assurance of this. Do you give me +your knightly word that you will grant me a free pardon for all offences +against the customs, if I tell all you wish to know, even to the most +secret hiding-places of the rovers?" + +"I pledge you my full word of honor for that," said the governor, now +deeply interested. + +"You will grant me full pardon, under the king's seal, no matter how great +my offences or crimes, if you call them so, may have been?" + +"If what you reveal is to the purpose," said Tacon, wondering why his +visitor was so unduly cautious. + +"Even if I were a leader among the rovers myself?" + +Tacon hesitated a moment, looking closely at the stalwart stranger, while +considering the purport of his words. + +"Yes," he said, at length. "If you will lead our ships to the haunts of +Marti and his followers, you can fully depend on the reward and the +pardon." + +"Excellency, I know you well enough to trust your word, or I should never +have put myself in your power." + +"You can trust my word," said Tacon, impatiently. "Now come to the point; +I have no time to waste." + +"Your Excellency, the man for whom you have offered the largest reward, +dead or alive, stands before you." + +"Ha! you are + +"Captain Marti." + +The governor started in surprise, and laid his hand hastily on a pistol +that lay before him. But he regained his self-possession in a moment, and +solemnly said,-- + +"I shall keep my promise, if you keep yours. You have offended deeply, but +my word is my law. But to insure your faithfulness, I must put you for the +present under guard." + +"As you will, your Excellency," said Marti. + +Tacon rang a bell by his side, an attendant entered, and soon after Marti +was safely locked up, orders being given to make him comfortable until he +was sent for. And so this strange interview ended. + +During the next day there was a commotion in the harbor of Havana. An +armed revenue cutter, which for weeks had lain idly under the guns of +Morro Castle, became the scene of sudden activity; food, ammunition, and +other stores being taken on board. Before noon the anchor was weighed and +she stood out into the open sea. On her deck was a man unknown to captain +or crew, otherwise than as the pilot of their cruise. Marti was keeping +his word. + +A skilled and faithful pilot he proved,--faithful to them, but faithless +and treacherous to his late comrades and followers,--for he guided the ship +with wonderful ease and assurance through all the shoals and perils of the +coast waters, taking her to the secret haunts of the rovers, and revealing +their depots of smuggled goods and secret hiding-places. Many a craft of +the smugglers was taken and destroyed and large quantities of their goods +were captured, as for a month the raiding voyage continued. The returns to +the government were of great value and the business of the smugglers was +effectually broken up. At its end Marti returned to the governor to claim +the reward for his base treachery. + +"You have kept your word faithfully," said Tacon. "It is now for me to +keep mine. In this document you will find a free and unconditional pardon +for all the offences you have committed against the laws. As for your +reward, here's an order on the treasury for--" + +"Will your Excellency excuse me for interrupting?" said Marti. "I am glad +to have the pardon. But as for the reward, I should like to make you a +proposition in place of the money you offer. What I ask is that you grant +me the sole right to fish in the waters near the city, and declare the +trade in fish contraband to any one except my agents. This will repay me +quite well enough for my service to the government, and I shall build at +my own expense a public market of stone, which shall be an ornament to the +city. At the expiration of a certain term of years this market, with all +right and title to the fisheries, shall revert to the government." + +Tacon was highly pleased with this proposition. He would save the large +sum which he had promised Marti, and the city would gain a fine +fish-market without expense. So, after weighing fully all the _pros_ and +_cons_, Tacon assented to the proposition, granting Marti in full legal +form the sole right to fish near the city and to sell fish in its markets. +Marti knew far better than Tacon the value to him of this concession. +During his life as a rover he had become familiar with the best +fishing-grounds, and for years furnished the city bountifully with fish, +reaping a very large profit upon his enterprise. At the close of the +period of his monopoly the market and privileges reverted to the +government. + +Marti had all he needed, and was now a man of large wealth. How he should +invest it was the question that next concerned him. He finally decided to +try and obtain the monopoly of theatrical performances in Havana on +condition of building there one of the largest and finest theatres in the +world. This was done, paying the speculator a large interest on his +wealth, and he died at length rich and honored, his money serving as a +gravestone for his sins. + + + + + +KEARNEY'S DARING EXPEDITION AND THE CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. + + +We have told the story of the remarkable expedition of Vasquez de Coronado +from Mexico northward to the prairies of Kansas. We have now to tell the +story of an expedition which took place three centuries later from this +prairie land to the once famous region of the "Seven Cities of Cibola." In +1542, when Coronado traversed this region, he found it inhabited by tribes +of wandering savages, living in rude wigwams. In 1846, when the return +expedition set out, it came from a land of fruitful farms and populous +cities. Yet it was to pass through a country as wild and uncultivated as +that which the Spaniards had traversed three centuries before. + +The invasion of Mexico by the United States armies in 1846 was made in +several divisions, one being known as the Army of the West, led by Colonel +Stephen W. Kearney. He was to march to Santa Fe, seize New Mexico, and +then push on and occupy California, both of which were then provinces of +Mexico. It was an expedition in which the soldiers would have to fight far +more with nature than with man, and force their way through desolate +regions and over deserts rarely trodden by the human foot. + +The invading army made its rendezvous at Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri +River, in the month of June, 1846. It consisted of something over sixteen +hundred men, all from Missouri, and all mounted except one battalion of +infantry. Accompanying it were sixteen pieces of artillery. A march of two +thousand miles in length lay before this small corps, much of it through +the land of the enemy, where much larger forces were likely to be met. +Before the adventurers, after the green prairies had been passed, lay hot +and treeless plains and mountain-ranges in whose passes the wintry snow +still lingered, while savage tribes and hostile Mexicans, whose numbers +were unknown, might make their path one of woe and slaughter. Those who +gathered to see them start looked upon them as heroes who might never see +their homes again. + +On the 26th of June the main body of the expedition began its march, +taking the trail of a provision train of two hundred wagons and two +companies of cavalry sent in advance, and followed, three days later, by +Kearney with the rear. For the first time in history an army under the +American standard, and with all the bravery of glittering guns and +floating flags, was traversing those ancient plains. For years the Santa +Fe trail had been a synonym for deeds of horror, including famine, +bloodshed, and frightful scenes of Indian cruelty. The bones of men and of +beasts of burden paved the way, and served as a gruesome pathway for the +long line of marching troops. + +The early route led, now through thick timber, now over plains carpeted +with tall grasses, now across ravines or creeks, now through soft ground +in which the laden wagons sank to their axles, and tried the horses +severely to pull them out. To draw the heavy wagons up the steep ridges of +the table-lands the tugging strength of a hundred men was sometimes +needed. + +Summer was now on the land, and for days together the heat was almost +unbearable. There was trouble, too, with the cavalry horses, raw animals, +unused to their new trappings and discipline, and which often broke loose +and scampered away, only to be caught by dint of weary pursuit and profane +ejaculations. + +For six hundred miles the column traversed the great Santa Fe trail +without sight of habitation and over a dreary expanse, no break to the +monotony appearing until their glad eyes beheld the fertile and flowery +prairies surrounding Fort Bent on the Arkansas. Here was a rich and +well-watered level, with clumps of trees and refreshing streams, forming +convenient halting-places for rest and bathing. As yet there had been no +want of food, a large merchant train of food wagons having set out in +advance of their own provision train, and for a few days life ceased to be +a burden and became a pleasure. + +They needed this refreshment sadly, for the journey to Fort Bent had been +one of toil and hardships, of burning suns, and the fatigue of endless +dreary miles. The wagon-trains were often far in advance and food at times +grew scanty, while the scarcity of fuel made it difficult to warm their +sparse supplies. During part of the journey they were drenched by heavy +rains. To these succeeded days of scorchingly hot weather, bringing thirst +in its train and desert mirages which cheated their suffering souls. When +at length the Arkansas River was reached, men and animals alike rushed +madly into its waters to slake their torment of thirst. + +At times their route led through great herds of grazing buffaloes which +supplied the hungry men with sumptuous fare, but most of the time they +were forced to trust to the steadily diminishing stores of the provision +wagons. This was especially the case when they left the grassy and flowery +prairie and entered upon an arid plain, on which for months of the year no +drop of rain or dew fell, while the whitened bones of men and beasts told +of former havoc of starvation and drouth. The heated surface was in places +incrusted with alkaline earth worn into ash-like dust, or paved with +pebbles blistering hot to the feet. At times these were diversified by +variegated ridges of sandstone, blue, red, and yellow in hue. + +A brief period of rest was enjoyed at Fort Bent, but on the 2d of August +the column was on the trail again, the sick and worn-out being left +behind. As they proceeded the desert grew more arid still. Neither grass +nor shrubs was to be found for the famishing animals; the water, what +little there was, proved to be muddy and bitter; the wheels sank deep in +the pulverized soil, and men and beasts alike were nearly suffocated by +the clouds of dust that blew into their eyes, nostrils, and mouths. Glad +were they when, after three days of this frightful passage, they halted on +the welcome banks of the Purgatoire, a cool mountain-stream, and saw +rising before them the snowy summits of the lofty Cimmaron and Spanish +peaks and knew that the desert was passed. + +The sight of the rugged mountains infused new energy into their weary +souls, and it was with fresh spirit that they climbed the rough hills +leading upward towards the Raton Pass, emerging at length into a grand +mountain amphitheatre closed in with steep walls of basalt and granite. +They seemed to be in a splendid mountain temple, in which they enjoyed +their first Sunday's rest since they had left Fort Leavenworth. + +The food supply had now fallen so low that the rations of the men were +reduced to one-third the usual quantity. But the new hope in their hearts +helped them to endure this severe privation, and they made their way +rapidly through the mountain gorges and over the plains beyond, covering +from seventeen to twenty-five miles a day. Ammunition had diminished as +well as food, and the men were forbidden to waste any on game, for news +had been received that the Mexicans were gathering to dispute their path +and all their powder and shot might be needed. + +The vicinity of the Mexican settlements was reached on August 14, and +their desert-weary eyes beheld with joy the first cornfields and gardens +surrounding the farm-houses in the valleys, while groves of cedar and pine +diversified the scene. With new animation the troops marched on, elated +with the tidings which now reached them from the north, that Colonel +Kearney had been raised to the rank of brigadier-general, and a second +item of news to the effect that two thousand Mexicans held the canon six +miles beyond Las Vegas, prepared to dispute its passage. + +This was what they had come for, and it was a welcome diversion to learn +that the weariness of marching was likely to be diversified by a season of +fighting. They had made the longest march ever achieved by an American +army, nearly all of it through a barren and inhospitable country, and it +was with genuine elation that they pressed forward to the canon, hopeful +of having a brush with the enemy. They met with a genuine disappointment +when they found the pass empty of foes. The Mexicans had failed to await +their coming. + +Kearney had already begun his prescribed work of annexing New Mexico to +the United States, the Alcalde and the prominent citizens of Las Vegas +having taken an oath of allegiance to the laws and government of the +United States. As they marched on, a similar oath was administered at San +Miguel and Pecos, and willingly taken. Here the soldiers fairly revelled +in the fresh vegetables, milk, eggs, fruits, and chickens which the +inhabitants were glad to exchange for the money of their new guests. +Orders had been given that all food and forage obtained from the peaceable +inhabitants should be paid for, and Kearney saw that this was done. + +At Pecos they had their first experience of the antiquities of the land. +Here was the traditional birthplace of the great Montezuma, the ancient +temple still standing whose sacred fire had been kindled by that famous +monarch, and kept burning for long years after his death, in the hope that +he would come again to deliver his people from bondage. At length, as +tradition held, the fire was extinguished by accident, and the temple and +village were abandoned. The walls of the temple still stood, six feet +thick, and covering with their rooms and passages a considerable space. +The Pueblo Indians of the region had refused to fight for the Mexicans, +for tradition told them that a people would come from the East to free +them from Spanish rule, and the prophecy now seemed about to be fulfilled. + +The next hostile news that reached the small army was to the effect that +seven thousand Mexicans awaited them in Gallisteo Canon, fifteen miles +from Santa Fe. This was far from agreeable tidings, since the Mexicans far +outnumbered the Americans, while the pass was so narrow that a much +smaller force might have easily defended it against a numerous foe. The +pass had been fortified and the works there mounted with six pieces of +cannon, placed to make havoc in the invaders' ranks. + +Fortunately, once more the advancing troops found a strong pass +undefended. The Mexican officers had quarrelled, and the privates, who +felt no enmity towards the Americans, had left them to fight it out +between themselves. Deserted by his soldiers, Governor Armijo escaped with +a few dragoons, and the Americans marched unmolested through the pass. On +the same day they reached Santa Fe, taking peaceful possession of the +capital of New Mexico and the whole surrounding country in the name of the +United States. + +Not for an hour had the men halted that day, the last of their wearisome +march of nine hundred miles, which had been completed in about fifty days. +So exhausting had this final day's march proved that many of the animals +sank down to die, and the men flung themselves on the bare hill-side, +without food or drink, glad to snatch a few hours of sleep. As the flag of +the United States was hoisted in the public square, a national salute of +twenty-eight guns was fired from a near-by hill, and the cavalry rode with +waving banners and loud cheers through the streets. They had cause for +great gratulation, for they had achieved a remarkable feat and had won a +great province without the loss of a single man in battle. + +By the orders of General Kearney a flag-staff one hundred feet high was +raised in the plaza for the American flag, and the oath of allegiance was +taken by the officials of the town. They were willing enough to take it, +since their new masters left them in office, while the people, who had +been told that they would be robbed and mercilessly treated, hailed the +Americans as deliverers rather than as enemies. The same was the case with +all the surrounding people, who, when they found that they would be paid +for their provisions and be left secure in their homes, settled down in +seeming high good will under the new rule. + + [Illustration: OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE.] + + OLDEST HOUSE IN THE UNITED STATES, SANTA FE. + + +Santa Fe at that time contained about six thousand inhabitants. After St. +Augustine it was the oldest city within the limits of the United States. +When the Spaniards founded it in 1582, it was built on the site of one of +the old Indian pueblos, whose date went back to the earliest history of +the country. The Spanish town--The Royal City of the Holy Faith, _La Villa +Real del Santa Fe_, as they called it--was also full of the flavor of +antiquity, with its low adobe houses, and its quaint old churches, built +nearly three centuries before. These were of rude architecture and hung +with battered old bells, but they were ornamented with curiously carved +beams of cedar and oak. The residences were as quaint and old-fashioned as +the churches, and the abundant relies of the more ancient Indian +inhabitants gave the charm of a double antiquity to the place. + +From Santa Fe as a centre General Kearney sent out expeditions to put down +all reported risings through the province, one of the most important of +these being to the country of the warlike Navajo Indians, who had just +made a raid on New Mexico, driving off ten thousand cattle and taking many +captives. The answer of one of the Navajo chiefs to the officers of the +expedition is interesting. + +"Americans, you have a strange cause of war against the Navajos," he said. +"We have waged war against the New Mexicans for several years. You now +turn upon us for attempting to do what you have done yourselves. We cannot +see why you have cause of quarrel with us for fighting the New Mexicans in +the West, while you do the same thing in the East. We have no more right +to complain of you for interfering in our war than you have to quarrel +with us for continuing a war we had begun long before you got here. If you +will act justly, you will allow us to settle our own differences." + +The Indians, however, in the end agreed to let the New Mexicans alone, as +American citizens, and the matter was amicably settled. We may briefly +conclude the story of Kearney's expedition, which was but half done when +Santa Fe was reached. He was to continue his march to California, and set +out for this purpose on the 25th of September, on a journey as long and +difficult as that he had already made. He reached the Californian soil +only to find that Colonel Fremont had nearly finished the work set for +him, and a little more fighting added the great province of California to +the American conquests. Thus had a small body of men occupied and +conquered a vast section of northern Mexico and added some of its richest +possessions to the United States. + + + + + +THE SECOND CONQUEST OF THE CAPITAL OF MEXICO. + + +The ancient city of Mexico, the capital of the Aztecs and their Spanish +successors, has been the scene of two great military events, its siege and +capture by Cortez the conqueror in 1521, and its capture by the American +army under General Scott in 1847, three and a quarter centuries later. Of +the remarkable career of Cortez we have given the most striking incident, +the story of the thrilling _Noche triste_ and the victory of Otumba. A +series of interesting tales might have been told of the siege that +followed, but we prefer to leave that period of mediaeval cruelty and +injustice and come down to the events of a more civilized age. + +One of the most striking scenes in the campaign of 1847 was the taking of +the fortified hill of Chapultepec, but before describing this we may +briefly outline the events of which it formed the dramatic culmination. +Vera Cruz, "the city of the True Cross," founded by Cortez in 1520, was +the scene of the American landing, and was captured by the army under +General Scott in March, 1847. Then, marching inland as Cortez had done +more than three centuries before, the American army, about twelve thousand +strong, soon began to ascend the mountain-slope leading from the torrid +sea-level plain to the high table-land of the old Aztec realm. + +Sixty miles from Vera Cruz the American forces came to the mountain-pass +of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, awaited the +invaders with an army of thirteen thousand men. The heights overhanging +the road bristled with guns, and the lofty hill of Cerro Gordo was +strongly fortified, rendering the place almost impregnable to an attack +from the direction of Vera Cruz. Scott was too able a soldier to waste the +lives of his men in such a perilous assault, and took the wiser plan of +cutting a new road along the mountain-slopes and through ravines out of +sight of the enemy, to the Jalapa road in the Mexican rear. An uphill +charge from this point gave the Americans command of all the minor hills, +leaving to the Mexicans only the height of Cerro Gordo, with its +intrenchments and the strong fortress on its summit. + +On the 18th of April this hill, several hundred feet in rugged height, was +assailed in front and rear, the Americans gallantly climbing the steep +rocks in the face of a deadly fire, carrying one barricade after another, +and at length sweeping over the ramparts of the summit fortress and +driving the defenders from their stronghold down the mountain-side. Santa +Anna took with him only eight thousand men in his hasty retreat, leaving +three thousand as prisoners in the American hands, with forty-three pieces +of bronze artillery and a large quantity of ammunition. Within a month +afterwards Scott's army marched into the city of Puebla, on the +table-land, sixty-eight miles from the capital. Here they rested for +several months, awaiting reinforcements. + +On August 7 the army resumed its march, now less than eleven thousand +strong, the term of several regiments having expired and their places been +partly filled by untried men, none of whom had ever fired a gun in war. On +they went, up-hill still, passing the remains of the old city of Cholula +with its ruined Aztec pyramid, and toiling through a mountain region till +Rio Frio was reached, fifty miles from Puebla and more than ten thousand +feet above the level of the sea. + +A few miles farther and the beautiful valley of Mexico lay suddenly +revealed before them like a vision of enchantment. It was a scene of +verdant charm, the bright green of the fields and groves diversified with +the white walls of villages and farm-houses, the silvery flow of streams, +and the gleaming surface of winding lakes, while beyond and around a wall +of wooded mountains ascended to snowy peaks. It was a scene of summer +charm that had not been gazed upon by an invading army since the days when +Cortez and his men looked down upon it with warm delight. + +The principal lakes visible were Lake Chalco, with the long, narrow lake +of Xochimilco near it, and seven miles to the north Lake Tezcuco, near the +western shore of which the city of Mexico was visible. Between Chalco and +Tezcuco ran the national road, for much of its length a narrow causeway +between borders of marsh-land. Near Lake Xochimilco was visible the +Acapulco road. Strong works of defence commanded both these highways. + + [Illustration: ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO.] + + ON THE BORDER OF LAKE CHALCO. + + +Scott chose the Acapulco road for his route of approach, the national road +being commanded by the lofty and strongly fortified hill of El Penon, +precipitous on one side, and surrounded by marshes and a deep ditch on the +other. The Acapulco road was defended by strongly garrisoned fortresses at +Contreras and Churubusco, but seemed more available than the other route. +Still farther north and west of the capital was a third approach to it +over the road to Toluco, defended by works at Molino del Rey and by the +fortified hill of Chapultepec. It was evident that the army under Scott +would go through some severe and sanguinary fighting before the city could +be reached. + +It is not our purpose to describe the various engagements by which this +work was accomplished. It must suffice to say that the strong hill fort of +Contreras was taken by a surprise, being approached by a road leading to +its rear during the night and taken by storm at sunrise, seventeen minutes +sufficing for the important victory. The garrison fled in dismay, after +losing heavily. + +An advance was made the same day on the nearby Mexican works at San +Antonio and Churubusco, and with the same result. The garrison at San +Antonio, fearful of being cut off by the American movement, evacuated the +works and retired upon Churubusco, hotly pursued. The Americans, inspired +by success, carried all before them, taking the works at the bridge of +Churubusco by an impetuous charge and soon putting the enemy to flight. +Meanwhile, General Shields attacked the Mexican reserve, consisting of +four thousand infantry and three thousand cavalry, whose line was broken +by a bayonet charge. + +The whole Mexican force was, by these well-devised movements, forced back +in terrible confusion, and was quickly fleeing in panic. The fugitives +were cut down by the pursuing Americans, who followed to the immediate +defences of the capital, where the pursuit was checked by a heavy fire of +grape-shot. Thus in one day the Americans, nine thousand strong, had +captured three strong positions, held by three times their number, the +Mexicans losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners over six thousand men, +while the American loss in killed and wounded was less than a thousand. + +Negotiations for peace followed, but they came to nothing, the armistice +that had been declared terminating on the 7th of September. The problem +that now lay before General Scott was a very different one from that which +Cortez had faced in his siege of the city. In his day Mexico was built on +an island in the centre of a large lake, which was crossed by a number of +causeways, broken at intervals by canals whose bridges could be removed. + +During the centuries that succeeded this lake had disappeared, low, marshy +lands occupying its site. The city, however, was still reached by +causeways, eight in number, raised about six feet above the marsh level. +In these ended the five main roads leading to the city. A large canal +surrounded the capital, and within its circle were smaller ones, all now +filled with water, as this was the rainy season. The problem of bridging +these under fire was one of the difficulties that confronted the +Americans. + +General Scott decided to approach the city by the causeways of San Cosme, +Belen, and Tacubaya, which were defended by formidable works, the +outermost of which was Molino del Rey, a fortified position at the foot of +a slope beyond which a grove of cypresses led to the hill of Chapultepec. +It consisted of a number of stone buildings, some of which had been used +as a foundry, but which were now converted into fortresses. This place was +carried by storm in the early morning of September 8, and the stronger +position of Casa de Mata, a quarter of a mile from Chapultepec, was +captured by a fierce assault the same day. Only Chapultepec now lay +between the Americans and the Mexican capital. + +The stronghold of Chapultepec, of which the places just taken were in the +nature of outworks, remained to be captured before the city could be +reached from that quarter. Chapultepec is an isolated rocky hill, about +one hundred and fifty feet in height, and was surmounted by a large stone +building which had been used as the bishop's palace, but was now converted +into a strong fortress. It was well prepared for defence in guns and +garrison, and was the most difficult to win of the fortifications of the +capital. The western side was the most accessible, but the face of this, +above the grove of cypresses which covered its base, presented a steep, +rocky, and difficult ascent. + +To deceive the enemy, a feigned advance upon another section of the city +was made on the 12th of September. The two divisions engaged in this +returned that night to Tacubaya, near Chapultepec, though a force still +threatened the southern causeways. Four batteries had been posted within +easy range of the castle of Chapultepec during the night of the 11th, and +all next day they kept up a steady fire upon it, driving its defenders +back and partly wrecking the walls. On the morning of the 13th the +batteries resumed their fire, while the forces chosen for the assault +approached the hill from different directions through the fire of the +enemy. + +Two assaulting columns of two hundred and fifty picked men each, from +Worth's and Twigg's divisions, advanced with scaling ladders, while the +batteries threw shot and shell over their heads to drive the defenders +from the walls. Major-General Pillow led his division through the grove on +the east side, but he quickly fell with a dangerous wound, and General +Cadwalader succeeded him. Before him was a broken and rocky ascent, with a +redoubt midway in its height. Up the steep rocks climbed the gallant +stormers, broke into the redoubt with a wild cheer, and put its defenders +to flight. On up the steep they then clambered, passing without injury the +mines which the Mexicans had planted, but which they could not fire +without killing their own men. In a few minutes more the storming party +reached the summit and climbed over the castle wall with shouts of +victory, driving back its defenders. Soon the United States flag was seen +floating over the ramparts, a roar of cheers greeting the inspiring +spectacle. + +On the southeast Quitman's column of assault was making like progress, +while Smith's brigade captured two batteries at the foot of the hill on +the right, and Shield's brigade crossed the meadows under a hot fire of +musketry and artillery and swept up the hill to the support of the +stormers. + +Thus the castle of Chapultepec, the last and strongest citadel of the +Mexicans, had fallen before an impetuous charge up a hill deemed +inaccessible, in the face of a hot fire, and the city itself lay at the +mercy of the invaders. The causeway which it defended formed a double +roadway on each side of a great aqueduct, with stone arches and pillars. +Shields charged impetuously along this causeway, towards the city, two +miles distant, while Quitman pursued the fleeing enemy along the +neighboring causeway of Belen. + +An aide sent by Scott came riding up to Shields to bid him halt till +Worth, who was following the San Cosme causeway, could force its defences. +The aide politely saluted the eagerly advancing general and began, +"General Scott presents his compliments + +"I have no time for compliments just now," roared out Shields, and spurred +briskly onward to escape the unwelcome orders which he felt were coming. +Soon he had led his men into the suburbs of the city, while Worth and +Quitman charged inward over the neighboring causeways with equal +impetuosity. + +A strong force was quickly within the streets of the city, assailed by +skirmishers firing from houses and gardens, who could be reached only by +forcing a way in with pickaxes and bars. Two guns were brought in by +Worth's column and planted in position to batter down the San Cosme gate, +the barrier to the great square in the city's centre, and which fronted +the cathedral and palace. Quitman and Shields had to fight their way +through as hot a fire, and as they charged inward found themselves before +the citadel, mounting fifteen guns. At this point a severe loss was +sustained, but the assailants held their own, mounting guns to attack the +citadel the next morning. + +These guns were not used. Before daylight a deputation of the city council +waited on General Scott and announced that the army had evacuated the +city, and the government officials had fled. It was not long afterwards +before the Stars and Stripes were floating over the National Palace and in +the great plaza. + +Fighting continued for a day longer between the Americans and about four +thousand soldiers and liberated convicts, who fought with desperate fury +for their country and were not put down without considerable loss. On the +morning of September 16 the army of the United States held undisputed +possession of the famous old capital of Mexico. Fighting continued, +however, elsewhere for some months later, and it was not till the 2d of +February, 1848, that a treaty of peace was signed. + + + + + +WALKER THE FILIBUSTER, AND THE INVASION OF NICARAGUA. + + +On the 15th of October, 1853, a small and daring band of reckless +adventurers sailed from San Francisco, on an enterprise seemingly madder +and wilder than that which Cortez had undertaken more than three centuries +before. The purpose of this handful of men--filibusters they were called, +as lawless in their way as the buccaneers of old--was the conquest of +Northwest Mexico; possibly in the end of all Mexico and Central America. +No one knows what wild vagaries filled the mind of William Walker, their +leader, "the gray-eyed man of destiny," as his admirers called him. + +Landing at La Paz, in the southwestern corner of the Gulf of California, +with his few companions, he captured a number of hamlets and then +grandiloquently proclaimed Lower California an independent state and +himself its president. His next proclamation "annexed" to his territory +the large Mexican state of Sonora, on the mainland opposite the California +Gulf, and for a brief period he posed among the sparse inhabitants as a +ruler. Some reinforcements reached him by water, but another party that +started overland was dispersed by starvation, their food giving out. + +Walker now set out with his buccaneering band on a long march of six +hundred miles through a barren and unpeopled country towards his +"possessions" in the interior. The Mexicans did not need any forces to +defeat him. Fatigue and famine did the work for them, desertion decimated +the band of invaders, and the hopeless march up the peninsula ended at San +Diego, where he and his men surrendered to the United States authorities. +Walker was tried at San Francisco in 1854 for violation of the neutrality +laws, but was acquitted. + +This pioneer attempt at invasion only whetted Walker's filibustering +appetite. Looking about for "new worlds to conquer," he saw a promising +field in Nicaragua, then torn by internal dissensions. Invited by certain +American speculators or adventurers to lend his aid to the democratic +party of insurrectionists, he did not hesitate, but at once collected a +band of men of his own type and set sail for this new field of labor and +ambition. On the 11th of June, 1855, he landed with his small force of +sixty-two men at Realijo, on the Nicaraguan coast, and was joined there by +about a hundred of the native rebels. + +Making his way inland, his first encounter with the government forces took +place at Rivas, where he met a force of four hundred and eighty men. His +native allies fled at the first shots, but the Americans fought with such +valor and energy that the enemy were defeated with a loss of one-third +their number, his loss being only ten. In a second conflict at Virgin Bay +he was equally successful, and on the 15th of October he captured the +important city of Granada. + +These few successes gave him such prestige and brought such aid from the +revolutionists that the opposite party was quite ready for peace, and on +the 25th he made a treaty with General Corral, its leader, which made him +fairly master of the country. He declined the office of president, which +was offered him, but accepted that of generalissimo of the republic, an +office better suited to maintain his position. His rapid success brought +him not only the support of the liberal faction, but attracted recruits +from the United States, who made their way into the country from the east +and the west alike until he had a force of twelve hundred Americans under +his command. + +General Corral, who had treated with him for peace, was soon to pay the +penalty for his readiness to make terms with an invader. He was arrested +for treason, on some charge brought by Walker, tried before a +court-martial at which the new generalissimo presided, sentenced to death, +and executed without delay. + +The next event in this fantastic drama of filibusterism was a war with the +neighboring republic of Costa Rica. Both sides mustered armies, and a +hostile meeting took place at Guanacaste, on March 20, 1856, in which +Walker was worsted. He kept the field, however, and met the foe again at +Rivas, on April 11. This time he was victorious, and the two republics now +made peace. + +His military success seemed to have made the invader securely the lord and +master of Nicaragua, and he now threw aside his earlier show of modesty +and had himself elected president on June 25. He had so fully established +himself that he was recognized as head of the republic by President +Pierce, on behalf of the United States. But he immediately began to act +the master and tyrant in a way that was likely to bring his government to +a speedy end. + +Money being scarce, he issued currency on a liberal scale, and by a decree +he restored the system of slavery which had been abolished thirty-two +years before. Not content with these radical measures within the republic +itself, he was unwise enough to create for himself a powerful enemy in the +United States by meddling with the privileges of the Vanderbilt Steamship +Company, then engaged in transporting the stream of gold-hunters to +California over a Nicaraguan route. Walker revoked their charter and +confiscated their property, thus bringing against his new government a +fire in the rear. + +His aggressive policy, in fact, made him enemies on all sides, the Central +American states bordering on Nicaragua being in sore dread of their +ambitious neighbor, while the agents of the Vanderbilt Company worked +industriously to stir up a revolt against this soaring eagle of +filibusterism. + +The result was a strong revolt against his rule, and he soon found himself +confronted by a force of patriots in the field. For a short time there +were busy times in Nicaragua, several battles being fought by the +contending forces, the war ending with the burning of Granada by the +president. Finding that the whole country was rising against him and that +his case had grown desperate, Walker soon gave up the hopeless contest and +surrendered, on May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis of the United States +sloop-of-war "St. Mary," who took him to Panama, where he made his way +back to the United States. + +Thus closed the conquering career of this minor Cortez of the nineteenth +century. But while Walker the president was no more, Walker the filibuster +was not squelched. The passion for adventure was as strong in his mind as +ever, and his brief period of power had roused in him an unquenchable +thirst for rule. In consequence he made effort after effort to get back to +the scene of his exploits, and rise to power again, his persistent thirst +for invasion giving the United States authorities no small trouble and +ending only with his death. + +In fact, he was barely at home before he was hatching new schemes and +devising fresh exploits. To check a new expedition which he was organizing +in New Orleans, the authorities of that city had him arrested and put +under bonds to keep the peace. Soon after that we find him escaping their +jurisdiction in a vessel ostensibly bound for Mobile, yet making port +first in Central America, where he landed on November 25, 1857. + +This effort at invasion proved a mere flash in the pan. No support awaited +him and his deluded followers, and in two weeks' time he found it +judicious to surrender once more to the naval authorities of the United +States; this time to Commodore Paulding, who took him to New York with his +followers, one hundred and thirty-two in number. + +His fiasco stirred up something of a breeze in the United States. +President Buchanan had strongly condemned the invasion of friendly +territory in his annual message, but he now sent a special message to +Congress in which he equally condemned Commodore Paulding for landing an +American force on foreign soil. He decided that under the circumstances, +the government must decline to hold Walker as a prisoner, unless he was +properly arrested under judicial authority. At the same time Buchanan +strongly deprecated all filibustering expeditions. + +The result of this was that Walker was again set free, and it was not long +before he had a new following, there being many of the adventurous class +who sympathized warmly with his enterprising efforts. This was especially +the case in the South. Thither Walker proceeded, and, inspired by his old +enthusiasm, he soon organized another company, which sought to leave the +country in October, 1858. He was closely watched, however, and the whole +company was arrested at the mouth of the Mississippi on the steamer on +which passage had been taken. + +President Buchanan had issued a proclamation forbidding all such +expeditions, and Walker was now put on trial before the United States +Court at New Orleans. But the case against him seemed to lack satisfactory +evidence, and he was acquitted. + +Desisting for a time from his efforts, Walker occupied himself in writing +an account of his exploits, in a book entitled "The War in Nicaragua." But +this was far too tame work for one of his stirring disposition, and in +June, 1860, he was off again, this time making Honduras the scene of his +invading energy. Landing at Truxillo on the 27th, he seized that town and +held it for eight weeks, at the end of which time he was ordered to leave +the place by the captain of a British man-of-war. The president of +Honduras was rapidly approaching with a defensive force. Walker marched +south, but his force was too small to cope with the president's army, and +he had not gone far before he found himself a captive in the hands of the +Honduran government. Central America had by this time more than enough of +William Walker and his methods, and five days after his capture he was +condemned to death and shot at Truxillo. + +Thus ended the somewhat remarkable career of the chief of filibusters, the +most persistent of modern invaders of foreign lands, whose reckless +exploits were of the mediaeval rather than of the modern type. A short, +slender, not especially demonstrative man, Walker did not seem made for a +hero of enthusiastic adventure. His most striking feature was his keen +gray eyes, which brought him the title of "the gray-eyed man of destiny." + + + + + +MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA AND HIS EMPIRE IN MEXICO. + + +It is interesting, in view of the total conquest and submission of the +Indians in Mexico, that the final blow for freedom in that country should +have been made by an Indian of pure native blood. His name was Benito +Juarez, and his struggle for liberty was against the French invaders and +Maximilian, the puppet emperor, put by Louis Napoleon on the Mexican +throne. In the words of Shakespeare, "Thereby hangs a tale." + +For many years after the Spanish colonies had won their independence the +nations of Europe looked upon them with a covetous eye. They would dearly +have liked to snap up some of these weak countries, which Spain had been +unable to hold, but the great republic of the United States stood as their +protector, and none of them felt it quite safe to step over that +threatening bar to ambition, the "Monroe Doctrine." "Hands off," said +Uncle Sam, and they obeyed, though much against their will. + +In 1861 began a war in the United States which gave the people of that +country all they wanted to do. Here was the chance for Europe, and +Napoleon III., the usurper of France, took advantage of it to send an army +to Mexico and attempt the conquest of that country. It was the overweening +ambition of Louis Napoleon which led him on. It was his scheme to found an +empire in Mexico which, while having the name of being independent, would +be under the control of France and would shed glory on his reign. + +At that time the President of Mexico, the Indian we have named, was Benito +Juarez, a descendant of the Aztec race, and, as some said, with the blood +of the Montezumas in his veins. Yet his family was of the lowest class of +the Indians, and when he was twelve years old he did not know how to read +or write. After that he obtained a chance for education, and in time +became a lawyer, was made governor of his native state, and kept on +climbing upward till he became secretary of state, president of the +Supreme Court, and finally president of Mexico. + +He was the man who had the invaders of his country to fight, and he fought +them well and long. But the poor and undisciplined Mexicans were no match +for the trained troops of France, and they were driven back step by step +until the invaders were masters of nearly the whole country. Yet Juarez +still had a capital and a government at San Luis Potosi, and all loyal +Mexicans still looked on him as their president. + +When Napoleon III. found himself master of Mexico, he looked around for a +man who would serve him as a tool to hold the country. Such a man he found +in Ferdinand Joseph Maximilian, the brother of the emperor of Austria, a +dreamer rather than a man of action, and a fervent believer in the "divine +right of kings." This was the kind of man that the French usurper was in +want of, and he offered him the position of emperor of Mexico. Maximilian +was taken by surprise. The proposition was a startling one. But in the end +ambition overcame judgment, and he accepted the lofty but perilous +position on the condition that France should sustain him on the throne. + + [Illustration: HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO.] + + HOUSE OF MAXIMILIAN AT QUERETARO. + + +The struggle of the Mexicans for freedom was for the time at an end, and +the French had almost everywhere prevailed, when in 1864 the new emperor +and his young wife Carlotta arrived at Vera Cruz and made their way to the +city of Mexico. This they entered with great show and ceremony and amid +the cheers of many of the lookers on, though the mass of the people, who +had no love for emperors, kept away or held their peace. + +The new empire began with imperial display. All the higher society of +Mexico were at the feet of the new monarchs. With French money to pay +their way and a French army to protect them, there was nothing for +Maximilian and Carlotta to do but enjoy the romance and splendor of their +new dignity. On the summit of the hill of Chapultepec, two hundred feet +above the valley, stood the old palace which had been ruined by the +American guns when Scott invaded Mexico. This was rebuilt by Maximilian on +a grand scale, hanging gardens were constructed and walled in by galleries +with marble columns, costly furniture was brought from Europe, and here +the new emperor and empress held their court, with a brilliant succession +of fetes, dinners, dances, and receptions. All was brilliance and gayety, +and as yet no shadow fell on their dream of proud and royal reign. + +But the shadow was coming. Maximilian had reached Mexico in June, 1864. +For a year longer the civil war in the great republic of the north +continued; then it came to an end, and the government of the United States +was free to take a hand in the arbitrary doings on the soil of her near +neighbor to the south. + +It was a sad blow to the ambitious schemes of Napoleon, it was like the +rumble of an earthquake under the throne of Maximilian, when from +Washington came a diplomatic demand which, translated into plain English, +meant, you had better make haste to get your armies out of Mexico; if they +stay there, you will have the United States to deal with. It hurt Louis +Napoleon's pride. He shifted and prevaricated and delayed, but the hand of +the great republic was on the throat of his new empire, and there was +nothing for him to do but obey. He knew very well that if he resisted, the +armies of the civil war would make very short work of his forces in +Mexico. + +Maximilian was strongly advised to give up his dream of an empire and +leave the country with the French. He changed his mind a half-dozen times, +but finally decided to stay, fancying that he could hold his throne with +the aid of the loyal Mexicans. Carlotta, full of ambition, went to Europe +and appealed for help to Napoleon. She told him very plainly what she +thought of his actions; but it was all of no avail, and she left the +palace almost broken-hearted. Soon after Maximilian received the +distressing news that his wife had lost her reason through grief, and was +quite insane. At once he made up his mind to return to Europe, and set out +for Vera Cruz. But before he got there he changed his mind again and +concluded to remain. + +At the end of January, 1867, the French army, which had held on until +then, with one excuse after another, left the capital city, which it had +occupied for years, and began its long march to the sea-shore at Vera +Cruz. Much was left behind. Cannon were broken up as useless, horses sold +for a song, and the evacuation was soon complete, the Belgian and Austrian +troops which the new emperor had brought with him going with the French. +Maximilian did not want them; he preferred to trust himself to the loyal +arms of his Mexican subjects, hoping thus to avoid jealousy. As for the +United States, it had no more to say; it was content to leave this shadow +of an empire to its _loyal_ Mexicans. + +It cannot be said that Maximilian had taken the right course to make +himself beloved by the Mexicans. Full of his obsolete notion of the +"divine right of kings," a year after he had reached Mexico he issued a +decree saying that all who clung to the republic or resisted his authority +should be shot. And this was not waste paper, like so many decrees, for a +number of prisoners were shot under its cruel mandate, one of them being +General Orteaga. It has been said that Maximilian went so far as to order +that the whole laboring population of the country should be reduced to +slavery. + +While all this was going on President Juarez was not idle. During the +whole French occupation he had kept in arms, and now began his advance +from his place of refuge in the north. General Escobedo, chief of his +armies, soon conquered the northern part of the country, and occupied the +various states and cities as soon as they were left by the French. + +But neither was Maximilian idle. Agents of the Church party had finally +induced him to remain, and this party now came to his aid. General +Miramon, an able leader, commanded his army, which was recruited to the +strength of eight thousand men, most of them trained soldiers, though +nearly half of them were raw recruits. + +With this force Maximilian advanced to Queretaro and made it his +head-quarters. Juarez had meanwhile advanced to Zacatecas and fixed his +residence there with his government about him. But the president and +cabinet came very near being taken captive at one fell swoop, for Miramon +suddenly advanced and captured Zacatecas by surprise, Juarez and his +government barely escaping. + +What would have been the result if the whole Mexican government had been +taken prisoners it is not easy to say. Not unlikely, however, General +Escobedo would have done what he now did, which was to advance on +Queretaro and invest it with his army. Thus the empire of Maximilian was +limited to this one town, where it was besieged by an army of Mexican +patriots, while, with the exception of a few cities, the whole country +outside was free from imperial rule. + +Soon the emperor and his army found themselves closely confined within the +walls of Queretaro. Skirmishes took place almost daily, in which both +sides fought with courage and resolution. Provisions grew scarce and +foraging parties were sent out, but after each attack the lines of the +besiegers became closer. The clergy had made liberal promises of forces +and funds, and General Marquez was sent to the city of Mexico to obtain +them. He managed to get through the lines of Escobedo, but he failed to +return, and nothing was ever seen by Maximilian of the promised aid. Such +forces and funds as Marquez obtained he used in attacking General Diaz, +who was advancing on Pueblo. Diaz besieged and took Pueblo, and then +turned on Marquez, whom he defeated so completely that he made his way +back to Mexico almost alone under cover of the night. It was the glory +gained by this act that later raised Diaz to the presidency, which he held +so brilliantly for so many years. + +The hopes of Maximilian were dwindling to a shadow. For two months the +siege of Queretaro continued, steadily growing closer. During this trying +time Maximilian showed the best elements of his character. He was gentle +and cheerful in demeanor, and brave in action, not hesitating to expose +himself to the fire of the enemy. Plans were made for his escape, that he +might put himself at the head of his troops elsewhere, but he refused, +through a sense of honor, to desert his brave companions. + +Daily provisions grew scarcer, and Maximilian himself had only the coarse, +tough food which was served to the common soldiers. Day after day Marquez +was looked for with the promised aid, but night after night brought only +disappointment. At length, on the night of May 14, General Lopez, in +charge of the most important point in the city, turned traitor and +admitted two battalions of the enemy. From this point the assailants +swarmed into the city, where terror and confusion everywhere prevailed. +Lopez had not intended that the emperor should be captured, and gave him +warning in time to escape. He attempted to do so, and reached a little +hill outside the town, but here he was surrounded by foes and forced to +deliver up his sword. + +Juarez, the Indian president, was at length full master of Mexico, and +held its late emperor in his hands. The fate of Maximilian depended upon +his word. Plans, indeed, were made for his escape, but always at the last +moment he failed to avail himself of them. His friends sought to win for +him the clemency of Juarez, but they found him inflexible. The traitors, +as he called them, should be tried by court-martial, he said and abide the +decision of the court. + +Tried they were, though the trial was little more than a farce, with the +verdict fixed in advance. This verdict was death. The condemned, in +addition to Maximilian, were his chiefs in command, Miramon and Medjia. +The late emperor rose early on the fatal morning and heard mass. He +embraced his fellow victims, and as he reached the street said, "What a +beautiful day! On such a one I have always wished to die." + +He was greeted with respect by the people in the street, the women +weeping. He responded with a brief address, closing with the words, "May +my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the country, and if more +should be shed, may it flow for its good, and not by treason. Viva +Independencia! Viva Mexico!" + +In a few minutes more the fatal shots were fired, and the empire of +Maximilian was at an end. + + + + + +MACEO AND THE STRUGGLE FOR CUBAN INDEPENDENCE. + + +On the 24th of February, 1895, the people of Havana, the capital of Cuba, +were startled by a report that rebels were in the field, a band of +twenty-four having appeared in arms at Ybarra, in the province of +Matanzas. Other small bands were soon heard of elsewhere in the island. A +trifle this seemed, in view of the fact that Cuba was guarded by twenty +thousand Spanish troops and had on its military rolls the names of sixty +thousand volunteers. But the island was seething with discontent, and +trifles grow fast under such circumstances. Twenty years before a great +rebellion had been afoot. It was settled by treaty in 1878, but Spain had +ignored the promises of the treaty and steadily heaped up fuel for the new +flame which had now burst out. + +As the days and weeks went on the movement grew, many of the plantation +hands joining the insurgents until there were several thousand men in +arms. For a time these had it all their own way, raiding and plundering +the plantations of the loyalists, and vanishing into the woods and +mountains when the troops appeared. + +The war to which this led was not one of the picturesque old affairs of +battles and banners, marches and campaigns. It displayed none of "the pomp +and circumstance of glorious war;" forest ambushes, sudden attacks, quick +retreats, and brisk affrays that led to nothing forming the staple of the +conflict. The patriots had no hope of triumphing over the armed and +trained troops of Spain, but they hoped to wear them out and make the war +so costly to Spain that she would in the end give up the island in +despair. + +The work of the Cuban patriots was like the famous deeds of Marion and his +men in the swampy region of the Carolina coast. Two-thirds of Cuba were +uncultivated and half its area was covered with thickets and forests. In +the wet season the low-lands of the coast were turned into swamps of +sticky black mud. Underbrush filled the forests, so thick and dense as to +be almost impassable. The high bushes and thick grasses of the plains +formed a jungle which could be traversed only with the aid of the machete, +the heavy, sharp, cutlass-like blade which the Cuban uses both as tool and +sword, now cutting his way through bush and jungle, now slicing off the +head of an enemy in war. + +Everywhere in the island there are woods, there are hills and mountains, +there are growths of lofty grass, affording countless recesses and refuges +for fugitives and lurking-places for ambushed foes. To retire to the "long +grass" is a Cuban phrase meaning, to gain safety from pursuit, and a +patriot force might lie unseen and unheard while an army marched by. In +brief, Cuba is a paradise for the bush-fighter, and the soldiers of Spain +were none too eager to venture into the rebel haunts, where the flame of +death might suddenly burst forth from the most innocent-looking woodland +retreat or grass-grown mead. The soldiers might search for days for a foe +who could not be found, and as for starving out the rebels, that was no +easy thing to do. There were the yam, the banana, the sweet potato, the +wild fruits of the woodland, which the fertile soil bore abundantly, while +the country-people were always ready to supply their brothers in the +field. + +Such was the state of affairs in Cuba in the rebellion of 1895. For a time +the rebels gathered in small bands with none but local leaders. But the +outbreak had been fomented by agents afar, fugitives from the former war, +and early in April twenty-four of these exiles arrived from Costa Rica, +landing secretly at a point near the eastern end of the island. + +Chief among the new comers was Antonio Maceo, a mulatto, who had won a +high reputation for his daring and skill in the past conflict, and who had +unbounded influence over the negro element of the rebellion. Wherever +Maceo was ready to lead, they were ready to follow to the death if he gave +the word, and he soon proved himself the most daring and successful +soldier in the war. + +He did not make his way inland with safety. Spanish cavalry were +patrolling the coast to prevent landings, and Maceo and his comrades had a +brisk fight with a party of these soon after landing, he getting away with +a bullet-hole through his hat. For ten days they were in imminent danger, +now fighting, now hiding, now seeking the wild woodland fruits for food, +and so pestered by the Spanish patrols that the party was forced to break +up, only two or three remaining with Maceo. In the end these fell in with +a party of rebels, from whom they received a warm and enthusiastic +welcome. + +Maceo was a rebel in grain. He was the only one of the leaders in the +former war who had refused to sign the treaty of peace. He had kept up the +fight for two months longer, and finally escaped from the country, now to +return without the load of a broken promise on his conscience. + +The new leader of the rebellion soon had a large following of insurgents +at his back, and in several sharp brushes with the enemy proved that he +could more than hold his own. Other patriots soon arrived from exile,--Jose +Marti, the fomenter of the insurrection; Maximo Gomez, an able soldier; +and several more whose presence gave fresh spirit to the rebels. The +movement, which had as yet been a mere hasty outbreak, was now assuming +the dimensions of a regular war, hundreds of patriots joining the ranks of +these able leaders, until more than six thousand men were in the field. + +Almost everywhere that they met their enemy they were largely outnumbered, +and they fought mostly from ambush, striking their blows when least +expected and vanishing so suddenly and by such hidden paths that pursuit +was usually idle. Much of their strength lay in their horses. No Cossacks +or cowboys could surpass them as riders, in which art they were far +superior to the Spanish cavalry. Many stories are told of women who rode +in their ranks and wielded the machete as boldly and skillfully as the +men, and in this there is doubtless much truth. Their horses were no show +animals, but a sore-backed, sorry lot, fed on rushes or colla, there being +no other grain, left standing unsheltered, rain or shine, but as tough and +tireless beasts as our own bronchos, and ever ready to second their riders +in mad dashes on the foe. + +The favorite mode of fighting practised by the insurgents was to surprise +the enemy by a sharp skirmish fire, their sharp-shooters seeking to pick +off the officers. Then, if there was a fair opportunity, they would dash +from their covert in a wild cavalry charge, machete in hand, and yelling +like so many demons, and seek to make havoc in the ranks of the foe. This +was the kind of fighting in which Maceo excelled. + +Through 1895 the war went on with endless skirmishes and only one affair +that could be called a battle. In this Maceo was the insurgent leader, +while Martinez Campos, governor-general of Cuba, a man looked upon as the +ablest general of Spain, led the Spanish troops. Maceo had caused great +annoyance by attacks on train-loads of food for the fortified town of +Bayamo, and Campos determined to drive him from the field. Several columns +of Spanish troops were set in motion upon him from different quarters, one +of these, fifteen hundred strong, led by Campos himself. On the 13th of +July the two armies met, Maceo, with nearly three thousand men, being +posted on a stock-farm several miles from Bayamo. + +The fight began with a sharp attack on the Spaniards, intended to strike +the division under Campos; but by an error it fell upon the advance guard, +led by General Santocildes, which was saluted by a brisk fire from the +wooded hill-sides. Santocildes fell dead, and a bullet tore the heel from +the governor-general's boot. + +Maceo, surmising from the confusion in the Spanish ranks that some +important officer had fallen, now launched his horsemen upon them in a +vigorous machete charge. Though Campos succeeded in repelling them, he +felt himself in a critical situation, and hastily drew up his whole force +into a hollow square, with the wagons and the dead horses and mules for +breastworks. Around this strong formation the Cubans raged for several +hours, only the skill of Campos saving his men from a disastrous rout. An +assault was made on the rear guard early in the affray, Maceo hoping to +capture the ammunition train. But its defenders held their ground +vigorously, and fought their way to the main column, where they aided to +form the square. Finally the Spaniards succeeded in reaching Bayamo, +pursued by the Cubans and having lost heavily in the fight. They were +saved from utter destruction by Maceo's lack of artillery, and Campos was +very careful afterwards not to venture near this daring leader without a +powerful force. + +Maximo Gomez, one of the principal leaders in the earlier war, had now +been appointed commander-in-chief of the Cuban forces, with Antonio Maceo +as his lieutenant-general. He had made his way westward into the province +of Santa Clara, and in November Maceo left the eastern province of +Santiago de Cuba to join him. In his way lay the trocha, the famous device +of the Spaniards to prevent the free movement of the Cuban forces. It may +be of interest to describe this new idea in warfare, devised by the +Spaniards to check the free movement of their rebel foes. + +The word trocha means trench, but the Spanish trochas were military lines +cut through the woods and across the island from side to side, and +defended by barbed-wire fences, while the felled trees were piled along +both sides of the roadway, making a difficult breastwork of jagged roots +and branches. At intervals of a quarter-mile or more along this +well-guarded avenue were forts, each with a garrison of about one hundred +men, it needing about fifteen thousand to defend the whole line of the +trocha from sea to sea. + +Such was the elaborate device adopted by Campos, and by Weyler after him, +to check the Cuban movements. We need only say here that, despite its cost +and the number of men it tied up on guard duty, the trocha failed to +restrain the alert islanders. Gomez had crossed it in his movement +westward, and Maceo now followed with equal readiness. He made a feint of +an attack in force on one part of the line, and when the Spaniards had +concentrated to defend this point, he crossed at an unprotected spot, +without firing a shot or losing a man. + +Westward still went the Cubans, heedless of trochas and Spaniards. From +Santa Clara they entered Matanzas province, and from this made their way +into the province of Havana, bringing the war almost to the gates of the +capital. Spain had now sent more than one hundred thousand troops across +the ocean, though many of these were in the hospitals. As for the Cubans, +the island had now risen almost from end to end, and their force was +estimated at from thirty to fifty thousand men. It was no longer a rebel +outbreak that Spain had to deal with, it was a national war. + +By the end of the year the Cubans were firmly fixed in Havana province, +many negro field-hands and Cuban youths having joined their ranks. They +fought not only against the Spaniards, but against the bandits also, of +whom there were many abroad plundering from both sides alike. These were +hanged by the patriots whenever captured. Maceo was the active fighter of +the force, Gomez being occupied in burning sugar-cane fields and +destroying railroads, so as to deprive Spain of the sinews of war. + +In January, 1896, a new movement westward was made, Maceo leading his men +into the province of Pinar del Rio, which occupies the western end of the +island. Here was the great tobacco district, one into which insurrection +had never before made its way. Within a year rebellion had covered the +island from end to end, the Spaniards being secure nowhere but within the +cities, while the insurgents moved wherever they chose in the country. The +sky around the capital was heavy with smoke by day and lurid with the +flames of burning fields at night, showing that Gomez was busy with his +work of destruction, burning the crops of every planter who sought to +grind his cane. + +Let us now follow the daring mulatto leader through the remainder of his +career. General Weyler had now succeeded Campos, and began his official +life with the boast that he would soon clear the provinces near Havana of +rebels in arms. But he was hardly in the governor's chair when Maceo was +back from the west and swooping down on the city of Jaruco, which he +looted and burned. + +Weyler sent troops into Pinar del Rio, where they found no one to oppose +them, and he was soon able to inform the world by a proclamation that this +province was pacified. But the ink was barely dry upon it when Maceo, +having burnt the port of Batabano, on the southern coast, was back in the +"pacified" province, where he made his head-quarters in the mountains and +defied all the power of Spain. + +Instead of seeking him here, Weyler now attempted to confine him by +building a new trocha, cutting off that end of the island. This took two +months to complete, during which Maceo continued his work almost +unopposed, destroying the tobacco of loyalists, defeating every force sent +against him, and leaving to Spain only four fortified cities in the +southern part of the province. + +Not until autumn opened did Weyler take the field, marching into Pinar del +Rio at the head of thirty thousand men, confident now of putting an end to +the work of his persistent foe, whom he felt sure he had hemmed in with +his trocha. Between the two forces, Spanish and Cuban, the province was +sadly harried, and became so incapable of supporting a large force that +Maceo was obliged to dismiss the most of his men. + +Leaving the slender remnant under the control of one of his lieutenants, +he once more passed the trocha, this time rowing round its end in a boat +and landing in Havana province. He had sent orders in advance for a +concentration of the Cuban forces in this region, that he might give +Weyler a new employment. + +The daring partisan leader was near the end of his career, brought to his +death by the work of a traitor, as was widely believed. While waiting for +the gathering of the forces, he, with the few men with him, was fired on +from a Spanish ambush, and fell, mortally wounded. + +Thus died the most dashing soldier that the Cuban rebellion called into +the field. Dr. Zertucha, of his staff, was charged with treachery in +leading him into this ambush, though that is by no means proved. Maceo was +one of nine brothers, all soldiers, and all of whom had now died in the +great struggle for Cuban independence. His body was recovered from the +enemy after a desperate fight; his valiant spirit was lost to the cause. +Yet his work had not been without avail, and the country for which he had +fought so bravely was left by him on the highroad to liberty. + + + + + +LIEUTENANT HOBSON AND THE SINKING OF THE "MERRIMAC." + + +About three o'clock of a dark morning, whose deep gloom shrouded alike the +shores and waters of Cuba's tropic isle, a large craft left the side of +the "New York," the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson's fleet off Santiago, and +glided towards the throat of the narrow channel leading to its land-locked +harbor. This mysterious craft was an old coal-carrier named the +"Merrimac." On board were Richmond P. Hobson, Assistant Naval Constructor, +and seven volunteer seamen. Their purpose was to sink the old hulk in the +channel and thus to seal up the Spanish ships in Santiago harbor. The fact +that there were ten chances to one that they would go to the bottom with +their craft, or be riddled with Spanish bullets, did not trouble their +daring souls. Their country called, and they obeyed. + +Ranged along the sides of the ship, below decks, was a series of +torpedoes, prepared to blow the vessel into a hopeless wreck when the +proper moment came. A heavy weight in coal had been left on board, to +carry her rapidly to the bottom, and there was strong hope that she could +be dropped in the channel, "like a cork in the neck of a bottle," and +"bottle" up Admiral Cervera and his cruisers. That it was an errand of +imminent risk did not trouble the bold American tars. There were +volunteers enough eager to undertake the perilous task to form a ship's +crew, and to the six seamen chosen Coxswain Clausen added himself as a +stowaway. The love of adventure was stronger than fear of death or +captivity. + +It was the morning of June 3, 1898. During the night before an attempt to +go in had been made, but the hour was so late that the admiral called the +vessel back. Now an earlier start was made, and there was no hinderance to +the adventurous voyage. Heavy clouds hid the moon as the "Merrimac" glided +in towards the dark line of coast. Not a light was shown, and great skill +was needed to strike the narrow channel squarely in the gloom. From the +"New York" eager eyes watched the collier until its outlines were lost +beneath the shadow of the hills. Eyes continued to peer into the darkness +and ears to listen intently, while a tense anxiety strained the nerves of +the watching crew. Then came a booming roar from Morro Castle and the +flash of a cannon lit up for an instant the gloom. Other flashes and +booming sounds followed, and for twenty minutes there seemed a battle +going on in the darkness. The "Merrimac" was under fire. She was meeting +her doom. What was the fate of Hobson and his men? + +Cadet J. W. Powell had followed the collier with a steam launch and four +men, prepared to pick up any fugitives from the doomed ship. He went +daringly under the batteries and hung about until daylight revealed his +small craft, but not a man was seen in the ruffled waters, and he returned +disappointed at 6.15 A.M., pestered by spiteful shots from the Spanish +guns. He had followed the "Merrimac" until the low-lying smoke from the +roaring guns hid her from view. Then came the explosion of the torpedoes. +Hobson had done his work. Powell kept under the shelter of the cliffs +until full day had dawned, and before leaving he saw a spar of the +"Merrimac" rising out of the water of the channel. The sinking had been +accomplished, but no one could say with what result to Hobson and his men. + +Let us now leave the distant spectators and go on board the "Merrimac," +seeking the company of her devoted crew. It was Hobson's purpose to sink +her in the narrowest part of the channel, dropping the anchor and handling +the rudder so as to turn her across the stream. Her length was sufficient +to close up completely the deeper channel. He would stop the engines, let +fall the anchor, open the traps made for the sea-water to flow in, and +explode the torpedoes. Ten of these lay on the port side of the ship, each +containing eighty-two pounds of powder, and they were connected so that +they could be fired in train. There were two men below, one to reverse the +engines, the other to break open the sea-traps with a sledge hammer. Those +on deck were to let fall the anchor and set the helm. Then Hobson would +touch the electric button and fire the torpedoes, and all would leap +overboard and swim to the dingy towing astern, in which they hoped to +escape. Such were their plans; but chance, as it so often does, set them +sadly astray. + +On through the darkness they went, hitting the channel squarely, and +steaming in under the frowning walls of the Morro through gloom and +death-like silence. But the Spaniards were not asleep. A small picket-boat +came gliding out under the collier's stern and fired several shots at the +suspicious craft. One of these carried away the rudder and spoiled one +important item of the plans. The dingy, which was trusted to for escape, +disappeared, perhaps hit by one of these shots. The picket-boat, having +done this serious mischief, then hurried ashore and gave the alarm, and +quickly the shore batteries were firing on the dark hull. The ships in the +harbor echoed the shots with their guns. The Spaniards were alert. They +thought that an American battle-ship was trying to force its way in, +perhaps with the whole fleet in its wake, and were ready to give it a hard +fight. + +Through the rain of balls the "Merrimac" drove on, unhurt by the +bombardment, and even by a submarine mine which exploded near her stern. +The darkness and her rapid motion rendered her hard to hit, and she +reached the desired spot, in the narrowest spot of the channel, none the +worse for the shower of iron hail. + +So far all had gone well. Now the critical moment had arrived. Hobson gave +the signal fixed upon, and the men below reversed the engine and opened +the sea connections. They then dashed for the deck. Those above dropped +the anchor and set the helm. Only then did Hobson, to his bitter +disappointment, discover that the rudder had been lost. The ship refused +to answer her helm, and the plan of setting her lengthwise across the +channel failed. The final task remained. Touching the electric button, the +torpedoes went off with a sullen roar and the ship lurched heavily beneath +their feet. The sharp roll threw some of the men over the rail. The others +leaped into the sea. Down went the "Merrimac" with a surge at the bow, +cheers from the forts and the ships greeting her as she sank. The gunners +thought they had sent to the depths one of the hostile men-of-war. + +At the last moment of leaving the "New York" an old catamaran had been +thrown on the "Merrimac's" deck, as a possible aid to the crew in +extremity. This float lay on the roof of the midship house, a rope +fastening it to the taffrail, with enough slack to let it float loose +after the ship had sunk. It was a fortunate thought for the crew, as it +afforded them a temporary refuge in place of the lost dingy. + +We may let Lieutenant Hobson speak for himself at this point in our +narrative. He says, "I swam away from the ship as soon as I struck the +water, but I could feel the eddies drawing me backward in spite of all I +could do. This did not last very long, however, and as soon as I felt the +tugging cease I turned and struck out for the float, which I could see +dimly bobbing up and down over the sunken hull. + +"The 'Merrimac's' masts were plainly visible, and I could see the heads of +my seven men as they followed my example and made for the float also. We +had expected, of course, that the Spaniards would investigate the wreck, +but we had no idea that they would be at it as quickly as they were. +Before we could get to the float several row-boats and launches came +around the bluff from inside the harbor. They had officers on board and +armed marines as well, and they searched that passage, rowing backward and +forward, until the next morning. It was only by good luck that we got to +the float at all, for they were upon us so quickly that we had barely +concealed ourselves when a boat with quite a large party on board was +right beside us." + +An event which they thought unlucky now proved to be the salvation of the +fugitives, who very likely would have been shot on the spot by the marines +if they had then been seen from the boats. The rope which fastened the +float to the ship was too short to let it swing free, and one of the +pontoons that supported it was dragged partly under water, lifting the +other above the surface. If the raft had lain flat on the water they would +have had to climb on top and would have made an excellent mark for the +marines. As it was they got under its lifted side, and by thrusting their +hands through the slats that formed the deck they kept their heads above +the water, and had a chance to breathe. + +Luckily for them the Spaniards paid no attention to the old, half-sunken +raft that floated above the wreck. They came near it frequently, and the +hidden sailors could hear their words, but no one seemed to suspect it. +The fugitives spoke only in whispers and at times were almost afraid to +breathe, lest they should be heard, but their hiding-place remained +unsuspected. + +The water, warm at first, grew cold as the hours went on, and their +fingers ached as they clung desperately to the slats. As the night passed +their teeth began to chatter with the cold till it seemed to them as if +the Spaniards must hear the sound, so distinctly to their ears came the +noises on the water and on shore. The situation, in fact, became at last +so trying that one of the men let go and began to swim ashore. Hobson +called him back, and he obeyed, but the call was heard by the men in the +boats and created some commotion. They rowed up towards the float and +looked sharply about, but no one thought of investigating the float +itself, and soon they went off into the shadows again, letting the hidden +men once more breathe freely. + +The question that most interested the Spaniards was to learn what ship it +was they had sunk. Hobson heard them talking and guessing about it and +understood many of their words. He soon perceived that the officers had +taken in the situation and were astonished at the boldness and audacity of +the attempt. The boats appeared to be from the fleet, a fact to the +lieutenant's satisfaction, as he felt more like trusting to the tender +mercies of a Spanish sailor than of a soldier. At this point we let him +take up the narrative again. + +"When daylight came a steam-launch full of officers and marines came out +from behind the cliff that hid the fleet and harbor and advanced towards +us. All the men on board were looking curiously in our direction. They did +not see us. Knowing that some one of rank must be on board, I waited till +the launch was quite close and hailed her. + +"My voice produced the utmost consternation on board. Every one sprang up, +the marines now crowded to the bow, and the launch engines were reversed. +She not only stopped, but she backed off until nearly a quarter of a mile +away, where she stayed. The marines stood ready to fire at the word of +command when we clambered out from under the float. There were ten of the +marines, and they would have fired in a minute had they not been +restrained. + +"I swam towards the launch, and then she started towards me. I called out +in Spanish, 'Is there an officer on board?' An officer answered in the +affirmative, and then I shouted in Spanish again, 'I have seven men to +surrender.' I continued swimming, and was seized and pulled out of the +water. + +"As I looked up when they were dragging me into the launch, I saw that it +was Admiral Cervera himself who had hold of me. He looked at me rather +dubiously at first, because I had been down in the engine-room of the +'Merrimac,' where I got covered with oil, and that, with the soot and +coal-dust, made my appearance most disreputable. I had put on my officer's +belt before sinking the 'Merrimac,' as a means of identification, no +matter what happened to me, and when I pointed to it in the launch the +admiral understood and seemed satisfied. The first words he said to me +when he understood who I was were, '_Bienvenida sea usted_,' which means +'You are welcome.' My treatment by the naval officers, and that of my men +also, was courteous all the time I was a prisoner. They heard my story, as +much of it as I could tell, but sought to learn nothing more. + +"Sharks? No, I did not have time to think of them that night," was +Hobson's reply to a question. "We saw a great many things, though, and +went through a great many experiences. When we started out from the fleet +I tied to my belt a flask of medicated water, supplied to me by my ship's +surgeon. The frequency with which we all felt thirsty on the short run +into the passage and the dryness of my mouth and lips made me believe that +I was frightened. The men felt the same, and all the way the flask went +from hand to hand. Once I felt my pulse to see if I was frightened, but to +my surprise I found it normal. Later we forgot all about it, and when we +got into the water there was no need for the flask." + +The remainder of this stirring adventure must be told more briefly. The +prisoners were taken ashore and locked up in a cell in Morro Castle. +Meanwhile, there was much anxiety on the fleet as to their fate, but this +was relieved by the generous conduct of the Spanish admiral, who sent his +chief-of-staff out the next morning under a flag of truce to report their +safety and to make an offer for their exchange. Cervera's message was +highly complimentary. It ran: + +"Admiral Cervera, the commander of the Spanish fleet, is most profoundly +impressed with the brilliant courage shown by the men who sank the steamer +'Merrimac' in our harbor, and in admiration of their courage he has +directed me to say to their countrymen that they are alive, and, with the +exception of two of the men who were slightly hurt, they are uninjured. +They are now prisoners of war and are being well cared for, and will be +treated with every consideration." + +Cervera kept his word, though the captives found themselves in different +hands later, when they were turned over to General Linares, commander of +the troops in Santiago. They remained in captivity about five weeks, being +exchanged on July 7, when a Spanish lieutenant and fourteen privates were +offered in exchange for Hobson and his gallant seven. The story of their +return to the American ranks is an exhilarating one. As the brave eight +passed up the trail leading to the American lines through the avenue of +palms that bordered the road, the soldiers stood in reverent silence, +baring their heads as the band struck up "The Star-Spangled Banner." But +as Hobson and his men swung onward cheers and a roar of welcome broke the +silence, while a cowboy yell came from the Rough Riders. Breaking from all +restraint, the men rushed in, eagerly grasping the hands of Hobson and his +men. All the way to Siboney the cheers and excitement continued, and when +Hobson set foot on the deck of the "New York" the crew grew wild with +enthusiasm, while Admiral Sampson embraced him in the warmth of his +greeting. As for his comrades, they were fairly swallowed up in the +delirious delight of the men. Thus ended one of the most gallant deeds of +that short war. + +It must be said, however, that, skilfully as it had been managed, the +effort to close the port proved a failure. Though the sunken ship closed +part of the channel, there was room enough to pass beside her, this being +strikingly proved on the morning of July 3, when the squadron which Hobson +had sought to bottle up came steaming down the channel past the sunken +"Merrimac" and put out to sea, where it started on a wild fight for +freedom. The result of this venture does not need to be retold, and it +must suffice to say that a few hours later all the Spanish ships were +shell-riddled wrecks on the Cuban shore, and Cervera and all who survived +of his men were prisoners in American hands. But the admiral was as much +of a hero as a captive, for his captors could not soon forget his generous +treatment of Hobson and his men. + + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES - THE ROMANCE OF REALITY - VOLUME III*** + + + +CREDITS + + +October 9, 2006 + + Posted to Project Gutenberg + Joshua Hutchinson and + The Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 19503.txt or 19503.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/9/5/0/19503/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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